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A S/ BR THT
NN ad AME wICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,

MORE ESPECIALLY OF

MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY,

AND THE
OTHER BRANCHES OF NATURAL HISTORY ;

INCLUDING ALSO

AGRICULTURE

AND THE
ORNAMENTAL AS WELL AS USEFUL
; ARPS.
perry |e

CONDUCTED BY

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M. D.

Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, &c. in Yale College; Author of Travels in
England, Scotland, and Holland, &c.; and Member of various Literary
and Scientific Societies.

mae Bettie
VOL. I. :

SECOND EDITION.
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Prew- Bork:
PUBLISHED BY J. EASTBURN AND CO. LITERARY ROOMS, BROADWAY,
AND BY HOWE AND SPALDING, NEW-HAVEN.

Sold by Ezekiel Goodall, Hallowell, Maine; Daniel Stone, Brunswick, Maine; Cummings &
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ford ; Clark & Lyman, Middletown ; Russell Hubbard, Norwich ; O. & L. Goodwin, Litehfeld ;
W. E. Norman, Hudson; William Williams, Utica; E. F. Backus, Albany ; S. Potter, Phi-
ladelphia ; E. J. Coale, Baltimore; W. H. Fitzwhylsonn, Richmond; W. F. Gray, Fre-
dericksburgh ; Caleb Atwater, Circleville ; William Poundsford, and James Collord, Cincinnati ;
John Guirey, Columbia, S.C. ; W. T. Williams, Savannah ; Henry Wills, Edenton ; John Mill,
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coe oe
PRINTED BY ABRAHAM PAUL.

i

is

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v

ADVERTISEMENT,

—- = CERN -—_—_

IN the following plan of this Work, we trust
it will be understood, that we do not pledge
ourselves that all the subjects mentioned shall
be touched upon in every Number. This is
plainly impossible, unless every article should
be very short and imperfect. All that the
Public are entitled to expect is, that in the
progress of the Journal, the various subjects
mentioned may oceupy such an extent as our

- communications and resources shall permit.

We have been honoured by such a list of
names of gentlemen who are willing to be

considered as contributors to this Journal,

- Wa eee

1V ADVERTISEMENT.

that the publication of it would afford us no
ordinary gratification, did we not feel that it
is more decorous to allow their names to
appear with their communications, without
laying them under a previous pledge to the
Publie.

PLAN OF THE WORK.

THIS Journal is intended to embrace the circle
of rae Puysicat Sciences, with their application
to rHe Arts, and to every useful purpose.

It is designed as a deposit for original American
communications ; it will contain also occasional
selections from Foreign Journals, and notices of
the progress of Science in other countries. Within
its plan are embraced

Naturat History, in its three great depart-
ments of Mineratocy, Botany, and Zootoey.

Cuemistry and Naturat Puinosorny, and their
-yarious branches: and Maruemartics, pure and
mixed.

It will be a leading object to illustrate Ameri-
can Naturat History, and especially our Mive-
RALOGY and Grotoey.

The Apprications of these sciences are obvi-
ously as numerous as physical arts, and physical
wants ; for no one of these arts or wants can be
named which is not connected with them.

While Scrence will be cherished for zts own
sake, and with a due respect for its own inherent
dignity; it will also be employed as the hand-
maid to the Arts. \ts numerous applications to
Acricutture, the earliest and most important
of them; to Manuractures, both mechanical and

vi ‘ PLAN OF THE WORK.

chemical; and, to Domestic Economy, will be
carefully sought out, and faithfully made.

It is within the design of this Journal to receive
communications likewise on Music, ScutrTuRE
Eneravine, Paintine, and generally on the fine
and liberal, as well as useful arts;

On Military and Civil Engineering, and the
art of Navigation;

Notices, Reviews, and Analyses of new sei-
entific works; accounts of Inventions, and Spe-
cifications of Patents;

Biographical and Obituary Notices of scientific
men; essays on Comparative Anatomy and Puy-
stoLocy, and generally on such other branches of
medicine as depend on scientific principles ;

Meteorological Registers, and Reports of Agri-
cultural Experiments: and interesting Miscella-
neous Articles, not perhaps exactly included un-
- der either of the above heads.

Communications are respectfully solicited from
men of science, and from men versed in the practical
arts.

Learned Societies are invited to make this
Journal, occasionally, the vehicle of their com-—
munications to the Public.

The Editor will not hold himself responsible
for the sentiments and opinions advanced by his
correspondents: he will consider it as an allowed
liberty to make slight verbal alterations, where
errors may be presumed to have arisen from in-
advertency.

CONTENTS.

inrropuctory Remarks

Art.

Art.
Art.
Art.
Art.
Art.
Art.
Art.
Art.
Art.
Art.
Art.

Art.

Art.

Art.

Art.

-

I, Essay on Musical Poumianncel re ‘Bkuiideor
Alex. M. Fisher

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY,

Il. Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy . «

lil. New Locality of Fluor Spar, &c. |

IV. Carbonat of Magnesia, &c. discovered by J
Pierce, Esq.

V. Native Copper, near New- ‘vet

VI. Petrified Wood from Antigua .

VII. American Porcelain Clays, &c.

VIII. Native Sulphur from Java

IX. Productions of Wier’s Cave, in Wieinis

X. Mineralogy and Geology of part of Virginia and
Tennessee, by Mr. J. H. Kain

XI. Notice of Professor Mitchill’s edition of Cu-
vier’s Geology S

XII. Notice of Eaton’s Index to ,e eau of the
Northern States, &c. :

XII. Notice of M. oe ie on Organized ae
mains 8 biden $3 as

BOTANY.

XIV. Observations on a species of Limosella, by
Professor E. Ives . . . .

XV. Notice of Professor Bigelow’s Mesa, on ‘he
Floral Calendar of the United States, &c.

XVI. Journal of the Progress of Vegetation, &c.
by ee S. Rafinesque, Esq. 3

Page

74

76

vill CONTENTS.
ZOOLOGY.

Art. XVII. Description of a new Species of Marten, by
C. S. Rafinesque, Esq. ;

Art. XVIII. Natural History of the Copper-Head Soake
by the same ; .

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

_ Art. XIX On a Method of augmenting the Force of
Gunpowder, by Colonel G. Gibbs

Art. XX. On the connexion between Magnetism and
Light, by the same . ;

Art. XXI. On a new means of Piaditaiig: Heat and
Light, by J. L. Sullivan, Esq. :

Art. XXII. On the Effects of the Earthquakes ef 1811,
1812, on the Wells in Columbia, South
Carolina, by Professor Edward D. Smith

Art. XXIII. On the Respiration of Oxygen Gas in an
Affection of the Thorax . . . of EM

MISCELLANEOUS.

Art. XXIV. On the Priority of Discovery of the Com-
pound Blowpipe, and its Effects :

Art. XXV. On the Northwest Passage, the North Pot,
and the Greenland Ice :

Page
82

84

S87
89

91

93

95

97

101

THE

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

WYN

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

"Tue age in which we live is not less distinguished by a
vigorous and successful cultivation of physical science, than by
its numerous and important applications to the practical arts,
and to the common purposes of life.

In every enlightened country, men illustrious for talent,
worth, and knowledge, are ardently engaged in enlarging the
boundaries of natural science ; and the history of their labours
and discoveries is communicated to the world chiefly through
the medium of Scientific Journals. The utility of such Journals
has thus become generally evident ; they are the heralds of
science ; they proclaim its toils and its achievements ; they
demonstrate its intimate connexion as well with the comfort,
as with the intellectual and moral improvement of our species ;
and they often procure for it enviable honours and substantia}
rewards.

In England the interests of science have been, for a series
of years, greatly promoted by the excellent Journals of Til-
loch and Nicholson ; and for the loss of the latter, the scientific
world has been fully compensated by.Dr. Thomson’s Annals of

Vor. 1,...No, 1.

pol

9 Introductory Remarks.

Philosophy, and by the Journal of Science and the Arts, both

‘published in London.

In France, the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, the Jour-
nal des Mines, the Journal de Physique, &c. have long enjoyed
a high and deserved reputation. Indeed, there are few coun-
tries in Europe which do not produce some similar publica-
tion ; not to mention the transactions of learned societies and
numerous medical Journals.

From these scources our country reaps, and will long con-
tinue to reap, an abundant harvest of information : and if the
light of science, as well as of day, springs from the east, we
will welcome the rays of both; nor should national pride
induce us to reject so rich an offering.

But can we do nothing in return? Ina general diffusion of
useful information through the various classes of society, in
activity of intellect, and fertility of resource and invention,
characterizing a highly intelligent population, we have no
reason to shrink from a comparison with any country. But
the devoted cultivators of science, in the United States, are
comparatively few; they are, however, rapidly increasing in
number. Among them are persons distinguished for their
capacity and attainments, and notwithstanding the local feelings
nourished by our state sovereignties, and the rival claims of
several of our larger cities, there is evidently a predisposition
towards a concentration of effort, from which we may hope
for the happiest results, with regard to the advancement of
both the science and the reputation of our country.

Is it not, therefore, desirable to furnish some rallying point,
some object sufficiently interesting to be compassed by common
efforts, and thus to become the basis of an enduring, common
interest? ‘To produce these efforts, and to excite this interest,
nothing, perhaps, bids fairer than a Screntiric Journay.
Hitherto nearly all our exertions, of this kind, have been made

‘by medical gentlemen, and directed primarily to medical ob-

jects. We are neither ignorant nor forgetful of the merits of
our various Mepicat Journats, nor of the zeal with which, as
far as consistent with their main object, they have fostered the
physical sciences. We are aware, also, that Journals have

Introductory Remarks. 3

been established, professedly deriving their materials princi-
pally from foreign sources ; that our various literary Maga-
zines and Reviews have given, and continue to give, some
notices of physical and mathematical subjects, and that some of
them seem even partial to these branches of knowledge ; that
various limited efforts have been made, and are still making,
to publish occasional or periodical papers, devoted to mathe-
matical or physical subjects, and that even our newspapers
sometimes contain scientific intelligence. We are aware, also,
that some of our academies and societies of natural history,
either in Journals of their own, or through the medium of
existing magazines, communicate to the public the efforts of
their members in various branches of natural science.

But all these facts go only to prove the strong tendency
which exists in this country towards the cultivation of physical
science, and the inadequacy of the existing means for its
effectual promulgation.

Although our limits do not permit us, however much in-
clined, to be more particular in commemorating the labours
and in honouring the performances (often marked by much
ability) of our predecessors and cotemporaries, there is one
effort which we are not willing to pass by without a more par-
ticular notice; and we are persuaded that no apology is neces-
sary for naming the Journal of the late Dr. Bruce, of New-
York, devoted principally to mineralogy and geology.

No future historian of American science will fail to com-
memorate this work as our earliest purely scientific Journal,
supported by original American communications.

Both in this country and in Europe, it was received in a very
flattering manner ; it excited, at home, great zeal and effort in
support of the sciences which it fostered, and, abroad, it was
hailed as the harbinger of our future exertions, The editor
was honoured with letters on the subject of his Journal, and
with applications for it from most of the countries in Europe ;.
but its friends had to regret that, although conducted in a man-
ner perfectly to their satisfaction, it appeared only at distant
intervals, and, after the lapse of several years, never pros
ceeded beyond the fourth number.

1 *

4 Introductory Remarks.

_ The hopes of its revival have now, unhappily, become com-'
pletely extinct, by the lamented death of Dr. Bruce.*

This gentleman, with an accomplished education, with ex-
tensive acquirements in science, and great zeal for promoting
it in his own country ; advantageously and extensively known
in Europe, and furnished with a correct and discriminating
mind, and a chaste, scientific taste, was so well qualified for
the task which he had undertaken, that no one can attempt to
resume those scientific labours which he has now for ever
relinquished, without realizing that he undertakes an arduous
enterprise, and lays himself under a heavy responsibility.
-American science has much to lament in the death of Dr.
Bruce.

No one, it is presumed, will doubt that a Journal devoted to
science, and embracing a sphere sufficiently extensive to allure
to its support the principal scientific men of our country, is
greatly needed ; if cordially supported, it will be successful,
and if successful, it will be a great public benefit. _

Even a failure, in so good a cause, (unless it should arise
from incapacity or unfaithfulness,) cannot be regarded as dis-
honourable. It may prove only that the attempt was prema-
ture, and that our country is not yet ripe for such an under-
taking ; for wethout the efficient support of talent, knowledge, and
money, it cannot long proceed. No editor can hope to carry
forward such a work without the active aid of scientific and
practical men ; but, at the same time, the public have a right

¥ I trust the public will pardon me for stating, that various scientific friends,
despairing of the revival of the Journal of Dr. Bruce, had, for some tinte, pressed
me to undertake the editing of a Journal of Science. Considerations of personal
friendship prevented me from listening to such proposals till the decline of Dr.
Bruce’s health, attended by the most alarming symptoms, rendered it very obvious
that his Journal would not be revived. Towards the close of last November, in a
personal interview, I communicated to him the design of the present work, at the
same time offering to waive it, provided he considered it as probable that his own
Journal would be resumed. Of this, however, he gave no encouragement; but,
on the contrary, expressed his warm approbation of my undertaking, authorized
me to consider him as a contributor, and to make public use of his name as a
patron, It was not till after this that the annunciation of this work took place ;
and it is certain that had not all hope of the resumption of Dr. Bruce’s Journal
been completely cut off, this would not have appeared.

Introductory Remarks. 5

to expect that he will not be sparing of his own labour, and
that his work shall be generally marked by the impress of his
own hand. To this extent the editor cheerfully acknowledges
his obligations to the public; and it will be his endeavour
faithfully to redeem his pledge.

Most of the periodical works of our country have been short-
lived. This, also, may perish in its infancy ; and if any degree
of confidence is cherished, that it will attain a maturer age, it
is derived from the obvious and intrinsic importance of the un-
dertaking ; from its being built upon permanent and moment-
ous national interests ; from the evidence of a decided appro-
bation of the design, on the part of men of the first eminence,
obtained in the progress of an extensive correspondence ; from
assurances of support, in the way of contributions, from men
of ability in many parts of the union; and from the existence
of such a crisis in the affairs of this country and of the world,
as appears peculiarly auspicious to the success of every wise
and good undertaking.

As regards the subjects of this work, it is in our power to
do much in the department of the natural history of this
country. Our Zoology has been more fully investigated than
our mineralogy and botany; but neither department is in
danger of being exhausted. The interesting travels of Lewis
and Clark have recently brought to our knowledge several
plants and animals before unknown. Foreign naturalists fre-
quently explore our territory ; and, for the most part, convey
to Europe the fruits of their researches, while but a small
part of our own productions is examined and described by
Americans : certainly, this is little to our credit, and still less
to our advantage. Honourable exceptions to the truth of
this remark are furnished by the exertions of some gentle-
men in our principal cities, and in various other parts of the
Union.*

Our botany, it is true, has been extensively and successfully
investigated ; but this field is still rich, and rewards every new

* The efforts of Stephen Elliott, Esq. of South Carolina, in regard to the botany
of the Southern States, are particularly worthy of imitation and praise.

6 Introductory Remarks.

research with some interesting discovery. Our mineralogy,
however, is a treasure but just opened. That both science
and art may expect much advantage from this source, is suffi-
ciently evinced by the success which has crowned the active
efforts of a few ardent cultivators of this science : several new
species of minerals have been added to it in this country ;
great numbers of American localities discovered, and interest- |
ing additions made to our materials, for the useful and orna-
mental arts. The science of mineralogy is now illustrated by
courses of lectures, and by several good cabinets in the different
states. Among the cabinets, the splendid collection of Colonel _
Giszs, now in Yale College, (a munificent perosir for the
benefit of his country,) stands pre-eminent: it would be con-
sidered as a very noble cabinet in any part of Europe: and its
introduction into the United States, and its gratwtous dedica-
tion to the promotion of science, are equally advantageous to
the community, and honourable to its patriotic and enlightened
‘proprietor. Mineralogy is most intimately connected with our
arts, and especially with our agriculture. ‘

Such are the disguises worn by many most useful mineral
substances, that an unskilful observer is liable to pass a thing
by, as worthless, which, if better informed, he would seize
with avidity ; and, still more frequently, a werthless substance,
clothed perhaps in a brilliant and attractive exterior, excites
hopes altogether delusive, and induces expense, without a pos-
sibility of remuneration. A diffusion of correct knowledge on
this subject is the only adequate remedy for either evil.

Our geology, also, presents a most interesting field of in-
quiry. A grand outline has recently been drawn by Mr.
Maclure, with a masterly hand, and with a vast extent of per-
sonal observation and labour: but to fill up the detail, both
observation and labour still more extensive are demanded ;
nor can the object be effected, till more good geologists are
formed, and distributed over our extensive territory.

To account for the formation and changes of our globe, by
excursions of the imagination, often splendid and imposing, but
usually visionary, and almost always baseless, was, till within
half a century, the business of geological speculations ; but

Introductory Remarks. ri

this research has now assumed a more sober character ;
the science of geology has been reared upon numerous and
accurate observations of facts; and standing thus upon the basis
of induction, it is entitled to a rank among those sciences which
Lord Bacon’s Philosophy has contributed to create. Geologi-
cal researches are now prosecuted, by actually exploring the
structure and arrangement of districts, countries, and conti-
nents. The obliquity of the strata of most rocks, causing their
edges to project in many places above the surface; their
exposure in other instances, on the sides or tops of hills and
mountains ; or, in consequence of the intersection of their
strata, by roads, canals, and river-courses, or by the wearing
of the ocean; or their direct perforation, by the shafts of
mines ; all these causes, and others, afford extensive means of
reading the interior structure of the globe.

The outlines of American geology appear to be particularly
grand, simple, and instructive ; and a knowledge of the im-
portant facts, and general principles of this science, is of vast
practical use, as regards the interests of agriculture, and the
research for useful minerals. Geological and mineralogical
descriptions, and maps of particular states and districts,. are
very much needed in the United States ; and to excite a spirit
to furnish them will form one leading object of this journal.

The science of natural philosophy, with its powerful aux-
iliary, mathematics, and the science of chemistry, the twin
sister of natural philosophy, are of incalculable importance to
this country. A volume would not suffice to trace their appli-
cations, and to enumerate the instances of their utility.

As one which may be allowed to stand, zmstar omnium, we
may mention the steam engine; that legitimate child of physi-
cal and chemical science—at once more powerful than the
united force of the strongest and largest animals, and more
manageable than the smallest and gentlest; raising from the
bowels of the earth the massy treasures of its mines, drawing
up rivers from their channels, and pouring them, in streams
of life, into the bosom of cities; and, above all, propelling
against the currents, the winds, and the waves of the ocean,
those stupendous vessels, which combine speed with certainty,

P Introductory Remarks.

and establish wpon the bosom of the deep the luxuries and
accommodations of the land.

The successful execution of this magnificent acelin was first
witnessed upon the waters of the Hudson, but is now imitated
in almost every civilized country ; ard it remains to be seen
whether they will emulate us by transporting, by the same
means, and against the same obstacles, the most formidable
trains of artillery. |

The mechanical inventions of this country are numerous ;
many of them are ingenious, and some are highly important.
In no way can a knowledge of them be so readily and exten-
sively diffused as in a scientific journal. To this object,
therefore, a part of our labours (should there be a call for it,)
will be devoted, and every necessary aid will. be given by
plates and descriptions.

Science and art mutually assist each other ; the arts. favilich
facts and materials to science, and science iilennicgives the path
of the arts.

The science of mathematics, both pure and mixed, can
never cease to be interesting and important to man, as long
as the relations of quantity shall exist, as long as ships shalk
traverse the ocean, as long as man shall measure the surface
or heights of the earth on which he lives, or calculate the dis-
tances and examine the refations of the planets and stars ; and
as long as the iron reign of war shall demand the discharge of
projectiles, or the construction of complicated defences.

In a word, the whole circle of physical science is directly
applicable to human wants, and constantly holds out a light to
the practical arts; it thus polishes and benefits society, and
every where demonstrates both supreme intelligence, and
harmony and beneficence of design in THE CREATOR.

[9] ot

Art. I. Essay on Musical Temperament.*

By Professor Fisuen, of Yale College.

Ir is well known to those who have attended to the subject
of musical ratios, that a fixed scale of eight degrees to the oc-
tave, which shall render all its concords’ perfect, is impossible.
It has been demonstrated by Dr. Smith, from an investigation
of all the positions which the major, the minor, and the half-
tone can assume, that the most perfect scales possible, of which
there are two equally so, differing only in the position of the
major and the minor tone above the key note, must have one
Vth and one 3d too flat, and consequently the supplementary
4th and VIth too sharp, by acomma. In vocal music, and in
that of perfect instruments, this defect in the scale is not per-
ceived, because a small change may be made in the key, when-
ever the occurrence of either of those naturally imperfect in-
tervals renders such a change necessary to perfect harmony.
But in instruments with fixed scales, such as the guitar, the
piano-forte, and the organ, if we begin with tuning as many
concords as possible perfect, the resulting chords above-men-
tioned will be necessarily false in an offensive degree. Hence
it is an important problem in practical harmonics, to distribute
these imperfections in the scale among the different chords, in
such a manner as to occasion the least possible injury to har-
mony. }

But this is not the only nor the principal difficulty which
the tuner of imperfect instruments has to encounter. In order
that these instruments may form a proper accompaniment for
the voice, and be used in conjunction with perfect instruments,
it is necessary that music should be capable of being executed
on them, in all the different keys in common use ; and espe-
cially that they should be capable of those occasional modula-
tions which often occur in the course of the same piece. Now
only five additional sounds to the octave are usually inserted
for this purpose, between those of the natural scale, which, of
course, furnish it with only three sharps and two flats. Hence,

_* From the MS. papers of the Connecticut Academy, now published by per-
mission.

i0 On Musicat Temperament,

when a greater number of flats or sharps is introdaced, the
music can be executed only by striking, in the former case,
the sharp of the note next below ; and, in the latter, the flat
of the note next above. Butas the diatonic semitone is more
than half the major, and much more than half the minor tone,
if the additional sounds in the common artificial scale be made
perfect for one of the above employments, they must be ex-
tremely harsh for the other. Hence arises the necessity of
adjusting the position of these five inserted sounds so that they
may make tolerable harmony, whichever way employed. A
change in these will require corresponding changes in the po-
sition of the several degrees of the natural scale ; so that it is
highly probable that the best scheme of temperament will
leave no concord, either of the natural or artificial scale, ab-
solutely perfect.

In adjusting the imperfections of the scale, the three follow-
ing considerations have been usually taken into view.

I. One object to be aimed at is, to make the sum of the tem-
peraments of all the concords the least possible. Since expe-
rience teaches us that the harshness of a given concord in-
creases with its temperament, it is obvious that of two systems
which agree in other respects, the best is that in which the
sum of the temperaments is least.

II. When other things are equal, the best adjustment of the
imperfections of the scale is that which diminishes the har-
moniousness of all the different concords proportionally. The
succession of a worse to a better harmony, is justly regarded
by several of the best writers on this subject, as one of the
principal causes of offence to the ear, in instruments imper-
fectly tuned.

III. When different chords of the same kind are of unequal.
ly frequent occurrence, there is an advantage, ceteris paribus,
in giving the greatest temperament to that which occurs most
seldom. ‘This important consideration has indeed been ne-
glected by Dr. Smith, in the systems which he recommends,
both for his changeable and the common fixed scale ; as it is,
also, by the numerous advocates of the system of equal semi-
tones. But many authors on temperament, and most instru- |
ment-makers, pay a vague regardto it. Their aim has been,

On Musical Temperament. i

although in a loose and conjectural manner, to make the pro-
minent chords of the simplest keys the nearest to perfection,
whilst a greater temperament is thrown upon those which oc-
cur only in the more complex keys. Thus Dr. Young, in the
Philos. Trans. for 1800, recommends a scheme which increa-
ses the temperament of the IlIds, on the key note of the
successive keys, as we modulate by fifths from C, nearly in
arithmetical progression. Earl Stanhope assigns as a reason
for the small temperament which is given to several of the
IIIds in his system, that they are on the tonic of the simpler
keys. The irregularities in Mr. Hawkes’s scheme may be
traced to the same cause. And, with the instrument-makers,
it is a favourite maxim to lay the wolf, as they term it, where
it will be most seldom heard.

But if the above consideration deserves any weight at all, it
deserves to be accurately investigated. Not only ought the
relative frequency of different chords to be ascertained with
the greatest accuracy, of which the nature of the subject is sus-
ceptible, but the degree of weight which this consideration
ought to have, when compared with the two others above-men-
tioned, should be determined: for it is plain that neither of
them ought to be ever left out of view.

Accordingly, the principal design of the following propositions
will be to investigate the actual frequency of occurrence of
different chords in practice ; and from this and the two other
above-mentioned considerations united, to deduce the best
system of temperament for a scale, containing any given num-
ber of sounds to the octave, and particularly for the common
Douzeave, or scale of twelve degrees.

Proposition I.

All consonances may be regarded, without any sensible error
in practice, as equally harmonious in their kinds, when
equally tempered ; and when unequally tempered, within
certain limits, as having their harmoniousness diminished in
the direct ratio of their temperaments.

As different consonances, when perfect, are not pleasing to
the ear in an equal degree, some ct lope nearer to the

12 On Musical Temperament.

nature of discords than others, so a set of tempered consonan-
ces, ceteris paribus, will be best constituted when their har-
moniousness is diminished proportionally. Suppose, for exam-
ple, that the agreeable effects of the Vth, IIId, and 3d, when
perfect, are as any unequal numbers, a,b, and c ; the best ar-
rangement of a tempered scale, other things being equal, would
be, not that in which the agreeable effect of the Vth was re-
duced to an absolute level with that of the IIId, or 3d, but
when they were so iii old that their scar effects on

the ear might be expressed by — ae oat —b, and — ras

That different consonances, in hed sense, are equally ae
monious in their kinds, when equally tempered, or, at least,
sufficiently so for every practical purpose, may be illustrated
in the following manner : .

Let the lines AB, ab, represent the times of vibration of
two tempered unisons. Whatever be the ratio of AB to ab,
whether rational or irrational, it is obvious that the successive
vibrations will alternately recede from and approach each
other, till they very nearly coincide ; and, that during one of
these periods, the longer vibration, AB, has gained one of the
shorter. Let the points, A, B, &c. represent the middle of the

On Musical Temperament. 13

successive times of vibration of the lower ; and a, b, &c. those
of the higher of the tempered unisons. Let the arch AGN ..
VA be a part of a circle, representing one period of their
pulses, and let the points A, a, be the middle points of the
times of those vibrations which approach ‘the nearest to a
coincidence. It is obvious that the dislocations 6B, cC, &c. of
the successive pulses, increase in a ratio which is very nearly
that of their distances from A, or a. Nowif the pulses exactly
coincided, the unisons would be perfect ; and the same would
be equally true, if the pulses of the one bisected, or divided
in any other constant ratio, those of the other; as clearly
appears from observation. It is, therefore, not the absolute
magnitude, as asserted by Dr. Smith, but the varzableness of the
successive dislocations, Bb, Cc, &c. which renders the imper-
fect unisons discordant ; and the magnitude of the successive
increments of these dislocations is the measure of the degree
of discordance heard in the unisons.

If now the time of vibration in each is doubled, AC, ac, &c.

will represent the times of vibration of imperfect unisons an
octave below, and the successive dislocations will be Cc, Ee,
&c. only half as frequent as before. But the unisons AE, de,
will be equally harmonious with AB, ab; because, although
the successive dislocations are less frequent than before, yet
the coincidences C’c’, He’ of the corresponding perfect unisons
are less frequent in the same ratio.
_ Suppose, in the second place, that the time of vibration is
doubled, in only one of the unisons, ab; and that the times
become AB and ac, or those of imperfect octaves. These will
also be equally harmonious in their kind with the unisons AB,
ab. For, although the dislocations Cc, Ee, &c. are but half
as numerous as before, the coincidences of the corresponding
perfect octaves will be but half as numerous. ‘The disloca-
tions which remain are the same as those of the imperfent uni--
sons ; and if some of the dislocations are struck out, and the
increments of successive ones thus increased, no greater
change is made in the nature of the imperfect than of the
perfect consonance.

14 On Musical Temperament.

If, thirdly, we omit two-thirds of the pulses of the lower
unison, retaining the octave ac of the last case, we shall have
AD, ac, the times of vibration of imperfect Vths, to which,
and to all other concords, the same reasoning may be applied
as above. It may be briefly exhibited thus; since the inter-
mission of the coincidences C’c', E’e’ of the perfect unisons,
an octave below A’B’, does not render the Vth A’D'G a’c'é'g' less
perfect than the unison A’c’ a’c’, each being perfect in its kind ;
so neither does the intermission of the corresponding disloca-
tions Cc, Ee, of the tempered unisons, in the imperfect Vth,
ADG, aceg, render it less harmonious in its kind than the tem-
pered unison AB, ab, from which it is derived in exactly the
same manner that the perfect Vth is derived from the perfect
unison. '

The consonances thus derived, as has been shown by Dr.
Smith, will have the same periods, and consequently the same
beats, with the imperfect unisons. It is obvious, likewise, that
they will all be equally tempered. Let m AB, and n ab, be a
general expression for the times of vibration of any such con-
sonance. The tempering ratio of an imperfect consonance is
always found by dividing the ratio of the vibrations of the im-
perfect by that of the corresponding perfect consonance. But’

AB treat : :
oo es = which is evidently the tempering ratio of

the imperfect unisons.

Hence, so far as any reasoning, founded on the abstract na-
ture of coexisting pulses. can be relied on, (for, in a case of
this kind, rigid demonstration can scarcely be expected,) we _
are led to conclude that the harmoniousness of different con-
sonances is proportionally diminished when they are equally
tempered.

The remaining part of the proposition, viz. that conso-
nances differently tempered have their harmoniousness dimi-
nished, or their harshness increased, in the direct ratio of their
temperaments, will be evident, when we consider that the’
temperament of any consonance is the sole cause of its harsh-
ness, and that the effect ought to be proportioned to its ade-

-

On Musical Temperament. 15

quate cause. We may add, that the rapidity of the beats, in
a given consonance, increases very nearly in the ratio of the
temperament; and universal experience shows, that increas-
ing the rapidity of the beats of the same consonance, increases
its harshness. This is on the supposition that the consonance
is not varied so much as to interfere with any other whose
ratio is equally simple.

Cor. We may hence infer, that in every system of tempera-
ment which preserves the octaves perfect, each consonance is
equally harmonious, in its kind, with its complement to the
octave, and its compounds with octaves. For the tempering
ratio of the complement of any concord to the octave, is the
same with that of the concord itself, differing only in its sign,
which does not sensibly affect the harmony or the rate of
beating; while the tempering ratio of the compounds with
octaves is not only the same, but with the same sign.

Scholium 1.

There is no point in harmonics, concerning which theorists
have been more divided in opinion than in regard to the true
measure of equal harmony, in consonances of different kinds.
Euler maintains, that the more simple a consonance is, the
less temperament it will bear ; and this seems to have ever
been the general opinion of practical musicians.* Dr. Smith,
onthe contrary, asserts, and has attempted to demonstrate,
that the simpler will beara much greater temperament than the
more complex consonances. The foregoing proposition has,
at least, the merit of taking the middle ground between these
discordant opinions. If admitted, it will greatly simplify the
whole subject, and will reduce the labour of rendering all the
concords in three octaves as equally harmonious as possible,
which occupies so large a portion of Dr. Smith’s volume, to a
single short proposition. Dr. Smith’s measure of equal har-
mony, viz. equal numbers of short cycles in the intervals be-
tween the successive beats, seems designed, not to render the
different consonances proportionally harmonious, but to redace

* See Kollmann’s Harmony, p. 13, &c.

16 On Musical Temperament.

the simpler to an absolute level, in point of agreeableness, with
the more complex ; which, as has been shown, is not the ob-
ject to be aimed at in adjusting their comparative tempera-
ments. But, in truth, his measure is far more favourable to
the complex consonances than equal harmony, even in this
sense, would require ; and, in a great number of instances,
leads to the grossest absurdities. Two consonances, accord-
ing to him, are equally harmonious, when their temperaments
are inversely as the products of the least numbers expressing
their perfect ratio. If so, the VIII + 3d, whose ratio is #4,
when tempered ;}, of a comma, and the unison, whose ratio is
4, when tempered 3 commas, are equally harmonious. But
all who have the least experience in tempered consonances
will pronounce, at once, that the fermer could scarcely be dis-
tinguished by the nicest ear from the corresponding perfect
concord, whibe the latter would be a most offensive discord.
One instance more shall suffice. The temperaments to ren-
der the VIII + Vth, and the VIII + 6th equally harmonious,
are laid down in his tables to be as 80: 3. We will now sup-
pose an instrument perfectly tuned in Dr. Smith’s manner, and
furnished with all the additional sounds which constitute his
changeable scale. In this system, the IIIds, and consequently
the VIII + 6ths, are tempered } of a comma; which, so far
from being offensive, will be positively agreeable to the ear.
This cannot be doubted by those who admit that the VIII +
6ths in the common imperfect scales, when tempered at a me-
dium nearly seven times as much, make tolerable harmony.
Yet, according to the theory which we are opposing, the
VIII + Vth will be equally harmonious when tempered nearly
aminor semitone. Now let any one, even with the common
instruments, whenever an VIII + Vth occurs, strike the semi-
tone next above or below: for example, instead of playing
C, g, let him play C, g% ; instead of A, e, let him play A, eb,
&c. and compare the harmony of these with that of the VIII +
6ths, if he wants any farther evidence that Dr. Smith’s mea-
sure of equal harmony is without foundation.

It may be thought, that even the measure of equal harmony
Jaid down in the proposition, is more favourable to the com-

On Musical Temperament. 17

plex consonances than the conclusions of experience will war-
rant. But when itis asserted by practical! musicians, that the
octave will bear less tempering than the Vth, the Vth less than
the IIId, &c., they doubtless intend to estimate the tempera-
ment by the rate of beating, and to imply, that when difierent
consonances to the same base are made to beat equally fast,
the simpler are more offensive than the more complex conso-
nances. This is entirely consistent with the proposition ; for
when equally tempered, the more complex consonances will
beat more rapidly than the more simple ; if on the same base,
very nearly in the ratio of their majorterms. (Smith’s Har.
Prop. XI. Cor. 4.) If, for example, an octave, a Vth, anda
‘IId on the same base were made to beat with a rapidity which
is as the numbers 2, 3, and 5, no unprejudiced ear would pro-
bably pronounce the octave less harmonious in its kind than
the IIId. f

To those, on the other hand, who may incline to a measure
of equal harmony between that laid down in the proposition
and that of Dr. Smith, on account of the rapidity of the beats
of the more complex consonances, it may be sufficient to reply,
that if the beats of a more complex consonance are more
rapid than those of a simpler one, when both are equally tem-
pered, those of the latter, ceteris paribus, are more distinct.
It is the distinctness of the undulations, in tempered conso-
nances, which is one of the principal causes of offence to the
ear. -

Scholium 2.

It will be proper to explain, in this place, the notation of mu-
sical intervals, which will be adopted in the following pages.
It is well known that musical intervals are as the logarithms of
their corresponding ratios. If, therefore, the octave be re-
presented by .30103, the log. of 2, the value of the Vth will
be expressed by .17509 ; that of the major tone by .05115;
that of the comma by .00540, &c. But in order to avoid the
prefixed ciphers, in calculations where so small intervals as
the temperaments of different concords are concerned, we will

Wor. 1...No. T. 2

18 On Musical Temperament.

multiply each of these values by 100,000, which will give x
set of integral values having the same ratio. Thé octave will
now become 30103, the comma 540, &c. ; and,in general, when
temperaments are hereafter expressed by numbers, they are
to be considered as so many 540ths of acomma. Had more
logarithmic places been taken, the intervals would have been
expressed with greater accuracy ; but it was supposed that the
additional accuracy would not compensate for the increasedla-
bour of computation which it would occasion. This notation
has been adopted by Dr. Robinson, in the article Temperament,
(Encyc. Brit. Supplement ;) and for every practical purpose, -
is as,much superior to that proposed by Mr. Farey, in parts
of the Schisma, lesser fraction and minute,* as all decimal
measures necessarily are, to those which consist of different
denominations.

Proposition II.

In adjusting the imperfections of the scale, so as to render all
the consonances as equally harmonious as possible, only the
simple consonances, such as the Vth, IIId, and 3d, with their
complements to and compounds with the octave, can be re-
garded.

It has been generally assigned as the reason for neglecting
the consonances, usually termed discords, in ascertaining the
best scheme of temperament, that they are of less frequent oc-
currence than the concords. This, however, if it were the
only reason, would lead us, not to neglect them entirely, but
merely to give them a less degree of influence than the con-
cords, in proportion as they are less used.

A consideration which seems not to have been often noticed,
renders it impossible to pay them any regard in harmonical
computations. All such computations must proceed on the
supposition that within the limits to which the temperaments
of the different consonances extend, they become harsher as
their temperaments are increased. It is evident that any con-

* Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. Vol. XXVIII. p. 140.

On Musical Temperament. 19

sonance may be tempered so much as to become better by
having its temperament increased, in consequence of its ap-
proaching as near to some other perfect ratio, the terms of
which are equally small ; or perhaps much nearer some per-
fect ratio whose terms are not proportionally larger. For ex-
ample, after we have sharpened the Vth more than 3 commas,
it becomes more harmonious, as. approaching much nearer to
the perfect ratio 3. In this, however, and the other concords,
the value of the nearest perfect ratios in small numbers, varies
so much from the ratios of these concords, and the consequent
limits within which the last part of Prop. I. holds true, are so
wide that there is no hazard in making it a basis of calculation.
And if there be a few exceptions to this, in some’systems, in
which the temperaments of a few of the concords become so
large as to approach nearer to some other perfect ratio, whose
terms are nearly as small as those of the perfect concord,
although they might become more harmonious, by having their
temperament increased, yet their effect in melody would be
still more impaired; so that the concords may all be con-
sidered as subjected to the same rule of calculation.

But the limits within which the second part of Prop. I.
holds true, with regard to the more complex consonances, are
much more limited. We cannot, for instance, sharpen the
7th, whose ratio is 9 : 16 more than } a comma, without ren-
dering it more harmonious, as approaching nearer another per-
fect ratio which is simpler ; that of 5: 9. Yet the difference
between these two 7ths is so trifling that they have never
received distinct names; and, indeed, their effect on the ear
in melody would not be sensibly different.

Again, the 5th, whose perfect ratio has been generally laid
down as 45 : 64, but which is in reality 25 : 36,* cannot be
sharpened more than } of a comma, before it becomes more

* The propriety of making 25 : 36 the true ratio of the 5th will be manifest,
when it is considered that this is the value of that interval as sounded by voices
and perfect instruments ; when the 3ds which compose it are made perfect. This
interval, as found in the scale which has the fewest tempered concords possible
referred to at the beginning of this essay, ought to be regarded as the true 5th,
flattened by a comma, in the same manner as one of its component 3ds will be
allowed by all to be flattened.

D9 *

20 On Musical Temperament.

harmonious by having its temperament increased, as approach-

‘ing nearer the simpler ratio 7: 10. At the same time, the
effect of this interval in melody would not be sensibly varied.
The limits, within which the harmoniousness of the 1Vth is
inversely as its temperament, are still narrower.

Hence it appears that no inference can be drawn from the ~
temperaments of such consonances as the 7th, 5th, IVth, &c.
respecting their real harmoniousness. The other perfect ra
tios which have nearly the same value with those of these
chords, and which are in equally simple terms, are so nume-
rous that by increasing their temperament they alternately be-
come more and less harmonious ; and in a manner 60 irregu-
lar, that to attempt to subject them to calculation, with the
concords, would be in vain. Even when unaltered, they may
be considered either as greater temperaments of more simple,
or less temperaments of more complex ratios. Suppose the
5th, for example, to be flattened 1 of a comma: shall it be
considered as deriving its character from the perfect ratio
25 : 36, and be regarded as flattened 108 ; or shall it be re-
ferred to the perfect ratio 7 : 10, and considered as sharpened
239? No one can tell.—On the whole, it is manifest that no
consonances more complex than those included in the propo-
sition, can be regarded in adjusting the temperaments of the
scale.

Prorosition IL.

The best scale of sounds, which renders the harmony of all
the concords as nearly equal as possible, is that in which the
Vths are flattened 2, and the IIIds and 3ds, each } of a
comma.

The octave must be kept perfect, for reasons which have
satisfied all theoretical and practical harmonists, how widely
soever their. epinions have differed in other respects. Ad-
mitting equal temperament to be the measure of equal harmo-
ny, the complements of the Vth, IIId, and 3d, to the octave,
and their compounds with octaves will be equally harmoni-

On Musical Temperament. 21

ous in their kinds with these concords respectively ; accord-
ing to the corollary of Prop I.

Hence we have only to find those temperaments of the Vths,
IIIds, and 3ds, in the compass of one octave, which will ren-
der them all, as nearly as possible, equally harmonious. The
temperaments of the different concords of the same name
ought evidently to be rendered equal ; since, otherwise, their
harmony cannot be equal. This can be effected only by ren-
dering the major and minor tones equal, and preserving the
equality of the two semitones. If this is done, the tempera-
ment of all the IIIds will be equal, since they will each be the
sum of two equal tones. For a similar reason the 3ds, and
consequently the Vths, formed by the addition of IIIds, and
3ds, will be equally tempered.

In order to reduce the octave to five equal and variable tones,
and two equal and variable semitones, we will suppose the
intervals of the untempered octave to be represented by

5 i BOO ta cals He aS 8C—500 bie
C D Be G A B c

parts CD, DE, &c. of the line Ce. Denoting the comma by
c, we will suppose the tone DE, which is naturally minor, to
be increased by any variable quantity, x; then, by the fore-
going observations, the other minor tone, GA, must be increa-
sed by the same quantity. As the major tones must be render-
ed equal to the minor, their increment will be x—c. As the
octave is to be perfect, the variation of the two semitones must
be the same with that of the five tones, with the contrary sign ;
and as they are to be equally varied, the decrement of each

will be 5a —3e , or what amounts to the same thing, the
2

3c — 5x |

increment of each will be

The several concords of the same name in this octave are
now affected with equal and variable temperaments. The
common increment of the IIIds will be 2x—c ; that of the 3ds

1, ¢ — 3x ; and consequently that of the Vths 1. 2 —c.

-

22 On Musical Temperament.

In adjusting these variable temperaments, so as to render
the harmony of the concords of different kinds, as nearly equal
as possible, we immediately discover that, as the Vth is com-
posed of the IIId and 3d, the temperaments of the three can-
not all be equal. When the temperaments of the IIId and
3d have the same sign, that of the Vihs must be equal to their
sum ; and, when they have contrary signs, to their difference.
Hence the temperament of one of these three concords is
necessarily equal to the sum of that of the other two. This
being fixed, the temperaments, and consequently, (by Prop. I.)
the discordance of the different consonances is the most equably
divided possible, when the two smaller temperaments, whose
sum is equal to the greater, are made equal to each other.
The problem contains three cases.

1. When the temperaments of the IIId and 3d have the
same sign, they ought to be equal to each other. Making
22 —c =}.¢c — 3x, we obtainz = 2c, which, substituted in
the general expressions for the temperaments of the Vth, IIId,
and 3d, makes their increments equal to —2c¢,—}c,—4¢,
respectively.

2. Let the temperaments of the IIId and 3d have contrary
signs: and first, let that of the IIIlds be the greater. Then
the former ought to ve double of the latter, in order that the
~ temperament of the et and and 3ds may be equal. Hence we

have 2x — c = — 2.1.c—3x; whence zx is found = 0; and
by substitution as oul the required temperament of the
Illd = —c; of the Vth — 1c, and of the 3dic

3. Let the temperaments of the IIId and 3d shave contrary
signs, as before; and let that of the 6d be the greater.

Making 1. ¢ — 3a = — 2. 2x —c, we obtain x = 2 c; which
gives, by substitution, the temperaments of the 3d, Vth, and
Iild — 2c,— 1c, and { c, respectively.

Each of these results makes the harmony of all the conso-
nances as nearly equal as possible; but as the sum of the
temperaments in the first case is much the least, it follows that

the temperaments stated in the proposition constitute the best

-

On Musical Temperament. 23

scheme of intervals for the natural scale, in which the harmony
of all the different consonances is rendered as nearly equal as
possible.

Cor. 1. In the same manner it may be shown that these
temperaments are the best, among those which approach as
nearly as possible to equal harmony, for the artificial scale ;
provided that it is furnished with distinct sounds for all the
sharps and flats in common use. By inserting a sound between
F and G, making the interval Fx G equal to either of the semi-
tones found above, the intervals, reckoned from G as a key
note, will be exactly the same in respect to their temperaments,
as the corresponding ones reckoned from C. The same thing
holds, whatever be the number of flats and sharps. It is sup-
posed, however, that the flat of a note is never used for the
sharp of that next below, or the contrary; and hence this
scheme of temperament would only be adapted to an instru-
ment, furnished with all the degrees of the enharmonic scale ;
or, at least, with as many as are in common use.

Cor.2. This scale will differ but little in practice from the
one deduced, with so much labour, by Dr. Smith, from his
criterion of equal harmony; which flattens the Vths ,%, the
IIIds 4, and the 3ds } of a comma. The several differences
are only ;1,;, 7, and J, of acomma. Hence, as his measure
of equal harmony differs so widely from that of Proposition I.
we may infer that the consideration of equalizing the harmony
of the concords of different names can have very little practi-
cal influence on the temperaments of the scale. Should it,
therefore, be maintained that the criterion laid down in Prop.
I. is not mathematically accurate ; yet, as it must be allowed,
in the most unfavourable view, to correspond far better with
the decisions of experience than that of Doctor Smith, the
chance is, that, at the lowest estimate, the temperaments de-
duced from it approach much more nearly to correctness.
Hence it is manifest that equal temperament may be made,
without any sensible error in practice, the criterion of equal
harmony.

24 On Musical Temperament.

Scholiuwm 3.

Although the foregoing would be the best division of the
musical scale, if our sole object were to render the harmony
of its concords as nearly equal as possible, yet the two other
considerations, stated at the beginning of the essay, must by
no means be neglected, as has been done by Dr. Smith. It
seems to be universally admitted, that the sum of the tempera-
ments may be increased to a certain extent, in order to equalize
the harmony of the concords ; otherwise the natural scale of
‘Major and minor tones, which makes the sum of the tempera-
ments of the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds but 2 commas, ought to be
left unaltered. Yet how far this principle ought to be carried,
may be a matter of doubt. If we make the IIIds perfect, and
flatten the Vths and 3ds each 1 c, according to the old system
of mean tones, we shall have the smallest aggregate of tempe-
raments which admits of the different concords of the same
name being rendered equally imperfect ; but this amounts to
21 commas. ‘Thus far, however, it seems evidently proper to
proceed. If we go still farther, and endeavour to equalize
the harmony of the concords of different names, it may be ques-
tioned whether nearly as much is not lost as gained; for the
aggregate temperaments are increased, in Dr. Smith’s scale,
to 22 ¢c, and in that of the above proposition to 2c. The
system of mean tones, although more unequal in its harmony
when but two notes are struck at once, yet when the chords
are played full, as they generally are on the organ, never
offends the ear by a transition from a better to a worse har-
mony. For every triad is equally harmonious ; being com-
posed of a perfect IIId, and a Vth and 3d, tempered each } ¢,
or of their complements to, or compounds with octaves, which,
in their kinds, are equally harmonious.

Again, if different chords, in practice, vary in the frequency
of their occurrence, this will be a sufficient reason for deviating

from the system of equal temperament. Suppose, for exam-. ¥ Tall

ple, that a given sum of temperament is to be divided between
two Vihs, one of which occurs in playing ten times as often as

Bhar ao!
Brg.

On Musical Temperament. 25

the other : there can be no doubt that the greater part of the
temperament ought to be thrown upon the latter. Hence it
becomes an important problem to ascertain, with some degree
of precision, the relative frequency with which different con-
sonances occur in practice. Before proceeding to a direct in-
vestigation of this problem, it may be observed, in general,
that such a difference manifestly exists. Ina given key, it
cannot have escaped the most superficial observer, that the
most frequent combination of sounds is the common chord on
the tonic; that the next after this is that on the dominant, and
the third, that on the subdominant. Perhaps scarcely a piece
of music can be found, in which this order of frequency does
not hold true. It is equally true that some signatures occur
oftener than others. That of one sharp will be found to be
more used, in the major mode, than any other ; and, in general,
the more simple keys will be found of more frequent occur-
rence than those which have more flats or sharps. These
differences are not the result of accident. The tonic, domi-
nant, and subdominant, are obviously the most prominent notes
in the scale, and must always be the fundamental bases of more
chords than either of the others; while the greater ease of
playing on the simpler keys will always be a reason with com-
posers for setting a larger part of their music on these, than
on the more difficult keys.. It is observable, that the greater
part of musical compositions, whether of the major or minor
mode, is reducible to two kinds : that in which the base chiefly
moves between the tonic and its octave, and that in which the
- base moves between the dominant and subdominant of the key.
The former class, in the major mode, are almost universally
set on the key of one sharp ; the latter, generally on the na-
tural key, or that of two sharps. In the minor mode, the for-
mer class have usually the signature of two flats, or the natural
key; the latter, that of one flat. Hence the three former
keys will comprise the greater part of the music in the major
mode, and the three latter, of that in the minor mode, in every
promiscuous collection. Butif we were even to suppose each
of the chords in the same key, and each of the signatures, of
equally frequent occurrence, some chords would occur much

/

26 On Musical Temperament.

oftener, as forming an essential part of the harmony of more
keys than others. The Vth DA, for example, forms one of
the essential chords of six different keys; while the Vth
GxDx forms a part only of the single key of four sharps.

Proposition IV.

To find a set of numbers, expressing the ratio of the probable
number of times that each of the different consonances in
the scale will occur, in any set of musical compositions.
This can be done only by investigating their actual frequency

of occurrence in a collection of pieces for the instrument to be

tuned, sufficiently extensive and diversified to serve as a spe-
cimen of music for the same instrument in general. This may
appear, at first view, an endless task ; and it would be really
such, were we to take music promiscuously, and count all the
consonances which the base makes with the higher parts, and
the higher parts with each other. But it appears, from Prop.
I. Cor. that all the positions and inversions of a chord, when
the octaves are kept perfect, are equally harmonious with the
chord itself. The Vth, for example, which makes one of the
consonances in a common harmonic triad, is equally harmoni-
ous in its kind, with the V-+-VIII, which takes its place in the
3d position of this triad, and with the 4th in its second inversion.
Hence, instead of counting single consonances, we have only
to count chords ; and this is done with the greatest ease, by
means of the figures of the thorough base. The labour will
be still farther abridged by reducing the derivative chords,
such as the 6, the £, &c. to their proper roots, as they are
taken down. But even after these reductions, the labour of
numbering the different chords in a sufficiently extensive set of
compositions, to establish, with any degree of certainty, the
relative frequency of the different signatures, would be very

_ irksome. A method, however, presents itself, which renders

it sufficient to examine the chords in sucha set of pieces only

as will give their chance of occurrence in two keys—a major,
and its relative minor.

It will be evident to all who are much conversant with mu-
sical compositions, that the internal structure of all pieces in

On Musical Temperament. 27

the same mode, whatever be their signature, is much the same,
There is scarcely more difference, for example, in the relative
frequency of different chords in the natural key, and in that of
two sharps, or two flats, than there is in different pieces on the
same key. If the Vth CG on the tonic has to the Vth EB on
the mediant in the natural key, any given ratio of frequency
m: n, the relative frequency of the Vth DA on the tonic, and
the Vth Fx Cx on the mediant in the key of two sharps, will
not sensibly differ from that of m: n. Hence, if we examine a
sufficient number of pieces to establish the relative frequency
of the different consonances in one major and its relative minor
key, and, by a much more extensive investigation, ascertain the
relative frequency of occurrence of the different signatures, it
is evident, that by multiplying this last series of numbers into
the first, and adding those products which belong to chords ter-
minated by the same letters, we shall have aseries of numbers
expressing the chance of occurrence in favour of each of the
consonances of the scale, when all the keys are taken into
view.

It was judged that 200 scores, taken promiscuously from all
the varieties of music for the organ,* would afford a set of
numbers expressing, with sufficient accuracy, the chance that
a given consonance will occur ina single major, and its relative
minor key. Accordingly 200 scores were examined, 150 in
the major, and 50 in the minor mode, (as it will appear here-
after that this is nearly the ratio of their frequency) of the
various species of music for the organ, comprising a proper
share both of the simpler and of the more rapid and chromatic
movements. As the selecting and reducing to their proper
keys all the occasional modulations which occur in the same

* The propriety of this limitation will be manifest, “when we consider that in
organ music, the chords are generally played more full, and are more protracted,
than in music for other keyed instruments. It is harmony which constitutes its
character, ina higher degree than in music for other instruments. Hence the
harmony of the organ ought not to be impaired by including in our computations
any music not adapted toit. If a similar examination of music for the piano-forte
would afford a set of results essentially different from those of this proposition, this
is no proof that it ought to have any concern ina system of temperament designed
primarily for the organ, but merely that the same temperament cannot be equally
adapted to different instruments, If, as is probable, such an examination would
give essentially the same results, to introduce them would be superfluous.

28 Qn Musical Temperament.

piece would render the labour of ascertaining the relative fre-
quency of different signatures very tedious, it was thought best —
to consider all those modulations which are too transient to be
indicated by a new signature, as belonging to the same key.
This will account for the occurrence of the chords in the fol-
lowing table, which are affected by flats and sharps.

The minim, or the crotchet, was taken for unity, according
to the rapidity of the movement. Bases of greater or less
length had their proper values assigned them ; although mere
notes of passage, which bore no,proper harmony, were gene-
rally disregarded. The scores were taken promiscuously
from all the different keys; and were reduced, when taken
down, to the same tonic ; the propriety of which will evidently
appear from the foregoing remarks. The following table con-
tains the result of the investigation.

TABLE I.

= Common Chords. Flat Fifths. 7ths. i 9-sevenths.
aa Maiae DRinor Major. | Minor. | Major. | Minor. |} Major.}| Minor.
B I 5 8 — — 7; —j]—j]—
B 3 — |} 163 55 11 17 2);—
Bo 4 4 —{ —}| —j] —|}-|—
A VII — —!| —} —j] — 3}, —
A Ul 19 8 —|— i 2y7—|—
A 166 588 2 1 26 5 2)—
G * —_ _ 3 38 — —|}—|]—
G3 18 15 — — — — | — | —
G 965 93 — — | 178 15 3{[—
FX — _— 46 4 11 2);—{—
F 352 60 — — 11 12 7 3
E Wl 26 ZA — — 1 25 }—}|—
E 32 25 5 1 8 — 1 4
Dx III — — 2 1; —{ —f—j—
Dx —_— — — 4}; —; —]|—j]—
D Il 29 4 — — 49 7|—j—
D 120 129 — —_— 55 18 6 1
Cx — oo 2 4 1 — | —j} —
C3 2 — BR ee a ee eee
Cc Tee eis | | Se ee ee

On Musical Temperameni. 29

The following anomalous chords were found in the major
mode, and are subjoined, to make the list complete :
; 8 x5ths on C, and 1 on D.
5 4ths on D, 2 on E, and 1 on G.

The left hand column of the foregoing table contains the
fundamental bases of the several chords. When any number
is annexed to the letter denoting the fundamental, it denotes
the quality of some other note belonging to the chord. E III,
for example, denotes that the various chords on E, which
stand against it, have their third sharped; G 3, that the third,
which is naturally major, is to be taken minor, &c. Of the two
columns in each of the four remaining pairs, the left contains
the number of chords belonging to each root, of the kind spe-
cified at the top, which were found in 150 scores in the major
mode ; and the right, the corresponding results of the exami-
nation of 50 scores inthe minor mode. The diminished triad,
which is used in harmonical progression like the other triads,
has its lowest note considered as its fundamental. The dimi-
nished 7th, in the few instances in which it occurred, was con-
sidered as the first inversion of the 2th, agreeably to the French
classification, and was accordingly reduced to that head.

From this table, the number of times that each consonance
of two notes would actually occur, were the 200 scores play-
ed, is easily computed. We will suppose three notes, be-
sides octaves, to be played to each chord. The octaves played
it is unnecessary to take into the computation, as it would only
multiply the number of consonances whose temperament is the
same, in the same ratio, and would have no effect on the ratio
of the numbers expressing the frequency of the different con-
sonances. In the chord of the 7th, which naturally consists of
four notes, we will suppose, for the sake of uniformity, that
one is omitted ; and as the 7th ought always to be struck, we
will suppose the Vth and IIId of the base to be omitted, each
half the number of times in which this chord occurs. Consi-
dered as composed of three distinct notes, neither of which is
an octave of either of the others, each chord will contain three
distinct consonances. The common chord on C, for example,
will contain the Vth CG, the IIId CE, and the 3d EG. The

30 On Musical Temperament.

$ on C will contain the VII CB, the IX, or (which must have
the same temperament) the IId CD, and the 3d BD. Redu-
cing all these consonances to their proper places, and adding
those of the same name which have the same degree for their
base, we obtain the following results :

TABLE II.

se | | | — | |

Vths, 4ths, and Octaves.||IIIds, 6ths, and Octaves.||3ds, VIths, and Octaves.
ll Major. Minor Major Minor. Major, Minor,
B 8 8 10 8 |} 1141 214
Bb 3 6 22 19 || —— | -——
A 195 607 22 10 626 663
Esgy pose See
G 1088 116 |; 1090 125 22 23
Fx — | — | —_ | —- 78 10
F 395 78 || 486 301 |} —— | ——
E 59 308 40 | 284 |} 1828 | 308
Eb — | — 2 | —— |} — | —
Dy Me eee ee cee 7 9
D 197 156 60 7 403 | 213
Cx — | —— |} — | — 26 12
C 1807 278 || 1959 870 4 1

5the, [Vths,and Octaves.|| 7ths, IIds, and Octaves a 2ds, and
etave

Bases.

rm 1?
=|
=
5
i)
5

Major. Minor. Major. {Minor. Major.

256 265 25 17

~lULELst TLL

On Musical Temperament. 3t

Besides the following chromatic intervals :
8 extreme sharp 5ths on C
Major mode. 1 - —-
1 extreme fiat 7th Gx

4 extreme sharp 6ths on F
Minor mode. <¢ 4 extreme fiat 7ths on Cx
$—_——_———_ Gx

v

It was thought best to exhibit a complete table of all the
consonances which occurred in the 200 scores examined ;
although (Prop. II.) only the concords in the upper half of the
table can be regarded in forming a system of temperament.
For the more frequent consonances, this table may be regarded
as founded on a sufficiently extensive induction to be tolerably
accurate. For the more unfrequent chords, and especially for
those which arise from unusual modulations, it expresses the
chance of occurrence with very little accuracy; and it is
doubtless the fact that a more extensive investigation would
include some chords not found at all in this list. But it must
be recollected, on the other hand, that the influence of these
unusual chords on the resulting system of temperament would
be insensible, could their chance of occurrence be determined
with the greatest accuracy.

But none of the numbers in the foregoing table by any means
expresses the chance that a given interval will occur, consi-
dering all the keys in which it is found. For example, the
Vth CG on the tonic of the natural key, in music written on
this key, is the one of most frequent occurrence, its chance
being expressed by 1807; but in the key of two flats, it be-
comes the Vth on the supertonic, and its chance of occurrence
is only as 197. Hence the problem can be completed only by
finding a set of numbers which shall express, with some degree
of accuracy, the relative frequency of different signatures.

An examination of 1600 scores, comprising four entire col-
lections of music for the organ and voice, by the best Euro-
pean composers, besides many miscellaneous pieces, afforded
the results in the following table :

i On Musical Temperament.

TABLE III.

Signatures. Major Mode. Minor Mode.

AXs

SE
2 ce
eee

- ne

ogee.
2bs
3bs
4bs

Ratio of their sums 1201:

The chance of occurrence for any chord varies as the fre-
quency of the key to which it belongs, and as the number be-
longing to the place which it holds, as referred to the tonic, in
Table II, jointly. Hence the chance of its occurrence in all
the keys in which it is found, is as the sum of the products of ©
the numbers in Table III., each into such a number of Table
Il. as corresponds to its place in that key. To give a speci-
men of the manner in which this calculation is to be conducted,
the numbers belonging to the major mode in the three first
divisions of Table II, are first to be multiplied throughout by
176, which expresses the relative frequency of the major mode
of the natural key. They are then to be multiplied through-
out by 322, which expresses the frequency of the key of one
sharp. But the first product, which expresses the frequency
of the Vth on the tonic, now becomes GD, and must be added,
not to the first, but to the fifth, in the last row of products.
The product into 59, expressing the frequency of the Vth on
the mediant, becomes BEX, an interval not found among the
essential chords of the natural key. In general, the products
of the numbers in Table III, into those in Table I. are to be
considered as belonging, not to the letters against which these
multipliers stand, but to those which have the same position

On Musical Temperament. 38

fy

with regard to their successive tonics, as these have with regard
to C. Whenever an interval occurs, affected with a new flat
or sharp, it is tobe considered as the commencement of a new
succession of products. The Ilid CxEx, for example, does
not occur at all till we come to the key of two sharps, and even
then only in occasional modulations, corresponding to the
‘Hild on B in the natural key, whose multiplier is 10. In the
key of 3 sharps it becomes another accidental chord, answer-
ing to the IIId on E inthe key of C, and consequently has 40
. for its multiplier. It is. only in the key of 6 sharps, that it be-
comes a constituent chord of the key ; whenif that key were
ever used, it would correspond to the IIId GB on the domi-
nant of the natural key.

After all the products have been taken and reduced to their
proper places, in the manner exemplified above, a similar
operation must be repeated with the numbers in the second
column of Table ITI. and those in the second columns in the
three first divisions of Table II.

The necessity of keeping the major, and its relative minor
key, distinct, will be evident, when we consider that the
several keys in the minor mode do not follow the same law of
frequency as in the major ; as is manifest from the observa-
tions in Schol. Prop. II. and as clearly ne ee from an inspec-

tion of Table Til.

_ _Butin order to discover the relative frequency of the differ-
ent chords on every account, the results of the two forego-
ing operations must be united. Now, as the numbers in the
two.columns of Table II. ata medium, are as 3: 1. and those
an Table II. are in the same ratio, although the factors are to
each other in only the simple ratio of the relative frequency
of the two modes, yet their products will, at a medium, be in
the duplicate ratio of that frequency. Hence, to render the
two sets of results homologous, so that those which correspond
tothe same interval may be properly added, to express the
general chance of occurrence for that interval in allthe major
and minor keys in which it is found, this duplicate ratio must
be reduced to a simple one, either by dividing the first, or by
mapiMplgine the last series of results, by 8. We will do the

WOR Feasts 269% 3

34 On Musical Temperament.

latter, as it will give the ratios in the largest, and, of course,
‘the most accurate terms. Then adding those results in each
which belong to the same interval, and cutting off the three
right hand figures, (expressing in the nearest small fractions
‘those results which are under 1000) which will leave a set of
‘ratios abundantly accurate for every purpose ; the numbers.
‘constituting the final solution of’ the problem will stand as
follows :

TABLE IV.
Bares, | Vthsand | W1Xdsand | 3dsand |p... | Vehs and | T1Tds and | 3ds and
4ths 6ths, Viths athe. the. Vithe.,
1Px 67 29 } 1072 |IBxe | ——j|— | +4
EF 639 924 66 |B 221 135 | 1161 }
Ex | — }|— 12 |IBb 418 654 5
E. 548 323 | 1151 ||Ax | —— }|— 29
Eb | 265 | 363 z lq | 870 | 568 | 1085
IDS. | oy) 2, gv deboCnaa Tab a tee FB 1
D 1166 943 569. ||Gx 5 4 365
Db “1 6| —— |G 1207 |} 1197 567
Cx 25 12 | 581 ||Pxx| —— | —— +
Gif BEG ech AN Bandi Oe be alii sail. Sell iN ieee

Nore. Inthis table, as well as the last, the Vths, IIIds, and
3ds are to be taken above, and the 4ths, 6ths, and VIths, their
complements to the octave, below the corresponding degrees in
the first column. And, in general, whenever the Vths, IIIds,
‘and 3ds are hereafter treated as different classes of concords,
each will be understood to include its complement to the octave
and its compounds with octaves.

Schohium.

The foregoing table exhibits, with sufficient accuracy, “the
ratio of the whole number of times which the different chords
would occur, were the 1600 scores, whose signatures were
examined, actually played in succession, on the keys to which
they are set, and with an instrument having distinct sounds for

Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. 35

all the flats and sharps. Had the examination been more ex-
‘tensive, the results might be relied on with greater assurance
as accurate ; but the general similarity, not only in the struc-
ture of different musical compositions, but in the comparative
frequency of the different keys in different authors; is so great,
that a more extensive examination was thought to be of little
practical importance.
(To be continued.)

*

Art. II. Review of an elementary Treatise on Mineralogy
_and Geology, being an introduction to the study of these
sciences, and designed for the use of pupils; for persons
attending lectures on these subjects; and as a companion
for travellers in the United States of America—Illustrated
by six plates. By Parker Cizavexanp, Professor of
Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, and Lecturer on
Chemistry and Mineralogy in Bowdoin College, Member
of the American Academy, and Corresponding Member io
‘the Linnean Society of New England.

‘ —__—__——_ itum est in viscera terre :
Quasque recondiderat, Stygiisque admoverat umbris,
Effodiuntur opes ————-——_—_— Oyip.

Babin published by Cummings and Hilliard, No. 1,
Cornhill. Printed by Hilkard & Metcalf, at the Univer-
sity Press, Cambridge, New England. 1816.

a

Tus work has been for some time before the public, and
it has been more or less the subject of remark in our various
journals. It is, however, so appropriate to the leading ob-
jects of this Journal, that we cannot consider ourselves as
performing labours of supererogation while we consider the
necessity, plan, and execution of the treatise of Professor

Cleaveland.

_ An extensive cultivation of the physical sciences is peculiar
to an advanced state of society, and eyinces, in the country

ny

3%

36 Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.

where they flourish, a highly improved state of the aris, and
agreat degree of intelligence in the community. To this
state of things we are now fast approximating. The ardent
curiosity regarding these subjects, already enkindled in the
public mind, the very respectable attainments in sciencé
which we have already made, and our rapidly augmenting
means of information in books, instruments,. collections, and
teachers, afford ground for the happiest anticipations. a

Those sciences which require no means for their inyes-
tigation beyond books, teachers, and study—those which
demand no physical demonstrations, no instruments of re~
search, no material specimens: we mean those sciences
which relate only to the intellectual and moral character
of man, were early fostered, and, in a good degree, matured
in this country. Hence, in theology, in ethics, in juris-
prudence, and in civil policy, our advances were much ear-
lier, and more worthy of respect, than in the sciences relating
to material things. In some of these, it is true, we have
made very considerable advances, especially in natural
philosophy and the mathematics, and their applications to the
arts ; and this has been true, in some good degree, for very
nearly a century. Natural history has been the most tardy
in its growth, and no branch of it was, till within a few years,
involved in such darkness as mineralogy. Notwithstanding
the laudable efforts of a few gentlemen to excite some taste
for these subjects, so little had been effected in forming col-
lections, in kindling curiosity, and diffusing information, that
only fifteen years since, it was a matter of extreme difficulty
to obtain, among ourselves, even the names of the most common
stones and minerals; and one might inquire earnestly, and
long, before he could find any one to identify even quartz,
feldspar, or hornblende, among the simple minerals ; or gra-
nite, porphyry, or trap, among the rocks. We speak from
eaperience, and well remember with what impatient, but almost
despairing curiosity, we eyed the bleak, naked ridges, which
impended over the valleys and plains that were the scenes of
our youthful excursions. In vain did we doubt whether the
glittering spangles of mica, and the still more alluring brilliancy

Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. 37

of pyrites, gave assurance of the existence of the precious
metals in those substances ; or whether the cutting of glass by
the garnet, and by quartz, proved that these minerals were the
diamond ; but if they were not precious metals, and if they
were not diamonds, we in vain inquired of our companions,
and even of our teachers, what they were.

We do not forget that Dr. Adam Seybert, in Philadelphia ;
Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill, in New-York; and Dr. Benjamin
Waterhouse, in Harvard University, began at an earlier
period to enlighten the public on this subject; they began
to form collections; Harvard received a select cabinet from
France and England ; and Mr. Smith, of Philadelphia, (although,
returning from Europe fraught with scientific acquisitions,
he perished tragically near his native shores,) left his col-
lection to enrich the Museum of the American Philosophical
Society.

Still, however, although individuals were enlightened, no
Serious impression was produced on the public mind; a few
lights were indeed held out, but they were lights twinkling in
an almost impervious gloom.

The return of the late Benjamin D. Perkins, and of the late
Dr. A. Bruce, from Europe, in 1802 and 3, with their collec-
tions, then the most complete and beautiful that this country
had ever seen; the return of Colonel Gibbs, in 1805, with his
extensive and magnificent cabinet; his consequent excursions
and researches into our mineralogy; the commencement,
about this time, of courses of lectures on mineralogy, in several
of our colleges, and of collections by them and by many indi-
viduals ; the return of Mr. Maclure, in 1807; his Herculean
labour in surveying the United States geologically, by per-
sonal examination ; and the institution of the American Jour-
nal of Mineralogy, by Dr. Bruce, in 1810 ;—these are among
the most prominent events, which, in the course of a few
years, have totally changed the face of this science in the
United States.

During the last ten years, it has been cultivated with great
ardour, and with great success: many interesting discoveries
in American mineralogy have been made; and this science,

33 Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.

with its sister science, Geology, is fast arresting the public
attention. In such a state of things, books relating to mine-
ralogy would of course be eagerly sought for. .

No work, anterior to Kirwan, could be consulted by the
student with much advantage, on account of the wonderful
progress, which, within forty or fifty years, has been made i in
mineralogy. Even Kirwan, who performed a most important’
service to the science, was become, in some considerable de-
gree, imperfect and obsolete ; the German treatises, the fruit-
ful fountains from which the science had flowed over Europe,
were not translated ; neither were those of the French ; and
this was the more ac be regretted, because they had wenewen
down the harshness and enriched the sterility of the German
method of description, besides adding many interesting disco-
veries of their own. It is true we possessed the truly valu-
able treatise of Professor Jameson, the most complete in our
language. But the expense of the work made it unattainable
by most of our students, and the undeviating strictaess with
which the highly respectable author has adhered to the Ger-
man mode of description, gave it an aspect ‘somewhat repul-
sive to the minds of novices, who consulted no other book.
We are, however, well aware of the value of this work, espe-
cially in the improved edition. It must, without doubt, be in
the hands of every one who would be master of the science ;
but it is much better adapted to the purposes of proficients
than of beginners.

The mineralogical articles dispersed through Aikin’s De
tionary are exceedingly valuable; but, from the high price of
the work, they are inaccessible to most persons.

The most recent of the French systems, that by Brongniart, ;
seemed to combine nearly all the requisites that could be de-
sired in an elementary treatise ; and a translation of it would ©
probably, ere this, have been given to the American public,
had we not been led to Faia the work of Professor Cleave-
appt advantage over ihe work of Broa and every
other ; it would exhibit, more or less extensively, American

Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. 39

localities, and give the leading features of our natural mineral,
associations.

_ Thus it appears* that the work of Professor Cleaveland was
eminently needed ; the science, at large, needed it; and to.
American mineralogists it was nearly indispensable. It appear-
ed too at avery opportune moment. Had it come a few years,
sooner, in might not have found many readers. Now itis sus-
tained by the prevailing curiosity, and diffused state of inform-
ation regarding mineralogy ; and, in turn, no cause could
operate more effectually to cherish this curiosity, and to dif-
fuse this information still more widely, than this book. Pro-
fessor Cleayeland is therefore entitled to our thanks for under-
taking this task ; and, in this age of book-making, it is no small
negative praise if an author be acquitted of unnecessarily adding
to the already onerous mass of books.

With respect to the xan of this work, Professor Cleaveland
has, with good judgment, availed himself of the excellencies
of both the German and French schools.

Mr. Werner, of Fribourg, in some sense not only the
founder of the modern German school of mineralogy, but
almost of the science itself, is entitled to our lasting gratitude.
for"his system of external characters, first published in 1774.
In this admirable treatise he has combined precision and
copiousness, so that exact ideas are attached to every part of.
the descriptive language, and every character is meant to be
defined.

It is intended that a full description of a mineral upon this
plan shall entirely exhaust the subject, and that although
many properties may be found in common among different
minerals, still every picture shall contain peculiar features, not
to be found in any other. It would certainly appear, at first:
view, that this method must be perfect, and leave nothing far-
ther to be desired. It has, however, been found in practice,
that the full descriptions of the Wernerian writers are heavy
and dry ; they are redundant also, from the frequent repetition

* The smaller works of Phillips and Aikin were not then published; had
they been, they could not have superseded Cleaveland; the same may be sai&
of the respectable werk of Professor Kidd, of Oxford University.

40 Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.

of similar properties ; and from not giving due prominence to
those which are peculiar, and therefore distinctive, they fre-
quently fail to leave a distinct impression of any thing on the
mind, and thus, in the midst of what is called by the writers of
this school a full oryctognostic picture, a student is sometimes
absolutely bewildered. ;
- Some of the modern French writers, availing themselves of
Mr. Werner’s very able delineation of the external characters
of minerals, have selected such as are most important, most
striking, distinctive, and interesting ; and drawing a spirited and
bold sketch, have left the minuter parts untouched : such a pic-
ture, although less perfect, often presents a stronger likeness,
and more effectually arrests the attention.
_This is the method of description which has been, as we
think, happily adopted, to a great extent by Mr. Cleaveland.
Mr. Werner, availing himself of the similarities in the ex-
ternal appearance of minerals, has (excepting the metals)
arranged them also upon this plan, without regard to their con-’
stitution ; that is, to their real nature, or, at least, making this
wholly subservient to the other : this has caused him, in some
instances, to bring together things which are totally unlike in
their nature, and, in other instances, to separate those which
were entirely similar. Whatever may be said in favour of
such a course, considered as a provisional one, while chemical
analysis was in its infancy, the mind can never rest satisfied
with any arrangement which contradicts the real nature of
things ; in a word, the composition of minerals is the only cor-
rect foundation for their classification. This classification has
been adopted by several of the ablest modern French writers.
_ It is believed,” (says Professor Cleaveland, Preface, p. 7.)
‘*that the more valuable parts of the two systems may be in-
corporated, or, in other words, that the peculiar descriptive -
language of the one may, in a certain degree, be united to the
accurate and scientific arrangement of the other.
‘¢ This union of descriptive language and scientific arrange-
ment has been effected with good success, by Bronenrart, in
his System of Mineralogy—an elementary work, which seems
better adapted both to interest and instruct, than any which

Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. Z|

has hitherto appeared. The author of this volume has, there-
fore, adopted the general plan of Brongniart, the more im-
portant parts 9 frnenige work are, of course, incorporated Ntiate
this. 92.

A happier. model could not, in our opinion, be chosen; and
we conceive that Professor Cleaveland is perfectly consistent,
and perfectly perspicuous, when, adopting the chemical com-
position of minerals as the only proper foundation of arrange-
ment, and, of course, rejecting the principle of Mr. Werner,
which arranges them upon their external properties, he still
adopts his descriptive language as far as it answers his purpose.
For to elect a principle of arrangement, and to classify all the
. members of a system so as to give each its appropriate place,

is obviously quite a different thing from describing each mem-
ber, after its place in a system is ascertained. In doing the
latter, characters may be drawn from any source which affords
them.

In his ‘‘ Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy,” the author
has given a view at once copious, cendensed, and perspicuous,
of all that is necessary to be learned previously to the study
of particular minerals. He begins with definitions and general
principles, which are laid down with clearness.

_ By way of engaging the attention to the study of this depart-
ment of nature, he remarks :

«From a superficial view of minerals in their natural depo-
sitories, at or near the surface of the earth, it would hardly be
expected that they could constitute the object of a distinct
branch of science. Nothing appears farther removed from
the influence of established principles and regular arrange-
ment, than the mineral kingdom when observed in a cursory
manner. Butacloser inspection and more comprehensive view
of the subject will convince us, that this portion of the works
of nature is by no means destitute of the impress of the Deity.
Indications of the same wisdom, power, and benevolence, which

appear in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, are also clearly
discernible in the mineral.”

“It may also be remarked,” continues the author, “ that
several arts and manufactures depend on mineralogy for their

42 Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.

existence ;'and that improvements and discoveries in the latter -
cannot fail of extending their beneficial effects to the afore--
mentioned employments. In fine, the study of mineralogy,
whether it be viewed as tending to increase individual wealth, |
to improve and multiply arts and manufactures, and thus pro-
mote the public good; or as affording a pleasant subject for
scientific research, recommends itself to the attention of the
citizen and scholar.”

This introductory view of the importance and interest of the.
science cannot be charged with the fault of exaggeration, since
it is most evident that neither civilization, refinement in arts, ©
nor comfort, can exist where the properties of mineral sub- .
stances are but imperfectly understood.

As regards this country, the argument admits of much am-
plification. The more our mineral treasures are explored,
the more abundantly do they repay the research; and we-
trust that the period is not far distant, when we shall no longer.
ignorantly tread under our feet minerals of great curiosity and
value, and import from other countries, at a great expense, .
what we, in many instances, possess abundantly at home.*

But to return to the plan of the author’s work. Few per-.
sons, unacquainted with the science of mineralogy, would sus-_
pect that mere brute matter could exhibit many strong marks,
capable of discrimination.

It may, however, be confidently affirmed, that there is no
mineral which, if carefully studied, may not be distinguished:
by characters sufficiently decisive from every other mineral ;
an account of these characters ought, therefore, to precede
every system of mineralogy. Professor Cleaveland has, with.
entire propriety, included them under the heads of crystal-.

* A vast region in the interior of New-York and -Pennsylvania is now fertilized
by inexhaustible beds of sulphat of lime, (plaster of Paris,) which, till a very few,
years since, were not even known to exist.

Near New-Hayven immense beds of green marble were discovered in 1811,
during a mineralogical excursion: this beautiful material, closely resembling the
verd antique, is nowy, on the spot, wrought into tables, fireplaces, and many other:
ornamental forms; and although the farmers had made fences of it for 150 years,
no one suspected what it was till the study of mineralogy, in Yale College,
brought it to light. ~

Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. 43

lography, gl pi sr external ‘characters, and rosrwnre
characters. |

He has given a clear view of the Abbé Haiiy’s curious dis-
coveries regarding the six primitive figures or solids which
form the bases of all crystals—the three integrant particles or
molecules which constitute the primitive forms, and of the
theory by which it is shown how the immensely numerous
and diversified secondary or actual forms arise out of these
few elementary figures.

This is certainly one of the most singular and acute disco-
veries of our age. Itis true, there is a difference of opinion
among mineralogists as to the practical use of crystallography
in ‘the discrimination of minerals. Some dwell upon it with
excessive minuteness, and others seem restless and impatient
of its details: The truth seems to be, that those who under-
stand it, derive from it (wherever it is applicable) the most
satisfactory aid ; and it requires only a moderate knowledge of
geometry to understand its principal outlines. On the other
hand, it is no doubt possible, in most instances, to dispense
with its aid, and to discriminate minerals by their other pro-
perties.

Of the external and physical characters of Mr. Werner, Mr:
Cleaveland has given a clear account, combining into the same
view the fine discriminations of the French authors, particu-
larly regarding refraction, phosphorescence, specific gravity,
electricity, chateyement, and magnetism. The same may be
said of the chemical characters. We do not know a more
satisfactory and able view of the characters of minerals than
Professor Cleaveland has exhibited.

We would however ask, whether, in enumerating the kinds
of lustre, the term adamantine should not be explained, as it is
not understood by people in general, while the terms denoting
the other kinds are generally intelligible ; whether in the enu-
meration of imitative forms, lenticular and acicular should not
rather be referred to the laws of crystallization ; whether renv-
form and mamillary are synonymous; whether sandstone, as
being a mere aggregate of fragments, is a good instance of the
granular fracture ; whether in its natural state: (at least the

\
44 Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.

common ore of nickel) is ever magnetic, till id hype and
whether cobalt is ever magnetic unless zmpure.

. Professor Cleaveland’s remarks on fracture are uncommonly
discriminating and instructive, and would lead a learner to a
just comprehension of this joes Noel point in the —,
of minerals. .

. The section relating to the chenucal wr is conan
and professedly proceeds upon the principle of selection. It
might perhaps have been, to some extent, advantageously en-
larged ; although, it is true, the author refers us to the par-
ticular minerals for individual instances ; still it might have
been well to have illustrated the general principles by a few
well-chosen instances, e. g. how, by the blowpipe, galena is
distinguished from sulphuret of antimony; carbonat of lead
from sulphat of barytes, or carbonat of lime; garnet from tita-
mum; plaster of Paris from soapstone, &c.; and, among trials
in the moist way, how by nitric acid and ammonia, tron pyrites
is distinguished from copper pyrites ; and how, by acids, sulphat
of lime is known from carbonat of lime. As the acids are used
principally for trials on the effervescence of carbonats, most
of which form with sulphuric acid, insoluble compounds, we
should doubt whether sulphuric acid is so advantageously em-
ployed as the nitric or muriatic, in such cases, on account of
the clogging of the effervescence by the thick magena, pro-
duced by a recently precipitated and insoluble sulphat.
According to our experience, the nitric or muriatic acid,
diluted with two or three parts of water, is most eligible. ©
» With respect to the blowpipe : it is a convenience to have a
mouth-piece of wood, or ivory, joined to a tube of metal, as
Mr. Cleaveland recommends; and some authors direct to have
the tube attached to a hollow ball, for the sake of condensing
ihe moisture of the breath; but every thing which adds to the
expense and complication of the instrument will tend to discou~
rage its use ; we have never found any difficulty in performing
every important experiment with the common goldsmith’s brass
blowpipe ; and are confident, that, after the learner has ac-
quired the art, or knack, of propelling a continued stream of
air from his mouth, by means of the muscles of the lips and

Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. 45

cheeks, while his respiration proceeds without embarrassment
through the nostrils, he will need no other instrument than
the common blowpipe. Indeed it is a truly admirable instru-
ment, instantly giving us the effect of very powerful furnaces,
the heat being entirely under command, the subject of opera:
tion and all the changes in full view, and the expense and
bulk of the instrument being such that every one may possess
it, and carry it about his person.

The chapter on the principles of arrangement i: is worthy of
all praise. This difficult subject is here discussed with such
clearness, comprehensiveness, and candour, as prove the au-
thor to be completely master of his subject ; and we are per-
suaded, that, on this topic, no author can be studied with
more advantage. We forbear to extract, because the whole
should be attentively perused in connexion, and scarcely ad-
mits of abridgement. We entirely agree with Professor
Cleaveland, as we have already said, that the chemical compo-
sition of minerals is the only just foundation of their arrange-
ment ; that next in importance is the crystalline structure, in-
cluding a knowledge of the primitive form, and integrant mole-
cule ; and last and least important, im fixing the arrangement,
are the external characters: these last should be only provi-
sionally employed, where the two first are not ascertained, or
the second is not applicable. When the arrangement is once
made, we may, however, and we commonly shall, in describing
minerals, pursue precisely the reverse order; the external
- characters will usually be mentioned first, the crystalline cha-
racters next, and the chemical last of all. In description, the
external characters are often the most valuable ; if judiciously
selected and arranged, they will always prove of the most es-
sential service, and can rarely be entirely dispensed with.

_ With regard to the nomenciature of minerals, we feelingly
unite with Professor Cleaveland in deploring the oppressive
redundancy of synonymes. Few minerals have only one
name, and usually they have several. With Count Bournon
we agree, that the discoverer of a mineral has the exclusive
right of naming it, and that the name once given should not be
shanged without the most cogent reasors. What then shall

46 Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.

we say of the Asse Havy, of whom, whether we speak of his
genius, his learning, his acuteness, his discoveries, his candour,
and love of truth, or his universally amiable and venerable
character, we can never think without sentiments of the high-
est respect and admiration? More than any modern writer
he has added to the list of synonymes, often exchanging a very
good name, derived perhaps from the locality or discoverer of
a mineral, for one professedly significant, but connected with
its subject by a chain of thought so slight, that considerable
knowledge of Greek etymology, and still more explanation, is
necessary to comprehend the connexion ; and thus, after all,
it amounts, with respect to most readers, only to the exchange
of one arbitrary name for another. What advantage, for in-
stance, has grammatite, alluding to a line often obscure, and
still oftener wholly invisible, over the good old name tremolite,
which always reminds us of an interesting locality; how is
pyroxene better than augite, amphibole than hornblende, amphi-
gene than leucite, or disthene than sappar. Some of the Abbé
Haiiy’s names are, however, very happily chosen, especially
where new discriminations were to be established, or errors
corrected, or even a redundant crop of synonymes to be su-"
perseded by a better name. Epzdote is an instance of the lat-
ter, and the new divisions of the old zeolite family into four
species, mesotype, stilbite, analeime, and chabasie, afford a hap-
py instance of the former. It were much to be wished, that by
the common consent of mineralogists, one nomenclature should
be universally adopted : for its uniformity is of — more im-
nee than its nature. | Pe ae
In expressing our approbation of the principles of arrange-
ment adopted. by Professor Cleaveland, we have of course
espoused those of his rasunar view, which is perhaps as near-
ly as the state of science will admit, erected upon a chemical
basis, like that of Brongniart, to which it bears a close resem-
blance. Some of the subordinate parts, we could have wished
had .been arranged in a manner somewhat different. In the
genus lime, it appears to us better to describe the species
carbonat first; because, being very abundant, and its cha-
racters clear, it forms a convenient point of departure. and

Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. 47

‘standard of comparison, in describing the other species
which have lime for their basis, and some of which are com-
paratively rare. The same remark we would make upon
quartz, and its concomitant, pure silicious stones. There ap-
ne to us a high advantage in making these minerals clearly
nown first, before we proceed to those which are much more
“rare, and especially which are much harder, and possess the
-characters of gems. For example, if a learner has become
-acquainted with quartz, chalcedony, flint, opal, chrysoprase, and
Jasper, he will much more easily comprehend the superior
-hardness, &c. and different composition of topaz, sapphire,
‘spinelleruby, chrysoberyl, and zircon, which we should much
- prefer to see occupying a later, than the first place in a tabular
arrangement ; and, although topaz, by containing fluoric acid,
‘appears to be in some measure assimilated to saline minerals,
-it is in its characters so very diverse from the earthy salts, that
-we have fair reason to conclude that the fluoric acid does not
‘stamp the character; and, as it bears so close a resemblance
‘to the ruby and sapphire, which evidently derive their princi-
»pal characters from the argillaceous earth, we perhaps ought
to infer that this (the topaz,) does so too. Indeed Professor .
‘Cleaveland has sufficiently implied his own opinion, by giving
‘these minerals a juxtaposition in his table, although the same
‘reasons which induced the placing of the topaz next to the
-earthy salts, could not have justified the placing of the sapphire
there. On these points we are not, however, strenuous ; they
‘are of more importance if the work be used as a text-book for
‘lectures, than as a private companion. With respect to the
completeness of Professor Cleaveland’s tabular view, we have
“carefully compared it with the third edition of Jameson’s
‘mineralogy ; and although a few new species, or sub-species,
-and varieties have been added in this last edition, they are
in general of so little importance, that Professor Cleave-
Jand’s work cannot be considered as materially deficient ;
cand the few cases in which it is so, are much more than made
ap by his entirely:new and instructive views of American
mineralogy, to which no parallel is to be found in any other

ee

4s Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.

book, and which give it peculiar interest to _ ——— and
even to the European, reader. wt

In another edition, (which we cannot doubt will speedily
be called for,) he will of course add whatever is omitted in this,
and we should be gratified to see a good article on the subject
of the zrolites or stones which have fallen from the atmosphere.
This subject is one, in our view, of high interest ; and although
am strictness it may not claim a place in a tabular view of mine-
rals, (we must confess, however, that we see no important ob-
stacle to its being treated of under the head of native iron,)
there can be no objection to its being placed in an appendix.
_ The fall of stones from the atmosphere is the most curious wir
mysterious fact in natural history.

It may seem perhaps too trivial to remark, that the annexa-
tion of numbers, referring to the pages, would be a serious
addition to the utility of the tabular view. Very few inad-
vertencies have been observed—the following may be mention-
ed: Amenia, inthe State of New-York, is printed (by a typo-
graphical error we presume) Armenia ; and Menechan, where
the menechanite is found, is mentioned as occurring in ray
land, but it is in Cornwall.

Authors seem agreed that the black-lead ore is an altered
carbonat, but they seem not to have been so well agreed as to
the nature of the blue-lead ore. In the cabinet of Colonel
Gibbs, there are specimens which appear satisfactorily to illus-
trate both these subjects. The black-lead is by the blowpipe
alone reducible to metallic lead ; there is one specimen in the
cabinet referred to, which is blackened on what appears to .
have been the under side, and seemingly by the contact of
sulphuretted hydrogen gas; that which was probably the
upper part remains unaltered, and is beautiful white car-
bonat of lead; this appearance is the more striking, be-
cause the piece is large and full of interstices, by which the
gas appears to have passed through. The blue ore is in large
six-sided prisms of a dark blue or almost black colour ; where
the prisms are broken across, they present an unequal appear-
ance ; sometimes they are invested; and sometimes slightly,
and at other times deeply, penetrated by sulphuret of lead, hav-

Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. 49

ing the usual brilliant foliated fracture. The part which looks
like sulphuret of lead is easily reducible by the blowpipe, but
not the whole crystal, as authors appear to imply ; for if that
part of the crystal which does not present the appearance of
galena is heated by the blowpipe flame, it is not reduced, but
congeals into the garnet dodecahedron, with its colour unal-
tered: these crystals are therefore phosphat of lead, and they
appear to be either an original mixture of phosphat and sul-
phuret of lead, or the phosphat has somehow in part given
wp its phosphoric acid, and assumed in its stead sulphur, per-
haps from the decomposition of sulphuretted hydrogen.
Professor Cleaveland will, of course, add new localities, even
foreign ones, where they are interesting, and domestic ones,
where they are well authenticated. Among the former, we
trust he will mention the lake of sulphuric acid contained in the
crater of Mount Idienne, in the Province of Bagnia Vangni, in
the eastern part of Java, and also the river of sulphuric acid
which flows from it and kills animals, scorches vegetation, and
corrodes the stones.* Among American localities, we beg
leave to mention violet fluor spar, abundant and very handsome,
near Shawnee Town, on the Ohio, in the Illinois Territory,
and galena, of which this fluor is the gangue ;—sulphat of
magnesia, perfectly crystallized, in masses composed of deli-
cate white prisms, in a cave in the Indiana Territory, not
very remote from Louisville, in Kentucky; it is said to be
so abundant that the inhabitants carry it away by the wagon
load ;—pulverulent carbonat of magnesia, apparently pure,
found by Mr. Pierce at Hoboken, in serpentine, where the
hydrate of magnesia was found ;—chabasie, agates, chalce-
dony, amethyst, and analcime, at Deerfield, by Mr. E. Hitch-
eock ;—agates in abundance at East-Haven, near New-Haven,
in secondary greenstone, like the above-named minerals at
Deerfield ;—saline springs, covered with petroleum, and emit-
ting large volumes of inflammable gases, numerous in New-
Connecticut, south of Lake Erie ;—magnetical pyrites, abund-
ant in the bismuth vein, at Trumbull, Connecticut ;—very

* See Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. Vol. XLIT. p. 182.
WOE. V.osl0. 1. 4

50 ——— Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.

brilliant fine-grained micaceous iron, in large masses near Bel-
lows’ Falls ; yellow foliated blende, in Berlin, Connecticut, and
near Hamilton College—the latter discovered by Professor
Noyes; it is in veins in compact limestone ;—red oxid of
titanium, often geniculated, at Leyden, in Massachusetts, dis-
covered by Mr. E. Hitchcock ;—red oxid of titanium, in very
large crystals and geniculated, imbedded in micaceous schistus,
at Oxford, 20 miles north from New-Haven ;—silicious petri-
factions of wood, abundant in the island of Antigua, recently
brought by Mr. Pelatiah Perit, of New-York ;—sulphuret of
molybdena, at Pettipaug, and at East-Haddam, Connecticut ;
—prehnite abundant and beautiful, in secondary greenstone,
at Woodbury, 24 miles north of New-Haven, discovered by
Mr. Elijah Baldwin ;—black oxid of manganese, in great
abundance, and of an excellent quality, near Bennington,
Vermont, and plumose mica, in a very fine graphic granite, in
a hill two miles north of Watertown, Connecticut.

The introduction to the Stupy or Groxocy, deserves a
more extended series of remarks than it would now be proper
to make, after so full a consideration of the previous parts of
the work.

Professor Jameson’s elaborate exposition of the Wernerian
system, is too full, and too much devoted to a particular system,
for beginners: the sketches of geology contained in the systems
of Chemistry by Murray and Thomson, and in Phillips’s mine-
ralogy, are two limited, although useful : the excellent account
of the Wernerian system, contained in an Appendix to Bro-
chant’s Mineralogy, has, we believe, neyer been translated ;
and we need not say that Professor Playfair’s illustrations of the
Huttonian Theory, De Luc’s Geology, and Cuvier’s Geology,
are not well adapted to the purposes of a beginner ; neither is
Delametherie’s, nor has it been translated. An introduction to
geology was, therefore, hardly less needed than one to mine-
ralogy. Professor Cleaveland has performed this difficult duty
with great ability, and has brought this interesting branch of
science fairly within the reach of our students.

Although adhering substantially to the Wernerian arrange-
ment of rocks, he has, so te speak, blended Werner’s three

Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. 51

classes of primitive, transition, and secondary rocks, into
one class; and where the same rock occurs in all the three
classes, or in two of them, he mentions#t in giving the history
of the particular rock. This method simplifies the subject
very much to the apprehensions of alearner. A rigid Werne-
rian would probably revolt at it, but the distinctions of Mr.
Werner may still be pointed out, and, we should think, ought
to be, at least by all teachers.

In Mr. Cleaveland’s account of the trap rocks, we should
almost imagine that some typographical error had crept into
the following paragraph :

<* But in modern geological inquiries, the word trap is usually
employed to designate a simple mineral, composed of horn-
blende nearly or quite pure, and also those aggregates in which
hornblende predominates. Hence, the presence of hornblende,
as a predominating ingredient, characterizes those MINERALS to
which most geologists apply the name trap.”

Now, it is not accordant with our apprehensions that trap is
ever at the present time employed to designate a sample mine-
ral, nor has Professor Cleaveland himself used it in his tabular
view, or in his description of simple minerals. In our view, it
is the classical word of modern geology, to designate that descrip-
tion of rocks in which hornblende predominates, and perhaps a
few others of minor importance usally associated with them.
It is true, arock composed of pure hornblende may be called
trap, but it is not true, vice versa, that this rock, considered in
its character of a simple mineral, is called trap. If our views are
correct, the section which is headed trap or hornblende, should
be trap or hornblende rocks, and greenstone should come in as a
subdivision, and not forma distinctsection. With these alter-
ations, and with the substitution of rock in the first, and rocks
in the second instance, in the paragraph above quoted, instead of
mineral and minerals, we apprehend the view of this family of
rocks would be much more clear, and a degree of confusion,,
which learners now experience from the paragraph, would be
prevented. If we are wrong, we are sure Professor Cleaveland
will pardon us; if right, his candour will readily admit the
correction.

4%

52 Fluor Spar, §e. in Ohio.

As to the manner in which the work of Professor Cleave-
land is executed, the remarks which we already made, have in
a good degree anticipated this head.

We cannot, however, dismiss the subject without adding
that, in our opinion, this work does honour to our country,
and will greatly promote the knowledge of mineralogy and
geology, besides aiding in the great work of disseminating a
taste for science generally. Our views of the plan we have
already detailed. The manner of execution is masterly. Dis-
crimination, perspicuity, judicious selection of characters and
facts, and a style chaste, manly, and comprehensive, are among
the characteristics of Professor Cleaveland’s performance. It
has brought within the reach of the American student the ex-
cellencies of Kirwan, Jameson, Haiiy, Brochant, Brongniart,
and Werner ; and we are not ashamed to have this work com-
pared with their productions. In our opinion Professor
Cleaveland’s work ought to be introduced into all our schools
of mineralogy, and to be the travelling companion of every
American mineralogist.

We trust that all cultivators of mineralogy and geology in
this country, will willingly aid Professor Cleaveland in en-
larging his list of American localities for a second edition ; and
we hope that he will repay them, at a future day, by giving
us a distinct treatise on geology, with as particular a delinea-
tion as possible of the geological relations of the great North
American formations. Mr: Maclure has, with great ability,
sketched the outline ; but much labour is still needed in filling
up the detail.

Art. III. New Locality of Fluor Spar, or Fluat of Lime
and of Galena, or Sulphuret of Lead.

Mr. JOSEPH BALDWIN, formerly of Connecticut, now
residing near Shawnee Town, in the Illinois Territory, has
given us some interesting specimens of fluor spar. They are
found not far from Shawnee Town, on the banks of the Ohio ;

Fluor Spar, &c. in Ohio. 53

and a few miles below where the Wabash joins the Ohio.
The fluor forms the gangue of a lead vein, and we have pieces
in which the lead and fluor are intimately blended. The lead
ore is the common galena, or sulphuret, with a broad, foliated,
or laminated fracture, and a high degree of metallic splendour.
We reduced it to the metallic state, and it yielded a large pro-
duct of very softlead. On dissolving it in nitric acid, and ap-
plying the muriatic acid till precipitation ceased, the precipi-
tate formed was all redissolved by boiling water; nor, when
submitted to cupellation did the lead leave any thing upon the
cupel. We, therefore, conclude that it contained no appre-
ciable quantity of silver. It is said to be very abundant at
Shawnee Town.

The. fluor spar is very beautiful. Its colours, chiefly,
very deep purple and violet ; but still highly translucent ; one
specimen was entirely limpid. Both kinds, when thrown in
coarse powder, on a red-hot shovel, in a dark place, phospho-
resced, and’ the violet specimens in a very striking manner.
Of the violet kind, we have a specimen nearly as large as a
man’s fist, which is perfectly pure and sound, and appears to
have been a single crystal ; the natural faces and angles were
unfortunately obliterated by grinding on a common grindstone.
We have others which are decidedly crystals of perfect regu-
larity ; cubes, and passages between the cube and octahedron.
In some of the specimens, the disposition of colours, and the
transmission of light is such as to show very clearly that the
octahedron lies in the centre, as the nucleus or primitive
form.

The size and beauty of the specimens, and the abundance
of this mineral near Shawnee Town, (provided there is no
mistake in the case) clearly entitle this to be considered as the |
most interesting American locality of this beautiful mineral.
Measures have been taken to investigate the subject more
fully, and to obtain a supply of specimens. .

Quartz crystals appear to abound at the same place, besides
various other minerals.

54 Pierce on Amianthus and Carbonate of Magnesia.

Art. IV. Carbonate of Magnesia, and very uncommon
Amianthus, discovered near New-York.—Extract of a
Letter from Mr. James Pierce to the Editor.

New-York, May 18, 1818.

DEAR SIR,

I FORWARD you specimens of straw and rose-coloured
amianthus I recently met with on Staten-Island, which I de-
tached, in strips, from a rock ; it not appearing, as is usual, in
veins. It breaks up like flax, and may be spun and wove
without the aid of moisture ; and in respect to tenacity, flexibi-
lity, and length of fibre, it may be considered the best found in
this country, and perhaps equal to any hitherto discovered.
Staten-Island exhibits many minerals worthy of examination.
I subjoin, as requested, the following geological descrip-
tion, &c. ;

Hoboken, where | discovered native carbonate of magnesia,
is situated opposite the city of New-York, on the western or
‘New-Jersey bank of the Hudson. It is a primitive, insulated
elevation, with a nucleus of serpentine ; the ground gradually
descends in every direction except on the river side, where
mural precipices of serpentine rock are observed, extending
about 100 rods parallel with the water, and elevated from 60
to 100 feet above its level. The carbonate of magnesia I found
in horizontal veins of nearly two inches in breadth, and of un-
known depth, in a midway region of this serpentine ledge; I
extracted a considerable quantity with a spoon. When first
taken out it was soft, white, and very’slightly adhesive, from
a little moisture ; but, when dry, fell to powder without fric-
tion. The nature of the mineral I immediately conjectured,
and treated it with diluted sulphuric acid, in which it entirely
dissolved with effervescence, forming a bitter fluid, and
leaving no sediment. Upon evaporation, well-defined crystals
of Epsom salts were -formed. It differs little from the
manufactured carbonate of magnesia of the shops; but is
rather a super than a sub-carbonate. It has been analyzed by

Native Copper of Wallingford. 55

Professor Mitchill, who found it exclusively composed of mag-
nesia and carbonic acid. Carbonates of magnesia, hitherto
discovered, have been, I believe, found impure, and in a state
of rock, requiring chemical process to render them service-
able ; this is, perhaps, fit for immediate use. When I first
mentioned the discovery to mineralogists, they were incredu-
lous, supposing it did not natively exist in this state, but I con-
vinced them by uniting it with sulphuric acid.

REMARKS.

The specimen of amianthus, referred to in Mr. Pierce’s —
communication, is uncommon. The fibres measure from 12
to 15 inches in length, and are as soft and flexible as fine
human hair.

It will be remembered, that in the rocks at Hoboken, Dr.
Bruce discovered the hydrate of magnesia, or magnesia com-
bined with nothing but water, in the proportion of about 70
per cent. of magnesia. This discovery gave a new and inter-
esting species to mineralogy ; it is now admitted in the syste-
matical works on mineralogy.

Mr. Pierce’s discovery is not less interesting ; and we pre-
sume he will be deemed correct in the opinion, that pure na-
tive carbonate of magnesia has not been discovered before. The
serpentine of Hoboken, then, is memorable for affording these
two new species.

Art. V. Native Copper.

Iv Bruce’s Journal, (Vol. I. p. 149.) mention is made of a
remarkable piece ef native copper, found near New-Haven
many years ago, and weighing about 90lbs.

We have now to add, (and the fact is, indeed, mentioned
in Cleaveland’s Mineralogy,) that another piece has been
recently found half a mile west of the Hartford turnpike
road, opposite the town of Wallingford, and twelve miles
from New-Haven. It was turned up in ploughing to repair a

56 Petrified Wood of Antigua.

road. The country is of the secondary trap formation, and the
rocks, at the particular place, are the old red sandstone of
Werner, which here occupies the plains, and runs under the’
trap. The piece weighs almost six pounds ; it is fine virgin
copper, with rudiments of large octahedral crystals of native
copper upon its surface, which is more or less incrusted with
green carbonate of copper and ruby oxid, very much resem-*
bling that of Cornwall: the ruby oxid is particularly remark-
able in the cavities of the piece. .
As it was found within three or four miles of the place
where the large piece of ninety pounds weight was discovered,
and as copper is known to exist in many places in these hills,
the facts should be kept in view, and may lead to something of
importance.

Art. VI. Petrified Wood from Antigua.

T HE mineralogy and geology of the West-India islands has
been, as yet, but little explored. The scientific world has,
however, been favoured with some interesting articles from
the pen of Dr. Nugent ; and we are informed that he has de-

\ scribed also the geology of the island of Antigua. We have

_recently become acquainted with one interesting production of
this island, and without waiting for Dr. Nugent’s account,
(which we believe has not yet reached this country) we shall
lay it before our readers.

We are under obligations to Mr. Pelatiah Perit, of New-
York, for acollection of specimens of silicious petrifactions of
wood from Antigua. Their characters are indubitable ; the
distinct ligneous layers corresponding with the annual growth,
the medullary prolongations, the knots formed by branches,»
the cracks and the bark, are all distinctly visible. Some of
the pieces are ponderous portions of large trees.

As to the mineralizing matter, it is evidently silicious, and
the specimens are principally the holzstein of Werner ; crys-
tals of quartz are apparent in the cavities; some parts are

Porcelain and Porcelain Clays. 57

agatized, and veins of chalcedony occasionally pervade the
fissures : they are not impressible by steel, and give fire with
it. According to the information of Mr. Perit, they are scat-
tered over the surface of the Island of Antigua, with a pro-
fusion hardly. less than that which Horneman observed of the
same mineral during his travels over the eastern part of the
great African desert.

It is much to be wished that our numerous intelligent navi-
gators and travelling merchants would, in imitation of this and
of a similar example, mentioned below, bestow some share of
their attention on the natural productions of the countries
which they visit. In this way they might, on their return,
render very essential services to the science of their own
country.

Art. VII. Porcelain and Porcelain Clays.

"Turover the kind offices of a friend, we have been fur-
nished, from one of the great porcelain manufactories in the
vicinity of Paris, with a series of specimens, to illustrate the
elegant art of fabricating porcelain. The specimens begin
with the raw materials, and exhibit them in all their principal
stages of advancement up to the perfect vessel, including the
materials for the glazing, and the colours for the painting, and
the application of both. At the request of the manufacturer,
through whose liberality we were indulged with this gratifica-
tion, we transmitted to Paris various specimens of American
porcelain clays. This gentleman has caused them to be sub-
jected to trials in the porcelain furnaces, and he finds that some

~ of them are equal to the French porcelain clays, and some
superior. As our specimens were all labelled with the names
of the places, in this country, from which they were obtained,
we hope soon to learn where to look for porcelain clays, equal
or superior to those celebrated ones from which the superb
French porcelain is manufactured.

58 Native Sulphur of Java.

As this subject is one of much practical importance to the
vising arts of this country, and as much interest has been
excited in Paris concerning our porcelain clays, we should feel _
greatly obliged by the transmission to us of any specimens of
American porcelain clays, with memoranda of the place, the
quantity, the depth at which obtained, the difficulty of obtain-
ing, and, generally, all the peculiar circumstances. We will
take care that their value shall be acertained, if they appear
promising, and a proper return shall be made to the pro-
prietor.

To those of our readers who may not be familiar with this
subject, we would however take the liberty to remark, that
porcelain clays generally arise from the decomposition of gra-
nite, and particularly of that kind which is denominated graphic
granite, and which abounds with feldspar. It is, therefore, in
the primitive countries that we are chiefly to expect them—
such as New-England, and part of the high country of the
middle and southern states.

It should be observed, that if a clay, otherwige apparently
good, burns red, it contains iron, and is unfit for porcelain ;
although it may serve well enough for more common and coarse
earthen ware.

Art. VIII. Native Sulphur from Java.

"Turoven the kindness of Mr. I. Huntington, recently
returned from Java, we have received from that Island some
fine specimens of native sulphur. They are very pure, of
an orange yellow, slightly shaded with white, and occasionally
with red ; some of the cavities are lined with delicate crystals.
What gives them particular interest is, that they are believed
to be from that “large, and now nearly extinct, volcano,
about sixty miles from the town of Batavia, at the bottom of
which (of the crater) lie large quantities of native sul-
phur, even many hundred tons.” It is in the crater of this
volcano that the famous lake of sulphuric acid exists, and from
which it flows down the mountain, and through the country

Productions of Wier’s Cave. 59

below, a river of the same acid. (See Tilloch’s Phil. Mag.
Vol. XLII. p. 182.) Itis a most curious phenomenon, and we
believe entirely without a parallel. Another river, called the
White River, unites with this some miles below its origin : this
river, which is so called from the turbidness of its waters, is
salutary to men and animals ; fishes live in it, and vegetation is
nourished by its waters ; but after the junction it becomes clear ;
the acid dissolving the earthy particles which discoloured it,
and it now becomes fatal to living beings : kills the fish, destroys
the vegetation, and corrodes the stones in its channel. This
remarkable river flows from Mount Idienne, in the province of
Bagnia Vangni, in the eastern part of Java.

Art. IX. Productions of Wier’s Cave, in Virginia.

WE are indebted to the Reverend Elias Cornelius, and to
Mr. John H. Kain, for a collection of the calcareous incrusta-
tions of Wier’s Cave, in Virginia.

The stalactites, and stalagmites, and various incrustations,
are of uncommon size and beauty. Some of the stalactites
have a delicate whiteness, and a brilliancy arising from their
crystallized structure, which, with the regularity of their forms,
give them a fair title to rank with those of the famous caverns
in the Peak of Derbyshire, in the island of Antiparos, &c.

In these stalactites, the structure is most remarkably distinct,
both in the fibrous and concentric lamellar form. In this col-
lection were observed many forms of the crystallized hard car-
bonates of lime, of Count Bournon.

For a description of the cavern from which these speci-
mens came, we. refer to the succeeding memoir, by Mr. Kain

60 Mr. Kain on the Geology and

Arr. X. Remarks on the Mineralogy and Geology of the
the Northwestern part of the State of Virginia, and the
Eastern part of the State of Tennessee. By Mr. Joun H.
Karin, of Tennessee.

"Tue most prominent as well as the most beautiful feature
of this-country, is that succession of mountain and valley, ridge |
and vale, which we meet with in traversing its surface: The
grand range of Alleghany mountains enters Virginia about the |
39th degree of north latitude ; and, pursuing a southwestern
course, spreads out upon the east end of Tennessee, and ter-
minates near the southern boundary line of that state, in the
Alabama territory ; and about the 34th parallel of north lati-
tude. In this view are included the Blue Mountains, the
North Mountains, the Alleghany, (properly so called) the
Cumberland, Clinch, Iron, and Smoky mountains, together with
a variety of smaller mountains, spurs, and ridges, all- running
parallel to each other, from the northeast to the southwest ;
and all, I believe 1 may say, covered with forests, and present-
ing to the eye of the naturalist a most interesting field for
speculation and improvement.

With a few exceptions, the geologist meets with none of
those remarkable appearances which indicate the changes and
convulsions which have been wrought by time, the great
enemy of nature. Occasionally we are presented with a view —
of a sublime precipice, formed by a section which a river
appears to have made for itself through an opposing mountain ;
and the large masses of ruins, which lie scattered around such
a place, seem, to the imagination of the solitary traveller, the
historical records of commotions, awful even. in retrospect.
Most commonly, however, the mountains seem to have lain for
ages in undisturbed repose ; and the streams of water, when

_they have crossed them, have sought an easy passage through
the ravines, which do not so often divide a mountain, or ridge,
at right angles, as wind between the ends of two opposing
spurs, which pass each other, gradually declining into the

Mineralogy of East Tennessee. 61

champaign country at their mutual base. Through this whole
extent of country we rarely meet with any remarkable falls
of water ; the obvious reason of which is, that the rocks are
so soft that they are easily worn down to the level of the beds
of rivers. But shoals, or shallows, are frequent, and are
formed by beds of rounded sandstone, spread out into a broad
base, over which the water often rushes with no small violence
and noise.

The: mountains are generally, though not always, sterile,
and produce nothing but forest trees; but the valleys are,
with hardly an exception, rich, and productive of every vari-
ety of ‘‘ grass and herb yielding seed, and fruit-tree yielding
fruit.” Nor are they less favoured in the mineral kingdom ;
possessing the greatest abundance of all the most useful and
necessary minerals, of which we shall now proceed to speak
in order.

All the country included under the boundaries mentioned
above, with the exception of some primitive ranges of moun-
tains on the southeastern side, is apparently transition. This,
it will be seen by a reference to Mr. Maclure’s excellent map,
will extend the boundary of his transition class considerably
farther northwest, and make it include Cumberland Mountain
and all East Tennessee. This would be evident from com-
paring the northwestern part of Virginia, which Mr. Maclure
has included in his transition tract with all East Tennessee.
Every mineralogist must observe the identity of the minerals
of the two countries as well as that of their stratification and
general formation. The limestone in the valleys, and the
sandstone on the mountains, lie in strata which make an angle
of from 25 to 45 degrees with the horizon. The limestone
bears the impressions of shells, but rarely, if ever, of vegeta-
bles, and contains beds of hornstone, but not of flint, or what

can properly be called flint.

The rock which lies in the lowest valleys, and often rises
into pretty high hills, and is seen forming bluffs on the banks
of the rivers, is limestone: it is of a dark blue, approaching to
a gray, as itis exposed to the air, and often appearing quite
white. Its fracture is compact in one direction ; in another it

62 Mr. Kain on the Geology and

is more or less slaty in its structure. It is interspersed with
veins of the crystallized carbonate of lime, more or less per-
fect, and of a pure but opaque white. Another variety of this
limestone, not so abundant, is that which is white and red,
having the white and red spots intimately mingled. Its struc-
ture is similar to the other kind. :
Lying in beds of this limestone, parallel to, and imbedded in,
its strata, is a stone, which, from its globular form, its hardness,
and its colour, has been usually mistaken for flint. On com-
paring it with the flint of chalk-beds, we find it much less trans-
lucent, its colour darker, and its hues duller ; and its rough
and irregular fracture, compared with the easy, smooth, and
conchoidal cleavage of the true flint, decides it to be horn-
stone. Itis found also forming considerable distinct beds on
the hills ; and is seen in detached pieces, aud irregular peb-
bles, covering many of the ridges.
Alternating with the beds of limestone, and possessing the
same formation, is a soft clay slate. Soapstone is found in it.
As soon as we ascend the mountains, we meet with a slaty
sand-stone of various compactness, as it possesses more or less
iron, often forming an excellent iron ore. A variety of this
iron ore has been lately turned to a good use, in the manufac-
ture of a red paint, near Knoxville, Tennessee. Different
varieties of this sandstone possess different qualities. It is
converted by the inhabitants into millstones, grindstones, and
whetstones. Interspersed among the sandstone of the moun-
tains we often find very beautiful and interesting specimens of
hornstones, assuming a resemblance to all the silicious
stones, from the chalcedony to the jasper. In this extensive
range of mountains, many other minerals exist, of which we
shall treat more particularly hereafter. The limestone, slate,
and sandstone, as far as the writer’s knowledge extends, so to
speak, form the country; the limestone and clay slate dipping
under the sandstone. Gypsum, coal, sulphate of barytes, &c.
are found in these, and we shall now speak of their localities.
Gypsum.—T his valuable mineral production exists in Wash-
ington County, Virginia, 20 miles north of Abingdon, in the
vicinity of Saltville. It is similar, in every respect, to the

Mineralogy of East Tennessee. 63

plaster of Nova Scotia, and devoted by the farmers of that
part of Virginia, and Tennessee, to similar purposes.

Coal is said to exist in immense quantities in the Cumber-
land Mountain. A bed of it is wrought near Knoxville, Ten-
nessee. Itis of an excellent quality ; but wood is so abun-
dant that it is used only in forges.

Sulphate of Barytes.—This mineral is found in Bottetourt
County, Virginia, near Fincastle; and in Sevier County,
Tennessee.

Hard Carbonates of Lime.—Stalactitical concretions abound
in all the caves so often described as existing in this country.
Those of Virginia are more perfectly crystallized than those
of Tennessee. Under the head of hard carbonates should be
mentioned an extensive bed or vein in Montgomery County
in the State of Virginia, near the seat of Colonel Hancock.
It appears to have been formed in a chasm, in the common
limestone of the country, by a calcareous deposition which
resembles, exactly, in all its characters, the calcareous con-
cretions which are found forming in the caves of the country.
The whole bed may, in fact, be regarded as acave which has
been filled up in the progress of time, by this curious process,
Its width is various, from two feet to ten, or more, extending
along the side of a very steep ridge, for at least 50 yards, and
it is said to be continued seven miles farther.

The stlicious carbonate of lime may be worth distinguishing
from the common limestone. It is found in a bed near Colonel
Hancock’s, and was supposed to be gypsum. It phosphoresces
beautifully ; it is white, and confusedly crystalline in its struc-
ture, and much harder than the common limestone. Indeed
the limestone generally, on the east of the Alleghany, is some-
what harder than that on the west.

Lead.—T here are several localities of this mineral. A mine
of it is wrought near New River, 15 miles from Wythe, Vir-
ginia. Another locality of the ore of lead is said to have been
discovered in Granger County, Tennessee, on land belonging
to General Cocke. It exists also, very near the surface, on
the plantation of the Rey. Mr. Craighead, near Nashyille ;,
which, however, is out of our boundary.

64 Mr. Kain on the Geology and

Other metallic ores are said to have been found among these
mountains, and particularly those of gold and silver ; but the
accounts are vague and uncertain, and not to be credited.

_ The numerous Caves of this country present attractions
to every, the least curious, traveller ; and, in an eminent de-
gree, to the mineralogist. They are crevices, or large
chasms, probably worn in the rocks by the passage of water
This will, at first view, perhaps appear a bold assertion; but
if it be recollected that they occur only in limestone, which is
a soft rock, and (under certain circumstances,) soluble in
water ; that the rocks bear eyery mark of having been worn
by water; and that streams of water are always found in
them, it will not appear an improbable hypothesis. It is by
no means difficult to believe that a stream, after having worn
such a chasm as a cave presents, in the solid rock, may have
found another channel; and, forsaking the old, have left
room for nature to display some of her most beautiful works.
A description of one of these caves will be a description of
all ; and we shall select Wier’s Cave, in Rockingham County,
Virginia, as it is the most curious of any with which we are.
acquainted.

The entrance of the cave is narrow and difficult. When
the cave was first discovered, the passage into it was impeded
by stalactites, which had formed perpendicular columns across
it; but these are now removed. As we advance, our course
is at first horizontal, but we soon descend fifteen or twenty feet
by a ladder, and find ourselves in alarge echoing cavern. Sta-
lactites of a silvery whiteness are suspended from above, and
pillars of stalagmites are rising around us. Ledges of rocks
form our floor, and the uneven walls are incrusted over with
a beautiful brown spar, which is sometimes suspended from
the canopy in thin, shining, and translucent sheets. In passing
on over the rugged rock of our pathway, our attention is divi-
ded between a care for our safety, and an admiration of the
surrounding wonders.

Proceeding on through a narrower crevice in the rocks, we
are soon introduced into other apartments, differing in shape
and size from the first, but resembling it in the irregularity of

Mineralogy of East Tennessee. 65

its walls, floor, and covering, and in the calcareous incrusta-
tions and concretions, which, assuming a thousand fantastic
shapes, and displaying a sparkling lustre, the more vivid as the
light is stronger, give to this whole grotto the power of charm-
ing every beholder.

The cave is a mile and a half in extent, and extremely irre-
gular in its course and shape. Its perpendicular height varies
from three to forty feet, and its breadth from two to thirty. Its
dividing branches are numerous, forming a great variety of
apartments. The blue limestone appears frequently enough
to satisfy us that it is the groundwork of the whole ; but it is
almost every where covered with incrustations or the hard .
carbonates. These hang from the arched vault above in clus-
ters, and often reach the ground, forming massive columns.
Stalagmites again rise from the floor like so many statues ; the
irregular sides of the ledges of rocks are often incrusted over
with white crystals of the carbonate of lime, and have the ap-
pearance of banks of salt: at times we seem to walk on dia-
mond pavements; again our footway is of rounded pebbles,
and seems the bed of a river which had deserted its channel.
Often we pass small streams of water; and the water is con-
tinually dripping from the ends of the stalactites, the echoing
sound of which, when it drops, forms the only interruption to
the profound silence which reigns throughout the cavern.

To give an idea of the diversified shapes which these. con-
cretions assume in the progress of their formation, (and they
are constantly forming,) would be impossible. Suffice it to
say, that there is scarcely any thing on earth to which they
may not be supposed to form a resemblance ; and yet, in fact,
they are unlike any thing but themselves.

It is generally known that the earth in these caves contains
the nitrates of lime, and potash, and other salts. The nume-
rous caves which have been found in the Cumberland moun-
tains and other parts of Tennessee, have been very productive
of the nitrate of potash. In the investigation of the causes
which have given origin to these salts, it may be recollected,
that wild animals burrow in these caves; that when pursued
by the hunter, they make them the places of their retreat, and

Vor.-I....No. 1. 5

66 ~ Mr. Kain on the Geology and

probably die there ; that the aborigines have made them a place
of burial; and that the streams of water which flow through
them in wet weather, carry with them not only great quantities
of leaves but many other vegetable productions.

The natural bridge is celebrated as one of the greatest curi-
osities of the world. Viewed by a geologist, it would proba-
bly be considered as a cave (so to speak) wnroofed in all but
one place. It seems improbable that if the ravine had been
made by a conyulsion, which had split and separated the rock
to the distance of fifty or sixty feet, any part of it, and particu-
larly so large a mass as that which forms the bridge, should
have been left, without exhibiting any marks of violence. The
rock is limestone. It is known that this rock wears away
rapidly under the attrition of water ; and the supposition does
not appear improbable, that, in the lapse of ages, so large a
creek as that which flows below the bridge, may have worn as
deep a ravine as that which now strikes us with so much sur-
prise. In short, may not a cave have been originally formed
where the ravine is now, and the pending portion of it have
fallen in at every place except that which now forms this cele-
brated natural curiosity ?

Mineral Springs.—The mineral springs of this region are
numerous and diversified. Chalybeate springs are promiscu-
ously scattered over the whole of it; and springs impregnated
with sulphuretted hydrogen are quite common. Salt springs
and licks are found more in the western than the eastern range
of mountains. That which was first wrought by William King,
is well known. The salt here is associated with gypsum. In
the same range of mountains, farther to the southwest, there
are now several other salt-works, and also one to the west, on
Goose Creek, in Kentucky, which has been very productive.

The Warm Springs.—These springs are situated in a country
which presents-many attractions to the travelling geologist ;
and much light, it is hoped, will yet be thrown on the geology
of our country, by a more minute and accurate examination of
it than has yet been made.

The warm springs ooze through the sand on the south bank
of the French Broad river, in the mountains which divide the

Mineralogy of East Tennessee. 67

aiate of Tennessee from her parent state, about the 36th
parallel of latitude. The temperature of the water is about
95° of Fahrenheit. .

On the opposite side of the river fromthe springs is a geo-
logical curiosity. A limestone rock is seen dipping under the
sandstone which forms the country. Limestone is nowhere
else to be seen within six miles of this place. In this lime-
stone rock is a cave similar to others already described.

Paint Rock, in the vicinity of the Warm Springs, is interest-
ing on many accounts. It is a bold precipice on the bank of
French Broad river. At this place the river passes with a
very rapid current directly across the course of a mountain,
which terminates abruptly, and forms the precipice on the
north bank of the river: On looking at the rock, the opposite
end of the mountain, and the ruins around it, the mind is in-
sensibly carried back to the contemplation of some dreadful
commotion in nature, which probably shook these mountains
to their bases.

The rock is composed of a clay slate; and it is here again
temarkable, that this stone is not to be seen in any other place
within some miles. It has received its name from some red
paintings, (probably left on it by the Indians,) which have the.
appearance of hieroglyphics.

Toconclude. It will be seen from the above observations;
that this country presents a vast field of most interesting re-
search, and claims the attention of every traveller who is in--
terested at all in geological inquiries. If what has been said
will at all contribute to the enlargement of the general stock
of our knowledge on these subjects, the writer will be much
gratified ; and it is his sincere wish, that the accuracy of his
remarks may be tried, and his mistakes corrected, by the re-
searches of succeeding travellers.

5 *

[68]

Art. XI. Notice of Professor Mitchill’s Edition of
Cuvier’s Essay on the Theory of the Earth.

Tue American scientific public are under obligations te
Professor Mitchill for bringing this book within their reach.
It is one of the most eloquent, impressive, and instructive
works on this grand but obscure subject, with which the world
has ever been favoured. The reader is no sooner drawn
_ within the current of Cuvier’s eloquence, than he is borne
along almost without the power or wish to escape. It is be-
lieved there are few intelligent and enlightened persons, whe-
ther geologists or not, who would fail to be gratified by a book
which secures the understanding by a strict course of reason~
ing from facts, and delights the taste by a style bold, terse, and
lucid, but at the same time rich and flowing.

The analysis of this work has been ably performed in Eu-
rope, and there is, therefore, the less necessity to attempt it
here. While we take the liberty thus to recommend it, we do
not hold ourselves strictly bound to the admission of every one
of Cuvier’s doctrines ; and might, perhaps, wish that in a few

instances he had been somewhat more explicit, or somewhat
more qualified.

The additions by Professor Jameson, of Edinburgh, are
valuable and interesting, and are retained in the present
edition.

Those by Professor Mitchill will be perused with pleasure
and advantage. The learned author has assembled, in one
view, a great mass of facts, partly resulting from his own
journeys and observations, and partly deduced from other
respectable sources. We have no doubt that most of these
facts will be considered by the scientific world as very interest-
ing, whatever views they may entertain of the conclusions
built upon them. The author has occupied himself principally
upon those portions of the United States, which, by the organ-
ized remains both of animals and vegetables, with which they
more or less abound, exhibit the most decisive and interesting

Eaton’s Key. 69
Fico

evidence of changes and catastrophes, whose history is to be
sought in the memorials entombed in the strata themselves.

We give no opinion regarding the theories of Professor
Mitchill, not intending to review the work, but merely to aid,
as far as in our power, in drawing the public attention to the.
interesting subjects about which it is occupied.

If we have any remark to add, it is, that an adherence to
the technical precision with which most rocks are at the pre-
sent day described, appears desirable in mineralogical and geo-
logical descriptions. When in the valuable additions before
us we read of schorl rock, we gain only the idea of arock con-
taining that mineral ; butas it occurs occasionally in several of
the primitive rocks, we are at a loss which is intended; we
believe it never forms a rock by itself. So with the slate
rocks: there are several varieties of them—mica slate, clay
slate, greenstone slate, &c. besides some subdivisions ; and the
mere word slate does not always give us the precise idea.
But we are aware that, in the present case, it was less in view
to go into all the details of geological description, than to give
a view of our organized remains and of their supposed origin.

‘Arr. XII. “Notice of Eaton’s Index to the Geology of the
Northern States, together with a Transverse Section of the
Catskill Mountain to the Atlantic.

Tue extensive collection of facts in this little book of fifty-
four pages, is creditable to the author’s industry and discern-
ment: he informs us that he has travelled 1000 miles on foot,
while investigating the geology of the district concerning which
he has written. This district is certainly interesting, and
every attempt to diffuse correct information concerning it,
deserves encouragement. Mr. Eaton’s account of the regions
he has explored, has every mark of verisimilitude ; and we
commend his efforts to diffuse geological information, by short
courses of lectures, in different towns. In his arrangement of
rocks, he has deviated from Werner—has adopted some views

70 Eaton's Key.

of Bakewell, and some of his own. Werner’s arrangement of
rocks has, undoubtedly, its imperfections and its redundancies ;
and yet it may be questioned how far his system has been
really improved by its different emendators. If Werner, by
mentioning argillaceous schistus only in the primitive class of
rocks, left us to dispose of it where we might, when we find it
at one time, covering or sustaining anthracite, with impressions
of ferns, and at another with impressions of fish and vegeta-
bles, and in contact with bituminous coal ; still those who, with
Mr. Eaton, throw argillaceous slate into the transition class, and
omit it in the primitive and secondary, embarrass us with an
equal difficulty ; for we find argillaceous slate in contact, and
alternating with, mica slate, and without any impressions of
organized bodies, when we must, without a doubt, call it pri-
mitive.

This is the fact with the clay slate of the Woodbridge hills,
near New-Haven, which is primitive; that ef Rhode-Island,
with anthracite, is transition ; and that at Middlefields, west of
Middletown, with impressions of fish, is secondary. Slate then
appears to belong to all these three great classes of rocks.

As to the metalliferous limestone, we do not so much object
to the introduction of this term by Bakewell, although it ap-
pears to us quite as well to say that certain limestones, those
of the transition class for example, are metalliferous. But is
Eaton correct in referring such limestone as that of which the
New-York City-Hall is built, to a metalliferous class? Is not
that limestone decidedly primitive? The fact mentioned of
its containing pyrites, hardly proves it to be metalliferous ;
since most rocks contain more or less of pyrites. Some other
remarks of less importance we might add, but we prefer con-
cluding by recommending this tract to the perusal of those who
wish for information respecting the geological structure of
New-England; and we think that Mr. Eaton is seriously
aiding the progress of geology in the interior of New-England.

[7]

Arr. XIII. Notice of M. Brongnart on Organized

Remains,

Tus distinguished mineralogist, so advantageously known
by his excellent work on mineralogy—his researches in com-
pany with Cuvier, into the subterranean geography of the
environs of Paris, and his superintendence of the great porce-
lain manufactory at Sevres, is attempting to form an extensive
collection of organized remains.

Through Professor Cleaveland, we have received from him
the following

NOTICE

Concerning the method of collecting, labelling, and transmitting
specimens of fossil organized bodies, and of the accompanying
rocks, solicited by M. Bronentarr.

The study of fossil organized bodies appears to be of the
utmost importance in determining the relations of different
formations, one of the principal objects of geology.

In order more effectually to appreciate the value of this
method of investigation, it is necessary to multiply observa-
tions—to endeavour to render them exact and precise—and
especially to make them upon a general plan.

M. Brongniart has been long occupied in such researches.
The essay published by M. Cuvier and him, upon the geology
of the environs of Paris, has afforded an example of their use.

He has laboured since this period to apply this method to
other formations, which contain the relics of organized bodies ;
but he stands in need of much assistance, and he presumes to
ask it, not only of naturalists, but even of all persons interested
in the sciences. By means of the following instructions, he
endeavours to avail himself of the kindness of persons the least
conversant in the discrimination of fossils.

72 Brongniart on Organized Remains.

1. To collect all the fossil organized bodies which can be
obtained ;- especially the distinguishable impressions and remains
of vegetables from coal countries, and beds of wood, coal, and
others. The shells, crustacee, madrepores, fishes, &c. It is
not necessary that these bodies should be either large or entire,
but they must be sufficiently characterized to be capable of
being recognized.

It is useless to transmit large unmeaning pieces, which are
recommended only by their size—such as large ammonites—
large madrepores—large pieces of petrified wood—fragments

- of the one, or small individuals of the other, are often sufficient.
We may avoid also collecting the inner moulds (“ des moules
interieurs”’) of shells, because they are almost invariably
incapable of being recognized.

2, Petrifactions, isolated and detached from their rock, are
the most convenient in the determination of species ; but when
they cannot be separated from the rock, we need not hesitate
to send them engaged ; it is sufficient if a portion large enough
for discrimination is visible.

Among shells, those are preferable which have the mouth
or hinge in view ; among madrepores, those on whese surface
the figures (les étoiles) are distinguishable ; among vegetables,
those whose leaves are distinctly expanded, (expalmées.)

3. Upon the objects tramsmitted it is desirable to have, at
least in part, the following notices :

1. The exact place from which the object comes: this is
the most important circumstance, and the easiest to obtain.

2. The kind of formation in which it is found, and a speci-
men of the stratum, or at least of the rock, which contained it.
It is desirable that this rock exhibit remains of petrifactions
similar to those found in the stratum from which it has been

_ drawn.

3. The nature of the formation of which this stratum or
rock composes a part, and specimens of as many of the supe-
rior and inferior strata as can be obtained, designating the
order of superposition of the strata.

4. It is important to designate, by the same mark, all the
petrifactions unquestionably found in the same stratum, or at

Brongmiart on Organized Remains. 73

least in the same formation. The specimens ought to be almost
square—about three inches or more on a side, and one and a
half thick.

5. It is equally important not to mix petrifactions found in
different formations, or in different strata of the same forma-
tion ; or if they are packed together, to distinguish them by
numbers, marks, or labels.

_ When the preceding notices cannot be obtained, the first
will suffice.

In order to collect the petrifactions, aa to render them
useful, it is not necessary to know them, nor to be perplexed
to find them out; nor to be afraid of sending objects already
known or of little note. A part of the preceding indications,
connected with the most common petrifactions, will always ren-
der them useful. The important point then is, not to mix
those which are found separate, nor to separate those which
are found associated in the same stratum.

This is easily attained, by designating by a common number,
letter, or any sign whatever, one particular formation or stra-
tum, and by marking with the same sign all the sae aka
which are evidently found together. 2

The labels designating the place or the geological id
may be placed in the papers which envelope the specimens, or
a number, referring to an explanatory catalogue, may be at-
tached to each specimen.

As far as possible, it is necessary to stick the labels or num-
bers to the pieces, by pasting; and the surest way is, to write
upon the piece itself, Ist, the place where it is found ; 2d, the
number by which it is indicated in the historical notes above
requested.

If there is not time to make out as many numbers or labels
as there are pieces, it will be sufficient to unite in one box or
packet all the petrifactions of one particular stratum, and to
designate them by a general label.

It is necessary to pack the shells and other fragile pieces in
separate boxes, and to wrap each piece in a separate paper.

M. Brongniart cannot allow himself to prefer such requests,
except under the express condition, that a memorandum of all

74 Ives on a Species of Limoseila,

the expenses which the transportation and packing of the
specimens may create shall accompany the letter of advice.

The objects destined for him may be sent by the common
modes of conveyance, with a letter of advice, to the following
address :

Mr. A. Bronentart, Member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences, Engineer of Mines, etc. Rue Saint-Dominique, Fau-
bourg Saint-Germain, No. 71, Paris.

Art. XIV. Observations on a species of Lamosella, re-
cently discovered in the United States, by Dr. Eli
Ives, Professor of Materia Medica and Botany, in the
Medical Institution of Yale College.

Tus small plant was observed in flower in July, 1816, by
Mr. Horatio N. Fenn (now of Rochester, State of New-York)
in company with Dr. Leavenworth. The plant and the seeds
have been preserved by me, in a flower-pot, from that time to
the present. The plant was taken a few rods south of Mr.
Whitney’s gun manufactory, on the margin of the river, where
it was covered by every tide. I have since observed the plant
in great abundance on the margin of the Housatonuck, in
Derby, and in those small streams in East Haven, Branford,
and Guilford, which empty into Long-Island Sound.

A specimen of the limosella (with some specimens of the
tillea) was sent to Z. Collins, Esq. of Philadelphia, who wrote
me that Mr. Nuttall had found the same plant, a few days pre-
vious to the receipt of my letter, and that they had no question
on the subject of the generic character, but that it would pro-
bably prove to be anew species.

‘In the transactions of the Medico-Physical Society of New-
York, page 440, it is described under the name of limosella
subulata. A description of the plant was published about the
same time, by Mr. Nuttall, in the Journal of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. (See Vol. I. No. 6. p. 115.)

Ives ona Species of Limosella. rhs)

In the paper written by Mr. Nuttall is the following query :
“‘ Does this plant, with a lateral mode of growth and alternate
leaves, germinate with two cotyledons?’ The following
‘observations were made in answer to this question. In the
winter of 1816-17 this plant was kept in a situation exposed
to severe frost; yet whenever the weather became warm
for two or three days, it became quite green, but for the last
winter there was no appearance of life in the plant. In
March 1818, the vessel in which the limosella had been pre-
served for two summers preceding, and in which were a great
quantity of seeds, was exposed in a warm situation to the sun.
There was no appearance of vegetation until the last of March,
when were observed several cylindrical leaves, some of them
evidently arose from bulbs which had formed the last sum-
mer, on account of the dryness of its situation, which fre-
quently occurs when plants are removed from a moist to a dry
situation. In other instances single cylindrical leaves arose
from the earth, where no bulbs were to be found ; these cylin-
drical leaves were thought to arise from seeds, which, if it was
a fact, would prove that the plant vegetated with but one
cotyledon. In a short time the vessel was crowded with the
seeds of the limosella raised by the cotyledons. These were
carefully observed, and in every instance, when the coat of
the seed was cast off, two linear cotyledons were observed,
soon a cylindrical leaf arose from the centre of the cotyle-
dons, and when this leaf had grown to the length of half an
inch, a leaf of a similar kind arose laterally to a line made by
the first leaf and the cotyledons.

From the facts above stated, it is thought to be proved
that the limosella vegetates with two cotyledons. This was
the fact in every instance where the husk of the seeds was
obviously attached to the cotyledons, and in the few instances
where the plants appeared to vegetate with but one cotyledon,
it is probable that it arose from a bulb or some portion of the
old plant, in which life had not been extinguished, during
the past winter, which was made more probable by the fact
that several of the leaves arose obviously from bulbs. This

76 Bigelow on Climate.

limosella,* with its congeners, hence will take its place in the
natural order of Jussieu lysimachie.

Art. XV. Professor BiczLow on the comparative For-

wardnéss of the Spring in different Parts of the United
States, in 1817.

We have been favoured with an ingenious memoir on this
subject, by the author, Professor Bigelow of Boston; it isa
part of the fourth volume of the Memoirs of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Professor Bigelow, availing himself of a hint given him
some years ago by the late venerable Dr. Muhlenberg of
Pennsylvania, ascertained, through the medium of corres-
pondence with accurate observers in different parts of North
America, the time of flowering, for ‘1817, of the common
fruit-trees and a few other plants’—“‘found in most parts of
the United States.”

The peach-tree was the one most uniformly returned, and
the following table exhibits the time of its flowering, in places
sufficiently numerous and remote, to afford a fair specimen of

these observations :

Places. Lat. Long. Peach-iree in blossom.
Fort Claiborne, Alab. Ter. 31° 50° 87° 50° March 4
Charleston, S. C...... 32 BA, 80 SO. cen iiesne i
Richmond, Va. ....-.-. 3740; 2,77, 5D. wus ion Soa
Lexington, Ky. ...... 38 6 85 8 April 6 15
Baltimore, Md. ...... BOO tT | Aew 2. eee
Philadelphia, P. ...... BO 56 OS wine he
New-Vork,oN.u¥-.: 5 <u A028 SO. ae oe
Boston, Mass.. .....-.. 42 23 70 52 May 9
AlbaayNo Xiegesccess sts: #330. 3 130... 7 shee
Brunswick, Me. .....-. 43°53 69 (55. 5 «on
Montreal, Can... ...- »,.- ; Abe Sb IS. Ad aes

*In the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia this

plant is called limosella tenuifolia.
+ No return of this tree was made from Brunswick. The date of the cherry-

tree is therefore substituted, which is usually in blossom at the same time.

Calendar of Vegetation, Gc. by C. S. Rafinesque. 77

Professor Bigelow infers, ‘that the difference of season
between the northern and southera extremities of the country
is not less than two months and a half.” ‘ Difference of
longitude does not seem very materially to affect the Floral
Calendar within the United States.’ It appears, that in the
same year peach-trees were in blossom at Valencia, in Spain,
about the 19th of March; the apple-tree near London, May
8th ; the cherry-tree and pear-tree at Geneva, in Switzerland,
April 3d.

We hope that this research will be prosecuted.in the man-
ner it has thus been happily begun. It evidently affords an
excellent criterion of the actual temperature, on a scale more
extensive than it is practicable to obtain from thermometrical
registers.

Floral Calendars kept in various parts of the United States
would afford very interesting information, as to the changes of
climate in particular places ; a common topic of popular re-
mark, but generally with few and inaccurate data.

Art. XVI. 4 Journal of the Progress of Vegetation near
Philadelpha, between the 20th of Ferbuary and the 20th
of May, 1816, with occasional Zoological Remarks. By
‘C. 8. Retour.

Tue importance of observations on the annual progress of
vegetation is obvious, and, as connected with agriculture,
gardening, &c., eminently useful. Comparative observations
acquire a particular degree of interest, when made by skilful
observers, at the. same time, but at different places. Dr.
Bigelow, of Boston, issued a circular, proposing that such con-
temporaneous observations should be made in the spring of
1817; and I wish that his request may have been attended to,
when the collection of those observations may afford valuable
materials for an American Calendar of Flora. The blossoming

78 Calendar of Vegetation, de. by C. 8. Rafinesque.

ef plants is easily watched, but their foliation and budding
ought not to be neglected. Having been prevented, by various
causes, from keeping an exact record of the progress of vege-
tation near New-York in 1817, I submit an accurate journal
which I had kept the year before, at Philadelphia, in which I
hope that some interesting facts may be noticed. Dr. Benja-
min Barton has published a sketch of a Calendar of Flora for
Philadelphia, in his Fragments on the Natural History of Penn-
sylvania ; by comparing it with mine, many material differences
may be traced, which evince a gradual change of temperature,
although the spring of 1816 was remarkably cold and late.
The greater quantity of species observed by me may, besides,
render this journal a sort of vernal Flora of the neighbourhood
of Philadelphia ; and many species found by me are not to be
met in the Flora Philadelphica of Dr. William Barton.

February 20. The Hyacinthus orientalis begins to show its
flowers, and on the

24. In full blossom, as well as Convallaria majalis, in rooms.

25. The grass begins to look greenish in some parts.

26. Seen the first larva of insect in a pond.

27. The Motacilla sialis, or bluebird, is heard for the first time.

28. The first shad (Clupea sapidissima) is taken in the Dela-
ware, while on the same day, the first smelt (Salmo
eperlanotides) was taken in the Raritan, at New-Bruns-
wick.

March 1. The Tulipa gesneriana, and Hesperis matronalis, are
in blossom at the windows: the suckers (genus Catos-
tomus) appear in the fish-market.

. The catkins of the Alnus serrulatus begin to swell.

. Those of Salix Caprea begin to appear.

. The grass looks green by patches in the country.

. The leaves of Veronica officinalis, Plantago virginiana,

_ Saxifraga virginica, &c. are quite unfolded.

6. The new leaves of Kalmia latifolia begin to appear.

7. The spathas of Spathyema feteda, or Fothos fetida, begin te

appear in blossom.

Or & 09 ©

Calendar of Vegetation, &c. by C. S. Rafinesque. . 79

8. The Alnus serrulatus is in full blossom.

10. Found several mosses and ferns in blossom ; these last
were covered with capsules or old fructification : they
were JAsplenium ebeneum, Aspidiwm marginale, Asp.
acrostichoides, Polypodium medium, N. Sp., &c.

11. Seen the first spider, in the country, brown, oblong, walk-
ing. A fallof snow at night.

12. Seen in blossom, at the windews, Narcissus tazzetta, N.

janguilla, and several saffrons, genus Crocus, &c.

14. The grass looks quite green; the Draba verna? is in
blossom in the State-House garden, the Viburnum tinus,
Primula acaulis, &c. in the rooms, &c. The following
fish are at market : white perch, (Percu mucronata, Raf.)
yellow perch, (Polyprion fasciatum, Raf.) mamoose stur-
geon, (Accipenser marginatur, Raf.) elk-oldwives, (Spa-
rus crythrops, Raf.) &c.

15. The Populus fastigiata, Lombardy poplar, begins to show
its catkins.

17. The big-eye herring (Clupea megalops) begin to be seen at
the fish-market.

18. Many plants begin to grow and show their leaves.

19. A fall of snow. The first shad (Clupea sapidissima) appear
in New-York: they are now common here.

20. Crocus aureus in blossom in gardens ; likewise Iris persica, &c.

21. Betula lenta begin to show the catkins.

22. Galanthus nivalis, and Lamium amplexicaule, are in blos-
som in gardens at Cambden.

24. Populus fastigiata, and Salix caprea, are in full bloom.—
The gooseberry bushes shoot their leaves.

25. Populus angulata in blossom at Cambden.

26. Salix babylonica begins to blossom and shoot the leaves.
Viburnum prunifolium is budding.

27. Draba verna? is in seed already in Cambden: the Rho-
dodendron maximum begins to shoot in gardens.

28. Juniperus virgimana is in bloom. Saxifraga virginica
begins to show its flowers. Laurus benzoin, and Cornus
Aorida, are budding.

80 Calendar of Vegetation, gc. by C. S. Rafinesque. .

April 1. In the morning, a large flight of wild geese went over
the city northwards, making a great noise. In the
afternoon there was a thunder storm from the southwest.

2. The frogs begin to croak. Found in blossom near Camb-

den, Arabis rotundifolia, Raf., A. lyrata, Saxifraga vir-
ginica, Draba verna? Betula lenta, &c. Pinus inops
is budding: .

3. Seen the first swallow. Found in blossom on the Schuyl-
kill, Fumaria cucullaria, Anemone thalictroides, Saxt-
fraga virginica, many ferns and mosses.

4. The fresh-water turtle (Testudo picta) begins to show
itself. :

7. Found in blossom to-day, Hepatica triloba, Laurus benzoin,
Sanguinaria canadensis, Spathyema fetida, Acer rubrum,
&c. The first bee is seen.

10. In blossom at the woodlands, Viola blanda, Luzula filamen-

) tosa, Raf., Gnaphalium ? plantageneum, &c.

12. In blossom at Cambden, Viola lanceolata, and Houstonia
cerulea. {

14. The apricot-trees begin to blossom in gardens. cerne-
gundo is in bloom at Gray’s Ferry.

15. Seen the first butterfly—it was small and gray. Found in
blossom, near Cambden, Phlox subulata, Arabis parvt-

Jlora, Raf., and Vaccinium ligustrinum.

18. Seen in blossom, Epigea repens, Carex acuta, and Tarax-
acum dens-leonis. In gardens, the peach and cherry
trees are in bloom. Observed many insects. The
Camellia, the Magnolia chinensis, &c. are seen in the
hot-house of the Woodlands.

20. The first snake is seen, Coluber trivittata, Raf. Also a
beautiful large butterfly, red and black. The Saha
vitellina, and Capsella bursa. (Thlaspi bursa-pastoris,)
are in blossom.

21. Found in blossom, near Gray’s Ferry, Narcissus pseudo-
narcissus, and Sedum ternatum, both naturalized. Like-
wise the Populus tremuloides, and Mespelus canadensis.
The leaves of Podophyllum pettatum are fully expanded.

i

Calendar of Vegetation, &c. by C. S. Rafinesque. 81

23. Seen in full bloom in gardens, the pear-tree, plum-tree,
Riber grossularia, and R. rubrum.

24, Found in blossom along the Schuylkill, Aguwilegia cana-
densis, Hyacinthus botryoides, Ranunculus fascicularis,
Violapapilionacea. V. decumbens, Raf., Houstonia ceru-
lea, Cerastium pumilum, Raf.

25. Found in blossom near Cambden, Viola pedata, V. lanceo-
lata, V. ovata, Raf., V. primulifolia, Arabis parviflora,
Raf., Cerastium pumilum, Raf., Carex acuta, Meopilus
botryapium, Laurus sassafras, Cercis canadensis, Poten-
talla simplex, Andromeda racemoca.

28. Seen in blossom in gardens, Calycanthus floridus, Syringa
persica, Phlox pilosa, &c. The leaves of Lirtodendron
tulipifera, JEsculus hippocastanum, Populus fastigiata,
P. angulata, are unfolded.

30. In blossom on the Schuylkill, Obolaria virginiana, Ane-
mone trifolia, Hydrastis canadensis, &c.

May 1. In blossom in the Neck, Cerastium vulgatum? Vero-
nica serpyllifolia, V. arvensis, Ranunculus bulbosus,
Viola cucultata.

3. Found above the Falls of the Schuylkill, Viola striata, V.
concolor, V. primulifolia, V. blanda, Fumaria aurea, F.
cucullaria, Charophyllum procumbens, Uvularia sessiti-
folia, U. perfoliata, Cercis canadensis, Arabis falcata,
Stellaria pubera, Erigeron pulchellum, Orchis spectabilis,
Hydrastis canadensis, Dentaria diphylla, Azalea nudi-
Jlora, &c.

4. Found on the Vissahikon, Arabis bulbosa, Panax trifolium,
Viola pectata, V. rotundifolia, Cardamine pennsylvanica,
Krigia virginica, and several grasses.

7. Found in blossom over the Schuylkill, Laurus sassafras,
Viburnum prunifolium, Aronia arbutifolia, A. melano-
carpa, Fragaria virginica, Cerastium nutans, Raf., Con-
vallaria mojalis, naturalized, and several species of the
genus Vaccinium.

10. Found below the falls of the Schuylkill, Floerkea uliginosa,
Viburnum acerifolium, Oxalis violacea, Cerastium tenus-

Vou. 1.,..No. 1.

82 Rafinesque on a New Species of Marten.

folium, Glechoma hederacea, &c.: and the following —
above the Falls—Trillium cernuum, Viola pubescens, V.
pennsylvanica, Hydrophyllum virginicum, Polemonium
reptans, Senecio aureus, Saxifraga pennsylvamca, Staphy-
lea trifoliata, Obolaria virginica, Caltha palustris, Ranun-
culus abortivus, &c.

11. Seen the first bat.

12. Near Haddonfield, Bartsia coccinea, Helonias bullata, Tri-
folium repens, &c.

15. Found between Cambden and Haddonfield, Trifolium pra-
tense, Silene virginica, Antirrhinum canadense, Lithosper-
mum tenellum, Raf., Festucatenella, Seleranthus annuus,
Oxalis biflora, Raf., Poa rubra, Vaccinium corymbosum,
Viola palmata, V. parvifolia, Raf., Rubus flagellaris, &c.

Also in blossom, Quercus rubra, Q. obtusiloba, Q. alba,
&c.

20. Found near Burlington, Plantago virginica, Euphorbia
yecacuanha, Comptonia asplenifolia, Myosotis lappula,
Senecio obovatus, Scirpus acicularis, Lithospéermum tri-
nervum, Raf., L. tenellum, Raf., &c.; besides several
Carex.

Art. XVII. Description of a New Species of North
American Marten, (Mustela vulpina) by C. S. Rart-
NESQUE.

Tue regions watered by the Missouri are inhabited by many
animals, as yet unknown to the zoologists, although many have
been noticed by travellers. A species of marten has lately
been presented to the Lyceum of Natural History in New-
York, which was brought from that country, and appears to
belong to a peculiar species, very different from the common
martens of Europe, Asia, and America, although it has, in com-
mon with it, the character of the yellow throat ; but the head,
feet, and tail, afford so many peculiar characters, that no doubt
can be entertained of its diversity. I have, therefore, given

Refinesque on a New Species of Marten. 83

to it the name of Mustela vulpina, or Fox Marten, owing to its
head and tail being somewhat similar to that of a fox.

Mustela Vulpina. Definition—Brown, three large yellowish
spots underneath on the throat, breast, and belly ; cheeks,
inside of the ears, and a spot on the nape, white ; tail tipped
with white one-third of total length ; feet blackish, toes white.

Description.—This animal is of a fine shape: its size is
rather above mediocrity, being about half a foot high, and the
total length being twenty-seven inches, whereof nine form the
tail. The general colour of the fur is of a drab brown, and it
is neither coarse nor very fine. The head is elongated,
oblong, about four inches long, shaped like that of a fox; the
snout is narrow; the nose is black, notched, and granulated,
furnished on each side with black whiskers, two inches long.
there are three long black hairs, or vibrissa, above each eye,
and a few shorter ones scattered behind them on the cheeks,
chin, and tip of the lower jaw, which is white : the cheeks are
whitish, and there is a white spot on the nape of the neck:
the ears are large, broad, and white inside. There are three
large, oblong spots, on the throat, breast, and belly ; this last
is the largest ; that on the breast the smallest. The fore legs
are shorter than the hind ones, and have, behind, three very
long hairs or vibrissa: the feet and toes of all the legs are
covered with long fur; the former have a dark brown or
blackish ring, and the latter are of a dirty white: there are
five long toes to all the feet, of which the inner one is the
shortest; the nails are white, retractible, and shorter than
the fur. The teeth are as in the genus Mustela, and white ;
those of the lower jaw are larger and stronger: the grinders
dare four on each side ; they are broad, trifid, with the middle
lobe sharp and very long: the tusks, or dogteeth, are very
strong, curved, and approximated, leaving a very small place
for the incisores, which are very small, very short, and flat ;
the two lateral ones on each side are situated diagonally, the
second behind, and the two middle ones are only half the size
of the others. The tail is bushy, particularly at the top,
where there is a white pencil of long hairs; the brown of the
remainder is darker than on the body.

, 6 *

84 . Rafinesque on the Red Adder.

From the above accurate description, it will appear evident
that this animal is very different from the common marten of
North America. It must be a ferocious little animal, and very
fierce ; which is indicated by the strength of the teeth.

Art. XVIII. Natural History of the Scytalus Cupreus,
or Copper-head Snake. By C.S. Rarinesque.

Arter the rattlesnake, the copper-head snake is the most
dreaded in the northern states, being the next largest venom-
ous.snake : he is also more common in the cold parts, where
the former is very rare. Strange as it may seem, this con-
spicuous and dangerous animal has escaped the notice of natu-
ralists, and is not found described in Shaw nor Lacepede.
Having seen two of them near Fishkill, in the summer of 1817,
I endeavoured to describe them completely, and investigate
their history. They were both killed in a meadow, and one
of them while sleeping coiled up near a fence; a slight stroke
of a rod was sufficient, as usual with venomous snakes. It
appears that they are killed much easier than the innocent
snakes ; these are often seen to revive after an apparent death,
and do not really die until the next sunset; while venomous
snakes do not easily revive, particularly if the head is slightly
bruised.

This snake. is known by a variety of names in different parts
of the State of New-York, since he has every where attracted
the attention of the inhabitants : these names are, copper-head,
copper-snake, chunk-head, copper-adder, copper-viper, copper-
belly, pilot-snake, deaf-adder, deaf-snake ; and in New-England,
by the names rattlesnake’s mate and red adder, &c. They
have all been given in reference to his colour, or to some pre-
sumed peculiarities in his manners, &c. Chunk-head is a vul-
gar expression, meaning thick-head or blunt-head. He has
been called sometimes pilot-snake, on a false supposition that
he was the pilot or guide of the rattlesnake ; and he has been

Rafinesque on the Red Adder. 85

considered as deaf, because he is easily surprised, and does
not appear to hear the noise of your approach.

It belongs to the genus scytalus of Daudin, &c., which differs
from the Boa of Linnzus, as the genus Vipera does from Colu-
ber, being provided with fangs. I have given to it the name
of Scytalus Cupreus, which means coppered scytalus. The
following definition of the species may be considered as com-
parative and characteristic.

Scytalus Cupreus. Tail one-eighth of total length, with 45
caudal plates entirely brown ; 150 abdominal plates, the last
very broad ; head oval, coppered above, yellow underneath ;
scales carinated on the back, which is coppered, with reddish
brown rings cross-shaped ; belly variegated of brownish.

Description. Total length about three feet ; body thicker
than in the innocent snakes. Head large, broad, oval, obtuse,
very distinct from the neck, nearly two inches long, flattened,
coppered brown above, and covered with large, smooth scales ;
yellow underneath, as well as the neck, and with rhomboidal
smooth scales. Mouth very large ; fangs yellowish white. Back
flattened anteriorly, a little angular in the middle, covered
with "small rhomboidal, obtuse, keeled scales ; those of the
sides larger and smooth, not keeled ; centre of the back of a
brownish copper colour ; sides of a bright copper ; broad bands
or rings, becoming forked on each side, and assuming nearly
the shape of a St. Andrew’s cross; they are of a reddigh
brown : there is a round spot opposite to the sinusses, and the-.
scales of the sides are minutely dotted of brown. The abdo-
minal plates are 150, beginning under the head; the last,
covering the vent, is very broad, double the other: they are
of a shining, pale copper colour, with two longitudinal and
lateral rows of great, irregular, brown spots, with some light
brownish clouds between them, and each plate is marginated
of whitish. The belly is very flat and broad, about 12 inch in
diameter ; and the skin may be distended on the sides, when
the animal is not fed. Tail short, tapering gradually, about
four inches long, cylindrical, brown, without spots, with 45
plates underneath, and having at the end a small, obtuse, horn

86 Rafinesque on the Red Adder.

claw, of an oblong, compressed, obtuse shape, and carinated
underneath.

This snake has many of the habits of the rattlesnake ; he is
very slow in his motions, rather clumsy, owing to his thick
shape and short tail. He retires in winter into caves, hollow
rocks, and trees, where he lies, in a torpid state, from Novem-
ber to April ; several have been found coiled up together, the
head lying over the back : it is in the same situation he sleeps
in the fields. When found in the torpid state, they may be
carried without waking; but might wake in a warm room.
They do not eat during all that time: their food consists of
birds, frogs, mice, and even squirrels, which they catch by
surprise, as they do not climb ontrees. They kill their large
prey by breathing a poisonous effluvia, crushing it in their
folds, and they swallow it whole after covering it with their
clammy saliva. They can remain a very long time without a
meal, and one meal is a long time digesting. _

They are generally found in meadows, pastures, and the
edge of woods. They creep slovenly through the grass, and
if surprised by the sight of man, they assume an erect and
threatening posture, darting their tongue and swelling their
head ; but they do not attack men, unless alarmed and struck.
They are considered more dangerous than the rattlesnake,
because they do not give notice of their vicinity, and lie con-
cealed in the grass ; but they are easily killed, when assuming
the threatening posture, by a slight touch of acane, spade, or
any other instrument. The effects of their bite is similar to
that of the rattlesnake, and cured in the same way, by the
prompt application of the Aristolochia serpentaria, Polygala
senega, Prenanthes serpentarta, Macrotry serpentaria, &c. and
other plants, bearing in consequence the name of snakeroots.

This snake is found in New-England, New-York, New-
Jersey, Pennsylvania, &c., and perhaps all over the United
States.

[ 87 J

Art. XIX. On a Method of Augmenting the Force of
Gunpowder.

Extract of a Letter to the Editor, from Colonel Gzorox Gizes.

I EMPLOYED, the last year, a man in blowing rocks, and
having seen an account of a method of substituting a portion of
quick lime for a part of the gunpowder usually employed, I was
induced to make a number of experiments upon it. I now
send you the results in the certificate of the person employed,
whose statement might be relied on, even if 1 had not super-
intended myself a number of the experiments.

“« Sunswick Farms, Oct. 19, 1817.—I certify that, having been
employed by Colonel Gibbs in blasting rocks on his farm, I, by
his orders, made use of a composition of one part quick lime
and two parts gunpowder, and uniformly found the same charge
to answer equally well with a like quantity of gunpowder. | |
made upwards of fifty blasts in this manner, as well as several
hundreds in the usual way, and can therefore depend upon the
accuracy of this statement. I found, however, that when the
powdered lime was mixed with the gunpowder the day before,
that the effect was diminished. It should be always used the
day it is mixed.

(Signed) T. Pomeroy.”

This preparation was made generally in the morning, put in
a bottle and well corked, to prevent the access of the external
air. The rationale of the process was not explained in the
original recommendation, but it soon occurred to me, that it
must be owing to the desiccation of the gunpowder by the
lime.

The attraction of moisture by gunpowder, is known to be
very great: according to Rees’s Cyclopedia, upwards of 16
per cent. has been absorbed, and that the removal, simply,

88 Col. Gibbs on Gunpowder.

from near the fire to the corner of the room, produces a con-
siderable change in its weight. I presume, therefore, that
the lime, which in its caustic state has also a great affinity to
water, attracts a portion of it from the powder, and leaves it
ina state of dryness best fitted for inflammation. But if the
lime should remain too long mixed with the powder, it would
probably attack the water of crystallization of the saltpetre,
and, according to Count Rumford’s idea, destroy a great part
of the power. If also left exposed, attractions of moisture would
take place from the atmosphere, the gunpowder would remain
surcharged with humidity as before, and the lime would be
only an inert mass.

The examination of this subject led me to consider the in-
crease of the power of gunpowder in various situations, and of
its use in the field. It is well known that after a few dis-
charges a cannon becomes heated, and the range is much
greater, as well as the recoil. The charge of powder is there-
fore reduced about one quarter, to produce the original effect.
As I have not heard or seen any explanation of this fact I shall
take this opportunity of mentioning, that it appears to arise
from the same cause as the first explained, viz. the desicca-
tion of the powder. No person will dispute the heat acquired
by a cannon, or evena musket, after repeated discharges ; and
this heat must volatilize or destroy a great portion of the mois-
ture combined with the powder, assist its speedy inflammation,
and perhaps add to its power, by causing a more perfect com-
bustion of the inflammable parts of the gunpowder. This
would cause a much greater volume of gas to be produced,
and the high temperature would also greatly augment its elas-
ticity ; and it is well known that the effects of gunpowder
depend upon the rapid production and high degree of elasticity
of a great quantity of aeriform fluids or gases.

‘ [ 89 ]

Art. XX. On The Connexion between Magnetism and
Light. By Col. Gispgs.

Extract from a Letter to the Editor.

I VISITED, the last year, the mine of magnetic iron at
Succassunny, belonging to Governor Dickerson of New-Jersey.
The mine had not been worked for a year past, and I did not
descend it. The proprietor, a gentleman of distinguished
science, informed me of a singular circumstance attending it,
which was too important to be left unnoticed. The mine is
worked at the depth of 100 feet; direction of the bed, north-
east and southwest; inclination nearly perpendicular. The
ore in the upper part of the bed is magnetic, and has polarity ;
but that raised from the bottom has no magnetism at first, but
acquires it after it has been some time exposed to the influence
of the atmosphere. This fact, of which there is no doubt,
struck me as most singular. I could not recollect any similar
observation ; and it is only lately that I have found that Wer-
ner had observed, that iron sand, raised from the depth of 100
feet, had no magnetism. See Rees’s Cyclopedia, Art. Sand.

I could only account for this circumstance by supposing that
magnetism existed not in the interior of the earth, as was sup-
posed, but only on the surface, and in such bodies as received
this principle from atmospheric, or celestial influence.

The late discovery of the magnetic influence of the violet
rays of light, by M. Morechini, a notice of which has since
reached us in the journals, connected with the above fact,
leads me to believe that light is the great source of magnetism.
A learned foreigner,* whose residence in this country has con-
tributed much to its scientific improvement, has also informed
me that other substances than metallic have been found, by
compression, to be magnetic. cE

It is well known that the violet ray is the most refrangible,

* Mr. Correa de Serra, Minister of the King of Portugal.

90 Col. Gibbs on Magnetism.

or has the most attraction to matter. But there are other
rays, which Herschel, who some years since discovered them,
calls invisible rays, which are still more refrangible, are next
beyond the violet, when refracted, and partake of most of its
properties, except that they are invisible. I have not yet
seen any account of the experiments of M. Morechini, other
than the notice in the journal; but I trust I shall soon be able
to determine whether those invisible rays do not possess the
magnetic power as well as the violet ; or, perhaps, possess it
exclusively.

As the refraction of the atmosphere in the polar circles, is
at least ten times greater than in the tropics, a greater quan-
tity of the magnetic rays will there be separated and combined
than elswhere; and of ceurse arises excess of magnetism.
Hence the direction of magnetic bodies towards the northern
and southern extreme regions. The great. absorption. and
emission of light in the polar regions, by the ice and snow,
may cause the extraordinary illumination of that country during
the absence of the sun, and the emission of the magnetic rays
with electricity may, perhaps, give us the aurora borealis.

The coincidence of the diurnal variation of the compass with
the solar influence, deserves particular notice, and will have
considerable weight on this subject.

That there are many facts which cannot readily be explained
by the theory of light, I shall not deny ; but in the infancy of
this system we may be allowed to hope that future observa-
tions may enable us to remove present difficulties. One thing
must be admitted, that no theory has heretofore been published
relating to magnetism, which has received or seems entitled to
much confidence. In your next number I hope to be able
to furnish you with further remarks on this subject; but, I
have no doubt that philosophy will finally determine that we
owe to the solar ray light, heat, electricity, and magnetism.

G. GIBBS.
Sunswick, January, 1818.

[91 |

Art. XXI. On anew Means of producing Heat and Light,
with an Engraving, by J. L. Sullivan, Esq. of Boston.

Boston, May 7, 1818.
To Professor Silliman.

SIR,

Ir the following account of a method of using tar and steam
as fuel, recently invented by Mr. Samuel Morey, should be
found sufficiently interesting to occupy a place in the Journal
of Science, I am sensible its usefulness will be much extended
through that medium of information.

The inventor, not unskilled in chemistry, and aware of the
attraction of oxygen for carbon, conceived it practicable to
convert the constituents of water into fuel, by means of this
affinity.

Whatever may be the fact, chemically considered, the ope-
' ration, in various experiments, promises to afford a conve-
nient mothod of applying to use several of the most combusti-
ble substances, not hitherto employed as fuel. By the process
I shall briefly describe, all carbonaceous fluids may be conveni-
ently burnt, and derive great force from their combination with
the oxygen and hydrogen gases of water or steam, before or
at the moment of ignition.

A tight vessel, cylindrically shaped, was first employed, con-
taining rosin, connected with a small boiler by a pipe which
entered near the bottom, and extended nearly its length, having
small apertures, over which were two inverted gutters, inclin-
ing or sloping upwards over each other ; the upper one longer
than the other, intended to detain the steam in the rosin, in its
way to the surface. The rosin being heated, carburetted hydro-
gen gas would issue from the outlet, or pipe, inserted near the
top of the vessel, and being ignited, afforded a small blaze,
about as large as that of a candle; but, when the steam was
allowed to flow, this blaze would instantly shoot out many hun-
dred times its former bulk, to the distance of two or three feet

92 New Fire Apparatus for Heat and Light.

It is presumed the steam was decomposed, and carburetted
hydrogen and carbonic oxide, or carbonic acid, produced as
the steam passed, very near the hot bottom of the vessel.

Another apparatus was constructed, consisting of two vessels,

one within the other, having a cover common to both; the
inner one to contain tar, (as a more convenient substance than
rosin;) the outer vessel to contain water, which surrounds
the other, and lies under its bottom; or, in other words, a
vessel of tar set into a vessel of boiling water. The boiler
has a lining of sheet copper, or tin, to promote the ebullition.
The tar vessel being riveted to the cover, holes are made
through its sides, near to the cover, to allow the steam to pass
in, and act onits surface. The cover being secured on, a safety
valve is provided for the steam vessel, and two cocks; one
over the tar, the other over the water, are fixed contiguously ;
the first has a tube, or is elongated to reach nearly to the bot-
tom of the tar, which ascends, and is driven out by the pres-
sure of the steam on its surface. Both cocks conduct to a
pipe, wherein is placed a large wire, or metallic rod, which
about fills the tube, and is perforated obliquely, or zig zag, to
increase the length of the passage, and to mingle the tar and
steam more intimately. The gases, or vapours, issue from a
small orifice at the end of the pipe; and, being ignited by a
little fire, into which it is directed, an intense and voluminous
blaze is produced, and continues as long as the materials
remain unexhausted. A hot brick, instead of the fire, answers
the same purpose.
»- This apparatus contained but about one quart of tar, (which
must always be nicely strained,) and it lasted one and a half
hour, and the flame was sufficient to fill a common fireplace, if
not allowed to escape, by its violence, up the chimney. Its force
will be according to the elasticity of the steam. I regret being
unable, since, to make more exact and varied experiments, to
demonstrate the economy of this fuel This point, however,
and the chemical facts, will be the subject of a future commu-
nication. And probably a form of a stove may be devised,
wherein it may be used for the purposes of warmth, light, and
cooking ; and-another apparatus to light streets.

»

Professor Smith on the Effects of Earthquakes, &c. 93

But this invention will be of more special use as fuel for
steam engines applied to navigation—the purpose principally
for which I have purchased the patent right.

This may be the subject of another communication.

Art. XXII. On the Changes which have taken place in
the Wells of Water situated in Columbia, South-Carolina,
since the Earthquakes of 1811-12. By Epwarp

~Darrett Suita, M. D., Professor of Chemical and
Experimental Philosophy and Mineralogy in the South=
Carolina College.

To Professor Silliman.

Dear Sir,

ty answer to your inquiry respecting the changes in our wells,
since the memorable period of the Sor eh el I would make
the following observations :

These tremendous convulsions of nature commenced in
December, 1811, and were contirued, at intervals, until the
latter end of the succeeding month of March, with different
degrees of violence, in this and some of the adjacent states.
In November, 1812, I visited this town, and then understood
that the wells, which are generally very deep, had an abund-
ance of waterin them. This continued to be the case for
about one year after ; and in the College well, in particular,
which was a remarkably fine one, there were always about
twelve feet of water, notwithstanding its daily consumption by
more than two hundred persons. Shortly after this time, many
of the wells in the town began to fail in their usual supply of
water, although they were frequently cleaned out and ccca-
sionally deepened. Their state became worse every year,
until, at length, about three years since, some of them proved
to be entirely dry, and most of the others had their water tur-
bid, and diminished to the depth of only two or three feet.

94 Of the Earthquakes of 1811-12.

A little anterior to this period, what were called the dry years
had commenced, and there were, comparatively, very scanty
falls of rain until the last spring; since when there has been a
very large quantity. To elucidate the subject more fully, it
may not be amiss to give some topographical account of the
town of Columbia. About amile from the eastern bank of the
Cogaree the town begins to be thickly built up, and at this
distance the elevation of ground is supposed to be one hun-
dred feet above the level of the river in its ordinary state.
The hill is then tolerably level for the space of a mile or more
in its western extent, and its soil is principally composed of a
loose, porous sand, with which few, if any, stones are inter-
mixed atany depth that has yet been penetrated. In attempt-
ing to account for the failure of the well-waters, it was sup-
posed by some that the earthquakes had produced such changes
in the loose texture of the soils, that the veins of-water which
used to supply the wells, had sunk beneath the level of these
reservoirs ; but on this head it is to be observed, that there
was no remarkable failure of water for one or two years after
these changes were supposed to have been effected. Others
again, connecting the greatest failure of water with the con-
curring dearth of rain, conceived that the fact might be ex-
plained by the droughts occasioning a deficiency in the river-
water, and thus cutting off the supply which they supposed had
heretofore peccolated from the margin of the river into the
wells. If their hypothesis was correct, it was believed that
the difficulty would be removed, either by deepening the wells,
or by subsequent large supplies of rain. Many wells were
immediately deepened from two to eight or ten feet, but the
remedy proved very inadequate. And since the great falls of
rain, within a year past, although there are somewhat larger
supplies of water in some wells, yet there is not the half as
much as existed before the earthquakes. The College well,
although deepened several feet, does not now contain generally
more than four or five feet of water. I must not omit to
remark, that two wells, situated in a longitudinal line from
north to south, with regard to each other, and also in a lower
spot of ground, never failed entirely, although they diminished

Respiration of Oxygen Gas. 95

considerably, and now yield more copious supplies than any
others.

Whatever may be the cause of this phenomenon, the effects
are so inconvenient, and it is so generally believed that they
are likely to be permanent, that the inhabitants of the town are
beginning to build cisterns, in order to accumulate artificial
reservoirs of water.

Art. XXIII. Respiration of Oxygen Gas.

Ir is not extraordinary, when oxygen gas was first discovered,
and found to be the principle of life to the whole animal crea-
tion, that extravagant expectations should have been formed
as to its medicinal application. Disappointment followed of
course, and naturally led to a neglect of the subject ; and, in
fact, for some years, pneumatic medicine has gone into dis-
credit, and public opinion has vibrated to the extreme of
incredulity. Partaking in a degree in this feeling, we listened
with some reluctance to a very pressing application on this
subject during the lastsummer. A young lady, apparently in
the last stages of decline, and supposed to be affected with
hydrothorax, was pronounced beyond the reach of ordinary
medical aid. As she was ina remote town in Connecticut,
where no facilities existed towards the attainment of the ob-
ject, we felt no confidence that, even if oxygen gas were pos-
sessed of any efficacy in such cases, it would actually be applied
in this case, in such a manner as to do any good. Yielding, how:
ever, to the anxious wishes of friends, we furnished drawings
for such an apparatus as might be presumed attainable, and
also written and minute directions for preparing, trying, and
administering the gas. It was obtained from nitrate of potash,
(saltpetre,) not because it was the best process, but because
the substance could be obtained in the place, and because a
common fire would serve for its extrication. The gas obtained
had, of course, a variable mixture of nitrogen or azot, and
probably on an average, might not be purer than nearly the

96) Respiration of Oxygen Gas.

reversed proportions of the atmosphere—that is, 70 to 80 per
cent. of oxygen to 20 or 30 nitrogen; and it is worthy of
observation, whether this circumstance might not have influ-
enced the result.

Contrary to our expectations, the gas (as we are since in-
formed by good authority) was skilfully prepared and perseve-
ringly used. From the first, the difficulty of breathing and
other oppressive affections were relieved: the young lady
srew rapidly better, and in a few weeks entirely recovered
her health. A respectable physician, conversant with the
case, states, in a letter now before us, “‘ that the inhaling of
the oxygen gas relieved the difficulty of breathing, increased
the operation of diuretics, and has effected her cure. Whether
her disease was hydrothorax, or an anasarcous affection of the
lungs, is a matter I believe not settled.”

Should the revival of the experiments on the respiration of
oxygen gas appear to be desired, it would not be difficult to
simplify the apparatus and operations so as to bring them
within the reach of an intelligent person, even although igno-
rant of chemistry : and this task, should there be occasion, we
would cheerfully undertake to perform.

This interesting class of experiments ought to be resumed,
not with the spirit of quackery, or of extravagant expectation,
but with the sobriety of philosophical research ; and it is more
than probable that the nitrous oxyde which is now little more
than a subject of merriment and wonder, if properly diluted
and discreetly applied, would be productive of valuable effects.

[97]

Art. XXIV. On the Compound Blowpipe. Extract from
the Journal de Physique, of Paris, for January 1818.*

CONCERNING HEAT.

ce i

Hear, considered as one of the most important agents,
especially in relation to chemistry, and even to mineralogy,
has also been the subject of numerous labours, both with regard
to the means of augmenting and of diminishing its effects.

“To the former belong the numerous experiments made,
especially in England, with the blowpipe, supplied by a mix-
ture of oxygen and hydrogen gases. Mr. Clarke has evidently
been more extensively engaged in these researches than any
other person, as our readers have perceived in the extracts
which we have given from the labours of this learned che-
mist; but it is proper also to give publicity to the protest
(réclamation) made to us in favour of Mr. Silliman.

‘© We have already stated that Mr. Hare, of Philadelphia, first
conceived the idea of forming a blowpipe with explosive gas ;
but as we have not been conversant with the memoirs of the
Society of Arts and Sciences of Connecticut, we have not made
mention of Mr. Silliman.

“< The fact is, that this chemist, Professor at New-Haven, pub-
lished, on the 7th of May,} 1812, a memoir containing the results
of experiments made upon a very great number of bodies, until
that time reputed to be infusible ; and, among others, upon
the alkaline earths, the decomposition of which he effected.

«« The experiments of Mr. Clarke were therefore subsequent ;
but, having been made upon a still more extensive list of sub-
stances, they are scarcely less interesting.

“Tt results theu, from the experiments of Messrs. Hare,
Silliman, Clarke, Murray, and Ridolfi, that there is really no
substance which is infusible in the degree of heat produced
by this kind of blowpipe.

‘* In this new department of physics, it is attempted not only
to apply the blowpipe to a very great number of bodies, but

* Communicated by a friend at Paris.

+ See Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, and Bruce’s Journal, Vol. I,
p. 199.

Vou. I....No. 1. 7

98 The Compound Blowpipe.

so to modify the instrument or apparatus as to give it the
highest degree of convenience, and especially to obviate the
danger of explosion.” pp- 38 & 39.

REMARKS.

As the results produced by Mr. Hare’s Compound Blow-
pipe, fed by oxygen and hydrogen gases, continue to be men-
tioned in Europe, in many of the Journals, without any refer-
ence to the results long since obtained in this country, we re-
publish the following statement of facts, which was, in sub-
stance, first published in New-York, more than a year since.
It should be observed, that Mr. Tilloch has since published,
in the Philosophical Magazine in London, the memoir which
contained the American results, and there have been some
other allusions to it in different European Journals, and to
Mr. Hare’s previous experiments; but still this interesting
class of results continue to be attributed to others than their
original discoverers.

Yale College, April 7, 1817.

Various notices, more or less complete, chiefly copied from
English newspapers, are now going the round of the public prints
in this country, stating that “‘a new kind of fire” has been
discovered in England, or, at least, new and heretofore unpa-
ralleled means of exciting heat, by which the gems, and all the
most refractory substances in nature, are immediately melted,
and even in various instances dissipated in vapour, or decom-
posed into their elements. The first glance at these state-
ments, (which, as regards the effects, I have no doubt are

substantially true,) was sufficient to satisfy me, that the basis’

of these discoveries was laid by an American discovery, made
by Mr. Robert Hare of Philadelphia, in 1801. In December
of that year, Mr. Hare communicated to the Chemical Society
of Philadelphia his discovery of a method of burning oxygen
and hydrogen gases in a united stream, so as to produce a very
intense heat.

In 1802, he published a detailed memoir on the subject,

with an engraving of his apparatus, and he recited the effects —

of his instrument ; some of which, in the degree of heat pro-
duced; surpassed any thing before known.

The Compound Blowpipe. 99

In 1802, and 1803, I was occupied with him, in Philadelphia,
in prosecuting similar experiments on a more extended scale ;
and a communication on the subject was made to the Philosophi-
cal Society of Philadelphia. ‘The memoir is printed in their
transactions ; and Mr. Hare’s original memoir was reprinted
in the Annals of Chemistry, in Paris, and in the Philosophical
Magazine, in London.

Mr. Murray, in his System of Chemistry, has mentioned Mr.
Hare’s results in the fusion of several of the earths, &c. and
has given him credit for his discovery.

In one instance, while in Europe, in 1806, at a public lec-
ture, Isaw some of them exhibited by a celebrated Professor,
who mentioned Mr. Hare as the reputed author of the in-
vention. |

In December, 1811, I instituted an extended course of
experiments with Mr. Hare’s blowpipe, in which I melted
lime and magnesia, and a long list of the most refractory
minerals, gems, and others, the greater part of which had
‘never been melted before, and I supposed that I had decompo-
sed lime, barytes, strontites, and magnesia, evolving their metal-
lic basis, which burnt in the air as fast as produced. I com-
municated a detailed account of my experiments to the Con--
necticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, who published it in
their Transactions for 1812; with their leave it was commu-
nicated to Dr Bruce’s Mineralogical Journal, and it was
printed in the 4th number of that work. Hundreds of my
pupils can testify that Mr. Hare’s splendid experiments, and
many others performed with his blowpipe, fed by oxygen and
hydrogen gases, have been for years past annually exhibited,
in my public courses of chemistry in Yale College, and that
the fusion and volatilization of platina, and the combustion of
that metal, and of gold and silver, and of many other metals ;
that the fusion of the earths, of rock crystal, of gun flint, of
the corundum gems, and many other, very refractory sub-
stances ; and the production of light beyond the brightness of
the sun, have been familiar experiments in my laboratory.
I have uniformly given Mr. Hare the full credit of the inven-
tion, although my researches, with his instrument, had been

100 The Compound Blowpipe.

pushed farther than his own, and a good many new resulis
added.

It is therefore with no small surprise that, in the fbn
de Chimie et de Physique, for September, 1816, I found a
translation of a very elaborate memoir, from a Scientific
Journal, published at the Royal Institution in London, in
which a full account is given of a very interesting series of
experiments performed by means of Mr. Hare’s instrument ;
or rather one somewhat differently arranged, but depending
on the same principle. Mr. Hare’s invention is slightly men-
tioned in a note, but: no mention is made of his experiments, or
of mine.

On a comparison of the memoir in question with Mr. Hare’s
and with my own, I find that very many of the results are iden-
tical, and all the new ones are derived directly from Mr. Hare’s
invention, with the following differences.—In Mr. Hare’s, the
two gases were in distinct reservoirs, to prevent explosion ;
they were propelled by the pressure of a column of water,
and were made to mingle, just before their exit, at a common
orifice. Inthe English apparatus, the gases are both in one
reservoir, and they are propelled by their own elasticity, after
condensation, by asyringe.

Professor Clarke, of Cambridge University, the celebrated
traveller, is the author of the memoir in question ; and we
must presume that he was ignorant of what had been done by
Mr. Hare and myself, or he would candidly have adverted to
the facts. :

It is proper that the public should know that Mr. Hare was
the author of the invention, by means of which, in Europe, ©
they are now performing the most brilliant and beautiful
experiments ; and that there are very few of these results
hitherto obtained there, by the use of it, (and the publication
of which has there excited great interest,) which were not,
several years ago, anticipated here, either by Mr. Hare or
by myself.

As I have cited only printed documents, or the testimony
of living witnesses, I trust the public will not consider this
communication as indelicate, or arrogant, but simply a mat-

The Northwest Passage, &c. " 108

ter of justice to the interests of American science, and parti-
cularly to Mr. Hare.

: BENJAMIN SILLIMAN,
Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Yale College.

Art. XXV. The Northwest Passage, the North Pole,
and the Greenland Ice.

ly looking over the foreign journals, we find no articles of
intelligence so interesting as those which respect the three
_ subjects mentioned above. Indeed, as they have found their
way into most of our newspapers, it is now generally known
in this country, that, in consequence of the reported breaking
up of the Greenland ice, an expedition has already left Eng-
land, in two divisions, the one for the purpose of exploring a
northwest passage to Asia, around the North American conti-
nent, by the way of Davis’s Straits ; the other, for effecting the
same object by passing over the north pole.

If Horace thought that man almost impiously daring who first
adventured upon the open sea, what shall we say of the hardi-
hood of the attempt to visit raz pote ?—the pole, which it is
impossible to contemplate without awe—which, in all proba-
bility, has never been visited by any living being—where the
dreary solitude has never been broken by human voice—where
the sound of war has never been heard, and darkness and cold
exert an almost undisputed dominion! What must be the emo-
tions of that man who first stands upon the point of the earth’s
axis! Who, no longer partaking of the revolution, in circles
of latitude, slowly revolves on the axis of his own body, once
in twenty-four hours—to whom the sun does not rise or set,
but, moving in a course very oblique to the horizon, makes
scarcely a perceptible progress in twenty-four hours, and at
the end of three months, when he has attained his noon, is only
23° 28’, on the arc of a vertical circle, above the horizon—to
whom longitude is extinct, and who can move in no possible
direction but south—to whom the stars are a blank, and to

~oF

102 The Northwest Passage, he. ee

A

; F
whom the polar star, could he see it, would appear in the zenith,

el

Such are some of the most obvious results of a position on the —

pole. The man who first establishes himself on this sublime
point, will have more reason for self-congratulation than he
who led the Persian myriads into Greece, or he who pushed
the Macedonians to the Indus. |

On these interesting subjects, we beg leave to refer our

readers to a very able treatise in the Quarterly Review for

February, 1818, where all the topics at the head of this article
are discussed with much learning and ability.x—We extract the

following passage : 4
‘If an open navigation should be discovered across the

polar basin, the passage over the pole or close to it, will be

one of the most interesting events to science that has ever
occurred. It will be the first time that the problem was prac-
tically solved with which the learners of geography are some-
times puzzled—that of going the shortest way between two
places lying east and west, by taking a direction of north and
south. The passage of the pole will require the undivided
attention of the navigator. On approaching this point, from
which the northern coasts of Europe, Asia, and America, and
every part of them, will bear south of him, nothing can possibly
assist him in determining his course, and keeping on the right
meridian of his destined place, but a correct knowledge of the
time: and yet no means of ascertaining that time will be
afforded him. The only time he can have, with any degree
of certainty, as long as he remains on or near the pole, must
be that of Greenwich, and this he can know only from good

chronometers ; for, from the general hazy state of the atmos- —

phere, and particularly about the horizon, and the sameness
in the altitude of the sun at every hour in the four-and-twenty,
he must not expect to obtain an approximation even of the
apparent time, by observation, and he will have no stars to
assist him. All his ideas respecting the heavens and the reck-
onings of his time will be reversed, and the change not gradual,
as in proceeding from the east to the west, or the contrary,
but instantaneous. The magnetic needle will point to its

halt 3.

* _
.

; The Northwest Passage, &c. 103

unknown magnetic pole, or fly around from the point of the
bowl in which it is suspended, and that which indicated north
will now be south; the east will become the west, and the
hour of noon will be that of midnight.

** These curious circumstances will probably be considered
to mark the passage by the pole, as the most interesting of the
two, while it will perhaps be found equally easy. We have,
indeed, very little doubt, that if the polar basin should prove
to be free from land about the pole, it will also be free of ice.
A sea of more than two thousand milesin diameter, of unfa-
thomable depth, (which is the case between Greenland and

Spitzbergen,) and in constant motion, is not likely to be frozen

over at any time. Butif all endeavours to discover a passage
to the Pacific by either route should prove unavailing, it will
still be satisfactory to have removed every doubt on this sub-
ject by ascertaining the fact. In making the attempt, many
objects interesting and important to science will present them-
selves to the observation of those who are engaged in the two
expeditions. That which proceeds up Davis’s Straits, will
have an opportunity of adjusting the geography of the north-
east coast of America, and the west coast of Greenland; and
of ascertaining whether the latter be not an island or an archi-
pelago of islands ; and much curious information may be ex-
pected from both.

‘* They will ascertain, what is as yet but very imperfectly

‘ known, the depth, the temperature, the saltness, and the spe-

cific gravity of the sea-water in those high latitudes—the velo-
city of the currents, the state of atmospherical electricity in
the arctic regions, and its connexion, at which we have glanced,
with the inclination, declination, and intensity of force of the
magnetic needle ; on which subject alone, a collection of facts
towards the upper part of Davis’s Straits would be worth a
voyage of discovery. It has, indeed, been long suspected that
one of the magnetic poles will be found in this neighbourhood,
as in no part of the world have such extraordinary phenomena
been observed, or such irregularities in the vibration and the
variation of the needle.

*¢

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104 The Northwest Passage, Se. wee

‘© A comparison of the magnetic influence near the pole, _
, es

with what it has been observed to be on the equator, might
lead to important results ; and the swinging of a pendulum. as
near the pole as can be approached, to compare with the oscil-
lations observed in the Shetland Islands, and in the southern
hemisphere, would be a great point gained for science.”

We have no room in this Number to consider the probability
of success in this attempt, nor the question, whether the break-
ing up of the Greenland ice, and its passage to, and dissolution
in, the south, have been attended with a chilling influence on
the continents. That such a chilling effect might be exten-

.

“

sively exerted, is certainly credible. Approaching some of |

the icebergs, in April 1805, on the shoals of Newfoundland,
we were rendered very sensible of the vicinity of such dan-
gerous neighbours, by the great chill in the air, long before
they were visible ; and when we had passed them, the weather
again grew milder. '

Perhaps it militates against the pvdlleabiliig of finding the
northern polar basin free of ice, that Captain Cook, in his
approximation to the southern pole, in January, 1773, when in
latitude 67° 15’ south, ‘could proceed no farther; the ice
being entirely closed to the south, in the whole extent from_
east to west-southwest, without the least appearance of any
opening.” The advanced season of the year did not, however,
permit Captain Cook to ascertain whether he could coast
around this ice—whether it was ultimately attached to land, or
was a part of a vast field extending to the south pole. This last

_is however highly improbable, because being found about 23°

from the pole, it is hardly credible that it. would occupy so
extensive a region as to embrace the pole, and, perhaps extend
as much farther beyond; especially as in similar latitudes in
the opposite hemisphere, navigation is comparatively free, and
has been pushed even to more than 80° of north latitude.

The scientific, as well as the commercial world, will wait
with no small impatience for the termination of the two grand
arctic expeditions, which are among the most original and
daring, and may be among the most interesting and momentous
hitherto undertaken by man.

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CONTENTS.

a

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

Art. I. Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of a
section of Massachusetts, on Connecticut
river, with a part of New-Hampshire and

Vermont, by Edward Hitchcock, A.M. Prin-

cipal of Deerfield Academy .

Art. Il. On the Prairies and Barrens of the eer ie
Caleb Atwater, Pad. 2 is

Art. Il]. Account of the Coal Mines in he te 2
. Richmond, Virginia, by Mr. John ee”
JUN. oo ecu

Art. IV. Sketch of the Wedouy ~ Artes Le a a
part of the State of Indiana, by Mr. . B.

(epcicBtilsons becdisn « ’

Art. V.- New localities of Aapites Chalcediny, Chobe
Stilbite, Analcime, Titanium, Prehnite, &c..

Art. VI. Account of the Strata perforated by, and of

the Minerals found in, the great adit to the
Southampton Lead Mine, by Mr. Amos Eaton,
Lecturer on Geology, Botany, &. . . .

Art. VII. On the Peat of Dutchess County, by the Rev.
F. C. Schaeffer :

Art. VIII. Notices of Geology in the West-Indies, by

Dr. Nugent . . .

Art. 1X. Discovery of Native Crystallized (Cashonats of
Magnesia on Staten-Island, with a Notice of
its Geology, by James Pierce, Esq.

Art. X. On a curious substance found with the native
Nitre of Kentucky and of A Pye Samuel
Brown, M.D. :

BOTANY.

‘Art. XI. Description of species of Sponges observed on

the shores of Long-Island, by C. S. Rafi-
nesgue, Esq. .- . +..+ - ; : :
A

Page

116
125
131

134

136
139

140
142

146

149

aig?

¥ ui

_ Art. XIV. Description of ee <eelosonniza)

a claration of Independence . . .. . . 200

ia

CONTENTS.
oe Page
Art. XII. Memoir on the Xanthium maculatum, by the
Same (fae |. 8 a yall se
ZOOLOGY.
Art. XIII. Description of the Phalena Devastator—the
Insect that produces the fiateprty by Mr.

John P. Brace . . . a's. ategdes | 0 ee
new genus of
Fresh-water Fish, by C. S. Rafinesque, Esq. 155

ti, PHYSICS, “MECHANICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

Sat. XV. On the Revolving Steam-Engine of Mr. Sa-
- * muel Morey, communicated by John L. Sul-
in LS: a pe di . As
Art. XVI. Cautions regarding Fulininating Powilths . 168

' USEFUL ARTS.
Art. XVII.* Account of a Parisian method of obtaining —
Gelatine from bones, by Mr. Isaac Doolittle | 170
Art. XVIII. On the use of Distilled Seawater for do-
mestic purposes—from the Annales de Chi- P
ghieeeror oe ol aoe eM ade, fe

FINE ARTS.) “ee
Art. XIX. Essay on Musical Temperament, by Profes-
sor Fisher . ce Cee

Art. XX. Notice of Col. Trumbull’s Picture of the De-

INTELLIGENCE. Vea

*

Art. XXJ. An Address to the People of the Western — "

; ‘Country . . Aig i mos 8
Art. XXII. Extract of a letter fii Col. Gibbs, ei ae F
effect of light on the Magnetical power . . 207 ©
Art. XXIII. On anew Lamp, without flame—from the, 354
- Annals of Philosophy) . SAR eR. as

* ERRATUM.

‘Ta the text this Article was, by inadventence, numbered XIX, and all the suc Se ’
ceeding Articles of this Number are marked two higher than they a to be.

ei 7
,
P. . ?
cue i
. ;

‘W ad "

_ ae

*
a

AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.
4 te Stare | r

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

—~=—IObIe=—

Art. I. Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of a
Section of Massachusetts on Connecticut River, with a
Part of New-Hampshire and Vermont; by Epwarp
Hrreucock, A.M. Principal of Deerfield Academy.

Te geology of this tract, from a few miles south of North-
-.. ampton in Massachusetts, to the north boundary of Brattle-
borough in Vermont, and of Chesterfield in New-Hampshire,
is shown on the subjoined map. The primitive formation,
except the argillite, is coloured vermilion; the secondary,
blue ; and the alluvial, gamboge yellow, according to Cleave-
land. The alluvial part is elevated above the bed of Connec-
ticut river from 10 to 100 feet, and, in most places, reposes
on red sandstone. The soil in the northern part is generally
argillaceous ; but in the southern more siliceous. The se-
condary formation consists chiefly of detached eminences that
rise abruptly from the plain, and are composed of red sand-
stone and puddingstone alternating, except the elevations A
and B, (Holyoke and Tom) and a part of the range CD, pass-
ing through Deerfield and Greenfield, which are greenstone.
The part coloured rose-red consists of argillite, sometimes

ay Vox. I.....No. 2: 11

¥

4
“a

er.

ds " ‘
2 nae bie

es

106 Geology of Deerfield, &e.

alternating with mica slate, siliceous slate, or chlorite slate.
It is thus coloured to show the extent of the argillite, and not
from a belief that this rock is of the transition class; for in
this region the argillite is undoubtedly primitive. Some quar-
ries of this rock have been opened in Massachusetts ; and in
Vermont are extensively wrought. I have not learnt how far
the argillite extends northward in Vermont and New-Hamp-
shire. Its strata are almost Bee ner, inclining a few de-
grees to the west.

The primitive region on the west side of Connecticut river,
included by the map, is made up of mica slate, as a prevailing
rock, particularly in the northern part. Hornblende slate
sometimes alternates with this, and sienite appears in various
places, though its strata are generally thin. Limestone also
occurs in Deerfield, Conway, Colrain, &c. of a dull brown
colour. It contains so large a proportion of silex that it is
often but little removed from granular quartz. Lime for
building has sometimes been obtained from it. A range of
granite, containing veins of lead ore, appears at Southampton,
and proceeds to Hatfield. North of this, the other rocks
cover it, and it does not again rise within the limits of the map.

Sienite is the prevailing rock on the east side of Connecti-
cut river in the primitive region, more particularly in the
southern part. In some places a narrow stratum of mica slate
lies next to the conglomerate of the secondary formation, and a
range of graphic and common granite has been observed
in Amherst and Leverett, lying next te the mica slate. Other.
veins of granite also traverse the sienite ; and gneiss occurs in
many places. The proportion of hornblende in the sienite
‘is generally small, and mica is often present in considerable
proportion. Porphyritic sienite is common in this quarter, and
steatite occurs in its eastern part.

Most of the primitive region on the map is broken and
mountainous, being made up of parallel ridges and detached
eminences. The strata run nearly north and south, and dip
to the east at angles between 20° and 60°. It would be easy
to extend the map on the west to the top of Hoosack mountain,
éince the country is all primitive ; and en the east the primi-

“
‘>

Geology of Beerfield, &c. | 107

tive continues, with a few exceptions, to the ocean. The map
might also be extended to the boundary of Connecticut, by
prolonging the primitive ranges with some divergency, and
colouring the intermediate space secondary, except a narrow
tract on the east side of Connecticut river, which is alluvial.
These extensions were not thought necessary.

In the town of Gill, at E, there is a cataract in Connecticut
river, from 30 to 40 feet in height ; and it is believed that the
alluvial region, and part of the secondary shown on the map
from this fall to the place where the river passes between
mount Holyoke and Tom, was formerly the bed of a lake:
for the logs are still found undecayed in many places, from
10 to 20 feet below the surface ; the river has evidently worn
a passage between Holyoke and Tom: many of the hills on
the northern part, and the sandstone on the plain, bear the
marks of having been washed by water, and the channels of
two rivers are still visible in Deerfield, the one 30, and the
other 100 feet above the present bed of Connecticut river.
Between mount Tom and the mountains west, there is a
secondary plain of sufficient height to throw back the water
over the supposed bed of the lake, before a passage was worn
between Holyoke and Tom. South of these hills commences
another alluvial and secondary tract, extending on both sides

_ ef the river to Haddam, in Connecticut, where the river passes
between mountains, and perhaps this region also was the:bed

of a lake. cn

“The plain on which the village of Deerfield stands, with the
adjoining meadows, is sunk 50 or 60 feet below the general
alluvial tract, and was undoubtedly the bed of a pond, or small
lake, that remained after the larger one of which we have
spoken had subsided. When this larger lake decreased, Deer-
field river was cut off from a communication with the Connec-
ticut by the mountain CD, and the plain extending westward
from this mountain. There is a tradition, derived from the
aboriginals of Deerfield, that the passage in which Deerfield
river now runs through the mountain CD, was begun by 4,
squaw with a clam-shell,

11 4

oe

raat ee 7

108 Geology of Deerfield, &c.

On the margin of these meadows, at considerable elevation,
numerous small conical excavations appear. On di below
the surface, stones are found calcined by fire. et are
probably the spots where Indian wigwams formerly stood.
Many vestiges of the aboriginals are frequently found in
Deerfield, such as beads, stone pots, mortars, pipes, axes, and
the barbs of arrows and pikes. Near the village they had a
burial-ground, where many skeletons have been uncovered.
A roll of human hair was lately found here, by Mr. J. C. Hoyt
of Deerfield, three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and three
inches long, closely tied by a string made of the hide of some
animal, which string was encircled by brass or copper clasps
greatly oxidized; but the hair and string were in a good state
of preservation, though they must have lain there more than
acentury. In the meadows, logs, leaves, butternuts, and wal-
nuts are found undecayed, 15 feet below the surface ; and
stumps of trees have been observed at that depth standing yet
firmly where they once grew. In the same meadows, a few
years since, several toads were dug up from 15 feet below the
surface, aud three feet in gravel. They soon recovered from
a torpid state, and hopped away.

The small range of hills beginning at the south line of Deer-
field, and terminating in Gill, deserves description. At its
commencement on the south, a conical hill, called Sugar Loaf,

of red conglomerate, rises abruptly from the plain 500 feet.
The appearance of this hill, as you come from the south, is
picturesque, and it is an interesting feature of the country.
The range becomes higher for three miles, where, at its
greatest elevation, it is 730 feet above the bed of Deerfield
river. The west side of the mountain is precipitous, and in
some places naked. The ascent on the other side is gentle.

Both sides of this hill are sandstone and puddingstone, fre- «
quently alternating: though these are most extensive on the
west side, and as we rise the puddingstone predominates. The
strata dip to the east about 10 degrees. Near the centre of
this range is a ridge of greenstone, with a mural face on the
west, and amorphous masses lying at the base, half way up to

— Geology of Deerfield, &c. 109

its summit. - This ridge does not rise so high-as the pudding-
stone on the west of it, as may be seen in the view of strata
with the map. It commences on the west bank of Connecticut
river, about a mile north of the hill C, and increases in eleva-
tion nearly to the spot where it disappears at the fall of the
river in Gill. This rock does not appear to rest on sandstone,
but to descend through it, where there is an opportunity ioe
observation. Deerfield river has worn a passage through the
sandstone and greenstone 150 feet deep, and the greenstone
passes underits bed, and the sandstone, at a few rods distant
lies on each side of the greenstone. A similar fact has been
noticed at the fall in Connecticut river, in Gill. YetI have
coloured this greenstone secondary on the map ; for it is cer-
tain that Mount Tom rests on sandstone, and it is stated by
Professor Silliman, that the same rock does in Connecticut.
Could we penetrate deeper below the surface, it is probable
the same would be found to be the case with this greenstone.
As stated above, this rock disappears near the cataract in
Gill, and it is succeeded by puddingstone. But four miles
farther north, it again emerges in Bernardstone, though it
rises but little above the surface. Here its character. is
changed. The hornblende is more crystalline, and the rock
becomes decidedly primitive, as you approach a mountain of
argillite and mica slate, into which it passes, and no greenstone
has been observed north of this. It terminates not far from
the line of Vermont. The red sandstone and conglomerate
also terminate on the opposite side of the river in Northfield.
The greenstone in the above described range, is of a finer
texture than the same rock in Connecticut; and the feldspar,
in some specimens, is scarcely discernible with a microscope.
Indeed, in many instances, the eye would decide the rock to
be basalt. Much of it is fissile, the lamine varying from half
an inch to a foot in thickness. This is most perceptible among
the loose masses ; but it exists also in that in place. Whether
this circumstance be accidental, I will not attempt to decide.
A large proportion of the greenstone of our vicinity consti-
tutes the base of amygdaloid. The imbedded substances are
calcareous spar, quartz, chalcedony, analcime, prehnite, &c

110 Geology of Deerfield, &¢.

aS Vi Il be more particularly meitioned hereafter. Globular
soncr ions of greenstone are common in this amygdaloid,
sera inches in one and of greater specific gravity on

Bee, ate quite coal and are well axtivuleeeis exhibi
their joints considerable concavities and convexities
are from oné to thirty feet long, and, in their natural p
incline a few degrees to the east, as may be seen in the vi 1eV
of strata with the map; A few have been noticed that make
lateral curves. One of these hexagonal columns measures at
one end as follows :—Diagonals, 27, 29, and 293 inches ; sides,
161, 133, 113, 17, 112, and 163 inches. The convexity of
this column is a little more than an inch. The best instances
of these prisms occur one mile east from the village of Deer-
field.

Masses of greenstone are found at ponsidiesile distance
from the rarige; among the puddingstone. One has been
noticed weighing many tons, a hundred rods from the range of
greenstone, and on much higher ground: Some of these
scattered fragments contain chalcedony. .A specimen of pe-
trosiliceous porphyry has been found among the same pud-
dingstone, and also a mass of singular, though not well defined,
amygdaloid, whose base is similar to wacke; and imbedded

substances are calcareous spar, chlorite, and green earth.

The elevation in the north part of Sunderland, éalled Toby,
from 800 to 900 feet high, is chiefly conglomeraté, red, brown;
or greenish, which, in some parts, alternates with chlorite
slate, secondary argillite, and a sandstone that seems to be
passing into gray wacke slate. Some of the imbedded masses
in this puddingstone are quite large, its cement is frequently
calcareous, its aspect is singular, and it is very different from
the puddingstone before described, on the opposite side of the
river. At the foot of this mountain, in the bottom of Con-
necticut river, distinct impressions of fish are found on a
schistose rock, like the one above mentioned as passing intd
gray wacke slate. This same species of slate occurs in seve-
ral other places at the bottom of Connecticut river, as at the

Geology of Deerfield, &c. ets HWE

fall in Gill. In ‘this last place bituminous s] |
noticed. it Sie
In Mount Toby, in Sunderland, is a cave n |
above ‘the bed of Connecticut river. It opens to the north

forming a quarter of a circle, is 130 feet in extent,
d from 3 to 20 wide. A little to the south of
re in the puddingstone, formed by a separation of
Stl wide, and as deep as the cave. So perfect
vi sion, that it appears as if cloven down by the sword

me Titan. Perhaps this cave and fissure were formed
yt the washing of the waters of the lake we have mentioned
on the sandstone and conglomerate. beneath; thus causing
the superincumbent rock to fall and separate There is no
appearance of any other convulsion. Imperfect, calcareous
stalactites are found in this cave.

The falls in Connecticut river, at E, are not unworthy of
notice. The river here is about 40 rods wide, and the height
of the main cataract, raised considerably by an artificial dam,
is 30 feet. The fall continues two miles. On the north bank
you view the cataract from elevated ground, and can see
the river nearly a mile above and below—above, perfectly
smooth and calm, below, forming a quarter of a circle, and
tumbling among the broken rocks. On the opposite side of
the river are a few buildings, the commencement of a canal,
and, behind these, moderately clovated hills, covered with
woods. ‘Two rocky islands near the middle of the descending
sheet, and another thirty rods below, add much to the beauty
of the view. Looking from the southeast shore, you have a
partial prospect of the falls, and a view of an amphitheatre of
greenstone hills, through which a small river empties. The
pleasure derived from the view proceeds more from its wild-
ness than its sublimity.

The position of the hills, boundaries, and rivers, on the
accompanying map, may not, in all cases, be precisely correct.
The general outlines were enlarged by a pentegraph from
Carleton’s map of Massachusetts, and the intermediate objects
were placed chiefly by the eye ; their relative situations being
determined by travelling over the ground, and viewing them

“112, Geology of Deerfield, &c. ”

from different elevations. The boundaries of the several
formations have not been so carefully noticed near the angles
of the map as in the central parts. Of their correctness gene-
rally, however, I am confident. The latitude and longitude
of Deerfield, from which those on the map were marked,
were obtained by taking a mean of the observatiens given by
Gen. E. Hoyt, in the Transactions of the American emy
of Arts and Sciences, and of twelve lunar observations since
made. The result is, Lat. 42° 32 32”. Long. 72° 39' from ~
Greenwich. .

With the map is given a view of the strata of rocks from
Hoosack mountain to eleven miles east of Connecticut river,
on a line nearly east and west, passing through Deerfield.
The horizontal distances are laid down from a scale: the ele-
vations are assumed. The principal rocks only are coloured ;
for it is very difficult to,determine the breadth of many, since
they frequently alternate with one another. I have not ex-
amined the country on the east side of Connecticut river with
sufficient care to be able to extend the section on that side
more than a few miles. ua

It may not be amiss to mention, that Mount Holyoke, so
much celebrated for the delightful view from its top, has been
found, with a sextant, to be 830 feet above Connecticut river.
Its height has been frequently overrated.

The mineralogy of this section of the country has been but
imperfectly explored. I shall mention those minerals only of
which I have obtained specimens, and whose localities have
not been noticed by mineralogists.

Quartz—several varieties. ;

1. Rock Crystal—abundant. Some good specimens are found
in Conway, on feldspar, with the usual hexagonal, pris-
matic crystals, and these crystals cross each other in
all directions,

2. Irised Quartz—found in Leyden.

3. Granular Quartz—in Deerfield.

4. Radiated Quartz—in Whately and Sholbamanie x

5. Blue Quartz—in rolled masses on the banks of Bi dnhola
river.

- =

eo se

Geology of Deerfield, Ge.

6. Greasy Quartz—in same place.

te Pseudomorphous Quartz—in greenstone, Deerfield.

8. Lamellar Quartz—in same place. The lamine some-

times penetrate crystals of common quartz.

9. Tubular, or Pectinated Quartz—in same place.

10. Quartz Geodes—in same place.

Prase—in the north part of Sunderland. (Not good speci-
mens.)

Amethyst—in Greenstone, Deerfield: the colour is not

deep, but delicate.

Chalcedony—in same place—considerably abundant, but
generally in small masses.

Carnelian—in same place, not plenty. The chalcedony, in
some specimens, seems to be passing into cacholong, and
the carnelian into sardonyx.

“Igate—in same place. Itis made up of chalcedony, carne-
lian, and quartz. They are generally small, but some
are elegant. ,

Jasper, red, and yellow—found in rolled masses on the banks
of Deerfield river and in Leyden. Some has been found
imperfectly striped. It occurs frequently as it was formed
by the aboriginals into barbs for pikes and arrows.

Petrosilea—on the banks of Deerfield river—not good speci-
mens.

Feldspar—the red variety occurs in puddingstone, Deer-
field. It is not necessary to mention any other locality of
a mineral so common.

Hornblende—very abundant—mostly black in this vicinity.
Mica—this is very abundant on the east side of Connecticut
river. Some crystals of it have been found in Amherst.

Tale—in Shutesbury.

Steatite. The localities of this. are seen on the section.
The aboriginals formed many articles from this mineral,
as pots, pipes, &c.

Chlorite—in Shutesbury : also in amygdaloid, Deerfield.
In Deerfield academy there are some Indian pipes of this
mineral, well wrought.

Green Earth—in small quantities, mm amygdaloid, Deerfield.

‘lid Geology of Deerfield, Sc.

Schorl—the black variety occurs in Pelham, Shutesbury,
and Orange, Mass., and in Brattleborough, Vermont.
Epidote—in Deerfield, Shutesbury, Leyden, and Pelham,
~ and in Athol, Worcester county. The specimens poor.

Tremolite—in the west part of Leyden, near Green river.
The rock in this region is chiefly mica state, and the
quantity of tremolite is very great. Toons of it might be
easily collected.

€yanite, or Sappare—in Deerfield, in mica slate ; disco-
vered by Dr. S. W. Williams.

Actynolite—rare, found in Shutesbury.

Serpentine—found in Leyden in rolled masses. Some of the
specimens admit a fine polish, and the ground is hand-
somely variegated. It has not been noticed in situ.

Asbestus—compact, in Pelham.

Garnets—very plenty in Conway, Deerfield, Shelburne, &c.

_ Good specimens of the melanite occur in Conway.
_ Native Alum—in Leyden, in small pets efflorescing on
argillaceous slate. Be lee

Sulphur—in Conway, Shelburne, and Warwick, “efflorescing.
on mica slate. ‘ (Ava!

Prehnite—in greenstone, Deerfield, encrusting the columns
and in radiated masses, but rarely crystallized. The
veins of it, when in place, are nearly perpendicular.

Zeolite—in same place, not abundant. Some good speci-
mens of the radiated variety are found.

Chabaste—in same place, considerably abundant. No crystals
have yet been found whose sides exceed a quarter of an
inch. It occurs in the veins of the greenstone, in geodes,
on balls of zeolite, on chalcedony, on lamellar quartz, &c.

Stzlbite—in same place, not abundant. It is commonly asso-
ciated with chabasie, and the crystals, ne ar are
well defined.

inalcime—in same place, very abundant, aga’ is associated
with quartz and amethyst, which are sometime
by analcime. It generally occurs in cylindr
and radiated masses. A few as crys

- been observed.

if

Geology of Deerfield, &e. 13

Laminated Calcareous Spar—in the same place, not uncom-
mon. ap sala

Chalcedony, carnelian, agate, amethyst, prehnite, zeolite,
chabasie, stilbite, and analcime, have been found nearly
in the same place; and it may not be amiss to observe,
that this spot is distant from Deerfield Academy about
one mile, and bears from the same, by a true meridian,
Be or, 15 5

Jron Sand—found in considerable quantity near the falls in
Connecticut river, on the Montague shore.

Sulphate of Iron—in Conway, in small quantities, efflorescing
on mica slate.

Sulphuret of Iron—in Halifax, Vermont, in abundance ; also

in Charlemont, Mass., Deerfield, &c.

Magnetic Oxide of Iron—very common in the region west of
Connecticut river. I have observed it in Athol, Worces-
ter county. —

Specular Onide of Tron—some veins of this ore occur in
Hawley, Bernardstown, and Warwick, and have been
wrought to a small extent.

Micaceous Oxide of Iron—in the iron mine in Hawley.

Green Carbonate of Copper—in greenstone, in Greenfield.
This ore constitutes a vein on the bank of Connecticut
river, passing into the hill on one side, and under the
river on the other. It has never been wrought, nor,
indeed, is its locality publicly known.

Copper Pyrites—in the same vein, not abundant, at the sur-
face.

Sulphate of Barytes—in the same place, Sonstibuting the
immediate walls of the vein. Its breadth on the wall
varies from an inch to a foot, and the breadth of thé vein
is 6 or 8 feet.

Galena—i me bately. This is probably from a continuation

vein of this ore that appears at Montgomery,
x n, and Hatfield. A single crystal has been

same range, in Greenfield, twelve miles

north of Whately 5 but it was not in place.

:

116 C. Atwater, Esq. on the

Red Oxyde of Titantum—in Leyden, crystallized on quariz
and tremolite, chiefly on the latter; colour brownish
red—specific gravity 4.°32; scratches glass, hand-
somely geniculated, and sometimes several géniculations
in the same specimen; in one as many as six could be
perceived.

Eagle Stone, or Nodular argillaceous Oxide of Iron—one
specimen on the banks of Deerfield river.

Rose-red Quartz—a loose mass in alluvial soil, Deerfield.

Red Oxide of Titanitwm—in Shelburne.

I would acknowledge my peculiar obligations to Professor
Silliman, of New-Haven, and to Dr. David Hunt, of North-
ampton, Mass. for the very generous assistance they have
given me in a commencement of the study of mineralogy, and
for their liberal aid in this particular communication. Their
kindness, it is believed, will not soon be forgotten. To
_ several others, also, I am indebted for communicating facts of
importance.

Deerfield, October, 1817. >

Art. II. On the Prairies and Barrens of the West, by
' Cares Atwater, Esa. in Letters to the Editor.

CrrcLevinie, Ohio, May 28, 1818.
Dear Sir,

I SEND you for publication in the Journal of Science, an
Essay on the Prairies and Barrens found in this country.

Description of the Prairies.

Prairie is a French word, signifying a meadow, but is here
applied only to natural meadows. They are found in all the
states and territories west of the Allegany mountains, more or
less numerous, of greater or less extent. They are covered
with a coarse kind of grass, which, before the country is settled

Prairies and Barrens of the West. 117

in their vicinity, grows to the height of six or seven feet.
After these natural meadows are fed upon by domestic animals,
the grass does not grow to a greater height than it does in
common pastures. Sometimes this grass is intermixed with
weeds and plum-bushes. Some of those prairies are dry, while
others are moist. Pickaway Plains, in Pickaway county, in the
State of Ohio, lying a small distance south of this place, are
nearly seven miles in length, and about three miles in width, on
ground considerably elevated above the Scioto river, almost per-
fectly level, and, in their native state, were covered with agreat
quantity of grass, some weeds and plum-bushes ; and in the
most elevated places, there were a few trees. This was one
great prairie.

Sandusky Plains, lying on the high ground between the head
waters of the Whetstone branch of the Scioto river, and the
waters of streams running into Lake Erie, are still more exten-
sive than those of Pickaway, covered with a coarse, tall grass,
intermixed with weeds, with here and there atree, presenting
to the eye a landscape of great extent.

The moist prairies generally lie along some stream, or at the.
head of one, on level land, or on that which gently descends.
The moist prairies are too wet for trees to grow on them; and
whether moist or dry, the soil, for a greater or less depth, is
always alluvial, resting on pebbles and sand, such as are found
at the bottom of rivers, ponds, and lakés. In some instances,
the writer is credibly informed, that the shells of muscles are
found imbedded in the pebbles and sand. That these shells,
such as abound in our rivers, ponds, and lakes, should be
found in low prairies along the banks of waters which fre-
quently overflow them, excites no wonder, nor even surprise ;
but that these shells should be found thus imbedded in pebbles
and sand underneath several feet of alluvial soil, in situations
more than one hundred feet above the waters of any stream
now in existence, is calculated to perplex the mind of the
superficial observer. These prairies are found in the western
half of the State of Ohio, and north of the hills adjacent to the
river of that name. They are also found in every state and
territory west of the Alleganies, from the great northern lakes

118 C. Atwater, Esq. on the

on the north, to the Mexican Gulf on the south; from the.

western foot of the Allegany mountains, to the eastern one of
the Rocky mountains, up the Missouri. In summer, the grass
which spontaneously covers them, feeds immense herds of
cattle ; in winter, the hay that is cut on them, with a little
Indian corn or maize, feeds and fattens the same herds. Some
of these prairies extend as far as the eye can reach; others
contain only afew perches of ground.

Description of the Barrens.

“But besides these prairies, there are also exterisine tracts of
country in this part of the Union which deserve and shall
receive our notice ; they are called “Barrens.” From their
appellation, Banter, the person unacquainted with them
is not te suppose them thus called from their sterility, because
most of them are quite the reverse. These barrens are found
in a level country, with here and there a gentle-rise, only a
_ few feet higher than the land around it. On these little rises,
for they are not hills, trees grow, and grass also ; but grass
and weeds are the only occupants of the soil where there is
no rise of ground. The soil is alluvial to greater or less depth
in these barrens, though on some of the highest rises there is
little or none; the lower the ground the deeper the alluvion,
On these gentle rises, where there is no alluvion, we find stiff,
blue clay, and no pebbles. Under the alluvial black soil, in
the lower grounds, we find pebbles similar to those in the
prairies, owing to similar causes. On the little ridges, where-
yer the land is not too: moist, the oak or the hickory has
taken possession, and there grows to a moderate height, in
clusters. It would seem, that whenever the land had become
sufficiently dry for an acorn or a hickory-nut to sprout, take
root, and grow, it did so; and from one or more of these trees,
in time, others have grown around them in such clusters as we
now behold. Where the land is lower, the soil deeper, more
moist and more fertile, the grass was too thick, and the soil too
wet, for such kind of trees to grow in as were found in the
immediate “vicinity, Imagine, then, natural meadows, of

ae.

Prairies and Barrens of the West. 119

various dimensions, and of every figure which the imagination
ean conceive, with here and there a gentle rise of ground,
decked with a few scattering trees or a thick cluster of them,
and bearing a tall, coarse grass, which is thin on the rises, but on
the lower grounds. thick and luxuriant ; imagine, also, a rill of
a reddish colour scarcely meandering through ground a little
lower than the surrounding plain, and you will have a very
correct idea of the appearance of these barrens. They are
generally (not always) found on what, in our western dialect,
is called second bottom, and not on a level with any streams of
magnitude, but. rather at their sources. To mention all the
counties of this State where these prairies and barrens are
found, would be too tedious, and illy comport with the object
which we have inview. We shall therefore content ourselves
with describing those found in the north half of Fayette county,
and the adjoining county ef Madison, which may be said to be
almost entirely one great barren of more than forty miles
extent from north to south, and generally half as much in
breadth from east to west. The great barren in Fayette,
Madison, and, we may add, in the counties still north of them,
is on land elevated from fifty to one hundred feet above the
level of the Scioto river, into which the streams that have
their sources in this tract of country generally run. This
land lies so level that the waters stand on it too long for grain
to thrive equally with grass, unless, indeed, the farmer should
dig a long drain, which is easily effected by the plough, with
a little assistance from the hoe and the spade. But as nature
seems to have intended this tract of country for the raising of
éattle instead of grain, the husbandman has listened to the sug-
gestion, and in this great barren are found some thousands of
the finest cattle which the State affords. Here the horse, the
ox, and the swine feed, thrive, and fatten with little expense to
their owner; but sheep do not, and never will, thrive on
prairie grass, or wet grounds. Fruit-trees, the peach, the
apple, the plum, &c. do very well when planted on the gently
rising grounds, where the hickory or the oak had once stood.
Fruit-trees, such as have been named, thrive very well also
on the dry prairies. On the eastern side of the Allegany

a

+.

7

120 C. Atwater, Esq. on the

mountains there neither is, nor was there ever, any thing like —

these prairies and barrens, if we except those found in the
western part of New-York, in the Genesee country, and in
the vicinity of the lakes in that quarter. These, the writer of
this saw nearly thirty years since, and before that country was
much settled. Those prairies were similar in appearance
to ours in the west, and were, beyond doubt, formed by similar
means. :

‘

Speculations on the Origin of the Prairies and Barrens.

meadows ? That water was the principal agent in the
nation, we very little doubt; but this is not the commor

‘opinion. According to that opinion, our prairies and barrens,

and especially the latter, were occasioned entirely by the
burning of the woods by the Indians, in order to take the wild
game. Let us try this opinion by the indubitable appearances
exhibited by these prairies and barrens.

They are invariably found ina level country, or in one
which is nearly so; and the soil is generally, if not always,

- more oes than that which is uneven and hilly. Would not

the leaves, where the land is dry, burn over with as great

facility, or even with greater facility, than the > grass would

where the land is wet? Would there not be more ¥ wild game
where they could find their food in plenty, such as acorns and
hickory nuts, on which they feed in winter, than on land
where no food, except dry grass and weeds, were to be found ?.
It is well known that these prairies and barrens could not

“3p

‘*

4
Lae
7%

be burnt over when the vegetable productions which cover ‘

them were growing. At the only season when it is possible
to burn them, that is in winter, to what kind of regions do the
wild animals resort? Is it not to the thick woods? Every
hunter will answer in the affirmative. For the space of twenty-
five years, the writer of this lived in the vicinity of Indians,

and from information on which he relies, as well as from his —

own actual observation, he confidently avers that the Indians
neither are; nor ever were, in the habit of firing the woods

ows of corn-hills were plainly discernible. I refseine a

et —

Prairies and Barrens of the West. 121

“@.

in order to take game.. Erroneous information first propagated

_ such an opinion, and blind credulity ‘has extended it down to

s. Another opinion, equally groundless, prevails to a consi-
derable extent ; and that is, that these prairies have all been
heretofore cultivated by the aborigines, and that the grass hay-
ing overspread these plains, prevented the growth of trees on
them. The Indians, it is to be presumed, never cultivated
any other grain than maize, or Indian corn, and yet we see»
few or no corn-hills in any part of this country. In the west-
ern part of New-York, before it was settled by its present,
inhabitants, thousands and thousands of acres were to be seen,

the trees were as large as any in the forest, and yet: the

“manner to what is now called Cayuga county. '

‘the growth of grass had not prevented the growth of trees, nor

didit here. We know that some of these prairies were culti-
vated by the Indians, but never to any very considerable
extent. This country never was thickly settled by Indians,
like the shores of the Atlantic and the banks of the rivers run-
ning into it. No, it was the ancestors of the Peruvians and
the Mexicans who lived here in great numbers, before they

~ migrated to South America. wit a te

The question then recurs, by what powerful means were
and barrens formed ?

water was the principal agent, we infer from the a
that the soil is always alluvial to greater or less depth ;
former we call prairie, the latter barren. But how could :

- country from the southern shore of Lake Erie to Chillicothe,

a distance of more than one hundred and fifty miles from north
to south, ever be covered with water long enough to form
alluvial soil, in many places from four to six feet in depth? 1
answer, that the Niagara river, the present outlet of Lake Erie,
has worn away several hundred feet, and in that way the lake.
is lowered in the same proportion. The high land, composed

entirely of sand, originally extending from the Ohio northerly
“upwards of forty miles, to Chillicothe, has been worn through

by the Scioto river; and the waters which once for ages:
covered the whole country north of the hills along the Ohio
Vor. §...,.N6. 2. 12

*
f

“a

* :*

s
o

122 _ C. Atwater, Esq. on the ue

river have been drained off, and the dry land appears where.
once stood the waters of lakes Erie and Michigan, then form-
ing but one great lake. I am fully impressed with the belief,
that were the bottom of Niagara river as high as it once was,
the upper. lakes would now, as formerly, empty themselves
into the Ohio by the Scioto and Miami rivers, and into the
Mississippi by the Illinois. I might proceed to examine every
part of the country where prairies and barrens are found ; but
they have all been formed by the same agent, and that is water.
An objection to this opinion may be raised by some, that these
prairies and barrens are frequently found in the counties of
Delaware, Champaign, Madison, Fayette, &c. on ground con-
siderably elevated. Are they higher than the hills near Chil-
licothe? From a‘careful inspection, but without any instru-
ments, I am convinced that they are none of them as high.
There is no perpendicular fall of water, but merely a gra-
dual descent, from Columbus to the Ohio; nay, there is no
fall from the very source of the Scioto to its mouth. Every
one acquainted with hydrostatics, knows that water will run
briskly where the descent is only a few inchesinamile. The
writer believes that the Scioto, from its source to the Ohio
river, does not descend more than one hundred feet, and that
the present surface of Lake Erie is about on a level with the
Ohio in a freshet ; that before the channel of Niagara river
was deepened, as it evidently has been, by the attrition of that
‘mighty stream ; and before the hills adjacent to the Ohio were
“ worn down by the waters of the Scioto, the whole country
north of Chillicothe, where these hills commence, to Lake
Erie inclusive, was covered with water, except the very
highest hills in the counties of Greene, &c. which were then
islands. What tends to corroborate this opinion is, that on
these high grounds we find limestone and other rocks, and —
indications of gypsum ; but no alluvion, and none of those frag-
ments and ruins which are produced by water acting mecha-
nically upon a country for a long space of time. We might
mention other parts of country where prairies and barrens”
abound, and which have been formed by water. ‘Those along
Greene river, in Kentucky, have evidently been covered by

“ Prairies and Barrens of the West. 123

did waters of that river. The bed of that stream has been
deepened by the constant flowing of the water along its. chan-
nel; the water is drained off, and the prairies and barrens
now occupy’ the soil which the water had made and formerly
covered. The prairies above the falls of Hockhocking, along
that river, have evidently been formed in the same way, and
owe their origin and appearances to similar causes. There is
near Lancaster, on the last-mentioned river in the State of
Ohio, and near the great road, a gentle rise of ground in the
prairie, which has every appearance of having been an island,
and is so called by the people of the vicinity.

In fine, wherever prairies and barrens are found, there, for
a long space of time, water once stood, but was gradually
drained off. Else why alluvial soil to such a depth, in low
situations, and growing thinner as we ascend on ground more
elevated ? Else why do we find rocks in more elevated tracts
of country, and not in prairies or barrens? Else why do we
find no alluvion, no grass, but a thick growth of ancient forest-
trees on the higher lands? Else why do we find beneath the
alluvion of the prairies, pebbles and shells similar to those at
the bottom of lakes and ponds ? Else why do the higher grounds
to this moment present the appearances of so many islands ?
And all these indications where no stream now in existence
could by possibility have reached them ?

That the waters which once covered so great a part of this
State (Ohio) were drawn off gradually, we infer from the fact,
that there is not a single indication of the effects of an earth-
quake or volcano, from the foot of the Allegany to the banks
of the Mississippi: in this region not a stone nor a layer of
earth has been misplaced, nor its position changed.

But an interesting inquiry here presents itself. Were the
hills along the Ohio, before they were worn away by the
streams which now empty themselves into that river, ever
high enough to raise the water to the north of them to sucha
degree that it would overspread the country where the prai-
ries and barrens are now found? Although the height of these
hills has not been ascertained by the proper instruments, yet

from appearances, not to be mistaken by any person who
ig*

124 C. Atwater, F'sg. on the Prairies, &c. ‘
examines them and the country towards Lake Erie, these hills
are much higher than any land between them and that lake.
And from certain indications, (as already remarked,) had not
the bed of the Niagara been deepened by the running of that
mighty river, Lake Erie, as formerly, would empty itself into
the Ohio by the Scioto and Miami;.and the great northern
lakes would once more discharge themselves into the Missis-
sippi by the Illinois. Lake Ontario, from some cause, (possi-
bly an earthquake, or the wearing away of its outlet, or both,)
is considerably lower than it was formerly : in that way the
land along its banks, once covered by its waters, is drained,
presenting appentauces exactly similar to those seen in many
- of our prairies.

Miscellaneous Remarks on the Prairies and Barrens relative to
their Picturesque Features, and to Agriculture and Health, as
affected by the peculiarities of these Tracts.

-To the traveller, who for several days traverses these prai-
ries and barrens, their appearance is quite uninviting, and
even disagreeable. He may travel from morning until night,
and make good speed, but on looking around him, he fancies
himself at the very spot whence he started. No pleasant
variety of hill and dale, no rapidly running brook delights the
eye, and no sound of woodland music strikes the ear ; but, in
their stead, adull uniformity of prospect “spread out immense.”*
Excepting here and there a tree, or aslight elevation of ground,
it is otherwise a dead level, covered with tall weeds and coarse
grass. The sluggish rivulets, of a reddish colour, scarcely
move perceptibly, and their appearance is as uninviting to the
eye, as their taste is disgusting to the palate. Such are the
prairies and barrens of the west ; but, in order to make ample
amends for any deficiency, coe has made them exuberantly

fertile. ‘The farmer who settles upon them, by raising cattle,
becomes rich with little labour. He ditches those which are
too moist for grain; he ploughs and fences them, and raises
from seventy to one hundred bushels of maize or Indian corn
to the acre, without ever hoeing it. The United States awa

Coal Mines of Virginia. 125

thousands and thousands of acres of such land in these western
States and territories, which, for prompt payment, may be
purchased for one dollar and sixty-two and a half cents an
acre. One objection to these lands is, the want of timber for
fuel and other purposes ; and another is, that they are unheal-
thy: but in many places there is an abundance of peat in the
wet prairies, and cultivation will every year render them
more and more healthy. Some of them have been cultivated
for fifteen or twenty years past with grain, and are as fertile —
as they ever were. As M. Volney says, ‘‘ They are the |
Flanders of America.” i n
Yours, &c. C. A.

Art. HII. Account of the Coal Mines in the vicinity of
Richmond, Virginia, communicated to the editor in a let-
ter from Mr. Joun Grammer, Jun.

PETERSBURGH, Virg. Jan. 28th, 1818,
Dear Sir,

ly compliance with your request, that I would send you some
account of the Virginia coal pits, I paid a visit to them soon
after my return, in company with Mr. R. W. Withers, and I
will now proceed to give you the account proposed.

The pits, which we made the. particular object of our
visit, are situated in the county of Chesterfield, about 14 miles
distant, in a direction W. S. W. from Richmond, and 3 miles
south of James’ River. The country rises gradually from
Richmond to the pits ; and, from its sandy appearance, is evi-
dently an alluvial deposit, although its substratum is the gra-
nite mentioned by Mr. M‘Clure, as extending through this
state from S. S. W. to N. N. E. The coal is found on the
western or upper surface of the granite, coincident with it
both in direction and inclination ; but whether they come im-
mediately in contact or not, has inst yet been ascertained. The
‘bed’ of coal is supposed by the miners to be coextensive with

126 Coal Mines of Virginia.

the granite, and I can discover no very good reason for disa-
greeing with them in this particular; but, on the contrary,
many circumstances concur to strengthen the opinion that it is
‘really coextensive with the granite. The coal is now pro-
cured from at least 25 different pits, opened at convenient dis-
tances through an extent of from 50 to. 70 miles. It every
where commences at the upper surface or termination of the
body of granite. Some suppose that it is imposed on the gra-
nite ; and others, that a thin stratum of slate is interposed be-
wee the coal and granite. It is always found covered by
the slate. The granite is inclined to the horizon at an angle
of 45°, and the coal has the same inclination. And since the
coal, as far as it has been discovered, is found to accompany
and correspond with the granite, why may we not suppose
that it continues to accompany the granite, where it has not
yet been discovered ? At Heth’s pits, the coal is 50 feet thick,

measured on a line perpendicular to the surfaces of the ex-
treme strata. At some of the p its between Heth’s and James’

River, it is 30 feet thick ; and “at the river, not more than 25
feet. The thickness of the coal on the north side of James’

River, at the pits in Henrico and Hanover counties, is variable,
but at no place greater than 25 feet; and to the south of
Heth’s, in the pits extending to the Appomatox river, it is still
less thick. These facts would induce the supposition, that the
coal was deposited in a bed, near the centre of which Heth’s
pits were sunk. But, on the other hand, thejcoal is distinctly
stratified, and the number of strata increases as the coal pro-
ceeds from the surface of the earth; of course, therefore, the
farther you proceed from the outer extremity of the coal, the
thicker the body of it will be found ; and from the inclination.
of the coal, the farther you are from its outer extremity the
' deeper it must be under the surface of the earth. Heth’s pits
are 100 feet deeper than any that have yet been sunk; and
all the pits, that I have seen, appear to be nearer to the outer
extremity of the coal. We may conclude, therefore, that if
the others had been sunk as far from the outer extremity, they
would have been as deep, and the coal would haye been found
as thick in them as in Heth’s. Heth’s pits, now so called,

Coal Mines of Virginia. 127

were first opened about 30 years since, and worked to some
considerable extent. Experiencing, however, much inconve-
nience from the near approach of the works to a part of the
coal which was on fire ; and finding, from their unskilful mode
of mining, that the business was not profitable, they abandon-
ed the works, and filled up their shaft. Some few years after,
Mr. Heth obtained possession of the land ; and, having import-
ed two Scotch miners, commenced working the coal again. He
has now three shafis open, in a line with each other, in the di-
rection of the vein. They are sunk near the brink of a steep
hill, which rises about 180 feet from the western bank ofa small
brook. The depth of one of the shafts is 350 feet. The
’ other two are about 300 feet deep, each. A steam-engine, con-
structed by Bolton & Watt, is erected at the middle and deep-
est shaft. Itis used exclusively for pumping out water; but
I will not trouble you with an account of the modus operandi,
as it would be only a repetition of your own description of the
same operation at the Cornwall mines. The coal is raised in
a box, called by the miners a cowe. These cowes contain about
two bushels each, and two of them are alternately rising and
descending in each shaft. They are raised by means of ropes,
fastened to a simple wheel and crank, which is turned by
mules. In sinking their shafts, they cut, in the first place, per-
pendicularly (i. €. to the surface of the earth) through the
coal, to its lower surface ; and then turning westwardly, they
open a horizontal gallery through the inclination of the vein,
to its upper surface ; by this means, to use their own terms,
‘< gaining a double cut onit.” Their principal gallery passes
(in the direction of the vein,) by the mouth of each shaft. Its
length is 1350 feet, and it is terminated at each end by a hitch
or dyke of hard sandstone. (The passage was stopped with
rubbish in such a manner as to prevent me from seeing the
stone myself, and the gentleman who escorted me through the
mines is my authority for its being sandstone ; he might pos-
sibly, however, have been mistaken, as it is difficult to ascer-.
tain what a stone is, in such a place, until it is broken.) When
‘I was at the pits, they were preparing to blast through this
rock. At right angles to the principal gallery, they have

”

128 Coal Mines of Virgina.

opened, at convenient distances apart, shorter galleries, run-
ning westwardly, and these are again connected by passages
parallel to. the first or principal gallery. Pickaxes are the
only tools used in working the coal, as it breaks very readily,
in the direction of the'strata. The roofs of some of the pas-
sages are perfectly smooth ; andin such, the light of the lamps,
reflected from the great variety of colours in the coal, pre-
sents a very brilliant sight. The gloomy blackness, however,
of most of the galleries, and the strange dress and appearance
of the black miners, would furnish’ sufficient data to the con-
ception of a poet, for a description of Pluto’s kingdom. A
strong sulphurous acid ran down the walls of many of the gal-
leries ; and I observed one of the drains was filled with a yel-
lowish gelatinous substance, which I ascertained, on a subse-
quent examination, was a yellow, or rather’a reddish, oxide
of iron, mechanically suspended in water.

I mentioned above that a part of the coal was on fire : Icould
not ascertain when this fact was first observed to exist ; and it
is not impossible that the coal may have been burning a cen-
tury, or more. It is highly probable, however, that a compa-
ratively small quantity of the coal is consumed, as the combus-
tion must be greatly retarded by the absence of a sufficient -
portion of atmospheric air. A strong sulphurous fume isswes
from an irregular hole in the side of the hill of about 2 feet
diameter. ‘The hole appears to be only 4 or 5 feet deep, and
the smoke rises into it from cracks, partly filled with loose
clay. The earth is very much cracked around the hole, to
the distance of 12 or 15 feet; and these cracks are from 1 to
4 inches wide. The mouth of the hole is encrusted with aci-
cular crystals of pure sulphur. Attempts were formerly made
to extinguish the fire, by turning water into this hole ; and,
after every attempt, there was a temporary disappearance of
the smoke for several weeks ; but never longer than three
months. For several years, however, they have desisted
from such vain attempts, and have taken advantage of the faci-
lity afforded, by the existence of this fire, for ventilating the
mines, in the following manner :—They opened a passage from *
their present, to the old deserted, works ; this they.can open

Coal Mines of Virginia. 129

or shut, by means of a close door. As the old works are very
near the fire, the air in them becomes very much rarified by
the heat ; and probably a considerable portion of it is consum-
ed (as the principal pabulum for the combustion,) and a par-
tial vacuum is produced. When the air in their present works,
therefore, becomes impure, they open the door, and a strong
current rushes into the old works ; its place is again supplied
with fresh air through the shafts. Previous to the adoption
of this mode of ventilation, they experienced great inconve-
nience from carbonic acid gas ; and some of the workmen had.
been killed by an explosion of carburetted hydrogen gas. Since
this mode has been adopted, they have experienced no incon-
venience at all from noxious gases. On inquiry, I was told
that the substances passed through, in getting to the coal, va-
ried in the different pits. As far, however, as I could learn
by inquiry, and an examination of the heaps of rubbish, the
following substances, in the order i in which they stand, have
been found in Heth’s pits -—-mould, clay, gravel, fuller’s earth,

sandstone, (at first extremely coarse and friable, but becoming
more compact and hard, and having an appearance somewhat
stratified as they descended,) gray and bluish clay slate, hard
bluish sandstone, shale, or, as they termit, shiver, white mica-
ceous sandstone, extremely hard ; blue slate and shale inter-
mixed, black slate, and then the coal.. The depth of these stra-
ta differed so much in different pits, that their. individual thick-
ness could not be ascertained. Vegetable impressions are
very common in the slate next the coal ; and they have found
the impression ofa fish. Pieces of pure charcoal, in the form
of sticks, or logs, are frequently found in or on the coal. In
sinking one of the pits they met with a perpendicular column,

8 inches in diameter, extending through the slate into the coal ;

in all about 50 feet. Its surface was distinctly serrated, asd
at intervals of about 2 inches it appeared jointed, breaking
easily atthe joints. For the want of a better name I must call
it a “ lusus nature ;” for it is neither clay-slate nor mica-slate,
nor shale, nor sandstone ; but appears to be composed of them
all, Masses of a black oxide of iron are sometimes found in
the slate ; and from its weight and hardness the miners very

130 Coal Mines of Virginia.

properly call it ironstone. Iron pyrites are very abundant in
the slate, and the heaps of rubbish are white with the sulphate
ofalumine ; yellow ochre is found among the rubbish, but b
could not ascertain its relative position with any precision.
The side of the hill atthe pits is covered with quartz pebbles;
some of which are as transparent and beautiful as I ever saw.
The country, for several miles around the pits, (i. e. as far as:
I have seen,) appears to be entirely destitute of rocks or peb-
bles, and is covered with a light sandy soil. I am unable to
inform you of the number of hands employed at, or of the quan-
tity of coal anaually furnished from, these pits, as a part of my
notes has, by an accident, been rendered illegible.

Thus, sir, I have endeavoured to comply with my promise .
of giving you an account of the coal pits.* In doing this, I
have only attempted to state facts as they existed ; although I
have no doubt that my imperfect acquaintance ih geology
thas occasioned many omissions which might have been inter- °
esting. To the same cause must be attributed the use of lan-
guage not always strictly scientific, and a method less exact
than might have been desired. With all its imperfections,
however, if you can, from the mass of facts, cull any one which
may be useful or interesting, I shall be fully compensated by
the pleasure of having furnished it, for any trouble I may have
been at in doing so. And, if at any time I should be able to
furnish you with any information relative to the mineralogy or
geology of this part of the country, 1 hope you will let me
know it.

\.

* In using the word “pit,” instead of ane I have accamunv date my
language to the custem of the country.

ie

Geology of Indiana, &. 131

"ne. IV. Sketch of the Geology and Mineralogy of «
part of the State of Indiana, communicated in a letter to
the Editor, by Mr. W. B. Sriuson.

Lovisvite, (Ken.) August 11, 1818.
Dear Sir,

I HAVE employed a short period of leisure in passing over
a portion of the state of Indiana. Among other objects, I was
not wholly inattentive to the mineralogical and geological fea-
tures of the country. I now, with dithdence, transmit to you
the result of my inquiries.

Sketcu, &c.

Od

The secondary formation o ‘the state of Indiana is abundantly
‘evident. The surface — of 1 the soil is undulating, and marked
with few elevations which deserve the name of mountains.
The rocks are sandstone, limestone, and clay-slate ; -all of
which are disposed in horizontal strata. The sandstone pre-
sents nothing remarkable in its appearance. Its colours are
various shades of gray and brown. The principal hills are of
this formation. The principal colours of the limestone are
blue and gray, and their various mingled and intermediate
shades. Its secondary formation is very manifest from its
almost earthy appearance. In innumerable instances, the
limestone rocks contain immense quantities of imbedded shells,
of great similarity in form and appearance, and having consi-
derable resemblance, to the common escallop-shell of the
ocean. Owing to the easy decomposition of these rocks, and
the horizontal position of their strata, they afford many sub-
terranean passages for water. A considerable stream, called
Lost River, runs into a cave in the side of a precipitous hill ;
and, after a passage of 6 or 7 miles under the earth, again
makes its appearance, with a large accession to its waters.
The traveller’s attention is continually excited by cavities in
the earth, where the temporary rivulets, proceeding from

132 Geology of Indiana, &c.

rains, make a sudden exit through perpendicular perforations.
in the upper stratum of the rock. There are many such cavi-
ties, which do not receive any water from the surface. Some
of them are many yards in diameter, forming a regular circular
concave, of considerable depth towards the centre. They are
vulgarly known among the inhabitants by the name of “ sink-
holes.” The localities of slate are ee ae present nothing
uncommon.

With regard to the particular minerals. On Sand Creek,
60 miles from White River, is an interesting locality of that.
variety of silex, commonly called burrstone. It has been
examined by several practical millers, who do not hesitate to
pronounce the specimens which it affords, equal, ifnot superior, —
to the French burrs. The locality is twenty acres in extent,
and appears to be inexhaustible. The mineral varies very.
much in its appearance ; it is generally porous, and appears .
to have been puffed up by the escape of some gas, while it ~
was in a state of fusion. A mass of well-raised bread gives no
inadequate idea of its configuration. It produces. most vivid
sparks with steel. Some labourers are employed in procuring
millstones from this place ; and, such is the size of the sili-
ceous rocks, that they are under no necessity of constructing
them of detached masses. They form, of a single rock, mill-
stones of five and a half feet in diameter, which are not de-
faced by any irregularity, or even earthy cavity. These mill-
stones may be carried down the White, Wabash, Ohio, and
Mississippi. rivers, to New-Orleans, with great facility. And
if they sRould prove as excellent as it is expected they will,
this discovery will shed new lustre upon the accumulating evi-
dence of the mineralogical resources of this republic.

Many other varieties of silex are common: rock crystal,
agate, and chalcedony, are often found in the beds of rivulets. I
passed a considerable distance upon the banks of asmall stream,
called Leather-wood creek ; the bottom of the creek was co-
vered, the whole distance, with siliceous masses, shaped like
oblate spheroids, and of every size, from that of a large melon
downwards. On being broken, they presented beautiful geodes"
of crystallized quartz, amethyst, &c. The outside was often,

Geology of Indiana, Se. 183

fine chalcedony, and sometimes the interior was the same sub-
stance, in the form of balls; all these were sometimes com-
bined, forming agates of great beauty. _

Carbonate of lime, crystallized, is sometimes found ; and
many of the caves afford fine stalactites.

There is a large caye near Corydon, celebrated for the pro-
duction of sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salts. It has been
explored for the distance of several miles. When it was first
discovered, the bottom, in many places, was covered to the
depth of several inches, with pure, brilliant, needle-shaped
crystals of sulphate of magnesia. By some mysterious process
of nature, or rather of Divine benevolence, the production of
this useful salt is continually going on. ‘This cave also produ-
ces some other salts in small quantities : nitrate of lime, nitrate
of magnesia, sulphate of lime, &c.

Where the: basis of the country is limestone, the waters

always take up a great quantity of lime, and some of them pos-
sess great petrifying powe! se I saw many specimens of petri-
factions : a tuft of moss, the form perfectly preserved ; leaves,
bark, and branches of tress ; insects, and many others.
_ Many of the springs are strongly impregnated with sulphur,
and some of them are saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen.
I found the opinion universally prevalent among the people of
this state, that the first appearance of these sulphur springs
was immediately subsequent to the earthquakes of 1812. They
say, that then new springs, impregnated with sulphur, broke
out, and the waters of some old springs, for the first time, gave
indications of this mineral. A sensible farmer, who has a large
sulphur-fountain, boiling up from the bottom of a river near
‘its bank, assured me, that there was no trace of this spring
until after the period to which I have ‘alluded. He could
have no interest in deceiving me ; and if he did-deceive me,
his cbnduct could originate only in that love of the marvellous
which is so characteristic of the human mind. He moreover
assured me that-the ‘ water had been growing weaker, (te
use his phrase) ever since its first appearance.” I have room
only to mention, among the minerals of Indiana, many varieties
of clay, ochres, gypsum, alabaster, muriat of soda, (very com-
mon,) iron ore, and antimony.

134 New localities of Agate, &c.

Art. V. New localities of Agate, Chalcedony, Chabasie,
Stilbite, Analctme, Titanium, Prehnite, &c.

Deerrrizxy, &c. In the account of the Mineralogy and
Geology of Deerfield, by Mr. Hitchcock, in the present
Number, it will be seen, that these interesting minerals (with
the exception of titanium) exist in the secondary green-
stone of that place. _We have specimens, (through the kind-.
ness of Mr. Hitchcock,) and observe that the agates, chal-
cedony, analcime, and prehnite, are imbedded in the trap ;
the agates are in some instances very delicate in the dispo-
sition of their bands, and need nothing but polishing to make
them beautiful; the same is true of the chalcedony. The
chabasie and stilbite occupy cavities, and the chabasie is often
distinctly crystalized in a rhomboid, so nearly approaching a
cube, in the quantity of its angles, that the mistake is easily
committed of supposing them to be cubes; the crystals are
sometimes transparent, and the largest a quarter of an inch in
diameter. ‘Titanium is found in Leyden ; it is the red oxide—
very well characterized—in reddish brown crystals as large ,
as a common goose quill,* and, in some instances, perfectly
geniculated. It is rare to see finer specimens.

East-Haven. It will be observed, that the great ranges of
secondary greenstone, which cut Connecticut aad Massachu-
setts in two, terminate at New-Haven, on the one hand, and
some way above Deerfield on the other. By comparing the
account of the termination at New-Haven (Bruce’s Journal,
v. i. p. 139.) with that now published, of the termination at
or near Deerfield, it will be seen that the geology and imbed-
ded minerals are very similar. At East-Haven, (one of the
branches of the greenstone of New-Haven, and within from
three to four miles of the latter town,) chalcedony is often
found, sometimes imbedded in the trap, (but perhaps more ~
frequently loose among the fallen stones,) which, although in

-

* Since the above article was written we have received some as large as a
finger.

30

New localities of Agate, &. 135

small pieces, is as perfect in its characters as the chalcedony
of the Feroe Islands. It is of a delicate gray, translucent,
mamillary, botryoidal, stalactitical, or impressed by crystals
of quartz, which have usually fallen out; sometimes these
erystals incrust the chalcedony. ~

Agates also are found in considerable numbers, both imbed-
ded and loose. They usually consist of bands of chalcedony
and quartz, and sometimes of the latter only, variously striped
or spotted, or interlaced with jasper, carnelian, and cacho-.
long.

The form of the imbedded agates at East-Haven is com>
monly ovoidal, or egg-shaped, and frequently it is conical.
Some portions of pure chalcedony occur, which are shaped
like a long, slender carrot or parsnip, and the situation of the
latter in the ground would exactly represent that of the chal-
cedony or agate in the rock.

The imbedded masses are frequently altogether quartz, and
then they are most commonly geodes or hollow balls lined

with crystals, commonly very perfect and brilliant, although

rarely large. These crystals are commonly transparent and
colourless—but they exhibit also most of the varieties of
colour which quartz assumes—the amethyst—the .smoky—
yellow, &c., and occasionally they are tipped and spaces
twith red jasper.

The spontaneous decay of these trap rocks causes many
specimens to be found among their ruins, and many more are
imbedded in the solid rock; but the industry of successive
classes from the neighbouring college, issuing from Col. Gibbs’s
cabinet, has now made specimens more scarce.

_ Woodbury. Twenty-four miles from New-Haven, N. Ww.

' In a geological sketch of parts of the counties of New:
Haven and Litchfield, which may appear in a future Number,
it will be seen that prehnite, stilbite, and agate are found at
Woodbury, in the little basin of secondary greenstone which
exists there; the prehnite is abundant—it is not known
whether the agates are so, although it is asserted to be the
fact ; the stilbite was not observed to be abundant, although it
was pall characterized.,

136 Southampion Level.

Art. VI. Accoint of the Strata per, soil ty, and of the
Minerals found in, the great adit to the Southampton
Lead Mine. Communicated to the Editor by Mr. Amos

Eaton, Lecturer on Geology, Botany, &c.

To Professor Silliman.

Arter a laborious geological excursion along M’Clure’s
Springfield section, for about one hundred miles, I visited
Dr. D. Hunt, at Northampton. ‘He observed that you had
expressed an opinion, that an attentive examination of all the
strata constituting the walls of the artificial avenue or drift at
the Southampton mines, would bring facts to knowledge,
which might, in some degree, subserve the cause of geological
science. I am now at the mouth of the drift, having just
completed the labour which you had marked out. ~

I employed two miners to commence with me, at the ter-
mination of the drift, which is now extended 800 feet into the
hill. We broke off large specimens, at very short intervals,
throughout the whole extent of the drift. We arrived at its
mouth with almost a boat load of specimens. I kept a memo-
randum of every thing which occurred, while under ground ;
and I have now arranged the specimens, before the mouth of
the drift, in the same order in which they were situated in
the earth.

Fatigued as I am, I will make my remarks here, , in the —
field, lest something should hereafter escape me, which is
now fresh in my recollection. Beginning with the greatest
distance to which the miners have penetrated, I will set
down my remarks, in fact, in reversed order.

800 feet. The rock is fine-grained gray granite, traversed
by veins, lined with quartz crystals, and mostly filled with
calcareous spar, often beautifully crystallized. In the same
veins blue and purple fluate of lime and copper pyrites fre-
_ quently occur. .

Southampton Level. 137

790 feet. The same finergrained granite is continued,
occasionally traversed by veins lined with oryetae of quartz ;
but containing no other minerals.

774 feet. A narrow vein of sulphuret of lead, with walls
lined with crystals of quartz. The fairest cubic crystals are
slightly attached to the points of the quartz crystals. Yel-
lowish crystals of carbonate of lime are often interspersed
among the lead. Sulphate of barytes occurs here also ; some-
times in plates meeting at various angles, and vagal cham-
bers lined with minute crystals of quartz. Minute crystals of
copper pyrites and a little fluate of lime have been found
here ; also fine specimens of bitter spar. - The walls are very
compact, fine-grained granite.

760 feet. Coarse, parti-coloured granite. The felspar is
flesh-coloured and white ; the quartz often bluish or greenish ;
the mica silvery, greenish, or purplish. .

725 feet. A stratum of gray-wacke slate. Texture less
firm than of the same rock at the west of Pittsfield. This
stratum is very distinct, and about two feet thick.

723 feet. A stratum of serpentine rock, containing very
red quartz imbedded in various directions. It is very compact,
and -mostly green. Here it is but about three feet thick.
About ten miles south of this place, on Maclure’s Springfield
section, near the line between Westfield and Russel, and
four miles west from Westfield Academy, I found this same
stratum of very great breadth. I say the same stratum,
because it is situated in the granitic hill, east of the highest

ridge of granite, which is evidently a continuation of this

range. Perhaps I may, hereafter, give you an account of
my excursion along that section of Maclure, in which I may
give you amore particular description of the Westfield ser-
pentine.

720 feet. Coarse granite, with white and flesh-coloured
felspar, black and silvery mica.

700 feet. A stratum of ‘red mica slate, about four feet
thick.

Vou. _I....No.; 2: 13

136 Southampton Level.

694 feet. Coarse, flesh-coloured granite. This is the
handsomest granite in the whole drift. Here we find the most
beautiful specimens of graphic granite, both flesh-coloured and
gray.

680 feet. A stratum of Kirwan’s stell-stein. That is, an
aggregate of fine-grained quartz and mica, without any felspar.
The quartz is sk greenish, preknes coloured by the next
stratum.

670 feet.. Beautiful green soapstone. Very compact, but
rather softer than that kind in common use for inkstands.

666 feet. A green, granular aggregate. It seems to be
made up of fine fragments of quartz, soapstone, and mica,
rarely a little felspar, slightly compacted together.

Remark. All the strata, from the inner termination of the
drift to this place, a distance of one hundred and thirty-four
feet, are nearly vertical, or a very little inclined. Here they
begin to approach a horizontal position.

‘The green aggregate continues as far as the air-well, a dis-
tance of 66 feet, with some trifling variations in the size» and
proportions of the aggregated fragments. '

_ 600 feet. A granulated, schistose aggregate, : chiefly of
quartz and mica. Though the constituents and the form of
the rock correspond very nearly with mica slate, it cannot be
considered as the primitive mica slate rock. It is so slightly
compacted that it can scarcely be kept from falling to pieces. :
Its position is nearly horizontal.

480 feet. A stratum of coal, half an inch thick. This
stratum may be traced, at different intervals, one hundred and
eighty feet along the drift towards its mouth. It lies between.
the strata of the last described schistose aggregate.

400 feet. An aggregate appears; alternating with the loose
schistose rock, which resembles the red peuditones but is of
a less firm texture. ;

From this place all the strata, east of the soapstone, occa-
sionally appear, for the distance of about three huudred feet.
This is probably on account of their undulatory forms and
horizontal position. Most of the way we find the lower part

Peat. 139

of the walls to consist of a kind of semi-indurated pudding-
stone. Sometimes a thin stratum of fine, loose sand occurs.
At 300 feet the coal stratum disappears, ar 8s below the
bottom of the. drift.

The last hundred feet is chiefly gravel, which is now sup-
ported by timbers.

Southampton, Aug. 26, 1818.

gt Lt

Arr. VII. On the Peat of Dutchess County—read before
the Lyceum of Natural History, in New-York, by the

~ Rey. F. C. Scuarrrer, of New-York, and by him com-
municated to the Editor.

Iw May, 1817, 1 brought specimens of marl and peat from
Dutchess county, which were taken from a fen or bog occu-
pying an area of some acres. These fens occur frequently i in
the towns-of Rhinebeck, Northeast, Clinton, &c. in Dutchess
county. During a part of the year they are covered sath
water.

A pit was dug in the-bog from which I enero? speci-
mens. The order and depth of the well-defined strata which
were exhibited by this excavation, I noted inmy memorandum
book, from which I extract the following :

After clearing away the fresh sod and recent vegetable
mould, there appeared,

1. A stratum or bed of peat, commonly called turf, varying

in depth from three to four feet.
. A stratum of peat and marl commingled; depth two
feet.

3. A stratum of pure marl, from two to three feet. Below

these there was an appearance of sand and blue clay.

The first, or upper stratum, consists of compact peat. ‘This
substance, when first taken up, is of 2 dark brown colour, soft,
and rather viscid. Some vegetable fibres and vacuous seeds
are distributed throughout the mass. It may be moulded to
any. convenient form. When perfectly dry, the texture of

13 *

s

140 Dr. Nugent on the Geology of Antigua.

this variety, of which there is a specimen before you, acquires
a high degree of solidity. . Its fracture is earthy ;_ the colour is
lighter.

I should not have ofered more on this subject ton 4
labelled specimen, had I not made a most satisfactory experi-
ment with this kind of fuel, which may be obtained in great
abundance in our own State. It is easily kindled ; burns with
a bright flame ; yields a bluish smoke, and produces an odour
similar to that which attends the combustion of gramineous
substances. But this is momentary. When thoroughly kin-
dled, it burns with less flame, yields a.small proportion of
blackish smoke, and sulphurous acid gas is evolved, though I
cannot discover any pyrites. It burns for along time, and emits
a great body of heat. It leaves a very small proportion of light,
grayish white ashes ; on which I have as yet made no experi-
ments, having this day, for the first time, paid particular atien-
tion to this substance, attracted by the unusual hardness which
it acquired since it is in my possession: and not many hours
have elapsed since I subjected it to combustion. ‘Fhe attempt
succeeded so well, that I cannot refrain from expressing my
opinion, that this variety of peat will answer as an excellent
substitute for the best Liverpool coal.

r sie

Art, VII. Notices of Geology in the West-Indies.
REMARKS.

ty the former Number of this oe a notice was published
respecting siliceous petrifactions of wood, from Antigua. We
now publish-a geological sketch of the island, with notices of
some other parts of the West ‘ndies. This communication is
made by.a friend, with permission-to publish it. It is a pro-
duction of the pen of Dr. Nucewr, of St. Johns, Antigua, a
gentleman of eminent scientific acquirements, who, it is hoped,

will continue his laudable and able.efforts to illustrate the
natural history of the West-Indies.

ty

Dr. Nugent on the Geology of Antigua. 141

t

Memorandum concerning the Geology of Antigua, &c.

Tue southern and more mountainous part of the island con-
sists of trap rocks; more particularly of trap breccia and
wacké-porphyry. On these beds rests a series of very pecu-
liar stratified conglomerate rocks. These strata vary exceed-
ingly in colour and thickness, but all dip, at a considerable
angle, to the northwest. The more usual character of this
rock, is that ofa clayey basis, with minute particles of felspar, and
small spots of griinerde* (or chlorite Baldogée.) This latter is
frequently diffused over the whole; and gives it a green tinge :
the colour has been thought by some to proceed from the im-
pregnation of copper, but I am rather of opinion that is. owing to
manganese andiron. The conglomerate character of this rock, is
derived from its having imbedded in it, or incorporated with
it, numerous fragments, of all sizes, of petrified wood, chert,
with and. without coralline impressions, agate, jasper, amygda-
loid, greenstone, hornstone, porphyn ; porphyry slate, and
other substances.

On this singular class of posse reposes an extensive calca-
reous formation, occupying the northern and eastern part of
the island, having subordinate to it, and at its lowest part, where
it is in contact with the conglomerate, large beds and patches
of chert, which contains also a vast variety of petrified woods,
several of which are of the palm tribe, with silicified shells,
chiefly cerithea ; though at the Church-hill, at St. Johns, formed
of this chert, casts of bivalve and ramose madrepores are like-
wise found. The calcareous beds are principally of a friable
marl, with blocks and layers of limestone irregularly included.
In this formation} are many fossil shells, both in the calcareous
and siliceous state ; and there appear to be some beds, wherein
is a mixture of shells of marine, and others of a fresh water.
or at least a terrestrial origin. ‘The coralline agates found in
nodules and patches therein, and which may readily be dis-

; ,

* The green.earth of most mineralogists. Eniror.
+ Formation—a geological phrase, of German origin.

142 .Natwe Crystallized Carbonate of Magnesia.

tinguished from the coralline chert of the previous beds, are
the most beautiful which have any where been yet noticed ;
and when well selected and polished, make very pleasing
ornaments.

The island, as well as Barbuda, thirty miles to the north-
ward, the Grande Terre part of Guadaloupe, at a similar dis-
tance to the southward and eastward, with several others of
the West-India Islands, give proof of an extensive formation,
more recent than those to which naturalists have heretofo e
principally confined their attention ; and which is, perhaps.
contemporaneous with, if not later than, the Paris Basin, 50
well described by Cuvier and Brongniart.

April 10th, 1818. N.N

N. B.. A few specimens are sent.
REMARKS.

If the above paper be read attentively, in connexion with
that in No. I. on the petrified wood of Antigua, it will afford
some very curious information to the geologist respecting
these petrifactions, and must lead to mteresting specula-
tions respecting their origin, under circumstances so very
peculiar, and to which we do not recollect to have heard of
any parallel.

Arr. IX. Discovery e Native Crystallized Carbonate of
Magnesia on Staten-Island, with a Notice of the Geology —
and Mineralogy of that Island, by Jamzs Pierce, Ese.
of New- York, in a Letter to the Editor.

New-York, October 19, 1818.
Dear Sir,

I FORWARD you a few mineral specimens characteristic of
Staten-Island, including native carbonate of magnesia, in acicu-
tar crystals. -I discovered this new form and locality of mag-

Native Crystallized Carbonate of Magnesia. 143

nesia in examining the strata exhibited in an excavation now
making, under the delusive expectation of finding gold, about
three miles from the Quarantine. In descending the shaft,
sunk perpendicularly in steatite, magnesite, veins of talc, and
green translucent asbestus were observed at depths from six
to thirty-five feet. The magnesite was found to embrace veins
and cavities containing native carbonate of magnesia, in-very
white acicular crystals, grouped in minute fibres radiating from
the sides, but not always filling the veins and cavities. The
crystals were, in some instances, suspended, assuming a sta-
lactical form. This carbonate of magnesia dissolves entirely
in diluted sulphuric acid, with considerable effervescence and
chemical action, producing a bitter compound, from which salts
of easy solution are formed by evaporation. The magnesite in
which these crystals are found, appears to be composed of car-
bonate of magnesia, steatite, and talc, disintegrating readily
upon exposure to air and moisture : it effervesces considerably -
in sulphuric acid, forming a very bitter fluid that soon exhi-
bits crystals, indicating that magnesia enters in large :propor-
tion into its constitution. Magnesite may perhaps be found at
this place in quantity sufficient for a successful manufacture of
Epsom salts. Small regularshexaedral crystals of mica, were
noticed in steatite. Chromate of iron was sparingly diffused
through the different minerals raised from various depths.

A few remarks and facts respecting the geology and minera-
logy of Staten-Island, may, perhaps, give some additional
interest to the specimens presented.

Staten-Island (which constitutes Richmond county) is situa-
ted about seven miles southwest of the city of New-York,
extends from northeast to southwest about fifteen miles, in a
straight line, with an average width of six. It exhibits a con-
siderable diversity of surface.~ The eastern part is composed
principally of elevated ground: a mountain chain is observed
to take its rise in the vicinity of a narrow sound called the
Kills, and sweep, in a semicircular form, near the eastern
shore ; it then ranges southwest, parallel with, and distant
from Amboy Bay, about two miles, terminating near the centre
of the island, and forming, with the exception of some passages, a

144 Native Crystallized Carbonate of Magnesia.

continued chain, which, on the eastern and southern sides, is
very steep, but not precipitous ; it gradually declines to the
west and north, and, in some places, it presents on its summit
table land of considerable extent. A prominent ridge crosses
the island, connecting the elevated ground of the south, with
the hills of the northern part. A species of steatite, contain-
ing veins of common, indurated, and scaly talc, amianthus,
and most of the varieties of asbestus, and some chromate of
iron, constitutes the nucleus of the whole mountain range and
elevated ground.of the eastern division, stamping it as primi-
tive. This steatite approaches, in most places, within a foot
and a half of the surface; and appears in small angular loose
blocks, wherever the soil has been removed. — Its colour is a
greenish yellow ; it is brittle, very adhesive to the tongue,
but little unctuous, and probably contains more alumine and
less magnesia than steatites in general. Much of it decom-
poses when exposed to air and moisture, and forms a good
mould, whenever the descent of ground permits an accumula-
tion of earth. It is not improbable, that in most places of the
Staten-Island hills, when magnesia constitutes a considerable
ingredient of the rock, it will be found saturated with carbonic
acid, obviating the acces to common | magnesian minerals in
agriculture. .
The minerals observed on the surface of the northeast part
of this chain of hills are, secondary greenstone, asbestoid,
sandstone, granite, and gneiss, sparingly scattered in rolled
masses. In addition to these rocks, in the middle and west-
ern part of the chain, a mineral of uncommon appearance is
observed. It is composed principally of quartz, rough, with |
numerous cells of various forms, in which small siliceous crys-
tals are generally found: the veins or plates of quartz that
intersect each other, often embrace talc and oxide of iron,
which, decomposing, gives some specimens the. appearance of
volcanic origin.- Associated with this cellular ferruginous
quartz, brown hematite is often observed ; this valuable ore
often yields eighty per cent. of iron of best quality ; its fibres
assume a variety of shapes ; they were observed at Staten-
Island, straight and curved, radiating from a centre, and exhi-

Native Crystallized Carbonate of Magnesia. 145

biting the stalactical, cylindrical, and botryoidal forms, often
displaying a black polished surface and glistening lustre.
Ferruginous minerals are abundant on the mountain for seve-
ral miles. - A granular oxide, called by miners shot-ore,* from
its being principally composed: of spherical grains of various
sizes, was often noticed, and appears in some places in exten-
sive beds: it is easily fused, and affords a large per centage of
good iron for castings. A heavy ore, with a smooth surface
and some lustre, bearing a considerable resemblance to native
te is sometimes seen. Banks of white sand, resembling the
siliceous particles of the seashore, are noticed on the moun-
tain tops, containing masses of compact, heavy ferruginous
sandstone, similar to the rocks of our alluvial seaboard. Large
beds of water-worn siliceous pebbles, in no way differing from
those washed by the ocean, are seen on the height of the
ridge, in which excavations have been made several feet,
leaving the depth of the mass uncertain. On some of the
eminences, for a considerable extent, vegetation is entirely
excluded by an iron-bound soil. Iron ore, imbedded in an
earth coloured by, and partly composed of, oxide of iron,
occupies the surface ; and chalcedony and radiated quartz are
sometimes observed on the primitive ridge. Prospects from
many of these eminences are extensive and diversified. On
one side, the ocean and a great extent of coast are in view;
on the other, a rich landscape of hills and plains, the eye rest-
ing on the highland-chain and the mountains bordering Penn-
sylvania ; the harbour, at your feet, presents a busy, ever-
varying scene, and the city of New-York appears to great
advantage from this point of observation.

The district between the mountain and the narrows, the
thickly settled and well-cultivated plain bordering Amboy bay,
and much of the western division of the island, are decidedly
alluvial. Adjacent to Fort Tompkins, detached pieces of cop-
per ore have been found. I have observed petrifactions of
marine shells in rocks excavated in that neighbourhood,
twenty feet from the surface, and sixty above the ocean.

* Doubtless the pea ore of the Wernerians. Enrror.

146 Dr. Brown on the Nitre, &e.

The. western part of the island presents. moderate eleva+
tions; the soil, a.good. medium of sand and clay, is in general
fertile ; but a tract near the termination is sandy and barren.
Some creeks penetrate to near the centre of the island, and
are bordered by extensive salt meadows. LExcept-at the pri-
mitive range, I have. observed in no part of the island large
beds of rock that can be called in place; but rolled masses of
greenstone, sandstone, gneiss, granite, red jasper, and indu-
rated clay, appear -in general sparingly, but, sometimes in
abundance,.on the surface. Lignite has been found in small
quantities in the western part of the island. A chalybeate
spring, of no great strength, is the only mineral water met
with in Richmond county. . The ponds, wells, and streams.
contain a soft water, holding no lime in solution.

REMARKS,

We have already published (p. 54.) Mr. Pierce’s dis-
covery of the pulverulent carbonate of magnesia, and have
pointed out its connexion with Dr. Bruce’s previous dis-
covery of the hydrate of magnesia, or pure magnesia com-
bined with water only. Mr. Pierce has now added another
important link to this chain, and future hava SS may
quote the vicinity of New-York as affording,

1. Pure magnesia, crystallized and chained with water only.

2. Carbonate of magnesia, pulverulent and white.

3. Carbonate of magnesia, in very’ delicate and ties

white acicular crystals.

We possess paren im of them all. ©

Arr. X. On a curious centre which accompanies the
native Nitre of Kentucky and of Africa. Communicated
in @ letter to the Editor, from Samven Brown, M.D.
late of Kentucky, now of the Alabama Torri

REM ARKS.

e
Tue scientific public were several years ago dist under
obligations to Dr. Brown, for a very mteresting and instruc-

of Kentucky and Africa. 147

tive account of the nitre caverns, &c. of Kentucky, published
in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society, in Philadel-
phia, Vol. VI., andin Bruce’s Journal, Vol. I. p. 100. The
following communication arose from a conversation on that
subject between Dr. Brown and the Editor.

New-Haven, July 27, 1818.
Dear Sin, hin

I have just found the passage I referred to the other day,
relative to the existence of native or sandrock nitre in the
interior of Southern Africa. It isin Barrow, and not in Vail-
lant, as I thought when I had the pleasure of conversing with
you concerning it. I am much obliged to you for recalling
my attention to that curious subject, as it has brought to my
recollection a fact, which I believe I omitted to mention in
my memoir, (viz.) the existence of a black substance in the
clay under the rocks, of a bituminous appearance and smell.
This I remember to have seen in a rock-house, near the Ken-
tucky river, where very considerable quantitites of sandrock
nitre had been obtained. This substance was found in masses
of a few ounces weight, and in the crevices of the rocks near:
the basis of the side walls. The smell was not wholly bitu-
minous, but resembled that of bitumen combined with musk.
J am quite unable to account for the formation of the-nitre, or
the production of this black substance which sometimes accom-
panies it, both in Africa and America. Had I seen Mr. Bar-
row’s travels, when J noticed the bitumen, I should certainly
have paid more attention to it. But perceiving no relation
between the rock nitre and the masses of this substance, my
examination of it was much too superficial. I do not very
well understand what Mr. Barrow means by saying, that many
wagon loads of animal matter lay on the rdof of the caverns in
Africa. I saw no such matter on the roof of the rock-houses
in Kentucky. Certainly the caverns have been the habita-
tions of wild beasts, and great quantities of leaves, &c. have
been mixed with the debris of the superincumbent rocks,
but it does not seem probable, that much animal matter could
be filtrated through a roof of rock, perhaps forty or fifty feet

148 Dr. Brown on the Nitre, &e.

in thickness. The subject, however, is very curious, and
deserves much more attention than any of us have bestowed
upon it.

Extract from Barrow’s Southern Africa, p-. 291. New-York
editron.

«About t2 miles to the eastward of the wells, (Hepatic
wells,) in a kloof of the mountain, we found a considerable
quantity of native nitre.. It was in a cavern similar to those

used by the Bosgesmans for their winter habitations, and in
which they. used to make the drawings above mentioned.
The under surface of the projecting stratum of calcareous
stone, and the sides that supported it, were incrusted with a
coating of clear, white saltpetre, that came off in flakes, from a
quarter of an inch to an inch.or more in thickness. The
fracture resembled that of refined sugar, it burnt completely
away without leaving any residuum ; and if dissolved in water,
and thus evaporated, crystals of pure prismatic mtre were
obtained. This salt,.in the same state, is to be met with
under the sandstone strata of many of the mountains of Africa ;
but, perhaps, not in sufficient quantities to be employed as an
article of export. There was also in the same cave, running
down the sides of the rock, a black substance, that was appa-
rently bituminous. The peasants called it the urine of the
das. The dung of this gregarious animal was lying upon the
roof of the cavern to the amount of many wagon loads. The
putrid animal maiter, filtrating through the rock, contributed,
no doubt, to the formation of the nitre. The Hepatic wells.
and the native nitre rocks were in the division of Agster
Sneuwberg, which joins the Tacka to the southwest.”

Should ! ever visit Kentucky again, I hope that I shall be
able to give a better account of these caverns, which certainly
are highly deserving of the attention of naturalists. j

In Philadelphia you may have an opportunity of seeing
some small specimens of the sandrock, containing nitre, now
in the cabinet of the Philosophical Society. 4

Sponges. 149

BOTANY. |
RR ee

Arr. XI. Descriptions of species of Sponges* observed on
the shores of Long-Island. By C.S. RarinesaueE, Esq.

Tue sponges are one of the most singular productions of
nature ; and, even to this time, naturalists are divided in
pe respecting their real rank in the scale of organized
beings... Some believe that they are animals, belonging to the
class of polyps, next to the genus of alcyonium, while many
contend that they are not animals, but plants, of the tribe of
fuci, or marine vegetables. I am inclined to adopt this, latter
opinion, since in all those which I have seen, in Europe and
America, no perceptible motion nor sensibility was to be dis-
cerned in any stage of their existence ; and those who have
acknowledged their animality, bring no stronger proof thereof
than an occasional slight shrinking under the hand, and an
animal smell, which are common to some marine plants.

Whatever be the truth on the subject, these doubtful
Opinions prove that they are of the many connecting links
between animals and plants. This is is not a proper place to
decide this controversy ; | mean merely to make known new
_ species of this tribe of beings, which I observed last year, on
the shores of Long-Island. Such a fragment will be, perhaps,
the first attempt of the kind; when more species shall be
known, the subject may be meade B more certainty
and accuracy.

1. Spongia albescens, Raf. (Whitish sponge.) Effase,
compressed, irregular, perforated,.somewhat branched, une-
qually lobed, whitish, smooth ; lobes truncated ; cells porose,
very minute, nearly équal ; pees unequal cells inside.

Found near Bath and Gravesend, in sandy bottoms. A
large species, sometimes over a foot broad, of quite an irre-
gular shape, rather flattened, abont one inch thick ; partly

150 Sponges.

gibbose ; concave now and then, and with large, irregular
openings, as if large branches were anastomosed; circum-
ference branched or lobed, very jagged, sinus obtuse, lobes
elongated obtuse, truncate or flat, unequally divided. The
substance is entirely of a cinereous white, outside and inside,
of asoft and brittle nature, rather friable ; covered outside
with minute pores of an oblong or round je and full of
small unequal cells inside.

2. Spongia ostracina, Raf. (Oyster sponge.) Very
branched, erect, red, papillose; branches unequal, often
dichotome, obtuse ; cells porose, oblong, nearly equal.

It is often found on the common oyster. (Ostrea virginica.)
It rises from four to six inches, the colour is a fine red, it
branches from the base ; the branches are unequal, straight,
cylindrical, or compressed. Substance stupose. Surface
covered with small papilla and small oblong unequal pores.

3. Spongia cespitosa, Raf. (Bushy sponge.) Branched.
cespitose, yellowish, rough, papillose ; branches fasciculated,
upright, unequal, flexuose, compressed, ‘slightly anastomosed,
nearly dichotome upwards ; cells aie optaee: nearly equal.
margin lacerated.

Found also on the oyster, but more seldom than the fore-
going ; the specimens which I saw was found on the Bluepoint
oysters, by Dr. Eddy. It becomes brown by drying. It rises
from four to six inches, the margin of the cells or pores is
torn into papillar, stiff processes, which produce a rough sur-
face. Substance stripose. Internal cells oblong, very small.

4. Spongia cladonia. (Cladonian sponge.) Branched effuse,
smooth, pale fulvous, stem procumbent, branches distichal,
one-sided, erect, simple er divided, obtuse ; cells porose,
minute ; some larger round.

I have found this species at Bath and at SantttysHoaks; on
sandy bottoms. Length about six inches. Stem and branches
cylindrical. or compressed. Substance fibrose, anastomed,
branches divaricate, ascendent, semi dichotomose or simple,
unequal, thicker towards the top:

5, Spongia virgata. (Slender sponge.) Nearly branched,
smooth, fulyous, stem divided, slender, cylindrical, knobby,

Xanthium. 151

branches erect, slender, nearly heads acute ; pores unequal,
irregular, small.

A small species, three inches high, found at Oysterbay,
on rocky bottoms, rare ; stem with few branches, and imper-
fect ones, like knobs. Substance stupose. Branches round,
alternate, small. Pores without any determinate shape.

Arr, XII. Memoir on the Xanthium maculatum, a New
Species from the State of New-York, &c. by C. a
RarinesquE, Esa.

P URSH and Michaux mention only one species of American
Xanthium, the X. strumarium, while there are three noticed
in the catalogue of Dr. Muhlenberg, the above species, and the
X. orientale, and X. spinosum. The first and the last are
natives of Europe, and have been naturalized in the United
States, with many other plants. The species called X. orientale
by Dr. Muhlenberg, appears however to be a native ; but the ¥.
orientale of Linneus, is a native of Siberia, Japan, and the East-
Indies ; and when plants are found to grow in such opposite
quarters of the globe, a strong presumption arises that they
are not identical species, which presumption has been con-
firmed by experience in many instances, whenever the plants
of both countries have been accurately examined. Decandolle.
in the French Flora, (2d edit. of 1815.) vol. 6. p. 356.
describes, under the name of X. macrocarpon, a species found
in France, and which he takes to be the real X. orientale of
Linneus. He has changed its name, because, he says, that it
is not certain that the X. orientale grows in Asia; or, if any
grows there, that it is identic with his species ; which, how-
ever, is really the X. orientale of Linneus,; Son, Lamark, and
Gaertner. He adds, that he possesses in his herbarium, a
species from Canada, different from his X. macrocarpon which
has been’figured by Morison, on whose authority some authors
have asserted that the X. orientale grew in Canada, mistaking
his figure for that plant.

gt

152 — Xanthium.

From the above statement, it appears that much obscurity
and difficulty arises in botany, when errors creep into the dis-
tinction of species : to detect those errors, and to ascertain the
synonyme of obscure species, is not one of the least useful
botanical labours. Having found, last year and this year, in
the neighbourhood of New-York, aspecies of Xanthium differ-
ent from any described by the authors, and intermediate be-
tween the X. strumarium and X. orientale of Linnzus, I pre-
sume that it may be the XY. orientale of Muhlenberg, Leconte,
and Morison, and the Xanthium of Canada, mentioned by
Decandolle, Dumont, &c. I have given to it the name of
X. maculatum, since the stem is spotted like the Coniwm macu-
latum. None of those authors having described it, I suppose
that its description will be acceptable, and will serve to fix this
new species among the American botanists.

Therefore it will appear, that the X. orzentale, which had
been considered as a native of Asia, Europe, and America, is
composed of at least three species; the European species,
which has been called X. macrocarpon by Decandolle, the
American species, which I have called X. maculatum, and the
Asiatic species, to which the name of X. orientale ought to
remain ; but which ought to be better described, and more
fully distinguished from the X. macrocarpon by those who may
chance to meet with it. I even suspect that many species
grow in Asia, since that of Ceylon may be different from the
. Chinese and Siberian species.

Xanthium Maculatum.

Definition. Stem flexuous, round, rough, spotted with black ;

leaves long-petiolate, cuneate-reniform, nearly trilobe, sinuate- |

toothed, obtuse, rough, and thick ; fruits elliptic, obtuse muri-
cate ; thorns rough.

Description. ‘The root is annual, thick, and white. The
stem rises from one to two feet ; it is upright, without thorns,
very thick, and with few branches ; it is covered with oblong,
black, and rough spots. The leaves are few, but large,
with very long petiols; they are nearly reniform, with an
acute base, and have three nerves; the teeth are unequal,

- thick, and rou

Xanthium, 153 |

large, and obtuse. The flowers and fruits are disposed as in
X. strumarium ; but the fruits are generally solitary ; they are
half an inch long, nearly cylindrical obtuse, with the two
beaks scarcely rceptible and bent in, covered with short,
horns, rather soft, and not uncinate. The
whole plant has a peculiar smell, not unpleasant, somewhat
between the camphorate and gravulent iF but weaker
than in Conysa camphoraia, &c. .

History. This plant grows on Long-Island, near the sea-
shore and marshes. I have found it common near Bath, on
the downs, and in New-Jersey, near Bergen, and Powles-
Hook, on the margin of marshy meadows. According to Dr.
Mulenberg, it grows also in Pennsylvania; Messrs. Torrey
and Leconte found it on the island of New-York; and by
Morison and Decandolle’s account, it is found as es north as
Canada. It blossoms in August and September, but the fruits
remain on the plant till the severe frosts of December.

Observations. This species differs from the X. macrocarpon
of Decandolle, by having smaller fruits, without horns, and .

'whose thorns are neither hooked nor hispid; by not having

an angular stem, but a round, spotted one, and by its leaves
being broader, and not serrate, &c. Nearly all those differ-
ences exist between it and the X. orientale of Asia, which has
not yet been isolated from the X.macrocarpon. The X, edri-
natum differs from this by having oval fruits, with aggregated,
echinate, and hooked thorns ; and the X. strumarium, by hav-
ing cordate hirsute leaves, the fruits aggregated, with hooked
thorns and horned tops. The X. spiuosum, and X. fruticosum,
are so totally different that they need not be compared.

Vou. 1....No. 2, : 14

154 Entomology.

ZOOLOGY.
Arr. XIII. Description of the Phalaena Devastator, (the
Insect that produces the Cut-worm,) communicated for

the American Journal of Science, &c.by Mr. Joun P.
Brace, of Litchfield, Conn.

Tus moth, whose larva is one of.our most destructive ene-
mies, belongs to the Linnzan family noctua, in the genus pha-
laena. Its’ specific characters are as follow: Wings incum-
bent and horizontal, when at rest ; body long and thin; tho-
rax thick, but not crested ; head small ; eyes prominent and
black ; antenne setacious, gradually lessening towards extre-
mities, and slightly ciliated; palpi two, flat, broad in the mid-
dle, and very hairy ; tongue rolled up between them, not very
prominent ; clypeus small, legs long, small and hairy ; wings
long as body; under wings shortest ; colour a dark silvery
gray, with transverse dotted bands of black on upper wings.
The insect lays its eggs in the commencement of autumn, at
the roots of trees andnear the ground: they are hatched early
in May. The habits of the cut-worm have been often and
fully detailed. They eat almost all kinds of vegetables, pre-
ferring beans, cabbages, and corn. They continue in this
state about four weeks ; they then cast their skin and enter
the pupa state, under ground. ‘This is a crustaceous cover-
ing, fitted to the parts of the future insect. In this they con-
tinue for four weeks longer, and come out in the fly, or insect ©
state, about the middle of July. All those chrysalids that I
exposed to the sun, died ; and all those that were kept cool
under earth, produced an insect: hence I infer, that the heat
of the sun will kill the chrysalids. If, then, the ground be
ploughed about the first of July, many of those insects might
be destroyed, and the destruction of the productions of the
next year prevented ; for the Pepe is never more than a few
inches under ground.

Exoglossum. 155

‘The plialaena devastator is never seen during the day ; it
conceals itself in the crevices of buildings, and beneath the
bark of trees. About sun-down it leaves its hiding-place, is
constantly on the wing, and very troublesome about the candles
in houses. It flies very rapidly, and is not easily taken.

Such is the description of this formidable enemy to vegeta-
tion. No efficacious method has yet been taken to prevent its
vavages, but the one who could accomplish it, would do the
cause of agriculture an essential service.

Art. XIV. Description of a New Genus of North Ameri-
can Fresh-water Fish, ericorss by C. S. Rart-
NESQUE, Esa.

Mr. LESUEUR has published, in the 5th Number of the
Journal of the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia, for Sep-
tember, 1817, the description of a new fish, which he calls
Cyprinus mazillingua : he considers it as a very singular and
anomalous species, owing to the peculiar structure of its lobed
lower jaw and tongue, which is external, and situated as an
appendage to the former. It was discovered in Pipe-creek,
Maryland, in June, 1816, by said author, who confesses that
he does not consider it as properly belonging to the genus
Cyprinus, and presumes. that when other species shall be dis-
covered, possessing the same character, they will constitute a
separate genus. Although this principle and presumption is
correct, it was wrong to delay the formation of such a distinct
genus, because only a species was then known, since so many
genera are composed of single species. However, Mr. Le-
sueur’s expectation was verified even before he wrote it, since
in May, 1817, I had discovered in the Fishkill, State of New-
York, another,species, evidently congenerous with ‘the Cypri-
aus maxillingua, having the same structure of the mouth, &c.
I therefore venture to establish a separate genus for those two
species, having no doubt that many more will hereafter be
added to it by accurate observers, and I giye to it the name of
14 *

156 Exoglossum.

Exoglossum, meaning outside tongue. It will belong to the
same natural order and family of the genera Cyprinus, Catos-
tomus, &c.

Exociossum. Generic Definition.—Body oblong, thick, and
scaly ; head without scales, mouth without lips or teeth,
upper jaw longer, entire; the lower trilobed, middle lobe
longer, performing the office of tongue ; dorsal fin opposite to
the abdominal fins ; three rays to the branchial membrane.

Remarks. Besides the above characters, the two species
known at present have, in common, the lateral line ascending
upwards at the base, the tail forked, &c. -

1. Species. . Exoglossum vittatum, Raf. Cyprinus maail-
lingua, Lesueur. Specific Definition.—Back brownish olive ;
sides blue, with a brownish band ; a black spot at the base of
the caudal fin, lower parts silvery — ; lateral line ascending
upwards at the base ; dorsal and anal fins with nine rays ; tail
forked.

Remarks. Length four inches ; vulgar name little sucker.
For further particulars, see Lesueur’s description, p. 85. cum.
ic. Ihave been obliged to change: the specific name of maail-
lingua, since it has the same meaning as the generic name.

2. Species. Exoglossum annulatum, Raf. Head black
above, cheeks and gills olivaceous, back blackish olive, sides
olivaceous, lower parts olive gray ; a black ring at the base of
the tail; lateral line ascending upwards at the base, tail forked,
dorsal and anal fins with nine rays.

Remarks. Length from three to six inches; vulgar name,
Black chub. Head broad and flat above, iris large and gray ;
fins olivaceous, abdominal distant and with nine rays, pectoral -
with fifteen, caudal with twenty-four.

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Steam-Engine—Physics. — 157

PHYSICS, MECHANICS, AND CHEMISTRY.
—=2@ See

Arr. XV. On the Revolving Steam-Engine, recently
invented by Samuet Morey, and Patented to him on the
14th July, 1815, with four Engravings.

"To Professor Silliman.
Sir,

Tue successful employment of the steam-engine, in navi-
gating the rivers and inland waters of the United States, and
the probable extension of this mode of conveyance of persons
and property, makes those improvements desirable which
adapt the steam-engine to this purpose with less complication
and expense, placing it_more within reach of individual enter-
prise, and rendering it even useful on our small rivers and
canals...

The steam-engine, though often seen in operation, is not
readily understood by an observer, without an acquaintance
with the facts in natural philosophy on which its power de-
pends : and it may elucidate the subject of this communication
- to advert, for a moment, to the gradations by which this im-
portant machine has attained its present perfection.

It will be recollected that as early as 1663, the Marquis of
‘Worcester published some obscure hints of a mechanical power
derived from the-elastic force of steam. .

In 1669, Savary, availing himself of the suggestion, and pur-
suing the subject more scientifically, invented his engine, con-
sisting of an apparatus to cause a vacuum by the condensation
of steam, so that the water to be raised would thereupon, by
the external weight of the atmosphere, rise into the chamber
| ie apparatus, which the steam had occupied.

s caloric becomes latent inthe steam which it forms at 212° of
renheit, and the steam thus formed occupies 1800 times the
bulk of the water composing it ; and as it returns instantly to

% pine hes, et ie

158 Steam-Engine— Physics, &c.

a state of water on losing its heat, by contact with any thing
cold, Savary easily produced his vacuum by the injection of a
little cold water.

He also used (though in a very disadvantageous manner)
the expansive force of steam to drive the water out of the
chamber, through a pipe different from that by which it
entered. %:

It is doubtful whether this kind of engine was ever erected
on a scale of any magnitude ; for, a few years later, Newco-
men and Crawley invented the first engine with a cylinder and
piston ; and Savary, abandoning his own, united with them in
bringing their engine into use. '

As steam drives out air, the principle of this engine was to
let steam into the cylinder beneath the piston, where (the pis-
ton having risen to the top of the cylinder) a jet of cold water*
condensed the steam, produced a vacuum, and the piston,
working air tight, descended by the pressure of the atmos-
phere upon it, this pressure being a weight of nearly fifteen
pounds to each square inch ; so that if the cylinder were two
feet diameter, it would amount to a weight of three tons. _

This mode of operation prevailed for about fifty years, and
though much used to pump water from mines, was found to
have great inconveniences and defects ; till, in the year 1762,
Mr. Watt, being employed to repair a working-model of an
engine at the University of Glasgow, was led to direct his
mind to the improvement of the machine ; and from his expe-
riments sprung the most essential change, viz. the condensa-
tion of the steam in the cylinder, by opening a communication
with a separate vessel, into which the injection of cold water
was made, thus allowing the cylinder to remain hot.

On opening that communication, the steam instantly rushes
to the cold, or rather is destroyed by the instant loss or reduc-
tion of its heat, and the vacuum thus made allows the piston
to descend as before mentioned. : oa

% This jet of cold water being let into the cylinder-itself, necessarily cooled it
at every stroke ; and then it was necessary to heat it again to the boiling point,
before the pistonwould reascend, and thus a vast loss of heat occurred. Epiror.

Steam-Engine—Physics, §-c. 159

Mr. Watt soon added the airpump to the condenser, to ex-
tract the air extricated from the water in boiling, together
with the water injected.

The next step was to close the upper.end of the cylinder,
the piston-rod working through a tight packing to exclude the
air, letting the steam in above, as well as below the piston, by
an alternate communication, and then condensing it in both
cases alternately, thus producing a double stroke ; at the same
time deriving some aid from the expansive force of the steam
on the side of the piston opposite to the vacuum. This is
essentially the form of all the engines in use at the present
day. The minor parts devised by Mr. Watt, as the working
of the valves, &c. were such as would readily occur to a scien-
tific mechanician.

While he was bringing the engine to its present perfection,
and furnishing it fer the numerous mines, manufactories, and
breweries in Great. Britain, variations were devised by Cart-
wright, by Hornblower, Woolf, and others in England, and
more recently by Evans and by Ogden in America, evincing
much ingenuity, but (with the exception of Evans’s, which is
a simple engine of high pressure) making the machine more
complex.

Watt and Bolton’s engine, as most generally used, being
properly an atmospheric engine, or working with steam so low
as merely to produce a vacuum in the cylinder, became of
enormous dimensions, when the power required was that of
an hundred horses: a scale of estimate adapted to the com-
prehension of those who had before used the labour of that
animal, and preferred to substitute the steam-engine.

It had not, however, escaped the notice of Mr. Watt, that
there existed in steam another source of power besides that of
atmospheric pressure. The experiments of his learned friend,
Dr. Black, of Glasgow, as well as those of the French chemists,

jagent of Papin, in the instance of his digester, had ascertained
e laws of its expansive force, and amongst other interesting
te those subservient to our present purpose ; viz. That
er water has reached the boiling point, 212° of Fahrenheit,

the caloric which enters it no longer becomes latent, but sen-

160 Steam-Engine—Physies, &c.

a

sible in the steam, which thereupon acquires expansive force
to an unlimited degree: that this force increases geometri-
cally ; or, that every accession of about 30° of heat, nearly
doubles its power at those stages of progression; that when
the pressure at a high temperature is taken off, or the steam
allowed to flow, there is an instantaneous and rapid production
of steam ; a fact which proves there can be no necessity of a
large space for the steam to form in above the water, provided
it be sufficient to prevent water from issuing with the steam,
and, therefore, that boilers of a small cylindrical form are best.

It may be a fair question, why Mr. Watt did not further
employ this principle of expansive force? We may readily
conceive of several motives to the contrary. Watt and Bolton’s
engines were in great demand; they gave entire satisfaction,
and the work they pebomndd saved so much labour as to
afford the purchase at a high price. The public had gained
immensely by this better form of the engine, and Mr. Watt
enjoyed the benefits of the patent he had obtained ; and, at a
later period, this preference was increased by an accident which
happened to Trevethick’s engine, though caused by gross mis-
management, that would have been equally fatal to any other.

From an investigation, by a committee of parliament, into
the causes of the several fatal explosions of steam-engine
boilers within a few years, published in Tillock’s Magazine,
vol. |., it appears that in every instance the accident was fairly
attributable to neglect or mismanagement. Many competent
persons were summoned to give: their opinions ; and through
the contrariety of their testimony, the prevalent opinion ap-
pears to have been, that cast-iron boilers cannot be safe ; that
as many engines of high steam as of low are now used in Eng-
land, but that the high are much the most economical in fuel
and cost; that they are more safe, if properly constructed ; it
being argued by some, that boilers for steam of 100 pounds to
the inch, are easily made of strength’to sustain 500 pounds ;
this excess being much greater than in those constructed for
Jow steam, makes them comparatively the safest, as the saf
valves are less liable to be accidentally prevented voit pay vent-
ing the steam._

Te

a7 Steam-Engine—Physics, §:c. 161
in the United States, instances are not wanting of the suc-
cessful operation of high steam; of which the engine at the
mint is a conspicuous example. There can, indeed, be no
good reason why this great power should not be employed to
an extent within the limits of safety, if more economical and
convenient. If boilers can bear (as they are usually made of
iron) 500 pounds, there can be no danger in using them with
fifty ; and this gives an increase of power, with a condenser,
fourfold, or makes a ten horse power forty. The economy,
therefore, of high steam, hardly admits of a question. It
seems unphilosophical to neglect a power so great, merely
because it is so.

Mr. Watt was desirous of an improvement by which to
obtain a direct rotatory motion. His experiments, resembling
those of Curtis, at New-York, were not found permanently
practicable.

It was probably perceived to be a great object to get rid of
a reciprocating movement of large masses, on the well-known
mechanical principle, that it consumes power to check mo-
mentum, as well as to give it—to drag. an inert mass into
motion rapidly, in opposite directions. And in engines for
navigation this is more disadvantageous than for land uses, as
the foundation of the engine cannot be perfectly substantial..

An engine, therefore, that possesses the cylinder and other
members of Watt’s engine, working with or without a con-
denser, at pleasure—having a rotatory movement—requiring no
ponderous balance-wheel—adapted to high steam—attended by
no inconvenience from the rapidity of its stroke or move-
ment—having no inert mass of machinery to move recipro-
cally—more powerful, proportionately, from its using steam
as strong as that in the boiler—of a simple and durable con-
struction, and by a combination of two similar machines at-
tached to the same common intermediate axis, operating so as
to give nearly an equal power at every moment of its opera-
tion, seems to combine every thing desirable in an engine for
he purposes of navigation. Such appears to be the revolr-
ing engine invented by Mr. Morey.

162 Steam-Engine—Physics, §c.

When those who are acquainted with steam-engines of the
atmospheric kind only, are told that Morey’ s cylinder revolves,
their imaginations may suppose a moving mass as large as the
enormous cylinders they have.been accustomed to see: but it
is not so; the elastic force of steam requires machinery but of
comparatively small dimensions. ts

The revolving engine makes up in activity what in other
engines is supplied by magnitude.

We will take for example the engine moni at the glass
manufactory, in this vicinity, the cylinder of which has one
foot stroke and nine inches diameter, and is at least a ten horse
power, working with fifty pounds—or, the engine now build-
ing for the Hartford boat. This engine will have two cylin-
ders of seventeen inches diameter and eighteen inch stroke ;
they will revolve fifty times ‘a minute. The area of the piston
in each being 227 inches, steam at cis pounds will give an
hundred horse power.

This boat is seventy-seven feet long, stot one feet wide,
and measures one hundred and thirty-six tons. The engine, with
its boilers, will occupy sixteen feet by twelve, or one-eighth
only of the boat ; the cylinders being hung on the timbers of
ihe deck over the boilers. She is prinenege er to tow
vessels up the river to Hartford.

In towing, it is of importance that the engine admit of any
inferior velocity or power, till some momentum is had. An
engine working by atmospheric pressure does not admit of this.
And as the boat herself, at the moment of commencing the
operation, may have no steerage-way, by placing two blade-
rudders at the sides, behind the water-wheel, where a current
is occasioned by them, the boat is kept in her relative position.

The application of the steam-engine to the towing of other
vessels was fully appreciated by the late Mr. Fulton, whose
conspicuous labours and enterprise. in. the establishment of '
steam-boats, the public duly honours. His active mind had
conceived of its utility ; and he would have obtained a patent,
had not the previous employment of steam in this way, and
the award of arbitrators on the question been in my favour ;

Steam-Engine—Physics, Se. 163

which I mention merely in reference to the supposed utility
of this mode of operation, in connexion with Morey’s engine.

Morey’s engine should rather be denominated a revolving
engine than a rotatory one, especially as it is essentially differ-
ent from one so called invented by Mr. Curtis.

Plate I. Fig. 5, represents the arrangement of a double
engine for a boat, with its cylinders in different positions.
aaa, boilers; 6 6, tar-vessel ; c, valve-box; d, cylinders in
different positions ; e, piston-rod ; f, pitman ; h, centre-piece ;
it, shaft ; k, valve ; 1, steam-pipe ; m, escape-pipe ; , con-
densers ; t, water-wheel ; v, face of the valves; x, tar-fire.
The frame, holding the cylinder (d) is, by its opposite sides,
so hung as to revolve. To the end of the axis of one side,
extended over the cylinder, is fixed the centre-piece (h}
resembling a crank, from which the bar or pitman (f) com-
municates to the cross-piece of the piston-rod. On this same
axis, but outside the frame, is placed two circular pieces, one
of brass, the other of iron, (k) which we may call the valves.
One is fixed on the axis, the other moves, and accompanies
the frame and cylinder in its revolution ; from it, at opposite
sides, pipes lead the steam to each end of the cylinder. It
has a smooth face, which applies, and is kept by springs close
to that of its counterpart fixed on the said axis. Steam-pipes
lead from the boilers.through the counterpart into the moving.
valve. On the opposite side of the fixed piece the eduction-
pipe (0 0) leads to the condensers.

The condensers (p) are upright vessels, two to each cylin-
der, connected at top by a sliding valve box, so that the steam
enters them alternately. At bottom are two valves, kept
clesed by weights. A stream of water is injected into the
condensers, which escapes by the bottom valves (p p) by

which also the air is blown out, at every stroke, in the same
" manner the engine is cleared of air at first.

There are also two cocks and cross-pipes seen, Plate III.
Fig. 4, to change the steam from one side to the other of the
valve, to give a reversed motion of the engine.

The power is communicated to its object from the opposite
side of the frame by the axis attached thereto, and supported

164 Steam-Engine—Physics, Se.

on bearings. This axis (7 7) may be of any 1g
minate in a crank or cog-wheel, or another cylix
represented) may be attached thereto at right angles to the
first, to co-operate and produce, at every moment, equal
power.

Plate Il. Fig. 6. Profile of the above. a a, the boiler ;
c, valve; d e g, cylinder and frame ; J; valve ; hh, cog-
wheels ; 2, cog-wheels to move the pumps ; k k, condensers ;
m m, coverings in ; 0 0, gas-fire flue.

Fig. 1. a, steam-pipe ; 6, escape-pipe ; c, fixed valve ;
d, moving valve ; e, axis ; f, a washer ; g, section of frame ;
h, a washer ; 2, centre-piece ; 11, steam-pipe ;_k k, springs to
keep the valves together.

The canal-boat has her wheel in the stern. (See Plate IV.)
The motion is given by a cog-wheel upon its axis (g) played
upon by another, upon a shaft, at right angles, to which the
engine communicates motion. The wheel being divided by a
space of two or three inches, into two parts, to allow room
for this shaft, and for the support of its end.

Fig. 3, represents the arrangement of thefeachinery, occu-
pying the after-part. of the boat. An engine of twenty horse
power may thus occupy half a canal-boat, can tow a number
of others at such rate as may be proper on canals. * 66, the
boilers ; ; c, tar-vessel ; d, the cylinder ; a water-wheel.

The supply of water to the boilers is either by a pump, in
usual form, or by the supply-chamber of my invention, (Plate
Ill. Fig. 2.) which consists simply of a pipe having two stop-
cocks, one end in a reservoir, the other opening into the

boiler at top, sloping downward for a foot or two. The cocks —

are in the sloping point. The operation commences, by
opening the cock nearest the boiler, the steam drives the air
out of the pipe through the water into the reservoir; shut
ihe cock, and the water rises from the reservoir to fill it ;

% But itis not necessary (as in the plate) to crowd the engine into the after-
part of the boat, the boilers may be placed forward, and near them, or over
them, the cylinder, &c. ‘The power is then communicated to the stern-wheel by a
long. shaft, supported on, or immediately under, the deck. This arrangement
gives room for loading both behind and before the boilers and engine, and equalizes
the burden. This is the actual arrangement of the Merrimack beat.

B

é 4

Pe

F 4

Steam-Engine—Physics, Sc. 165

shut the second cock, and open the first, the water discharges
from the chamber into the boiler ; repeated by a movement
from the engine, when in motion, the supply continues with
more certainty than by a pump, because it is difficult to pump
hot water, on account of the elasticity of the steam arising
from it, which obstructs the operation of the valves. And it
is important not to have to pump against the pressure of high
steam.* ; :

~ Plate III. Fig. 4. The mode of changing the passage of
the steam to the opposite sides of the valves, in order to get a
reversed motion of the engine. a a, the fixed part, or valves ;
ed, the pipes; fg, the cross pipes; e e, the cocks, which
are represented open, to pipes c and d—turn them half round,
they close c and d, and open fand g. Fig. 1 shows the side-
rudders, d, e, &c.

To this engine is conveniently applied the gas-fire, in the
following manner.

The boilers being cylindrical, with an inside. flue for fuel,
two or three are placed close together, and set in the following
manner: First, cross-bars of iron are laid on the timbers, a
platform of sheet-iron is laid on these bars, coated over with
clay mortar, or cemented, to’ keep out the air. Upon the
sheet-iron, and over the bars below, are placed cast-iron
blocks in shape to fit the curve of the boiler, so as to raise it
three or four inches above the platform. The sheet-iron is
continued.up the outsides of the outer boilers, so as to
enclose them ; and at one end, between the boilers, there ar
amall grates for coal or other fuel. ie

The tar vessel or vessels, as the case may be, are lodged
in the space between and upon the boilers, and a small fire
may be made under them, if necessary. A pipe leads steam
in at one end, two pipes at the other ; «one near the bottom,
and ene near the top, lead out the tar and steam. These
pipes unite below ; the steam and tar, thus mingled in suitable
proportions, flow to the main fire, or the flues of the boilers,

* Jt is found with very high steam that the source of supply must be above the
chamber, or a small quantity of cold water introduced to condense the steam
therein,

166 ; Steamelingine-—niihuaes, ge.

as well as to the coal- fire below, where the os and tar are
ignited. The fireman judges of the propo each, by
the effect ; the object being to produce a a white flame
without appearance of tar. Thus flame is applied to the
greatest possible surface, and the apparatus adds very little to
the cost of the engine,
There are also two improvements in the boiler, which {
deem it important to mention. First, the lining or covering

-of the flue within with sheet-iron or copper, perforated with

small holes, reaching down its sides, nearly to the bottom.
Plate Ill. Fig. 2. a the boiler; 6 the flue; d the grate;
cc the lining. 5

This causes the water to circulate rapidly between them to
the top of the flue, and protects it from being run dry, or
heated red hot, when the water gets, by accident, too low.
The lining also causes the steam to form much faster, in conse-
quence of thas circulation. . ;

The other is the interior boiler. A vessel occupying the
back part of the flue. Plate Il, Fig. 8. (d) communicating
downwards with the water, and upwards with the steam of the
main boiler. The fire acts upon it.very forcibly, surrounding
it on all sides. ary

I have said there is no reciprocating movement in Morey’s
engine. Should it be objected that the piston moves in the
cylinder as usual, it must be apparent that it also moves cir-
cularly ; it is in fact the cylinder that moves, carrying the
piston with it, which gives and keeps up the motion, by
drawing and pressing on the centre-piece, and communicating
the resistance thence to the guides of the cross-piece on the
insides of the frame, which thus receives its motion.

In fact, this form of the engine seems divested of all the
usual drawbacks on its power, and leaves it to act freely with
any velocity, according to the strength of the steam in the
boilers.

Such it appears in principle, and such thus far i in practise.
I have therefore preferred it for the purposes of navigation,
and have purchased the patent right. But, though interested
to recommend it, I cannot expect it to be preferred by the

ey al

_ Steam-Engine--Physics, Sc. r 167

stoi if there is not merit in the invention, and great
economy in its use. It may be considered the most-direct
application of the power, and the most unexceptionable mode
of using the expansive force of high steam. And from the
nature of its movement the most applicable to boats and
vessels.

Your Journal being the intended medium of information to
promote the useful arts, | hope it may be consistent with this
object to explain the manner in which these imprax ements
may be made extensively useful.

It being necessary to supply the engines at a reasonable
rate, I have established a manufactory for this kind only.
The great expense of steam-boats hitherto, has confined their
use too exclusively to the accommodation of passengers.
There is a wide field opening for their use, in freighting, on
all our waters ; and it is often of importance to a community,
when great savings can be made, that large capitalists should be
induced to engage that such savings may be greater. Where
companies are formed for an extensive operation, the legisla-
ture may, with propriety, grant an extension of the time for
patents to run, that such persons may be duly remunerated
for their enterprise, by the duration of the service.

Our laws do not yet make a proper distinction between
patents of a large and expensive kind and those requiring little
or no capital to go into operation. The period of fourteen
years remunerates the inventor of those improvements only
that require no capital, and involve no risk.

On this ground several of the State legislatures have, witli
good policy, given encouragement to this kind of enterprise.
They suspend the free use of the invention a few years,
rather than loose its immediate operation on a large scale of
public benefit.

The constitutionality of the measure plainly appears by its

not interfering with the laws of the United States. It is not
an act exclusive of, or in opposition to, patents, but acknow-
fledging and confirming them. It is furthering and giving
effect to the intentions of the general government, in the
encouragement of useful inventions. For their own particular

168 Cautions, &c. respecting Fulminating Powders.

section of the union, a State legislature may thus provide for
the protection of capital, engaged in enterprise of uncommon
risk, as well as of uncommon usefulness, without excluding
other and better inventions, should they arise. .
I shall ask leave to communicate, for some future Number,
the results of experiments, now making, with the gas fire
applied to engines,
I am moun most respectful humble servant,
OED L. SULLIVAN

Art. XVI. Cautions regarding Fulminating Powders.

eg Fulmanating Mercury. »

Dwurine a late lecture in the laboratory of Yale College, a
quantity of fulminating mercury, probably about 100 or 150
grains, lay upon a paper, the paper lay on a small stool,
which was made of pine plank, one inch and a half thick; a
glass gas receiver, 5 or 6 quarts capacity, stood over the
powder, as a guard, but without touching it, and stool and all
stood on one of the shelves of the pneumatic cistern, sur-
rounded by ‘tall tubes and other glasses, several of which
were within 6 or 8 inches. A small quantity of the fulmi-
nating powder, at the distance of a few feet, was merely
flashed, by a coal of fire, but without explosion. In a man-
ner, not easily understood, the whole quantity of powder
under the large glass sneeiaaty exploded with an astounding
report ; but the glass was not exploded—at was merely thrown
upa little 5 in its fall it was shattered, and broke a glass which -
it hit, but no fragment was projected, and none of the other
contiguous tubes and glasses were even overset, nor were any
of a large audience, and some of them very near, even
scratched ; but the plank, one and a half inch thick, on which
the powder lay, had a hole blown quite through, almost as large
as the palm of one’s hand. ‘This is astriking instance to prove
that the initial force of this powder, when exploded, is very
great, but that it extends but a very’ little way. If it be

+ al | lal

Cautions, §c. respecting Fulminating Powders. 169

strewed through a glass tube of three-fourths of an inch in
diameter, and exploded by a coal of fire or hot iron, the tube
may be held in the naked hand, and the powder only flashes
without breaking the tube, and merely coats it over inside,
and that very prettily, with the revived quicksilver.

F ulminating Silver.

Chemists are too well acquainted with the tremendous
energy of this preparation, to make any comment upon its
powers necessary. Unhappily, however, it is now made a
“subject of amusement ; itis prepared for sale by those who
know nothing of it, except as a nostrum, and it is bought: by
others who have not even this degree of knowledge. It is
true it is put up in small quantities, in the little toys called
torpedoes, and, if exploded one by one, they will ordinarily
do no harm ; but as they fall into the hands of children, we
can never be secure that they will be discreetly used.

A very severe accident, from the unexpected explosion of
this substance, occurred some years since in the laboratory of
Yale College. (See Bruce’s Journal, Vol. I. p. 163.) And,
notwithstanding that this occurrence was well known in New-
Haven, the same accident, only under a severer forts has
again occurred in that town. oa

A man who had bought the secret of making fulminating
silver, had prepared as much as resulted from the solution of
one ounce andahalf. Apparently, in a great measure, unaware
of the nature of the preparation, he had placed it, unmixed
with any thing, on an earthen plate, which stood on a table ;
his wife and children being around, he sat down to distribute
the powder upon several papers which he had prepared for
the purpose; sand and shot are mixed with the powder in the
papers for the purpose of giving momentum, and of producing
attrition when the torpedo is thrown, in order to.ensure its
explosion. Probably also the sand, looking not very unlike
the powder, may be intended to screen it from view, and thus
to preserve the secret, should the papers be opened. ‘The
unhappy man no sooner touched the fulminating silver with a

Var. 1....No. 2. 15

178 Gelatine.

knife, than it exploded with its usual violence ; the table was
split in two ; blood issued copiously from every part of his
face, not from wounds, for it does not appear that the frag-
ments hit him, but, according to the opinion of a competent
judge, the blood was actually forced through the pores of the
skin by the power of the explosion, which very nearly de-
stroyed his eyes. He suffered immensely, but now, at the
end of eight months, sees partially with one eye, but the
other is nearly, if not quite, destroyed.

Should not the tampering with such dangerous ak duseiaien
by ignorant people be prevented by law ?
~ In a Jate lecture in the laboratory of Yale College, some
fulminating silver, on the point of a knife, was in the act of
being put upon a copper-plate connected with one pole of a
galvanic battery in active operation, the other pole was not
touched by the experimenter ; but it seems that the influence
which was communicated through the floor of the room was
sufficient: instantly to explode the powder, as soon as the knife
touched the copper-plate ; the knifeblade was broken in two,
and one half of it thrown to a distance among the audience.

Recently also, we are informed, in one of the foreign jour-
nals, that a man in England, who accidentally trod on a quantity
_ of fulminating silver, had his foot nearly — eins
explosion.

» 7

USEFUL ARTS.

ef >>

1 - oe econ of an economical method of obi
from bones, as practised in Paris. Com-
e Editor by Mr. Isaac Dootrrtie.

Paris, 16th May, 1818,

| My pear Sir,

A FEW days since I visited the very interesting establish-
ment of M. Robert, for the extraction of the spanous matter
from bones, p

Gelatine. 171

‘he bones used for this purpose are those only which
answered no useful purpose (except for the fabrication of
phosphorus or ammoniac) before this discovery, such as those
of the head, the ribs, &c. &c., the legs of sheep and calves, &c.
Those formerly used by toysmen (Tabletiers) are still used for
that purpose, after extracting so much of the gelantine as can |
be done by ebullition.

When the heads of oxen are to be operated upon, they

begin by extracting the teeth, (these are reserved for the
- fabrication of ammoniac, as affording a greater proportion of
that alkali than.any of the other bones,) they then ‘break the
skull, in such manner as to preserve all the compact parts in
as regular forms. as possible ; these pieces present a surface
. of 20 to 30 square inches, and are put to soak in a mixture of
muriatic acid and water. The muriatic acid used bears about

twenty-three degrees of the aerométre, and is diluted by
water to about six degrees—four parts of the liquor is used to
one part of boues. They are left in this state, in open ves-
sels, until a complete solution of the phosphate of lime has
taken place, and the gelatinous part of the bone remains in
its original shape and size, and is perfectly supple. When
this operation is finished, which commonly lasts six or eight
days, the gelatine is put into baskets, being first drained, and
immersed a short time in boiling water, in order to extract
any small remains of grease, which would deteriorate the
gelatine, and also to extract any of the acid which might be
lodged in the pores. It is then carefully wiped with clean
linen, and afterward washed in copious streams of cold water,

to whiten it, and render it more transparent ; 2 put to

dry in the shade. ay me Pe hap tip 3
Two ounces of this gelatine are said ‘ae deal to three
pounds of beefin making soup—that is, three pounds of beef and
two ounces of,gelatine will make as much soup, and of as good
quality, as six pounds of beef. It is constantly used in some of
the hospitals of the capital, particularly in the lying-in-hospital.
The ends of the bones, and such parts as from their porosity
_might still retain a portion of the acid, are separated, and used

for making glue of a very superior quality.

15*

Mts :
Tees iy ane
*
‘
FG

172 Seawater.
?

The inside of the bones of sheeps legs furnish a sort of
membranous glue, which supplies, with advantage, the place
of isinglass in the fabrication of silk stuffs.

I give you these particulars, not because I think they contain
any thing new to you, in principle, but because I may have
hit upon some details with which you were unacquainted.

Arr. XX. Experiments made in France upon the Use of
Distilled Seawater for domestic purposes, and its Effects
onthe Constitution, when taken as a Brverays

7

ty consequence of. the great want of good fresh water i in
many of the maritime parts of France, the gove ment so me
time since ordered some experiments to be made, upon an ex-
tensive scale, in order to ascertain how far seawater, when
distilled, could be used with success. Little or no use had
hitherto been made of water so prepared, except in long voy-
ages, and chiefly then only as a matter of necessity. There
are above two hundred leagues of seacoast in France, where,
to the breadth of many miles, the inhabitants are compelled to
make use of bad and impure water, which, in many cases, is
injurious to the health of themselves and their animals. In
similar cases, it was the custom of the ancients to construct
cisterns ; but these are not only expensive in themselves, but
their utility depends upon the quantity of rain that falls ; while
“upon the shores of the most barren places, nature has sup-
plied a variety of vegetable matter, which, when dried, would
not only serve as a fuel for the purposes of distillation, but
from the ashes of which might be obtained a saline substance,
sufficient to repay the expense of collecting, drying, and burn-
ing. Thus the fuel for the distillation of seawater would, in
reality, cost nothing, while its preparation would employ many
individuals, particularly women and children. a how-
ve a

* Taken from the Philosophical Magazine, and by that. = oa the Annales
de Chimie and de Physique, for January, 1818,

Seawater. 173

'
ever, erecting any apparatus for this purpose, it was neces-

sary to ascertain both the utility and salubrity of the water
thus prepared. , 7

It is well known that Bougainville, Phipps, Homelin, &c.
had employed this water with much success ; but they, like
most of the chemists of the last age, did not endeavour to imi-
tate the process of nature in all its simplicity, but mixed
various substances with the seawater, in order to take away
or lessen the effect of the empyxeuma arising from the dis-
tillation, and which was so unpleasant to the smell and taste,
And it is this which in general renders sailors so averse to it,
and excites a prejudice very unfavourable to the salubrity of
distilled seawater. One of the great objects to be ascertained
was, whether this disagreeable smell and taste was peculiar to
canted, Alea from the act of distillation.

In the month of July, last year, the king ordered some ex-
periments to be made, upon a large scale, at the three ports of
Brest, Rochefort, and Toulon. The instructions given were
as follows: That a sufficient. quantity of seawater should be
distilled to prepare, for the space of a month, bread and other
food for a certain number of criminals, who were employed
on the works of these ports, and also to supply them with
drink, keeping from them during that period every other
liquid. Ten or twelve persons at each part voluntarily came
forward and offered themselves for the experiment.

The persons employed by government first distilled a suffi-
cient quantity of seawater, without the admixture of any other
substance. ‘This produce dissolved soap, dressed vegetables,
produced the same appearances, with the aerometer, as that
distilled-from spring water. : There was no difference between
_the one and the other. But the distilled seawater had always
that empyreumatic taste and smell, of which we have before
spoken ; and it was so strong, that the commission at Toulon
called it odewr de marine, and odeur de marecage. But this is
not peculiar to seawater, for the result ofa distillation of fresh
water had always the same taste and smell. Neither of these
liquids immediately loses this by being filtered through char-

(7d Seawater:

coal; but by being exposed for some time to the air, the dis-

tilled seawater loses this unpleasant quality, and then it does
not differ from fresh water derived frém the purest source ;
and both have equally stood every chemical test to which they
have been exposed. The chemical properties of this water
having thus been determined, it remains to give an account of
the effects upon the individuals who underwent the experi-
ment. These are the principal resulis: ’

Brest. During the first days, those who drank the water
complained of a weight uponthe stomach. This indisposition,
which was the only one they experienced, soon decreased
upon taking exercise, and totally went off by an additional
ounce of biscuit added to their common ration. One of them,
on the 29th day, had a few symptoms, but which he Senedd
attributed to an indigestion, from some bacon he had eaten.
Eight individuals drank twenty-five pints a day, rather more
than three pints each.—(N.B. The French pint contains
very near fifty-seven cubic inches of English measure, and is
the regulation size for the claret or Bordeaux bottle’; but in
general the bottles are rather smaller. The French pint is _
therefore equal to rather more than nineteen-twentieths. of, an
English quart, wine measure.)

Toulon. The results obtained at the arsenal of this idainh
were not less decisive or satisfactory. The six persons who
made the experiment acquired a greater degree of freshness
in their appearance, and were much fatter. Their daily con-
sumption of distilled water was nine pounds (poids de marc)
for drink, and eleven pounds for cooking. This is nearly the
same relative quantity as those at Brest.

Rochefort. The experiments here have not been made
with the same regularity ; because the fifteen persons fixed,
upon had all agreed to say that they were very ill. The two
principal ones complained of violent cholics and diarrhoeas ;
but the plot was discovered, and upon being put upon the sick
hist, (@ la diéte,) they were laughed at by their companions.
No one of them was really indisposed ; on the contrary, many
thought they experienced some good effect in regard to. some
infirmities under which they had long laboured.

Cn". or

Seawater. 175

The above are not, however, the only experiments which
have been made upon this beverage. Several. persons wish-
ing to ascertain its effects by individual experience, have
voluntarily confined themselves to its use ; and the members
of the commission of inquiry are almost in the daily practice
of taking it. The captain of the Duclat has takenit every day
at his meals for twenty days, and has experienced not the
smallest inconvenience from its use. M. M. Vasse, and Cha-
telain, apothecaries to the marine at Brest, have occasionally
kept the water in their mouths for four hours, by constantly
renewing it, and have not found either the sharp taste, or
other caustic qualities, which have been said to be peculiar to
it. And here it may be proper to state, that the mouths of all
the individuals who had taken the water for a length of time
were examined, without the detection of any thing in them
either of a swollen or inflammatory appearance. Such are the
reports of commissioners employed to investigate the effects
of distilled seawater, who, although separated at a great dis-
tance from each other, and having no communication, all agree
in the inference, that it may be employed without any injury
to the health, both as a beverage and in cookery, for the space
of at least a month ; and the fair presumption is, that it may be
employed for a much longer time ; and that in consequence,
it must be considered as a very hippy resource in long —
ages ef discovery.

sa

176 On Musical Temperament.
FINE ARTS. si

Arr. XXI. Essay on Musical Temperament. By Pro-
Jessor Fisuer, of Yale College. eo

[Concluded from page 35.}
Proposition V.

To determine that position of any degree in the scale, which
will render all the concords terminated by it, at a me-
dium, the most harmonious; supposing their relative
frequency given, and all the other degrees fixed.

Tue best scheme of temperament for the changeable scale,
on supposition that all the concords were of equally frequent
occurrence, is investigated in Prop. III]. But it is shown, in
the last Proposition, that some chords occur in practice far
more frequently than others. Hence it becomes necessary to
ascertain what changes in the scale above referred to, this
different frequency requires. Any given degree, as C, termi-
nates six different concords ; a Vth, IIId, and 3d above, and

‘ the same intervals below it. Let the numbers denoting the

frequency of these chords below C be denoted by a, 6, and ¢,
and their temperaments, before the position of C is changed,
by m,n, and p: and let the frequency of the chords above C
be denoted by a’, b', and c’, and their temperaments by m’, n,
and p’, respectively. If, now, we regard any two of these 6
chords, whose temperaments would be diminished by moving
C opposite ways, and of which the sum of the temperaments is
consequently fixed, it is manifest that the more frequent the
occurrence, the less ought to be the temperament. Were
we guided only by the consideration of making the aggregate
of dissonance heard in them in a given time, the least possible,
we should make the one of most frequent occurrence perfect,
and throw the whole of the temperament ae the other:

an

® -
nr a
‘ ps ‘
‘>a

On Musical Temperament. 177

Let, for example, a be greater than a’, and let x be any
variable distance to which C is moved, so as te,diminish the
' temperament m, of the chord whose frequency is expressed
by a. Then the temperament of a will become =mvx, and
that of a’ =m'+a. Hence, as the dissonance head in each, in
a given time, is in the compound ratio of its frequency of oc-
eurrence and its temperament, their aggregate dissonance will
be as a.mra+a'.m +2; a quantity which, as a is supposed
greater than a’, evidently becomes a minimum when z=m,
or the chord, whose frequency is a, is made perfect. But
in this way we render the harmony of the chords very un-
equal, which is, ceteris paribus, a disadvantage. As these
considerations are heterogeneous, it must be a matter of
judgment, rather than of mathematical certainty, what pre-
cise weight is to be given to each. We will give so much
weight to the latter consideration, as to make the temperament
of each concord inversely as its frequency. We have then

, 1 1 . ! am—a'm

tT RD ceed tex prt which gives f= omer rae
But there are six concords to be accommodated, instead of
two; and it is evident that all the pairs cannot have their
temperament inversely as their frequency, since the num-
bers a, b, &c. and m,n, &c. have no constant ratio to each
other. This, however, will be the case, at a medium, if
z be made such, that the sum of the products of the numbers
expressing the frequency of those chords whose temperaments
are increased by x, into their respective temperaments, shall
be equal to the sum of the corresponding products belonging
to those chords whose temperaments are diminished by z.
Applying this principle to the system of temperament in Prop.
Hil, which flattens all the concords, it is plain that raising any
given degree by 2 will increase the temperaments of the
concords above that degree, and diminish those of the con-
cords below it. Hence it ought to be raised till (m—x) a+
(n—2x) b4(p—2x) c=(m' +2) a+(n'+2x) '+(pt+e) c’: from
hich 24s found, = ae i site eens
either of the temperaments be sharp, the sign of that term of

PY
web Ys ile “aes ;
is On Musical Temperament.

the numerator, in ‘wilelibatien occurs, must be changed ; neyo)
should the total value of the expression be anaes ja must

be ig b

Proposition VI.

To eae that system of temperaments for the cone
of the changeable scale, which will render it, including
every consideration, the most harmonious possible.

We can scarcely expect to find any direct analytical pro-
cess, which will furnish us with a solution of this complicated
problem, at a single operation. We shall therefore content
ourselves with a method which gradually approximates towards
the desired results. ‘The best position of any given degree,
as C, supposing all the rest fixed, is determined by the last
proposition. In the same manner it is evident that the con-
stitution of the whole scale will be the best possible, when no
degree in it can be elevated or depressed, without rendering
the sums of the products there referred to, unequal. We can
approximate to this state of the scale, by applying the theorem
in Prop. V. to each of the degrees successively. ‘Tt is not
essential in what order the application is made ; but for’ the

sake of uniformity, in the successive approxteions! we will
begin with that degree which has the greatest sum a--a’-+6+
&e. belonging to it, and proceed regularly to that in which
itis least. Making the equal temperament of Prop. IIL, (in
which the Vths, IlIds,.and 3ds are flattened, 154, 77 and 77.
respectively,) the standard from which to commence the alter-

ations in the scale required by the unequal frequency of dif-
ferent chords, and beginning with D, the theorem gives co
Hence supposing the rest of the degrees in the scale unaltered,
it will be in the most harmonious state, when D is raised =3,
ofacomma. For by the last proposition, the temperament of
the six concords affected by changing the place of D is best
distributed, and that of the other concords is not at all affected.
We will now proceed to the second io r

the Lg viz.

this stobaitin however, as D wae’ e efore ral 3 A 5, ‘ m, the
temperament of the Vth below A. must be taken 1

On Musical Temperament 179

mall the succeeding operations, when the exterior termina-
n of any concord has been already altered, we must take its
ment, not what it was at first, but what it has become,
yy such previous alteration. In this manner, the scale is
becoming more harmonious at every step, till we have com-
pleted the whole succession of degrees which it contains.

Let us. now revert to D, the place where we began. As
each of the outer extremities of the chords which are termi-
nated by D has been changed, a new application of the theo-
rem will give a second correction for the place of D; although,
as the numbers a, a’, 6, &c. continue the same, it will be less
than before. Continue the process through the whole scale,
and a second approximation to the most harmonious state will
be obtained. In this manner let the theorem be applied, till
the value of x is exhausted, for every degree ; and it will then
be in the most harmonious state possible. Three operations
gave the following results :

TABLE V.

= ‘

in the preceding. The errors, in the 3d approximatioi

i . ‘ ll

r "ia | 5 on
180 ‘On Musical Temperament.

The sign plus denotes that the degree to which it belongs is

to be raised, and minus, that it is to be depressed. The cor-

rections in each succeeding operation are to be added to those

so trifling, that a 4th would be wholly useless.

Note. The foregoing calculations will be conden much
more expeditious and sure, by reducing the theorem, in some
sense, to a diagram, as in the first of the following figures ;
and by applying the successive corrections to the circum-
ference of a circle divided into parts proportioned to the
intervals of the enharmonic scale, as in the second.

Prorosition VII.

To determine the temperaments and beats of all the con-
cords, together with the values of the diatonic and chro-
matic intervals, and the lengths and vibrations per second
of a string producing all the sounds, of the system result-
ing from the last proposition.

The temperaments of all the concords are easily deduced.

from Table V. The Vth CG, for example, has its lower
extremity lowered 12, and its upper extremity 14. Hence
it is flatter by 2 than at. first, and consequently its tempera-
ment=156.. The temperaments of all the concords, thus

a ‘

2 > ‘ 3 ‘ > -
On Musical Temperament. 131
calculated, will be found in the 2d, 3d, and 4th columns of

Table VII.

dhs ascertained the temperaments, the value of the
diatonic and chromatic intervals may be found. The Vth CG
being flattened 156, and the Vth FC 139, the major tone FG
must be diminished 156+139, or be =4820. By thus fixing
the extent of one interval after another, from the tempera-
ments of either of the different kinds of concords, as is most
convenient, the intervals in question will be found to have
the values exhibited in Table VI. a

Let the numbers in this table be added successively, begin-
ning at the bottom, to the log. of 240, the number of vibra-
tions per second of the tenor C, (see Rees’s Cyc. Art. Concert
Pitch,) and the numbers corresponding to these logarithms
will be the vibrations in a second, of a string sounding the
several degrees of the scale. They are shown in col. 6,
Table VII.

Since the length of a string ceteris paribus is inversely as
its number of vibrations, the lengths in col. 5 may be deduced
from the vibrations in col. 6 ; or more expeditiously, by sub-

tracting the numerical distances from C of the several degrees.

in Table VI. from O, and taking the corresponding numbers,
from the table of logarithms. These numbers, when used
as logarithms, must be brought back to the decimal form,
agreeably to Scholium 2. Prop. I.

To find the number of beats made in a second™gy any con-
cord, it is only necessary to take from col. 5 the numbers
belonging to the degrees which terminate that concord, and to
multiply them crosswise into the terms of its perfect ratio.
The difference of the products will be the number of beats
made inasecond. The 3 last columns contain the beats made
by each of the concords, in 10 seconds..

ty

. ee a

p eee the
Ifldsb ‘3ds b

» the peer ae of the foregoing system
veral others, which have been most k n

Teen! pH, dissonance, heard i in any tempered con-

occurrence is. BENS and as its frequency of occurrence, when
its temperament is given: hence, universally, it is as the
product of both. The whole amount of dissonance heard in
all the concords of the same name must consequently be as
the sum of the products of the numbers denoting their tem-
peraments, each into the number in Table IV. denoting its
frequency. These products, for the scale of Huygens which
divides the octave into 31 equal parts, of which the tone is
5 and the semi-tone 3; for the system of mean tones, and for
Dr. Smith’s system of equal harmony, compared with the
scale of the last proposition, (cutting off the three mighiBand
figures) stand as follows :

TABLE VIII.

s.| Mean Tones. New Scale.

186°
240

Were we to adhere to Dr. Smith’s measure of equal har-
mony, the rows of products belonging to the Vths, IIIds, and
3ds, must be divided, respectively, by } 7p» and 7; (the
reciprocals of half the products of the terms of their perfect
ratios,) before they could be ‘properly added to express the
whole amount of dissonance heard in all the concords ; ; but,
according to Prop. I. the simple products ought to be added,
and the sums at the bottom of the table will express the true

cord, is as its temperament (Prop. I.) when its frequency of |

| al 35 “
ratio of the- nena Me ieiss slet ander iti aie
they stand. The last has decidedly the advantage over the -
first, both in regard to’ the aggregate dissonance, and the >

“equality of its distribution among the different classes of con-

cords. It has nearly an equal advantage over the second in
regard to the first of these considerations ; jatar
to the equality of distribution, the latter hin slightly the advan- -
tage. It has, in a small degree, the advantage over the third,
in regard to the aggregate dissonance ; while, ‘as it respects the
equality of its distribution, it has the decided preference. Itis
true that the temperaments of the concords of the same name,
in the new scale, are not as in the others, absolutely equal ;
but no one of them is so large as to give any offence to the
nicest ear. The largest in the whole scale exceeds the uniform
temperament of Dr. Smith’s Vths by only #> of a comma,

Scholium 1.

The above system may be put in practice on the organ, by
making the successive Vths CG, GD, DE, &c. beat flat at the
rate contained in Table VII., descending an octave, where
mecessary, and doubling the anther of beats belonging to any
degree in the table, when the Vth to be tuned has its base in
the octave above the treble C. The tenor C must first be
made to vibrate 240 in a second, the methods of doing 1 which
are detailed at length - in various authors. Whenever a .
results from the Vths tuned, its beats ought to be cor

with those required in the table, and the correctness of the

Vths thus proved. This system is as easy, in practice, as any
ether ; for no one can be tuned correctly except by counting
the beats, and rendering them conformable to what that sys-
tem requires. The intervals of the first octave tuned ought
to be adjusted with the utmost accuracy, by a table of beats.
When this is done, the labour of making perfect the other
octaves of the same stop, and the unisons, octaves, Vths, &c.
ef the other stops, is the same in every system. This last,
indeed, is so much the most laborious part of the tuning of
the organ, that if even much more labour were required than
Voc. 1....Nai2. 16

i wd Waihi SS i oil

’ ‘ a ‘
Q

1866, | On Musical Temperament.

actually is, in adjusting the intervals of the octave first tuned,
it would occasion little difference in the whole.

Schothuim 2.

The harmony of the IIIds and 3ds in any of the foregoing
systems for the changeable scale is so much finer than it can
possibly be in the common Douzeave, that it seems highly
desirable that this scale should be introduced into general use.
But the increased bulk and expense attendant on the imtro-
duction of so many new pipes or strings, together with the
trouble occasioned to the performer, in rectifying the scale
for music in the different keys, have hitherto prevented its
becoming generally adopted. To multiply the number of
finger keys would render execution on the instrument ex-
tremely difficult ; and the apparatus necessary for transferring
the action of the same key from one string or set of pipes to
another, besides being complicated and expensive, requires
such exactness that it must be continually liable to get out of.
order. This latter expedient, however, has been deemed
the only practicable one, and has been carried into effect,
under different forms, by Dr. Smith, Mr. Hawkes, M. Loesch-
man, and others. But Dr. Smith’s plan (which is confined to .
stringed instruments) requires only one of the unisons to be
used at once ; while those of the two latter nearly double the
whole number of strings or pipes. It deserves an experi-
ment, among the makers of imperfect instruments, whether a
changeable scale cannot be rendered practicable, at least on
the piano forte,* without increasing the number of strings, —

‘* A method of rendering changeable the sound of the same pipes in the
organ, which had occurred to the writer, but which was not inserted above on
account of the supposed difficulty of making the change sufficient in degree, he
has since found to have been executed by the Rey. H. Liston, who has succeeded,
by means of shaders capable of being brought before the mouths of his pipes by
the action of pedals, in giving them three distinct sounds each, varying by two
commas. (See the description of his Enharmonic organ, in Rees’ Cyc. or Til-
loch’s Phil. Mag.) His scale embraces 59 intervals to the octave, and is intended
to produce perfect harmony in allthe keys. But as it will require the use of pedals
perpetually, even on the same key, and a ready aad perfect knowledge of smal!

% ‘ , . p oa -,

On Musical Temperament. — WP. *

and at the same time allowing both the unisons to be used
together—either by an apparatus for slightly increasing the
tension of the strings, or by one which shall intercept the
vibrations of such a part of the string, at its extremity, as shall
elevate its tone, by the diesis of the system of temperament
adopted. Were only 4 degrees to the octave, furnishing the
instrument with 5 sharps and 4 flats, thus rendered change-
able, there is little music which could not be correctly exe-
cuted upon it.

Scholium 8.

In the same general manner, may be found the best system
ef intervals, for a scale confined to a less number of degrees
than that of the complete Enharmonic scale. In such an
investigation, the numbers in Table IV. expressing the fre-
quency of all such adjacent degrees as have but one sound in
the given scale, must be united; and the temperaments m, n,
&c. of the theorem, when belonging to concords whose ter-
minating degrees are united to those adjacent, must be taken,
not what they were in the complete scale, but what they
become, considering them as terminated by the substituted
adjacent degree.

If, for example, the best temperaments were required for a
acale of 15 degrees to the octave, such as is that of some
Luropean organs, or in other words, having no Enharmonic
intervals except D* Eb, and G® Ab,—the numbers in Table
IV. belonging to C*¥ and Db, E* and F, FX and Gb, &c. must
be united, and their sums substituted when they occur, for
a, @, 6, &c. in the theorem; while the temperament, for
example, of the I[Id on C* must not be reckoned 77 as in the
complete scale, but 1261—77 sharp, since its upper termina-
tion has become F, instead of E¥. With these variations let
i 3 musicians can seldom possess, there is no pro-
bability that it will.ever be extensively adopted. Perhaps, however, four or five
sounds, such as DX, EX, Ab, Db, might be added to the common scale of 12
intervals by means of his mechanism, with advantage, An instrument thus fur-
ished would require the use of pedals but seldom, and would contain chromatic
degrees sufficient for the accurate performance of the great mass of organ music:

16 *

musical intervals, which practic:

‘

r

188 On Musical Temperament.

the same theorem be applied as before, till no value of x can —

be obtained, and the tempera ts. for that scale will be the

best adjusted possible.

But as the scale which contains but 13 degrees, or 12 inter-
vals, to the octave; is in much more general use than every
other, we shall content ourselves with stating how the problem
may be solved for scales containing any intermediate number
of degrees, and proceed directly to the consideration of that
which is so much the most practically important.

Lemma.

No arrangement of the intervals in the common scale of 12
degrees, which renders none of the Vths or 3ds sharp, and
none of the IIfds flat, can make any change in the aggre-
gate temperaments of all the concords of the same name.

We will conceive the 12 Vths of the Douzeave scale to be
arranged in succession, as CG, GD, DA, &c. embracing 7
octaves. Let them at first be all equal: they wili each be
flattened 49. I say that no change in these Vths which pre-
serves the two extreme octaves perfect, and renders none of
them sharp, can alter the sum of their temperaments. Let

a, b, c, &c. be any quantities, positive or negative, by which

the points C, G, D, &c. may be conceived to be raised above
the corresponding points, belonging to the scheme of equal
Vths. Then as the mean temperament Vth=V — 49, the first
Vth in the supposed arrangement will be V—49-++-a. The dis-
tance from C to D will be, in like manner, 2. .V—49-+8: ; and

consequently the Vth GD will be V—49+4b—a. In the
game manner the third Vth DE will be V—49-++-c—), &c.

Hence the temperament of CG=—49-ba, of GD=—49+4
—a, of DA=—49-+c—b, &c. Adding the 12 temperaments
together, we find their sum = —12 X49-+a+6b+&c.—a—b—
&c. in which all the terms except the first destroy each
other, and leave their sum =— 12X49 which is the aggregate

‘¢emperament of the twelve equal Vths 4 in the scheme of equal

semitones.
The same reasoning holds good if we bring these Vths
within the compass of an octave ; since, if the octave be kept

i sie ;
f sical Temperament. — 189

4

perfect, all the Vths on the same letter, in whatever octave
they are situated, must have the same temperament.

The reasoning is precisely the same for the IIIds and 3ds,
considering the former as forming 4 distinct series of an oc-
tave each, beginning with C, CX, D and Eb; and the latter
as forming 3 distinct series of an octave each, beginning with
C, C¥ and D. If the former be made all equal, each will be
sharpened 343; if the latter be made equal, each will be
flattened 392. "Bi every system which renders none of the
former flat, and none of the latter sharp, the sum of their
temperaments will be 12343, and 12 X392, respectively.

Cor. The demonstration holds equally true, whatever be
the magnitude of a, 6, c, &c.: only if they be such that the
difference —a+b, —b-+c, &c, of any two successive ones be
greater than the temperament of the corresponding concord in
the system of equal semitones, the temperament of that chord
must be reckoned negative, and the swm, in the enunciation
of the proposition, must be considered as the excess of those
temperaments which have the same sign with those of the same
concords in the system of equal semitones, above those which
have the contrary sign. Hence it is universally true that the
excess of the flat above the sharp temperaments of the Vths
is equal to 12X49 ; that the excess of the sharp above the flat
temperaments of the Ids is equal to 12343 ; and that the
excess of the flat above the sharp temperaments of the 3ds is
12X392. Hence likewise we have a very easy method of
proving whether the temperaments of any given system have
been correctly calculated. It is only to add those which have
the same sign ; and if the differences of the sums be equal to
the products just stated, the work is right.

Proposition IX.

If all the concords of the same name, in a scale of twelve
intervals to the octave, were of equally frequent occur-
rence, the best system of temperament would be that of

equal semitones.

It is evidently best, so far as the concords of the same name .
are concerned, that if of equal frequency, they should be

190 On Musical Temperament, ie

equally tempered, unless by rendering them unequal, their
medium temperament could be diminished ; but this appears, .
from the Lemma, to be impossible. By tempering them un-

| equally, the aggregate dissonance heard in a given time, by

supposition of their equal frequency, would not be diminished, .
whilst the disadvantage of a transition from a better to a worse
harmony would be incurred. Some advocates of irregular
systems of temperament have, indeed, maintained this irregu-
larity to be a positive advantage, as giving variety of character
to the different keys. But this variety of character is obvi-
ously neither more nor less than that of greater and less de-
grees of dissonance. Now, what performer on a perfect
instrument ever struck his intervals false, for the sake of
variety 2? Who was ever gratified by the variety produced in
vocal music by a voice slightly out of tune? If this be absurd,
when applied to instruments capable of perfect harmony, it is
scarcely Jess-so to urge variety of character as being of itself
asufficient ground for introducing large temperaments into the
scale. For these large temperaments will have-nearly the
same effect, compared with tle smaller ones, that small tem-
peraments would have, when compared with the perfect har-
mony of voices and perfect instruments. Possibly a discord-
ant interval, or a concord largely tempered, might, in a few
instances, add to the resources of the composer. But when
an instrument is once tuned, the situation of these intervals is
fixed beyond his control, and by occurring in a passage where
his design required the most perfect harmony, it might as often
thwart as favour the intended effect.’

Since, then, the proposition is true in reference to the Vths, .
IIIds, and 3ds, when separately considered, it will be equally

true when they are considered jointly, that is, as formed inte

harmonic triads, unless, by rendering the concords of the same
name unequal in their temperament, the mean temperament of
the Vths could be increased, and that of the IITds and 3ds pro-
portionally diminished. Could this be done, it might be a
question whether the more equal distribution of the tempera-
ment among the concords of different names, might not justify
the introduction of some inequality among those of the same

pier, t
“oY » ;
eee
’ >

-

On Musical Temperament. 191

name. But it is demonstrated in the Lemma, that the sum
ef the temperaments of each parcel of concords, in the system
of equal semitones, is the least possible. Hence no changes
in the Vths can diminish the aterats temperaments of the
IIIds and 3ds.
€or. Hence we derive an important practical conclusion :

that whatever irregularities are introduced into the scale, must
be such as are demanded by the different frequency of occur-
rence of the several concords. If we make any alterations in
the scale of equal semitones, this must be our sole criterion.
A given system of temperament is eligible, in proportion to the
accuracy with which it is deduced from the different frequency
of the different concords. And those who maintain that the
frequency of different intervals does not sensibly vary, or that
it is of such a nature as not to be susceptible of calculation,
must, to be consistent, adhere to the scale of equal semitones.

Proposition X.

To determine the best distribution of the temperaments of
the concords in the Douzeave Scale.

As the scale of equal semitones has been demonstrated to be
the best, on supposition that all the concords of the same name
occurred equally often, it ought to be made the standard from
which all the variations, required by their unequal frequency,
are to be reckoned. To find a set of numbers expressing the
relative frequency of the several concords in the common
scale, we have only to unite the numbers in Table IV. stand-
ing against those adjacent degrees which have but one sound in
this scale. They wifl then stand as in the follewing table :

aa

192 On. Musical Temperament.
TABLE IX. Idling

| IlIds, 6ths, | 3ds, VIths,
nd and
Octaves: Octaves.

135 | 1161

34 | -

568 1085 . .
en ee Ph ae
. 82 3652

1197 | 5673

Be te 291 | 1072 eae
atic peeeas | ae

The general theorem of Prop. V. is equally applicable to
the determination of the approximate place for any degree in
this scale, considering the numbers in the above table as those’ °
to be substituted for a, a’, 6, &c.; and m, n, and p, in the first .
instance, as 49, —343 and 392, the uniform temperaments of
the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds, in the scale of equal semitones.
Since, however, the temperaments of the IIIds in this scale.
are sharp, which would require the signs of the 3d and 4th’
terms in the numerator of the general formula to be con-
tinually changed, it will be rendered more convenient for
practice, if they are changed at first, so that it will stand thus :
am — a’ m’ —bn-+-b'n ‘ep —c'p’ “i
Or eT ORR a
te ne i
cm.

On Musical Temperament. 193

Three successive applications of this theorem to each degree
in the scale, in the manner described Prop. VI., will bring
them very near to the required. position, as appears by the
smallness of the corrections in the 3d column below, where
the results of the ies a 1 ec are exhibited at one
view.

TABLE X.

m Bue) open. | Ope. | Operation
; B | =140-) —35.| ~2
Bo | +308 |. 433 | -~1 | i

i 7 eee AS a
Ge | 257 | —22.|. —2
@ | +107 |: +24 | -8
Fx | 264 | —7 0
F | +238 | +40 | +6
EL | pee eee cA
a ie ES are Ma
De tee ee 0
Gx | —ss2.| |29! |2 -—1
Ct} 4176 ba behaly. 4.

Cor. Hence we may deduce, in the same manner as in
Prop. VII., the diatonic and chromatic intervals, the lengths
of a string and their vibrations in a second, and the tempera-
ments and beats of all the concords for the scale which results
from the foregoing computations. They may be seen in the
two following tables :

Nar

me

Y chen

1. phoatht pce

be

' eyplene eRerseee

‘tk Sy 14

On Musical Temperament. 198
‘TABLE XII. ie
ab. Temperaments of the Lens, ane gh Beats in 10 Seconds of the

Vths j IlIds | 3ds-

-
nes

“Vths b |illds | 3ds 6 suings. | Second.

B 143 | 675 | 149 || 53446 449,04}/44,0 |352,8 | 92,4

|

ph? 1114 || 55954] 428,92/130,8 | 34,0 |155,2*

——-—

40.0} 154 || 59787 401,42|38,6 | 4,6b| 85,2

—_— J

“Tera 833 | 288 || 63712) 376,79]98,7%|360,5 |155,4

ee | Re

G | 106| 43] 175 |} 66874] 358,88126,4 | 17,6 | 86,8

ee

pa
“9 160 | 954 | 150 |} 71496| 335,68]37,2 [3728 | 69,8

Fo [ase 30. 957 || 74786] 320,921127,6 | 10,8 |143,0%x

a a

Z| 108 | 180 | 151 |] 79970] 300,10)22,2 | 66,6 | 62,0

Bo | 136x| 311 | 818 84194] 285,06]|26,6%|102,2 |186,6x
7—____ a a | Sa ee! ——___— es aa -
D | 144] 6 | 174 || 89384] 268,50/126,6 | 2,2 | 64,0

[| -— | — |] — | | S| |! — |!

Cx | 52x/1009 | 128 || 95682] 250,831] 10,9%1295,3 | 44,8

eee | | | | — | — | | |

C 135 16 | 446 |}100000} 240,00)/22,4 4,0 |147,0

Nothing in the above tables will need explanation, except
the anomalous sharp beats of the 3ds, in the fast column.
These are derived from the perfect ratio 6 :'7, because these
3ds are, in reality, much nearer to the ratio of 6:7 than to
that of 5:6; and hence could their beats be counted, they
would be thobe of the table, and not those which would be
derived from considering these 3ds as having flat tempera-
ments of the ratio 5:6. But although the beats are slower,
the nearer they approach the ratio 6 : 7, this ought not to be
regarded as any sufficient reason for admitting so large tem-
peraments into the scale, were it not absolutely necessary, in
order to accommodate those 3ds which are of far more fre-

196 * On Musical Temperament. :

quent occurrence. Although the beats of these 3ds grow

slower as their temperaments are increased, yet they are losing :

their character in melody 5, and become, in this respe , more
and more offensive, the more they are tempered. Hence the
harmony and melody of the several ‘intervals, jointly consi-
dered, are to be judged of rather from their temperaments, in
the three first columns, than from their heats, in the three last.

Schollim 1.

It will be perceived, from a comparison of the tempera--
ments in Table XII. with the corresponding numbers in Table
1X. that the harshness of the several concords, especially of
the IIIds and 3ds, is, in general, nearly in the inverse ratio of —
their fréquency. The contending claims of the different con-
cords render it impossible that “this ratio should hold exactly.
Including the Vths, the harmony of the concords is much more
nearly equal, than the principle of rendering the temperament
of each inversely as its frequency, could it be carried inte
complete effect, would require. Pa

~*~
i. pe

Scholium 2.

The foregoing system may be put in practice, on the organ, —

by making the Vths beat flat, with the exception of those on
Cx, Eb, and Gx, which must beat sharp, at the rate required in
the table ; proving the correctness of the temperaments of the
Vths, by comparing the beats of the IIIds, as they rise, with
those required by column two. Should less accuracy be re-

quired, the IfIlds on C, D, and A, might be made perfect, with-

out producing any essential change in the system. This would

reduce the labour of counting the beats to eight degrees only.

Scholium 3.

To show that the computations of the different frequency of
‘occurrence of the different concords, on which this system of

=T

temperament is founded, may be relied on as practically cor:

.

ad

On Musical Temperament. 197

‘rect, for music in genere ft may be proper to state, that a
similar series of calcu a ions had been before made, from an
enumeration of the -concords in fifty. scores of music entirely
different from that made use of in Prop. IV. They were not,
indeed, made with the same accuracy, for the music of which
the chords were counted, was too generally of the simpler kind,
and the numbers corresponding to those in the two columns
under each concord in Table II., and those belonging to the
major and to the minor signatures, corresponding to the num-

bers in Table II., were added, before the products were

ie Tua

taken, instead of keeping the modes distinct, which is neces-
sary to perfect accuracy. Yet the resulting scheme of tem-
perament was essentially the same throughout, with the i
which has been just described. It had.the same anomalous
tem, eraments, viz. the Vths on C*, Eb, and G*; and the
Ill | on A,;.and these anomalies were similar in degree. The
greatest ever between any two corresponding tempera-
ments, was between those of the 3d on Eb; the first computa-
#09. making it only 702, while the last has it 818.

Pig: 4
Paovoshpk bi y

The aggregate of dissonance, heard in a given time, in the sys-
tem of temperament unfolded in the last Proposition, will
be less than in either of the systems generally practised.

In order to compare the foregoing system with those which
have been most generally approved, the temperaments of all
the concords have been calculated, in the system of equal semi-
tones ; in that of Earl Stanhope, which has had considerable
celebrity ; in that of Dr. T. Young; in that of Mr. Hawkes ;
in that of Kirnberger, which has been extensively adopted in
Germany ; and in that which is described by Rousseau and
D’Alembert as generally practised in France. If these tem-
peraments be multiplied into the corresponding numbers of
Table 1X., agreeably to what was shown under Prop. VIIL.,
and those products which belong to the several concords of
the same name be added, the sums, after the three right-hand
figures are cut off, will be as follows :

=

198 On Musical Temperament. — {
VEX

TABLE XIII.

Mean »,| Kirn. | Sian |
Systems. Tea: Young’s, Lacera French. hone, a

i i | | | |

Disso- oe 309} 494 681 | 561} 595; 665] 810

nance ¢ IIfds} 2184} 1541 | 1397 | 1346;1175| 925] 530
of the (3ds | 2740} 2448 | 2019 | 2121}1992) 1676 1363

5233 | 4483 | 4097 | 402813762 | 3266 2703

Total

From an ‘inspection of the sums at the foot of the table, it
will be seen that the amount of dissonance heard in a given

oe

“eek time i decidedly less in the new scale than in either of the
others ; and that it is scarcely more than half as great as in the
scale of equal semitones. On the other hand, the tempera-
ment is very unequally distributed, which must be admitted,
ceteris paribus, to be a disadvantage. It is even somewhat
greater than in the scheme of Mr. Hawkes, although by no —
means in the same ratio, as the aggregate dissonance is less.
It contains one Vth, which will be somewhat harsh, and four
. UIds and three 3ds, which will be quite harsh. But these, as
will appear from an inspection of Table IX., are, ofall others,
ef by far the most unfrequent occurrence ; so that the unplea-
sant effect of a transition from a better to a much worse har-
mony will be very seldom felt. In the six simplest keys of
the major, and in the three of most frequent occurrence in
the minor mode, they are never heard, except in occasional .
modulations ; ; and even then, generally no one, and rarely
more than one is heard. Now these nine keys, as will appear -
from Table III., comprise more than five times as much of the
music examined as all the rest. The same remarks might be
extended to three other minor keys, were it not that the sharp
seventh is so generally used, that it deserves to be considered
as an essential note of the key. | ek” ad
But there are two important considerations, more than _
counterbalancing the objection to this system, derived from the —
greater inequality in the distribution of its temperaments, — Bs ‘

— On Musical Temperament. 199-

2 hv ott been hitherto noticed, as not beiggagmerntble
*! putation. =
Ist. We _ gone on the supposition that tunes on the
more difficult keys are as often performed, according to their
number, as those on the simpler keys ; and have taken for the
measure of dissonance, in different systems, what would be
actually heard, if the 1600 scores, whose signatures were ex-
amined, were all played in succession, and on the keys to
which they are set. But the fact is, that those pieces which
are set to the simpler keys are oftener played, and.with fuller
harmony, on account of the greater ease of execution, than
those in which many of the short finger keys must be used. i

ddjavent easier keys, but the contrary is seldom or: never done.

Gi ving to these two considerations no more éhiat a Saal
able \ weight, they will counterbalance the objection, and ¥ will :
render it evident that the sums under the several systems i in
the table may be taken as a true exhibition of their respective
merits, without any injustice to the more equal systems at the
left-hand of the table.

Cor. We may hence draw a comparison between the sys-
tems in common.use. Their merits, when every considera-
tion is taken into view, are nearly in the inverse ratio of the
sums denoting their aggregate dissonance. That of Mr.
Hawkes is the best, and, in many respects, has a remarkable
analogy to the one derived from the preceding investigations.

Cor. 2. As the aggregate dissonance of the changeable scale
is calculated on the same principles, in Prop. VIII., as that of
the Douzeave in this, a comparison of the results in Table VI.
with those in Table XIII., will furnish us with the relative
dissonance of different yeu for these different scales. The
relative dissonance of the two systems which form the object
of this essay, is nearly as 17:27. Hence it appears, that by
inserting eight new sounds between those of the common
octave, the harshness of the music executed, at a medium of
all the keys, may be diminished by more than one third of the
whole, while the transition from a better to a worse harmoriy

_ will never be perceived.

;

‘calm, ‘dignified, persevering, and always under ~~ guidance of

200 Declaration of Independence.. :

tiny : z
Anr. XXIL Notice of Colonel Trumbull’s Picture of the
. Declaration of Independence. _

Ir is proper that some mention of this great national work
should be made, in publications less transient than newspa-
pers ; and as the fine arts are included within the design of
this Journal, it may with propriety be noticed here. This
is the greatest work which the art of painting has ever pro-
duced in the United States. The picture is magnificent both
% size and in execution. The dimensions of the canvass are
teen feet by twelve. sae

«This picture forms one of a series long since meditated by
Mr. Trumbull, in which it was intended to represent the most
important events, civil and military, of the American revolu-
tion, with portraits of the most distinguished actors in the
various scenes. The materials for this purpose were col-
lected many years ago, and two plates have been engraved
from paintings of the deaths of Gen. Warren and Gen. Mont-
gomery ;* but the work was suspended, in consequence of the
political convulsions, which, during twenty-five years; were
so fatal to the arts of peace.

“‘ The government of the United States have ordered four
of the subjects originally proposed by Mr. Trumbull, to be
painted by him, and to be deposited in the capitol.

‘«« No event in human history ever shed a more salutary in-
fluence over the destinies of so great § a mass of mankind: the

wisdom of no political act was ever 0 soon and so powerfully

demonstrated, by such magnificent consequences. And justly
may the nation be proud of the act itself; and of those eminent
men, its authors, whose patriotism feae above enthusiasm,
and the passions which have'so often bewildered mankind) was

reason and virtue. |

-
* These pictures, as is well known, represent the assault.on Quebec, an
battle of Bunkers Hill.

tae

=.
— oe

Declaration of Independence, 201

“ The painting represents the congress at the moment when
the committee advance to the table of the > president to make
their Moin." ae

‘It contains faithful portraits of all those members who were
living when the picture was begun, and of all others of whom
any authentic | ‘representation could be obtained. Of a small

- number, no trace could be discovered ; and’ meee was admit-
ted which’ was not authentic.”

This picture is now, by permission of government, exhibited
in the Academy of Arts in New-York,’ and will probably be
shown in some of our other principal cities, before it receives
its final location at'Washington.

It exhibits the interior of the then’ Congress Hall: at Phila-
delphia... Most of the members are represented as sitting i in
their respective chairs, or, in various instances, as standing in
different parts of the room. Almost all the portraits were
taken by Colonel Trumbull from the living org and their accu-
racy may therefore be relied on.

The president, »John Hancock, sitting ata iis and ele-
vated somewhat by a low platform, is receiving the report of
the committee declaring the independence of the colonies’; that
committee, individually illustrious, and in this august since
tion collectively memorable, was composed of Franklin, Adams,
Sherman, Jefferson, and Livingston. Mr. Jefferson, in the
prime of life, is in the act of laying upon the table the great
charter of a nation’s liberties ; while his companions support
him by their silent but dignified presence, and the venerable
Franklin, in particular, imposes new obligations on his coun-
try’s gratitude, 9

The figures are as large as the:life; and it may safely be
said, that the world never beheld, on a similar occasion, a
more noble assemblage. It was the native and unchartered
nobility of great talent, cultivated intelligence, superior man-
ners, high moral aim, and devoted patriotism. The crisis de-

a ih the utmost firmness of which the human mind is capa- -

in not produced, for the moment, by passion and
ct but ache on the most able- comprehension of
‘Vor. 1....No. 2. 17

202 Declaration of Independence.

both duties and dangers, and ona principled determination to
combat the one and tofulflthe other. ... ©...

This moral effect has been produced in the fullest ; aces
manner by this great paimter ; and no true American can con-
template this picture without gratitude to the men who, under

God, asserted his liberties, and, to the artist who, has, commemo-—
rated the event, and transmitted the very features and persons, _

of the actors to posterity. Such efforts. of the pencil tend
powerfully also to invigorate patriotism, and to, prompt; the
rising generation to, emulate such glorious examples. )

‘The composition and execution in this picture are.in a,mas-
terly style. The grouping of so many full length portraits, in
a scene in which. there: could scarcely, be any action,/and in
such a manner.as to dispose of them without monotony, was an,
attainment of no-small difficulty. .The painter could not even)
avail himself of the adventitious relief of splendid costume and.
furniture, and of magnificence or. rich decorations in architec-
ture ; for on this occasion both were characterized by an ele-
gant esp tieddip ei such. however as became praia and
the crisis. 5 > i iscbrronee

The siemduocailo’ has all the. hatiotts of ubish its suscepti:
ble ;:and'there is also enough of it in the style of dress and.of
features.to relieve the eye from any danger of satiety.»

It is believed, that in this picture, the United States possess.

a treasure to which there is no parallel in the world. . Inno:
Instance, within our knowledge, is there an exhibition to.an,
equal extent, of the actual portraits of an. illustrious. ese aad
concerned in so momentous a. transaction.

It was a great thing to assert, 2 principle, the labeniid: of.

this country; but it was also a great thing to vindicate them
by.armis ; and we rejoice that Colonel Trumbull is still to pro-.
ceed, sastbont the sanction of government, to delineate. other
scenes, in which Washington ‘and his illustrious American:
coadjutors, and the flower of French chivalry, were the actors.
In the maturity of his experience, skill, and fame—possessed,
as he is, of the portraits of most of the great men of that
period, taken principally from the life, and having been him-

An Address to the People, Svc. 203

self largely and personally conversant with them in their great
deeds, we trust that the government wiil promptly second
what we doubt not the united voice of the nation will de-
mand—that the illustrious artist should dedicate the evening
of his life to his country’s honour and glory.

sit

aay “INTELLIGENCE. |

Arr. XXIII. An Address tothe People of the Western
Country, :

AL NUMBER of the citizens of Cincinnati have recently in-
stituted a society for the collection, preservation, exhibition,
and illustration of natural and artificial curiosities, particularly
those of the western country. The first efforts of the managers
will be directed to the establishment of a permanent museum,
ona scale so comprehensive as to receive specimens of every
thing curious which they may be able to procure. In attempt-
ing to form this repository, they must of course solicit the aid
of their fellow-citizens in all quarters of the extensive region,
whose ancient works and natural history they propose to illus-
trate. The following are the classes of objects that will espe-
cially attract their attention, and to which they are desirous, at
an early period, of directing the views of the community : :

1. Our metals and minerals generally, including petrifac-
tions.

2. Our indigenous animals, embracing the remains of those
which are now extinct.

3. The'relics of the unknown people who constructed the
ancient works of the western country.

4, The various articles manufactured, for ornament or use,
by the present savage tribes.

The subjects of the first class are considered by the Society
as extremely interesting. Every citizen of the western coun-

204 An Address to the People

try must fecl the necessity of a speedy developement of its
mineral resources. To find beneath our own soil an adequate
supply of the various minerals which are now imported at an
enormous expense, must be regarded by all as a matter of the
first and greatest importance. The managers are anxious to
be instrumental in the advancement of this useful work, and
earnestly solicit the co-operation of the public. They will be
thankful for specimens of all the rare or curious minerals that
may be discovered in this country. To every specimen that
may be transmitted, a label should be attached, stating either
the kind of rock or stratum to which it belonged, or its precise
locality. . Whenever it is required, the managers will have a
part of any specimen which is sent to them, analyzed, and a
correct report made of its nature, thus affording to the disco-
verer a full opportunity of availing himself of all the peauiegy
advantages that, may attend the discovery.

_ As objects of scientific interest, the managers intend, as
early as possible, to commence the formation of a cabinet of
petrifactions.. The rocks of few other countries ‘contain a
greater number, and .variety of these animal remains of the
ancient ocean, than, ,the, limestone districts of the Ohio and
Mississippi. They both astonish and confound most of the
iravellers through this region ; and althonsh objects of familiar
exannnation to ourselves, they have not been collected or de-
scribed by our-citizens.. Anextensive and well arranged cabi- -
net. of these extraneous fossils: would afford, both tothe zoolo-
sist and. geologist, an exquisite feast.. It is hoped that every
specimen sent. to the Society wall be eenhnie by a iabel,
. stating the place where it was found.

It is the wish of the Society to obtain and preserve speci:
mens of all the native animals of this country. Most of the
larger quadrupeds having receded before the unceasing exten-
sion of our settlements, are now so rare as to be unknown to
to all but our oldest emigrants. Measures ‘will be taken by
the managers to procure from the general retreatin the north-
west, and exhibit to the people in the. Ohio countries, a speci-
men of every quadruped which lately inhabited them; and

while engaged in this enterprise, they hope’ to import from

of the Western States. 205

the same es necorg a ibegng of the animals which are
peculiar to it.

‘Our native birds have not retreated, like our quadrupeds,
and are, therefore, within our reach. The managers hope to
see the Society, in due time, in possession of a large collec-
tion of these beautiful animals. » In the accomplishment of this
undertaking, it is easy to perceive that the Society may be
powerfully aided by the community : and a sanguine hope is
entertained, that no backwardness or indifference will be
manifested by those who may fortunately have it in their aires
to forward specimens.

In collecting the fishes and resiisine of the Ohio, the Missis-
sippi, and the Lakes, the managers will likewise need all the
aid which their fellow-citizens may feel disposed to give them.
Although not a very interesting department of zoology, no
object of the Society offers so great.a prospect of novelty as
that which embraces these animals. The managers, therefore,
flatter themselves that they will not be suffered to proceed
unaided in this portion of their labours. »

The obscure and neglected race of insects will not be over-
looked, and any specimens sufficiently perfect to be introduced
into .a cabinet of entomology, will be thankfully received.

The western country, from having afforded some of the
most gigantic and curious remains of land animals which have
yet been discovered, seems entitled to a museum of such re-
lics.. A collection of this kind will be one of the earliest ob-
jects of the Society. _ Its funds will be liberally expended for
the purpose ; and if aided by those who may be so fortunate
as to discover any of the great bones which lie buried in our
alluvial or bottom lands, the managers. hope, at no distant
period, to repair, in some degree, the losses which have been
repeatedly sustained by exportations of these interesting fossils.

The third class comprises objects of very little utility, but
of extraordinary interest. Nothing, indeed, presented by the
western country seems to excite in a higher degree the curi-
osity of strangers, than the relics and vestiges of the extinct
and comparatively civilized population with which it abounds.

The managers will make every possible effort to form an
extensive collection of these remains.

206 An Address to the People, Sc.

It is extremely unfortunate for those engaged in researches
concerning the objects of this class, that so many of them have
been disseminated abroad. To study them successfully, it is
necessary that they should be compared, and for this purpose
ihey must be brought together. The managers hope, there-
fore, that such persons as now hold, or may hereafter possess
any of these antiquities, will dispose of them to the Society,
instead of sending them out of the country. In this way, and
in this only, can a valuable collection of these ‘unique curiosi-
ties. be formed.

The remaining class copechond the weapons, aie
trinkets, and other manufactures of our neighbouring Indians,
of which the managers hope, in a short seg to be able to
exhibit a great variety. 1 bay

The curiosities of this abhi are the primary, but not the
exclusive objects of the Society. It proposes in due time to
open a gallery of paintings, and thus offer to the lovers and
cultivators of the fine arts, a few of those models which are
absolutely cy to na gratification and im
their taste. :

‘helieatabers will be bith moreover, to receive y fheoth
such of their eastern brethren as are desirous of contributing

‘to Dagesnch ealieciere advancement of a new and remote

community, ‘any of the! productions of foreign countries that
calculated to promote this object ; and will, in return,
ully exchange any specimens of the curiosities of this
country nicl ere can spare without i injury ‘to _— collec-
tion.

_ They will, if igen’: pay a rastisnti price for every
article which may be deemed worthy of introduction into the
museum. ‘They intend to publish, annually, a catalogue of
all the more valuable donations which may be made to the
ata a with the names of the donors.

Exnian Sack,
James Finpway,
Witiram STEELE, ee.
Jesse Empree,
Dante, Drake,

nathrrats, Sept. 15, 1818.-

Magnetism—New Lamp. 207

Caleb Atwater, Esq. of Circleville, Ohio, is engaged in
writing Notes on the State of Ohio, a work which is intended
to embrace the most important’ features and interests of this
new and wai States .

To this lndable effort, and to that of the Westerns: wm
Society, whose address is published above, we cordially wish

success. From the zeal, talent, and industry of the gentlemen

concerned, we have every reason to expect a happy result.
We view, with much satisfaction, the efforts. which have
been already made, and are rapidly increasing, to bring to
light the resources, and to. develope.the history, of the western
States.) and: it will always give us: pleasure, if through the
medium « Journal, or in any other manner, we can con-
tribute to Promote them.. 118

Awa, XXIV. Extract of ome from Colonel Gibbs to the
Sie oiiod bstive yh Siidehosts
ee baal; ') Sunswiex, aia, 1818.
‘Dear Sir, Mi;

; en 1
gon, I saw you, I have iinko only one cxpliss t on
magnetism. I determined the power of my magnet, as it had
been shuthip 4 in the dark for along time, and lying down. I
then exposed it to the rays of the sun, also: lying down, and
remote from the iron support, and I found that’ it had gained
12 oz. power re minutes, and 140z. power enky in five
hours. ,

Ann. XXV. A New Lamp, without Flame.

From the Annals of Philosophy for March, 1818. Communicated by Mr.
Tuomas GILL.

Ts lamp is one of the results of the new discoveries in
chemistry. It has been found, by Sir H. Davy, that a fine
platina wire, heated red hot, and held in the vapour of ether,

F

:

208 New ‘Lamp. A

would continue ignited for some time; but, I nen no aries
tical use has been made of this fact.

- If a cylindrical coil of thin platina wire be sladids ios of it
round the cotton wick of a spirit lamp, and part of it above the
wick, and the lamp be lighted, so as to heat the wire to red-
ness ; on the flame being blown out, the vapour of the alcohol
will keep the upper part of the wire red hot, for’any length of
time, according to the supply’ of alcohol, and with little: ex-
penditure thereof ; so as to be in constant readiness to'kindle.
German fungus, or paper prepared with nitre, and, by this
means, to light a sulphur’ match at pleasure. This lamp af-'
fords sufficient light to show: the hour of the night by a watch,
and to perform many other useful services ; but does nel hin-
der the repose of persons unaccustomed to keep a
ing in their bed-room, nor does it require to be: snuf

The proper size of the platina wire is the zigth A ‘of an
inch : a larger one igh only yield a dull, red light, and a smaller
one is difficult to use. About 12 turns of the wire will be suf:
ficient, coiled around any cylindrical body suited to the size of
the wick of the lamp ; and four or five coils should be placed
on the v wick, and the remainder of the wire above it ;, and

~ which will be the part ignited. A wick, composed of twelve

threads of the ordinary sized)lamp cotton yarn,

tina wire coiled around it, will require about hi

alcohol to keep it apne eight hours. BG . SET cncacd

An agreeable and slightly acid smell arises from this lanai?
during its ignition. It is perfectly safe, as nothing can fall from
it; and its novel appearance, in a wick’s keeping red hot for

such a length of time, is very surprising to persons unac-|

quainted with its nature.

P. S.—When the wire has become oxided, it will be neces-

sary to uncoil it, and rub it bright again with fine glass-paper ;
which will cause it to act again with increased effect.

:

REMARK. ry

Such wire-as is here described may, probably, be obtained
in Philadelphia.

a

4

CONTENTS.

——

GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, Sc.

Page

Art. I. Hints on some of the Quthines of Geological

Arrangement, with particular Reference to
the System of Werner, in a letter to the Edi-
tor, from William Maclure, Esq. dated Paris,
29d August, 1818... . . . ee ye 908

Art. II. Omthe Geology, Mineralogy, Headey and Cu-

riosities of Parts of Virginia, Tennessee, and —
- the Alabama and Mississippi Territories, &c.

with Miscellaneous Remarks, in aletter to the

Editor. By the Rev. Elias Cornelius. . . 214

Art. III. Notice of the Scenery, Geology, Mineralogy,

Botany, &c. of Belmont County, Ohio, by — -
Caleb Atwater, Esq. of Circleville. . . . 226

Art. [V, Remarks on the Structure of the Calton Hill,

near Edinburgh, Scotland ; fee on the Aque-
ous Origin of Wacke; by J. W. Webster,

MD: of Boston: bse. at ae Oe

Art. V. Localities of Minerals. . . . ... =... 236

1. Localities by the Rev. F. C. Schaeffer.......... ibid.
2. Minerals of Guadaloupe and Porto Rico........ 237

3. Molybdena in Shutesbury, Mass............ ese 238
Pettipaug, Con.......scseeeese5 242

' 4, Rose Quartz in Southbury, Con,..,....... eeey S00
Limpid Quartz in West Canada Creek, N. Y.... 241
5. Plumbago in Cornwall, Con..ss.secseesceoess 239
6. Coal at Zanesville, Ohio........00: Ge las al alee

—— in Muskingum, AUN piatecicais'c's ec 0.0 avicuiete ibid.
——— in Suffield, Southington, &c. Con....+. 239 & 240
a

it uf CONTENTS.

Page

7. Mammoth’s Tooth, from St. Francis River...... 239

8. Shells south of Lake Erie...ssessccessveseees tid.

9. Minerals of the Blue Ridge, &c......ecereeeces tid.

10. Sulphat of Barytes, Southington, Con...seeseese 240

11. Scintillating Limestone, from Vermont.........- 241

12. Beryl, in Haddam, &c...... accicslee's osteo ae 242

13. Limpid Gypsum, near Cayuga Lake.....2.... 243

14. Amianthus in the anthracite of Rhode Island.... bid.

15. Red Pyroxene Augite, near Baltimore...ceceees 244

BOTANY.

Art. VI. A List of Plants found in the neighbourhood
of Connasarga River; (Cherokee Country)
where Springplace is situated ; made by Mrs.

Gambold, at the request of the Rev. Elias :

Corhehasy 056 ays Seeger
Art. VII. Description of a new species of ‘Aab¥épiae,
_ By Dr. Elilves, Professor, &c. in the Medi-

. ¢al Institution of Yale College. . i -
Art. VIII. Description of a New Genus of American
' Grass. Diplocea Barbata, by C. ®: ei.

Gsque, Bsqu . ab Aay . bid.

Art. IX. Floral Calendar, &c. . . . . . . 254

| ZOOLOGY.
Art, X. Notes on Herpetology, ‘i Thomas Say, of Phi- .
ladelphia. . 256
PHYSICS AND al ates

Art. XI. Outline of a Theory of Meteors. By Wm. G.
Reynolds, M.D. Middletown Point, New-

PES AOU NR ae iat Seay Hee 266

Art. XII. Observations upon the prevailing Currents of

Air in the State of Ohio and the Regions of

the West, by Caleb Atwater, Esq. of Circle-

CONTENTS.

cellency De Witt Clinton, LL.D. Governor
of the State of New-York, and President of

the Literary and Philosophical Society.
Art. XH. On a singular Disruption of the Ground, ap-

parently by Frost, in Letters from Edward
Hitchcock, A. M. late Principal of Deerfield
Academy.

Art. XIV. On a New Form of the Flectrical Battery,
by J. F. Dana, M. D. Chemical Assistant in
Harvard University, and Lecturer on Che-

| mistry and Pharmacy in Dartmouth College.

Art. XV. Chemical Examination of the Berries of the
Myrica Cerifera, or Wax Myrtle, by J. F.
Dana, M. D. Chemical Assistant in Harvard
University, and Lecturer on Chemistry and
Pharmacy in Dartmouth College.

Art. XVI. Analysis of Wacke, by Dr. J. W. Webster, of
SOMES i Okie), semaine ee 7 8

AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMICS.

Art. XVII. On the Comparative Quantity of Nutritious
Matter which may be obtained from an Acre
of Land when cultivated with Potatoes or
Wheat, by Dr. Eli Ives, Professor of Materia
Medica and Botany in Yale College.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Art. XVIII. Biographical Notice of the late Archibald
Bruce, M.D. Professor of Materia Medica
and Mineralogy in the Medical Institution of
the State of New-York, and Queen’s College,
New-Jersey ; and Member of various Learn-
ed Societies in America and Europe.

- Page

ville, Ohio; in Letters addressed to His Ex- .

276

286

(hs)
iva.)
-~1

1V CONTENTS.

INTELLIGENCE.
Page
Art. XIX. 1. Dr. J. W. Webster’s Lectures.......0c0e0.0. 304
2. Dr. Webster's Cabinet.....ccsaceveceses: GUD
3. Supposed identity of Copal and Amber.... 306
4. The Necronile.—(A supposed new mineral.) ibid.
.-5. Preservation of dead Bodies....ceceseseees 30%
6. Matches kindling without fire.......esece» 308
7. Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.....cesseeseeeee tbid.
8: Anew Alkali... cccccseccccccvcceccccess -3U9
9. Ignited Platinum Wire.....erescoessecees ibid.
10. Red) Rains sccccen ss saseecivdacescuwen use 950mm
11. Gnephalium....%.. 0s sacMiemecdocw cvisinsees | GLO
POMAMIPILE ecm citiere nics © init of sim cictera mialntaletalaisn Rests
13. A New Vegetable Alkali.,.cccccscceesses bid.
1d fiNew. Minerals; .sattasn® «»<cseplehs seus SAKEs
15. New Metal. .....seccscccsecsccececcees ibid.
16. Pure Alumine,, 252.000 scis<ncieeccecee | SHalle
17. Collections of American Minerals........ dbid..
18. C.S. Rafinesque, Esq. ..cccccecscccsooss Sill
19. Medical College of Ohio...ccscecsecceee tid.
20. Noteson Ohio... cccccesevcccscccesecece id.
21. Discovery of American Tungsten and Tellu-
FIUM..ccccccccecsgerccaccccsesesessas ole
- 22. Mr. Sheldon’s application of Chesnut Wood
to thearts of Tanning anddying......... zbid.
Additional note concerning the Tungsten and

8

HE CLIUNIDI ive cule ee win werieiwiee sie wieleleciete 316 -

AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

Tt gy
GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c.

—=2@ 3 e—

Art. I. Hints on some of the Outlines of Geological Ar-
rangement, with particular Reference to the System of
Werner, in a letter to the Editor, from Witttam Mac-
LURE, Esq. dated Paris, 22d August, 1818. :

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. ~

Some years since, during Mr. Maclure’s geological survey
of the United States, the editor had the pleasure of passing a
few days, in company with that gentleman, in exploring the
geology of the vicinity of New-Haven. Near that town, junc-
tions, on an extensive scale, between widely different forma-
tions, are to be observed. A radius of ten miles, with New-
Haven fer a centre, will describe a circle within which the
geological student may find (with the exception of formations,
unquestionably volcanic) most of the important rocks of the
globe, and a radius of even six or seven miles will include the
greater number of these. At, and near the terminations of the
primitive ranges, there are rocks which appear to have, ina
high degree, the characters of the transition class. Among
them is the beautiful green marble of the Milford Hills, seven
miles from New-Haven. Mr. Maclure visited that district,
Von. -f....No. 3. 18

24

216 Maclure on Geology.

and even suggested the first hint which afterward led to the
discovery of the marble. Doubts being entertained concern- _
ing some of the geological relations of those rocks, a letter
was addressed to Mr. Maclure (then in Philadelphia) on the
subject. His answer is subjoined.

In giving it to the public, the editor takes a liberty which
he hopes the respectable author will pardon, because his pro-
duction, although evidently never intended for the public eye,
contains statements and opinions of no small importance 2 the
young geologist, especially of this country.

Geology, at the present day, means not a merely theoretical
and usually a visionary and baseless speculation, concerning
the origin of the globe; but, on the contrary, the result of
actual examination into the nature, structure, and arrangement
of the materials of which it is composed. It is therefore obvious,
that the opinions of those men, who, with competent talent
and science, have, with a direct reference to this subject, ex- —
plored many countries, and visited different continents, are
entitled to pre-eminent respect. Saussure, by his scientific
journeys among the Alps, (although a limited district) has
given deserved celebrity to his own name, and, if it were pos-
sible, has thrown an additional charm of attraction over those
romantic and sublime regions. Dolomieu has made us familiar
with the productions and phenomena of volcanoes, those
awful and mysterious laboratories of subterranean fire. Hum-
boldt has surveyed the sublimest peaks of both continents, and
examined the structure of the globe amidst the valleys of
Mexico and the snows of Chimborazo and Pinchinca; and
Werner, with opportunities much more limited, (confined in- |
deed to his native country, Saxony) but with astonishing saga-
city and perseverance, deduced from what he saw, a classifica-
tion of the rocks of our globe, which, although not perfect,
has done immense service to the science of Geology. In this
distinguished ‘group (to which other important names might be
added) Mr. Maclure has unquestionably a right to be placed. —
Few men have seen so much of the structure of our globe, and
few have done so much with such small pretensions. His
work on American Geology is noticed with becoming respect

Maclure on Geology. 211

even in Edinburgh,* that focus of geological science. His
opinions on some of the more obscure and doubtful parts
of the Wernerian geology are worthy of peculiar considera-
tion; for they are founded on a course of observations vastly
more extensive than Werner ever had it in his power to
make. The name of Werner will always be venerated as
long as geological science shall be cultivated, for geology
owes more to him than to any other man; but his pupils
should not now demand that implicit and unqualified adoption
of aux his opinions, which will allow no other question to be
raised, than what Werner taught or believed.

With these explanatory remarks, the following extract of
Mr. Maclure’s letter is now subjoined :

DEAR SIR,

Your letter of the 26th June came just as I was embark-
ing for Europe. The information it requires concerning the
primitive trap and flint slate, the transition and secondary
rocks, &c. &c. is difficult to give without the aid of specimens,
and frequently requires the examination of the relative posi-
tion of the strata before any correct idea can be formed. I
will, however, endeavour to give you the little my experience
has brought me acquainted with.

Following the nomenclature of Werner, I have given a list
of his rocks; but in describing them there are many of his
names which I do not use; because I never met with them.
Primitive trap is one instance—I do not use trap as a substan-
tive, except in describing that kind of trap which Werner calls
the newest fletz trap, the nearest to which is your trap,
which covers the oldest red sandstone.

The primitive flint slate is in the same predicament. I
have always found it on the borders of the transition, between
it and the secondary.

Primitive gypsum I have not found.

* Vide Edin. Review for Sept. 1818. p. 374.'
+ Referring to the ridges of Greenstone near New-Haven.

18 *

212 Maclure on Geology.

What Werner calls primitive trap may perhaps be compact
hornblende, or perhaps the newest fletz trap, when it hap-
pens to cover the primitive ; for, this species of trap, like the
currents of lava, covers indiscriminately all classes of rocks,
and is one reason why I consider it as the remains of ancient
lava.

Transition trap is a rock that I have not met with, and may
perhaps be a part of the fletz trap that happened to cover the
transition, without any immediate connexion, but like a cur-
rent of lava, overlying all the classes of rocks it meets with.
. This misapplication of names naturally arises from the sys-
tem of neptunian origin, on which the nomenclature of Werner
is founded. 4

Greywake and greywake slate are aggregates of rounded
particles of rocks, evidently the detritus of more ancient
formations, and differ from.the aggregates of pudding and sand- .
stone of the secondary class, in the following properties, viz.

. The aggregates of transition are harder and much more com-
pact, than the secondary ; they are also cemented by argil,
taking a slaty form.

This cement is in much greater quantity, in proportion to
the particles cemented, and has the appearance as if the
cement at the time of formation, had a consistence sufficient to
prevent the particles from touching each other.

They have, in common with all the transition rocks, a regu-
lar and uniform dip from the horizon, from 10 to 40 degrees;
and sometimes more. This is perhaps the strongest mark of
distinction which separates them from the secondary, which
are horizontal, or follow the inequalities of the surface on
which they were deposited.

The transition are distinguished from the primitive in being
ageregates of rounded particles, having little or no crystalliza-
tion, and containing, or alternating with strata, which contain
organic matter.

The oldest red sandstone, with all its accompanying strata,
I should incline to put into the transition, as having many of
the properties of that class, and occupying the same relative
situation in the stratification of the globe. It is at a constant

—_——_

s

Maclure on Geology. 218

dip (although small) from the horizon; the cement is in
greater quantities in proportion to the particles cemented than
in any of the secondary aggregates, &c. &c.

The character of the secondary is a horizontal position, that

perhaps does not admit of the same facility of examining the
relative situation of its stratification. The compact limestone
is, probably, with reason, considered as the lowest of the se-
condary formation, and always under the coal formation, but
it appears to me that the secondary is deposited in basins
alongside of one another, and that each basin has a different
order of superposition, according to the nature of the agents
employed in the deposition; that it is a partial, and by no
means a general deposition. The secondary aggregates of
sandstone and puddings have been evidently beds of sand or
gravel, and of course, in that state would be called alluvial,
but when cemented together by the infiltration of water, car-
rying along with it lime, iron, or any other body capable of
agglutinating the particles together, become rocks, and may
alternate in all proportions.
_ I am therefore inclined to think, that in geology the best
mode for the greatest part of the secondary would be to give
the relative position of the strata of each valley or basin ;
and I am rather of opinion that they would all differ from one
another. .

The French and English basin having chalk for the lowest
stratum, which has occupied the geologists of both countries
for these 10 or 15 years, is perhaps the best known ; yet they
do not know the relative position of the chalk and coals, be-
cause coals have not been found in the same basin with chalk :
coals occupy basins filled with different kinds of rocks, and
have no resemblance to the rocks found covering the chalk.

214 Geology, Sc. of Tennessee, &c.

Art. II. On the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, and Curi-
osities of Parts of Virginia, Tennessee, and the Alabama
and Mississippi Territories, §c. with Miscellaneous Re-
marks, in a letter to the Editor. By the Rev. Extas
CornELivs.

To Benjamin Silman, Professor, &c.

SIR,

Havine recently returned from a tour of considerable ex-
tent in the United States, I avail myself with pleasure of the
first leisure moment, to communicate, agreeably to your request,
some facts, relative to the Mineralogy and Geology of that
part of the country through which J passed.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS,

Before doing this, you will permit me to premise, that in
‘consequence of my limited acquaintance with these branches
of Natural Science, and the still more limited time, which other
and important concerns allowed me to devote to the subject, I
can do little more than give a general description. What my
eye could catch, as I travelled from one country and wilder-
ness to another, preserving occasionally a few of the most
interesting specimens, was all I coulddo. The specimens you
have received. The narrative I am about to give, is drawn
principally from the notes which were taken on the journey,
and will be confined to a simple statement of such facts as were
either observed by myself, or derived from good authority.
Their application to preconceived theories, I leave to those
who have more leisure and disposition for speculation than
myself.

A description of a few natural and artificial curiosities which
came under particular notice, will not, I trust, be thought an
improper digression. The whole is committed to your dispo-
‘sal ; and if it shall add but one mite to the treasury of Ameri-

by E. Cornelius. 915
ean Natural History, I shall be gratified, and réjoice to have
made even this small remuneration for your unwearied efforts,
to impart to one, formerly your pupil, a love for Natural Science.

The Author’s Route.

My route was in a line nearly direct from Boston to New-
Orleans ; passing through the principal cities to Washington ;
thence, diagonally, through Virginia, East Tennessee, and the
northwestern angle of Georgia ; in a western course through
the north division of the Territory of Alabama, to the north-
eastern boundary of the State of Mississippi; and thence in a
line nearly southwest to Natchez. From this last place I
descended the river Mississippi to New-Orleans. On my re-
turn I frequently varied from this course, and had increased
opportunities for surveying the country. In both instances I
passed through the countries belonging to the Cherokee,
Chickesaw, and Choctaw tribes of Indians, and travelled among
them, in all, about one thousand miles.

Geology of Virginia,

As others have described more minutely and accurately than
I can, the country north of Virginia, I shall begin with a few
remarks on the geological character of that State. It is there
that the traveller, in passing from the Atlantic to the interior,
crosses successively the most important formations of the earth,
from the most recent alluvial to the oldest primitive. Fora
considerable distance from the coast, the country is alluvial. It
then assumes an older secondary formation*—and sandstone
and puddingstone are frequent. This is the character of the
District of Columbia, and indeed of a great part of the valley
of the Potomac.

Sandstone of the Capitol, &c.

In this valley, and adjacent to the river, is found the sand-
stone of which the President’s house, and the Capitol are con-

* Or, according to the Wernerian Geologists, Transition? Editor.

216 Geology, Sc. of Tennessee, Sc.

structed. It is composed of fine silicious grains, is easily
wrought, and from its colour, has the appearance at a small
distance of white marble.

Beautiful Breccia.

It is also in the valley of this river, and not far from its fa-
mous passage through the Blue Ridge, that immense quarries
of beautiful Breccia have been opened. This rock was first
brought into use by Mr. Latrobe, for some years employed by
the government as principal architect. It is composed of peb-
bles, and fragments of silicious and calcareous stones of almost
every size, from a grain, to several inches in diameter, strongly
and perfectly cemented. Some are angular, others rounded.
Their colours are very various, and often bright. Red, white,
brown, gray, and green, are alternately conspicuous, with
every intermediate shade. Owing to the silicious stones which |
are frequently imbedded through the mass, it is wrought with
much difficulty ; but when finished, shows a fine polish, and is
unquestionably one of the most beautifully variegated marbles,
that ever ornamented any place. It would be difficult to con-
ceive of any thing more grand than the hall of the Representa-
tives, in the Capitol, supported as it is by twenty or thirty pil-
lars formed of the solid rock, and placed in an amphitheatrical
range ; each pillar about three feet in diameter, and twenty in
height. Some idea of the labour which is employed in work-
’. ing the marble may be formed from the fact, that the expense
of each pillar is estimated at five thousand dollars. The spe-
- cimens in your possession, are good examples of its generak
structure, but convey no adequate idea of its beauty. .

Petrifaction of Wood. ‘

It will be proper to notice in this place, a petrifaction of
wood which is found on the road from Washington to Freder-
icksburgh, 16 miles from the latter, and four miles north of the
court-house in Stafford county. It is remarkable for its size,
rather than for any singularity in the composition. It was

=

by E. Cornelius. 217

found by digging away the earth on the side of the road, and
appears to have been the trunk of a considerable tree. It is
firmly fixed in the ground, and penetrates it obliquely ; how
far has not yet been ascertained. At the time I saw it about
two feet had been exposed. The diameter is about eight
inches. Its colour is white, sometimes resembling that of wood.
The fibres are well preserved, and so is the general structure.
It is much to be desired, that some one would clear it from its
bed, and give it entire to one of our mineralogical cabinets.

Geological Features.

Next to the alluvial and secondary formations, as you pass.
to the west and northwest, are to be found ranges of granite
and shistose, and other primitive rocks; interspersed with
these may be seen sandstone, clay, slate, quartz, and limestone.
Granite ranges were particularly seen in the neighbourhood
of Fredericksburgh, crossing the Rappahannock; and in
Orange and Albemarle counties, extending nearly to the Blue
Ridge. Great quantities of quartz and quartz rock, sometimes
covering with their fragments the sides of hills, are frequent.
Another, and more interesting rock in the same connexion, is
found in Albemarle county. For some time I doubted to what
class to refer it. But from its resemblance to the rocks of the
east and west mountains near New-Haven, I ventured to call
it trap or whinstone. It becomes more abundant as you ap-
proach the Blue Ridge, and the granite disappears. On the
sides and summit of the mountain, its appearance is more de-
cidedly that of greenstone. In crossing the southwest moun-
tain, the range to which Monticello belongs, and distant from
the Blue Ridge about 25 miles, I observed the same rock.
Whether this opinion is just, you will be able to decide from
the specimens which have been forwarded.

Blue Ridge.

I have repeatedly named the Blue Ridge. [It is the first of
those long and parallel ranges of mountains, called the Alle-

218 Geology, &c. of Tennessee, dc.

_ghany ; and constitutes one of the most prominent features in
the geology of the United States. Its height I cannot deter- ~
mine with accuracy. Probably it would not average more than
one thousand feet. Its base may extend in diameter from one
to two miles ; and yet such is the influence it has on the cli-
mate, that vegetation on the eastern, is usually two weeks ear-

_ lier than on the western side. And what is remarkable, this
difference obtains, on the former side at least, until you arrive
within a few hundred yards of the summit. I crossed the
mountain in two places, distant from each other one hundred

miles, but observed nothing essentially different in their mine-
ralogy. At one of them called the Rockfish-Gap, on the road

from Charlotteville to Staunton, I spent afew hours, and brought
away specimens of all the varieties of minerals which I could
find. These have been submitted to your inspection. Among
them, you will, I think, see greenstone, epidote, and slate more
or less allied to the first. These are the most common rocks,
and excepting the second, are usually stratified. The epidote
is generally associated with quartz, and sometimes is imbedded
in it. In some instances it has a porphyritic appearance, and
is very beautiful. In others, it is coated with small filaments
of a greenish asbestos. Other minerals were found, whose
nature I could not so easily determine. {I regret exceedingly,
that I cannot furnish you with a more complete description of
this interesting mountain. That its character is peculiar, or
different from the country on either side of it, must be obvious
to the most superficial observer. Its principal rock does in-
deed bear a resemblance to the trap or whinstone of Albe-
marle county, and yet I think you will say it is not the same.

One fact of importance cannot be mistaken ; this mountain con- —
stitutes the great dividing line between the granite and lime-
stone countries. For you no sooner reach its western base,
than the greenstone and epidote disappear ; and limestone per-
vades the country for hundreds of miles in every direction. In
all the distance from this mountain to New-Orleans, I did not
find a single specimen of granite, or greenstone. This may
appear singular, since Mr. Maclure and Professor Cleaveland
have a granite range on their maps, immediately west of the

by E. Cornelius. 219

Blue Ridge ; and even that mountain is on those maps, in some
parts of it, covered with the granitic tinge. This may be true.
I can answer for only two points of it, and for that part of the
country beyond, lying near the main road to Tennessee. In
this route I descended almost the whole length of the great
valley included between the Blue Ridge on the east, and the
north mountain on the west. But in no instance did I meet
with specimens of granite; nor west of the Blue Ridge with
any prevailing rock but limestone. I know of no reason why
the Blue Ridge should not be regarded as the first great di-
viding line between the granite and limestone countries. The
change in the geological formation is so sudden and striking,
that it would be difficult for the most careless traveller with
his eyes open, not to observe it. The face of nature, he can-
not but perceive, wears a different aspect; the air is more
cool and lively ; even the water which he drinks possesses
new properties perceptible to his taste. The inhabitants no
longer speak of their ‘‘ sandstone water ;” but every where
he hears of ‘limestone water.” Indeed for 800 miles in the
direction which I travelled, he tastes no other water. Every
spring and every rivulet, is strongly impregnated with carbo-
nate of lime. The vessels in which it is prepared for culinary
use, soon become lined with a white calcareous crust. Nor is
its taste the only inconvenience experienced by the traveller
unaccustomed to it. It often injures the health of a stranger,
and covers the surface of the body with cutaneous eruptions.

Limestone country in inclined Strata.
é

The geological observer has now entered upon a very in-
teresting field. Its great extent, and its wonderful uniformity,
give new facilities to investigation. Two divisions of it seem
to have been made in nature.

The first is that which includes the limestone lying in incx1-
NED sTRATA. This division extends from the Blue Ridge, to
the Cumberland mountain in East Tennessee, a distance in the
direction of my route of 500 miles. Of course it includes all
the ranges, five in number, of the Alleghany mountains. The

220 Geology, &c. of Tennessee, §<.

strata lie in a course northeast and southwest, the same ag
the general course of the mountains. The angle which they
make with the horizon is very variable, from 25°to 45°. The
colour of the rock varies from blue, and pale blue, to gray, or
grayish white, frequently it presents a dull earthy appearance.
The fracture is more or less conchoidal. Sometimes the rock
assumes a different character, and the fracture is wneven, and
‘the texture firm. This last is distinguished from the former,
not only by the fracture, but by the colour. It is usually spo-
ken of by the inhabitants as the gray limestone, the colour of
the other being usually. of a bluish cast. It differs from that
also by being less brittle, and possessing the quality denomina-
ted by stonecutters, ‘‘tough.” In consequence of this, and
its enduring heat better, it is more frequently used in building
than the other. This variety of limestone is not uncommon.
Its colour is not always gray, sometimes it is a reddish brown,
and sometimes white. Immense quantities ef it, possessing
either a grayish or reddish brown colour, are found in the vi-
cinity of Knoxville, East Tennessee. One range of it is
crossed by every road, passing to the south and east of Knox-
ville. Its appearance is that of some variegated marbles ;
white veins penetrate it, and wind through it in every direc-
tion. Whether any part of it has a texture sufficiently fine
and firm to be wrought to advantage, is yet to be determined.
To the eye of a superficial observer, there are many indica-
tions that it has. A specimen of very fine white marble, re- ©
sembling the Italian white, was shown me in Augusta county, ©
Virginia, which was found 15 miles from Staunton, where there
is said to be a considerable quantity of it.

Limestone country in Horizontal Strata.

The second great division of the limestone country extends,
on the route which I took, two hundred miles from the Cum-
berland mountain, and others associated with it southwest, as
far as the Dividing Ridge, which separates the waters flowing
into the Tennessee from those which proceed direct to the
gulf of Mexico. The grand circumstance which distinguishes

by E. Cornelius. 221

the limestone of this division from that already described, is
this, Irs STRATA ARE HORIZONTAL. Frequently immense piles
may be seen forming bold precipices, but always in horizontal
layers, differing in thickness, from a few inches to many feet.
How far this arrangement extends to the west and north, I
have not yet been able to learn. Travellers always speak of
the limestone rocks in West Tennessee and Kentucky as flat,
from which circumstance I conclude that the Cumberland
mountain forms for aconsiderable distance at least, the eastern
boundary. I have observed but three other particulars in
which the strata of the horizontal differ from those of the
inclined limestone.

1. Its colour is not sestrongly marked with the bluish tinge.

2. It is not so commonly penetrated with white veins of a
semicrystallized carbonate of lime ; nor is it so ai si ae as-
sociated with the wneven fractured species.

3. Petrifactions are oftener found in it.

I will here take the liberty to suggest, whether in our maps
of geology, some notice should not be taken of this very im-
portant division in the limestone country. Such a division ex-
ists in fact; nature has made it ; and if geology depends on na-
-ture for its only legitimate inductions, there can be no reason
why a feature so prominent as this, should be overlooked.
I shall not undertake to account for their difference : but would
not every geological theorist consider them as distinct for-
mations ?*

Cumberland Mountain.

The Cumberland mountain, which forms a part of this di-
viding line, is itself a singular formation. It belongs to the
class called ‘“‘ Table mountains.”’ Its width varies from a few

* The modesty of the writer has prevented him from applying to the formations
which he has well described, the terms transition and secondary, which there can
be little doubt do infact belong tothem. His strata of highly inclined limestone,
appear to belong to the transition class of Werner, and his flat strata, to the see
condary. It may be observed in’ this place, that the specimens alluded to in the
text (passim,) appear to be correctly described by Mr. Cornelius, and to justify
his geological inferences as far as hand-specimens seen at a distance from their
Native beds, can form a safe basis for general geological inductions. Editor.

223 Geology, Sc. of Tennessee, Sc.

miles, to more than fifty. Its height is not perceptibly differ-
ent from that of the Blue Ridge. It forms a circuit, in a shape
somewhat resembling a half moon. Winding to the southwest,
it keeps a course north of the Tennessee river, in some places
nearly parallel with it; passes a few miles to the southeast
of Huntsville in the Alabama Territory, and not long after ter-
minates. At one part, over which I crossed, the mountain is
eighteen miles wide. This is about 150 miles southwest of
Knoxville, a little north of the 35th degree of N. Lat. I had
not ascended the mountain more than half way, before 1 found
sandstone begin to intermingle with limestone strata. As I
drew near the summit, the limestone disappeared entirely, and
sandstone prevailed in abundance, with no other mineral asso-
ciated until I reached the western descent, where I met bold
precipices of horizontal limestone, reaching from the base to
the summit. I examined several sandstone rocks while cross-
ing the mountain, found them usually imbedded in the earth,

generally with flat surfaces, of a fine grain, and strong texture.

The colour is usually a reddish brown, or grayish red. The
specimen which you have received is agood example. I cross-
ed this mountain in the vicinity of Huntsville, not less than one
hundred miles southwest of the place above-mentioned, and
found it not wider than mountains commonly are. Its height
had also become less, and horizontal limestone in regular strata
prevailed in every part.

Although this mountain forms a part of the dividing line
which has been mentioned, it does not exclusively so: for the
Rackoon mountain, which crosses the Tennessee river, at the
place so well known by the name of “the Suck,” and the
Look-Out mountain, which terminates abruptly about 6 miles
to the left of ‘‘ the Suck,”’ form an acute angle with the Cum-
berland, and are composed of horizontal strata of limestone.
Thus it would appear the line which divides the two kingdoms
of this rock, is nearly north and south, inclining perhaps a few
points to the east and west.

by E. Cornelius. 223"
Scenery.

And here I cannot forbear pausing a moment to call your
aitention to the grand and picturesque scenery which opens
to the view of the admiring spectator. The country is still
possessed by the aborigines, and the hand of civilization has
done but little to soften the wild aspect of nature. The Ten-
nessee River, having concentrated into one mass, the nume-
rous streams it has received in its course of three or four
hundred miles, glides through an extended valley with a rapid
and overwhelming current, halfa mile in width. At this place,
a group of mountains stand ready to dispute its progress. First,
the “‘ Look-Out,” an independent range, commencing thirty
miles below, presents, opposite the River’s course, its bold
and rocky termination of two thousand feet. Around its brow
is a pallisade of naked rocks, from seventy to one hundred feet.
The River flows upon its base, and instantly twines to the
right. Passing on for six miles further it turns again, and is
met by the side of the Rackoon mountain. Collecting its
strength into a channel of seventy yards, it severs the moun-
tain, and rushes tumultuously through the rocky defile, wafting
the trembling navigator at the rate of a mile in two or three
minutes. This passage is called ‘“‘ The Suck.” The summit
of the Look-Out mountain overlooks the whole country. And
to those who can be delighted with the view of an intermina-
ble forest, penetrated by the windings of a bold river, inter-
spersed with hundreds of verdant prairies, and broken by
many ridges and mountains, furnishes in the month of May, a
landscape, which yields to few others in extent, variety or
beauty. Even the aborigines have not been insensible to its
charms ; for in the name which they have given to the Look-
Out mountain we have a laconic, but very striking description
of the scenery. This name in the Cherokee language, without
the aspirated sounds, is ‘‘ O-tulléé-ton-tanna-t4-kunna-éé ;””
literally, ‘* mountains looking at each other.”

I have already remarked that the limestone of this moun-
tain lies in horizontal strata: one mile east from its base it is

294 Geology, &c. of Tennessee, &c.

inclined. Like the Cumberland, it contains immense rocks of
sandstone, but of a coarser grain, verging occasionally into
pudding stone. I was told by a white man, a professed mill-
wright, that among these sandstone rocks, he knew of many
which were suitable for millstones. At the missionary esta-
blishment, called ‘‘ Brainerd,’’ eight miles east of the moun-
tain, I saw one of them which was used for this purpose to
much advantage. It is composed of fine and large grains of
silicious stones, nearly white, and resembling pebbles of white.
quartz : the texture is firm.

Silicious Minerals, &c.

1 will now notice an important fact, applicable to the whole
extent of limestone country, which has come under my obser-
vation. It is its association with a description of minerals, all
of which appear to be silicious. To describe them minutely,
would require several pages. From the time I entered the
limestone country till I left it this association was observed.
The minerals included in it differ much in their external
character. Their size varies from that of rocks to the smallest
fragments. Usually they lie loose upon the earth, mm angular
forms, having the appearance of a stone that has been broken
in pieces by the hammer. Sometimes they cover the sides of
hills and mountains in such abundance as to prevent or im-
pede vegetation. When the disintegration is minute, they are
serviceable rather than otherwise ; and the farmer talks of his
*¢ good black,” or ‘‘ white gravel land.” It renders this ser-
vice, I presume, not by decomposition, but by preventing the
soil and its manure from being washed away. Indeed the
different varieties of it are generally scattered over the sur-
face, in pieces so small, that for convenience sake, the whole
may be denominated a szlcious gravel.

Sometimes the mineral is imbedded in limestone, in the
form of nodules, thus indicating their original connexion
with it. ,

Ret i
ja - “e ,
by E. Cornelius. bad 295

The varieties, so far as I have observed, are quartz, horn-
stone, flint, jasper, and semi-opal ; and several, which to me
are non-descripts. Quartz is the most ahpndiet _It is found
of different colours ; compact, and porous or cellular ; of every
size ; simple and associated with other silicious stones ; mas-
sive and crystallized. In Augusta and Rockbridge counties in
Virginia, beautiful crystals of quartz, of a singular form, are
found. They are six-sided prisms, with double acuminations,
that is, with six-sided pyramids, mounted on the opposite ends
of the prism. A specimen of twolsuch crystals united, you
have received. It was found near Lexington. A curious va-
riety of the quartz gravel-stone occurs on both sides of Elk
River, a few miles above its junction with the Tennessee, in
the Alabama territory. As you travel to the west from Hunts-
ville, it appears first in the neighbourhood of Fort Hampton,
two miles east of Elk River, and may be seen for ten miles
west of that river. The mineral is remarkable for containing
a curious petrifaction. Its first appearance is that of a solid
screw. On examination, however, you find it is not spiral ;
but consists of parallel concentric layers. Their diameter
varies in different specimens, from that of a pin to half an inch.
They stand in the centre of a hollow cylinder, extending its
whole length, and occupying about one-third of its dimensions.
_The stone is sometimes perfectly filled with these forms. The
"petrifaction I could not have named, had rar not Pike phe
it the ‘‘ Entrochite.”’

Hornstone, next to quartz, is the most abundant of the sili-
cious minerals associated with limestone. It is very often
seen imbedded in rounded masses, both in the inclined and
horizontal strata.

Flint is more rare. Several fine specimens were observed
on the western declivity of the Look-Out Mountain, but in no
instances in large masses or quantities.

Semi-Opal was found in one instance on the dividing ridge,
which constitutes the southwestern boundary of the lime-
stone strata. :

Of the non-descripts you have several specimens. One
variety strikes fire with steel, is a milk-white colour, adheres

Vor. I....No. 3. 19 .

rr — e of translucency on
ae Ned
»d you with an interesting
found in East Tennessee and

itl ate what he has so well

Apr. TIL Ne beh of the Scenery, Eialey, Mindrildey:
Botany, Sc. of Belmont County, Ohio, 49 Cates At-
WATER, Esq. of Circleville. e:

Monroe county, and on the oe y t ou river. Itis -
27 miles in length, and 21 in breadth, containing 535 square
miles. Its name, Belmont, or beautiful mountain, indicates its
situation, for it contains within “a ht ag a fine body of
land, rising gradually as you are travelling from the Ohio to
the west, until you arrive at about the middle of it, where,
from the elevation on ale 5 you stand, the eye in an eastern
direction, beholds one of ( e ing prospects in the;
state. Looking towards the « sant morning, you
behold a beautiful country of dale spread out before
you, divided into convenient Itivated farms, inter-
sected by glittering stream ¢ through them to-
wards the Ohio. You hea: g of numerous herds
around you, the shrill matin of the songsters of the forest, and
‘the busy hum of the industrious husbandman ; you see here
ind there a clump of trees interspersed among the culti-
vated parts of the country ; you the comfortable dwelling-
house, the substantial barn, and he ar the rumbling noise of the
‘mill ; and when you reflect : that | those who dwell here are in-

oh icioue and enterprising, virtuou free, and happy, you

vehold with pleasure, and listen w

t, while reflecting
nthe objects around you.

ie aa

vis alt) Dh
decay and vuingietan of vege

produces as luxuriant a rotith of vegetation
world. On the banks of the creeks which pas
country the alluvial soil is not so wide as that on
but equally rich and productive. On the hills (and there are
many of them) there are two kinds of soil, the silicious and
the argillaceous, the first is formed from the decomposition of
the rocks which once covered the surface, the latter from the
slate which lay under them. Where these rocks are decom-
posed, and the country is hilly, it will readily be believed
that the two kinds of soil are frequently blended together. In
some places we see t best of clay for bricks ; whilst in other
places, and those in the > vicinity of the atin. we find the
best of sand to mould them in when manufactured. Hard
limestone of the very I uality is found in detached frag-
ments in the sides of hil is, and in strata, in abundance, along
the beds of streams. ae ee
The ruins of the sandstone formation are here seen scat-
tered about in fragments, or _ decomposed and intimately
~ blended with those : formations.
Fossil coal is eve yand under the hills, of the very
best quality, and in si fficient jantity not only for the fuel of
the present, but many future generations, and is so easily ob-
tained that the expense uel i isa mere trifle. The oxide of
iron, or iron ore val y combined, is recognized in many
places, and water combined with muriate of soda, or common
salt, is as common. Salines or licks are found in many places,
where animals also, both ila and domesticated, resort in great
ers. These are frequently near some
. ulphur and chalybeate springs
are known to exi! this county, and some which throw ont .
considerable quai peti a icam hed
In a country | id fossil coal exist, it is no wonder

that copperas should nd. There are places where cop-

ae

Belmont County.

set f -peras exudes in a state sufficiently pure in quality, and in

‘
oe Botany.

for several families, who collect and use it
e may be said of alum, which is collected
milat purposes.

Though this county is very rich in the mineral, yet it is not
less so in the vegetable kingdom, as may be seen by a refer-
ence to the subjoined catalogue, although numbers of trees,
shrubs, and plants, are purposely omitted, which are knows

to exist here.

Family.
Oak,

4 '

Maple,

Poplar or Tulip,

Walnut,

Elm,
*

Buckeye,

Locust,

_ Persimmon,

a

Linn or Base
Wood,

“o

ae at
Speci,

White,
Black, o
Meadow,
Chesnut,
Sugar,
White,
White,
Yellow,
Black,

White,
ShellbarkHickory,

’ Pignut,

Bitternut, and pro-
bably _ several
other species.

Two species,

Chesnut,

White,

Blue,

Black,

Swamp,

Two or three spe-
cies.

Common,

Sweet, ate

Four SPCCIaBG)
od, ia

» ae ih

Liriodendron,

Bg
Classical name. -- Remarks.
Quercus 2, - Abundant.
Nigra, Do.

—

Prunus, , Scarce.
Acer Saccharinum, Abundant.
Alba,

Abundant. _

Juglans Nigra.
Alba.
—— Albaovata.
Minima.

Fagus.

- Americana,

Fraxinus Alba.

_ Purpurea.

—— Nigra.

Aquatica.

Ulmus. - ae

ha al Lu-

uatica, Along the streams.

,:
We

Belmont County. — a ay ‘

Family. Species. Classical name. Remark
“inet > £. Pryl: sc Ry
Cucumber, Cucuminis Sylves-

ie.
Dog Wood, or Two species.
American Box,

: a eb
Sycamore, Two species, Platanus aaa ‘es, tet
talis, &c. * iit a ai
Plum, Several species. ; &
Thorn, do. do. atts

*

The red bud ; the pawpaw ; grape-vines of several species, and
growing to a great size ; sassafras ; the black willow, confined
to the streams; the box elder, the common elder, of two
species ; the ach, of two species ; several species of goose-
berries ; and 2 great many others too numerous to be men-
tioned here. Among the herbaceous Plants we must not omit
the ginseng, the Virginia snakerc ot, the columbo, and the
puccoon, two or three thousand pounds of the roots of which
are annually carried by the inhabitants to our Atlantic cities.

Among the trees, those belonging to the oak family are the
most numerous, if not the most valuable. Split into rails, the
farmer builds fences with them, and sawed into plank, boards,
and scantling, they furnish materials for houses and barns. The
sugar maple is sufficiently abundant, so that brown sugar
enough is manufactured for domestic purposes. The syca-
more is the largest tree along the river, and the poplar is the
largest on the hills. . The latter grows by the side of the ma-
ple and the beach, and is a most valuable wood for the house-
builder and the cabinetmaker. This tree is frequently four
and five feet in diameter, and continues of nearly the same
size as it ascends, 40, 50, and sometimes even 60 feet.

Serle
og tee
The Ohio is the eastern boundary of this county, forming
wide intervales along its banks. Indian Wheeling is a fine
mill stream rising in Harris
empties into the Ohio
stands on the Virgi

oo of Wheeling, which

z
Fray
<i

830 . Belmont County.

Captina is another excellent mill stream, which after running
about 17 or 18 miles in this county, puts into the Ohio 23

fertilize a considerable part of Belmont.

From the view we have taken of this county, its geology,
mineralogy, and botany, the reader will probably be prepared
with us to conclude, that no part of the union, of equal extent,
contains within it greater natural resources, or can support a
more dense population.

_ The seat of justice is St. . Clairsville, situated ten Biles from
the Ohio river, at Wheeling. It contains three houses for
public worship, 15 stores, a printing-office, a ban nk, and 700
inhabitants. SS i? ver

Many of the inhabitant of this county are- Maken or
Friends, who are charitable, humane, frugal, enterprising, in-

dustrious, and strongly: pee to slavery. From such a po-

pulation, possessing suc

advantages, what may we not hope
and expect from their exertions? Their fertile valleys will
be turned into meadows, and their hills into pastures ; the ox
will fatten in the former, whilst the flocks of Andalusia will

whiten the latter.
*

miles by conte Wheeling. These streams visit and °

i
—s P

~ Art. IV. Remarks on the Structure of the Calton Hill, h,

near Edinburgh, Scotland; and on the Aqueous origin of

| Wacke ; ; ‘ J. W. Wansrer, M.D. of Boston.

> Wey

Ti country around Edinburgh is extremely interesting to
the geologist, and presents numerous instances of the junction

of rocks to which the advocates of the Neptunian system have ‘

referred in support of their opinion as to the aqueous origin
of greenstone, basalt, and wacke; while the same examples
have been cited by the Volcanists, and by those who hold an
intermediate opinion. The structure of a portion of Calton

Webster on Calton Hill. 231

hill, where the most distinct alternations of substances (whose
aqueous origin none can dispute,) with pure and well charac-
‘terized wacke are displayed, has not, as yet, I believe been
particularly described. fe vy

Edinburgh is situated nearly in the centre of an extensive
coal formation, where the usual sandstones and other coal
measures are connected with the newer rocks of transition.
From the coal field rise in many places beds of greenstone, in
general forming small conical and round-backed hills. Other
eminences are composed of amygdaloid, claystone, and other
porphyries ; and basalt and trap tuff occur in an overlying po-
sition. Of these, it is not my intention to speak otherwise
than as conveying a general idea of the geological relation of
the wacke above referred to.

The structure of Calton hill has been exposed by the recent
improvements, and in particular by a section made in the con-
struction of the new road to London. The rock occurring in
' greatest abundance, and which is probably the fundamental
bed, is a porphyry, the basis of which in general is claystone,
which in many places passes into felspar, injothers becomes a
distinct greenstone, Numerous veins of calcareous spar tra-
verse it in different directions, and I am lately informed, that
very beautiful examples of veins of greenstone of contempo-
raneous formation with the rock itself, have been discovered
in the greenstone. Upon the porphyry rests a bed of trap
tuff, upon this other beds of.the two rocks repose, that at the
summit {being porphyry. The back of the hill (as we pass
from the city) is a spot of peculiar interest, consisting of alter-
nate thin beds of bituminous shale, sandstone, wacke, and
clay ironstone, disposed in amanner which will be best under-
steading outline taken on the vale

es & ‘

. apeqs snourematg tl

© ‘ands +9109 pue—ayoe My IE < i
sqnojspues LT ; -. 07UT SepIs 4I0q *
_ sayeyssnourminytg gf «wo Surssed oyeys snourmnyig gr ABI yt ‘op ey
. "aHOBM ST ; — OHM 6 ;
“9]eys snouramyig PT *ayeys snourunyrg 8 =
: : JOHOR M ET ‘ands ‘2109 yim ‘axe |,
wie 3
. s of . E : ,
4 S a
a = :
=
s =

a

as Se = 2s - se =@ ; *NOBTHNT 0}.

a 2 72 4 . : = as quoumMuoyy
’ ,
4

2 a
“ : yy

The wacke has a greenish gray colour, which is pretty uni-
form. The fracture is nearly even and earthy, it is soft, yield-
ing readily to the nail, and has a feebly shining streak. A
slight stroke with the hammer causes the mass to separate in
fragments of various size, the surfaces of which are often
smooth and shining, each bed being composed of large distinct
concretions, having a tendency to the prismatic form. This
wacke fuses with difficulty before Brooke’s blow-pipe. Spe-
cific gravity not determined, as it falls to pieces on being moist-
ened. B

The sandstone is for the most part gray, in some parts spot-
ted red and brown, forming, as the section represents, the last
stratum seen; the beds of sandstone are but a few inches in
thickness, and the last (17) becomes less than an inch; it is
probable, however, from the relative situation, from the dip
and direction, that these strata are a continuation of others
seen on the other side of the hill, where they are of sufficient
thickness to have been quarried for the purposes of architec-
ture. The beds of all rocks we know vary greatly in different
parts, and it is not unusual for them to be some feet at one
extremity, gradually decreasing till less than an inch in thick-
ness at the other, or they may even be lost entirely, and gra-
dually regain their former size ; and it is not improbable that
these beds of sandstone will be found to continue on towards

e adjoining hills of Salisbury Craig and Arthur’s Seat, pass-

. ~< the greenstone and trap tuff.

The bituminous shale presents the usual characters ; inter-

mixed with it are numerous nodules of the common clay iron-
stone, the colour of which is a yellowish brown, these also
frequently present characters common to the three substances,
De h ghout the beds, the passage from the one to the
other | inct. Whatever may be the opinions in regard to »
the origin y "bituminous shale, there can be but one in regard

to that of sandstone ; and this has lately received no feeble
‘support from the account given us by Dr. Paris, of a formation

of this rock on the coast of Cornwall, where, says he, ‘“‘ we
actually detect nature at work, and she does not refuse admit-

Webster on Calton Hill. 233

a

dated. Tn digging into these sand hills, o upon the

234 Webster on Calton Hill,

tance into her manufactory, nor conceal, with her accusto :
reserve, the details of the operations in which she is aes

From the appearances which have been thus briefly noticed,
no impartial geologist, we should imagine, would infer the
volcanic origin of any portion of this formation; and if the
aqueous origin of sandstone can be,established, ‘that of the
wacke must be the same. aes nat

ri pa : ns cet Kg : + eRe
& i bh —_

stiaate connexion with the preceding subject,
oi?

ns the following : i *

er ¢ recent formation of Sandstone,
us parts of the J forthern coast of Cornwall ;
Paris, M.D. F.L.S., &c. &c. Published
in the Tra ons of the Geological Society of Cornwall,
—

s¢ A VERY considerable portion of the northern coast of
Cornwall, is covered with a calcareous sand, consisting of minute
particles of comminuted shells. That part which lies between
St. Ives and Padstow w is more immediately the subject of the
present inquiry ; at ract which, with a few exveptions, is en-

tirely covered with: this species of sand; and which in i i a

places, has accumulated in quantities so er as to have
ed hills of from forty to sixty feet in elevation. A considera-
ble area, for instance, in the parishes of Gwythian and Ph
_ has been thus desolated, and several churches hav

moval of some part
houses may be age

yards have been overwl
may be found. The s ‘Se +
brought from the sea by y hu:
od.”°——* The sand first appears in a slight but inc
of aggregation on several parts of the shore in the b
tves ; but on approaching the Gwythian river, it be

aby the vie th

ballet

ricanes, pro

Webster on Calton Fill. 235

e ve and indurated. On the shore opposite to Godrevy

ee an immense mass of it occurs, of more than a hundred
feet in length, and from twelve to twenty feet in depth, con-
taining entire shells and fragments of clay slate ; it is singular
that the whole mass assumes a striking appearance of stratifica-
tion. In some places it appears that attempts have been made
to separate it, probably for the purpose of building ; ; for several
old houses in Gwythian are built of it.”’— —<‘‘ It is around the
promontory of New Kaye that the most extensive formation
of sandstone takes place. Here it may be seen in differer
stages of induration ; from a state in which it is too fria
be detached from the rock upon which it reposes, t
ness so considerable, that it) requires avery
a sledge to break it.”-——* But it is on the
promontory of New Rapes in Fistril Bay,
be most struck with the formation ; for here cis rock is
in sight. The cliffs, which are high, and extend for several
miles, are entirely composed of it.”’ *¢ The beach is covered ~*

_ with disjointed fragments, which have been detached from the
cliff above, many of which weigh two or three tons.”

There are three modes by which Dr. Paris conceives the
lapidification of calcareous sand may be effected. Ist. “By
the percolation of water through a hill of calcareous er by
which a becomes impregnated with carbone of lime.” 2d. .

| erc on of water through strata containing pyritical
S 5 hich it becomes impregnated with sulphuric
3d. “ “The poo of water aR cre iy fa

ibaa ) wr

y , ™
236 Localities of Minerals.
; i vis
Ae

Art. V. Localities of Minerals.

To the Editor of the American Journal of Science, &c.

| New-York, Dec. 21, 1818.
Dear Sir, . -

I T is desirable that some mode should be adopted by which
the public me become acquainted with all the New American
Localities of « Minerals, as they are discovered from time to
time. With deference I would suggest, that in each number
of your Scientific Journal, new localities might be recorded in
alphabetical order, for present information and future refer-
ence.

The following localities, which have come under my ob-
servation, and which are probably not noticed in any work,
are at your service. i ;

ERC 5s (oe
1, Agate. Rolled mass: -occurred near Powles Hook,
New-Jersey. ,
2. Apatite. Truncated crystals of one inch, and amor-
phous ; occurs in granite, chiefly in the felspar.

Corlaer’s Hook, vicinity of New-York.
3. Brown Mammillary Hematite, covering quartz crystals.
Perkiomen lead-mine. Montgomery county, Penn-

sylvania

Abs, hs
‘ 7 4 ee ca
4, Carbonate of —— Structure earthy. App arently: m

Le

a pure carbonate of magnesia.- In mica slate, and
granite ; chiefly in the quartz. Roxborough, Phila-
delphia county. re
5. Common Jasper. Traversed by veins of * seine.
Small detached masses, frequently waterworn.
Rhinebeck, Dutchess county, New-York.
6. Compact Malachite. Perkiomen lead-mine.

~

es alk hd *% ae oe
° “4 bad o i
Localities of Minerals. 237

wh Fetid Carbonate of Lime. In ridges ; and strata nearly
vertical, sometimes containing petrifactions. Very
frequent in Dutchess county, particularly in the
neighbourhood of Rhinebeck Flats, and near Hyde
Park.
8. Fibrous Tale. In granite. Roxborough.
9. Graphic Granite. North River, near the city of New-
York.
10. Graphite. In a calcareo-siliceous gangue. Conca
Hook.
11. Native pulverulent (or rather granular) Sulphur. In
pyritical quartz. Barren Hill, Montgomery county,
Pennsylvania. we

12, Plumose Asbestus. Corlaer’s Hook.
13. Semi-opal. In common Jasper—(which see.)

14, Scaly Talc. In granite. Roxborough.

15. Stellated Quartz. Perkiomen lead-mine.

16. Sulphate of Barytes. In sulphuret of lead and silver.
' Livingston’s lead-mine, Columbia county, New-York.
17. Sulphuret of Silver. With sulphuret of lead. Same
; locality. :
18. Tourmalin. In masses of crystalline quartz. Rhinebeck.

Very respectfully,
F. C. SCHAEFFER.

=

3 } me
‘; The following notices were asia before the receipt of

Be above letter.

é

alities of Minerals and of : wiles \L REMAINS, and acknow-
we: -ledgments of Specimens received.

Guadaloupe.—Native sulphur, obsidian, pitchstone, native
alum, basaltic hornblende, alum covered with sulphur.
Porto Rico.—Hexagonal crystals of mica.

Specimens of the above minerals are in the cabinet of Mr.
John P. Brace, at Litchfield, Connecticut.

--which to disting uish |

938

Molybdena is found in Shutesbury, Mas
Northampton, east of Connecticut River, on
William Eaton. It is the common sulphuret, but
beautifal and well characterized. Its colour is nearly tl
bright lead, very brilliant, smooth, and almost unctuous ; ; soft,

! om flexible, distinctly foliated, and the folia are very thin, and —
_ €asily separable, almost like mica. It gives the usual green ish

. trace on white ottery, while a line drawn parallel on the same

ae

being (as pointe ongniart) the easiest ‘criteria
black-lead. “We have many ti
cess.

This molybdena, from Stuedmiiy.-8 is chiefly crystallized,
and the crystals are, in some instances, very distinct ; their
form is that of a flat six-sided prism, or what is commonly :
eda table. The rock, from which they were obtaine
granitic aggregate, (judging from the pa He sent, it 1
true granite) and. the forms of the crystals are very
impressed in the stone, so that when renx
exact copy orcr jstal mould. In a letter f om the proprietor
of the Iand, it is § id that the molybdena is s found in a ledge
rocks, six or seven feet above the surface. of the earth, and

ed they fave an

about ten or twelve feet above the level of the water ; the .

direction of the rocks is from S. to N. E. by N.3 the sete is
in a vein, running E., and was discovered in small pieces in the
top of the ledge. iA putting in two blasts, some large pieces
were obtained. "
From this account, and from the specimens, (some of the
crystals being an inch or more in length) this must be one of
the most interesting localities of molybdena hithe oe observed

in this country ; and itis hoped Mr. Eaton will take some pains :

to procure and furnish specimens.

Rose Quartz.—From Southbury, Connecticut, not far from
Woodbury, and from the Honsatonuck River, two young men,
of the name of Stiles, have brought us specimens of rose
quartz, of delicate and beautiful colour. It is said to be abun-
dant in a ledge of the same substance.

s, bya piece of pe ptobecs or black-lead, is black ; this

si

239

—In hescads Litchfield county, Connecticut,

is found, of a good quality, and in considerable
in a vein contained in a rock of gneiss, or mica-slate.
as been known a good while, and is said to have been ex-
ported anterior to the American revolutionary war.

Coal, &c. in Zanesville, Ohio. Through the kindness of ”
the Rev. Dr. Bronson, Principal of the Cheshire Academy
a have received the following information.—In cut
canal ir 1 the above town, in the spring of hoa throug
atone, trees, and fish, and other

beautiful coal—(as we have had an opportunity of ascertain-

ing, from an examination of the specimens.) "

Coal, in the county of Muskingum, Ohio. Comin stone-

coal highly bituminous, (the slaty or black coal of Werner,)
found abundantly.

u Lake Erie, about 25 miles, 4 in the bed bo Rocky

“i

in argillaceous i
by the Rev.

Mammoth’s ! st. Francis
Mississippi. Return He) Meigs, Esq. has re, through
the Rev. E. Cornelius, a mammoth’s tooth, apparently not
mineralized. It appears to have belonged to a very old ani-
mal, as the processes, (which, it is well known, are commonly
very prominent) are worn down smooth, and some of them
almost obliterated.

Blue ‘Ridge, Tennessee, and Mississippi Territory.—T hrough
the kindness of the Rey. E. Cornelius, and of Mr. John H.

ain, ae receiveda considerable collection of specimens,

f the mineralogy and geology, and Indian antiqui-
“ies of these regions ; they may be, on a future occasion, the
subject of more particular remarks.

Coal, in Suffield, Connecticut, on the river of the same
name. From Mr. Nathan Stedman, we have received speci-
mens of coal, found in thin veins, in rocks of slate, and argil- -
laceous sandstone, on the banks of the river. The veins are

s

y das i |

a ee > Hs, »

240 igen of —

thin, but coy numerous ; the coal is very .

black ; breaks with a smooth and almost conchoidal Pitos04

and very much resembles jet. It is very much intersected by
thin veins—(not thicker than a knife-blade)—of white crystal-
lized calcareous spar. This coal is bituminous, and burns
pretty freely. It has not been explored, except superficially.
Coal, in Southington, Connecticut. Beds of slate are found
more or less bituminous ; and, at the bottom of some of the
wells, the slate begins to exhibit thin veins of coal, distributed
‘in great numbers thrpugh the substance of the slate, which is
the shale of the miners.’ The coal is from the thickness of a
knife-blade to~ that ofa finger; it is highly bituminous, and
burns with great freedom. Even the entire masses of the
stone burn brilliantly, when ignited on a common fire ; and,
after exhaustion of the coally matter, leave the slate of agray-
ish colour. “1

The locality from which the specimens were taken, is on-

the land of Roswell Moore, Esq. about midway between Hart-
ford and New-Haven. The spot was lately examined by Col.
Gibbs, Eli Whitney, Esq. Professor Olmstead, and others ; and
arrangements are making to bore the strata} to the depik of
several hundred feet, if necessary. These localities are in

what may, with propriety, be called the coal formation of —

Connecticut. Coal has been found in several other places in
that state ; and the peculiar geological features of the region
in which it is contained, are very interesting, and may here-
after be described in form.

Sulphat of Barytes, with Coal, §c.—Sulphat of barytes ex-
ists abundantly in Southington, on what is called the Clark
Farm. With quartz, carbonate of lime, &c. it forms the gangue
of a metallic vein, containing galena, or sulphuret of lead,
copper pyrites, &c. The sulphat of barytes is more or less
crystallized, and principally in the form that is called the cox-
comb spar. The same vein, although it is in the side of a
mountain, several hundred feet above the flat country adja-
cent, and two or three miles from the coal strata above men-
tioned, contains numerous spots and patches of coal, very much
resembling that at Suffield. It is of a most brilliant black, and

N

* ‘

Locdillties of Minerals. 241

contrasted with the white, stony matrix, (principally quartz

and sulphat of barytes) in which it is enveloped, it forms ele-
gant specimens.

Scintillating Limestone.—In Vermont, a singular scintillating
limestone is found, of which an account is given in the follow-
ing extract of a letter from Mr. George Chase, dated Ran-
dolph, February 19, 1818.

« The object of the present letter is to acquaint you with a
circumstance relating to the limestone that abounds in this pri-
mitive country, which to me is inexplicable. This carbonate
of lime is of a pale sky-blue colour ; effervesces strongly with
nitric acid ; and, by burning, produces lime, so that there is
no question as to the identity of the mineral. But it likewise
gives forth sparks with steel :—this I concluded, at first, to be
an accidental circumstance ; but every specimen that I have
tried, from various quarters of the country, uniformly gives
fire with steel. The limestone is found in layers, in blocks,
and masses, disseminated among the clay-slate that covers the
greatest part of the townships in this vicinity. When first
taken from the earth, and exposed to the air, it is covered with |
an incrustation of a dark reddish-brown colour, that crumbles

- easily between the fingers, and is generally from one inch to a
foot in thickness. This incrustation, however, hardens on a
long exposure to the air. This led me to think that the in-
crustation was owing to the decomposition of the limestone,
which was produced by the sulphuret of iron, intimately dis-
seminated through the rock, which would also explain the sin-
gular circumstance of its striking fire. But on dissolving a
small quantity of the mineral in nitric acid, and adding a drop
or two of the decoction of gallnut, no discolouring of the
liquor was produced.”

Limpid Quartz.—West Canada Creek, a northern branch
of the Mohawk, affords, in its sands, small crystals of quartz,
limpid, and terminated at both ends by pyramids of six sides ;
we are indebted for specimens to Professor Fisher.

Fetid Primitive Limestone, &c.—From the vicinity of Wil-

hamstown soa ei the kindness of Professor Dewey, we
Vou. I....No. 20

242 Localities of Minerals.

have received specimens illustrative of the geology of that re-

‘gion. Among them is limestone from Stockbridge, crystallized -
in large plates and rhomboids, almost white, and still fetid on

being rubbed, which is very different from most fetid lime-

stones, which are dark coloured, and even black, and do not

belong to primitive formation.

Molybdena.—tIn Pettipaug, Saybrook, Connecticut, molyb-
dena occurs. It is mentioned in the Review of Cleaveland’s
Mineralogy, and is here cited again for the purpose of point-
ing out its locality more exactly. It is found about half a mile
to the E. of the Turnpike leading from Saybrook to Middle-
town, on the first road on the right hand above the turnpike
gate, near the house of the widow Pratt. It is not far from
Pettipaug meeting-house, in a northern direction.

Beryl.In Haddam, Connecticut, are found many beryls,
and some of uncommon size ; an account of one of the most
remarkable localities is contained in the following memoran-
dum from the Rev. Mr. Mather, to whom we are 2 dented for
specimens.

_ © The place in which the beryls are found is in the town of
Chatham, about one mile and a half north from Middle-Haddam |
landing ; about half of a mile S. W. of a large hill, on which
is the cobalt mine. The rock in which the beryls are con-
tained is granite; the parts of which are very large, espe-
cially the felspar and the mica. Large masses of shorl are
also found in these rocks. Beryls have also been found in
other parts of Middle-Haddam, amongst rocks of the same de-
scription. The greatest diameter of the largest beryl is four
inches ; the least three inches. The beryls are numerous,
and of different sizes; though few are less than an inch, or
two inches in diameter. The length of the longest beryl is
five inches.”

Clay.—Near Delhi, New-York, a few rods from the Dela-
ware river, are found beds of clay, of which specimens have
been transmitted by Mr. John P. Foote, of New-York. We
are of opinion that they are not porcelain clay.

Localities of Minerals. 243

Gypsum—Cayuga Lake. We are informed by Dr. L. Foot,
that the workmen who have excavated about 20 feet on the
border of the lake, in gypsum, which is generally of a dark
brown, or black colour, when they come to a transparent crys-
tallized piece, call it isinglass, and reject it as worthless: the
hint should be remembered by mineralogists, that the speci-
mens may be saved for their cabinets.

ASBESTOS IN ANTHRACITE.

Extract of a letter from Dr. I. W. Webster.
Boston, 27th Nov. 1818.

Dear Sir, F

In examining some masses of the anthracite from
Rhode Island, one piece attracted my attention, from the
waved structure of the lamelle into which it separated. The
fragments of this were wedge-shaped, and I found the space be- _
tween some of the laminz filled up by a fibrous, silky sub-
stance, which induced me to break up other masses, in one of
which I discovered an abundance of amianthus ; the filaments
are of a light-green colour in some parts of the mass—in
others presenting different shades of brown. With a micro-
scope, I found the fibres intermixed with the anthracite ; or
forming thin layers, and these sometimes parallel to, at others
crossing, in different directions, the course of the lamine.
How far the presence of this mineral may influence the igni-
tion or combustion of the coal, is a question, perhaps, worth de-
_ termining. Should my engagements permit, I shall make fur-
ther examination, and inform you. In the mean time, the no-
tice of this fact may call the attention of some of your readers
to the subject. At any rate, this substance has, I believe,
never before been noticed in connexion with anthracite, aad

is highly interesting in a geological point of view.
2 *

244 Localities of Minerals.

REMARKS.

We have been familiar with the Rhode Island anthracite,
and with the formation of rocks in which it is found; and, long
since, observed the fact mentioned by Dr. Webster. ‘The as-
bestos often is in the form of the most delicate amianthus,
frequently blended also with the slate rocks, which form the
roof and pavement of this coal. A specimen now lies before
us, in which a complete vein of this amianthus, with fibres
nearly two inches im length, connects and pervades a mass of
slate, supposed to be of the transition class.

Similar facts are mentioned also by Dr. Meade, in his account
of the Rhode Island coal.

Pe
RED PYROXENE AUGITE.

Extract of a letter to the Editor, from Dr. H. H. Hayden of

Baltimore.

I have very lately discovered a couple of small specimens
of the transparent red pyroxene, resembling fine crystals of
titanium, which I, at first, mistook it for. One of them is con-
tained in the middle of a large crystal, like the rubellite in the
green tourmalins of Massachusetts, but it is not the same sub-
‘stance. The pyroxene, which I have reference to, is the
olive-coloured epidote of some, pistazite of others, but resem-
bles, in this instance, the sahlite ; the crystals being divisible
longitudinally. Some of them are five inches long, and half
an inch diameter, hexaedral and double ; that is, two joined
together, as described by Brochant in particular.

Some other localities, of which we have received notices,
may be mentioned in a future number.

Plants of the Cherokee Country. 245

BOTANY.
EEE EDD

Art. VI. A List of Plants found in the neighbourhood
of Connasarga River, (Cherokee Country) where Spring-
place is situated ; made by Mrs. Gampoxp, at the request
of the Rev. Elias Cornelius.*

A.
Acer rubrum and Sacharium Antirrhinum elatine
Acanitum uncinatum Apocynum cannabinum
Actea racemosa Aquilegia canadensis
Adianthum Capillus Veneris Arabis
Aesculus Pavia Aralia spinosa
Agave Arctatis caroliniana
Agrimonium Eupatorium Arethusa parviflora
Aira pallens Aristoloichia serpentaria, 3 sp.
Aletris farinosa Arum sagitteefolium and triphyllum
Alisma Plantago Arundo tecto
Allium, 2 sp. Asarum virginicum
Amasonia latifolia Aselepias purpurascens, variegata, ver-
Anchusa ticillata and others, tuberosa
Andromeda arborea and other sp. Ascyrum

' Andropogon alopecuides and am- Asplenium
biguum Aster concolor, linarifolius, and many
Anemone hepatica, Thalictroides, vir- others
giniana, and pennsylvania Avena palustrio and spicata

Angelica lucida and other sp. Azalea viscosa, and others.
Annona

B.
Berberis canadensis Bignonia crucigera and radicans
Betula alnus Bucknera americana.
Bidens pusilla N. S. Muhlenb.

C.
Cacalia Clematis ochraleuca and virginiana
Calycanthus floridus Clitoria mariana and virginiana
Campanula perfoliata and divaricata Collinsonia virginica

* Copied partly from Manuscripts of the late Dr. Muhlenberg, of Lancaster, Pennsy]-
¥ania.

246

Cardumine virginica

Carduus, several sp.

Carex, N. S. ™

Cassia chamecrista, marilandica, nicti-
tans, and Tora

Ceanothus americanus

Cephalanthus occidentalis

Cerastium arvense

Cercis canadensis

Chelone glabra and Penstemon

Chenopodium ambrosioides and anthel-
minticum

Chionanthus virginicus

Chironia campanulata and other sp.

Chrysogonum virginicum

Cimicifuga pulmata

Circea lutetiana

Cissampelos smilacine

Claytonia virginica

Delphinium exaltatum
Dentaria multifida

Diodia N. S. and virginica
Dioscorea

Echium vulgare

Elephantopus caroliniensis

Eleusine filiformis

Epilobium coloratum

Erigeron pulchellum, and other sp.

Eryngium aquaticum ovalifolium and
yucczefolium

Fagus castanea dentata sylvatica atro-
punicea
Festuca nutans, palustris and sylvatica

Galactia mollis

Galax aphylla _

Galega hispidula and virginica
GSalium, several sp.

Plants of the Cherokee Country.

Commelina erecta, longifolia virginica

Convallaria multiflora and racemosa

Conyza linifolia

Coreopsis auriculata, bidens, senifolia
tripteris, alternifolia and verticil-
lata

Cornus florida

Corylus americana

Cretegus apiifolia

Crotallaria sagittalis

Cucubalus behen

Cuscuta americana

Cynanchum

Cynoglossum officinale and virginicum

Cynosurus indicus and sparsus

filiformis (Muhlenb.)

Cypripedium acaule, alba and calce

olus.

D.
Diospyros virginiana

Dodecatheon media
Dracocephalon virginianum

Exrythronium dens canis

Eupatorium ccelestinum, perfoliatum,
and urticefolium

Euphorbia colorata, ipecacuanha, and ~
other sp.

Evonymus virginicus

F.
Fragaria vesca
Fumaria N. 8.
G.
Gerardia asgelia, hydrophylla, lancifo-
lia and purpurea

Geum rivale
: Gleditsia spinosa

Plants of the Cherokee Country. 247

Gaura sp.
Gentiana saponaria, and others
Geranium, 2 sp.

Glycine apios and tomentosa parabo-
lica (Muhlenb.)
Gnaphalium germanicum, and others.

tee

Hedyotis sp.

Hedysarum prostratum and others

Helianthus angustifolius. sp. nova.

Heuchera

Hibiscus

Houstonia ccerulea, purpurea, and va-
rians

Tlex aquifolium sp.
Impatiens noli tangere
Toula graminifolia and mariana

Jutropha stimulosa
Juglans alba acuminata
ovata

Kalmia latifolia

Laurus benzoin and sassafras

Lechea minor

Lepidium sp.

Liatris graminifolia, spicata and squar-
rosa

Lilium martagon

Limodorum tuberosum

Linum virginicum

Liquid amber styraciflua

Liriodendrum tulipifera

Lobelia cardinalis, inflata, kalmii, pu-
berula and siphylitica

Malaxis unifolia
Marchantia polymorpha

Hydrangea glauca

Hypericum fasciculatum, nudiflorum,
prolificum, and others

Hypnum sp.

Hypoxis erecta.

Ipomeea, sky blue, and other sp.
Inis, low, sweet-smelling blossoms in
spring, and other sp.

Juglane nigra
oblonga alba
Juncus bicornis and tenuis

Kyllingia triceps

L.

Lonicera erecta and symphoricar-
pos

Ludugia alternifolia jussizoides

Lupinus sp.

Lycopodium apodum and rupestre

Lycopsis

Lycopus virginicus

Lysimachia quadrifolia and pune
tata

sp.
Lythrum lineare and strictum.

M.

Mimosa horridula
Mimulus ringens

248 Plants of the Cherokee Country.

Melanthium latum
————— sp.
Melica speciosa

Melissa nepeta
Menispermum carolinianum
Mespilus several sp.

Oenothera biennis, lineanis, and others

Ophioriza mitreola
Ophrys cernua

sp.

Panax ginseng

Panctratium carolinianum
Pancium nitidum

Parietaria pennsylvyanica
Parnassia caroliniana
Parthenium integrifolium
Passiflora incarnata and lutea
Paspalium ciliatifolium
Pedicularis canadensis
Penstemon levis

Penthorum sedoides

Phlox ovata, paniculata and pilosa
Phryma liptostachia

Physalis pubescens, several sp.

Quercus alba, 2 sp.
———— nigra, various sp.
rubra

Ranunculus bulbosus, and other sp.

Rhexia mariana

Rhus toxicodendron, and others
Ribes sp.

Rosa, several sp.

Sagittaria sagittifolia
Salix tristis and others

Mitchella repens
Momordica sp.
Monarda punctata
Monotropa several sp..
Morus.

O.

Orchis ciliaris unifolia
Orobanche uniflora
Oxalis, 2 sp.

Phytolacca decandra

Pinus, several sp.

Plantago major and virginic

Poa nervata

Podophyllum peltatum

Polygala cruciata, inearnata and lutex
Polygonum hydropiper, and other sp.
Potentilla reptans

Prenenthes trifida =

Prunella vulgaris

Prunus cerasus virginiana, and others
Psoralea melilotoides

Pyrola, 2 sp.

Pyrus malus coronarius

Q.

Quercus prinus
Phellos
Queria canadensis

R.

Rubus fruticosus, hispidus and occider-
talis

Rudbeckia fulgida, hirta and purpurea

Ruellia

2.

Sisyrinchium Bermudiana
Sisymbrium nasturtium

Plants of the Cherokee Country.

Salvia lyrata and urticefolia

Sambucus nigra

Sanicula marilandica

Sanguinaria canadensis

Saururus cernuus

Scabiosa sp.

Schisandra

Schoenus sparsus

Scirpus retrofractus

Sentellaria hyssoppifolia, parviflora, and
others

Sedum, a low plant, fl. white

Senecio sp.

Serratula prealta, scariosa and spicata

Sida rhombifolia and spinosa
Silene antirrhina, and another sp.

Tabernamontana latifolia
._ Teverium canadense
Thalictrum, various sp.
Thiaspi burse pastoris
Thymus virginicus
Tradescantia virginica
Tragopogon dandelion

Ulmus, 2 sp.
Uniola latifolia

Vaccinium, several sp,
Verbascum lychnitis
Verbena officinalis
Verbesina sp.
Veronica virginica

249

Sium sp. .

Smilax sarsaparilla and other sp.

Smyrnium aureum

Selanum nigrum

Solidago nova boracensis, rigida, virga
aurea and others.

Sonchus sp.

Sophora fi. purple

Spigelia marilandica

Spire aruncus, apulifolia, stipulaica,
tomentosa and trifoliata

Staphylea trifoliata

Stellaria sp.

Styrax sp.

Sylphium N. S,

———— compositum.

T.

Trichodium laxiflorumand procumbens.

Trichostema dichotoma

Frifolium (Buffalo)

Trillium cernuum, luteum, sessile, and
another sp.

Triosteum angustifolium

v.

Uvularia sessilifolia.

Viburnum, several sp.
Viola, several sp.
Viscum

Vitis, several sp.

xX,

Xanthium strumariun

Xantoxylon tricarpon

Le

Yacca filamentosa.

250 Plants of the Cherokee Country.

Acer rubrum.—The inner bark boiled to a sirup, made into
pills, and these dissolved in water, is used in cases of sore eyes ;
the eyes washed therewith.

Actea racemosa.—The root in spirits, these made use of in
rheumatic pains.

Adianthum Capillus Verenis.—A decoction of the whole
plant, used as an emetic in cases of ague and fever. A very
strong medicine.

Aesculus Pavia.—The nuts pounded, are used in poultices.

Agave—The root is chewed in obstinate cases of diarrhoea
with wonderful success. It is, however, a very strong medi-
cine. :

Allium.—The Indians are fond of, for culinary purposes.

Angelica.—The same.

Annona.—Of the bark they make very strong ropes.

Aralia spinosa.—A decoction of the roots roasted and pound-

ed, (green, they are poisonous) is given as an emetic. A very

strong one.

Asarum virginicum.—The leaves dried and pounded, are
used for snuff; fresh, they are applied to wounds.

Bignonia crucigera.—Tea made of the leaves cleanses the
blood.

Calycanthus floridus.—The roots \are used as (though very

‘strong) emetics. The seeds to poison wolves. |

Carduus—various species. The roots used in poultices.

Cercis canadensis.—Children are fond of eating the blossom.

Coreopsis auriculata.—The whole plant is much used in co-
louring. It affords a red colour.

Cornus florida.—The bark of the root is used to heal

wounds, and in poultices.

Ilex.—Of the wood, spoons are made. The berries of ser-
vice in colics.

Juglans oblonga alba.—A kind of pills are prepared ae the
inner bark, andl used as a cathartic.

Liquidamber styraciflua.The gum is used fora drawing plas-
ter. Ofthe inner bark a tea is made for nervous patients.

Liriodendrum tulipifera.—Of the bark of the root a tea is
made and given in fevers. Itis also used in poultices.

‘

Plants of the Cherokee Country. 251

Melanthium.—The root is a crow poison ; and a sure, but
‘severe cure for the itch.

Pinus.—Boil the root, skim off the turpentine, spread it on
Deer’s skin (tanned,) for a drawing plaster.

Podophyllum peltatum.—A sirup is boiled of the root, and
given for a purgative, two pills at a time. A drop of the juice
of the fresh root in the ear, isacure for deafness. (So I
have been told, I never witnessed it.)

Potentilla reptans.—A tea of it is given in fevers.

Prunus cerasus virginiana.—Of the bark a tea is made, and
drunk in fevers.

Quercus alba,—The bark is used for an emetic.

Quercus nigra and rubra.—A die for leather.

Rosa.—The roots boiled, and drunk in cases of dysentery.

Rubus fruticosus.—The root good to chew in coughs.

Sanguinaria canadensis—The root is used for the red die
in basket making.

Saururus cernuus.—The roots roasted and mashed, used for
poultices.

Solanum nigrum.—When young, made use of as the best re-
lished potherb. :

Solidaga virga aurea.—A tea much made use of in fevers.

Sophora.—A blue die.

Spigelia marilandica.—In cases of worms.

Spirea stipulaica and trifoliata.-—The whole plant a very
good emetic. Of a strong tea or decoction thereof, a pint is —
drunk at a time.

Tradescantia virginica.—The leaves much relished greens
for the table.

Yucca filamentosa.—The roots pounded and boiled, are used
instead of soap to wash blankets ; likewise to intoxicate fishes,
by strewing them pounded on the water The same is done
with sculus.

252 Asclepias.—Diplocea Barbata.

Arr. VII. ‘ Description of a new species of Asclepias. By
Dr. Eu1 Ives, Professor, §c. in the Medical Institution
of Yale College. (With a Plate.)

Tue plant, which is the subject of the following observa-
tions, is found growing abundantly on the sandy plains east of
Cedar Hill, in New-Haven. It is locally associated with the
asclepias viridiflora and verticillata. When this species of
asclepias was first noticed by me, it was supposed to be a
variety of viridiflora of Rafinesque and Pursh; but after ex-
amining a great number of specimens, it was found that the
varieties did not blend themselves. The leaves of the viridi-
flora being uniformly oblong and obtuse, the leaves of the
other uniformly lanceolate and acute. To this new species I
purpose to give the name Lanceolata.

Specific character of the asclepras lanceolata :—Stem de-
cumbent, hirsute ; leaves opposite, lanceolate, acute,-sub ses-
sile, hirsuit umbels lateral, solitary, sessile, nodding, subglo-
bose, dense-flowered ; appendage none. See the plate.

The asclepias lanceolata is allied to the asclepias longifolia
and viridiflora by the absence of appendage or horn of the
nectary. It is distinguished from the longifolia, which is
characterized by alternate linear leaves, and umbels erect.

The asclepias lanceolata and asclepias viridiflora belong
to Mr. Elliott’s genus acerates. In both, the nectary or
stamineous crown is short concave, and oppressed to the
angles of the filaments.

Art. VILI.. Description of a New Genus of American
Grass. Dretocea Barsata, by C. 8. Rarinesaus, Esq.

Dyrtocea. Generic definition. Flowers paniculated mo-
noical or polygamous. Exterior glumes membranaceous bi-
valve one to three flowered, valves subequal emarginated
mutic. Anterior glumes bivalve unequal, the largest notched,

s

us
Ms

Diplocea Barbaia. 253
vl

notch aristated, the smallest mutic entire bearded. Additional

characters. Flowers when single sepile with a lateral jutting
peduncle, when double, one sepile and one pedunculated,
when three two are pedunculated and alternate. The her-
maphrodite and male flowers are similar: the female are
nearly clandestine, inferior. Stamens 3, styles 2. Seeds
ovate oblong.

Observations. This genus is intermediate between amphi-
carpon, Raf. (Miliwum amphicarpon, Pursh) and aira, L. It
differs from this last by its polygamy, variable number of
flowers, notched valves, &c. The generic name means double
notch. Its type is the following species, which had been
ranged with the aira, by Walter, and considered doubtful by
Pursh.

Diplocea Barbata,

Specific definition. Stems cespitose, articulations bearded ;
leaves rough glaucous, neck ciliated ; panicles, few flowered,
female axillary ; largest valvet rinervate, and ciliated as well
as the awl.

Latin definition. Caulibus cespetosis, geniculis barbatis,
collo ciliato, foliis scabris glaucis, paniculis paucifloris, femi-
veis axillaribus ; valva majore trinerva, aristaque ciliata.

Description. Roots, annual fibrous : stems many, unequal,
rather procumbent at the base, next assurgent, rising one foot
at utmost ; they are geniculated, slender, brittle, weak, and
smooth. The knees or joints are bearded, the sheaths are
split, the neck ciliated, the leaves short, stiff, rough glaucous,
linear acute, obscurely striated. The panicles have few
flowers, particularly the female ones, which are axillary
coarctated almost hidden, while the male are terminal and
divaricate : some hermaphrodite flowers are occasionally, but
seldom found among both panicles ; they are all similar, differ-
ing only in the want of stamina or pistils. The valves of the
exterior glumes are nearly equal oblong notched obtuse, mutic
and oneneroed. The valvules or valves of the glumule
{corolla or interior glume) are unequal, the largest is ciliated

“

he

254 Floral Calendar of Plainfield, &c.

trinerve bifid, with a soft ciliated awl in the notch, as long as
the valve: the small valve is ovate acute concave, very hairy
on the back. The colour of the flower is reddish or pale
red; but variable.

Observations. This plant is probably the aira purpurea of
Walter, Pursh, Elliott, &e. but does not belong to that genus.
It was found in Carolina, but I have found it on Long-Island,
near Gravesend, Bath, Oyster-Bay, &c. on the sandy and
gravelly sea-shore: it grows probably in the intermediate
states. It blossoms in August and September, has no particu-
lar beauty, but a very singular appearance. The specific
name of purpurea was improper, since the colour of the
flowers is variable from whitish to red.

Arr. IX. Floral Calendar, Sc«.

To the Editor of the American Journal of Science, &c.

PuatnFieELp, October 17, 1818.

SIR,

; SHoutp the following calendar be thought worthy of a
place in your Journal, you will please to insert it. - Though
very brief, it will show that vegetation is considerably later on
the range of mountains, on which this place is situated, than
in the level parts of our country.

_ Yours truly,
J. PORTER.

at

Floral Calendar for Plainfield, Massachusetts, 1818. By Jacon
i PoRTER.

March 13. Robins and bluebirds appear.

April 25. Claytonia in flower. A considerable part of the
ground is covered with snow, which, in many places, is 2 or 3
feet deep,

=

Floral Calendar of Plainfield, Se. 258

April 27. Observed the claytonia, blue violet, strawberry,
and a species of sedge, in blossom, at Worthington.

May 1. Hepatica, roundleaved violet, and erythronium in
flower.
May 10. Chrysosplenium, or golden saxifrage, in flower.

May 15. The large trillium, or purple wakerobin, in

flower.

May 18. Uvularia, or cellwort, and white violet, in

flower.

May 19. A fall of snow, so that the ground at night was

almost covered with it.

May 22. The beautiful coptis, or goldthread, in flower. _

May 25. Ash and beech in flower. a i

May 26. Sugar-maple, viburnum, threeleaved arum, blue
violet, small panax, prostrate mitella, fly honeysuckle, white
berried gaultheria, and umbelled Solomon’s seal, in flower. _

June 17. Absent, since my last date, on a tour to New-

York. Four other specimens of Solomon’s seal, trientalis,
azalea, 2 species of crowfoot, blue-eyed grass, medeola, moose-
bush, and several species of vaccinium, in flower. The small
trillium, or smiling wakerobin, sarsaparilla, and dentaria, blos-
somed during my absence. c

June 22. Small enothera, 2 species of veronica, and the

golden senecio, in flower.

June 23. Mountain ash, Norway potentilla, sanicle, and the
lovely linnea in flower. “4%

June 28. Prunella, and red and white liteb)i in flower.

June 29. Mitchella, in flower.

June 30. Yellow diervilla, in flower.

July 1. Climbing corydalis, in flower.

July 4. The fimbriate archis, and roundleaved pyrola, in

flower.

July 5. Spiked epilobium, and roundleayed mallows, in

flower.

July 6. Mullen, in flower.

July 7. Small geranium in flower.

July 8. Another species of epilobium, in flowér.

August 18. Frost this morning.

‘

‘ ‘" 4 se
*56 i Say on Herpetology.

“ZOOLOGY.

ee B tet

r

Art. X. Notes on. Herpetology, by Tuomas na, of
Philadelphia.

(Communicated by the Author.) . « rem

Aurtuoucu I have not devoted a particular study to this

department of the science of nature, yet 1 have been amused

and instructed by casually observing many of the subjects of

it, when I have been rambling in their native haunts, pursuing
_ ebjects more particularly interesting to me. ~

=a a

But when perusing, the other day, the account of the cop- —
per-head of our country, by Mr. Rafinesque, I was impelled
to ask for information on the subject, through your useful ©

! ‘publication, i in which that account appeared, and to make, at

the same time, a few miscellaneous remarks or not These
are in part included in the present essay, and if Fi
have a tendency to incite attention to the reptiha of the
United States, at present in a state of confusion and incerti-
tude, some portion of benefit will be rendered to the great
eause of science. fe

TI think that a moderate degree of labour and observation
bestowed upon the investigation of the species already de-
scribed, would prove the unity in nature of some species
which have been considered as distinct by all the authors,
would detect many errors in observation, expose some decep- _
tions practised on credulity by the designing, and would en-
able us to fix, with some degree of accuracy, our knowledge
of truth and of the species.

A work devoted particularly to- this class, by some one

adequate to the task, who could have in his view all the

Known species, is indeed a desideratum.

Scytale cupreus, Copper-head, &c. of Mr. Rafinesque. I
have always considered the Copper-head to be no other than
the Cenchris mockeson of authors, and Boa contortrix of Linn.

shal? ;

a”

Le

a

Say on bin er , tology. 257

vy. Latr. Lacep. Shaw, Daudin, &e. Agkistrodon mokasen of
Beauvois ; which opition is not a little corroborated by an
actual comparison of one of these animals in Peale’s Museum,

with the descriptions of the authors above mentioned. It

may be objected to me, that the mockeson of those naturalists
is a Cenchris, and not a Scytale, therefore generically distin-
guished from the Copper-head; but on the other hand, we
know that the genus Cenchris dolts not exist in nature, that the
individual upon which it was founded, was either a fortuitous
variety, or that the illustrious naturalist was deceived by the
desiccation of his specimen, giving to the basal caudal plates a
bifid aspect. That the former was the case I analogically

infer, from having seen, in the collection of the Academy of :
Natural Sciences, a Coluber heterodon, of which the fifth and

sixth pairs of caudal scales were entire, and not as usual bifid.
An additional corroboration of the truth of this inference is
derived from the circumstance of the Scytale of Peale’s Mu-
seum, having the ten or eleven apicial caudal plates bifid,
precisely as in the genus Acanthophis, to which it seems
closely affianced, and to which it would be referred if this
character was a permanent one. In every other character
this specimen coincides with the S. mockeson of authors, and
in every necessary respect with the S. cupreus of Mr. R. with
the sole exception of the calcarate termination of the. tail.
This caudal horn seems to approximate Mr. R’s. animal to the
S. piscivorus or true horn-snake, about which the credu
have so absurdly alarmed themselves, and which was are
with the Crotal: by Lacepede, in consequence of having a horn
on the tail an inch long. We find sometimes a ‘small indurated
tip to the tail of Coluber melanoleucts,* at least upon some full
grown Specimens, formed by the elongation and appression of
the terminal scales; a larger one on that of the European
viper, and of the Acanthophis cerastes, ang Brown. Mr.
Peale’s specimen contneyy has not the horn, but it has at the

+

* This large species I understand has been mistaken by a writer on Natural
History for Boa constrictor : this is mentioned to show how remotely it is fae
to diverge from accuracy in this science,

Vor. 1....No. 3. 21

&

se

258 Say on Herpetology.

termination of the tail a scale somewhat longer and more in-
durated than the others, the individual had not attained his
full growth. If then this species (and some others) is subject
to vary in the form of its caudal plates, from which the generic
characters are in part estimated, may it not also vary in the
armature of the tail, which at most can only be considered as
specific. The Copper-belly is a very distinct species. If the
S. cupreus is, notwithstanding the above observations, consider-
ed a distinct species, it would gratify those who cultivate natu-
ral history, to have some good discriminative characters of it.

Much has been said and written about antidotes to the
venomous bites of snakes, and Mr. Rafinesque enumerates over
again several plants which have been said to be, and which he
_ appears to believe to be specifics. If the case was my own, I
would be very unwilling to rely upon either of the 20 or 30 me-
dicinal plants, dubiously mentioned by the late Professor Barton,
as reputed antidotes for this poison. It would be more prudent ~
to resort unhesitatingly to a more certain remedy, in the liga-
ture, and immediate excision of the part, where such an ope-
ration was practicable, or to cauterization, if the part could not
be removed by the knife.

In conversation with Professor Cooper upon this subject,
he informed me that in his domestic medical practice he ap-
plied common chalk to the wounds occasioned by the stings
of hymenopterous insects. That in consequence of this mode
of treatment, the pain was immediately allayed, and the con-
sequent inflammation and intumescence were prevented.
The experiment which led to this result was induced by the
supposition that the venomous liquid might be an acid, which
opinion was, in some degree, justified by the event.* Upon the
same neutralizing principle it must be supposed that any alkali
would be beneficial. The learned Professor supposed, that
the venom of the poisonous reptilia may, in like manner, be
an acid secretion, and recommends this to be ascertained by
experiments upon the liquid itself.

If this inference proves correct, the same alkaline remedy
may be employed to neutralize, or so modified as to stimulate,

* [have been since informed by Mr. Lesueur, that to his taste the poison was
hitter, 5 :

Rep
oh

‘Say on a 259

in case, as is supposed by sone, the poison produces upon. the
system a typhoid action.

An instance however is related in the Trans. Royal Soc. of
Lond. of the unsuccessful administration of the vol. alkali in case
of the bite of a Rattle-snake ; and an intelligent physician of
Georgia informed me, that he had applied the same stimulant
in vain for the cure of the bites of poisonous snakes, but that
being once stung by a Scorpion, he was instantaneously relieved
by the topical use of this liquid. He further related to me a
cure performed under his observation, by means of the singu-
lar antidote, which has often been resorted to in case of snake
bites, that of the application of a living domestic fowl or other
bird directly to the wound ; three fowls were applied in this
instance, of which two died in a few minutes, it was supposed,
by the poison extracted from the weund. This account, from
an observant medical professor, (who may nevertheless have
been deceived) acquires some additional title to consideration
by a similar event which lately occurred at Schooley’s Moun-
tain, New-Jersey. We are informed from a respectable source,
that a boy was there bitten by a Copper-head, (Scytale mocke-
son.)* The part was immediately painful, became swollen
and inflamed, and the sufferer had every appearance of having
received a dangerous wound. A portion of the breast of a
fowl was denudated of feathers, and applied to the wound ; in a
few minutes the fowl died, without having experienced any
apparent violence or injurious pressure, from the hand of the
applicant, the breast exhibiting a livid appearance. Another
living fowl was then laid open by the knife, and the interior of
the body placed upon the wound. The wound was subse-
quently scarified, and variously administered to. The boy how-
ever recovered, and his cure was generally attributed, at least
in part, to the application of the birds. I am as far as any one
from relying implicitly upon this mode of treatment, and would
only resort to it when the part bitten could not be extirpated,
and when a cautery was not at hand. Yet it must be confessed, —

* The terminal caudal plates of this individual were bifid, as in the one of
Peale’s Museum.
91 *

~

266 Say on Herpetology.

that from the numerous attestations to its eficacy we should
be almost led to suppose a very strong affinity to exist between
the venom and the animal thus applied.

That so numerous a catalogue of plants have gained credit
with the uninformed as specifics, will not be surprising, when
we know that the reservoir of the venom is very readily ex-
hausted and slowly replenished. When this reservoir is vacated;
the reptile is of course innoxious, and the most inert plant
would then stand'a good chance of gaining reputation with the
credulous as a specific.

For a similar reason we have so many cures for the bite of
arabid animal; and it may be for a similar reason that the
body of an animal has acquired repute as an antidote, against
the venom of a serpent.

Coluber trivittata of Mr. R. p. 80, of this work. Judging
from the descriptive name and the locality, is the C. strtalis of
authors, or possibly the C. saurita or C. ordinatus. These
serpents have each the three vitte, though in the two former
this trait is much more striking. I know of no other serpent
in our vicinity to which the name can be characteristically
applied. The ordinatus has been called bipunctatus and zbibe
by the French school. What is the difference between szrtalis
and saurita? they must be very closely allied, if not synony-
mous. j

Coluber getulus, Lin. This species attains to a more con-
siderable magnitude than authors have stated. I saw a speci-
men on Cumberland Island, Georgia, at least five feet long.
The ground colour, by the direction of light in which I viewed
him, was deep glaucous or livid, he was much more robust
than C. Constrictor.* He permitted my near approach, with-
out agitating his tail in the menacing manner of the serpent
just mentioned, and of the crotali, or manifesting any signs of

* This last is the animal, beyond a doubt, judging from the detailed description
and plate, which has lately been erected into a new genus, under the name of
Scoliophu5..........+:eseeceesereseeeseeesethe identity is immediately obvious, to any
one acquainted with the specific characters of the above-mentioned coluber. And
I presume it can be made apparent, to any one tolerably versed in the science,
should proof be thought necessary.

Say on Herpetology. 264

fear. In my anxiety to secure him, he eluded my grasp, and
by a sudden and rapid exertion, disappeared, with all the rapi-
dity of movement so remarkable in the constrictor. This last,
from his celerity, is known in many districts by the name of
Racer.

Coluber heterodon. This viperine species, of which Latreille
has formed a genus under the name of Heterodon, varies con-
siderably in its markings, and like most of our serpents, is not
constant in the number of its plates and scales, (126, 48—
138, 42—141, 42, &c.) perhaps too much reliance has been
placed upon colour, and upon the number of the plates and
scales beneath the body, of the Ophidice generally. In the
form of the anterior termination of the head, the heterodon is
remarkable, and a good specific character may be obtained
from the orbital scales, which are eleven or twelve in number ;
the parabolic curve which passes through the eyes, and ter-
minates at the maxillary angles, is also generally present. This
same serpent was figured in Deterville’s ed. of Buffon, under
the name of Colewvre cinnelee. The heterodon abounds in
many sandy situations, and near the sea-shore. Several per-
sons pursuing a pathway, passed within a few inches of one of
them without his betraying any emotion, but the moment he
perceived me advancing with my eye fixed upon him, he with
a sudden exertion assumed a defensive attitude, by elevating
the anterior portion of his body, flattening his head, and 3 or
4 inches length of his neck ; these he waved with a steady and
oblique motion from side to side, uttering at the same time an
audible sibilation, he made no attempt to escape, and seemed
absolutely fearless until taken. They have the habit of the
vipera, but not the fangs. It seems to be synonymous with
Coluber simus. This species is often called mockeson. Dr.
Shaw’s description of Boa contortrix seems to indicate this
species. Was he deceived by an erroneous reference to
Catesby’s figure of this Hog-nose ? or by Forster’s catalogue ?

Coluber punctatus. A good diagnostic character of this species,
in addition to the cervical cestus, rests in the tripple series of
abdominal dots ; but these are often wanting or obsolete in the
young specimen, in which state it is probably the torquatus of

262 Say on Herpetology.

Shaw. Sometimes the dots are wanting on the neck and near
the cloaca; and in one aged individual, the intermediate line
occurred double, and confluent on the throat.

Coluber fulvius, this species is said by Daudin to be closely
allied to his C. coccineus, notwithstanding the difference in

lates and scales. But it is certainly very distinct by other
characters, and strikingly so in its perfectly annular black and
red bands ; the latter are margined with yellowish and spotted
with black. A specimen has 224 plates and 32 scales, total
length 21 inches, length of the tail 1,2, inch. The cocczneus
has the under part of the body whitish, immaculate. The
fulvius seems to belong to the genus vipera ; it has the fangs,
but not the orifice behind the nostril, which communicates
with the reservoir of venom, so conspicuous in the crotalz, &c.

Ophisaurus ventralis. The tail of this snake not only
breaks in pieces when struck with a weapon, but portions of
it are thrown off at the will of the serpent. This singular .
fact I witnessed in Georgia. This is one of the many which
are called horn-snakes. A tip of the tail of one of them was
once brought to me as having been taken from a recently
withered tree, which the bearer assured me was destroyed
by the insertion of this formidable instrument, and it was not
without considerable difficulty he was convinced of the inno-
cence of the tail, and of having been the dupe of a knave.
There seems to be a peculiar character in the mode of imbri-
cation of the scales of this species, each one of these at the
lateral edges, passes beneath the lateral scale on one side, and
over the edge of the opposite one. It has been described
under five different generic names, and four different specific
ones.

The Crotali do not gain a single joint only to the rattle an-
nually, as is generally supposed. They gain more than one
each year, the exact number being probably regulated in a
great measure by the quantity of nourishment the animal has
received. Rattle-snakes in Peale’s Museum have been ob-
served to produce 3 or 4 ina year, and to lose as many from
the extremity during the same time. Hence it is obvious, that
the growth of these curious appendages is irregular, and that

)

Say on Herpetology. 263

the age of an individual cannot be determined from their
number. Mr. Rubens Peale informed me, that a female of
Crotalus horridus, Beauv. durissus, Daud. which lived in his
Museum more than fourteen years, had eleven joints to her
rattle when first in his possession; that several joints were
acquired and lost annually, and that at her death, which oc-
curred last year, she had the same number as when brought
to the Museum ; she had, however, during that time received
an accession of four inches to her length. Her death was occa-
sioned by an abortion.

The C. adamanteus, Beauvois. Rhombifer, Daud. is by
much the largest of our North American serpents, and doubt-
less is the species which Catesby saw a specimen of, eight
feet long.

Crotalus miliarius varies in some characters from those laid
down by authors. A specimen within my view has five dorsal
series, of alternate, irregularly orbicular black spots, those of
the intermediate series are obsolete, and slightly connected
across the back, those of the vertebral series have not red
centres, and are edged with a white line; the veniral spots
are disposed adventitiously, so as not to be traced into longi-
tudinal series ; they are large, black, irregularly orbicular,
and. occupy about one half of the surface, which is white.

“Ventral plates 140; subcaudal, 33, of which the six terminal
ones are bifid. Joints of the rattle with but one transverse con-
traction on the middle of each, besides the terminal contraction.
Total length 1 foot 43 inches, tail two inches, It appears to be
more vindictive than the two species before mentioned. The
individual here noticed we encountered in East Florida; he
struck at Mr. W. Maclure and myself successively as we passed
by him, without any previous intimation of his presence, owing
to the inaudible smallness of his rattle, and its having but three
joints; he was killed by Mr. T. Peale, (whom we preceded)
while preparing for another assault. This incident is noted as
a contrast to the anecdote of the Coluber heterodon.

Salamandra alleganiensis, Daud. appears to be synonymous
with S. gigantea of Dr. Barton. It was first described by Mr.
Latreille in Deterv. Ed. of Buffon, tom. 11. The name allega-

264 Say on Herpetology.

niensis, although defective, as it indicates no character, haz
however the unalienable right of priority. -

Salamandra subviolacea, Barton. This name has been re-
jected by Mr. Daudin, and substituted by that of venenosa, 1 do
not know for what reason, as none is assigned.

Salamandra punctata, Gmel. This appellation was originally
given and restricted to the stelio of Catesby. tab. 10. (repre-
sented in the bill of Ardea Herodias) and was adopted by
many subsequent authors, but was finally rejected by Daudin,
who considered the species the same as Barton’s subviolacea.
He concurred with Mr. Latreille in appropriating the name
thus rejected to var. 6 of Lacerta, aquatica of Gmel. Notwith-
standing this high authority I cannot but coincide with Pro-
fessor Barton in this instance, in believing it altogether distinct.
The single character of the subocellate spots, though not re-
marked by this author, is a sufficiently discriminative one ;
these ocellz are always present, and in no one of the varieties
I have seen has the approximation to the subviolacea been so
considerable as to render a specific discrepance -equivocal.
Catesby’s variety with the ocelle on the tail seems to be the
least common ; in general these spots, or epupillate ocelle, are
exclusively confined to a line on each side of the back, about
six in each, extending from the base of the head to the origin
of the tail, though there are sometimes scattered smaller ones
on each side of the body, and upon the vertex of the head,
they are of a beautiful reddish colour, enclosed by a definite
black areola ; the upper part of the body is brownish, with
numerous, distant black points, and a slight vertebral, obtuse
carina, the inferior surface of the body of a fine yellow or
orange, with distant black points, the tail* is compressed, anci-
pital, attenuated to an obtuse tip, longer than the body, and
punctured with black in like manner. The younger speci-
mens vary considerably, in being, on many parts of the body,
destitute of black punctures, and in having the dorsal and

* Dr. Barton remarked that this part is rounded, (cauda teres,) this observation
was not autoptical, but dictated most probably by the appearance of Catesby’s
figure. In the young animal the tail is less compressed than in the old one.

Say on Herpetology. 265

ventral colour, of the same pale orange. It is decidedly aquatic.
Several specimens are preserved in the collection of the
Academy of Natural Sciences, and from these it is evident that
the reddish colour of the subocellate spots is destroyed by the
action of the antiseptic liquid; tg this circumstance it is pro-
bably owing that these spots have been hitherto described as
white.

After stating these differential traits, it may be proper to
observe, that the S. maculata of Shaw is synonymous with the
above. But I think it most proper to restore Gmelin’s name
punctata, which will afford an opportunity to do justice to the
memory of Laurenti, by reviving the original name by which
he distinguished the Var. 8. of Lacerta, aquatica, Gmel., that
of parisinus.

Bufo cornuta. This animal, which has been stigmatized as
the most prodigiously deformed creature known to exist!! is
generally supposed to inhabit North America as well as Suri-
nam. I do not think it has ever been found in North America.
Shaw, in Nodder’s Nat. Misc. says it is principally found in
Virginia, but in his General Zoology, I think he says that Seba
was in error when he represented its native country to be
North America. Two other species of Bufo have been cor-
rectly stated to inhabit this couniry, viz. B. musicus, and
Crapaud rougedtre, Daud. (B. rubidus) first noticed as distinct
by Mr. William Bartram. I discovered a third species on the
banks of St. John’s river, East Florida, which, as I am not at
present prepared to describe, I shali not surreptitiously name.

It is, I conceive, an incumbent duty on the describer of a
natural object, to deposit his specimen, or a duplicate, when
practicable, in some cabinet or museum, to which he should
refer, in order that subsequent writers may be satisfied with
the accuracy of his observations, by examining for themselves.
By such reference, and by the re-examination of the same
objects by others, the plethoric redundance of synonyma, that
prolific source of accumulating errer, will be banished or elu-
cidated, and naturalists will most readily arrive at the know-
ledge of truth, which is, or ought to‘be, the grand leading object
of their labours.

266 Dr. Reynolds on Meteors.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
eS Pett en
Art. XI. OQuiline of a Theory of Meteors.

By Wu. G. Reynotps, M.D. Middletown Point, New-Jersey.

SHouLp the progress of science, for a century to come,
keep pace with its rapid advancement for the last fifty years,
many appearances in the physical world, now enveloped in ob-
scurity, will then admit of as easy solution as the combustion
of inflammable substances, or any familiar process in chemis-
try does at this day. Among the many subjects from which
the veil of mystery would thus be raised, we may include |
those luminous appearances, in the aerial regions, called me-
teors, which I am about to consider in the following essay ; -
and which seem to constitute a distinct class of bodies of con-
siderable variety.

Meteors were regarded by the ancients as the sure prognos-
tics of great and awful events in the moral and physical world ;
and were divided by them into several species, receiving
names characteristic of the various forms and appearances
they assumed ; but of their opinions, as to the physical cause
of these phenomena, the ancients have left us nothing solid or
instructive. ‘The moderns, more enlightened, have ceased to
regard these bodies with the superstitious awe of former ages ;
but in respect to the cause thereof, are perhaps but little in ad-
vance of their predecessors, having, I believe, produced

nothing yet that will bear the test of philosophical investiga-

tion.

Doetor Blagden (Philosophical Transactions, 1784,) considers
electricity as the general cause of these phenomena ; Doctor
Gregory, and others, think they depend upon collections of
highly inflammable matter, as phosphorus, phosphorated hy-
drogen, &c. being volatilized and congregated in the upper re-

‘

Dr. Reynolds on Meteors. 267 —

gions of the air. Doctor Halley ascribes them to a fortuitous
concourse of atoms, which the earth meets in her annual track
through the ecliptic ; and Sir John Pringle seems to regard
them as bodies of a celestial character, revolving round cen-
tres, and intended by the Creator for wjse and beneficent pur-
poses, perhaps to our atmosphere, to free it of noxious quali-
ties, or supply such as are salutary. Many other theories, as
ingenious as fanciful, might be enumerated ; but without com-
menting on their comparative merit, | must acknowledge that
none of them have yet impressed my mind with a conviction of
their truth. A series of observations, however, have enabled
the moderns to ascertain, with apparent accuracy, several par-
ticulars relative to these stupendous bodies, which add much
to our knowledge of their general character :—their velocity,
equal to 30, and even 40 miles in a second of time ; their alti-
tude, from 20 to 100 miles ; and their diameter, in some instan-
ces, more than a mile, are facts we derive from respectable
authority, and may aid us, essentially, in forming just concep.
tions of their nature and properties.

I believe meteoric stones to result from all meteoric explo-
sions ; limiting, however, the term meteor to those pheno-
mena, in the higher regions of the air, denominated fire-balls,
shooting-stars, &c. That these bodies move in a resisting
medium, must be evident to every attentive observer ; and
that this medium is our atmosphere, is pretty certain, Ist. Be-
cause we know of no other resisting medium round the earth ;
2dly. Because the same kind of resistance is apparent at every
‘intermediate altitude, from their greatest to their least, which
last we know to be far within our atmospheric bounds ; and,
3dly. Calculation has, in no instance, assigned them an eleya-
tion beyond the probable height of the atmosphere.

That meteors proceed from the earth, that they arise from
certain combinations of its elements with heat, and that me-
teoric stones are the necessary result of the decompositions of
these combinations, are opinions I will endeavour to support,
by the following considerations.

ist. The properties and habitudes of matter, under certain
conditions and combinations,

268 Dr. Reynolds on Meteors.

2dly. The situation of the earth’s surface in respect to the
sun, the influence of his rays thereon, and the nature of the
elements or compounds on which these rays act :

And 3dly. The identity that exists between the component
parts of meteoric stones, and the elements that enter abundantly
into the composition of our globe ; and, by several other facts
and arguments.

Under my first general specification, I will select such prin-
ciples from the established doctrines of philosophy, as have an
immediate bearing on the subject ; without engaging in any of
those subtle speculations in which certain recondite properties
of matter, or the identities of quality and body are affirmed or
denied.

Thus, 1st. Heat is the universal cause of fluidity and volati-
lity in bodies ; hence no solid can assume the state of gas, until
it absorbs, or ont with, acertain portion of caloric ; and the
subtilty and volatility of compounds thus formed, will be in a
due ratio to the quantity of caloric they employ.

Qdly. The heat employed to maintain a body in the gaseous
state, is said to be latent or fixed, and may be regarded as an
ocean or atmosphere of fire, holding the ultimate particles of
the body in a state of extreme division, and wide separation,
from which they can be driven only by some change in the af-
finities or condition of the compound.

3dly. If the latent heat. in a gaseous compound be. suddenly
abstracted, as in explosion, its escape is attended with the
emission of light and sensible heat, when the volatilized parti-
cles held in solution being no longer able to maintain the state
of gas, suffer approximation in a due proportion to the quan-
tity of caloric they have lost.

Athly. Caloric, in reducing solids to the state of gas, lessens,
but cannot in any case, as far as we know, totally destroy their
gravitating force ; the diminution of this force, however, being
in a direct proportion to the quantity of heat employed.—
Hence the following inferences may be fairly drawn, as they
seem to be in unison with the relative dependence and har-
mony existing between the material elements of this globe, and,
J believe, are contradicted by no direct experiments ; viz. that

s

\
Dr. Reynolds on Meteors. 263

the expansion of volume, specific levity, and subtilty of artifi-
cial gases, are in a direct proportion to the absolute quantity
of caloric they employ ; and the caloric is in the same pro-
portion to the insolubility of the substance with which it
unites. :

5thly. When the specific gravity of bodies on the surface
of the earth, is reduced below that of the superincumbent at-
mosphere, they ascend to media of their own density, in ebedi-
ence to the laws of Aerostatics; thus we raise balloons by
filling them with light air, and the carbon of pit coal and com-
mon wood exposed to combustion, and water to the sun’s rays,
will rise until they reach a medium of like specific gravity with
themselves.

6thly. Mechanical agitation and division assist the solution
of solids, by bringing fresh portions of the menstruum into suc-
cessive contact with their fragments, and thus exposing a lar-
ger surface.

Under the second head I proceed to notice the situation of
of the earth’s surface in respect to the sun, &c. The atmos-
phere is a thin, elastic, gravitating fluid, that completely en-
velopes the earth, to which it may be considered a kind of
appendage or external covering ; its base resting on the earth’s
surface, is of an uniform density, growing rare as it recedes
therefrom, in a due ratio to the diminution of its gravitating
force, until it is lost in empty space. The atmosphere is esti-
mated on certain data to be about 44 or 45 miles high, but
we have good reasons to believe it fills a much wider circle,
though too thin to reflect the rays of light above its reputed
height.

The earth presents one whole hemisphere to the sun in un-
erring daily succession ; and those parts of it which have the
least protection against his rays, will, ceteris paribus, suffer
the greatest intensity of their action. Within the tropics, the
atmosphere opposes less resistance to the sun’s rays than in
the temperate zones; and in both large tracts of cultivated
land, the summits and sides of great ranges of mountains, mar-
gin of oceans, rivers, &c. present an almost naked surface to

270 Dr. Reynolds on Meteors.

their influence.* .The exterior strata of the earth, and espe-
cially the more exposed parts thereof, envelope in their com-
pounds, elements of an identity of character with those com-
posing meteoric stones.

The atmosphere is the great recipient of all volatilized bo-
dies ; it possesses but feebly the powers of a solvent, unaided
by heat or moisture, but when these are adjuvants, no body in
nature can totally resist their action for a long time.

Now if the above principles are admitted, we have in their
application a reasonable solution of most meteoric phenomena.
Thus, the rays of the sun darting through the atmosphere
reach the surface of the earth, where, by accumulation, they
produce sensible heat, which though not intense, is steady and
uniform, for many hours every day ; minute portions of the
earthy and metallic compounds exposed to the sun’s influence,
will be volatilized by the absorption of heat, and thereby assum-
ing the state of elastic fluids, will ascend until they arrive at
media of their own density. The atmosphere in contact, will
have some of its particles blended in these compounds, will
ascend with them, and to supply the vacuum, new portions of
air will rush in and ascend, and the process will continue until
the sun’s rays are withdrawn, or interrupted by some of the
common occurrences of ‘nature.

The utmost height to which these elastic fluids ascend, may
be estimated at something more than one hundred miles; and
they float at every intermediate distance between their great-
est elevation and the clouds, but rarely below the latter, ex-
cept their course is directed towards the earth in their explo-
sions. They probably ascend at first in small daily detached
portions of gaseous clouds, and are diffused over wide regions ;
but having no sensible resistance opposed to their mutual at-
traction, they will by the laws of their affinities congregate into
immense volumes of highly concentrated elastic fluids, which
on exploding will exhibit all the phenomena of bursting mete-

* Here we might properly enough notice the high-ways, streets, and pavements
of cities, &c. on which the materials being minutely divided by attrition, are ina
better state for the sun to act freely on, and will consequently yield greater pro-
ducts than equal areas of undisturbed surface, under like circumstances of heat.

.

Dr. Reynolds on Meteors. 71

ors in the following manner, viz. the latent heat on escaping
will manifest itself in the form of fire and light, the force with
which it strikes the atmosphere, or the rebound of the latter to
fill the vacuum, or both, will occasion sound more or less de-
tonating or hissing, as the escape is more sudden, or the at-
mosphere more dense ; the earthy and metallic particles on the
escape of caloric, will obey the laws of cohesive attraction,
clash together, recover their gravity, and descend to the earth
in masses, or shattered fragments.

Meteoric stones frequently bear the marks of violence, which
is doubtless owing to the conflict sustained at the moment of
explosion ; their difference in size depends on the difference
of magnitude in the disploding volumes ; something like regu-
lar arrangement is frequently perceived in the structure of
these stones, because in all productions of solid from fluid
matter, the consolidating particles possess a tendency to arrange
themselves in the order of their affinities. It is thus the va-
rious arrangements in saline crystallization, the freezing of
water, and cooling of melted metals, may be accounted for.
There is a real, as well as an apparent difference in the velo-
city of meteoric bodies ; the first arising from their difference
of magnitude and the violence of the explosion, as well as from
the resistance they meet ; the latter, from the different distan-
ces at which they are seen. The gradation of colour, froma
bright silvery hue to a dusky red, is owing, in a certain degree,
to the state of the atmosphere refracting different coloured
rays, and also to the materials in the compound, similar to the
different hues in artificial fireworks. Reddish and white nebi-
cula are sometimes left in the tracks of meteors, which are
nothing but ignited vapours, or the particles brushed off the
burning body by the resisting atmosphere. The velocity or
motion and direction of meteors, depend upon principles well
known and daily practised by engineers, and the constructors
of fireworks.

The immediate cause of these explosions is a little obscure,
and merits a fuller detail than is compatible with my present
limits ; their analogy to the electric phenomena in the clouds,
leaves room to suppose they are effected by certain modifica-

272 Dr. Reynolds on Meteors.

tions of electricity. Clouds of opposite electricities will ap-

proach each other and explode, by the positive imparting as

much electrical fire to the negative cloud as will make them

equal, when just as much water as the imparted fire held in

solution, will be set at liberty and descend to the earth. If,

however, this solution be deemed inapplicable, perhaps the

following may be admitted. Thus, when heat is urged upon

incombustible* bodies with a force that overcomes the cohe-

sive property by which their particles are tied together, it
unites with them in large quantities, and becomes latent, by
which union they are reduced to the state of elastic fluids ;

and as it is a universal property of heat to counteract the gra-

vitating force of bodies, these compounds must necessarily be-

come volant, and ascend as above stated. It is only thermo-

metrical or sensible heat, that destroys the attraction of cohe-

sion existing between the particles of bodies, the repulsive

power of latent heat being barely able to counteract this pro-

perty, when the elements under its dominion are removed be-—
yond a certain distance from each other; now the very redu-

ced temperature in the high regions to which these gaseous

clouds will ascend, may admit their earthy and metallic parti-

cles within the sphere of cohesive or aggregative attraction,

when the caloric will be expelled like water from a sponge,

accompanied by all the phenomena above stated.

The third general head of my subject leads me to inquire
into the constituent principles of meteoric stones: sundry pa-
pers on the analysis of these productions, have been furnished
us by chemists of acknowledged reputation and ability, and in
none of these that I have seen, was there any element de-
scribed that had not been previously known. But should it
- hereafter be found that air stones contain matters not found on
our globe, the fact will afford no absolute proof of the foreign
origin of these stones, as we are successively discovering
earthy and metallic principles of distinct characters from those
already known.

:

* Perhaps there is no body in nature absolutely incombustible, but I use the
term here in common acceptation.

-

Dr. Reynolds on Meteors. 973

A portion of one of these stones that fellin the town of Wes-
ton, (Connecticut) examined by the late Dr. Woodhouse, gave
‘the following results in a hundred parts, viz.

trons. ss oT
Sulphur ... 7
Magnesia. . . 10
Nickel... . 1 inferred from chemical tests.
Siesa Pe 5

100

«* The sulphur was seen by the naked eye distributed through
the silex in round globules the size of a pin’s head, after dis-
solving the powdered stone in diluted nitric acid.”

All specimens of these stones do not afford precisely similar
results, but differ in their constituent elements and relative
proportions ; their component parts, however, are to be found
abundantly in schist, schorl, pyrites, pebble, granite, &c. on
which the sun must daily act.

The following facts go to strengthen the above theory, viz.
Meteors are most frequent and stupendous in tropical coun-—
tries, where the heat of the sun is most intense ; and less fre-
quent in our climate in the winter and spring, while, and after
the earth has been covered with snow for many weeks in suc-
cession ; and they are most frequent in the higher latitudes
towards autumn, after a continuation of hot dry weather : out
of the whole number (179) of shooting stars I have noted du-
ring the last twelve years, 149 appeared between June and
December, inclusive.

If it be said that the specific gravity of meteoric stones being
several times that of water, it is absurd to suppose they can
rise, (if even reduced to the state of gas) to the elevated sta-
tions here assigned them, seeing the vapours of water can as-
cend only one or two miles above the earth. To thisI reply,
that the doctrine of heat is not yet so thoroughly understood,
as to acquaint us with all its habitudes with natural bodies, but
we infer from analogy, that the more refractory a body is in

Vox. I....No. 3. 22

274 Dr. Reynolds on Meteors.

;

the fire, the greater in a due ratio is the absolute quantity of
heat required to reduce it to, and retainit in, the state of gas,
and the greater, in a corresponding degree, will be the dilatation
of its particles and decrease of its specific gravity. Hence, if
water reduced to vapour by heat, be capable of assuming an
altitude of two miles, it follows that more refractory substances
reduced to a similar state, will suffer expansion and fugacity in
- a due proportion to the quantity of caloric they employ, and
will assume a-corresponding elevation, as already inferred un-
der my first head.

- Another objection may be, that though high degrees of heat
affect certain solids as above stated, yet these cannot be sensi-
bly acted on by such feeble agents as atmospheric air and the
rays of the sun. I answer, if it be admitted that sensible heat
acts on solids in an increasing ratio to its intensity, it follows
that lower degrees, though acting in an inverse ratio to higher,
must affect the same bodies in a conceivable degree at any tem-
perature above their natural zero :* and though the heat of
the sun beating on a plane surface for several hours is feeble,
compared with that produced by a burning lens, or air furnace,
yet if it be sufficient to detach from one square foot of the
earth’s surface the 104023 part of a grain in twenty-four hours,
the quantity taken from 100 square miles, in the same time
and proportion, would amount to ten pounds, which is abund-
antly sufficient for all meteoric phenomena; and the loss to
each square foot, supposing the process to be uninterrupted,
would be no more than one grain in 284 years. When we ad-
vert to the intense heat produced by concentrating a few of
the sun’s rays in a burning lens, the whole quantity daily sent
to the earth must strike us forcibly. If collected in a lens of

* It may be easily proved that water evaporates (though slowly) at a tempera-
ture many degrees below its freezing point; and these vapours are more subtle
and elastic than those formed at the boiling point of that fluid

REMARK.

It is indeed proved that vapour is formed from water at the lowest temperatures,
but is less elastic, the lower the temperature, as appears from its sustaining a con-
tinually decreasing column of mercury, the lower the temperature at which the
vapour is formed. Vide Dalton’s and Gay Lussac’s experiments. Editor.

Dr. Reynolds on Meteors. 275

sufficient magnitude, they might volatilize a space equal to the
state of New-York in a moment of time! As all bodies pos-
sess a limited capacity for heat, does it not follow that there
must be some outlet to its perpetual accession to our globe, or
the earth would soon become so highly ignited as to glow with
the fulgour of ameteor? And may not this outlet be found in
the above described compounds? which serve as conductors
of the surplus of heat from the earth to the higher regions of
the air, where on being freed by displosion, from the grosser
matters incumbering it, it finds a rapid passage to its great
archetype and parent, the sun. Thus his daily waste may be
restored, and an equilibrium, by the return of his own emana-
ted particles, preserved, between the sun and the earth, and
probably all the planets of our system.

The last consideration I shall offer in favour of the domes-
tic or earthly origin of meteoric phenomena, is the difficulties
that present to our granting them a foreign one. ThoughI am
well aware of the respectability of the names which the theory
of moonstones can summon to its support, yet I have always
regarded it as unfounded and unphilosophical for the following
reasons, viz. Ist. Whether the moon has an atmosphere or not, -
we will all admit that she has attraction, which must extend to
many thousands of miles from her surface. No projectile force
that we are acquainted with can throw a heavy body 100 miles,
even though no atmospheric, or other resistance than its own ,
gravity, were present ; hence the idea of that force extending
to thousands of miles from the moon’s surface, is gratuitous
and nugatory. 2dly. The products of volcanoes bear no si-
milarity of origin, or kindred resemblance to meteoric stones ;
those are lavas of different kinds, pumicestone, scoria, ashes,
&c. these solid masses of matter, with some degree of regula-
rity in the arrangement of their constituent particles. 3dly.
The descent of these stones has no coincidence in point of
time with the position of the moon. She is as often in their
nadir as their zenith. We also witness in all cases, explosion
and light in our own atmosphere, at the time of the descent of
these stones. This could not be the case if they proceeded
from the moon, for obvious reasons. 4thly. The heat ade-

22*

276 Caleb Atwater on the Winds of the West.

quate to such projectile force as would carry a body from the
moon’s surface beyond the sphere of her attraction, would vo-
latilize the matter of meteoric stones ina moment ; hence they
would not be projected from the Lunarian crater in solid mas-
ses, but in elastic vapour.

In conclusion, ‘although the theory which I have endea-
voured to elucidate and establish, be subject to some difficul-
ties and objections which science may hereafter remove, it ap-
pears to me perfectly consonant with the relative dependence
and harmony of our system, and by no means at variance with
the infinite wisdom and power by which it was originated.

: q

Art. XII. Observations upon the prevailing Currents of
Aur in the State of Ohio and the Regions of the West, by
Cates Atwater, Esq. of Circleville, Ohio; in Eeitors
addressed to His Excellency De Witt Clinton, LL. D.
Governor of the State of New-York, and President of the
Literary and Philosophical Society.

(Communicated for the American Journal of Science, &c.)

Circleville, Ohio, July 23, 1818,
Dear Sir, ,

Wirn pleasure, I acknowledge the receipt of the circular
letter bearing date the 5th instant, which you addressed to me,
for which you will be pleased to accept my warmest acknow-
ledgments for yourself personally, and the Philosophical Soci-
ety of which you are the president. To answer all the ques-
tions which are put to me in that letter, is not at present within
my limited means, either as it respects the leisure or the
ability. I shall therefore, at this time, confine myself to ‘* ob-
servations upon the prevailing currents of air in the state of
Ohio.”* These observations will be wholly founded on per-
sonal experience, during the four years in which I have tra- ~
versed this state, from Lake Erie to the Ohio river, whilst at-

* We have taken the liberty to give Mr. Atwater’s Memoir a more extensiva
Title, for reason’s that will be obvious on a perusal of the piece.

Caleb Atwater on the Winds of the West. 277

tending on the several courts, in all seasons and im all the
changes of weather:

The prevailing currents of air, one of which generally. ob-
tains in Ohio, are three.

The first comes from the Mexican Gulf, ascending the
Mississippi and its larger tributary branches quite to their
very sources:

The second proceeds from the back of mountains to the
west, descends the Missouri to its mouth, and then spreads
over a vast extent of country.

The third comes down the great northern and north-
western lakes to the south end of Lake Michigan and the
southern shore of Lake Erie, where it spreads over the region
ef country lying to the south of them.

That current of air which comes from the Mexican Gulf,
is warmer, and perhaps more moist, than any other which pre-
vails here. After a few days prevalence, it uniformly brings
rain along with it. That this current of air should be very
warm may be readily conceived, when we reflect that it comes
from a hot tropical region ; and that it should be very moist,
excites no surprise, when it is considered, that in its passage
upwards it passes wholly over water, and through the warm
mists and fogs constantly ascending from the Mississippi and
its tributaries. This current prevails much more along the
Ohio river than it does at any considerable distance from it..
One consequence is, that the climate in the immediate vicinity
ef the Ohio river is warmer, than it is either north or south:
of it, unless you go to the southward a considerable distance:
Other causes may, and probably do, in a greater or less degree,
contribute to produce this result, and I will here state them :

First, The Ohio runs on a surface less elevated above the
sea than the country, either north or south of it, but this dif-
ference is trifling through the whole of the sandstone forma-
tion. This formation prevails from the head of the Ohio to
Aberdeen, which is opposite to Marysville in Kentucky, at least
two-thirds of the distance which that river washes the southern
shore of this state. The reason is abvious, because there are
no falls in a sandstone formation.

ate
278 Caleb Atwater on the Winds of the West.

Another cause which contributes to produce a warmer cli-
mate, especially in the winter season, in the valley of the
Ohio, is, that several considerable streams which empty them-
selves into the Ohio, have their sources on the high lands, a
great distance to the south of it ; for instance, the Great and
Little Sandy, and the Great and Little Kenhawa, which de-
scending from a warm region of country, their waters contri-
bute to keep the Ohio open in winter.

“But these’ causes are by no means sufficient to produce the
one half of the comparative warmth of climate observable in
the immediate vicinity of this invaluable river. To prove
‘that the climate is much milder in the southern than in the
northern part of this state, I will proceed to mention several
facts, which have fallen under my own observation.

In the latter part of last February I was at the town of
Delaware, on the Whetstone Branch of the Scioto river, be-
tween eighty and ninety miles south of Lake Erie, and twenty-
five miles north of Columbus, the seat of government, which
is near the centre of the state, where 1 saw a number of gen-
tlemen direct from Detroit, by the way of Lower Sandusky,
who informed me that the snow at that time was eighteen
inches in depth and upwards all along the lake shore, but
gradually decreased as they came south until they arrived at
Delaware. At that place it was then about twelve inches
deep in the open fields, and somewhat deeper in the woods.
I descended the road along the Whetstone to Columbus, the
snow decreasing in depth all the way as I proceeded. At
Columbus it wholly disappeared in the fields, and only ice was
found in the road, which also decreased until I came to the
Big Walnut Creek, thirteen miles south of Columbus, where.
it disappeared, and the road began to be muddy. As I still
proceeded south, the mud increased in depth until I came to
Chillicothe, about thirty-two miles south of Big Walnut,
where the frost was entirely out of the ground, and the roads
were almost impassable. As I still descended southward,
along the Scioto, I found that at Piketon, on the Scioto, nine-
teen miles south of Chillicothe, the road had considerably
improved. I proceeded onwards to Portsmouth on the Ohio

Caleb Atwater on the Winds of the West. 279

river, at the mouth of the Scioto, about twenty-six miles south
of Piketon, where the ground was entirely settled, and the
innkeeper, where I lodged, was making his garden, sowing his
sallad seed, and planting his peas. This journey was per-
formed in three days, and in travelling only one hundred and
fifteen miles from north to south, this extraordinary difference
of climate was observed. ,
_. Atraveller may leave Portsmouth when the farmer is be-
ginning to hoe his corn the first time, and travel with good
speed to Delaware, and find the husbandman just beginning to
plant.

Instances which have fallen within my own personal obser-
vation might be multiplied to a great extent, but a few may
suffice.

Generally speaking, there is a difference in the beginning
and ending of the warm season of about two weeks between
Portsmouth and Delaware, or of three weeks between the
former place and Lower Sandusky.

In relation to the warmth of the climate, I will state two
other facts, originating, as I believe, in the prevalence of the
southern current of air from the Mexican Gulf along the Ohio
river. 4
First, In the summer months the paroquet ascends the
Scioto more than one hundred miles from its mouth, and until
within a few years past, wintered at Miller’s Bottom, and at
other places along the banks of the Ohio, near its great
southern bend in latitude 38° north, in Gallia and Lawrence
counties, in the state of Ohio. I have seen them there
in all the winter months in considerable numbers, but few
however now winter there ; and probably if the cold north-
western current of air from the great lakes becomes more and
‘more prevalent in the winter months, these birds will mi-
grate altogether to a more southern clime.

Are these birds found as far to the north on the east side of
the Alleghany by at least three degrees? Monsieur Volney,
Mr. Jefferson, and otbers, say not. It has been denied that
this fact proves any thing more than that this bird frequented
these parts in quest of its favourite food. This food is grass

280 Caleb Atwater on the Winds of the West.

and other vegetable matter in summer, and the cockle bur,
and the balls of button-wood, or, as by a perversion of lan-~
guage, it is called in this country sycamore.* But this bird
may find its favourite food as well east as west of the Allegha-
nies. The grasses and trees alluded to, flourish as I have
observed in forty-five degrees of north latitude, and I am
credibly informed that they are abundant as far north as
Quebec, and even around Hudson’s Bay. Wherever waters
run and trees grow on their banks, (if low and wet,) on the
American continent, even as high as eighty degrees of north
latitude, there the paroquet may find its food in abundance. —

Another fact tending to establish the same point is, that the
reed cane, before this country was much settled, grew ma
higher latitude by several degrees on this than it did on the
other side of the Alleghany mountains. It has indeed been
said, that this cane was never found north of the Ohio, nor
above the mouth of the Big Sandy River, which empties inte
the Ohio, on the line which separates Virginia and Kentucky.
This however is incorrect ; for within a few years it was grow-
ing in abundance at Miller’s Bottom, twenty-six miles above
the mouth of Big Sandy. It grew at Lancaster, on the Hock-
hocking, northward of the mouth of the Big Sandy, in a direct
line, at Ieast one hundred and fifty miles, and it now grows on
the Whetstone branch of the Scioto, more than two degrees of
latitude above the lowest bend of the Ohio, which is at the
mouth of the Big Sandy. Before the white people settled
there, I have every reason to believe, that the cane grew in
sreat plenty at Delaware, where there are more signs of buf
faloes than at any other place within my knowledge. It has
been conjectured, that the seed of the cane was brought down -
and scattered by the Big Sandy ; but granting this, in what way
could that stream carry this seed up the Hockhocking and
Scioto to their sources ? to places several hundred feet above
the highest freshes ever known in this country? With a know-
ledge of these facts, cast your eye at the map of Ohio. Proofs

* Genus, platanus—species, accidentals, popular name, sycamore, or ‘button
svood. 3 Bc

Caleb Atwater on the Winds of the West. 281

within my reach might be multiplied to a much greater ex-
tent, but they are probably unnecessary.

But another current of air prevails here, especially in the
cold months, coming from the mouth of the Missouri, which is
a little to the south of west of this place. This current is
colder than the preceding one, and though moist, yet not as
much so as the one already described. It prevails generally
- in October and November, before our warm weather is over,
and produces frosts and a chilly dampness, and what I have
observed nowhere else, especially on the east side of the
Alleghanies, it produces a kind of faintness at the breast.

People of delicate habits, coming here from the northern
and eastern states, uniformly complain of this faintness. It is
not perhaps extraordinary that this current of air should be
cold, proceeding as it does from a high northern latitude,
along the great chain of rocky mountains in the northwest ;
that it should be moist, and perhaps also that it should affect
the animal economy unpleasantly, may possibly be attributed to
its passing such a length of way over the waters of the
Missouri, and the wet prairies and barrens lying so exten-
sively between us and the head waters of that stream. The
luxuriant vegetation which covers these prairies and barrens
at that season of the year, begins to putrefy, and fills with un-
healthy exhalations every gale of wind which passes over
them.

At the mouth of this river (Missouri,) which is in about lati-
tude 38° north, this current of air is extremely cold in the
winter months. It diverges from this point, and produces ex-
treme cold at a considerable distance to the south of it on the
Mississippi river. General Rector, the present surveyor ge-
neral of. the United States, who keeps his office at St. Louis,
informs, that he has known the Mississippi at St. Genevieve,
in latitude about 37°, so firmly covered with ice in one night,
as to be able to bear horses and cattle the ensuing day. This
circumstance must have been owing to the sudden change of
the current of air from south to the northwest, descending
the Missouri river from the cold regions at its. sources.

282 Caleb Atwater on the Winds of the Wesi.

From several gentlemen, residents for many years in Illinois
and Missouri Territories, | have been informed, that changes
ef weather in that region of country are, especially in winter,
very frequent and great; that ore day the moist south wind
from the Mexican gulf will prevail, and produce quite warm
and mild weather for the season; on the very next, or fre-
quently in the latter part of the same, the current of air from
the sources of the Missouri will prevail, and block up the
streams with ice. .

There is a third current of air which prevails during our
winter months, more and more, annually, as the country be-
comes cleared of its forests in the direction alluded to ; it pro-
ceeds from the great lakes to the northwest of us, and even be-
yond them. Proceeding as it does from the north and north-
west of lake Superior, and crossing the great expanse of water
in this direction, it rushes down these great lakes to the south
end of lake Michigan in latitude about 41° north, diverges from
that point, and spreads over the immense regions lying to the ~
south, where the air is more rarefied by reason of its warmer
climate. This current of air brings along with it intense cold,
and extended last winter even to New-Orleans, where the snow
fell to such a depth, that sleighs were seen passing in every
part of the city. The more the forests are cleared away be-
_ tween any place in this country and the northern lakes, the more

this cold current of air will prevail. This current also diverges
from the southern shore of Lake Erie, but is not so strong as
that part of it which diverges fromthe south end of Michigan,
and of course does not extend as far to the south. When this
part of this state was first settled, this current of air was hardly
felt at this place, and then only for a short time in the winter -
months, and hardly ever reached the Ohio river ; but last win-
ter it continued three weeks at one time, and produced good
sleighing ; and also caused rheumatisms, pleurisies, peripneu- -
monies, &c. which proved mortal to some. In this place,
which is in latitude about 39° 20 north, the thermometer of
Fahrenheit, hanging in an entry of a dwelling-house with closed
doors, sunk to 24 degrees below zero. This extreme cold may

Caleb Atwater on the Winds of the West. 283

be attributed to general, rather than to local causes, and it may
be said that the winters all over the world have been colder
of late ,years than formerly. But on the very day, when it
‘was thus cold, (if newspapers can be believed) a great num-
ber of vessels put to sea from Reedy Island in the Delaware
below Philadelphia, and about thirty sail of vessels went to
sea from New-York harbour.

All our streams were at the same time bridged with ice of
great-firmness as well as thickness, and continued to be so for
a considerable time afterward, until the warmer current of air
from the south prevailed over the current fromthe lakes. It
will be proper, and may be necessary, here to state, that the
latitudes of several places in this country are very different
from what you would be led to believe from examining any
map or chart now or ever in existence. For instance, Lake
Michigan extends farther south than Fort Wayne, which place
by actual survey is in this state ; St. Louis is not 38°, and the
most southern point or bend of the Ohio river, is not more than
latitude 38° north. I state merely what I am informed of by
those who have ascertained these facts by actual observation
and survey. The place opposite the mouth of the Big Sandy,
is nearly as far south as Lexington in Kentucky. The south
end of Michigan lake ought to be laid down on the map 41°
north. Prevailing currents of air (not every breath of air
which moves over the surface) 1 have attempted to describe.
It may be well enough, however, to mention some other cur-
rents which sometimes prevail for a few days. And here I
will mention what our oldest settlers along the Ohio have ob-
_ served, that is, that whenever in a dry time, there is a current
of air proceeding down the river for three or four days in suc-
cession, the current from the Gulf of Mexico is sure to drive it
back with redoubled force, and after blowing a day or two, it
is equally sure to bring rain with it. It is easy to assign a
cause for it; for meeting the trade winds in the Gulf, itis driven
back with redoubled violence to the sources of the larger
streams which empty themselves into the Gulf. >

When a thunder storm, proceeding in either a western or
eastern direction, as the case may be, happens to strike a large

284 Caleb Atwater on the Winds of the West.

water-course running eithér north or south, and when: also
there happens to be a large branch emptying into the stream,
within a few miles either above or below the point where the
storm approaches it, I have uniformly observed the storm to
cross the large stream at the point where the large branch
unites with it, ,and ascend the branch. Where there are two
large tributaries about equi-distant from the point of approach,
the storm frequently divides and follows each of them. The
reason why it should be so, this is not the place to discuss ;
but the Wisdom and Goodness which so ordered it, are too ap-
parent to every rational mind to be overlooked. It may be
asked if the difference in latitude and elevation between the
Ohio and lake regions of country, does not produce a great dif-
ference in the climates of those respective regions? These
causes certainly produce some difference, but not all. It is
my object to establish facts, rather than any favourite theory.
The difference of latitude between the Ohio river at the mouth
of the Scioto, and Jake Erie at the mouth of the Maume or —
Sandusky, is nearly three degrees, and the difference of eleva-
tion above the sea is trifling, if any. From the mouth of the
Scioto to Columbus, about 90 miles in a direct line, the water,
where there is what is commonly called a ripple, runs briskly,
and these ripples happen, perhaps, one to a mile ; but they are
in a sandstone region, and the fall of course is patines

Let us suppose then, that the river Scioto descends one
hundred feet from the mouth of the Whetstone, which empties
into that river at Columbus, to the Ohio, and that the Whet-
stone which runs through a limestone formation, descends ano-
ther hundred feet, which would make Upper Sandusky two
hundred feet higher than the Ohio river. From this highest.
ground between the Ohio and the lake, it is a well-known fact,
that the land descends towards the north much more in a given
distance, than it does towards the south, and the distance is not
half as far. The Maume and other streams putting into the
lake, are full of rapids. Admitting for argument’s sake, that:
the Sandusky or Maume descend only 100 feet, then the sur-
face of the lake is 100 feet higher than the Ohioriver. Would

Caleb Atwater on the Winds of the West. 285

three degrees of latitude, and 100 feet greater elevation pro-
duce three weeks difference in the seasons ? Is there that dif-
ference between Baltimore in Maryland, and Wilkesbarre in
Pennsylvania? Is there that difference between New-York
and Fort Edward on the Hudson? It is believed that there is
not one half that difference.

I have referred but little to thermometers, because they are
kept in so many different situations by their owners, that I
have known no less than 8 degrees of difference between se-
veral of them kept in one town, within almost a stone’s throw
of each other, at one and the same moment of time.

Every allowance being made for other causes, I am still of
the opinion that the difference in the climates of the Ohio and
lake regions of country, is to be attributed chiefly to the pre-
valence of different currents ‘of air. The southern current
rarely, if ever, reaches the northern lakes, and the northern,
until lately, never reached the Gulf of Mexico. But as the
country is cleared of its native forests, we may reasonably
conclude this cold current of air will prevail more and more,
until we shall have snow enough for sleighs, at least two months
in every winter ; the summers will be shorter, the extremes of
heat and cold will be greater than at present, and those clouds
which formerly obscured the sun almost continually during the
summer months, will be chased away, and with them the pale
cheek, the sallow hue, the oppression at the breast, and the
difficulty of respiration, the headache, and the thousand ills
which many of the first emigrants have experienced in our
climate. We shall probably then have fewer diseases, and
more acute ones. The storms will probably be fewer, more
severe, and not continue aslongas at present. There are still
further views which might be taken of this subject, but they
are left to abler pens and future observations.

Thus I have endeavoured to give my opinion on a subject
of some interest to the present, as well as future generations ;
in doing which, I have not sought for flowers which might have
been gathered by stepping out of my path, but the fruzt rather
of my own observatiou and experience : I have not wandered

286 Deerfield Disruption.

through the fields of imagination, invoking the poetic muse,
but addressed myself chiefly

«¢ To him who soars on golden wing,
Guiding his fiery-wheeled throne,
The cherub contemplation.”

Art. XIII. Ona singular Disruption of the Ground, ap-
parently by Frost, in Letters from Epwarp Hitcucocr,
A.M. Principal of Deerfield Academy.

(With a Plate.)
To the Editor of the American Journal of Science, &c.

Sir,

1 HAVE lately examined a singular disruption in the earth,
discovered a few days since in the northerly part of an exten-
sive meadow in this town, about ten rods from Deerfield river.

The soil on the spot is alluvial, consisting of a dry, rich,
vegetable mould, with a large intermixture of sand; and the
field, elevated 14 feet above the bed of the river, is annually
mowed. A valley encircles the ruptured spot on the east,
south, and west, only five feet lower, yet so marshy and soft,
as to render draining necessary to make it passable ; and im-
mediately back of this valley, on the south, rises a hill 100 feet
high, at whose foot are several springs. North of the rupture,
also, between it and the river, is a gradual descent of three
feet: indeed, the ground slopes from it on every side except
the northwest.

A fissure one inch wide and fourteen deep, forming an almost
perfect ellipsis, whose diameters are 9 and 5} rods, marks the
exterior limit of the convulsion. Within this curve are seve-
ral others nearly concentric to it, some forming a quarter, and
some half an ellipsis, and near the longer axis are others, running
in various directions. On this transverse diameter, which lies

Deerfield Disruption. 287

near the highest part of the swell above described, and in its
longest direction, or parallel to the river, the greatest effect
of the convulsion appears. The earth, to the depth it has
frozen the past winter, 14 inches, is broken on a straight line
above 6 rods, and the south edge of the fissure, having been
forced up, overlaps the other, three feet. Where one edge
does not thus overreach, the tables of earth, which at a small
distance resemble masses of ice, are raised up so that their fa-
ces form an isosceles triangle, leaving a cavity beneath. About
the extremities of the transverse axis, is also an overlapping of
two feet, which continues nearly two rods on the curve each
way from the axis, and in most places is double, overreaching
internally and externally, exhibiting likewise, some irregula-
rity where the compressing forces acted at right angles to each
other. The edges of these elevated masses of earth, which
are yet frozen, are quite smooth, and the angles but little frac-
tured. I have dug into the earth about four feet underneath
the longer axis of the ellipsis, and thrust down a bar in other
places, but cannot perceive that the soil has been moved below
where it was frozen. It is, however, not the most favourable .
season for ascertaining this fact. :

Every appearance on the spot will justify this conclusion,
that the frozen surface of the earth around, has pressed with
great force from every direction to this ellipsis as a centre ; for,
were every fissure in the ellipsis to be filled by replacing the
earth, there must remain on its longer axis and at the extremi-
ties of this, an overplus of surface two feet wide.

The month of February last has been unusually'cold. Its
mean temperature in Deerfield, by Fahrenheit’s scales, is as
follows. "

“Th. ALM. 1th. P. mM. 10h. P.M.
6° 24° . 11°

The extremes were 25° below, and 49° above zero. On
the last day but one of the month, the cold suddenly relaxed ;
and on the Ist and 2d of March, a heavy and warm rain suc-
ceeded. This produced an uncommon rise in Deerfield river.

‘ * ve
7 * is

288 | Deerfield Disruption.

and on the 3d of March, it had overflowed the ground where
the above described phenomenon occurred, and did not recede
from it for 24 hours. Its greatest depth there, was five feet.
The snow was nearly one foot deep when the flood happened,
and being a nonconductor of heat, the temperature of the sur-
face of the ground was not probably much changed from its
state in February, until the water came in contact with it. It
may not be amiss to give the state of the thermometer on the
last of February and beginning of March.

7h. A.M. 124. P.M. 10h. P. M. Wind, weather, &e.
Feb. 27th, 15° below 0. 28° above 0, 32° above 0. South, clear.

28th, 31 above 45 ——- 31 ——- do. do.
March Ist, 29 46 ——- 37 —-_ N.E. sain.
2d, 446 ——_ 49 ——- 37 ——- do. do.

3d, 309 ——_ ss 35 ————- ss 2 ————~ do. rain & clear.

On the third of March, about sunset, some lads were sailing
near the spot where the disruption appears, and saw the water
in considerable agitation, with much bubbling, and at short in-
tervals it was thrown up in several places to the height of 3
or 4 feet. They saw no rupture in the earth, although they
came within two or three rods of the spot, and state the water
to have been two feet deep. About one o’clock on the morn-
ing of March 4th, Mr. Seth Sheldon and family, living one mile
south from this spot, and being awake, were alarmed by a loud
report from the north, by which their house and furniture were

-much shaken. They compared the sound, though louder by
far than they had ever heard from this cause, to that of a
cracking in the earth by frost in severe weather. Some others
living rather nearer the spot, were awakened by the same re-
port. That the rupture in the earth was made at that time is
probable, though not certain.

It may be proper to state, that during the flood, no ice, ex-
cept a few loose masses, was carried over, or near the spot
where the disruption appears. This, therefore, could not
have produced it.

Fig. 1. is a transverse section, taken with a theodolite, from
Deerfield river 28 rods south, crossing the longer axis of the

io
= =
3 S
E =
: 2 |
2 q fF
= * 2 7
a | § SE
S : g cS)
- =) Ee -
Ef = : é
: yi: 3a 3 ‘ c
é : s 8
= <<
. e
: =
& ;
©s6 fz
: es ES
5 ss
Se —

om

s ~ e

, 4
id ,

ie c

Deerfield Disruption. 289

disruption at Hehe angles. The scale i is 4 rods to an inch, al-
though in laying off the heights ; and levels, the exact propor-
tion was a little varied, to render the irregularities of surface
more distinct. The letters of reference correspond to those
on fig. 2, and need no explanation.

Fig. 2. is a bird’s-eye view of the disruption and the ad-
joining region, very obligingly sketched by Mr. Derick Barnard
of Troy, New-York. The surrounding country is somewhat
contracted to bring more of it into view.

These are all the facts I am able at present to collect con-
cerning this phenomenon. I have been particular as to the
temperature of the air, and the situation of the adjacent coun-
try, from an idea that frost was a principal agent in producing
it; and that, therefore, these circumstances would be impor-
tant in fixing atheory. I will not, however, hazard any hy-
pothesis on the subject; but if you deem the fact of sufficient
importance, your opinion, Sir, is respectfully solicited.

Your humble Servant,
EDWARD HITCHCOCK.
Deerfield, Mass. March 26th, 1818.

—<—_

Deerfield, June 3d, 1818.
Sir,

SINCE I sent you a description of a singular disruption in
the earth in this town, another has been observed in the same
meadows, about one mile from the former. This is less than
the one of which IJ sent you an account, but its situation is al-
most exactly similar ; it being on asmall elevation, on the sides
of which, at a few rods distant, is low wet ground. Indeed,
the general description which I sent you will answer for this
smaller disruption. The diameters of this last, are only 7 and
8 paces, and the curve is not perfect. There appears to have
been an expansion of the earth’s surface around both these
spots, or disruptions, by which it was forced to give way at the
point where there was the least resistance, which, of course,
would be on the highest ground. The more I observe of this
phenomenon, the more I am inclined to impute it to the agen-
cy of frost.

Vots J..No. 3. 23

290 Deerfield Disruption.

It may be proper to observe, that in neither of these disrup~
tions has the general mass of the hills sunk in the least. Had
this been the case, it might perhaps have accounted for them.
It is also certain, that the soil below where it was frozen the
past winter, has not been moved. I mentioned this fact in my
first communication, though with some suggested doubt.

REMARKS.

An opinion having been requested by Mr. Hitchcock on the
above facts, it may be observed, that there appears in the state-
ment sufficient evidence that the phenomenon (as the author
has suggested) is attributable to frost. ‘

It is a fact, established equally by common experience and
by numerous experiments, that water, in freezing, expands.
It is generally estimated that 8 cubic inches of water, become
9 by the act of congealing. The expansion is attributed, with
sufficient evidence, to a crystalline arrangement arising from a
kind of polarity in the particles of water exerted when they are’
near congealing, by which they attract one another in certain
points, and not in others. Dr. Black, with his usual felicity,
has illustrated this tendency, by supposing a great number of
small magnetized needles, thrust through corks, so that they
will float parallel to the surface of water, to be thrown pur-
miscuously into a vessel of that fluid. They will not remain
in the situation in which they are thrown in, but, in conse-
quence of their polarity, attractions and repulsions will be
immediately exerted; they will rush together, with a force
equal to the overcoming of a certain resistance ; they will ar-
range themselves in pairs and groups, and finally, in a connect-
ed assemblage.

The particles of water attract each other with a prodigious
force, when resistance is opposed ; for itis well known that
domestic utensils, trees, rocks, and even cannon, and bomb-
shells, are burst with explosion, when water confined within
them is frozen.

There is force enough then exerted by the expansion of
freezing water, to produce all the mechanical violence, whose
effects were so striking in the instance at Deerfield.

In the common cracking of the ground by frost, so exten-
sively observed in cold climates, the effect appears to result in

Deerfield Disruption. 291

the following manner. The water contained in the ground,
(that is, in that part which is within the reach of a freezing
temperature) by congealing, expands and demands more space ;
a movement must necessarily take place in the direction where
there is the least resistance; this will evidently be upward,
because the atmosphere, the only counteracting power in this
direction, cannot resist the expansion of the freezing water as
much as it is resisted by the earth below the freezing stratum.
Consequently, the freezing earth is forced upward, but being
of unequal strength in different places, it cracks at the weakest
spot ; and the earth, for some distance on the sides of the fissure,
is thrown into the position of two planes gently inclined, their
relative position resembling that of a very flat roof, and the
more they are lified by frost, the more they will decline from
one another, and the wider will be the fissure.

But why, in the instance which Mr. Hitchcock has related,
did they overlap? The explanation appears to result from the
circumstances of the case, as far as they can be understood
without ocular inspection of the ground.

The elevated spot which cracked in so remarkable a manner,
being nearly surrounded by a belt of low wet ground, the con-
gelation of the water in this ground by the intense cold, would
of course produce a very great expansive effort towards the
elevated ground. This, not only on account of its elevation,
but from its containing less water, would aot be able to exert
an equal counteracting effort. The surface of the ground,
therefore, (without at all disturbing the unfrozen earth below,)
was, by the expansive effort of the freezing water, pushed along
towards the elevated spot. This spot being possessed of a
certain power of resistance derived from its gravity;~and from
the freezing of the water in it, would not immediately give
way ; but the whole surface, it is probable, gradually rose for
some time, while the expansion was going on and increasing.
A cavity would thus be produced between that superficial
layer of frozen ground which was rising, and the unfrozen
ground below. This cavity would of course be filled with air
derived from the atmosphere, and from the porousness of the

ground below. When the place came to be overflowed, water
93 *

292 Dana on Electrical Battery.

would immediately rush in through any fissure, and this hy-
draulic and hydrostatic effort would force the air out at any
orifice, and thus blow the water up with it. This was proba-
bly the cause of the agitation of the water, and of the bubbling
of air, and of the throwing up of the water at intervals, ob-
served by the boys on the 3d of March.

The effect of the water covering the ground, would be to
weaken its cohesion derived from frost, and as there were pro-
bably hundreds of tons of pressure, the vaulted ground, when
sufficiently weakened, gave way with a loud explosion and a
violent concussion, as heard by Mr. Sheldon’s family, a few
hours after the facts observed by the boys. The parts of the
arch now fallen in, (so to speak) necessarily either overlap-
ped, or rose in ridges, piece being pressed against piece, as de-
scribed and figured by Mr. Hitchcock.

We are indebted to this gentleman for his delineation of this
singular case.

The freezing of water, and its attendant expansion, are pro-
ductive of multiplied and very diversified phenomena upon our
globe, whether we contemplate them in the delicate spicule of
hoarfrost, the six-rayed stars of snow, or in the stupendous
glaciers of the Alps, and the awful icebergs of Greenland.

Cambridge, January 25, 1819.
PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Dear Str,
IF the following observations are worthy of a place in your

valuable Journal, please to insert them, and oblige yours, with
real esteem, J. F. Dana.

Art. XIV. Ona New Form of the Electrical Battery, by
J. F. Dana, M. D. Chemical Assistant in Harvard Uni-

versity, and Lecturer on Chemistry and Pharmacy in
Dartmouth College.

Tue Electrical Battery in its common form is an unmanage-
able and inconvenient apparatus. When the coated surface is

Dana on Electrical Battery. 293

comparatively small, the instrument occupies a large space,
and it cannot be readily removed from place to place without
much trouble and risk; the apparatus is, moreover, very ex-
pensive, and when one of the jars is broken, another of the
same dimensions cannot readily be found to supply its place.
It occurred to me, that a Battery might be constructed of
plates of glass and sheets of tinfoil, in which the same extent
of coated surface should occupy a much smaller space, and
consequently that the apparatus would be more convenient
and more portable. I selected several panes of glass, the
surfaces of which coincided closely with each other, and then
arranged them with sheets of tinfoil in this order, viz. pane
of glass, sheet of tinfoil, then another pane of glass, then a
second sheet of tinfoil, and so on; the sheets of foil being
smaller than the plates of glass by two inches all around ; the
glass being 10 by 12, and the foil 6 by 8. This apparatus
contained six plates of tinfoil, and the lowest plate being num-
bered one, was connected with the ground, and by slips of tin-
foil passing over the edges, with the third plate, and this, in
like manner with the fifth. The second plate was connected
with the fourth, and this with the scath, which communicated
with the conductor of the machine ; in this manner each plate
positively electrified will be opposed by one negatively electri-
fied, and vice versa ; the 6th, 4th, and 2d plates positive, and
the 5th, 3d, and Ist, negative. Into this apparatus I could in-
troduce a powerful charge, but not possessing a battery of the
common form, could not make comparative experiments. The
annexed figures will explain the construction of this apparatus.

(See Plate.)

Fig. 1. a1, a2, &c. the tinfoil. Fig. 2. a, the intermediate slips pass-
6b}, plates of glass. ing over the edges of the
e, the intermediate slips con- glass and connecting plates,
necting the plates 6, 4, J, 3, and 5.
and 2. b, the slip which connects the
d, the slips connecting 5, 3, 1, upper sheet of foil with the 4th,
and the ground. &e.

In a battery of the ordinary form, it is evident that a much
jess surface is coated than in one of the above construction ;

294 Dana on Wax.

in a battery of the common form, two feet long, one foot wide,

‘and ten inches high, and containing 18 coated jars, there will

be no more than 3500 square inches of coated surface, while
in a battery of the same dimensions on the proposed construc-
tion, there will be no less than 8000 square inches covered
with tinfoil, allowing the sheet of glass and of foil to be 3 inch
thick.

When plate glass is employed for making this battery, the
ring of glass exterior to the tinfoil may be covered with var-
nish, and then the next plate laid over it; the tinfoil will then
be shut out for ever from the access of moisture, and the insu-
lation will remain perfect. This form of the Electrical Battery
is very portable, may be packed in a case with the machine,
and indeed a powerful battery occupies no greater space than
a quarto volume. It is cheap and easily constructed.

Art. XV. Chemical Examination of the Berries of the
Myrica Cerifera, or Wax Myrtle, by J. ¥. Dana, M. D.
Chemical Assistant in Harvard University, and Lecturer
on Chemistry and Pharmacy in Dartmouth College.

(Communicated for this Journal.)

Tue myrtle wax of commerce has been examined by Dr.
Bostock and by M. Cadet ; the entire berry not having been
made the subject of analysis, I have been induced to examine
it, with a view to ascertain the proportion of wax.

I. Fifty grains of the most perfect berries were digested in
repeated portions of warm alcohol, until the fluid appeared to
exert no further action. The first portions of alcohol were
tinged of a green colour, but the last portions remained co-
lourless. *:

If. The alcoholic solutions were poured into a small retort
of known weight ; the alcohol was carefully distilled off, and
the residuum dried ; deducting the weight of the retort, there
remained 18.5 grs. for the weight of the matter dissolved by
the alcohol.

Duna on Wax. 295

WII. The substances which had been dissolved by the alco-
hol consisted of two portions, viz. the wax, which was of an
apple-green colour, and a reddish brown substance ; this sub-
stance was supposed to be resinous, and the contents of the
retort were therefore digested in acetic acid; the acid soon
became of a reddish brown colour, and dissolved nearly the
whole of the matter in the retort, leaving the wax. The acid so-
lution, together with a small portion of insoluble reddish mat-
ter, were carefully separated from the wax. The wax being
dried and melted, weighed 16 grains.

IV. The acetic acid solution was evaporated to dryness,
and a dark brown matter was obtained ; it was almost totally
soluble in warm alcohol, from which it was precipitated by
water ; it was supposed therefore to consist chiefly of resin,
with a small portion of extractive matter, and may be called
resino-extractive ; it weighed 2.5 grains.

V. The matter insoluble in alcohol consisted of two parts,
viz. the kernels and a fine-grained black powder, having very
much the appearance of fine gunpowder; the powder was
carefully separated from the kernels by a wire sieve, and
weighed 7.5 grains. The kernels were found to weigh 23.75
grains. ;

From this analysis it appears that the entire berries con- |
sist of

War ee eine eS
Resino-extractive . . . 5.00
Black powder . . . . 15.00
Nernelases6% Ooi 4a 5272.00
99550"
RE a a ae .50
*. ‘ 4 Ss
. 100.00

The chemical properties of the wax and of the black pow-
der may be made the subject of another communication.

296 Analysis of Wacke.

Earthy phosphate of iron has recently been found at Hop-
kinton, Mass. It exists there in large quantities, and is em-
ployed as a pigment. The gentleman on whose grounds it
was found sent me several pounds of it.

J. F. D.

Art. XVI. Analysis of Wacke, by Dr. J. W. Wuxster,
of Boston.

One hundred parts exposed to a red heat in a platina cruci-
ble lost 18.5, acquired an umber brown colour, and a degree
of hardness sufficient to scratch glass.

One hundred parts reduced to fine powder were mixed with
four times the weight of soda, and exposed to heat, gradually
increased for three quarters of an hour ;. at the expiration of |
which time, the whole had acquired a pasty consistence. The
crucible was now removed from the fire, its outer surface
carefully wiped. Muriatic acid was poured on till all efferves-
cence ceased. The solution obtained was evaporated to dry-
ness, gradually assuming an orange red colour. Water was
now poured upon the mass, after which it was filtered, and the
powder remaining carefully dried; after ignition, and while
warm, it weighed 28 parts. This powder was insoluble in
muriatic acid, and of a white colour.

To the filtered solution, reduced by evaporation, carbonate
of potash was added, the precipitate was collected on a filter,
washed and dried ; it weighed 23. parts. This powder was.
redissolved in sulphuric acid, sulphate of potash added, and
crystals of alum finally obtained; hence this powder was
alumine. To the liquor from which the silex and alumine
had thus been separated, acetic acid was added; the whole
evaporated to dryness ; the excess of acid being removed, a
small quantity of water was poured on, and after strong igni-
tion, the precipitate weighed 4.5.

Into a very small tubulated retort I introduced a portion
from the same mass, whence the piece submitted to analysis

a

Dr. Ives on Potatoes. 297

was broken, and obtained over mercury the carbonic acid in
the usual manner. This was equal to 2.32; by deducting this
from 18.5 the loss during exposure to red heat, we shall have
16.18, the proportion of water. The oxide of iron was sepa-
rated from the solutions after the addition of acetic acid, by
ammonia, and weighed 26 parts. :

Pee Yo Net is anes
MENHOs: ee On
Pa Ope ree ALD
Carbonic acid ~.:. ° 2.32
WSR 5 he a er ele
Oxide ofiron . . 26.

AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMICS.
ee

Art. XVII. On the Comparative Quantity of Nutritious
Matter which may be obtained from an Acre of Land when
cultivated with Potatoes or Wheat, by Dr. Ex1 Ives, Pro-
fessor of Materia Medica and Botany in Yale College.

iy a good season an acre of suitable land well cultivated
will produce 400 bushels of potatoes. In Woodbridge, a town
adjoining New-Haven, a crop of 600 bushels of potatoes has
been obtained from a single acre. A bushel of potatoes
weighs 56 pounds. Multiply 400, the number of bushels, by
56, the weight of a single bushel, gives 22400, the number of
pounds of potatoes produced upon one acre.

Thirty bushels of wheat are considered a good crop as the
product of one acre of land. About 2 of wheat may be con-
sidered as nutritious matter.

According to the experiments of Dr. Pearson and Einhoff,
about one-third of the potato is nutritious matter. From the

(Bes

Bhs a

OL Ned CS Me 4 é —\, 2 eo oe
dys ‘g ‘ fife "* . } Be
a 5 nd ae a A

EN . .
Wee ett aes ¥- ee > é

ie i | Dr. Ives on ‘Poland i

eee

analysis of Rinhoff 7680 parts of potatoes! a ariot
of starch—fibrous matter analogous to starch 540 p:
men 107 parts—mucilage 312 parts. The sum of these pro-
ducts amounts to about one-third of the potatoes hina “ the
experiment.

Sir Humphry Davy observes, that one-fourth of the weight

of potatoes at least may be considered nutritious matter.
One-fourth of 22400, the product of an acre of ground, cul-
tivated with potatoes, is 5600. The whole weight of a crop
of wheat calculated at 30 bushels to the acre, and at 60 pounds
to the bushel, gives 1800. Deducting one-sixth from the wheat
as matter not nutritious, and the weight is reduced to 1500.
The nutritious matter of the crop of potatoes to that of

~ wheat is as 5600 to 1500, or as 56 to 15. ¥

The starch might be obtained by a very simple machine,
recommended by Parmentier; and in seasons when potatoes

are abundant, the potatoes might be converted to starch, and .

the starch preserved for any length of time, and used asa
substitute for wheaten flour. .

The machine alluded to is a cylinder of wood about three
feet long and six inches in diameter, covered with-sheet tin,
punched outward so as to form a coarse grater, and turned by
acrank. This cylinder is placed in a box of boards whose
sides slope a littie inward upon the principle of a hopper, and
a tub of water is placed beneath? The potatoes are thrown
into this box, and as the crank is turned they are crushed, and
the starch or fecula subsides to the bottom of the water. It
is well known, that potatoes are largely used in England
mixed with flour to forma very good bread; the starch of the
potato would of course answer much better.

arts—albu- ve

1

Ul

ako . , : e, +

aS _. » Biographical Notice of Dr. Bruce. 299
Tie: a “4 ¢ Me)
Oe i MISCELLANEOUS.

S IOI

PO ae

Art. XVIII. Biographical Notice of the late ARcHIBALD
Bruce, M.D. Professor of Materia Medica and Mine-
ralogy in the Medical Institution of the State of New-
York, and Queen’s College, New-Jersey ; and Member of
various Learned Societies in America and Europe. Math
a Portrait.

(Communicated. ) .

Docror Archibald Bruce, (the subject of this Memoir)
was a native of the city of New-York, in North America. He

- was born in the month of February, in the year seventeen

hundred and seventy-seven. His father was, at that time, at
the head of the medical department of the British army, (then
stationed at New-York) to which he had been attached from
his youth, having been many years previously resident at New-
York, as surgéon to the artillery department; where he was
married, in or about the: year. seventeen hundred and sixty-
seven, to Judith, a daughter of Nicholas, Bayard, formerly of

, that. Jeremiah Van Rens-
10ther son, (who died
De ad a daughter, who

dieduaitite a — . ;

William Bruce, (the fat eral ined, and his bro-
ther Archibald, togetheverntaaae ister, were natives of the town
of Dumfries in Scotland, fichiers their father was many years
resident as the parochial clergyman ; and so continued until
his decease, much respected.

Both sons applied themselves to the science of medicine and
surgery. William, as above stated, became a physician in the
British army, and died, in that station, of the yellow fever, in
the island of Barbadoes. And Archibald received a commis-
sion of surgeon in the British navy, in which he continued unt!

300 Biographical Notice of Dr. Bruce. me

disqualified by old age, when he retired from business, and died
a few years since in London. For many years he acted as sur-
geon to the several ships commanded by Sir Peter Parker,
captain, and afterward admiral.

Doctor William Bruce, before his final separation from his
family, on the occasion of his being ordered to the West-India
station, had always declared that his son Archibaid should ne-
ver be educated for the medical profession ; and finally enjoined
such instruction upon his wife and friends, to whom the charge
of the boy was committed. After his decease, the same in-
junction was repeated by the uncle, then in Europe, who was
ever averse to his nephew’s making choice of this profession :
much pains were therefore early exerted to divert him from
such inclination.

The momentous state of political affairs, induced his mother
to send him to Halifax, under the care of William Almon, M.D.
a particular friend of her husband, with whom, however, re-
maining but a short time, he returned to New-York; and was
placed at a boarding-school at Flatbush, Long Island, under the
direction of Peter Wilson, LL.D. who was in high standing
as a teacher of the languages.

In 1791, he was admitted a student of the arts in Columbia
college. Nicholas Romayne, M.D. was at this time among the
physicians of highest consideration in New-York, and was en-
gaged in delivering lectures on different subjects of medical
science in Columbia College. Having pursued the early part
of his medical studies with Dr. William Bruce, he felt a gene-
rous gratitude for the instruction and attention which he had
received from him, and endeavoured to requite them by ad- _
vising with hisson, and promoting his views, as far as lay in his
power. Here commenced a friendship which increased with
advancing years, and terminated but with life. At this period,
young Bruce began to evince a desire to oppose the inclination
of his father and friends by studying medicine ; this study, with-
out their knowledge, and while a student of the arts in the
senior class, he commenced by attending Dr. Romayne’s lec-
tures. Such was the strong bent of his mind towards the study
of medicine, and its collateral physical pursuits, that the per-

~

Biographical Notice of Dr. Bruce. 301

suasion and remonstrances of his friends proved alike ineffec-
tual, and he soon gave free scope to the prevailing inclination.

The collection and examination of minerals, a pursuit not
then at all attended to in this country, was his particular relief
from other studies ; for even during his recreation, he was ever
on the look-out for something new or instructing in mineralogy.

Dr. Romayne being about visiting Europe, young Bruce pur-
sued his studies with Samuel Bard, M.D. ; and having attended
the usual courses in Columbia College, he left the United
States for Europe in 1798, and in 1800 he obtained the degree
of doctor in medicine from the University of Edinburgh, after
defending a Thesis, De Variola Vaccina.

Having now finished his medical studies, he was prepared to
visit the continent of Europe with peculiar advantage ; for his
continued attachment to mineralogy, a liberal distribution of
American specimens then comparatively new in Europe, and
his social habits and dispositions, which were very conciliating,
secured him the best introductions from Edinburgh, and laid
the foundation of permanent friendships.

During a tour of two years, he visited France, Switzerland,
and Italy; and collected a mineralogical cabinet of great value
and extent. After his return to England, he married in Lon-
don, and came out to New-York in the autumn of 1803, to en-
ter on the active duties of a practitioner of medicine.

Previous to the year 1805, the practice of physic in the state
of New-York was regulated by no public authority, and of
course was not in the happiest condition to promote the re-
spectability and usefulness of the profession. To remove, as
far as possible, the existing inconveniences, Dr. Bruce became
an active agent, and in conjunction with Dr. Romayne and
other medical gentlemen of New-York, succeeded in establish-
ing the state and county medical societies, under the sanction
of the state legislature. This act ‘may be considered among
the first efforts made in this country to reduce medicine toa
regular science, by investing the privileges of medical men in
the body of the members of the profession.”

In the organization of the College of Physicians and Sur-
geons of the state of New-York, Dr. Bruce and Dr. Romayne

302 Bigraphical Notice of Dr. Bruce.

were eminently active, and by their united exertion and perse-
verance, (opposed by much professional talent) they obtained
a charter from the regents. In this new institutien, as profes-
sor of the materia medica, and of his favourite pursuit, mine-
ralogy, he exhibited the fruits of arduous study, with a dignity
of character, and urbanity of manner, which commanded the
respect of the profession, and the regard of the students.

The ruling passion in Dr. Bruce’s mind, was a love of natu-
ral science, and especially of mineralogy. Towards the study of
this science, he produced in his own country a strong impulse,
and he gave it no small degree of eclat. His cabinet, composed
of very select and well characterized specimens ; purchased
by himself, or collected in his own pedestrian and other tours
in Europe, or, in many instances, presented to him by dis-
tinguished mineralogists abroad; and both in its extent, and
in relation to the then state of this country, very valuable,
’ soon became an object of much attention. That of the late
B. D. Perkins, which, at about the same time, had been formed
by Mr. Perkins in Europe, and imported by him intothis coun-
try, was also placed in New-York, and bothcabinets (for both
were freely shown to the curious, by their liberal and courte-
ous proprietors) contributed more than any causes had ever
done before, to excite in the public mind an active interest in
the science of mineralogy.*

Dr. Bruce, while abroad, had been personally and intimately
conversant with the Hon. Mr. Greville, of Paddington Green,
near London, a descendant of the noble house of Warwick, the
possessor of one of the finest private cabinets in Europe, and
a zealous cultivator of mineralogy. Count Bournon, one of ~
those loyal French exiles, who found a home in: England, du-
ring the storm of the French revolution, was almost domesti-
cated at Mr. Greville’s, and was hardly second to any man in
mineralogical, and particularly in crystallographical knowledge.

* The collection of Mr. Perkins became, in 1807, (partly by the liberality of its
possessor, and partly by purchase,) the property of Yale College, and is now
in the cabinet of ‘that institution. It is believed that few cabinets of equal
extent, ever contained more instructive and beautiful specimens, with less that is
unmeaning or superfluous. The cabinet of Dr. Bruce has, since his death, been

purchased by a gentleman in New-York, for 5000 dollars. Edttor.

~

Biographical Notice of Dr. Bruce. 303

His connexions with men of science on the continent, were of
the first order, and to be familiar at Mr. Greville’s, and with
Count Bournon, was to have access to every thing connected
with science in England and France. Dr. Bruce was also at
home at Sir Joseph Banks’s, the common resort of learned and
illustriousmen. Thus he enjoyed every advantage in England,
and when he went to the continent, the abundant means of in-
troduction which he possessed, brought him into contact with
the distinguished men of Paris, and of other cities which he
visited. The learned and estimable Abbé Haiiy was among
his personal friends and correspondents; and many others
might be mentioned in the same character, whose names are
among the first in the ranks of science, in various countries of
Europe.

Returned to his own country, after being so long familiar
with the fine collections in natural history, and especially in
mineralogy, in various countries in Europe, Dr. Bruce mani-
fested a strong desire to aid in bringing to light the neglected
mineral treasures of the United States. Hesoon became a fo-
cus of information on these subjects. Specimens were sent to
him from many and distant parts of the country, both as dona-
tions and for his opinion respecting their nature. In relation
to mineralogy he conversed, he corresponded extensively, both
with Europe and America ; he performed mineralogical tours ;
he kindly sought out and encouraged the young mineralogists
of his own country, and often expressed a wish to see a journal
of American mineralogy upon the plan of that of the School of
Mines at Paris. This object, it is well known, he accomplished,
and in 1810, published the first number of this work. Owing
to extraneous causes, it was never carried beyond one volume ;
but it demonstrated the possibility of sustaining such a work in
the United States, and will always be mentioned in the history
of American science, as the earliest original purely scientific
journal of America.

Dr. Bruce had, in a high degree, the feelings of a man of sci-
ence. He was ever forward to promote its interests, and both
at home and abroad, was considered as one of its most distin-
guished American friends. /

304 Scientific Intelligence.

Many strangers of distinction came introduced to him, and
his urbanity and hospitality rarely left him without guests at
his board. During the latter part of his life, he seems to have
been less interested in science. His journal had been so long
suspended, that it was considered as virtually relinquished ; his
health was undermined by repeated attacks of illness, and sci-
ence and society had to lament his sudden departure, when he
had scarcely attained the meridian of life.

He died in his native place on the 22d of February, 1818,
of an apoplexy, in the 41st year of his age.

INTELLIGENCE.
—=—6GIe—
Art. XIX. 1. Dr. J. W. Wesster’s Lectures.

Dr. J. W. Wesstrer, some months since, commenced a
course of Lectures in the town of Boston, on Geology and
Mineralogy. Having finished his first course, he is now oc-
cupied with a second on ihe same subjects, and we understand
receives the patronage of some of the most respectable citi-
zens of Boston and its vicinity. He makes Geology the ground-
work of his plan, and fills up by describing the metals and
minerals met with in each class of rocks, after the rock has
been noticed. A pretty full account is given of the coal for-
mations, (several of which Dr. W. has visited) and of the.
modes of searching and boring. <A view is given of the for-
mations of Paris and the Isle of Wight, with specimens from
those districts. !

In the volcanic part, a description (from personal observa-
tion) is given of St. Michael’s. The structure of veins ; the
forming and destroying effects of water; the physiognomy of
the dry land and submarine; the origin of islands and coral
reefs, and a view of the principal mountain ranges throughout
the world conclude the course.

~

Cf .
Scientific’ Inielhgence. 305

2. Dr. Webster’s Cabinet.

Dr. Webster, having spent two or three years in Europe,
in professional studies, during which time he devoted much
attention to mineralogy and geology, with the ample aids
afforded by the cabinets and distinguished teachers in Scotland,
France, and England, has reeently returned to his own coun-
try, and has brought with him a very select and considerably
extensive cabinet of minerals, with which, and with American
specimens, he illustrates his lectures. We understand that
the collection contains some thousand specimens, and is good
in the English and Scotch minerals ; also in the Siberian cop-
pers ; it contains a suite of three hundred geological specimens
from Freyberg, from granite to gravel. The geological part
is extensive, and was increased by numerous pedestrian tours
in England and Scotland; most of the geological specimens
have been examined, in company with Professor Jameson.
The volcanic part is good, from the extensive opportunities
which Dr. Webster enjoyed in the Azores, in which, on his
return to this country, he spent some time, and found much to
interest him. His observations will soon be given to the pub-
lic, in a work entitled Remarks on the Azores or Western Islands.

It is well known that they are volcanic, and of course afford
the usual volcanic substances. The most interesting part is
that occupied by the boiling fountains, in many respects similar
to the Geysers of Iceland, excepting that the water is not
ejected to any considerable height ; but the incrustations, the
sinter, and sulphur, are every way equal to any specimens
which Dr. Webster saw in Sir G. Mackenzie’s collection.

We are much gratified in noticing both what Dr. Webster
has done and is still doing. We are persuaded that he will’
do much towards promoting the cultivation of American mine-
ralogy and geology, and Seperially.s in the enlightened commu-
nity in which he resides.

We cordially wish him success, and trust that it will be en-
sured by the patronage of the citizens of Boston.

Von. I....No. 3. 24

306 Scientific Intelligence.

3. Supposed identity of Copal and Amber. ~

A correspondent, whose paper is withheld from publication
till some additional experiments can be made, conceives that
copal and amber are originally the same substance, and the
product of the same tree.

4, Tue Neoronite.—(A supposed new mineral.)

Extract of a letter from Dr. H. H. Hayden of Baltimore, to the
Editor, dated January 5, 1819.

“¢ It (the necronite) occurs in a primitive marble, or lime-
stone, which is obtained 21 miles from Baltimore, and a small
distance from the York and Lancaster road. It was first no-
ticed by myself at Washington’s monument, in which this mar-
ble is principally employed.

“It occurs, for the most part, in isolated masses in the
blocks, or slabs, both in an amorphous and crystallized state.
It is most commonly associated with a beautiful brown mica,
of the colour of titanium; small but regular crystals of sul-
phuret of iron, tremolite, and small prismatic crystals of tita-
nium, which are rare. The form of the crystals is a rhom-
boid, approximating very much to that of the felspar, and
which has inclined some to consider itas such. Also, the hex-
aedral prism, resembling that of the beryl. This form is rare,
and has not, as yet, I believe, been found complete. Its colour
is a bluish white, and clear white. Its structure much resem-
bles felspar, being lamellar; sometimes opaque, semi-trans-
parent and transparent, at least in moderately thin pieces. It
scratches glass, carbonat of lime, and even felspar, in a slight
degree. In all our efforts, it has been found infusible, per se,
or with borate of soda, and even from all the force of heat
that could be excited in a smith’s furnace, it came out un-
changed in any degree. The acids seem to have no sensible
effect upon it, either cold or hot. This is all that I can say
of it at present, except thatit possesses a most horrid smell.*

* On account of its peculiar cadaverous odour Dr. Hayden propases to call this
mineral (should it prove to be a new one) Necronite, from the Greek Nexeoc.

*
¥
- a

ste

Scientific Intelligence. 307

I have since found in a marble of the same kind, but from a dif-
ferent quarry, and a few miles distant from the first, a quartz
almost as fetid as the necronite, and likewise associated with
small prisms of titanium.

** These substances carry with them a degree of interest
in another point of view. They seem to invalidate the
opinion that the fetid smell of secondary limestone, slate, &c.
is derived from the decomposition of animal matter. As their
gangue is decededly:a rock of primitive formation.”

Another new mineral observed by Dr. Hayden.

‘*« Exclusive of the interest which the necronite has excited
with me and several others, 1 have besides stumbled upon
another substance, if possible still more interesting. I dis-
covered it in an imperfect state, about 4 years since, but not
until recently have I been able to find it perfect, in beautiful
garnet coloured cubic crystals } of-an inch square or nearly.
These crystals are very liable or subject to decomposition, in
which state they present a perfect but spongy cube. Although
they resemble the cubic zeolite, yet they have nething of its
character with them besides.”

Remark.

Dr. Hayden without doubt alludes to the chabasie of the
Abbé Haiiy, formerly but inaccurately called the cubic zeolite ;
for it is really a rhomboid very nearly approaching a cube—
its angles being 93° 48’, and 86° 12.

5. Preservation oF Deap Boptgs.

From Thenard’s Chemistry, vol. iii. Paris ed. p. 713.

The author declines describing the methods of embalming
commonly employed, and preceeds to describe the mode which
was for the first time employed by Dr. Chaussier.

** This process consists in placing the dead body thoroughly
emptied and washed, in water kept constantly saturated with
corrosive sublimate. This salt gradually combines with the
flesh, gives it firmness, renders it imputrescible, and incapable
ef being attacked by insects and worms.

308 Scientific Intelligence.

“‘ T have seen, (adds the author) a head thus prepared,
which had been exposed alternately to the sun and rain during
several years, without having suffered the slightest change.
It was very little deformed, and easily recognized, although
the flesh had become as hard as wood.”

6. MarcuEes KINDLING WITHOUT FIRE.

(From Thenard’s Chemistry, Vol. ii. p. 525.)

This match is prepared by mingling two parts of the oxy-
muriate of potash and one of sulphur, which by means of a
little gum is attached to a common sulphur match. This match
on being dipped into, or rather slightly wet with, strong sul-
phuric acid, (oil of vitriol) immediately catches fire.

The author has not added the caution that the sulphur and
salt should be pulverized separately; if rubbed together in a
mortar, they will explode with some danger to the operator,
provided the quantity be over a few grains.

Matches made upon this principle, have been for sometime
made and sold in this country. They are sometimes put up
in little japanned cases with a small phial, from which when in-
verted with the mouth open, nothing will drop, and yet the
match kindles on being thrust in quite to the bottom. The
truth is, these bottles contain a little amianthus moistened with
sulphuric acid, which thus kindles the match, but as the acid
soon weakens by attracting water from the air, it is better to
use a phial of the acid in the liquid state. A few drops answer
the purpose, and when this is weakened, it is easily renewed.

7. Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.

Our opinion of this work was fully expressed in the review
of it in our first number. In the Edinburgh Review for Sep-
tember, 1818, this work is again reviewed, and in a manner
which must gratify every friend to American science. It will
be necessary to cite only a single sentence. After commend-
ing the condensed and honest maygner in which the work is print-
ed, (for they say, that the same matter which here fills one vo-
lume would in England have been spread over three,) the re-

Scientific Intelligence. 309

viewer adds, ‘‘ We should be glad to see it reprinted exactly
upon the plan of the original ; and we have no doubt that it
would be found the most useful work on mineralogy in our lan-
guage.’’ More need not be—more scarcely could be said.

8. A new Alkali.

A new alkali has recently been discovered in Sweden, by
M. Arfwedson. It is found in the petalite, a mineral from
Utoen, in Sweden, in a proportion not over 5 pr. ct.; also in
the triphane or spodumene, in the proportion of 8 per cent.
and in what is called crystallized lepidolite, in the proportion
of 4 per cent. In its general properties it very nearly resem-
bles the other alkalies. When heated in contact with platinum
it acts on it. In the galvanic circuit it was decomposed “ with
bright scintillations, and the reduced metal being separated,
afterward burnt.”’ This metal resembles sodium. The new
alkali has been called lithia. (Jour. of Science of the Roy. Inst.)

9. Ignited Platinum Wire.

In our last we mentioned the lamp without flame, the igni-
tion of platinum wire being sustained by means of the vapou
of alcohol. :

Sir H. Davy has discovered that the vapour of camphor
answers the same purpose: “ Ifa piece of camphor, or a few
small fragments in a heap, be placed in any convenient situa-
tion, as on ashilling, the bottom of a glass, &c. and a piece of pla-
tinum wire, either coiled or pressed up together, be heated
and laid upon it, the platinum will glow as long as any camphor
remains, and will frequently light it up into a flame.”’

Jour. Roy. Inst.
10. Red Rain.

A red rain fell in Naples, (March 14, 1818,) the common
people were much alarmed, and called it blood or /fire.

An earthy powder was collected, which when dry was yel-
low, unctuous, and of an earthy taste; its specific gravity
2.07.

Its analysis presented silex 33—alumine 15.5—chrome 1.
iron 14.5—carbonic acid 9., and a combustible substance of a
carbonaceous nature.

310 Scientific Intelhgence.

It is thought that this powder had not a volcanic origin, and
that the presence of chrome assimilates it with meteoric
stones. Ibid.

11. Gnephalium.

Professor Ives has discovered a new species of gne-
phalium with decurrent leaves, of which a plate and descrip-
tion will appear in our next number.

12. Augite.

M. Haiiy has united the fassalite and the bakalite with -

the sahlite, a sub-species of augite. (See Mem. of the Muse-
um of Nat. Hist. vol. 3.)

13. A New Vegetable Alkali,
Has been found by Messrs. Pelletier and Caventon in the
Feve St. Ignace and the Nux Vomica. It has been named the
vaucquelin, in honour of M. Vaucquelin. (Journal de Physi- -
que, for Aug. 1818.)

14. New Minerals.
Two new mineral species have been discovered, the scor-
rodite from Schnuburg in Saxony, and the tungstate of lead
from Zinnwald in Boliemia. Ibid.

15. New Metal.
A new metal has been discovered by Berzilius, in the mines
of Fahlun in Sweden, to which he has given the name of Sele-
nium. Ibid. ’

16. Pure Alumine.
A large bed of this substance, perfectly pure, has been found
at Argenton, Department de L’Endre. Ibid.

17. Collections of American Minerals.

We are informed that under the auspices of Col. Gibbs, a
collection of American minerals by states, according to the ar-
rangement of the minerals of the departments of France, in
the cabinet of the school of mines at Paris, was begun some
time since, at the rooms ef the Hist. Society in New-York ;
and recently in the University of Cambridge. In the arrange-

~

Scientific Inteltigence. 3il

ment of the latter, he has been assisted by Dr. J. W. Webster,
lecturer on mineralogy and geology in Boston.

18. C. S. Rafinesque, Esq.

We are requested to announce that a Journal of this gentle-
man’s ‘‘ Travels and Discoveries in the West, will be publish-
ed this year by Cramer and Spear of Pittsburg, and that the
results of his zoological and botanical labours consist in the dis-
covery of about 15 new genera, and 180 new species of plants ;
about 75 new genera, and 600 new species of animals, where-
of nearly 70 are new fishes, 20 new quadrupeds, 30 new rep-
tiles, 112 new shells, 250 new fossils, &c.’’ ‘‘ He has inquired
_ how the deep valleys have been excavated, where lakes exist-
ed, where the old falls of the Ohio were, the extent and origin
of the coal region, &c.”’

19. Medical College of Ohio.

Extract of a letter from Cincinnati, Jan. 10th, 1819.

The legislature of the state of Ohio have just established a
medical college in this city, and have by an unanimous vote
passed a law incorporating the Faculty. In the act, Dr. Sa-
muel Brown of Alabama is named as Professor of Anatomy, Dr.
Daniel Drake of Cincinnati, Professor of the Institutes and
Practice of Medicine, Dr. Coleman Rogers, Professor of Sur-
gery, and Dr. Slack, Professor of Chemistry. The other Pro-
fessors are to be appointed by the Faculty, and it is believed
that Dr. Richardson of Lexington, Kentucky, will be called to
the Obstetrical chair. Very high expectations are entertained
of the importance of this institution in the west.

20. Notes on Ohio.

Caleb Atwater, Esq. of Circleville, Ohio, has issued propo-
sals for publishing the above work, (mentioned in our last num-
ber) with a prospectus exhibiting its principal features. We
doubt not it will contain valuable information concerning a very
interesting portion of the United States, and every effort on the
part of men of intelligence and enlarged views, to make the
western and southwestern states better known, deserves, and it
is believed will receive, adequate support. )

ae Scientific Intelligence.

21. Discovery of American Tungsten and Tellurium.

Neither of these metals, so far as we are informed, has been
announced as existing in either of the Americas. It is well
known to mineralogists, that tungsten is very rare, and that tel-
lurium is found only in Transylvania.

We have now the pleasure to state that both these metals
exist in the Bismuth mine, in the town of Huntington, parish
of New Stratford, in Connecticut, 20 miles west of New-Haven.

During the examination of some ores, brought to us by Mr.
Ephraim Lane, the proprietor of this mine, we obtained the
tungsten in the state of yellow oxid, and the tellurium in the
metallic state.

The tungsten is stated to be abundant in the mine ; it is the
ferruginous species, known to mineralogists by the name of
wolfram. .

We cannot yet say whether the tellurium is abundant, hav-
ing obtained it from only two pieces ; from these we extracted
also tungsten, so that it may possibly constitute a new mineral
species. Further particulars will be given in our next Number.

22, Mr. Sheldon’s Application of Chesnut Wood to the Arts
of Tanning and Dying.
REMARKS. |

A considerable time since, we were confidentially made
acquainted with the discovery detailed in the following letter.
We have repeated the most important of Mr. Sheldon’s expe-
riments, both in relation to tanning and dying, and are well sa-
tisfied that the discoverer has not overrated, or erroneously
estimated, the value of his own results. We are persuaded .
that the highly useful arts alluded to, will derive important aid
from the use of a material so abundant and cheap as chesnut
wood.

. To Professor Silliman.

Spring field, Mass. Feb. 27, 1819.
Dear Sir,

I SEND you a more particular account of the newly disco-
vered properties of the chesnut.

~

Scientific Intelligence. 313

This tree, Fagus Castanea, Linn. is very abundant in New-
England and the middle states ; and occurs in the mountainous
districts, as far southward as South-Carolina, or perhaps even
Georgia. Itis one of the stateliest trees of the forest ; scarcely
less distinguished by the beauty of its foliage, than by the du-
rability of its wood.

By repeated analyses, conducted with the minutest attention
to every circumstance which could ensure accuracy, it appears,
incredible as it may seem, that the chesnut wood contains twice
as much tannin as ross’d* oak bark, and six-sevenths as much
colouring matter (which gives a black with iron,) as logwood.
_T am aware that nothing could be farther from the common ap-
prehension than such results; but the uniform success of a
great variety of experiments in tanning and dying, in addition
to the other kind of evidence, should satisfy the most incre-
dulous.

The leather tanned with it, has, in every instance, been su-
perior to that tanned in a comparative experiment, with oak
bark ; being firmer, less porous, and at the same time more
pliable. The reason for this difference, will probably be
found in the hagh state of oxygenizement of the bark, particu-
larly of the epidermis, by which it is rendered to a certain
degree acrid and corrosive. Dr. Bancroft was perhaps the
first who noticed the oxygenizement of barks. He attributes
the dark brown colour of the epidermis of his quercitron, to
this cause ; and as a confirmation of the idea, I have observed
that ink made of the epidermis of another kind of bark, though:
at first not to be distinguished by the colour from that made’.
of the cellular and cortical parts, is incomparably less perma-
nent.

As a material for making ink, the woed of the chesnut is
probably unrivalled. Combined with iron in any proportion,
it gives, as it is dilute or concentrated, a pure blue or blue-
black ; while galls, sumach, &c. &c. unless combined with a
greater proportion than is consistent with the highest degree
of permanency, afford a black more or less inclining to a red-

* That is, the inner bark deprived of the epidermis or outer-bark, by the shay-
ing knife.

Vor. 1.:..No. 3. 95

314 Scientific Intelligence.

dish brown. The lake of the chesnut is indeed a blue, and not
to be distinguished by the eye from indigo ; but when diffused
on paper, this same substance becomes an intense shining black.
In dying, little difference is observable between the chesnut
and galls, and sumach, except that the former has a rather
greater affinity for wool, &c. than the latter, and of course re-
quires less boiling. Its permanency has been completely
tested by long exposure to the sun and the weather; but no
doubt can exist on this head, if the position of Berthollet be
true, that permanent blacks are formed only by the combina-
tion of iron and tannin.

To prepare the chesnut wood for the purposes of eaulaeel a
mode has been devised for reducing it to a suitable degree of
fineness. This method consists in the application of knives,
either in the direction of, or transversely to the grain, by arota-
tory motion. This mode obviously involves the greatest possible
economy of moving power. Messrs. B. and M. Stebbins, of
West-Springfield, who are making arrangements for going large-
ly into the exportation of the article, have in construction a
machine upon this plan. ef

As might be expected, the inspissated aqueous extract of the
chesnut, bears a near resemblance in many particulars, to ca-
techu. Professor Dewey, of William’s College, who at my re-
quest, has gone through an extensive and elaborate course of
experiments, informed me that he obtained a quarter more of
the gelatinous precipitate from the former, than from the latter.
By the taste, the two substances are not to be distinguished,
except that the former is more pungent. It leaves upon the
tongue, the same permanent and refreshing sweetness, for -
which the other is so much prized in the east ; where it is used
as an article of luxury, with betel nut. Might not the extract
be advantageously substituted for catechu, in the celebrated —
life preserving composition of Dr. Pearson ; the object being
to concentrate the greatest possible quantity of nutritious and
tonic substances in the smallest weight. ra

The colouring properties of the two substances, are entirely
different. After the discovery, twelve or fifteen years since, of
the composition of the terra japonica, attempts were made in
England to introduce it into the materia tingentia, as a substi-

Scientific Intelligence. 31a

tute for galls ; but unfortunately, like the extract of quercitron,
it affords with iron nothing but a meagre olive ; and Dr. Ban-
croft states, that in a great number of trials, he was unable, by
the greatest accumulation, to produce any thing like a black,
even upon wool, much less upon cotton and silk.

A singular fact, which I observed in the course of my expe-
riments, is worthy of notice. I had prepared for a certain
purpose, solutions from the wood of the trunk of a tree, about
three feet, and from that ofa limb about three inches in di-
ameter. The same quantity of wood and of the solvent was
employed in both cases. On adding to each the same quan-
tity of the solution of gelatine, abundant precipitates immedi-
ately appeared, as usual, apparently much the same in quantity ;
but to my astonishment, the size of the several congeries in
each, bore a near proportion to that of the sticks from which
they were obtained, not differing much from that of middling
and of very small flakes of snow. Is not this an extraordinary
fact, evincive of a complication in the arrangement of these
bodies hitherto unsuspected. May it not at some future pe-
riod, lead to a nomenclature of precipitates ; affording, like the
chrystallography of Hatiy, a new and accurate mode of determin-
ing the compositions of substances ; and perhaps throwing light
upon the obscure subject of chemical, or if you please, electro-
chemical affinities. The size of astick might probably be as-
certained with almost as much precision, as by actual admea-
surement. The solutions in this experiment, were formed by
maceration in cold weather. When hot water was employed,
and the process was completed in two or three hours, the ap-
pearance of the precipitate was very different, the congeries
being smaller, irregular, and not well defined.

I have only to add, that having taken measures to secure the
‘discovery, both in this country and Europe, it is my wish to
bring itinto general use as speedily as possible.

I am, Sir, very respectfully,
Your obedient servant,
WILLIAM SHELDON.

P. S. Ina short sities for some future number, I may send

you an account of the operation of the machine, and of some
other particulars.

316 Scientific Intelligence.

23. Additional note concerning the Tungsten and Tellurium. »

We have not room to insert in the present number, a de-
scription and a chemical examination of the ores of tungsten and
tellurium recently discovered in Connecticut ; they will ap-
pear in our next.

In the mean time it may be stated, that the tungsten and tel-
lurfum are found blended in the same pieces, but whether in
mere mixture, or in chemical combination, is not yet quite de-
termined. Many specimens of the tungsten exist without the
tellurium, but every piece which has afforded tellurium has al-
so afforded tungsten, and in greater abundance. Even in well
defined crystals, both metals have been found in the same crys-
tal, and where the external appearance was homogeneous. In
other specimens a difference seems to be apparent, and a pro-
per ore of tellurium appears to be blended with a proper ore
of tungsten. This latter ore is the wolfram, composed of oxid
of tungsten, or as some choose to say, tungstic oxid combined ~
with iron and manganese. The crystals, however, are octahe-
dral, a fact which we believe is not mentioned of this species by
authors, although this form is found in the calcareous tungsten.

pe

The Bismuth mine in which these ores are found is the
property of Mr. Ephraim Lane. Letters addressed, post paid,
to him at New Stratford, town of Huntington, Connecticut,
will find him through the Post Office ; and he will, for a rea-
sonable compensation, pack boxes more or less extensive, for
mineralogists and others. As Mr. Lane is by occupation a
farmer, and is obliged to blast a quartz gangue in order to ob-
tain his specimens, he cannot be expected to transmit them
gratis. His mine, which has been sunk only ten feet, affords”
native bismuth, native silver, magnetical and common iron py-
rytes, and copper pyrites, (the two latter crystallized) ga-
lena, blende, tungsten, tellurium, &c.

It is expected that the shaft willsoon be sunk deeper, when
probably a more abundant supply of good specimens will be
obtained.

N.B. The silver and galena are the least abundant.
_ March 8th, 1819.

é
; a
wr a ae y by y IY As iq; at a sea d het oft" y
phtt-455 CONTENTS.
at z t Q- od eted fae ety ny vets
a a % : : —— ay ho

ci es
eM odd of Si

md

cnoLosy;, TOPOGRAPHY, AND» MINERALOGY.

ot he

Art. I. On the Geology, Mossecdoun, seman and Cu-

riosities of Parts of Virginia, Tennessee, and |

of the Alabama and Mississippi Territories,

Page

_ &c: with Miscellaneous Remarks, &c. In a |

_ Letter to the Editor. By the Rev. Elias

>. e.» Cornelius...
pi I. On the Origin of nel By Mr. R. w. Wells,
Art. III. Sketch of the Mineralogy and Geology of the
. Vicinity of | Williams’ College, Williamstown,
Mass. By Professor Dewey, of Williams’
College, in a letter to the Editor. . . .
Art. IV. On the Tourmalines and other . Minerals found
be: at Chesterfield and Goshen, Massachusetts, by
Col. George Gibbs. . . onpy
Art. V. Observations on the cea Pas cate with

the Gneiss range of Litchfield county, by Mr. -

John P. Brace, of Litchfield, Conn. .

BOTANY.

Art. VI. An Acubsiit of two North American Sredics of
ne, oe Rottbéllia, discovered on the Sea-coast in the
we hls State of Georgia, by Dr. William Rayip. of
ee Philadelphia... .
Art. VIL. Floral Calendar Kepe at Deerield, /Madeadhii-
oh setts, with Miscellaneous. Remarks, by Dr.
- Stephen W. Williams, of Deerfield. :
Art. VIII. Description and Natural Classification of the
Genus Floerkea, by C. S. Rafinesque, Pro-
fessor of Botany and Natural History in the
Transylvania University, Lexington, Ken.
a

317
331

373

ul

Art.

Art.
Art.

Art.

Art.

Art.

Art.

Art.

CONTENTS.

IX. Descriptions of Three New Genera of Plants,

from the State of New-York. Cylactis, Ne-
mopanthus, and Polanisia, by Professor C. S.
Rafinesque. . . « ee

X. Notice on the Myosurus Shai, on hi same.
XI, Description of a New Species of re

by Professor E. Ives... . + :

FOSSIL ZOOLOGY, &c. — *

XII. Observations on some Species of Zoophytes,

XM.

. XIV.

XVI.

XVII. Additional Notice of the anit ar Tel- ‘

ii &c. ee Fossil, by Thomas

Say. . ° CP ° e ° » o ° °

ena CHEMISTRY, &c.

Observations on Salt Aictene, and the Influ-
ence of Salt and Saline Air upon Animal and

Vegetable Life. Read before the Lyceum of |

Natural History of New-York, March 7,
1819, by John B. Beck, M.D.

‘Thoughts on Atmospheric oo By Bra:

fessor C. S. Rafinesque.

. XV. On the Effect of Vapour on Flame. “By J.F.
Dana, Chemical Assistant in Harvard Univer-

sity, and Lecturer on Chemistry and Phar-

macy in Dartmouth College.

Analysis of the Harrodsburg Salts, be Ed-
ward. D. Smith, M. D. Professor of Che-
mistry and Mineralogy in the South: Carolina
College.

lurium, mentioned in our last Number.

XVIII. A Substitute for Woulfe’s or Nooth’s Appa-

ratus, by Robert Hare, M. D. Professor of

_ Chemistry in the Medical Department of the

University of Pennsylvania, and Member of
various Learned and Scientific Societies. .

~

Page
377
379

380

~381

388

397

. “ 410

‘CONTENTS. “Tit

Pape
Art. xx A New Theory of Galvanism, supported by
some Experiments and Observations made by
means of the Calorimotor, a new Galvanic
Instrument. Read before the Academy of
Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, by Robert
Hare, M. D. Professor of Chemistry in the
Medical Department of the University of
Pennsylvania, and Member of various Learned

pf tae Dod la iimaiteal e RRRR T H

MATHEMATICS.

Art. XX. An improved Method of obtaining the Formule
for the Sines and Cosines of the Sum and Dif-
ference of two Arcs, by Professor Strong, of
Hamilton College, Sei werngeect).. Le /4e4

MISCELLANEOUS.

Art. XXI. An Account of several Ancient Mounds, and of
two Caves, in East Tennessee, by Mr. John -
Henry Kain, of Knoxville. . . . . 428
Art. XXII. Facts illustrative of the Powers and Opeits
tions of the Human Mind in a Diseased State. 431

INTELLICENCE.

Art. XXIII. 1. Discovery of American Cinnabar and

op jogNative Leads, 106.45 sdosesruddestewsssterctocresivees coves 433

i ie 2. Theoretical Views of Professor Hare of Philadel-
) ', phia. set eeencceeceeeeees dnpwabttch: «ihan} 434
in New Work on Cae eats Sela ak che y's. MEME”
4. Botanical . DUET Cans a ehesteue.ceg.§ Ea danaedine 435
ph Gita PEON, FO) DIOS, Oe ibid.

8 eibetehnal tothe “ Remarks on the Gbdidey and
_ Mineralogy of a Section of Massachusetts,
Aenectient River, &c.” contained in Na, =
Art. 1, of this Journal, by E. Hitchcock, A. M. 436

CONTENTS.

7. New~Process for Tanning... .cscocvsgsncccsecs
8, Connexion between Chemistry and Medicine....
UD UTUGCILC, «|. '- <iainld ocheislaipisinias 0 6/6090 p/aisn « visipiiiesla
De LAGU TAY «1s uses ope sias tones oh admins gee

ESTE TFTSE. 7) 2 ag beeing aaa ie rm
Postscript.—American Geological Society. .
MUCK Te ee ett er nt ee USE, Se

“RHE

AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

jun Tut

—— it

ee

GEOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND MINERALOGY.
oe Bette

Art. I. On the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, and Curi-
osities of Parts of Virginia, Tennessee, and of the Alabama
and Mississippi Territories, §-c. with Miscellaneous Re-
marks, &c. Ina Letter to the Editor. By the Rev. Exias

. CoRNELIUs.

(Concluded from page 226.)

I WILL conclude this part of the narrative with a brief no-
tice of a few curiosities occurring in the region which has
been described.

Caves.

1, It is well known that it furnishes a great number of in-
teresting caves. They are found alike in the inclined and ho-
rizontal strata. Some of them are several miles in extent, and
afford fine specimens of earthy and alkaline salts.

Wier’s cave in Virginia has been described by Mr. Kain.
I have in my possession a map of its most important apart-
ments, including its whole length, copied from a survey made
by Mr. J. Pack in Oct. 1806; also the notes of another sur-
yey made in May 1816, by the Rey. Conrad Speece of Augusta

Vor. I.,..No. 4. 26

318 Geology, &c. of Tennessee, &c.
a

county, and Mr. Robert Grattan ; which, with an explanation,
and particular description, I hope to be able to transmit to you
at a future time.

From these surveys, it appears that the whole extent of the
cave, hitherto discovered, does not exceed eight hundred yards.
This was the length stated to me by the guide, when I visited
it in August, 1817. I cannot but think there is some mistake
in Mr. Kain’s remark, that “‘ it is a mile and a half in extent.”’
I spent four hours in examining every accessible part, and by
_ permission of Mr. Henry Bingham, the owner, made a large -
collection of specimens, which were transmitted for the Cabi-
net of Yale College.*

The Natural Bridge.

2. My object in naming this celebrated curiosity, is not to
give a new description of it, but merely to furnish a correct |
account of its dimensions. I visited it in. company with the
Rey. Mr. Huson, who had previously found its height*by a
cord, to be two hundred and ten feet. We now found it by
the quadrant, to be two hundred and eleven feet, and the arch
through the centre about forty feet.

Some have attempted to account for this great curiosity, by
supposing that a convulsion in nature may have rent the hill,
in which it stands, asunder ; thus forming the deep and narrow
defile, over which the rocky strata were left, which constitute
its magnificent arch. If so, the sides should have correspond-
ing parts. Ata distance from:the base, no such correspondence
is perceptible. At the base, the rocks are more or less craggy
and irregular. This led me to take the courses and distances -
of each side. The following was the result.

”

Eastern side presents 4 angular points. || Western side presents 3 angular points.

N. 55° Wz. Ichain. 09 links. 1. N.502 W. Ochain. 45 links.
N. 72 W.1 053 2. N.67 W.1 z eq
N.57 W.1—~ 123 3. N.77 0 W.1l——— 44 —
N. 50 W. 0O—— 33 ——

fed nied

* See Number 1. page 59.

by E. Cornelius. 319

_ The chain used contained 50 links, equal to 33 feet and 4.
The distance between the abutments at the north end of their
bases, is 80 feet ; atthe south end, 66 feet. As they ascend, the
distance is greater. These data give the following diagram.

.

Although considerable resemblance appears at the base, yet
as no such correspondence is visible 40 feet above it, and the

sides for the whole remaining distance to the arch, one hun-
dred and thirty feet, lose their craggy appearance entirely, and
present the smooth, irregular surface of the oldest rocks. I
am led to think that the natural bridge is coeval with a very
remote period of time. Noris there any difficulty even in sup-
posing it to have proceeded from the hand of the Almighty, as
itis ; for great and marvellous are all his works!

The following anecdote will evince the effect which the sight
of the natural bridge produced on a servant, who, without hav-
ing received any definite or adequate ideas of what he was to
see, attended his master to this spot.

On the summit of the hill, or from the top of the Bridge,
the view is not more awful than that which is seen from the
brink of a hundred other precipices. The grand prospect is

_ from below. To reach it you must descend the hill by a blind

path, which winds through a thicket of trees, and terminates

at the instant when the whole bridge with its broad sides and
26 *

320 Geology, &c. of Tennessee, §&c.

lofty arch, all of solid rock, appears perfectly in sight. Not
one in a thousand can forbear to make an involuntary pause :
but the servant, who had hitherto followed his master, without
meeting with any thing particularly to arrest his attention, had
no sooner arrived at this point, and caught a glance of the ob-
ject which burst upon his vision, than he fell upon his knees,
fixed in wonder and admiration.

A River flowing from a Cave.

3. I will next mention @ singular cave, which I do not_re-
member ever to have seen described. It is situated in the
Cherokee country, at Nicojack, the north-western angle in the
map of Georgia, and is known by the name of the Nicojack
cave. Itis 20 miles S. W. of the Look-Out mountain, and half
a mile from the south bank of the Tennessee River. The
Rackoon mountain in which it is situated, here fronts to the -
northeast. Immense layers of horizontal limestone ferm a
precipice of considerable height. In this precipice the cave
commences ; not however with an opening of a few feet, as is
common ; but with a mouth fifty feet high, and one hundred and
sixty wide. Its roof is formed by a solid and regular layer of
limestone, having no support but the sides of the cave, and as
level as the floor ofahouse. The entrance is partly obstructed
by piles of fallen rocks, which appear to have been dislodged
by some great convulsion. From its entrance, the cave con-
sists chiefly of one grand excavation through the rocks, pre-
serving for a great distance the same dimensions as at its mouth.

What is more remarkable than all, it forms for the whole
distance it has yet been explored, a walled and vaulted passage,
for a stream of cool and limpid water, which, where it leaves
the cave, is six feet deep and sixty feet wide. A few years
since, Col. James Ore of Tennessee, commencing early in the’
morning, followed the course of this creek ina canoe, for three
miles. He then came to a fall of water, and was obliged to
return, without making any further discovery. Whether he
penetrated three miles up the cave or not, it is a fact he did
not return till the evening, having been busily engaged in his

‘

by E. Cornelius. ee: ie

subterranean voyage for twelve hours. He stated that the
course of the cave after proceeding some way to the southwest,
became south ; and southeast by south, the remaining distance,

Natural Nitre.

The sides of the principal excavation present a few apart-
ments which are interesting, principally because they furnish
large quantities of the earth from which the nitrate of potash
is obtained. This is a circumstance very common to the caves
of the western country. In that at Nicojack, it abounds, and
is found covering the surfaces of fallen rocks, but in more
abundance beneath them. There are two kinds, one is called
the “clay dirt,’”’ the other the ‘black dirt ;” the last is much
more strongly impregnated than the first. For several years
there has been a considerable manufacture of saltpetre from
this earth. The process is by lixiviation and crystallization,
and is very simple. The earth is thrown into a hopper, and
the fluid obtained, passed through another of ashes, the alkali
of which decomposes the earthy nitrate, and uniting with its
acid, which contains chiefly nitrate of lime, turns it into nitrate
of potash. The precipitated lime gives the mass a whitish co-
lour, and the consistence of curdled milk. By allowing it to
stand in a large trough, the precipitate, which is principally
lime, subsides, and the superincumbent fluid, now an alkaline,
instead of an earthy nitrate, is carefully removed and boiled for
some time in iron kettles, till it is ready to crystallize. It is
then removed again to a large trough, in which it shoots into
crystals. It is now called “rough shot-petre.” In this state
it is sent to market, and sells usually for sixteen dollars per
hundred weight. Sometimes it is dissolved in water, reboiled,
and recrystallized, when it is called refined, and sells for twenty
dollars per hundred. One bushel of the clay dirt yields from
3 to 5lbs. and the black dirt from 7 to 10lbs. of the rough shot-
petre. The same dirt, if returned to the cave, and scattered
on the rocks, or mingled with the new earth, becomes impreg-
nated with the nitrate again, and in a few months may be thrown
into the hopper, and be subjected to a new process.

$22 Geology, &c. of Tennessee, ec.

The causes which have produced the nitric salts of these
caves, may not yet have been fully developed. But itis highly
probable, they are to be ascribed to the decomposition of ani-
mal substances.

It is reasonable to suppose, that in an uncultivated country
they would become the abodes of wild animals, and even of
savage men. That they have been used by the natives as bu-
tial places, is certain. In one which I entered, I counted a
hundred human skulls, in the space of twenty feet square.
All the lesser and more corruptible parts of each skeleton had
mouldered to dust, and the whole lay in the greatest confusion.
T have heard of many such caves, and to this day some of the
Indians are known to deposit their deadin them. From the de-
composition of such substances, it is well known the acid of the
nitric salts arises, and it would of course unite with the lime
every where present, and form nitrate of lime.

Mounds.

4. T have but one more article of curiosity to mention under
this division. It is one of those artificial mounds which occur
so frequently in the western country. I have seen many of
them, and read of more. But never of one of such dimen-
sions as that which I am now to describe.

It is situated in the interior of the Cherokee nation, on the
north side of the Etowee, vulgarly called Hightower River,
one of the branches of the Koosee. It stands upon a strip of
alluvial land, called River Bottom. I visited it in company with
eight Indian chiefs. The first object which excited attention.
was an excavation about twenty feet wide, and in some parts
ten feet deep.. Its course is nearly that of a semicircle; the
extremities extending towards the river, which forms a small
elbow. I had not time to examine it minutely. An Indian
said it extended each way to the river, and had several unex- —
cavated parts, which served for passages to the area which it
. encloses. To my surprise, I found no embankment on either
side of it. But I did not long doubt to what place the earth
had been removed ; for I had scarcely proceeded two hundred

by E. Cornelius. 323

yards, when, through the thick forest trees, a stupendous pile
met the eye, whose dimensions were in full proportion to the
intrenchment. I had at the time no means of taking an accu-
rate admeasurement. To supply my deficiency, I cut a long
vine, which was preserved until I had an opportunity of ascer-
taining its exact length. In this manner I found the distance
from the margin of the summit to the base, to be one hundred
and eleven feet. And judging from the degree of its declivity,
the perpendicular height cannot be less than seventy-five feet.
The circumference of the base, including the feet of three
parapets, measured one thousand one hundred and fourteen
feet. One of these parapets extends from the base to the sum-
mit, and can be ascended, though with difficulty, on horseback.
The other two, after rising thirty or forty feet, terminate in a
kind of triangular platform. Its top is level, and atthe time I
visited it, was so completely covered with weeds, bushes, and
trees of most luxuriant growth, that I could not examine it as
well as | wished. Its diameter, I judged, must be one hundred
and fifty feet. On its sides and summit, are many large trees
of the same description, and of equal dimensions with those
around it. One beach-tree, near the top, measured ten feet
nine inches in circumference. The earth on one side of the
tree, was three and a half feet lower than on the opposite side.
‘This fact will give a good idea of the degree of the mound’s
declivity. An oak, which was lying down on one of the para-
pets, measured at the distance of six feet from the butt, with-
out the bark, twelve feet four inches in circumference. Ata
short distance to the southeast is another mound, in ascending
which I took thirty steps. Its top is encircled by a breast-
work three feet high, intersected through the middle with
another elevation of a similar kind. A little farther is another
mound, which | had not time to examine.

On these great works of art, the Indians gazed with as much
curiosity as any white man. I inquired of the oldest chief, if
the natives had any tradition respecting them; to which he
answered in the negative. I then requested each to say what
he supposed was their origin. Neither could tell: though all |
agreed in saying ; “‘ they were never put up by our people.”

324 Geology, gc. of Tennessee, dc.

It seems probable they were erected by another race, whe
once inhabited the country. That such a race existed, is now
generally admitted. Who they were, and what were the
causes of their degeneracy, or of their extermination, no cir-
cumstances have yet explained. But this is no reason why we
should not, as in a hundred other instances, infer the existence
of the cause from its effects, without any previous knowledge
of its history. |

In regard to the objects which these mounds were designed
to answer, it is obvious they were not always the same. Some
were intended as receptacles for the dead. These are small,
and are distinguished by containing human bones. Some may
have been designed as sites for public buildings, whether of a
civil or religious kind ; and others no doubt were constructed
for the purposes of war. Of this last description, is the Etowee
mound. In proof of its suitableness for such a purpose, I
need only mention that the Cherokees in their late war with
the Creeks, secured its summit by pickets, and occupied it as
a place of protection for hundreds of their women and child-
ren. Gladly would I have spent a day in examining it more
minutely ; but my companions, unable to appreciate my motives,
grew impatient, and I was obliged to withdraw, and leave a
more perfect observation and description to some one else.

Alluvial Formation.

I will now call your attention to the last geological division
which came under my observation. It is the alluvial tract,
extending from the Dividing Ridge already mentioned, to the
Gulf of Mexico. This Ridge is the last range of high land
which I crossed on the journey to New Orleans, and lies about
six hundred miles north of the Gulf of Mexico. Its course at
the place I crossed it, is a little south of west. It divides the
waters of the Tennessee from those which proceed directly
to the gulf. Travellers always observe it. They often men-
tioned it to me as the southern boundary of the stony country.
After crossing it, you see no more limestone; and, which ex-
cites more joy in the traveller, no more of the silicious gravel,

E. Cornehus. 325
by

with which it is associated, and which is so troublesome to the
feet of horses. The soil consists of a soft clay, or light sand,
on which you seldom meet with a stone of any kind. The
surface of the earth is undulating and hilly, but not mountain-
ous. The water-courses do not move rapidly and tumultu-
ously, as in the limestone country ; but form in the soft earth,
deep trenches, through which they glide smoothly and silently
along. The smallest rivulet often has a trench ten feet deep ;
and the earth over which it passes, is continually yielding to
its gentle attrition.

The only minerals which I observed, are sandstone, common
and ferruginous ; silicious pebbles in beds of creeks, and oc-
casionally on the uplands ; earthy ores of iron, particularly
red oxides, and petrifactions of shells, wood, &c. In addition
to these, it may here be mentioned that galena has been found
in small quantities at Gibson’s Port, and at Ellis’s Cliffs, in the
State of Mississippi: acrystal of amethyst, in the same state,
by Mr. Blannerhassett ; and a great variety of useful ochres,
in many places on the banks of the Mississippi.

In the geological map attached to Professor Cleaveland’s Mi-
neralogy, the alluvial country bordering on the Gulf of Mexico,
is represented as terminating at Natchez. But why its termi-
nation is placed here, I am unable to understand. The country
above and below Natchez, so far as it has come under my ob-
servation, presents no difference of appearance in its geology,
or mineralogy. I am aware that at Natchez, when the water
of the Mississippi is lowest, a soft rock is seen, from which
lime has been obtained. But this rock is two hundred feet
below the surface of the adjoining country ; and admitting that
it is a limestone rock, there is no difficulty in supposing it may
constitute the basis of the alluvial deposit which rests upon it.
That the incumbent earth is alluvial, can be doubted, I think,
by no one who has had an opportunity of examining it. By
means of a road, which has been cut obliquely down the side
of the bluff, distinct layers of clay, sand, and pebbles, have
been exposed for the whole distance from the summit to the
base. The same character is observed at a distance from the
river, where the earth has been excavated by washing, or dig-

326 Geology, Se. of Tennessee, &c.

ging. In the vicinity of the town, there is acurious exhibition
of the fact.. A stream of water has worn away the earth to
the depth of fifteen or twenty feet, and is continually length-
ening the chasm, in the direction opposite to its own course.
Thus, as the water flows from the town, the chasm approaches
it. In examining the cause of this fact, | perceived it was
owing chiefly to the difference of cohesion in the alluvial de-
posits, of which the earth is formed. That at the surface,
being a thick loam, wears away with more difficulty than the
deposit below it, which consists of a loose sand. The conse-
quence is, thatthe water, which has once obtained a perpen-
dicular passage of a few inches through the first, washes away
the second with such rapidity, that it is constantly undermining
it. This occasions a perpetual caving in of the surface, in a
direction opposite to the course of the stream. The same fact
is observed in many parts of the country fora great distance
above Natchez. If there be wanting any other fact to prove ~
that the earth on which the town of Natchez stands, is alluvial,
it is found in the effect which the Mississippi has upon the base
of the Natchez bluff. In consequence of a bend in the river,
the whole force of its current is thrown against this base. If
it consisted of solid rock, the river would probably have neo
effect upon it; but of such loose and friable materials is it com-
posed, that the river is continually undermining it, and produ-
cing effects not less to be dreaded than those of an earthquake.
Several years ago, a great number of acres sunk fifty feet or
more below the general surface of the hill ; and in 1805, there
was another caving of that part directly over the small village
at the landing. Several houses were buried in consequence.
of it, and strong fears are entertained by the inhabitants, that
the same cause will yet submerge in the Mississippi, the whole
of the present landing-place.

These facts, I think you will say, furnish satisfactory evi-
dence of the alluvial character of the country at Natchez.
The same character belongs to the whole extent south of the
Dividing Ridge. This may be safely inferred from the general
features of the country. But I have two facts, of a geological
kind, to mention, both of which go to confirm the opinion.

by E. Cornelius. — 327

1. A well was dug in the Choctaw nation, at the agency of
the United States, in the year 1812 or 1813, under the direc-
tion of Silas Dinsmore, Esq. the agent. The excavation was
continued to the depth of one hundred and seventy-two feet.
No water was found. At no great distance from the surface,
marine exuvie were found in abundance. The shells were
small, and imbedded in a soft clay, similar to marine earth,
This formation continued till the excavation ceased. Disper-
sed through it, were found lumps of selenite, or foliated gyp-
sum, some of which were half as large as a man’s fist. Speci-
mens of the earth, the exuvie, and the selenite, have been
transmitted for your examination. This excavation was made
one hundred and twenty miles north northeast of Natchez.
The Pearl River is four miles to the east of the place, and is
the only considerable stream in this part of the country.

2. In the Chickasaw nation, one hundred and seventy miles
north of the Choctaw agency, commence beds of oyster-shells,
which continue to be seen at intervals for twelve miles. Four
miles from the first bed, you come to what is called ‘* Chicka-
saw Old Town,” where they are observed in great abundance.
They are imbedded in low ridges of a white marl. They ap-
pear to be of two kinds. Specimens of each, and also of the
marl, you have received. ‘‘ Chickasaw Old Town,” is a name
now appropriated to a prairie, on a part of which there for-
merly stood a small village of Chickasaws. The prairie is
twenty miles long, and four wide. The shells occur in three
places as you cross it, and again, on two contiguous hills to the
east of it, at the distance of four miles. They do not cover
the surface merely. They form a constituent part of the hills
or plains in which they are found. Wherever the earth has
been washed so as to produce deep gutters, they are seen in
greatest abundance. Nor are they petrifactions, such as are
found in rocks. - They have the same appearance as common
oyster-shells, they lie loose in the earth, and thus indicate a
comparatively recent origin. They occur three hundred miles
northeast of Natchez, and but sixty miles south of the Dividing
Ridge.

328 Geology, &c. of Tennessee, &c.

If the country north of Natchez is alluvial, no one will doubt
it is so from this place to the Gulf of Mexico. At Baton
Rouge, one hundred and forty miles north of New Orleans, you
meet the first elevated land in ascending from the gulf. The
banks of the Mississippi are higher than the interior, and would
be annually overflowed by the river, but for a narrow embank-
ment of earth about six feet high, called the Levee. By
means of this, a narrow strip of land, from half a mile to a
mile in width, is redeemed, and cultivated with cotton and the
sugar cane, to the great advantage of the planter. Generally,
within one mile from the river, there is an impenetrable
morass. The country has every where the appearance of an
origin comparatively recent. Not a rock on which you can
stand, and no mountain to gladden the eye ; you seem to have
left the older parts of creation to witness the encroachments
which the earth is continually making upon the empire of the
sea; and on arriving at the mouth of the Mississippi, you find
the grand instruments of nature in active operation, producing
with slow, but certain gradations, the same results. ©

A destructive Insect.

But I will not enlarge on a fact already familiar. I will ask
your further indulgence only, while I communicate an authen-
tic and curious fact for the information of the zoologist.

In the Choctaw country, one hundred and thirty miles
northeast of Natchez, a part of the public road is rendered
famous on account of the periodical return of a poisonous and
destructive fly. Contrary to the custom of other insects, it .
always appears when the cold weather commences in Decem-
ber, and as invariably disappears on the approach of warm
weather, which is about the first of April. It is said to have
been remarked first in the winter of 1807, during a snow-
storm; when its effects upon cattle and horses were observed
to be similar to those of the gnat and musqueto, in summer,
except that they were more severe. It continued to return
at the same season of the year, without producing extensive

by E. Cornelius. 329

mischief, until the winter of 1816, when it began to be gene-
rally fatal to the horses of travellers. So far as I recollect, it
was stated, that from thirty to forty travelling horses were
destroyed during this winter. The consequences were alarm-~
ing. In the wilderness, where a man’s horse is his chief
dependence, the traveller was surprised and distressed to see
the beast sicken and die in convulsions, sometimes within
three hours after encountering this little insect. Or if the
animal were fortunate enough to live, a sickness followed,
commonly attended with the sudden and entire shedding of the
hair, which rendered the brute unfit for use. Unwilling to
believe that effects so dreadful could be produced by a cause
apparently trifling, travellers began to suspect that the
Indians, or others, of whom they obtained food for their
horses, had, for some base and selfish end, mingled poison.
with it. The greatest precaution was observed. They re-
fused to stop at any house on the way, and carried, for the
distance of forty or fifty miles, their own provision ; but after
all suffered the same calamities. This excited a serious in-
quiry into the true cause of their distress. The fly, which
has been mentioned, was known to be a most singular insect,
and peculiarly troublesome to horses. At length it was ad-
mitted by all, that the cause of the evils complained of could
be no other than this insect. Other precautions have since
been observed, particularly that of riding over the road in-
fested with it in the night ; and now it happens that compara-
tively few horses are destroyed. Iam unable to describe it
from my own observation. I passed over the same road in
April last, only two weeks after it disappeared, and was obliged
to take the description from others. Its colour is a dark
brown ; it has an elongated head, with a small and sharp pro-
boscis; and is in size between the gnat and musqueto.
When it alights upon a horse, it darts through the hair, much
like a gnat, and never quits its hold until removed by force.
When a horse steps to drink, swarms fly about the head, and
crowd into the mouth, nostrils, and ears ; hence it is supposed
the poison is communicated inwardly. Whether this be true
er not, the most fatal consequences result. It is singular,

330 Geology, Sc. of Tennessee, Sc. by E. Cornelius

that from the time of its first appearance, it has never ex-
tended for a greater distance than forty miles, in one direction,
and usually, it is confined to fifteen miles. Inno other part ©
of the country has it ever been seen. From this fact, it would
seem probable that the cause of its existence is local. But
what it is, none cantell. After the warm weather commences,
it disappears as effectually from human observation, as if it
were annihilated. ‘Towards the close of December it springs
up all at once into being again, and resumes the work of de-
struction. A fact, so singular, I could not have ventured to
state, without the best evidence of its reality. All the circum-
stances here related, are familiar to hundreds, and were in
almost every man’s mouth, when I passed through the coun- |
try. In addition to this, they were confirmed by the account
which I received from Col. John M‘Kee, a gentleman of much
intelligence and respectability, who is the present agent of
the general government for the Choctaw nation. He has —
consented to obtain specimens of the insect for your examina-
tion, when it returns again ; and will, 1 hope, accompany the
transmission with a more perfect description than it has been
possible for me to communicate.

In concluding this narrative of facts, I should be glad to
take a comprehensive view of the whole. The bold features
in the geology of the United States, as they are drawn by the
Blue Ridge, the Cumberland with its associated mountains,
and the Dividing Ridge, deserve to be distinctly and strongly
impressed upon the mind. Such is the order and regularity
of their arrangement, that they can hardly fail to conduct the
attentive observer to important results. What has now been.
said of them, is but an epitome of the whole. I trust the
public will soon read, in the pages of your Journal, a detail
more perfect and more interesting. And allow me to suggest,
whether, under the auspices of our learned societies, some
men of science might not be employed and supported in ex-
ploring the country, with the prospect of greatly enlarging
the science of our country, and of enriching our Journals and
Cabinets of Natural History. Tours of discovery have often
been made for other objects, and with success. Our country

R. W. Wells on Prairies. 331

yields to no other in the variety, or the value of its natural
productions. We owe it to ourselves and to the world, to
search them out with diligence and without delay.

Somers, (NV. Y.) Oct. 1818.

Art. II. On the Origin of Prairies.

St. Louis, (Missouri Ter.) March 3, 1819.
Sir,

Tue probable cause of the origin and continuance of prat-
ries has been the subject of much speculation among the
learned and curious. The inquiry is interesting; and many
theories have arisen; but although plausible and ingenious,
they are, in my opinion, unfounded in fact.

I should be glad to see the following remarks, which were
called forth more particularly by the speculations of Caleb
Atwater, Esq. (See No. 2. p. 116. of this work) appear in.
your valuable Journal of Science ; and they are, for that pur-
pose, at your service.

With high respect, I am, Sir, your’s,
R. W. WELLS.
Benjamin Silliman, Esq.

Mr. Atwater, after describing the prairies and barrens, says,
that according to the common opinion, they ‘‘ were occa-
sioned entirely by the burning of the woods,” but, “ erro=
neous information first propagated such an opinion, and blind
credulity has extended it down to us.” Mr. A. goes on to
affirm that, ‘“ wherever prairies and barrens are found,
there, for a long space of time, water once stood, but was
gradually drained off.” The writer of this having often visited
and observed with attention the nature and appearance of the
prairies on the Alleghany mountains, in the states of Ohio, In-
diana, and Illinois, and having long been employed by the
United States as a surveyor in the prairie country of the

332 R. W. Wells on Prairies.

Missouri and Missisippi, thinks he may venture to oppose
these speculations without being thought presumptuous. He
is of opinion, that the vast prairies and barrens, extending
over the greater part of the western states, and over nearly
all Louisiana, were primitively occasioned, and have been
since continued, by the combustion of vegetables, and that water
had no agency in their formation.

In order to prove the high prairies of the state of Ohio to
have been once covered by the waters of Lake Erie, Mr. A.
maintains, that the channel of the Niagara river has been
worn down “ several hundred feet” by the attrition of its
waters. Mr. A. should have shown, that the banks of the
Niagara are, at this time, several hundred feet high, or, like
the Potomac, at Harper’s Ferry, has broken through a moun-
tain ‘“‘ several hundred feet” high ; but neither the one nor
the other is the fact ; the face of the country, on either side
of the river, is comparatively low and champaign ; and were it .
possible for the waters of the lake to rise.considerably above
their present level, they would meet with no obstruction or
impediment, for many miles on either side the river, but
would be precipitated over the cataract, into Ontario, and
down the St. Lawrence to the Atlantic. But supposing there
had been a mountain running between Lakes Erie and Ontario
of sufficient height to prevent the water of the former from
passing into the latter, it must evidently have found other
places through which to escape, and before it would rise
high enough to overflow the elevated region of Madison and
Fayette counties, in Ohio, it would have passed over into the
heads of the Alleghany. But it is impossible to imagine this,
unless we suppose the Atlantic to have been six or seven
hundred feet higher than at present, which, according to
Mr. A. would have made prairie of all the Atlantic states.

The fact of shells and other marine substances having been
found in a few places, by digging in the prairies, proves
nothing, or proves too much, for they are found in equal or
greater quantities all over America, in the sides and near the
summit of the Alleghany mountains ; on the Andes, in South

R. We Weils on Prairies: 333

America, and the Alps, in Europe. The resemblance which
the soil, in the low ‘prairies, and not in the high, bears to the
alluvial, can justly be attributed, it is presumed, to the leaves
and other vegetables and light materials of which they are
composed, having been washed by heavy rains, for ages past,
from the higher to the lower places: This will also account
for the circumstance of trees growing upon the summits of the
hills of steep ascent: being thin and poor, the grass neither
grows sufficiently long or thick to kill the timber when fired.
They could not have been islands in this fairy lake ; because
their summits are frequently much lower than italy prairie
flats a few miles distant. These are facts which will be re-
collected by those who have ever travelled through a prairie
country of any extent.

But suppose it to have been proved, that the waters of Lake
Erie once overspread the state of Ohio, from its present shore
to Chillicothe, (a supposition which I trust has however been
shown to be visionary) does it follow that the prairies were
occasioned by such overflowing? If the water, by covering
the country, prevented the timber from growing, should we
not naturally look for the largest timber on the higher grounds
which would be first forsaken by the waters, and for small
timber on the low grounds, where the water remained longest?
If this be true, (and it is unquestionable) we should then look
for prairies on the low grounds bordering on Lakes Erie,
Huron, and Michigan ; ; and the thickly timbered country
would be on the high land, near the sources of the rivers.
But the contrary is absolutely the fact: we find heavy tim-
bered land, and no prairies, in the low countries north of
the lakes, and none south, either in Michigan territory or
elsewhere, until we arrive near the sources of the rivers. It
is true, that the water standing in pends will prevent the
timber from growing ; but the difference is readily observed
between prairies, properly so called, and those bogs.

But to prove farther that water had no agency in bringing
the prairies into existence, we may mention those on and
near the summit of the Alleghany mountains, (principally iw

Von. I....No. 4. 27

334 R. W. Wells on Prairies

Alleghany county.*) Many of those prairies are ten or
twelve)miles in length, and three or four in width. Will. it
be pretended that the sides. of those mountains were also
lakes ?. Farther—the most extensive prairies known, are the
very high plains immediately west of the Rocky Mountains,
and east of the mountains near the sources of the Arkansaw
and Missouri rivers, extending even on the spurs of those
mountains ; a country the highest perhaps in North America, —
with a great and continued descent to the Pacific on the Ong
side, and to the Gulf of Mexico on the other.

The barrens, also, found in Kentucky, are another pase es
that water had no agency in their formation—they are situate,
it is believed, in the elevated parts of the country exclusively.

The writer of this, deeming it unnecessary to say more, OF
to produce more facts, (although much more may be said, and
many more facts produced) to prove that prairies were not
lakes, will now endeavour to prove that they were occasioned.
by the combustion of vegetables. .

Prairies are found in those countries only that are congenial.
to the growth of grass, and only where the soil is sufficiently
rich to produce it luxuriantly—they are found commonly on
high plains, sufficiently drained to prevent water from re-
maining on them. the whole year; for it is by no means
necessary that they should be always dry; on the contrary,
if they are sufficiently level to prevent the rains from running
off immediately, the grass will grow thicker and higher—but
they must be sufficiently dry to burn, at least once in two or
three years, during the long, dry season, called Indian sum-
mer. It has been universally remarked, that these seasons -
are much longer as we proceed westerly—commencing usually
in October, and continuing a month and a half or two months,
during which the vegetation is killed by the frosts, and dried»
by the sun; the wet prairies are also dried, and before the
season has ieee the erase is perfectly combustible.

* ‘The proper name of these prairies, and of one of the places where they : are
found, being illegible in the MS. we were obliged to omit those names ; we be:
. lieve however that the sense is not injured.— Editor.

R. W. Wells on Prairies: 335

The Indians, it is presumed, (and the writer, from a resi,
dence in their country and with them, is well acquainted with
their customs) burn the woods, not ordinarily for the purpose
of taking or catching game, as suggested by Mr. A. but for
many other advantages attending that practice. If the woods
be not burned as usual, the hunter finds it impossible to kill
the game, which, alarmed at the great noise made in walking
through the dry grass and leaves, flee in all directions at his
approach. Also the Indians travel much during the winter,
from one village to another, and to and from the various hunt-
ing grounds, which becomes extremely painful and laborious,
from the quantity of briers, vines, grass; &c. ' To remedy
these and many other inconveniences, even the woods were
originally burned so as to cause prairies, and for the same
and like reasons they continue to be burned towards the
close of the Indian summer.

~ Woodland is not commonly changed to prairie by one burn-
ing, but by several successive conflagrations ; the first will kill
the undergrowth, which causing a greater opening, and ad-
mitting the sun and air more freely, increases the quantity of
grass the ensumg season : the conflagration consequently in-
creases, and is now sufficiently powerful to destroy the smaller
timber ; and on the third year you behold an open prairie.

Ordinarily, all the country, of a nature to become prairie, is
already in that state ; yet the writer of this has seen, in the
country between aid Missouri and Mississippi, after unusual
dry seasons; more than one hundred acres of woodland to-
gether converted into prairie. And again, where the grass
has been prevented from burning by accidental causes, or the
prairie has been depastured by large herds of domestic cattle,
it will assume, in a few years, the appearance of a young.
forest. Numerous proofs of this fact can be adduced, but a
few shall suffice. The vicinity of St. Louis and St. Charles
affords instances. Both these beautiful places are situated on
what are termed first and second bottoms, or flats—the former
en the Missisippi, the latter on the Missouri; the second or
upper bottoms, in both, are high plains, that commence within

a few hundred yards of the rivers, and extend back many
ae = ,

336 R. We Wells on Priaries.

miles ; all the old French inhabitants will tell. you, that the
prairies formerly came immediately up to those places. Now
the surrounding country for several miles is covered with a
growth of trees of four or five inches diameter, near the
towns where the burning first ceased, and gradually diminishing
in size as you recede, until you at length gain the open prairies.
So the barrens in Kentucky ; many of the first settlers of that
state distinctly recollect when many of those barrens were
clear prairies, now partially covered with small trees. It is
deemed unnecessary to offer more proofs, or additional argu-
ments, in support of the opinion that the prairies were oc¢a-
sioned by fire, and not by water. Indeed one glance at the
maps of those extensive prairie countries, surveyed by order
of government, where the prairies and woodland are distin-
guished and correctly delineated; should carry conviction.
The timber will be there observed to skirt the rivers ; in the
country near their sources a few solitary trees are seen, close
on the banks, secure from the fires, and increasing in numbers
as the rivers increase in size, and the low grounds become
more extensive.

The view given of the prairies by Mr. A. is correct ; but
was certainly painted in the winter season—they are, at that
season, bleak and uncomfortable both to the feelings and
sight; but a full return is made to both when the spring
opens. The prairies (particularly to the west) are then
covered with the richest verdure, interspersed with an
immense variety of wild flowers, that send forth the most
‘grateful odours. Ascend one of the small hills, and you have
a prospect as delightful as it is possible for the imagination to
conceive. Far as the eye can carry you, a delightful country
extends, through which numerous streams wind their serpen-
tine courses, with groves and clumps of trees at intervals upon
their banks. On one hand, at an immense distance, the small
hills and groves are seen rising above the blue horizon; on
the other, the view is pleasantly terminated by the wood on
‘the low grounds skirting the river to which the smaller streams
are tributary—while herds of buffalo, elk, deer, and other
animals, are frequently seen slowly travelling to and from the

Dewey on Geology of Williamstown, &c. 337

watering-places, or grazing on the plains. The inhabited parts
of the country present a prospect still more pleasing ; around
the margin of those extensive rich prairies, numerous habita-
tions are seen, withdrawn a short distance in the wood, from
the winter’s cold and summer’s heat—thetr finely cultivated
fields lie in the prairies, which yield at once to the plough,
without the previous Herculean labour of demolishing the
forest. The area between the farms is a common of pasture to
the numerous herds during the spring, summer, and autumn,
and a small part mowed affords hay for the winter. The
farmer who takes up his habitation in the neighbourhood of
the prairies, has many of the advantages of an old inhabited
country, and all the advantages of the new. a

, Ui es

Sie If. Sketch of the Mineralogy and Geology of the
» Vicinity of Williams?’ College, Williamstown, Mass. By

~ Proressor Dewey, of a College, in a letter to
"the Editor.

Tut fa rains sketch includes a space extending from ome
sack mountain on the east, to the State ef New-York on the
west, and a small distance into Vermont on the north. The
accompanying map shows the relative situation of the streams,
and the principal hills and mountains. The map is an enlarged
copy of Carleton’s map of this part of the state, with one or
two corrections, which truth required. The latitude and lon-
gitude are probably not perfectly accurate.

Williams? College is situated i ina valley, haying on ‘the west
the, hills of the Taconick* range ; on the east, Saddle Mountain,
which separates - it for the most part from Adams ; and on the
north, and northeast, two hills which belong to the southwest-
ern part of the range of the Green Mountains. Hoosack River,
rising several miles at the southeast, and passing threugh the
northeastern part. of Williamstown, winds its course northwest,

* Former orthography, Toghconnuck and Toghconnuc. That of the text de-
viates farther from the Indian, but is later and preferable,

338 Dewey on Geology of Williamstown, &c.

to the Hudson. It is an inconsiderable stream, about six rods
in width, and its current is rapid. From the south, runs Green
River, asmaller stream, and enters the Hoosack one mile north-
east ofthe college. The green colour of this stream, appears to
be caused by a magnesian clay, which is washed from its banks
at the south part of the town. At the west is Westbrook, ris-
ing in Williamstown, and entering the Hoosack one mile anda
half northwest of the college. The soil in this whole tract is
generally clayey, rather light for sucha soil, and very rich. A
gravelly soil appears in a few places, especially at the northern
part. The tnferval on the Hoosaok extends only a small dis-
tance from its banks, rarely exceeding, and often much less,
‘than half a mile, and presents the common appearances of
alluvial land. Rising from ten to twenty feet above this inter-
val, the soil is in various places filled with rolled stones of
quartz and limestone, as if the Hoosack had once been much -
above the banks which confine it at present. It is not impro-
bable that its waters were formerly intercepted by -the hills in
Pownal, five miles at the northwest, forming a small lake in
this valley. : 10 BOR
The hills of the Taconick range, (A*) on which speeds
the line between Massachusetts and New-York, havé’gene-
rally an elevation from twelve hundred to fourteen hun-
dred feet ; Pownal Mountain (B) on the north, about fourteen
hundred ; and Oak hill (D) on the northeast, twelve hundred
feet rita the east college (C.) Saddle Mountain (EF) is an
insulated mass, separated from the Taconick range by the val-
ley of Williamstown, and from Heosack Mountain, ‘by’ the val-
ley in Adams. It lies about south southwest, and is nearly
eight miles in length, and two in breadth. It is composed of
two ranges, the eastern and highest (FG) beingin Adams. The
mountain has its name from two of its peaks, which’ present
at a distance the appearance of the two elevations of a saddle.
The west range (E) is divided into two parts quite to its base,
which with the slope of the east range encloses, on three ida,
an irregular hollow, called the Aylleas (H) The ‘northern

. * See Map. ; simeand

Dewey on Geology of Williamstown, &c. 339

part (E) of the west range is nearly two miles in length, and
rises to the height of eighteen hundred feet ; the southern (I) .
rises abruptly into a peak of the elevation of seventeen hundred
feet. The height of the valley between the two ranges is about
fourteen hundred feet. You enter the Hopper from the west,
passing along a branch of Green River, and a romantic, wild,
and sublime prospect opens before you. Nearly east of the
entrance into the Hopper, lies the highest point of the Saddle,
familiarly called Gray Lock, (F) being about twenty-eight hun-
dred feet above the college, and probably four thousand feet
above the tzde-water of the Hudson at Troy. This is the high-
est land in Massachusetts. About two miles north northeast,
is the northern peak (G) elevated twenty-three hundred feet.
The valley in Adams is bounded on the east by Hoosack
‘mountain, (K) elevated from fourteen hundred to eighteen hun-
dred feet, and extending several miles west of south: it forms
a part of the range which commences at West Rock in Con-
necticut.

‘The country included in this sketch is principally primitive ;
lying on the west of the summit of the primitive range, which
passes southerly into Connecticut. The rocks and minerals
will be mentioned in the following order.

1. Granite. A few pieces have been found at the foot of
Oak hill, one mile northeast of the college. It consists prin-
cipally of feldspar. Four miles east, are large masses of gra-
nite on both sides of the Hoosack, and on ascending Hoosack
mountain they become more numerous. The principal part of
this is quartz, often of a purple colour; the mica black, and
the rocks exceedingly hard. I have never noticed any mine-
rals imbedded in it. The vortex of Pownal mountain is also
granitic. |

2. Gneiss i Mica Slate. I connect these two, because
they are not often distinct, and appear to pass into each other.
They are found in large strata on Hoosack Mountain, on a hill
(L) connected with Saddle Mountain, and on the east side of Sad-
€le Mountain. The highest and the west ridge of Saddle Moun-
tain are micaslate. The Hopper shows the inclination of the
strata quite to the base of the mountain. The inclination is te

340 Dewey on Geology of Williamstown, ec.

the east and northeast, from ten to forty degrees. On the
southwest mountain of Saddle, the strata are bare to the sum-
mit for a considerable distance, and are very fine grained mica
slate, having somewhat the appearance of a soapstone slate.
By this name they are called in Mr. Eaton’s Index to Geology,
Some of the rocks appear to be talcose.. I have been able,
however, to detect but a very minute quantity of magnesia in
any specimens I have tried, though I obtained a considerable
proportion of alumine. The higher hills of the 'Taconick
range are composed principally of a similar slate, lying in the
same direction, and with similar inclination ; but it appears to
have passed still farther from mica slate. At the northwest
corner of the state, which is near the foot of the ridge in this
place, the rock is very similar to some of that. on the south-
west mountain mentioned above. About a mile northwest of
this corner, the rocks are cleft in several places, and inone, to
such a depth, that the snow and ice remain here through the
year. The Snow Hole (M) is about thirty feet long, and nearly
as deep at the east end, ascends to the west, or towards the
summit of the ridge, and is from ten to twenty feet wide.
When I visited it in June, the snow was six feet deep on ice
of unknown depth. The rock is here passing into argillaceous
slate ; and in many places it becomes argzllaceous and chiorite
slate. For the other rock, ni oe I cuban ern eee
name talcose slate. ; bal 1 thhaatp th
3. Quartz. ‘Though quartz is sls dal ibd all aes pit
ceding rock in masses of different sizes, it 1s found in great
quantity on the northeast part of Saddle Mountain, 300 or
400 feet above the college, and thence to the Hoosack along —
the side of the hill (L.) It is granular, often white and trans-
lucent, and often coloured with oxyd of iron. It forms Stone
Hill, (N) a mile southwest of the college, on the vertex of
which is argillaceous slate. This hill slopes to West Brook,
where quartz often forms perpendicular banks from 50 to 100
feet high. Here also argillaceous slate rests on the quartz, as
well as on the vertex, and on the east side of Stone Hill. ©
Quartz appears again on the opposite side of West Brook, but
further north, on a hill connected with the 'Taconick range.

Dewey on Geology of Williamstown, &c. Al

On these two hilis, it lies in large strata, inclining, like the
mica slate, to the east and northeast, often divided by veins
‘into rhomboidal masses. On the east side of Stone Hill, it is
more granular, and may perhaps be called arenaceous quartz,
containing adarger proportion of iron. Near the base of Hoo-
sack Mountain, similar quartz is found, which extends round
the north side of the Hoosack to Oak Hill, (D) which is
wholly composed of it. It lies in rounded fragments, called
hardheads, through the northern part of the valley, and on
the sides of Oak Hill in huge rocks, presenting nearly perpen-
dicular fronts from 20 to 50 feet in height, and many rods.in
length. The strata are in some places horizontal, and in
others nearly perpendicular. In one place it forms plates, —
from 2 to 5 feet onaside, and from half an inch to several
anches in thickness, which are nearly perfect rhomboids, the
edges never being perpendicular to the sides. Most of the
quartz, except the white, yields a small portion of lime, and
shas been called calcareous quartz. Greasy quartz, rose quartz,
hhornstone, and reck crystal, are occasionally found ; the last in
considerable quantity south of Stone Hill. On the stream
which issues from the Hopper, is arenaceous quartz of a slaty
structure, which is an excellent: stone for saben the
chisels used by stonecutters.

4. Granular Limestone is abundant at the Cake or Falls, a
Adams, and on both sides of the Hoosack. The Cave or Falls,
(O) is a singular chasm between limestone’rocks. A small
stream, which appears once to have run on the surface of the
hollow between two small elevations, has now worn a passage
many feet in depth through the limestone. The chasm is nar-
row, winding in its course several rods long, and its opposite
sides were connected, till four years ago, by a natural bridge
of limestone. From the bridge to the water is 70 feet. There
is a dark cavern of several feet diameter, and some passages
into the rocks. The white marble walls, the foaming of the
water below, the piles and irregularity of the rocks, and the
thick overhanging trees, make the scene very wild and inter-
esting. The limestone rests on mica slate. On the west
bank of the Hoosack, and east base of the hill, (L) the same

342 Dewey on Geology of Williamstown, &c.

coarse-grained and white limestone is found, resting on the
mica slate at the west of it. 1 the Rea
At the north and west base of Saddle Mountain; (E) and at
a less elevation than the quartz, are extensive strata of lime-
stone, inclining the same way as the mica slate of the mountain.
It is less distinctly granular, and less white than the other, but
belongs to the same rock. It forms tolerably good marble.
Between the strata are crystals of carbonate of lime, rhomboi-
dal, and tending to the lentzcular form. Some of these strata
appear to be composed of blended crystals of this kind. In
one place are strata of several rods in length and breadth,
which are inclined to the southwest, and thus lie against the
mica slate of the mountain. The inclination is about forty-five
degrees. Unless this limestone be connected with that on the
east of Saddle Mountain, (and no connexion has yet been tra-
ced,) it must be considered as lying on both sides of the mica
sit or alternating with it. » ant
5. Argillaceous Slate rests on quartz on Stone Hill, wee is also
foiten low down in the valley connected with limestone. | It
constitutes the hill (P) connected with the Taconick range,
and also Northwest hill, (Q) whose base is compact limestone.
A few miles north, this slate is distinctly marked, and in about
12 miles, forms hills of roof slate in Hosack, New-York. | It is
annually carried in large quantities to coagc On the first-
mentioned hill, it contains some tale. Te eT
6. Aluminous’slate. This is found in vette slate, in
Pownal, 5 miles north, at the base of a hill east of the Hoo-
sack. Itis used to set colours, = = Pe 4 pret
7. Chlorite.. In rounded masses, alii with quartz,
scattered through the valley in Williamstown, and found at an
elevation of some hundred feet on the hills of the Taconick
range. Chlorite slate has already been mentioned as occur-
ring on the’same range. © rave EB
8. Rubble Stone. In scbbited masses sbi the valleyuit
9. Compact Limestone. In several places low in the valley.
Near the college it is white and deep gray. In the veins of
the latter, tale is diffused in all directions. It contains silex,
often from 3 te 15 per cent., and sometimes gives fire with

Dewey on Geology of Williamstown, &c. 348

steel. In some cases it is earthy. On Green River, one and
a half mile south of the college, it lies in thin strata, which are
divided by seams into very regular rhomboidal plates of va-
rious sizes. On some scattered fragments on this river, are
found carbonate of lime in crystals, with pieces of white feld-
spar. On West Brook, this gray limestone is traversed by a
vein of quartz, containing sulphuret of iron. The strata of
this rock are almost invariably inclined to the east. A coarse
soapstone is found in the limestone near the college, and
a vein made up of brown argillaceous slate, soapstone, quartz,
and sulphuret of iron, passes through it. This limestone ap-
pears to be very different from that at the base of Saddle
Mountain, and from that which yields the marble of Berkshire
county. It = ‘still ate es but ee compact lime-
stone.
10. Granitell of wore Qubvte; atid Feldspar. This aggre-
gate forms extensive strata at the east base of Stone Hill. The
feldspar is diffused in grains through the quartz, and sometimes
crystalline, forming porphyritic quartz. This aggregate is often
compact and very hard, but frequently it is porous and hard,
forming good millstones. Sometimes the quartz Pee 8. “in
such fragments, that the stone resembles breccia.
11. Black Tourmaline. In. beautiful small six-sided prisms,
in scattered pieces of mica slate at the base of Stone Hill. ~~
12. Amanthus. gos a small specimen, attached to ns
ceous slate.
» 13. Bitter Spar. On compact limestone at West Brook.
Some of the crystals are rhomboids, and some appear to be
the half of rhomboids split through their longer diagonal. ©
14. Jasper. ‘The common brown orred, and black, in small
rounded ret ‘and also a piece of variegated or striped jas-
per- WRSeAr : rhe i . ree
15. Galena. ee a specimen in the limestone on West
Brovkliey eclnehjiorits dhacccey eatin
16. Iron Ore. Bog ore on the Hoosack, a mile northeast of
‘the college. Yellow earth, from which yellow ochre is obtained
in great quantity, in a hill (R) on the bank of Green River, 2
‘ ee south of the college.

344 Dewey on Geology of Williamstown, Sc.

_ At the north end of Saddle Mountain, but low down, yellow
earth ‘is connected with reddle, or asubstance much resembling
it. Itis less hard than the commen rae but is wine aol
of the same ingredients. = HO? CARS

Magnetic Oxyd of ri regular octane, in mica sige

the base of Stone Hill. ys

Supersulphuret of Thai massive and saidedliedl in tote
aie slate, mica slate, compact limestone, and quantz.

. Prase. Beautiful, and containing sulphuret of aii ;
oo found by Mr. Eaton, a little east of the summit of Hoo-
sack Mountain, in Florida.

18. Puddingstone. Where Pownal Mountain reaches the
Hoosack, (T) 3 miles north of the college, are some hills of
this aggregate. It is composed of rounded masses of quartz,
chlorite, and limestone, of various sizes, connected by an ar-
gillaceous cement. — 1

19. Potters’ Clay. Excellent for vessels of common pottery.

The: minerals of this section, it is obvious, are not very im-
portant; but as connected with a transverse section of the
country, they possess considerable interest. For this reason
' they have been particularly mentioned.

In the north part of Williamstown is a mineral spring, fami-
liarly called the Sand Spring (S.) The water rises from seve-
ral places in a reservoir of about a rod in diameter, and from
one to three feet deep. It is very soft and warm, but contains
very little saline or earthy matter. Gas continually rises in
it. It appears much to resemble the spring at New Lebanon,
New-York, and has proved useful in ther cure parcedanp of
some cutaneous diseases. iw aaa”

The transverse sectron, ormenied: with the map, passes over
Stone Hill, and the north part of Saddle Mountain. ‘The dif-
ferent rocks are shown in the section, directly below their
places on the map, by drawing lines from the several strata
parallel to the sides of the map. This section is connected
with that given by Mr. Hitchcock, in the 2d number of this
Journal. It ought perhaps to be mentioned, that according
to Mr, Eaton’s account, the granite of this section sinks under

‘

Dewey on Geology of Williamstown, &c. 345

gneiss to the east, and rises again in Hampshire County,
‘supporting the same rock of gneiss ;”” but where it reappears,
the granite contains “many imbedded minerals.” This section
corresponds generally to the place and character of the mine-
vals in any section across Berkshire county. There are,
however, some peculiarities which may be mentioned at a fu-
ture day. The colouring corresponds to that on the geologi-
cal map in Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. |
C. DEWEY.

en

Williams’ College, Jan. 27, 1819.

P.S. Ihave a part of a rock crystal, which contains, in a hol-
low, a liquid and a little air, and some black or brown particles,
which just sink in the liquid. It was found several years since
at Diamond Hill in Cattskill. This hill is only a small emi-
nence on the bank of the creek at that place, composed of
limestone, (if I have been correctly informed,) between the
strata of which, and on the side next the creek, this and other
rock crystals were found. I believe, Sir, you have one like
the above, obtained from the same place. The crystal, which
was generously given me by Mr. Van Loon, who found it, is:
only a part of two crystals connected at their bases. Partly
under one of the solid angles formed by the united pyramids,
is the hollow, about & inch long, about 3 filled with the air, and
about 3 inch wide. The principal curiosity about it is the
liquid. It has never been known to freeze. It was exposed
yesterday morning an hour to an atmosphere 4 and 5 de-
erees below zero. It became less fluid, for the bubble of air
moved with less ease and rapidity. Still the liquid was fluid.
Its colour, which is naturally white, had a slight tinge of yellow.
The Rev. Mr. Schaeffer of New-York supposes the black par-
ticles are bitumen. Is it possible the liquid is naptha? This
oil is sometimes colourless, and does not congeal at zero, and

that which I distilled from the Seneca oil, does congeal at
some degrees below zero. It can hardly be salt water, unless
it be very salt, and even then, it would have congealed at the
temperature of the air yesterday. What way can be devised
to ascertain what it is ?

Jan. 30, 1819.

346 Gibbs on Tourmahnes, &c.

After seeing the notice of the crystals found at Hudson by
Mr. Schaeffer, wrote to a member of the Lyceum of Naturak
History, New-York, rather more full an account than the
above, of my crystal, &c. I hope to ascertain, whether the
‘liquid will congeal at 10 or 20° below 0, but have some fear
lest the mab should be sk AB Leie Ne abate MA
‘C. Des)

Lhdy ese BM

- 77

Art. IV. On the Tourmalines and other Minerals found
at Chesterfield and Goshen, iy by Col.
Grorce GIBBS.

(For the American Journal of Science.)

Tue schorl of the mineralogists of the last century united a
variety of substances which subsequent observations have
separated into several species. The green schorl is now the
epidote, or the Vesuvian, or the actynolite. The violet schorl,
and the lenticular schorl, are the axinite. The black volcanic
schorl is the augite. The white Vesuvian schorl is the sommite.
The white grenatiform is the Jeucite. The white prismatic
is the pycnite, a species of the topaz, and another is a variety
of feldspar. Of the blueschorl, one variety is the oxyd of tita-
nium, another the sappare, and another the phosphate of
iron. The schorl cruciforn is the granatite. The octahedral
schorl is the octahedrite, or anatase. "The red schorl of Hun-
‘ gary, and the purple of Madagascar, are varieties of the oma
of titanium. The spathique schorl is the spodumen.
The black schorl, and the electric schorl, only remained, and
to avoid the confusion created by the use of the term schorl,
the name of tourmaline was given to this species by aig cele-
brated isin the Abbé Haiiy.*

# If this memoir shouldbe ever sec the eye of this amiable man, I trust he will
excuse the notice to which his labours so justly entitle him. To him we are in-
debted for a complete:science of crystallography, and for having determined the’
existence and limit of species, which mineralogists had not obtained, and chemists”

Gibbs on Tourmalines, &c. 347

_ The tourmaline is found, of almost every colour, and this
variety of colour caused at first a number to be formed into
new species ; which are now considered only as varieties of
the tourmaline ;: such as the mabeliiey the tourmaline apyre,
and indicolite.

The different analyses of the. pais tes pGonds a
greater variety of results than is known in almost any other
mineral. j

The specific seh of the black varies from 3.08 to 3.36
Green .° from 3.15 to 3.36 —
: Red ._ from 2.87 to 3.10
Analysis gives Silex from . . 35 to 58
Alumine. . . 20 to 48
Magnesia . . Oto 10
PEO mh sl dee spel Eo
ithe Manganese . . O to 13 :
— Alkali Sao ee tO
Water Saati, A are

POMS ANG) 11

i

These differences must be in some measure ascribed to a
defect in the accuracy of some of the analyses. But it appears
that iron has not been discovered in the red tourmaline. It is
not unworthy of notice, that the red tourmaline is spring rer
as infusible, but the others fusible.

The red tourmaline has been the most valued, from its
scarcity, its employment in jewelry, and the beauty of its
crystals. It has been discovered in Siberia, m Moravia, in
the East-Indies, and mm Massachusetts. In Siberia it is found
in a vein of decomposed feldspar in a fine-grained granite, with
black tourmaline. In Moravia with quartz and lepidolite (or
rose-coloured mica),in gneiss. In the East-Indies, at Ava and
Ceylon, but its geological situation is not known, though it is
probably in gneiss or granite. wa
could not determine. He has devoted a long life to the improvement of science }
and ifis his praise, that he has preserved the meekness of religion amidst the
most flattering success. Our scientific countrymen, who have visited Paris, have

been particularly indebted to him; and this notice is, in their behalf, both the
tribute. ef justice and gratitude.

348. Gibbs on Tourmalines, Ge.

The red or rose tourmaline of Massachusetts, is found
chiefly at Chesterfield, in a subordinate bed of granite, con
tained in mica slate. The mica slate is the predominant rock
of the country. It is fine grained, and contains an abundance
of small garnets. Direction of the strata north and south,
varying a little easterly ; inclination perpendicular. The
bed of granite is about three hundred feet long, and from five
to twenty feet broad. It is contained in a narrow ridge of
mica slate, which descends into, and is lost in, a valley. The
sides are precipitous; the highest part is about forty feet
high. On the east side a considerable part of the granite has
been destroyed by natural causes, leaving the granite bare.
The granite consists chiefly of granular feldspar, with grains
of white quartz, and a little light coloured mica, is moderately
fine grained, and of a grayish white colour. In addition to
tourmaline, it contains also emerald, some of the crystals of
which are from three to five inches in diameter. I suc-
ceeded in getting one out of its matrix, which is three and a
half inches in diameter, and its summit (which is a plane
without any additional facettes) is perfect.

The tourmalines are contained chiefly in a false vein of
silicious feldspar and quartz, which begins in the centre of the
upper edge of the bed of granite, and passes obliquely, de-
scending to the northeast, about twenty feet, where it is inter-
cepted from sight by the mica slate. The vein js about one
and a half foot thick in the upper part, and not more than six
or eight inches where it is lost. This vein of silicious feld-
Spar contains also a vein of bluish white transparent quartz,
which is from three to eight inches thick, and passes viene
the centre of the vein of feldspar.

When I first examined this rock, soon after its discovery
by Dr. Hunt, of Northampton, I determined the feldspar to
be a new variety, which has been since confirmed by Pro-
fessor Hauffman, and now ranks as a new sub-species, under’
the name of silicious: feldspar. (P. 41, of the Mineralogical
Table.) cit ae

_ Gibbs.on Tourmaline, ec. 349
_ The analysis of Professor Stromeyer, of Gottingen, gives,

PREY OAD Leo Silex afendioroits ws ols hice 70.68 “0 Seabee. gi
nn rae _ Alumine. weeks pote VF) B80. ie oo Baponists
apsiytiony _ Soda. sa hic> vharsenller+ o- appeeitle aims OP rn prin van oasis en
etidente tee eter Be Mag. and Lime. | 38. a ee

Heenepbeds) ised ondoyi) Vesna ERR on, bore tatty

a eitid tociond
The men eiecunan wana ne and ne Bn he that
one contains fourteen potash and the other nine soda. . Be-
tween this and the saussurite, or tenacious feldspar, the one
contains eleven of lime, and the other only atrace. ||
_ The silicious feldspar, which I suspect to be the basis of the
granite, crystallizes in thin rhomboidal tables. They are very
frangible, and have one clivage perpendicular to the faces of
the tables. Sometimes the tables have one lateral edge or
more truncated. In one fragment of a crystal I observed a
very obtuse acumination on the table, which appeared to be
diedral, the sides being placed on the obtuse lateral edges of
the tables. On account of the extreme. frangibility. of the
crystals, it is certainly extremely. difficult to seize their cha-
racters. Specific. gravity only 2.333, probably _owing to
interstices between the tables. The colour. is white, trans-
lucid, passing to semi-transparent ; lustre sometimes dull, at
others shining. The tables are sometimes. so aggregated that
their. edges being exposed, offer wedge- shaped and stelliform
figures. The tourmalines are chiefly contained in this vein.
Soetas. red, _or green, rarely blue or black. _
The green tourmalines vary from one- eighth of. an ninch. to
be inch in diameter ; ; they are sometimes four inches in

NPR, Ae Pees nye “7 SHEL th es

Sha tt

They are triedral prisms, with convex faces, Sad longi-
tudinally, and generally traversed perpendicularly to the axis,

with very small fissures filled by some silicious pio writes
probably feldspar. These green crystals are opaque... The
red tourmaline is frequently enclosed in the green. In certain
parts of the vein almost every green crystal encloses a red
one, which always corresponds by its sides and angles with

Vou. 1....No. 4. 28

350 Gibbs on Tourmalines, Yc. —

the exterior sivas ‘Sometimes a thin layer of talc infervenes
_between the outer and inner crystal. In one specimen I
found three crystals of the red sgeregated together, and en-
closed in one of the green. In another crystal I found pyrites
in the place of the red tourmaline. The largest crystal of
the red was one quarter of an inch in diameter, and four
inches long. The red tourmalines vary in intensity of colour,
and frequently (particularly in the interior) pass into violet.
They pass from translucid to semi-transparent. “ I have found
some that were terminated by triedral pyramids. The crystals
are generally perpendicular to the sides of the vein. Small
crystals of the red often run from the vein of quartz into the
adjoining feldspar. The granite also contains minute crys-
tals of dark and light blue tourmaline, and pale green eme-
rald, with a very few garnets and pyrites. In the lower part
of the vein, five to six feet from its interruption by the mica
slate, the red tourmaline scarcely appears, and the vein con- ©
tains chiefly bluish amorphous quartz and green tourmaline.
It is therefore probable that this vein will not afford hence-
forward a great supply of this beautiful mineral.

About six miles from Chesterfield, in Goshen, is found the
“rose mica, with tourmalines and emeralds, interspersed;inithe
granite. Unfortunately the bed of granite has not been dis-
covered, and the specimens we possess are taken from loose
rocks, scattered over a small extent of ground ina yalley, 1 in
the neighbourhood of mica slate. The rose mica is found in
a large grained granite with amorphous quartz and silicious
feldspar, crystallized and amorphous. The mica is generally
_of arose red, sometimes yellowish green. It crystallizes in
rhomboidal tables, rarely truncated on the acute angles,
passing into the hexaedral table. The tourmalines are light
and dark green: and blue, of various shades of intensity, fre-
quently acicular and stellated. The black, the red, and the
violet tourmalines also occur, but more rarely. Sometimes
ihe green prisms enclose others of blue and black. Specific
gravity of these varieties from 3. to 3.1. The green and blue
crystals in this locality are translucid or semi-transparent.
The feldspar is generally white, rarely light blue. — There, we

Brace on the Minerals of Litchfield. 36i

dome emeralds in the granite. “Among some specimens which
Mr. Weeks of New-York, who discovered this locality, was
$0 good as to give me, I found a beautiful rose emerald in its
matrix. It is a hexaedral prism, about one and a quarter inch
in diameter, the summit a plane, one of the lateral edges has
a truncature. About half of the diameter of the prism is free
from the matrix, and half an inch of the prism. The colour
is'a pale rose, rather more transparent than the emerald.
~The colour of the mica of the Goshen granite calls to mind
‘the lepidolite or ilalite, which (formerly considered’ as’ a
- @istinct species) has now been united to mica. The lepidolite
‘of Rosena is also accompanied by the tourmaline apyre, now
Oe POLY UNG EEA! st: Sri EL + creeplak peat cea,

' ‘ iy eh hee

‘fals. It extends east into Hartford county. On the north it
runs into Massachusetts, though frequently interrupted by the
limestone formation, which rests upon it. It forms the’ prin-
“cipal, and in many cases the only rock of the eastern and north-
“eastern sections of the county, and of the towns of Litchfield,
Goshen, Warren, Cornwall, and Norfolk. In Washington and
Canaan, it Constitutes the rock of the high mountains, and is a
part of the saie range in the other towns, while the valleys
and the more moderate elevations are covered with limestone.
"The river Housatonic appears to have made its way through
‘this range, for the same rock continues on the western side
‘of the river parallel to it in the mountains of Kent, Sharon,
“and Salisbury. In Litchfield commences a range of porphy-
ritic granite, or porphyritie gneiss, which alternates with the
‘common’ gneiss, and in some instances rests upon it. ‘This rock

28 *

352 Brace on the Minerals of Litchfield.

begins at Mount Prospect, between Litchfield and Warren, and
runs through South Farms, Bethlem, and Watertown. The
crystals of feldspar in it, are often very perfect. = = =

The primitive granite, as a rock, is not found, though it lies
spatieniad on the surface in great quantities, and large masses.
The graphic granite in this region is often remarkably fine.
Mica slate constitutes a considerable part of those rocks that
rest on the gneiss, though never found in such elevated situa-
tions. The mica slate rocks are always inclined at a great an-
gle with the horizon, and follow the direction of the other
range. Litchfield village, Chesnut hill, and great part of Har-
wington, are entirely composed of this rock. The Bantumand
the Waterbury rivers have their bottoms of it. Some of the
brooks entering the Waterbury, have cut their passage through
the mica slate, leaving walls of 40 or 50 feet on each side, tra-
versed by veins of a very coarse-grained granite, and often
much mixed with sulphuret of iron. The slate near Harwing-
ton meeting-house contains a great quantity of sulphuret of
iron. Mica slate likewise lies on the sides of the gneiss range
in Canaan and Salisbury, where it dips under the limestone.
Stenite is scattered on the surface in large masses, especially
where the porphyritic gneiss is found. _ Sometimes, however,
the masses are so large as to form mountains. Mount Tom,
between Litchfield and Washington, is of this nature, being
entirely composed of sienite, resting on gneiss. _ Slaty. sienite
is frequently found, ip a ney large proportion of horn-
blende. wie he ae eed PR

‘The minerals. that are rai in ‘fini region, are much more
interesting than its geology. In describing them, I shall con- -
fine myself to the district east of the limestone range, intending
at some avis time to investigate and describe the limestone
country ayhinihs +c onyeeley Pity

komt li of like: the savoir lat leat is scattered over
the whole of this region. It often is found in the cavities of
decayed quartz rocks, and contains tremolite and augite.

Cyanite or Sappar, is found in great quantities, especially in
Harwington and Litchfield. A crystalline mass of this was
found a few years ago, weighing probably 15 cwt. ; it lay ona

Brace on the Minerals of Litchfield. 353

mica slate ridge, and undoubtedly had been formerly imbedded
in the slate. Beautiful white talc, and small crystals of sul-
phuret of iron, are’ disseminated in the mass. Specimens’ of
this mass are in almost all the cabinets in America. Smaller
masses have been found associated with feldspar. Small crys-
tals of this mineral are very common in mica’slate, with stau-
rotide and garnet. Two of these crystals are often arranged
at right angles with each other. In Cornwall it is found in
small crystals in the gneiss containing graphite. ws
Staurotide is very common and very beautiful. It is found
Ghicigsllysi in mica slate, and exhibits often the cross. It most
annie is crystallized in four-sided prisms.

” Quartz, of course, is common. Cornwall particularly is aids
dings for the smoky variety. Ferruginous quartz is found
in rolled masses in the whole of this range. — iad dy

Petro silex, in rolled masses with ferruginous quartz, con-
taining veins of chalcedony and hornstone, and geodes of quartz
crystals, are common in Litchfield and Goshen. Sometimes
these masses in it interior assume the as Sea of Burr-
stone esl iit Ae es ls UP
_ Common opal has been found in Litchfield, pean bata
It was part of a mass of ferruginous quartz, with indelible
dendritic impression. It is very hard, and its fracture is con-
elvordaleisict wits hy e any CA pee i i rene

Mica is very common. It is’ found green, white, and per-
fectly black. It generally occurs in blocks of granite.

- Schorl, in rounded crystals, is found in all the granite in this
range ; in radiating crystals on quartz ; and in acicular crys-
tals on mica slate. The large crystals are so brittle, that few
of them can be obtained perfect. I once found it in Litch-
field, near Plymouth, in prismatic crystals on earthy graphite.

Feldspar is very common and beautiful in all the towns. It
is Usually found in rhomboidal fragments, and has a fine lustre.
It is blue, white, and red. Some of the granite of orring-
- ford is very beautiful, being composed of white and smoky
quartz, red feldspar, and green mica. In the porphyritic
gneiss, feldspar is in six-sided prisms. One small crystal of
adularia, well defined, has been found by E. Wilkins, Esq.

854 Brace on the Minerals of Litchfield,

Beryl, both crystallized and massive, is often found in
Litchfield in granite. Its colours are green, greenish yelys
low, pale Saag and ite Its vate are often very per-
fect. — ae Sigel Ota: nae iil

Garnets are common in all the towns of | this range.

Epidote. Very beautiful crystals of this mineral have been
found in Washington, associated with feldspar. They are so
rounded as to render it very difficult to discover their form.
They have a very fine lustre, and are of an olive green; in
Litchfield, in crystals with hornblende, and graphic granite,
and in veins in sienite.

Perhaps no region can be found containing more iene
tremoltte. All its varieties occur; the fibrous of Litchfield and.
Bethlem is very distinguished. . iy Canaan, it is found contain-
ing crystals of sulphuret of iron. I do not speak here of the
iremolite found in the limestone range.

Common asbestus exists in Washington and New Milford.

The white augite is a mineral found in this range ;_in
Litchfield, in six-sided prisms very much flattened, on quartz,
and carbonate of lime with tremolite. They sometimes occur
several inches long. jee

The lamellar and ype varieties of common hornblende are
very common. :

Radiated actynolite of a ‘beautiful bluish green in —
in Canton of abrownish green.

Steatite is common, and is quarried in Litchfield... The) va-
rieties of tale are very common, connected with steatite, cya-
nite, ; and chlorite. : Manger oven athe eked sinpehee

Chlorite in Litchfield, is found.on quartz, with tales > -

_ Porcelain clay in Litchfield in small quantities, and in Wash-
eel Deana ape cecayon Fildesis won ben eee |

Graphite is found in Cornwall in, sub auetiend Its gangue.
is gneiss and sienite. It is lamellar, and has a metallic lustre;
is easily obtained, and might be made useful. Epidote andcy-
anite:are found withit... ".j3.q .) . het whore

Ores are not common. Oxides of i iron, ose sulphuret of i iron
are scattered | over the whole range. _ Near Mount Prospect
in Litchfield, sulphuret of iron in mass,is. in great quantities ;

— Baldwin on Rottbolia, 355.

and sulphate of iron on the surface of the ground near it. A
stone containing afew grains of native copper was found in-
Litchfield. ann gs beer sR TRON bee vo dhge albie ais;
The red oxyde of titanium occurs in Litchfield sparingly.
A very handsome specimen of the reticulated oxyde of titanium,
ate picked up. It was,on mica, and the mica had an evident
earncerneiianen bien SOEBAy cycornbinw ancien date

sBiSeR T19G 9 Var OBA Br Lt ieee. Ry bee POY Beh By

Sh) PRP THO aN TO wee ois} ives
We habe ia ce ae BOTANY. .
Po Lae
COE MTT: a SD AS
Art. VI. An Account of two North iverieds Species of
Rottbollia, discovered on the Sea-coast in the State of
“Georgia, by Dr. Witt1am Batpwin, of Philadelphia.

Speghe lt war »4 Psecey tru —— fhe - ,
Weak ae e% re) rt m ti ig
Flowers. um pairs, or r two from each joint of the rachis, one
neutral. ha The neutral, or imperfect flowers, pedicillate,

"= 4 ames ‘ ta Ve

=
ahs f yh Chet | trong sumed : & yr POTS > > —) e+ } - r -
Rottbollia elhuseity polar whee
sthetotis | ob cosy of iWiitweed s B0 9tH

ULMO erecto, compresso, sulcato, glabro, ramoso: foliis
longis angustisque: spicis sub-compressis, nudis super uno
latere, solitariis et terminalibus, supremis approximatis :
calycis bivalvis, valva exteriori transversé ipo eee
tudinaliter rugosa: corolla trivalvis.§

Culm erect, compressed, ‘sulcate, smooth, ramose : leaves
long and narrow: spikes slightly compressed, naked on one
side, solitary and terminal, approximating towards the summit :
calyx 2-valved, the exterior valve transversely corrugate, and
longitudinally wrinkled: corolla 3-valved. Vid. Nuttall’s
North American Genera, v. I. p. 84.* oe

It 7 “jhe nce pester " nent own prety iia ‘Hiakna:
mt of pave derived fea si Herbarium, where he found it under the
name of tripsucum cylindricum, Mich? Although it can hardly be the plant of

356 Baldwin'on Rottho lias

Culm two to three feet high, with a very solid’exterior, but
‘spongy within, compressed, and deeply grooved on its inner
angle the whole length between the joints. Leaves long, nar-
row, and acute, scabrous on the margin and midrib. Sheaths
compressed, corresponding with the culm, shorter than the
internodes, open, with membraneous margins. Peduneles short,
clothed with a thin membraneous acute pointed sheath, which
generally encloses also the base of the spike. Spzkes two to
three inches long. The flowers are arranged in alternate or-
der, but occupy only one side of the rachis, as in the R. dimi-
diata. The neutral florets, or clavate pedicels, are joined late-
rally to the perfect flowers. Articulations of the rachis re~
markably tumid, attenuated beneath, flat on the interior side,
exteriorly convex, scabrous, and longitudinally striate. » The
exterior valve of the calyx, in the perfect flowers, is ovate,
obtuse, very thick, cartilaginous, the inner margin inflected,
_ and deeply marked on its outer surface with from three to five
corrugations, with longitudinal ridges between them; the in-
terior valve is smaller, of equal length, acute, ruled, coriace-
ous, smooth, and with the inner margin also inflected. The
valves of the corolla are. membraneous, ovate, acute, white,
shorter than the calyx, the exterior one the longest. The
neutral florets are sometimes male, but most commonly consist
of nothing more than a 2-valved calyx, the valves equal, gaping;.
scabrous, and much smaller-than those of the perfect flower.
Stamens 3, very short. Anthers twin, yellow-. Styles 2, rather
longer than the stamens. Stigmas small, plumose, dark purple.

Discovered between St. Mary’s: and, Jefferson, in Camden
county, Georgia, on the 13th of July, 1813. IJnhadzts flat,
moist pine barren. I have not seen it. ‘‘ on the sea-coast of
Florida.”

/ OBSERVATIONS. | 9 OEM

It will 1 be e perveived that my description of this plant differs
materially from that of Mr. Mata, This’ has arenes
’ “aN : bea bibl. abi
Michauz, it was so considered by the late Dr. Muhlenberg, when specimens were
first communicated'to him, It remains under this name in his Herbar ‘ium, but i is

not included in his work on the grasses. He left it for me to describe along with
other new and doubtful | plants from the south. OR a ES EN EP RRR

Baldwin on Rottbolhia. | 357

arisen from my having attended to it in its living state, and from
his not availing himself of the information which it would have
afforded me pleasure to have communicated, had he done me
the favour to have requested it, or informed me of his wish to
publish an account of plants thus obtained. He has called the
culm solid, leaves rather short, spikes cylindric, axillary, the
flowers and rachis entirely smooth, pedicel of the neutral flower
emarginate, outer valve of the hermaphrodite calyx acute, the
valves of the corolla obtuse, and the styles very short. I have
not been able to confirm the above characters, nor do | find
them even in the dried specimens. Besides, he has omitted to
inform us that the rachis is naked on one side. This is a most
important and prominent specific character, the omission of
which would necessarily lead to much doubt in identifying the
species. What he means by stating that the “‘ outer valve of
the hermaphrodite flower is 3-valved,” I cannot imagine, nor
do I comprehend what is intended by an “exterior auxiliary
valve, or neutral rudiment ; nearly the length of the calyx.”
l have noticed in a single instance, connected laterally with the
corolla of the perfect flower, two very delicate, narrow, acute
pointed bodies, the length of the outer valve, and of the same
quality and appearance ; but these I have considered as acci-
dental, and cannot perceive any thing about them like neutral
rudiments. Nor can I consider the articulations of the rachis
as “‘deeply excavated.” They are, as already stated, flat on
the inner side, and constitute from their flexuous form, position,
and connexion with the pedicels of the neutral florets, an arch,
in which the perfect flowers are situated.

Mite rwonna th ape Rottholhaeliota.*

Culmo erecto, tereti, glabro, ramoso : foliis angustissimis,
brevibus : spicis cylindricis super pedunculis teretibus longis,
t solitariis terminalibusque : calycis_bivalvis, Poarelns, valva

exteriori ciliata: corolla bivalvis. :

: :
sen ate

. * This is the biti name. dish in my sdeineabecionl Mr. Nuttall, under
which it had been previously transmitted ¥ has ate ee: NuttalPs North
American Genera, v. 1. p.83,

356 Baldwin on Rotbéllias

Culm erect, terete, smooth, ramose: leaves very narrow,
short: spikes cylindrical upon long terete peduncles, solitary
and terminal, calyx 2-valved, the pied of the exterior valve
ciliate : corolla 2-valved. ay SOM) ti

Root perennial. Culm two to. Satanic high, generally ra~
mose, solid, and terete, except that between the joints where
the branches originate, it is grooved on the inner side, and of-
tem ciliate on its angles near the joints. ‘The branches origi-
nate towards the extremity, commonly from two to three in
number, each supporting a single terminal spike. Leaves very
narrow, acute, comparatively short, those beneath much the
longest, rigid, somewhat involute, and sharply serrulate to-
wards the apex. Sheaths rather shorter than the internodes,
open to the base, but closely embracing the culm. Spikes 3 to
5.inches long, the peduncles clothed with a very delicate acute
pointed sheath, which embraces it so closely as almost to elude
observation, varying much in length, but seldom extending to
the base of the spike. Peduncles scabrous near the spike.
Flowers alternate, the male or neutral florets situated on one
side of the rachis. Rachis compressed, slender, flexuous,
hairy on its exterior surface. Pedicel of the neutral florets
also compressed, and hairy on its exterior surface. Valves of
the calyx nearly equal, lanceolate, acute, coriaceous, polished,
the i inner margin of each inflected. The exterior margin of
the outer valve finely ciliate towards the apex. . Valves of the
corolla lanceolate, acute, membraneous, nearly the length of
the calyx. The male or neutral, are rather smaller than the
hermaphrodite flowers. Stamens 3, very short. Anther's inion
purple. Styles 2, excerted, plumose, dark brown.

Discovered in flat pine barren on the north side of G0
river, in Georgia, on the 21st of October, 1815. ;

yiplegnts iy
ASHE el ‘GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
mn ys * £ yr ray i WHR 3 |

“THe pint are “unquestionably allied to andropogon in
their mode of flowering, but have nevertheless sufficient essen-
tal characters to distinguish them. In habet, they appear | but

slightly similar. nee differ pris from their congeners

19aG sib

Dr. WilliamssFloraly Zoological; Ges 359

in the pedicellate character of their neutral florets. The spikes
are mot axillary in, either of them. The branches are amillary,
of which several sometimes originate from the same axil in the
R. corrugata. Each spike, when fully evolved, is not only,
pedicellate, but the pedicel, or peduncle, is connected with a
culm containing one, two, or more joints.* The culm is not
compressed, nor the leaves long in the R. ezliata, as stated by —
Mr. Nuttall, who appears to have confounded the two species
in these, and some other instances. The joints of the rachis

in both are fragile, the jointsof the culm in neither. =

_ Another species noticed by Michaux, and included in all our»
booksas the R. dimidiata, L. has long been familiar to the south-
ern botanists... Whether this be the dimidiata found also on—
the sandy shores of India, or the compressa of the same country,
as suggested by Mr. Elliott, or a species distinct from either,
Iam not prepared to determine. But I have collected this
plant in the Bermudian Isles, at Rio de Janeiro, and Bahia, on
the Brazilian coast, and lastly on the island of Flores, near one
hundred miles from the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, as sued
as on’ Pap ly the Banda Oriental.

ae aE be

A Vil. Floral Calendar kept at Deerfield, Massachu-
“chasetts, with Miscellaneous Remarks, by Dr. STerHen
“Ww. Wirtrams, of Deerfield.

\ Shs

Ou spa @ oDiitei
mead comehd ie “To si iy ’ san}
0 Professor Uiman.
ise SRLS py hs nae

SIR, KROW LK ; i

Any thing which has a tendency t to elicit facts, with regard
to the climate of a country must be interesting. I believe
that observations upon the time o of the germination, foliation,
florification, and fructification of plants, afford a much more
ae criterion r especting climate than thermometrical, or
other me teorological journals. They should be made at the

e sry AL oh 2 shasi'guia

i. Nuttall w: probably iced enter ‘examined the spikes be fore
pr fully evolved. idle .

360 Dr. Williams’s Floral, Zoological, and

same time in various parts of the country, and for’ several
years in succession. I send you a Calendarium Flore, with
miscellaneous remarks, made in Deerfield, Massachusetts, du-
ring a part of the years 1811, 1812, and 1818, which, if you
please, you may insert in your valuable Journal. Latitude of

Deerfield, 42° 32’ 32%, longitude 729.41.

: bya. F - NT
* ae : POMP LOTS oat bt Rea: ies tote oth
March 1. Blackbirds arrived. KA ROLES SEO

15. Black ducks arrived. Bees out of tHe Hyan® eels

20. Early garden peas, lettuce, and peppergrass sown.

28. ‘The ‘woods © were “swarming | with pigeons. Wild’ geese

waranty “passed over. ne
The greater part of the month of March was warm and

pleasant. The ‘sugar-maple yielded ‘its sap ‘profusely for a

few days, but the nights were so warm that much less than

the usual TN of sugar \ ‘was s made this year. alert

Legis

Teel oe ve f

April 1." Frogs begin to sing. Peas and oats sown.
8. Buds of the lilac, (Syringa vulgaris) the small red rose,
_ the elm, (Ulmus Americana) the apple, and the peas
considerably swoln.
14. Dandelion (Leontodon taraxicum) in full flower,
20. Indian corn planted; a few garden seeds sown. Martins
and bank swallows arrived. Leaves of the currant and
gooseberry Suet Weather for a few days ay
sultry and smoky.
21. Blue violet (Viola cucullata) in full flower. Shad-bush
(Aronia Botryapium) in blossom. Flower-buds of the —
_ lilac swoln ; likewise the flower-buds of the chert.
“pear, and are, :
23. Blood-root (Sanguinaria Canadensis) im fall flower.
25.. Asparagus fit for the table. — By
26. Chili strawberries i in flower ; this plant begins to blossom
early, E and ‘continues to flower late in the "season.
English cherry, black heart (Prunus ible ea in fal
: flower. byck rd 1 dl
27. Garden violet . tricolor) in full flower.

Moar

Miscellaneous Calendar. 361

April 29. Flower-buds of the peach expanded. Large white
aad pian (Prunus domestica) in full flower. Wi romans:
— (Pyrus communis) in- flower. sani an

a rid iced pl BAD eee withy + jer ;

May 1. Red and white deboinphicai enliaun pert ’

2, Leaves of the Lombardy poplar (Populus Milatola)iup ex-
panded.

3. English and field strawberries in blossom. $y

4. Butternut (Juglans cinerea) in blossom, a

6. House flies arrived. wee

7. Apple-trees in full flower.

8. Lilac in full flower. Red-headed ssadenekes ciel i.

5. Rye (Secale cereale) beginning to head. Pleasant days and

cold nights. Hard frosts for a few nights past.

18. Honeysuckle (Azalea nudiflora) in full flower.

19. Small red rose in flower. Choke cherry (Prunus Serotina)
in fall flower. ‘

25. Common red clover (Trifolium pratense) in full flower.

26. Garden peas in full flower. Hummingbird arrived.

27. Night-hawks arrived. | .

50. Sugar-maple in flower.

June 2. Locust-tree (Robinia pseudacacia) in flower.
3. Field strawberries beginning to ripen. Piony in flower.
4, High blackberry (Rubus villosus) in full flower. Broad-
leafed laurel (Kalmia latifolia) beginning to blossom.
7. Snow-ball, guelder-rose (Viburnum opulus) in full flower.
Radishes fit for the table. ee

12. Our farmers begin to mow their first crop of grass in low

_. land. Large white rose (Rosa alba) in full flower.

21. Red currants beginning to ripen in plenty. Blackberried
elder (Sambucus canadensis) beginning to blossom.

27. Indian corn tasseling. Black raspberries beginning to

.. vTipen. Nodding lily (Lilium canadense) in flower.

29. Potato (Solanum nara) in full flower.

ily 1. Red taspbatry Poles seeanaeue): beginning to ripen.
Poppy (Papaver somniferum) in flower, ,

862 Dr. Williams’s Floral, Zoological, and

July 5. Chestnut-tree (Castanea Americana) oe ™
“6. Large red cherry (Prun. ceras.) fully ripe.” ‘String beans
fit for the table. voto Deen concen bhai

Perhaps we never experienced a greater degree of heat in
this part of the country than has been felt for three days past.
‘A number of hives of honey have melted during the heat. —
14. Cucumbers fit for the table. ada
15. Rye fit forthe steidest neon nile ails hy ainda then
16. Black whortleberries (Vaccinium denon) ripening. is
be Early potatoes fit for the table. bia corn (green) ft

‘forthe table, treba tied.
20. Jenneting atkins ial Ve ane 2
21. Choke cherries (Prun. sooty pen © I
"26. ‘Gooseberries sy enh dels A) sodiatonG: 08
jean eet ba 4) Jorn
August 1. Mouties departed: weet wa in L.
5. Barn and bank swallows collecting in. millions, upon our -
islands in the river, to depart. ‘eten Sere ane h? as
12. Blackberrieswripess:so ney. her J vend epoiihwl ue

20. Thorn apple (Datura ramon) in full flower. " Blder-
berries fully ripe.

September 1. Common pear fully ripe. punto peaches
___ fully ripe. .
“6. Bergamot pears fully ripe.
17. Great grapes (Vitis. estivalis) fully ripe. ‘Frost it. grapes
(Vitis cordifolia) ripening.
21. Butternuts beginning to fall from the tree. ‘ pay
24. Our farmers busily engaged i in harvesting their corn. ":
26. Butternut defoliating.

Y i Toe a aBi s :
28. Elm beginning to defoliate. / ine bia ae

- October 2. Chestnut burrs spot Tree automating
8. Sugar-maple and sycamore defoliating. Aig BR
26. Blackbirds arrived‘again. Squirrels in plenty in our
. woods, though chestnuts and walnuts are scarce. But-
wy ternuts et Cider Lay bigs in great aindance.
of ne EID HPPA ST, TD 1ooe bad hy ay

Nee 20. wild geese eatsisinete me touihieHeiSsions.

re iiqad: Of

» whed

Miscellaneous Calendar. «368

woth Sihlliigi Saas PNY my
March 21% Blackbirds; . roiioineid and robin ieiekt
_ Wild geese passed over.
aes. Bent nee RTE eae et dati

April 3. Black ails eames Large flocks of en passed

over.
9. Flower-buds of the elm cosierably inet

11. Skylarks arrived. _ pte dy of

12. Frogs begin to sing. vy

13. Leaf-buds of the soft maple (Acer pido) much swoln.

13. Leaf-buds of the gooseberry much swoln. iW vie

16. Early garden peas sown. . ny te

19. Dandelion (Leon. tarazx.) in full penne Blue or meadow
violet (V. cucullata) in flower. Leaves of the lilac
beginning to expand. Our’ swig “pusily vs ‘in

ploughing for sowing.

28. Peas and oats sown, and Indian corn sted

25. Swallows arrived, and whippoorwills begin to sing. ©

27. Leaves of the gooseberry, and willow (Sali: Muklenberget)
beginning to expand.

May 5. Martins arrived. . fe ;
10. Asparagus fit for the table. Blood-root (Sang. canaden-
sis) in full flower. spl sadly Abar
11. Chili garden strawberries beginning to blossom. Flower-
buds of the lilac swoln. .

12. Elm in full flower. Leaves of the meadow violet begin-
ning to expand.

13. Garden violet (V. tricolor) in flower.

14. Field strawberries in full flower. Shad-bush (Aronia
botryapium) in blossom. y es

15. English cherry beginning to flower.

19. Winter pear beginning to blossom.

22. Humingbirds arrived. Large white plum (Romie domes-

_ tica) in full flower. Butternut beginning to flower.

23. Flower-buds of the peach (Amydalus ae beginning te

expand. Rapsebornys in flower..

364 Dr. Williamsi¢Floval, Zoologital, and

May 27. Apple-trees beginning to blossom. 5 sine!
29. Early garden lettuce (Lactuca sativa), fi for the table.
30. Apple-trees in full flower. okay Aad cpp

31. Night-hawks arrived. od) eee,

bed

Vegetation has put forth more to appéarance’ in three days
past than in all the spring before. Nature seems to revive
from a state of torpidity, from the warm and invigorating rays
of the sun. The month of May has been more backward than
the month of April, 1811. The observation of elderly people,
that the month of April, old style, was never known to termi-
nate without producing apple-blossoms, has by no means been
verified this year, they being now (June Ist.) in full flower.
The snow upon the mountains, thirty or forty miles back, is
at a great depth ; so deep, that on the warm day of the 29th
our river rose a foot from its melting. Diseases of the chro-
nic kind have been peculiarly severe for three months past.
The gladsome return of the cheering warmth will probably
renovate the enfeebled constitutions .of many of our: aaee
people. 4 4

June 1. House flies arrived.
5. Choke cherry (Prun. serotin.) in full flower. © Honey-
suckle apple (Azalea nudzflora) in full flower. =~
8. Piony in full flower. Snowball (Viburnum opulus) i in full
flower. Flower-de-luce Uris versicolor) in ae,
11. Early peas in blossom. _ Carraway es earui)
flower.
15. Locust-tree (Robin. pseudacac. ) in fall flower! Riel
strawberries beginning to ripen. ys
18. Common red clover in full flower. . Cranesbill (Ceuta
i _maculatum) in blossom. Red raspberry in full flower.
23. Chili strawberries beginning to ripen. Garden sage (Sal-
via. officinalis) in full flower. ) wit
29. Our farmers busily engaged in haying. .
30. Large red rose, large white rose, and damask rose (Rosa
damascena) in flower. Ce Ae

Miscellaneous Calendar. 365

July 1. White pond lily (Vymphea odorata) i in flower.
4. Black elder (Sambucus canadensis) in full flower.
7. Early peas fit for the table. Red and white currants
ripening.
8. Nodding lily (Lilzwm canadense) in flower.
11. Garden beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) in full flower. Chest-
nut in flower. Black raspberries ripening.
20. Early corn tasseled (Zea mays. Variety precox.) Red
raspberries fully ripe.
22. Whortleberries ripe (Vaccin. resinos.)
24. Cucumbers fit for the table.
28. Early potatoes fit for the table.
29. Rye fit for the sickle. Early garden squashes (Cucurbita
Melo-pepo) fit for the table.

August 2. Jenneting apples ripening.

5. Early corn fit for the table.

8. Wheat (Triticum hyburnum) fit for the sickle.
28. Summer peas ripening.

September 4. Watermelons and muskmelons ripe.
5. Swallows departed.
6. Elderberries fully ripe.
11. Choke cherries and wild cherries (Prunus virginiana)
ripe.
12. Yellow plum (Prunus chicasa) fully ripe.
15. Butternut beginning to fall from the tree.
16. Our farmers making their first cider.
22, Great grapes ripe.

October 2. Butternut and elm beginning to defoliate. Chest-
nut-burrs beginning to open.
9. Our farmers beginning to harvest their Indian corn.

1818.

March 11. Bluebirds arrived.
13. Woodpeckers, robins, and blackbirds arrived. Bees out
of the hive.
Vor. I....No. 4. 29

366 Dr. Williams's Floral, Zoological, and

March 14. Broad-leaved panic grass (Panicum latifolium) be-
ginning to sprout on a southern exposure, while there
is sleighing in the street. A solitary spathe of skunk-
cabbage (Pothos fetida) beginning to show itself on
the same exposure. Leaves of curled dock (Rumex
crisp) appeared in the same place. bs ah -trees
tapped for sugar.

16. Pothos fetida in fall flower.

25. Black ducks arrived. Catkins of the s poninredeens (Popu-
lus tremuloides) expanded. Catkins of the speckled
willow (Salix Muhlenbergiana) expanded.

30. Wild geese arrived. Phoebe arrived.

It began to rain hard on the first of March, and continued
raining two days and a half, which nearly carried off an im-
mense body of snow which enveloped the ground. Our
rivers, which were more firmly locked with ice than they had
been before known for many years to bé, rose above their
usual bounds, and swept the ice with stich rapidity down their
channels as to destroy most of the bridges on Connecticut
river, besides doing immense damage in other respects. Our
meadows were nearly all under ice and water; and at that
time a great explosion was heard in the north meadows, two
miles from the street, similar to the noise of a cannon. It
was occasioned by the throwing up of an immense quantity of
frozen ground, which is a great curiosity. The cause is not
yet satisfactorily explained. The weather was very warm
and pleasant from the 4th to the 22d. What snow the rain
did not carry off was melted by the sun during the pleasant .
weather. Vegetation had begun to put forth rapidly, and
many of our birds of passage had arrived. A storm, which
commenced on the 22d, as rapidly retarded the progress of
vegetation as it was before accelerated, and the remainder of
the month was gloomy and uncomfortable. Mud mid-leg deep
in the streets.

April 7. Flower-buds of the elm (Ulmus americana) begin-
ning to swell.

‘

Miscellaneous Calendar. 367

April 8. Leaf-buds of the lilac (Syring. vulg.) beginning to

swell.

10. Leaf-buds of the soft or meadow maple (Acer rubrum) be-

11.

12.

-

iS)
or

ginning to swell. Black alder (Alnus: serrylata) in
flower. American hazle (Corylus americana) in flower,
and its catkins appearing.

Fair and pleasant, after a long storm. It has rained six-

teen days in succession. Frogs begin to sing. Leaf-
buds of the English cherry (Prunus cerasus) black
heart beginning to swell. Garden peas sown.

Flies in myriads arrived in our streets. Catkins of the

butternut (Juglans cinerea) beginning to swell. Saxi-
frage (Saxifraga virginiensis) in flower.

. Skylarks arrived.
. Sweet fern (Comptonia asplenifolia) in flower. White

birch (Betula populifolia) in flower.

. Our farmers beginning to plough for spring wheat.
. Bank swallows arrived.
. Leaf-buds of the currant, the gooseberry, and the apple,

considerably swoln.

. Dandelion (Leon. taraz.) beginning to flower. Viola

cucullata beginning to blossom.

Our farmers ploughing for peas and oats. The snow

upon the hills 20 miles north and west from Deerfield
is two feet and a half deep, and the winds from those
quarters are so chilly as to retard the progress of
vegetation. Icicles scarcely melted upon the south
side of buildings in Halifax, Vermont ; and it is too
cold for making sugar.

. Blood-root (Sanguinaria canadensis) in flower on a warm

south side hill. Leaves of the English gooseberry be-
ginning to expand. Venus’s pride (Houstonia cwrulea)
in flower. Early life-everlasting, (Gnaphalium planta-
gineum) crowfoot, (Ranunculus fascicularis) tooth-root,
(Dentaria laciniata) and meadow-rue (Thalictrum cornu-
twm) in full flower.

. Trailing arbutus (Epigaea repens) in full flower. Leaves

of the barberry (Berberis vulgaris) beginning to ex-
a

368 Dr. Wilkiams’s Floral, Zoological, and

pand. Five-finger, (Potentilla pumilla) adder’s-tongue ;
(Erythronium dens-canis) liver-leaf, (Hepatica triloba)
and wind-flower, (Anemone nemorosa) in flower.

April 27. Early potatoes and early corn planted. Elm in full
flower.

29. Water crowfoot (Ranunculus . sceleratus) and American
cowslip (Caltha palustris) in full flower.

30. Daffodil (Narcissus pseudo-narcissus) and rue-anemone
(Anemone thalictroides) in flower.

May 1. Soft maple (Acer rubrum) in flower.

2. Martins arrived.

3. Leaves of the gooseberry beginning to expand.

4, Leaves of the currant and lilac beginning to expand.
Pigeons arrived.

5. Wood bulrush (Juncus sylvaticus) in flower. A great
freshet in our meadows, from the melting of the snow
upon the mountains, and from the great rain which has
continued nearly a month. Beth. nodding trillion
(Trillium rhomboideum) in flower.

7. Flowers of the garden violet hee tricolor) beginning to
expand.

8. The young heads of asparagus breaking the ground.

9. Our farmers busily engaged in planting their Indian corn,
though the weather is excessively cold. Sowed onions,
parsnips, &c.

10. Bobylincolns (Bob of lincolns) arrived. Flower-buds of
the lilac appearing.

11. Field strawberries (Fragaria virginiana) in full flower.
Colts-foot (Tussilago forfara) i in flower.

12. Whip-poor-wills begin to sing.

13. Spice-bush (Laurus benzoin) in full flower. A freshet in
the meadows.

14, Goldthread (Coptis irzfolia) in full flower. _

15. Rattlesnake violet (Viola primulifolia) in full flower.

16. Chimney swallows arrived.

17. Leaves of the apple-tree expanding. Sugar maple (Acer
saccharinum) in full flower. Garden daisy (Bellis pe
renmis) “in full flower.

Misceilaneous Calendar. 369

May 18. Asparagus fit for the table.

19. Smooth gooseberry (Ribes uva-crispa) in flower.

20. Shad-bush (dren. botryap.) in flower.

21. House wrens arrived. Moose-wood (Dirca palustris) in
flower.

22. Garden currant (Ribes rubrum) beginning to flower.

24, Wake-robin (Trillium cernuum) and peas (Pyrus commu-
nis) in flower.

25. Our mountain scenery diversified. Weather very warm.
Garden potatoes and garden corn, planted on the 27th
April, breaking the ground. Garden beans, cucum-
bers, squashes, watermelons, &c. planted.

26. Damson plum (Prunus domestica) and yellow or wild
plum (Prunus chicasa) in flower. Elder (Sambucus
canadensis) in flower. Carolina chatterer arrived.

27. Garden gooseberry (Ribes grossularia) and avens (Geum
rivale) in blossom. Weather intensely warm. Ther-
mometer at S6° at 2 o’clock, P. M. yesterday.

29. Apple-trees in full flower. Night-hawk arrived.

30. Choke cherries (Prun. Serotin.) in flower.

31. Lilac in full flower.

The weather till the last week in May was very cold and
rainy. Perhaps we have never known more gloomy weather
than that of the first twenty days of the month. The last
week in the month of May was unusually warm and fine. Ve-
getation has put forth more within this week than it has in all
the season before. The blossoms on apple-trees are scanty,
and there is but little prospect of fruit. Peach-trees in the
vicinity of this place were all killed by the extreme cold
winter.

June 1. Hummingbirds arrived.
2. Honeysuckle apple (Azalea nudiflora) in full flower.
3. Blue-eyed grass, (Sisyrinchium anceps) Krigia virginica,
and thorn-bush (Crategus coccinea) in flower. Garden
seeds, planted on the 25th ult. have vegetated 3 or 4
inches high. Garden rhubarb (Rheum tataricum) in
flower.

370 Dr. Williams's Floral, Zoological, and

June 4. Garden rocket (Hesperis pinnatifida) in flower.
6. Yellow water lily (uphar advena) in full flower. Flower-
de-luce (Iris virginica) in flower. Garden peas in full
flower. .

The weather for twelve days past has been unusully warm
and sultry. The thermometer, much of the time in the mid-
dle of the day, has stood at 84°, and vegetation has put forth
with astonishing rapidity.

8. House-flies arrived. s
9. Horse-radish (Cochlearea wine and peony in full

flower.

10. Chives (Allium schenoprasum) in fall flower.

11. Smooth stem lichnidea (Phlox maculata) in full flower.
Our farmers busily engaged in hoeing their corn.

12. Fumitory (Fumaria officinalis) in full flower.

13. Field strawberries beginning to ripen.

14. Locust-tree (Robinia pseudacacia) in full flower.

15. Locusts appearing in the south part of the town. The.
last time of their appearance here was in the year
1801. Their periodical returns are once in seventeen
years. Their appearance in the years 1733, 1750,
1767, 1784, and 1801, is recorded on the town-book.
They first attack the leaves of the black oak (Quercus
nigra.)

16. Small red rose in flower.

17. Rosa caroliniensis in full flower.

18. Garden sage (Salvia officinalis) in flower.

19. Mock syringa (Philadelphus coronarius) in flower.

20. Tulip-tree, commonly called cypress or white-wood (Lr-
riodendron tulipifera) in blossom.

21. Carnation pink (Dianthus caryophyllus) in flower.

22. Our farmers commenced haying. An immense crop of
grass on the ground.

23. Side-saddle flower (Sarracenia purpurea) in flower.

24. Common St, John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) in full
flower.

‘A

Miscellaneous Calendar. 871

June 26. Garden radishes fit for the table.

27. Early garden peas fit for the table. Weather intensely
warm.

28. American lime or linden-tree (Tilia americana) in flower.

30. Flax (Linum usitatissimum) in full flower. ‘Thermometer
in the shade at 2 P. M. 100°.

Vegetation has put forth and increased with a more asto-
nishing rapidity this month than has ever been known. Not-
withstanding the spring was very backward, the season now
is forward. Our farmers commenced their first haying about
a week earlier than they did last year.

July 1. White water lily (Nymphea odorata) in flower.
3. Red and white currants ripening. Yellow day lily (He-
merocallis flava) and Lilium canadense in full flower.
4. Cucumbers and watermelons in flower. Early summer
corn (Zea mays, variety precox) beginning to tassel.
Garden rue (Ruta graveoleus) mustard (Sinapis nigra)
motherwort, (Leonorus cardiaca) and mullin (Verbas-
cum thapsus) in full flower. Blue whortleberries
(Vaccinium frondosum) beginning to ripen. Dewberry
(Rubus trivialis) ripening. .
5. Poppy (Papaver somniferum) in flower.
6. Garden squashes (Cucurbita Melo-pepo) in flower.
7. Red raspberry fully ripe.
10. Black raspberry fully ripe.
11. String-beans fit for the table.
12. Unicorn plant (Martinia proboscrdea) in full flower.
13. Thorn apple (Datura stramonium) and marygold (Tagetes
erecta) in full flower.
15. Great water plantain (Alisma plantago) and field clover
(Trifolium arvense) in flower.
17. Mad dog weed (Scutellaria lateriflora) and purple vervain
(Verbena hastata) in blossom.

The weather for three weeks past has been excessively
warm. The thermometer, for several days, has.stood above

372 Dr. Williams?s Floral, &c. Calendar.

95°, part of the time at 98°. Our lands are now parching

- with drought. Our grass fields are completely embrowned.
Our farmers beginning to reap their rye. .

July 19. Cucumbers fit for the table. Early corn (green) fit
; for the table.

21. Mother of thyme (Thymus vulgaris) in full flower.

22. Fig-wort (Scrophularia marylandica) and loosestrife (Ly-
simachia stricta) in flower.

24, Morning-glory (Convolvulus sepium) and Orchis ciliaris in
full flower. s

26. Whortleberries (Vaccinium resinosum) ripe. Single-
seeded cucumber (Sicyos angulata) in flower.

28. Garden lettuce and hep (Humulus lupulus) in full flower.

30. Our farmers reaping their wheat—a tolerable crop. _

Buckwheat (Polygonum fagopyrum) in flower.

We had a great rain about the 20th, which restored the
parched vegetation. The latter part of the month was, how-
ever, warm and dry.

August 1. Grasshoppers begin to sing. Crickets arrived.
2. Larkspur (Delphinium consolida) in flower.
3. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) and pigweed (Chenopodium
album) in flower.
6. Broom-corn (Sorghum saccharatum) and lavender (Laven-
dula spica) in flower.
7. Early jenneting apples ripe. Ambrosia trifida and Ame-
rican senna (Cassia marylandica) in flower.
11. Muskmelon ripe. Garden squashes and shelled beans fit
for the table.
13. Seed-box (Ludwigia alternifolia) in flower. Garden
gooseberries fully ripe.
14. Our farmers gathering their peas and oats—an indifferent
crop. Weather warm and dry.
16. Martins departing. Bush clover (Lespedeza capitata) in
flower.
18. Our farmers beginning to mow their second crop of hay.
Jerusalem oak (Chenopodium botrys) in flower.

‘A

:

Rafinesque on the Genus Floerkea. 373 -

20. Houseleek (Sempervivum tectorum) in flower.

21, Herb clarry (Salvia sclarea) in blossom.

22. Swallows collecting in thousands to depart. Toothed
coral (Cymbidium odontorhizom) in flower. Saw bats
for the first time this year.

24. Lopseed (Phryma leptostachia) and ladies’ traces (Neottia
pubescens) in flower.

27. Gay mallows (Lavatera thuringiaca) and Solanum nigra.
in full flower.

30. Burnet saxifrage (Sanguisorba canadensis) and water hore-
hound (Lycopus ewropeus) in full flower.

STEPHEN W. WILLIAMS,

Deerfield, (Mass.) Jan. 25, 1819.

ART. VIII. Description and Natural Classification of the
Genus Floerkea, by C. S. Rarinesque.

Tus genus was discovered in Pennsylvania, near Lancaster,
by the Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, who communicated the same to
Wildenow of Berlin. This celebrated botanist ascertained that
it was a new genus, to which he gave the name of a German
botanist, (Floerke) and published it in the third volume of the
transactions of the society des Curteux de la Nature of Berlin,
for 1801, under the name of Floerkea proserpinacoides, which
jong and uncouth specific name has been changed by every
subsequent author. Michaux has omitted it altogether, (with
many more American species) in his Flora Boreali Americana,
published in 1803. Persoon calls it Floerkea lacustris, in Syn.
plant. 1. p. 393. Muhlenberg Floerkea uliginosa, in Cat. pl.
Amer. Sept. p. 36. and Pursh, in Flora Amer. Sept. 1. p. 239,
unites it with the genus JVectris, and calls it Vectris pinnata, put-
ting it therefore in the Hexandria digynia of Linneus, while all
the preceding authors had classed it in the Hexandria mono-’
gynia. I will show presently which among them appear to be

374 Rafinesque on the Genus Floerkea.

wrong; but I must notice before, that no botanist had, I be-
lieve, endeavoured to class it naturally, until Mr. Correa de
Serra, who in his reduction of American genera to the natural
families of Jussieu, attempted, without having had an opportu-
nity to see the plant, to place it in the family of Junci, taking
it therefore to be a monocotyle plant; being led into this er-
ror by a mistaken idea, that all hexandrous plants must be
monocotyle! But in the spring of 1816, I found this plant in
the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, (near the falls of the
Schuylkill) where it had escaped the attention of all the bo-
tanists of that city, and in particular of Dr. William Barton,
who has therefore omitted it in his Prodr. fl. Philad. and hav-
ing communicated it to Mr. Correa, he acknowledged that it
was dicotyle, of which fact I was aware, even before seeing
the plant and dissecting its seed, by attending to its habit.

The following exact description of this genus will enable
the reader to ascertain how far 1 am correct in my presump- _
tions towards its natural arrangement.

_ Floerkea. Perigone double persistent, Meapantites the exte-
rior calicinal 3 partile, sepals acute ; the interior shorter,
coloured 3 partile, sepals petaloid, oblong, obtuse. Sixstamens —
perigyne, filaments filiform, of the length of the interior sepals,
anthers round. One free ovarium, rounded and bilobed, one
central and bifod style, two capitated stigmas. Fruit a bilobed
atricule, tuberculated and bilocular dispermous, sometimes
round, unilocular and monospermous by abortion of one lobe
and cell. Seeds attached to the centre near the bottom, nearly
lenticular, smooth albuminous, easily divided in two lobes.
Habit. Small, delicate, annual, and glabrous plant, with alter-
nate polytome pinnated leaves, flowers axillar, solitary, pe-
dunculated.

Floerkea uliginosa. Caule tenello flaccido erecto simplex,
foliis 4 petiolatis imis ternatis, summis pinnato, quinatis, pinnu-
lis lineari oblongis obtusis, integris floribus axillaris, solitaris
pedunculis longis apice incrastatis. Stem delicate, soft, up-
right, and simple, leaves petiolated, the inferior ternated, the
superior pinnated, quinate, pinnules linear-oblong obtuse,

‘

Rafinesque on the Genus Floerkea. 375

flowers axillar, solitary, and on long peduncles, swelled under
the flower.

Among the several specific names given to this plant, I pre-
fer Muhlenberg’s, as it expresses exactly the kind of situations
where it grows, say in moist grounds, occasionally swampish or
overflowed ; those I found near Philadelphia, grew by thou-
sands on the banks of a small brook in a wood below the left
side of the falls of Schuylkill. Persoon’s name of lacustris,
being wrong, as it would seem to imply that it grows in lakes
only ; and Wildenow’s name being too long and illusive, its
similarity of habit with the genus Proserpinaca not being very
striking. However, even the name of uliginosa is liable to
some slight objection ; and did I think myself permitted to coin
a new name, while so many have been proposed already, I
should have called it either F. tenella, or F. flaccida, or F. oli-
torta, being a very delicate and tender plant, and very good
to eat in sallad, as I have tried it myself, its taste is sweet and
pleasant, the whole plant may be eaten, (even the root) being
all juicy and tender: it grows in such an abundance in some
spots, that it might occasionally afford a most precious and de-
lightful sallad, but if cultivated for that purpose, it might” or
found an agreeable addition to our culinary herbs.

In addition to my above definition, it will be proper to state
that the stem of this plant rises from 4 to 8 inches, it is cylin-
drical, smooth, and yellowish, the middle leaves are the largest,
the lower peduncles are longer than the leaves, and the upper
ones shorter, the petals or interior sepals, and the stamens are
yellow. It blossoms in May, and is annual, it even lasts only
three months.

‘Tt will be perceived that I do not agree with Mr. Pursh, in
uniting this plant with the genus /Vectris: he owns himself that
it deviates a little from the generic character of Nectris, but
these deviations appear to me very material ; they exist in the
pistils and fruits, the most essential parts of the flowers, since
they agree in the perigone and stamens. The genus Vectris
(or Calomba of Aublet) has two ovaries, two styles, and two po-
lispermous capsules, or achens! and belongs therefore to the
second order Perimesia, (class Eltrogynia) eighth family Achen-

376 Rafinesque on the Genus Floerkea.

opsia next to the genus Myriophyllum : while the genus Flo-
erkea which has a bilobed ovary, one central style, two stigmas,
and one bilocular dispermous achen, must belong to the eleventh
order of the same class ; Jsostimza, which is characterized by
having more than one stigma, the stamens in regular number,
and not central ; it will form a connecting link between this
order and the foregoing Polymesia, by its affinity with many ge-
nera of the Euphorbia’s tribe, such as Callitriche, Tragia, Mer-
curvalis, &c. from which it differs merely by having herma-
phrodite flowers, and perispheric regular stamens. It will at
present stand nearly isolated in this order, where it may form
the small family Galenidia, along with the genus Galenia, &c.
and which shall have much affinity with the family Phytolacia ;
but this differs by having a multilocular berry, while the Gale-
nia merély differs by having a 4 sided perigone, 8 stamens,
and 2 styles.

I admit, however, that there is a strong affinity between the —
genera Floerkea and Nectris, but stronger affinities often exist
in plants of different classes. If, however, it should happen
that Aublet* might have been mistaken in describing the oya-
ries and capsules of the JVectris as double, if they should prove
to be simple but bilobed, then the JVectrzs would belong to the
same family as the Floerkea ; but yet stand as a peculiar genus
distinguished by having 2 styles, and the achens not monos-
permous!

It was insinuated to me by Mr. Correa, that the Floerkea.
might have some affinity with the tribe of Ranunculaceous, but
I cannot discover any, since that tribe is widely different, by
having many ovaries, stamens, and fruits, each ovary with 1
style or stigma, a deciduous perigone, the anthers adnate, &c.
The analogy in the structure of the seed and habit, is too slight
to be taken in consideration.

* Mr. Stephen Elliott has confirmed the description of Aublet, in his Botany of
the Southern States. (Received January, 1818. Edttor.)

Rafinesque on Cylactis, Nemopanthus, and Polanisia. 377

Art. IX. Descriptions of Three New Genera of Plants,
from the State of New-York. Cylactis, Nemopanthus,
and Polanisia, by C. S. RaFinesque.

t. WN. G. Cylactis.

Catyx campanulated 6 to 10 fidus, sepals a little unequal.
Petals 4 to 6 equal. Many perigynous stamens. Pistils 8 to
12, ovaries sessile ovate, styles elongated, stigmas capitated.
Berries few, distinct, one seeded.

This new genus belongs in the analytical and natural me-
thod, (see Analysis of Nature) to the first natural class Eltro-
gynia, first natural order Rhodanthia, second natural family
Senticosia, next to the genera Rubus, Oligacis, &c. It would
range itself into the artificial class Icosandria of the Linnzan
sexual system; but not properly into any of its orders, since
the number of pistils is variable, and never above 12. Only
one species belongs to it, which I have discovered in company
with Mr. Knevels, on the Catskill mountains. The etymology
of the name derives from two Greek words meaning radiated
calyx. It differs essentially from Rubus by the unequal many
cleft calyx, variable petals, and few pistils.

Cylactis montana. Mountain cylactis—Stem herbaceous up-
right, unarmed, pubescent; leaves quinate, nearly smooth,
upper ones sessile, stipules oblong, folioles ovate acuminate,
incised, serrated, ciliated, base acute, entire, the middle one
petiolated : flowers few corymbose, peduncles erect elongated
bracteolated ; calyx pubescent, sepals lanceolate acute,
nerved, reflexed; petals cuneate-obovate, longer than the
calyx.

It is a small perennial plant, rising about half a foot ; flowers
white, blossoming in June. On the Catskill mountains near
the great falls, &c.

2. N.G. Nemopanthus.

Dioical. M. flowers calyx 5 phylle, equal, deciduous. No
corolla. Stamina 5 hypogynous, alternating with the calyx.

378 Rafinesque on Cylactis, Nemopanthus, and Polanisia.

Fem. fl. calyx deciduous 5 phylle ? Ovary ovate, stigma sessile
4lobed. Berry 4 celled 4 seeded.

The name means flower with a filiform peduncle. A shrub
forms this genus, which had perhaps been united with dlex by
Michaux, &c.; but it differs altogether from it by the want of
corolla, hypogynous stamens, sessile, style, &c. it does not
even belong to the same family, but to the natural family
Rhamnidia, natural order Plynontia, and natural class Elirogy-
nia, next to the genus frangula. In the sexual system it would
belong to Dioecia pentandria, very far apart from Frangula.

Nemopanthus fascicularis. Fascicled nemopanthus. Shrub-
by, leaves fasciculated, petiolate, oblong, mucronate, entire,
rather undulated, membranaceous, smooth ; flowers axillary
fasciculated, peduncles filiform, shorter than the leaves.

It forms a small shrub from 5 to & feet high, covered with
gray bark, and with slender upright branches ; the flowers are
greenish, very small, the female flowers have shorter and
thicker peduncles ; they blossom in June. It grows on the
Catskill mountains near the two lakes. It is, perhaps, the
Ilex canadensis ? of Michaux and Pursh. And it has some ana-
logy with the Frangula alnifolia.

3. N. G. Polanisia.

Calyx 4 phyile, phylles coloured unequal, the upper one
unguiculated spatulated. Corolla with 4 unequal petals, the
two upper ones larger and unguiculated. A nectarium up-
wards glandular, broad, and truncated. Stamina 9 to 14, une-
qual, erect, hypogynous. Ovary oblong on a short pedicel,
one style, one truncated stigma. Fruita follicular capsule, one
celled, two valved, many seeded, seeds inserted on each side
of each suture, nearly snail-shaped.

The type of this genus is the Cleome dodecandra of Linnzus,
under which denomination many species were blended, which
have no similitude with the real genus cleome, differing in the
calyx, corolla, nectarium, stamina, and fruit. I shall describe
here that of North America, where 2 or 3 species exist, besides
those of the West Indies, Africa, and Asia, which are totally

Notice on the Myosurus Short. 379

different. The etymology of the name which I have given to
it, derives from many irregularities. 1t belongs in the analytical
method of botany, to the first natural class Eltrogynia, ninth na-
tural order Monostimia, natural family Capparidia.. It can find
no place in the sexual system since the number of stamina va-
ries from 9 to 14, unless it be forced into Dodecandria.

Polanisia graveolens. Clammy polanisia—hairy and glutin-
ous all over, stem upright, leaves alternate, petiolate, ternated,
folioles sessile, the intermediate longest, oblong, obtuse, entire,
hairy on the margin and nerves: flowers racemose erect,
bracteas petiolate, ovate, obtuse, calyx hairy, petals emargin-
ate, crenate, capsules divaricate glutinous.

It is the Cleome dodecandra of Michaux and Pursh. It grows
on the banks of rivers and lakes, on the Hudson near New-
burgh, on the Susquehannah near Harrisburg, on Lake Erie,
on the Ohio, and Mississippi, &c. It blossoms in July and Au-
gust, the stem rises about 1 foot, the petals are white, or
slightly red. The whole plant has a strong graveolent smell,
similar to that of Erigeron graveolens. (Received January,
1818. Editor.)

Art. X. Notice on the Myosurus Shortii.

I HAVE the pleasure to announce to the botanists, that the
genus Myosurus, hitherto thought an European genus, and
composed of a single species, has been detected in the United
States by Dr. Short of Kentucky, who has discovered it in the
neighbourhood of Hopkinsville, in Christian county, West
Kentucky, and has communicated me specimens of it; by
which, on comparing them with the European Myosurus,
figured in Flora Danica, Lamarck’s Illustrations, &c. I have
been enabled to ascertain, that the American plant must form
a second species of that genus, which I have accordingly dedi-
cated it to the discoverer, by naming it Myosurus Short. This
adds another genus and another new species to our Flora. I
add the comparative definitions of the two species, exhibiting
their different characters and diagnosis.

$80 _ fees on Gnaphalium.

Myosurus minimus. Lin. &c. Myosurus Shortii. Raf.

Leaves _linear-cuneate, Leaves linear obtuse, hard-
broader near the top, and | ly attenuated below. Scapes
acute. Scapes as long as the | shorter than the leaves, and
leaves, thickened towards the | filiform. Calix 3 to 5 leaved,
upper part. Calix 5 leaved, | spurs membraneous : petals 3
spurs consimilar: petals 5. | to 5. Stamens 10 to 12. Car-
Stamens 5to 8. Carpophore | pophore shorter than the
as long as the scapes. scapes. i

C. S. RAFINESQUE.

Philadelphia; May 1, 1819.

Art. XI. Description of a New Species of Gnaphalium,
by Professor E. Ives.

To B. Silliman, Esq. M.D., Se.

Tne following description of a new species of Gnaphalium,
accompanied with a drawing, has been in my possession for
two years. If the subsequent observations will be of use to
correct error, or solve doubts which may have existed con
cerning some species of gnaphalium, they are at your service.

E. IVES.

This plant was first observed by me, in company with Mr, .
€. Whitlow, in July, 1817, by the margin of a brook, a few
rods north of Mr. E. Whitney’s gun manufactory, near New-
Haven. It is also found on the margin of the Housatonick,
about thirty miles from Long Island sound, where it was ob-
served by Dr. Alfred Monson, the last summer. Specimens
of this plant were sent to Z. Collins, Esq. of Philadelphia, for
the purpose of comparing it with the species of gnaphalium in
Muhlenberg’s herbarium, more particularly with the: Juteo-
album and Pennsylvanicum, which I had not seen.

A,

fe > ) 3 pe ‘
dae balett ite ett COC .
2

A. Doolittle

28

~

Say on Shells, &c. 381

I am indebted to the politeness of Mr. Collins, for the facts
on this subject relative to Muhlenberg’s herbarium. He ob-
serves, ‘“‘ your Gnaphalium is certainly not the luteo-albwm of
Muhlenberg, which may not strictly be a native, but intro-
duced. Yours most approaches G. polycephalum Mx. Still,
from the decurrent leaves and other differential marks, it
appears to me to be a new species. Muhlenberg’s collection
has it not.”

As the luteo-album is said to grow in New-England, yet so
far as my observation has extended it has not been found by
any of the botanists, I am induced to believe that this opinion
has arisen from some erroneous description of the plant which
is the subject of this paper.

As the decurrent leaves of this Gnaphalium distinguish it so
obviously from all the other American species of Gnaphalium,
I propose to give it the specific name of decurrens.

Specific description of Gnaphalium Decurrens (large life ever-
lasting.)

- Leaves lanceolate, broad at base, acute, decurrent, some-

what scabrous above, tomentose beneath ; stem leafy branched

spreading, about three feet high.—See the plate.—The plate

represents a section of the upper part of the plant.

FOSSIL ZOOLOGY, &c.
eB eae

Art. XII. Observations on some Species of Zoophytes,
Shells, &c. principally Fossil, by THomas Say.

I; the following descriptions and notices of some of the
animal productions of our country, chiefly fossil, and of which
some are but little known, should be found of sufficient in-
terest to occupy a place i in the Journal of Science, si are
very much at your service for that work.

Vou. I....No. 4. 30

382 | Say en Shells, dye.

The greater portion of them are extracted, with some modi-
fication, from an essay which I read about three years ago, to
the Academy of Natural Sciences, without any intention at the
time of giving publicity to them. But the rapid diffusion of a
taste for geological research, seems to require corresponding
exertions on the part of those who have attended to fossil re-
mains, inasmuch as geology, in order to be eminently fur-
nished with every advantage that may tend to the develope-
ment of many important results, must be in part founded on a
knowledge of the different genera and species of reliquiz,
which the various accessible strata of the earth present. The
accessory value of this species of knowledge, is now duly esti-
mated in Europe, as affording the most obvious means of esti-
mating, with the greatest approximation to truth, the compara-
tive antiquity of formations, and of strata, as well as of identi-
fying those with each other which are in their nature similar.

Certainly very little is yet known about the fossils of North

America, and very little can be known accurately, until we ~
shall have it in our power to compare them with -approved
detailed descriptions, plates, or specimens of those of Europe ;
which have been made known to the world by the indefatiga-
ble industry, and scientific research of Lamarck and other
naturalists.
- America is rich in fossils. In many districts of the United
States, vast beds of fossil shells, zoophytes, &c. are deposited,
which, for the most part, are concealed from the inquiring eye,
offering superficially a mere confused mass of mutilated frag-
ments. These rich repositories must finally be exposed to
view, by the onward pace of improvement, and the more inte-
rior strata will be unveiled by some fortunate profound exca-
vations, the result of enterprise in the pursuit of gain. The
very surface of the country in many regions, is almost over-
spread with the abundance of casts, or redintigrate fossils, many
of which are apparently specifically anomalous, and some ge-
nerically so. The correct, and only useful mode in which the
investigation of our fossils can be conducted, is attended with
some difficulty and labour.

Say on Shells, &c. 383

The task presumes the knowledge, not only of fossils in all
their different states, from the apparently unchanged specimen,
to the fragment or section of a cast uninsulably imbedded in its
rocky matrix, but italso requires an adequate acquaintance with
recent specimens, or those of which the inhabitants are not
yet struck from the list of animated beings, in other words
those of the present, as well as those of the former world.

Due advantage being taken of the many opportunities which
are from time to time offered to us, of obtaining knowledge in
this department, will probably be the means of producing a list
of American animal reliquiz, coextensive with that of Europe
at the present day. In the present state of the science, how-
ever, the correct naturalist will feel it a duty which he owes
to his colaborators to proceed with the utmost caution, that he
may not add unnecessarily to the already numerous species.

Genus Alveolites, Lam.

Coral lapideous, covering extraneous bodies, or in a simple
mass, formed of concentric strata; strata composed each of a
union of numerous alveoles, which are very short, contiguous,
reticulate, and generally parallel.

Species.

A. glomeratus, alveoles vertical, subequal, oval, or obsoletely
hexagonal, much shorter than the diameter, parallel; paries
simple ; strata numerous, forming a rounded mass. (Cabinet
of the Academy of Natural Sciences.)

Found often on the coast of North America, cast up by the
waves, the animals sometimes still living. Forms masses of
various sizes and figures, generally more or less rounded or
lobed, and composed of a great number of concentric layers.
The number of these strataseems to be regulated in some de-
gree, by the quantity of surface they have to cover. Thus if
the nucleus happens to be a small shell, such as the Watice,
Nasse, &c. of our coast, or even the oyster, (O. virginica,)
clam, (V. mercenaria,) &c, the strata are often very numerous ;

30'*

384 Say on Shells, &e.

but on the thoracic plate of Ixmulus polyphemus, having a con-
siderable space over which to extend themselves, the strata
are but few, not more than 2 or 3. I have seen the thoracic
plate of this animal so entirely covered by the Alveoltte, as to
have the eyes and stemmata concealed so as to be perfectly
blind. When composed of a single layer only, it much resem-
bles a Flustra, or a Cellapore of which the convex surfaces have
been removed by attrition. The animal I have not yet exa-
mined. The alveoles or cells of a layer, are arranged in lines
of different degrees of curvature, obscurely radiating from dif-
ferent centres ; these lines are placed side by side, the alve-
oles alternating with each other throughout the layer in a
quincunx manner ; the thickness of the paries is somewhat
equal to one half of the conjugate diameter of the alveole, the
length of which, or thickness of the layer, is scarcely more
considerable ; but these proportions vary. ;

The species to which it seems allied, are madreporacea and
incrustans. The former is fossil, and differs in being subra-
mose ; the latter forms but a single expansion.

Genus Favosites, Lam.

Coral lapideous, simple, of a variable form, composed of
parallel prismatic and fasciculated tubes ; tubes contiguous,
pentagonal, or hexagonal, more or less angular, rarely arti-
culated.

Species.

F. striata, more or less turbinate ; paries of the alveoles
longitudinally striated within, and fenestrate with minute os-
culi ; alveoles with very numerous septe. (Cabinet Acad. Nat.
Sctences ; and Peale’s Musewm—common. )

Found fossil in various parts of the United States, at the _
falls of the Ohio ; Genessee, New-York ; Pittsburg and Wilks-

‘barre, Pennsylvania; Missouri, &c. &c. but not yet in the
alluvial deposit of New-Jersey.

The tubes are generally, partially, or entirely filled with
silicious matter, sometimes so completely so, as to resemble

A

Say on Shells, Sc. 385

in miniature, basaltic columns ; when the alveoles are free on
the surface, these fossils are known by the name of petrified
wasp-nests, from the resemblance they bear to the nests of those
insects. The silex is usually only infiltrated into the cavities,
leaving the substance of the coral in its original calcareous
state, but the specimens which are found amongst the rolled
pebbles of the Delaware River, near Philadelphia, are com-
pletely silicified.

The size varies from one fourth of an ounce, to two hun-
dred pounds or more, and the tubes occur of every interme-
diate diameter, from the fortieth to one fourth of an inch. It
is not common to find any two specimens of like form, they
are, however, ordinarily more or less turbinate, but are some-
times depressed or compressed, and the tubes rectilinear or
excurved, and of various lengths. The dilated summit is not
so much the effect of a gradual enlargement of the tubes, as
-of the frequent and adventitious interposition of young ones,
which of course renders the openings of the tubes unequal.
The tubes or alveoles, vary in the same coral, being 5 or 6,
rarely seven sided, but the hexagonal form is most common}
the interior of a tube is divided into a great number of apart-
ments or cells, by approximate transverse septe, each of the
cells appears to be connected with the corresponding cells of
the surrounding tubes, by lateral orifices in the dividing paries ;
these orifices are minute, inequidistant, orbicular, their margins —
slightly prominent, and forming from one to three longitudinal
series on each side of the tube ; each row is separated from
the adjoining one by an impressed line. By means of these
osculi it seems probable that all the animals inhabiting a com-
mon coral, were connected together, or had free communica-
tion with each other, but whether by means of a common or-
gan as in Pyrosoma, Stephanomia, &c. or simply by contact as in
the aggregating Salpa, &c. we have no means of determining.

The striata differs from Madrepora truncata, Esper. (F. al-
veolata, Lam.) in not being ‘‘extis transversé sulcata.” It
seems to be allied to Corallium Gothlandicum, Amoen. Acad.
v. 1. p. 106, and it is possible it may prove synonymous, or
very similar to it, when that species becomes better known ;

386 Say on Shells, de.

the latter has been taken for Basalt, and M. Lamarck when
describing it, inquires ‘‘ Est-ce un polypier ?” Madrepora
fascicularis, of Volck. and Parkin. in common with F. striata
and F. Gothlandicum, is distinguished by the transverse septa,
a character which induced me to refer the species here de-
scribed to Favosite; they seem therefore to be congeneric, as
analogy indicates a participation in the character of osculated
paries.

Amongst the great variety exhibited by this species, we
have to remark more particularly the following, viz. :

Ist. Alveoles perfectly free, that is, destitute of aciculi
or lamella, the septa wanting, and sometimes the osculi ob-
solete:

2d. Alveoles filled almost to the summit with the septa, and
resembling those combs of the bee-hive which are filled with
honey and covered over.

3d. Paries beset with very numerous, interrupted, alter-
nating, transverse lamelle, which are denticulated at their
tips, and project towards the centre with various degrees of
prominence and irregularity.

The first variety corresponds with the generic character,
and the third approaches the genus Porites ; yet so unequivo-
cally identical are they, that I have seen them all united in
the same mass, and perforated throughout by the osculi. The
identity is further obvious by the perfect gradation which
renders them inseparable.

With respect to the transverse septa, I think their presence
may be accounted for by supposing that as the animal elongates
its tube in consequence of an increase of growth, or in order
to maintain an equal elevation with the adjacent tubes, (ren-
dered necessary by the origin of young tubes in the interstices)
it gradually vacates the basal portions of its tube, and sustains
itself at the different elevations, by successively uniting the
parietal lamelle so as to exclude the vacuity. That this is pro-
bable, we may infer from a similar procedure on the part
of several species of testaceous mollusca. Thus some Lin-
nzan Serpula become camerated, and a familiar instance pre-
sents itself in the Triton tritonis, the animal of which adds suc-

‘

Say on Shells, §c. 387:

cessive partitions to the interior of the spire, as that part be-
comes too strait for the increasing volume of its body. If the
above supposition proves correct, the organs of communication
which pass through the osculi, can hardly be in common, but
must rather connect the animals by simple contact only, other-
wise these parts would be broken when the animal changes its
place by vacating the inferior part of the tube.

The third variety is then the state of that portion of the
tube which is inhabited by the body of the animal, ane not yet
interrupted by the septe.

From the above observations, it is evident that this species,
and probably the entire genus Favosite under which I have
placed it, will not arrange properly with the Tubipores, Mille-
pores, &c. but must be transferred to the Polypiers Lamelliféres
of Lamarck. And if the Madrepora retepora of Solander and
Ellis, is a true Porites, as M. Lamarck supposes it to be from
the appearance of its tubes, I should conclude this genus to be
very proximately allied to Favosites, by that species and the
F. striata having in common the remarkable character of
fenestrated paries. But to this character I should conceive a
generic importance ought to be attached, as indicating a differ-
ential organization of the artificers. I have no doubt that on
close inspection of a perfect specimen, the same character
will be found to exist in F. Gothlandicum, and possibly also in
F. truncata, if not in the latter only, it may be proper to se-
parate the genus and to withdraw from Porites the foremen-
tioned species, retaining to striata as specifically essential, the
second member of the differential description.

(To be continued.)

A fe
hobo NS # GS,

388 Beck on Salt Storms, &c.

PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, &c.
ee DC

Ant. XIII. Observations on Salt Storms, and the Influence
of Salt and Saline Air upon Animal and Vegetable Life.
Read before the Lyceum of Natural History of New-
York, March 7, 1819, by Joun B. Beck, M. D.

(Communicated for this Journal.)

‘Merrorotocy is a science of so much general concern,
that it seems to be incumbent upon every member of society
to aid in augmenting the stock of facts, which the labours of
ingenious and scientific men have already accumulated on that
subject. . Under this impression I propose to devote the fol-
lowing paper to some observations on salt winds or storms, as
they have occurred in this country and in Europe—a subject,
which although presenting many phenomena of a more than
temporary interest, has as yet excited but little attention.
Indeed, the opportunities for observation have occurred so
rarely as readily to account for its having in a great measure
escaped the philosophical acumen of the present age.

It must have been early observed that the atmosphere in
the vicinity of the sea frequently becomes impregnated with
saline materials ; but the first and only account of a salt storm
that I have met with, is to be found in the Transactions of the
Linnzan Society of London. The 8th volume of that work
gives an interesting narration of the effects of a storm of this
~ description, which occurred in England, in January, 1803. It
was occasioned by an east wind, which blew for some days,
and which, in its passage over the ocean, had imbibed large
quantities of salt water, which were afterward deposited upon
the land. In most cases these depositions proved fatal to the
plants and vegetables which received them. So extensive

Beck on Salt Storms, &c. 389

were the effects of this singular storm, that they were felt in ~
the vicinity of London, at a distance of about seventy miles
from the ocean, and in all the intermediate country. In most
instances, the leaves of the plants, which suffered from it,
‘appeared as if they had been scorched, and in some places
even the tops of the branches mortified. A storm of the same
kind took place in England, in February, 1804 ; and the me-
moir states, that Sir Joseph Banks had noticed another some
years before in Lincolnshire.*

A storm attended with similar effects occurred in this. coun-
try in 1815, and vented its fury upon the eastern states. It
commenced on the 23d of September, between eight and nine
o’clock, A. M. with the wind from the east. In about two
hours the wind shifted to southeast, and blew a perfect hur-
ricane. The extended devastation which ensued, is. still in
the recollection of every person. The tides rose from nine
to twelve feet higher than ordinary, and in many of the prin-
cipal cities and towns along the coast of New England,
churches, houses, bridges, wharves, and in some instances
valuable citizens, were buried in one common ruin. In less
than three hours the gale abated, and before sunset there was
a perfect calm. Such were the more striking features of this
tremendous gale—but other effects were observed more pecu-
liarly interesting to the philosopher. At New-London, Salem,
and other places, both on the coast, and several miles in the
interior, the air was found to be loaded with salt; and the
leaves of many trees appeared, a few hours after the storm,
as if they had been scorched. Besides this effect upon
vegetables, there were additional evidences of the -saline
quality of the wind. At Salem and some other places an
incrustation of salt was perceived on the windows, and the
fruit in several gardens had a perceptible taste of salt on
their surface. At New-London it was remarked that the air
in the eddies was extremely hot and suffocating.

* I refer the scientific reader for further particulars to ‘‘ 4 account ofa storm
of Salt, which fell in January, 1803. By Richard Salisbury, F.R.S. L.S,” im
the Transactions of the Linnzan Society of London. Vol. VIE. p. 207—10.

390 Beck on Salt Storms, de.

Other facts of a similar nature might be collected, but these
it is presumed are sufficient to characterize the state of the
atmosphere during that storm.

Several interesting inquiries arise from the consideration of
the foregoing facts.

1, In what way does the salt exist in the atmosphere in
these storms ? On this point there are two different opinions.
The most prevalent is, that it is merely the spray of the sea
driven onward by the force of the wind. This opinion has
received the sanction of Sir Joseph Banks,* and also of Sir
Humphry Davy, if we may judge from an incidental expres-
sion in his Agricultural Chemistry.{ Another opinion{ is,
that muriate of soda is continually rising into the atmosphere
from the surface of the ocean, and that the air, in all maritime
situations, is thus constantly more or less impregnated with salt.
The most striking fact in support of this doctrine, (so opposite
to the commonly received views on the subject of the evapo--
ration of sea water) is the actual existence of muriate of soda
in the rain and snow which fail in the vicinity of the ocean.§
The experiments of Vogel and Bouillon Lagrange, on the
distillation of sea water, are also in favour of the position, that
salt may be carried into the air in the ordinary process of
evaporation. On distilling salt water they found a considera-
ble quantity of muriate of soda in the receiver.||

* Linnzan Transactions. Vol. VIII. p. 289. + P.339. Lond. ed.
+ Maintained by Dr. Mitchill.

- § My friend, Dr. John Torrey, has favoured me with the following results of
some experiments, which he made at my request upon the last snow which fell.
4¢ A pint and a half of snow water was reduced by evaporation to a few drops.
On testing this with vegetable blue infusions no alteration of colour took place.
It was afterward evapo:ated to dryness, and about a quarter of a grain of a solid re-
siduum was obtained. This was redissolved in a small quantity of pure rain water,

and prussiate of potash added to it, without occasioning any precipitate. Nitrate
of silver produced a white precipitate so copious, that the solution was thick with
it. Carbonate of soda produced no effect. The transparency of a solution of
muriate of barytes was not disturbed by it. These experiments prove, that a free

acid does not exist in snow water, but that the muriate exists in it combined with .

an alkali, which is most probably soda.”
|| Mr. J. Murray, ef London, considers this to be a mistake. Free muriatic

acid, and not muriate of soda, he says, will be found in the recipient.—Hlements of
Chemistry. PartI. p. 212. Lond.ed. 1818.

4

cae

Beck on Salt Storms, &c. 391

Admitting the correctness of these experiments, still it is
not easy to conceive, how they will account satisfactorily for
the large quantities of salt found in the air during the storms
under consideration.

Whichever of these solutions may be adopted, it is unques-
tionably a fact that salt does, in some way or other, exist in
the atmosphere in the neighbourhood of the sea.

2. The next object of inquiry is, the influence which this
saline air has upon vegetable life. Independently of the facts
already stated, there are many others which prove its dele-
terious agency upon the vegetable creation. Dr. Mitchill
informs me, that in some parts of the south side of Long-Island
fruit trees do not thrive well, except at a distance of thirty
miles from the sea, and even the sturdy oak does not extend
its branches towards the ocean.* If I am correctly informed,
it was with great difficulty, that the trees on our Battery were
made to accommodate themselves to a situation so near the
salt water. It is also well known, that when plants are taken
to sea, they speedily perish, if exposed but a short time to a
wind, which is sufficiently strong to turn over the tops of the
waves into white caps, as they are called by the sailors.

In order to ascertain positively, whether these effects were
to be attributed to the operation of salt, I made a solution of
muriate of soda in common rain water ; with this I watered
for a couple of days the leaves of different plants. In a short
time they began to dry up, and in a few days were completely
dead.

It appears from Volney, that the Egyptian air is strongly
charged with salts. The evidences of it are to be found even
at Cairo.{ It is this property of the air, which this philoso-
phical traveller considers, as one of the causes of the rapid
vegetation in that country. He mentions, however, that exotic
plants will net thrive there. It is found necessary to renew
the seeds of them every year. May not this be occasioned

* That is, in those oaks which grow near the salt water, the branches that
directly face the sea do not attain so great size and strength as those on the oppo-
site side ; this has also been observed on the south side of Long-Island.

+ Volney’s Travels in Syria and Egypt. Vol. I. p. 48. Perth ed.

392 Beck on Salt Storms, dc. a

by the saline quality of the air? The native plants are
doubtless accustomed to its action, and do not so sensibly feel
its injurious effects. And if the Egyptian air is so very pene-
trating from this very cause, as to produce ophthalmia, may
we not rationally conclude, that its influence must be equally
injurious to plants not accustomed to it.

Another illustration of the influence of salt on vegetation is
to be found in the Dead Sea, or Lake Asphaltites. ‘ In Lake
Asphaltites,”’ says Volney, ‘‘ there is neither animal nor
vegetable life. No verdure is to be seen on its banks, nor
fish to be found within its waters; but it is not true, that its
exhalations are pestiferous, so as to destroy birds flying over
it. Itis not uncommon to see swallows skimming its surface,
and dipping for the water necessary to build their nests. The
true cause which deprives it of vegetables and animals is the
extreme saltness of the water, which is vastly stronger than
that of the sea. The soil around it, equally impregnated with ©
this salt, produces no plants, and the azr itself, which becomes
loaded with it from evaporation, and which receives also the
sulphureous and bituminous vapours, cannot be favourable to
vegetation ; hence the deadly aspect which reigns around this

-_lake.”’*

3. In what way does the salt operate in producing its
deleterious effects on the leaves of vegetables? It is by no
means easy to answer this question. It cannot be by shutting
up the pores of the leaf, and thus obstructing its perspiration.
It is well known that when the surfaces of leaves are covered
with oil, they will soon die.{ But salt water is certainly not
sufficiently viscid to act in a similar way.

Nor can it be satisfactorily attributed to the difference
of structure between maritime and land plants. There is
some difference indeed between many of these, maritime
plants being generally covered by a pubescence, of which
most land plants are destitute. It is idle however to suppose
that the object of this covering is to protect maritime plants
from the action of the salt air, as there are many of them

* Volney’s Travels in Syria and Egypt. Vol. I. p. 217.
+ Darwin’s Botanic Garden. P. 256. :

‘

« Beck on Salt Storms, &c. 393

which do not possess it. Besides, is it not rational to con-
clude, from the large quantities of soda which are always
found in sea plants, that this saline atmosphere is rather pro-
pitious than otherwise to their growth, and that it only proves
injurious to plants accustomed to the unadulterated air of the
land.

Again, I do not think that it can be explained by supposing,
that the salt is absorbed into the plant, and thus acts as a poi-
sonous substance. We knew, that in land plants which are
cultivated in the neighbourhood of the sea, salt is absorbed
through their roots.* It must of course circulate with the
juices through the whole plant ; and yet in these cases the
leaves are not destroyed by it. .

The most plausible method of explaining it appears to be
this: that the salt, by its irritating or corrosive power, destroys
the small vessels in the leaf which are necessary for the cir-
culation going on in it during health.

Dr. Darwin has ingeniously shown the analogy between the
functions of the leaves of plants, and the lungs of animals. If
this be admitted, it will not be difficult to account for the
action of salt upon leaves. This substance, when taken into
the stomach, proves not merely innocuous, but wholesome ;
but when accidentally introduced into the lungs, irritation,
inflammation, and death are the consequences. So with
plants—when admitted into them in combination with their
juices, it may be harmless ; but when applied to the lungs or
leaves, death ensues. .

* To prove that salt is absorbed into land plants growing near the sea, the
following facts, for which I am indebted to my friend, Dr. D. V. Knevels, are
conclusive. The fruit of those cocoa-nut trees which grow near the seashore in the
West-Indies is generally found to have a saltish taste; and even the milk in the
nut is perceptibly impregnated with it. Those trees on the contrary which grow in
the interior, beyond the influence of salt water, have their fruit perfectly fresh and
sweet.

The same gentleman informs me, that in a plantation of his father’s, in the
West-Indies, situated on the seashore, a whole. crop of the cane was rendered
unfit for the purpose of making sugar, in consequence of the great quantity of salt
which it had imbibed.

394 Beck on Salt Storms, &c.

4, I shall devote the remainder of this paper to a few con-
cise observations on the effects of salt, and a saline atmos-
phere, upon anima life.

Upon the more imperfect animals, such as slugs, worms,
toads, &c. it is well known that salt proves speedily destruc-
tive of life. Itis not my intention to attempt an explanation
of this singular fact. But it is remarkable that it should not
have been turned to better account in the treatment of those
worms, which infest the human body. Although used for that
purpose by the common people in Ireland as well as in this
country, I believe it has not, until very lately, claimed the
attention of the profession, as an anthelmintick. A late English
journal * contains a notice of some cases which satisfactorily
prove its efficacy, when administered with this intention.
This fact, in addition to numerous others, strikingly illus-
trates the advantages which the healing art might derive from
a careful observation of the phepameus. daily developed by -
the collateral sciences.

In cases of hemoptysis and hematemesis, common salt has
been used with decided success. The public is indebted to
Dr. Rush, for the introduction of this remedy into general
practice.

Dr. Hosack informs me, that he has found sea air extreme-
ly salutary in remittent fever, cholera infantum, and dyspepsia.

Among the deleterious effects caused by a saline atmosphere,
may be mentioned the ophthalmia of Egypt. This disease.is
so common there, ‘‘ that out of ahundred persons,”’ says Volney,
‘‘T have met while walking the streets of Cairo, twenty have
been quite blind, ten wanting an eye, and twenty others have
had their eyes red, purulent, or blemished.”{} Throughout
the Delta, and at Cairo, this complaint is more prevalent than
in any other part of Egypt. In Syria it is also common, al-
though less so than in Egypt, but it is only met with on the
sea-coast. The reasoning of Volney on this subject, is decisive
of the position, that the prevalence of this complaint, in these

* Journal of Science and the Arts. No. X.
+ Volney’s Travels in Syria and Egypt, Vol. I. p. 167.

A

~

Beck on Salt Storms, &c. 395

' regions, is owing to their proximity to the ocean. In confir-
mation, he states that he has himself experienced the irritating
effects of the air of the Delta upon the organ of vision.*

In those cases of sewrvy which occur in long voyages, the
saline nature of the atmosphere co-operates very powerfully
with salt provisions and bad water, in producing that general
vitiation of the system which characterizes this disorder.

Of all diseases, however, those of the lungs appear to be
most affected by a saline air. I have known a lady of this
city who had been afflicted for many years with asthma, to be
essentially benefited by a voyage across the Atlantic. Another
ease has fallen under my observation, of a lady troubled with
asthma, being much relieved by, removing from the inte-
rior to this city. What proves beyond a doubt that her relief
is owing to the air she breathes, is, that whenever she takes a
jaunt into the country, she is sure to suffer a paroxysm of her
old complaint.

Pulmonary consumption certainly prevails more on the sea-
coast, than in the interior. In all our sea-port towns, it is this
disorder which so frightfully augments the catalogue of our
bills of mortality. According to Dr. Rush, “ in Salem, in the
state of Massachusetts, which is situated near the sea, and ex-
posed, during many months of the year, to a moist east wind,
there died in the year 1799, 160 persons ; fifty-three of whom
died of the consumption.”} In Philadelphia, which is more
remote from the sea, the deaths from consumption are much
less numerous than in New-York, or the other cities immedi-
ately on the coast. In Great Britain, which is exposed to the
sea on all sides, it is calculated oie about 55,000 die an-
nually from this disease.

* On the subject of the Egyptian ophthalmia, it may be asked “ why it does not
appear in innumerable other situations, equally exposed to salt air, as Cape Cod,
and the West-India Islands?’ To this it may be replied, that in the production
of any disease whatever, a predisposing state of the system is as necessary as an
exciting cause. This predisposition appears to exist in a great degree among the
Egyptians, and depends upon the nature of their climate, their habits, and mode of
living, all of which have a tendency to produce debility of the eyes, and thus render
them more susceptible of the impression of those causes which excite inflammation.

- + Rush’s Medical Observations and Inquiries, Vol. II. p. 132.

396 Beck on Salt Storms, &c.

Such are some of the facts on this subject ; but the conclu-
sion does not appear to be warranted, that these pulmonary
affections arise from the irritating quality of the air. In Hol-
land, the West Indies, as well as in other countries and islands,
exposed to the sea air, consumption is of rare occurrence. In
Syria, Volney even states that the air of the coast is particu-
larly favourable to those labouring under this malady. Ac-
cordingly they are in the habit of sending such patients from
Aleppo to Latakia, or Saide, where they may enjoy the benefit
of sea air.*

Again, we know that many persons suffering from this affec-
tion, have been completely cured by a voyage, after all the
resources of medicine had been exhausted upon them in vain.

It is evident then, that a pure sea air is not detrimental in
cases of consumption. Dr. Rush, with his usual ingenuity, ex-
plains the prevalence of this complaint in our sea-ports, by at-
tributing it to the mixture of land and sea air; and in confir- ©
mation observes, that ‘‘ those situations which are in the neigh-
bourhood of bays and rivers, where the fresh and salt waters
mix their streams together, are more unfavourable te consump-
tive patients than the seashore, and therefore should be more
carefully avoided by them in exchanging city for country air.’’f
_ Independently, however, of these causes, I think the fre-
quent and sudden vicissitudes of temperature, which we suffer
on the coast, are alone sufficient to account for the prevalence
of catarrhal and pneumonic affections, which most commonly
are the precursors of consumption.

I trust the foregoing observations have not been considered
too medical to comport with the objects of this Society. Na- .
tural history is only useful in its practical applications ; and if
it can be shown to throw any light upon an art, which contri-
butes so much to the comfort and happiness of man, we have
established one of the strongest considerations, which can re-
commend it to general patronage and investigation. Physicians
ought in an especial manner to set a high value upon the
researches of naturalists. The aid they have already given

* Volney’s Travels, Vol. I. p. 226.
+ Rush’s Observations and Inquiries, Vol. II. p. 133.

A

Rafinesque on Atmospheric Dust. 397

is sufficient to entitle them to the lasting gratitude of our pro-
fession. It was one of the merits of that illustrious physician
of our own time and country, Dr. Rush, that he seized with
avidity every fact, from whatever quarter it might be drawn,
to elucidate his favourite science. If ever medicine shall attain
to the elevation of a truly philosophical science, it must be ac-
complished, in part at least, by imitating his example, and by
. developing the infinite and diversified associations which exist
between it and the other sciences.

Art. XIV. Thoughts on Atmospheric Dust. By C. S.
és Rarinesqug, Esq.

Wr we find the ruins of ancient cities buried
ane ground ; when the plough uncovers the front of pa-
‘Taces and the summit of old temples, we are astonished ; but
we seldom reflect why they are hidden in the earth. A sort

of imperceptible dust falls at all Ames from the atmosphere,
and it has covered them during ages.”

2. These are the words of the worthy and ieee philo-
sopher Viney, in his article Nature, Vol. XV. p- 373, of the
French Dictionary of Natural History. — Eyen before reading
them I had observed the same phenomenon, and I have since
studied their effects in varioug places. I could quote one
thousand instances of the extensive and multifarious operations
of this meteoric dust: but I mean to give the results merely
of those that fall daily under notice, and are yet totally ne-
glected ; wishing to draw on them the attention of chemists,
philosophers, and geologists. ,

3. Whenever the sun shines in a dark room, its beams dis-
play a crowd of lucid dusty molecules of various shapes,
which were before invisible as the air in which they swim,
but did exist nevertheless. These form the atmospheric
dust ; existing every where in the lower strata of our atmos-
phere. I have observed it on the top of the highest moun-

Vor. I....No. 4. 31

398 Rafinesque on Atmospheric Dust.

tains, on Mount Etna, in Sicily, on the Alps, on the Alleghany
and Catskill mountains in America, &c. and on the ocean.
_ 4. It deserves to be considered under many views: which
are its invisibility, its shape and size, its formation and origin,
its motion, its deposition and. neepnevletians its composition,
its uses, and its properties. , r4 mii
5. This dust is invisible, owing a dhe Moh of its parti-
aan: but they become visible in the following instances 5,
when the sun shines on them, since they reflect the light,
when their size is increased, and when athe are accumulated.
any where. wf
6. The size of the sia is very sana on their
shape dissimilar ; the greatest portion are exceedingly small,
similar to a whitish or grayish spark, without any determina-
ble or perceptible shape ; the larger particles are commonly
lamellar or flattened, but with an irregular margin, and the
largest appear to be lengthened or filiform ;, the gray colour
prevails. Other shapes are now and then perceptible with
the microscope. NY) yeni ele
7, Among the properties of atmospheric dust are those of
being soft, as light as atmospheric air, of reflecting the rays
received directly from the sun, of possessing a kind of pecu-
liar electricity, wbich gives it a tendency to accumulate on
some bodies more readily than on some others, and of forming.
an earthy sediment, which does not become effervescent with
acids. hiyse- tie HGS
8. This sue is ditbe stibiitli or - pesiiadieall jdong but
chemically in the atmosphere like snow, hail, meteoric stones,
honey-dew, earthy rains, &c. by the combination of gaseous _
and elementary particles dissolved in the air. Its analysis
has never been attempted by chemists; but the earthy sedi-)
ment which is the result of its accumulated deposition, proves:
that it is a compound of earthy particles in a peculiar state of
aggregation, and in which alumine appears to preponderate,
rather than calcareous or silicious earths or oxides.
9. Its motion in calm weather, or ina quiet room, is very
slow ; the particles appear to float in the air in all directions,
some rising, some falling, and many swimming horizontally, or

the

Rafinesque on Atmospheric Dust. 399

forming a variety of curved lines ; what is most singular, is
_ that no two particles-appear to have exactly the same direc-
tion ; yet after awhile the greatest proportion fall down ob-
— liquely, somewhat in the same manner as a light snow ina
calm day. When a current of air is created naturally or
artificially in the open air or in a room, you perceive at
once an increased velocity in their motion ; they move with
rapidity in all directions ; but when a strong current or wind
prevails, they are carried with it ina stream, preserving how-
ever, as yet, their irregular up and down motion.

10. Its formation is sometimes very rapid, and its accumu-
lation very thick in the lower strata of our atmosphere, but
the intensity is variable. Whenever rain or snow falls, this
dust is precipitated on the ground by it, whence arises the
purity of the air after rain and snow ; but a small share is still
left, or soon after formed. In common weather it deposits
itself on the ground by slow degrees, and the same in closed
rooms. It forms then the dust of our floors, the mould of our
roofs, and ultimately the surface of our soil, Pa ng driven by
winds from one place to another.

11, I have measured its accumulation in a quiet room, and
have found it variable from one-fourth of an inch to one inch
in the course of one year; but it was then in a pulverulent
fleecy state, and might be reduced by compression to one-
third of its height, making the average of yearly deposit
about one-sixth of an inch. In the open air this quantity must
be still more variable, owing to the quantities carried by
the winds and waters to the plains, valleys, ‘rivers, the sea,
&c. or accumulated in closed places or against walls, houses,
&c. I calculate, however, that upon an average, from six to
twelve inches are accumulated over the ground in one hun-
dred years, where it mixes with the soil and organic sears}
to form the common mould. —

_ 12. The uses of this chronic meteor are many and obvious.
It serves to create mould over rocks, to increase their de-
composition, to add to our cultivable soil, to amalgamate the
alluvial and organic deposits, to fertilize sapdy and unfruitful
tracts in the course of time, to administer to vegetable life, &c.

id

400 Rafinesque on Atmospheric Dust.

It does not appear that it has any bad influence on and
animals breathing it along with air, unless it should | ye accu-
mulated in a very intense degree.

13. At Segesta, in Sicily, are to be seen the ruins of an
ancient temple ; the steps, which surround it on all ‘sides’ be-
low the pillars, are built on a rock, on the top of a hill
detached from any other higher ground. Yet now all the
steps and the base of the pillars are under the ground, which
has accumulated from this dust and the decay of plants (not
trees) to which it has afforded food. There are from five t
eight feet from the rock to the surface of this new soil, which
has chemically combined ina variety of hardness. This soil
has arisen there in “about 2000 years, “notwithstanding ihe
washings of rain. I quote this as a remarkable instance of
the increase of soil by aerial deposits, among many which
have fallen under my personal examination.

14. It is commonly believed that the dust of our rooms is
produced by the fragments of decomposed vestments, bed-
dings, furnitures, &c. ; this cause increases it, and produces a
different dust, which mixes with the atmospheric dust ; but it
is very far from pr oducing it.

15. The dust of the open air is ascribed to that raised #63
roads and fields, by the pulverization of. their surface ; ue
this secondary and visible dust is only a consequenc
first. “From whence could arise the dust Soe ere by the
means of the sunbeams i ina dark corner, in winter, when the
ground is frozen, or when it is wet and muddy, or rat Sea, 0 or
on the top of rocky mountains ?

16. It is therefore a matter of fact, ‘worth taking into con-
sideration by geologists, that the air still deposits a ‘quantity
of dust, which must have been much greater In former pe-
riods. Just the same as the sea deposits still a quantity of
earthy and saline particles dissolved in it, and which were
superabundant at the period when the rocky — strata were
formed on its bottom. -Water being more compact, ae
rocks. Air, which is less dense, deposits a _pulveral ent

(i se ee M4 tee
matter ! i oa MS i Jk ag

5 4 931
Aes A GUTS
*
4

“i

Dana on, Flame. 401

)
:

ihe XV. On the Effect of Vapour on Flame. By J. F.
_ Dana, Chemical Assistant in Harvard University, and
» Lecturer on Chemistry and Pharmacy in _ Dartmouth
College.

Cambridge, Mass. February 5 1819.
To Professor Silliman.

DEAR SIR,

Axzout a year since I made some experiments on the effect
of steam on ignited bodies, with a view to learn the theory of
the action of the “ American water-burner.” These experi-
ments were published in an anonymous paper in the North
American Review, and have been published i in London, bab
out an acknowledgment of their source.

The effect of them concerning bodies is peculiar, and it

probably 2 admits of more extensive application to the arts than
in the above named instrument alone.
- When a jet of steam, issuing from a small aperture, is
thrown on burning charcoal, the brightness is increased, if the
coal be held at the distance of four or five inches from the
pipe through which the steam passes ; ; but if the coal be held
nearer it is extinguished, a circular black spot first appears
where the steam is thrown onit. The steam in this case does
not appear to be decomposed, and the increased brightness of
the coal depends probably on a current of atmospheric air,
occasioned by the steam. But when a jet of steam, instead of
being thrown on a single coal, is made to pass into a charcoal
fire, the vividness of the combustion is increased, and the low
attenuated flame of coal is enlarged.

~ When the wick of acommon oil lamp is raised, so as to
give off large, columns of smoke, and a jet of steam is thrown
into it, the brightness of the flame is increased, and no smoke
is thrown off.

When spirits of turpentine is made to burn on a wick, the
light | produced i is dull and reddish, and a large quantity of thick
smoke is given off; but when a jet of steam is thrown into

402 Dana on Flame.
this flame, its brightness is much increased ; and when the
experiment is carefully performed, the smoke entirely dis-
appears. PLD eae
When the vapour of spirits of pemeteets is made to issue
from a small orifice, and inflamed, it burns, and throws off
large quantities of smoke ; but when a jet of steam is made to
unite with the vapour, the smoke entirely disappears. hen
vapour of spirits of turpentine and of water are made to issue
together from the same orifice, and inflamed, no smoke ap-
pears. Hence its disappearing, in the above experiment,
cannot be supposed to depend on a current of atmospheric air.
When a jet of steam is thrown into the flame of a spirit of
wine lamp, or into flames which evolve no smoke or carbona-
ceous matter, the same effect is vege as ‘by a current of
air. tle Rael ad,
It appears, from these eke tadt that ee all flames which
evolve smoke, steam produces an increased eta Yip and a
more perfect combustion. ing
' Now, with a very simple apparatus, steam acid be in-
troduced into the flames of street lamps, and that kind of lamp
which is used in butchers’ shops in London, and in all flames
which evolve much smoke. The advantage of such an ar-
vangement would be a more perfect combustion, and a greater
quantity of light from the same materials. The flame of the
lamps, to which steam is applied, might be i to! keep the

water boiling which supplies the Steam, si!) aaiete- Ah sG ey
I hope the above may not be altogether nase
useless to the readers of your Journal.
f Rea Cera hee.

pena pl wires a atu ge sntioih: servant,
+ Wet oe ae
JF. DANAY
HM Ee.) rib wha ates fede Roepe veins we, ley

Te ec thats resin ALE alae

: ann wie Hees a
Letinierie wilde Brolin 9.94) seeiet aaNet
Dae Rihely Beier aglodtne hide Sf Ay abo) ae ay tty:

gins 4 ge Cae) apne oh fe: 4a sindbis Me

Smith on the Harrodsburg Salts. 408

ae eae 4 wile ey

Art. XVI. pre fe the Fa ene Salts, by Ep-
warp D. Smits, M. D. Professor of Se pant and
omerahegys in the South-Carolina College. e

Mors than a year since I received a quantity of a white
earthy substance, which was said to be obtained by the evapo-
ration of certain mineral waters at Harrodsburg, Kentucky,
and there vended at a considerable price, under the name of
Epsom salts. The respectable character who presented this
“powder to me, requested that I would make an analysis of it ;
but I had not sufficient leisure until lately, to pay the requisite
attention to this subject. The results of my examinations are
now submitted to the public eye.

The external qualities of this substance are as follow: small
white lumps, hard to the touch, but dry and easily yielding to
pressure, somewhat gritty to the teeth, and imparting an eonthy
and saline taste to the tongue.

1. 120 grains of the powder were put into about a half ounce
of alcohol, digested for six hours, then washed with more al-
cohol, filtered and carefully dried.

_ 2. On weighing the dry powder, the 1660 appeared to be but
one grain, so that it contains very little of ~ substance which
is soluble in alcohol, >

3.115 grains (four grains plies ied sles in the neni
from. the filter) were collected and put into rather more than
eight times their weight of cold distilled water, and digested
for two hours.

4. This watery solution was then filtered, and on weighing,
the residue appeared to be 48 grains, so that 67 grains must
have been dissolved.

5. 10 grains of the insoluble residue (4) were put into a
flask, with 10 ounces of distilled water, and boiled for 1 hour.

6. A small portion of this solution, on being tested with ni-
trate of barytes, gave a copious white precipitate, with oxalic
acid, a white cloud; with ammonia, a slight white cloud ; with
muriatic acid, a slight bluish tinge. From these tests it was

404 Smith on the Harrodsburg Salts.

inferred that sulphate of lime was present, with perhaps a
slight trace of muriate of lime. es ee
7. The remainder of this solution was filtered, and on
weighing the dried residuum, the loss appeared to be 2 grains,
so that sulphate of lime probably constitutes nearly 1 of the
insoluble residence (48 grains. 4.) niga
8. The watery solution, (4) which was supposed to contain
67 grains, was evaporated, and left a residue that weighed but
34 grains, so that 33 grains must have disappeared in the
process. __ .
9. Some of this alien dissolved in distilled water, was
tested with carbonate of soda, forming an immediate white
cloud; with nitrate of barytes, the same ; with ammonia, the
same ; but with oxalate of ammonia, it did not form any cloud
until it had stood some time, and then it was slight. From these
tests it was inferred that sulphate of magnesia was present. _
10. A portion of the dried residuum (7) was treated. wit
diluted muriatic acid, which dissolved nearly the whole of i
with considerable effervescence. The new compound, on
examination, proved to be muriate of lime ; so that it may be
concluded the residuum (7) was principally carbonate of lime.
On considering the results of the preceding experiments, it
will appear that more than one half of the substances submit-
ted to analysis, was easily soluble in water, and from the
chemical tests used, that it was composed principally of sulphate
of magnesia, (Epsom salt) with perhaps a small portion of mu-
riate of lime or magnesia, that of the remainder, about 1 was
sulphate of lime, and difficultly soluble in water ; and that the
rest was perfectly insoluble in water, and consialiaal principally
of carbonate of lime. —~ ise
There can be no doubt then, that the iedehseal salt, in
its present state, is very improperly prepared, containing in its
composition a large proportion of matter, that is not only inert,
but which may produce considerable inconvenience and injury
in the stomach and bowels, from its ponderous nature and ten-
dency to form mechanical obstructions. Perhaps the occur-
rence of such injury may not be frequent, from the circum-
stance of a large portion of the salt being so insoluble ; but,

‘A

Tungsten and Tellurium. 405

admitting this to be the fact, there is a manifest impropriety in
offering to the public, as medicine, an article which cannot be
used as such. Probably the proprietors of this manufactory
are not aware of the real nature of the case, and of the facility
with which, by a little additional trouble, they could separate
the useful and valuable material, from that which is at least
useless, and which might also be pernicious.

- South-Carolina College, March, 1819. —

whe |

Art. XVII. Additional Notice any the Trngoten and Tel-
Lurium, mentioned t m our last Number.

“Se

- sshoee ‘Part I. | ee yg the Ore.

Coxour, dark brown, almost black ; brittle, powder a
lighter shade of brown, than the mineral ; hard, scratches glass,
scintillates with steel, with a red spark; a degree of. polish
produced, where the steel strikes, and when the steel is in-
pressed upon it, ei?

Structure compact, in some places slightly porous ; lustre,
generally dull, sometimes glimmering, and almost resinous. _

» Crystals octahedral. Specific gravity of three massive
pieces, 5.7, 6. and 6.44 mean, 6.05 nearly ; probably that of
the crystals wouldbe higher. |.
_. Infusible by the — biowmisidensiciactiths ew pa rm coc
by strong ignition impart any colour to it or to potash ; not
magnetic, even in fine powder, nor after being heated red hot
on charcoal, and in contact with burning grease.

_ Many specimens" decrepitate violently under the blew-ninn
Sitsiconiedh on coals in pieces of considerable size, they often’
explode with a smart report, and are eiieeia in drone
sometimes several yards from the fire. — chiabes shark

_ Gangue quartz ; accompanying minerals in the same parc
native bismuth, native silver, galena, iron and copper pyrites,
much magnetic pyrites,blende,&c. tel gree ip detes

406 Tungsten and Tellurium.

Geological relutions. The country is primitive, and the im-
mediate rock which forms the walls of the vein is said to be
gneiss ; (we have not seen it.) aT A CO

Locality, town of Huntington, ve of New Stratford,
county of Fairfield, 20 miles west from New-Haven, -Con-
necticut. 1) etree

Remark. Native bismuth in small siatied sims been for
several years obtained from this spines but the shaft has been

sunk only about ten feet. once ott Tene aed
nh ental

Baer Il. wit variety eel the — Toe ke a
qs es ey nt beet cand co tpl

*

Gace ickisieolta as we but on some parts, there is
seen a whitish, or yellowish, or sometimes darkish metallic
substance ; it is in thin plates, like the leaf metals, and some-
times reticulated, and graphic in its disposition ; it is soft and
easily cut with the knife. In the specimens examined, it was
so much blended with the other ore, and so trifling in quantity,

that it was not possible to ‘separate it hie renew fiahypeer ioe to

examine it wiebiehtia Ce Ee Cee ee Bit ce ii
; ‘yi ‘ M logy Be Ar ae
Parr III. hewn Chemical Priakssn vn ay ‘i?

f § ‘ ‘ iy 6 atry t¥

I. “Muriatic acid, eee és aan lanes no effect ; ; hot nitro-
muriatic dissolves the ore with energy, red nee are 4
and generally a red solution obtained, from which ammonia
precipitates red oxyd of iron abundantly. ibe Hg ofr GE

2. A heavy lemon-yellow powder remains, insoluble of
course in acids, but hs oes and eee ‘soluble in warm
ammonia. — Mr oe)

3. A dark loRiedd in diminished quantity, again’ appears,
more acid dissolves it in part, and again reveals the yellow
powder, which ammonia again dissolves, and so on, till nothing
remains but some portion of the gangue. gat

4, The ammoniacal solution, which contains the oxyd of
tungsten, is decomposed by acids, and by heat, and instantly
deposits a white heavy powder, teri gad elpeiyt orapw
and full.yellow by-heati hr wittiy Sey RP Lae re oe

A

Tungsten and Tellurwm. 407

_ 5. This powder is infusible by the blow-pipe, but ignited
with borax in a platinum crucible, it became of a superb 4
like smalt, or between that and Prussian blue. ;

6. The quantity obtained was too small to make it conve-
nient to attempt its reduction to the metallic state ; no doubt
remained, however, that it was oxyd of tungsten, or as it is
sometimes called, tungstic acid.

7. There were traces of manganese, and all the facts per-
haps justify the conclusion, that the ore is very similar to the
ferruginous tungsten or wolfram.

8. The calcareous tungsten occurs in octahedral crystals,
but we have not before heard of this form in the ferruginous
species, which generally affects the prismatic forms.

B. REMARK.

We had been for some time inclined to believe, that the
above ore was ferruginous tungsten, but although fortified by
the opinion of Col. Gibbs, we were withheld from announcing
it, because the form of the crystals, the specific gravity, the
colour, and perhaps some other characters, were not perfectly
accordant with European descriptions, and with the specimens
in our possession, which are from Saxony and Cornwall.

During the necessary chemical trials (which have, we trust,

established the correctness of the above opinion,) we very
unexpectedly discovered in some of the ores of tungsten, proofs
of the existence of tellurium. The conclusion was induced
by the | eg ob for nothing was farther from our expecta-
tions.
Two fragments were pulverized by an assistant, and we
therefore cannot say whether they had any external characters
different from those of the other pieces ; they came, however,
from the same part of the vein, and their powder resembled
that of the other pieces. |

1. Digested in nitro-muriatic acid, a straw-yellow solution,
slightly inclining to green, was obtained, and a black powder
was left behind.

2. More acid digested on this powder, gave a deep red solu-
ion of iron, and left the yellow oxyd of tungsten, which being

408 Tungsten eu Tellurwum.

dissolved in ammonia, the black powder again appeared, and
so on, as under 3. Part III.

3. The solution 1, diluted largely with water, deposited an
abundant white precipitate, which was very heavy and rapidly
subsided.

4, Alcohol and ammonia, respectively produced Pete same
effect, only more decidedly.

5. This precipitate, evidently an oxyd of a metal, pale col-
lected on a filter and dried, exhibited the following properties.

6. Heated by the blow-pipe on charcoal, it was instantly vo-
latilized in part, and in part decomposed, with an almost ex-
plosive effervescence ; numerous ignited globules of metal
appeared on the ae and burned with an abundant. flame
of a delicate blue colour, edged occasionally with green.

7. In many trials, these results always occurred, and some-
times a peculiar odour was perceived, at first thought to be
owing to arsenic, but it was incomparably feebler, and some-
what resembled that of radishes.*

; 8. Zinc, iron, and tin, plunged into separate portions of the
nitro-muriatic solution, Bicapiatee abundantly a black Bors
culent substance.

9. On charcoal before the blow-pipe, this sulistanee. was
very combustible, with a blue flame, and was-completely dis-
sipated in the form of white oxyd, with the above smell. _

10. Some of it was obtained on the charcoal in metallic
globules ; it was a brittle metal, white, with a tinge of red, and
foliated, but not so distinctly as. bismuth and antimony. ) .

11. The filters on which the white oxyd had been deposited,
burned almost with explosion, nearly as rapidly as if they had
been soaked with nitrate of potash, or of ammonia, and t
characteristic blue flame appeared while the burning lasted. 4

‘ 6 ; bey: ae : tied fe TE

* This was most reac uly perceived on one occasion, where, under the ide
that possibly chrome might exist in the ores, they had been intensely heate ina
forge along with pearl ashes. The mass, when lixiviated, gave only a green
solution, becoming colourless by nitric acid, and again greenish by an alkali; this
was supposed to be owing to iron and manganese. No metal was obtained, except

afew minute globules of attractableiron, but the eronenotiony wen ik snp
fumes, having the peculiar odour alluded to. da ah

w Ms

re

A

Sia y

Tungsten and Tellurium. 409 -

12. Other experiments were made upon the metal, (not the
oxyd. ) It gave to strong sulphuric acid, (simply by standing
in it in the cold) an amethystine colour, which disappeared as
the acid grew weaker, by attracting water from the air.

13. With nitric acid it formed ‘a colourless solution, not de-
composed by water.

14. It did not dissolve in muriatic acid, till a few drops of
nitric acid were added.

“15. The white oxyd heated with charcoal in a small coated
recurved glass tube, afforded brilliant metallic globules, which
rose by distillation, collected in the bend of the tube, and Te-
sembled drops of quicksilver, except that they 1 were solid.

C. REMARK.

The above facts having induced the conclusion that the
metal, thus unexpectedly discovered in the ores of tungsten,
was tellurium,* we were led to search for external characters
by which to judge what specimens contained it. The ores
from Transylvania, (the only telluric ores with which we are
acquainted, ) bearing no analogy i in appearance or composition
to those before us, we were led to inquire whether the tellu-
rium in these latter ores was in combination with tungsten, or
merely % in mixture. The external characters detailed in part
Il, tend perhaps to fortify the latter opinion. If we mistake
not, we there found a proper ore of tellurium mixed with a
proper ore of tungsten, but we have also by chemical means,
found tellurium where similar external characters were not
apparent. Before the appearance of our next Number, we
hope to obtain purer and better specimens. ‘In the mean time
we add the following facts. bs

i. A crystal, and a massive piece of the kind described
under part I, and ‘specimens of two varieties of those described
under part II, were digested i in nitro-muriatic acid.

* Several of the Suave are aware, accord with the properties of bismuth, be-
tween which and tellurium there are several strong points of resemblance, but a
number of other facts appear irreconcileable with the properties of that metal,
and of every ether except tellurium.

410 Hare's Substitute for

2. Both oxyd of tungsten, and oxyd of tellurium were ob-
tained from all of them. up

3. Many specimens have been examined wiliok Rava aforded
tungsten only) a and no tellurium. bee ta

At a convenient time, it Is ‘hoped that a more careniaie exa-
mination of this subject may be presented to the public. —__
In the mean time, we may submit to mineralogists and che-
mists, whether if this is not a new mineral, it is not at least a
new association of two minerals before known. It has not
been forgotten that gold and silver are frequently combined
with tellurium; neither of them has, however, been disco-
vered, (although sought after by proper tests) during the above
trials.

Yale College, March, 1819.

Ant. XVIII. 4 Substitute for Woulfeso or Nooth’s Appa-
ratus, by Ropert Hare, M. D. Professor of Chemistra
an the Medical Department of the University of Pennsyl-
vania, and Member of various Learned and Scientific
Societies. With a Plate.

iy 1 LM agents
Few subjects have more occupied the attention of chemists,
than the means of impregnating fluids with gaseous substances.
The contrivances of Woulfe and Nooth, especially the former,
have been almost universally used; and have gained for the
inventors. merited celebrity. Various improvements in
Woulfe’s bottles have been devised. Still I believe an appara-.
tus replete with similar advantages, but less unwieldy, less.
liable to fracture ; and having fewer junctures to make at each
operation, has been a great desideratum with every practical.
chemist. It has, however, ceased to be so with me, since I
contrived the apparatus which | am about to describe.
Fig. 1. represents 3 jars placed concentrically within each
ether, and so proportioned and situated, as to admit 2 open-
necked concentric bell glasses alternately between them. The

Woulfe’s or Nooth’s Apparatus. Ali

neck of the exterior bell glass is introduced into the tubulure
of the receiver above, and receives the neck of the interior
bell glass. Into this is inserted a trumpet-shaped tube.. The
two interior jars are furnished with feet F,f.. In order to put
this apparatus into operation, remove (without taking them
apart) the bell glasses, receiver, and tube from the jars. Pour
into the latter the fluid, to be impregnated, till it reaches the
height marked by the dots. The funnel mouth, m, of the re-
ceiver being provided with a suitable cork soaked in wax, fas-
ten into it firmly the beak of the retort, containing the gene-
rating materials. The bell glasses are then to be replaced in
the jars, and arranged as in the figure. It must be self-evident
that the gas proceeding from the retort, (if the juncture at m
be air tight) must press on the fluid in the innermost jar,
through the trumpet-shaped tube. If not imbibed with ade-
quate speed, it must soon press on the fluid at a, causing it to
subside to the narrow part of the foot f, and thus to expose a
much larger surface. If the absorption be still inadequate, a
further subsidence must ensue, and the gas escaping round the
brim of the interior bell glass will act on the fluid at b » and en-
large its surface by depressing it to the narrow part of the
foot F. Should the increased pressure and more extended
contact thus obtained, be still incompetent to effect a complete
absorption, the excess of the gas may escape round the brim
of the external bell glass into the atmosphere. — :
But so effectual is this process in. promoting impregnation,
that I have obtained strong muriatic acid in the central jar,
without producing any sensible acidity in the outside one.
Absorption into the retort or receiver, is prevented by not al-
lowing as much fluid to be above the mouth of the trumpet-
shaped tube, as would be competent to fill the cavity between
it, and the termination of the open neck of the exterior bell
glass att. As this neck rises about 2 or 3 inches into the re-
ceiver, it prevents any foul matter which may condense or boil
over, from getting into the jars. If practicable, it would be
better that the bell glasses, and tube, and receiver, should be
united together while hot, at the glass-house. If all could not
be. joined in this way, it would still be advantageous to unite

a

ects ictbruneatee in lnk near the siguites sia near the bottom.’ ;

aid Hure’s Substitute, c.

thus the receiver, and the exterior bell glass. The interior
bell and tube might then be fastened together, by grinding or
luting. As yet I have only used lutings of waxed cloth, or
cork. It may be proper to point out, that 3 or more concen-
tric bell glasses, and 4 or:more-jars, might be used. The
union of the bells, receiver, and tube once effected, itis hardly
more troublesome to use 3 than 2. When the fluid in the

central jar is saturated, this may be emptied and replenished .

from the middle jar, the latter from the external oné. Then

_ supplying the external jar anew, the process may be continued.
she other figures are to explain an apparatus on the sdme
- principle, constructed of hollow, oblong paralellopipeds, dif-

fering in length. more.than in breadth; so as to allow a ser-
pentine tube to wind into the interior, and deliver gas under
a vessel I shaped like a T..

Fig. 2. represents-a vertical section of the whet as when
situated for use.*

Fig. 3.- a vertical section of the lower vessels only.

Fig. 4. a" vertical section of the covers alone.

Fig. 5. a-horizontal section, or ground plan of the lower
vessels. _The upper vessels are so proportioned as to divide
the distances between the lower ones equally.

It may be well to mention, that this apparatus, from the fa-
cility with which it may be cleaned and inspected internally,
admits of being made of porcelain or stone ware.} I have had
a cylindrical one constructed of the latter material, in which
the covers-are in one piece, with’a tube in the centre for in-
troducing gas. The apparatus may be’ made more efficacious,

by drilling a series of small holes.round the brims of the bell —

glasses or covers, so as to cause the gas, instead of passing
round the brims in large bubbles, to divide” itself into very

‘small ones. By this means it will be more thoroughly inter-

mingled with fluid.

be lower thar the bottoms of the interior vessels over. which ithey are laced
respectively. -Thisiis necessary to prevent the gas from me ae have
access to the surface of the fluid beneath those bottoms. ~ ee

+ The apparatus may also be made of glass bottles, duly ori aad

; * Excepting, that the covers ought to be so depressed, as that their 7 may

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_ Hare’s Calorimotor. 413

Art. XIX. 4 New Theory of Galvanism, supported by
some Experiments and Observations made by means of
the Calorimotor, a new Galvanic Instrument. Read
before the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,*
-by Rosert Hare, M. D. Professor of Chemistry in
the Medical Department of the University of Pennsyl-
vania, and Member of several Learned Societies.

(With an Engraving.)

-

{ HAVE for some time been of opinion that the principle
extricated by the Voltaic pile is a compound of caloric and
electricity, both being original and collateral products of
Galvanic action.

The grounds of this conviction and some recent experi-
ments confirming it, are stated in the following paper.

It is well known that heat is liberated by the Voltaic appa-
ratus, in a manner and degree which has not been imitated by
means of mechanical electricity ; and that the latter, while it
strikes at a greater distance, and pervades conductors with
much greater speed, can with difficulty be made to effect the
slightest decompositions. Wollaston, it is true, decomposed
water by means of it; but the experiment was performed of
necessity on a scale too minute to permit of his ascertaining,
whether there were any divellent polar attractions exercised
towards the atoms, as in the case of the pile. The result was
probably caused by mechanical concussion, or that process by
which the particles of matter are dispersed when a battery is
discharged through them. The opinion of Dr. Thomson,
that the fluid of the pile is in quantity greater, in intensity
less, than that evolved by the machine, is very inconsistent
with the experiments of the chemist above mentioned, who,
before he could effect the separation of the elements of water
by mechanical electricity, was obliged to confine its emission

* In whose Journal it was ordered to be printed, but, to prevent delay, it
was published, by the Author, in a separate paper, and forwarded by him to the
Editor of this Journal.

Vor. I.,..No. 4. 32

414 Hare’s Calorimotor.

to a point imperceptible to the naked eye. If already so
highly intense, wherefore the necessity of a further concen-
tration? Besides, were the distinction made by Dr. Thomson
correct, the more concentrated fluid generated by a galvanic
apparatus of a great many small pairs, ought most to resemble
that of the ordinary electricity ; but the opposite is the case.
The ignition produced by a few large Galvanic plates, where
the intensity is of course low, is a result most analogous to the
chemical effects of a common electrical battery. According
to my view, caloric and electricity may be distinguished by
the following characteristics. The former permeates -all
matter more or less, though with very different degrees of
facility. It radiates through air, with immeasurable celerity,
and distributing itself in the interior of bodies, communicates
a reciprocally repellent power to atoms, but not to masses.
Electricity does not radiate in or through any matter; and
while it pervades some bodies, as metals, with almost infinite
velocity ; by others, it is so far from being conducted, that it
can only pass through them by a fracture or perforation.
Distributing itself over surfaces only, it causes repulsion be-
tween masses, but not between the particles of the same
mass. The dispusiiion of the last-mentioned principle to get
off by neighbouring conductors, and of the other to combine
. with the adjoiming matter, or to escape by radiation, would
prevent them from being collected at the positive pole, if not
in combination with each other. Were it not for a modifica-
tion of their properties, consequent to some such union, they
could not, in piles of thousands of pairs, be carried forward
through the open air and moisture ; the one so well calculated.
to conduct away electricity, the other so favourable to the
radiation of caloric.

Pure electricity does not expand the slips of gold-leaf, be-
tween which it causes repulsion, nor does caloric cause any
repulsion in the ignited masses which it expands. But as the
compound fluid extricated by Galvanic action, which [ shall
call electro-caloric, distributes itself through the interior of
bodies, and is evidently productive of corpuscular repulsion.
it is in this respect more allied to caloric than to electricity.

‘4

Hare’s Calorimotor. 415

It is true, that when common electricity causes the deflagra-
tion of metals, as by the discharge of a Leyden jar, it must be
supposed to insinuate itself within them, and cause a reaction
between their particles. But in this case, agreeably to-my
hypothesis, the electric fluid combines with the latent caloric
previously existing there, and, adding to its repulsive agency,
causes it to overpower cohesion.*

Sir Humphry Davy was so much at a loss to account for the
continued ignition of wire at the poles of a Voltaic apparatus,
that he considers it an objection to the materiality of heat ;
since the wire could not be imagined to contain sufficient
caloric to keep up the emission of this principle for an un-
limited time. But if we conceive an accumulation of heat to
accompany that of electricity throughout the series, and to be
propagated from one end to the other, the explanation of the
phenomenon in question is attended by no difficulty.

The effect of the Galvanic fluid on charcoal is very consist-
ent with my views, since, next to metals, it is one of the best
conductors of electricity, and the worst of heat, and would
therefore arrest the last, and allow the other to pass on.
Though peculiarly liable to intense ignition, when exposed
between the poles of the Voltaic apparatus, it seems to me it
does not display this characteristic with common electricity.
According to Sir Humphry Davy, when in connexion with the
positive pole, and communicating by a platina wire with the
negative pole, the latter is less heated than when, with re-
spect to the poles, the situation of the wire and charcoal is
reversed. The rationale is obvious: charcoal, being a bad
conductor, and a good radiator, prevents the greater part of
the heat from reaching the platina, when placed between it
and the source whence the heat flows.

I had observed that as the number of pairs in Volta’ s pile
had been extended, and their size and the energy of the iner-

* Possibly the electric fluid causes decompositions when emitted from an im-
palpable point (as in the experiments of Wollaston) because its repulsive agency
_ is concentred between integral atoms, in a mode analogous to that here referred
to; a filament of water in the one case, ~_ of wire in the other, being the me-
dium of discharge.
ga *

Ale - Hare's Calorimotor.

posed agents lessened, the ratio of the electrical effects to
those of heat had increased ; till in De Luc’s column they had
become completely paldeniihtatth ; and, on the other hand,

when the pairs were made larger and fewer (as i in Children’s
apparatus) the calorific influence had gained the ascendancy.
I was led to go farther in this way, and to examine whether
one pair of plates of enormous size, or what might be equiva-
lent thereto, would not exhibit heat more purely, and demon-
strate it, equally with the electric fluid, a primary product of
Galvanic combinations. The elementary battery of Wollas-
ton, though productive of an evanescent ignition, was too mi-
nute to allow him to make the observations which I had in
view.

Twenty copper and twenty zinc plates, about ripen
inches square, were supported vertically in a frame, the dif-
ferent metals alternating at one half inch distance from each
other. All the plates of the same kind of metal were soldered
{o a common slip, so that each set of homogeneous plates
formed one continuous metallic superficies. When the cop-
per and zinc surfaces, thus formed, are united by an inter-
vening wire, and the whole immerged in an acid, or aceto-
saline solution, in a vessel devoid of partitions, the wire be-
comes intensely ignited ; and when hydrogen is liberated it
usually takes fire, producing a very beautiful oni or
corruscating flame.

I am confident, that if Volta and the other investigators of
Galvanism, instead of multiplying the pairs of Galvanic plates,
had sought to increase the effect by enlarging one pair as I
have done, (for 1 consider the copper and zinc surfaces as
reduced to two by the connexion) the apparatus would have
been considered as presenting a new mode of evolving heat, as
a primary effect independently of electrical influence. There
is no other indication of electricity when wires from the two
surfaces touch the tongue, than a slight taste, such as is ex-
cited by small pieces of zinc and silver laid on it and under it,
and brought into contact with each other.

Tt was with a view of examining the effects of the proximity
and alternation in the heterogeneous plates that I had them -

‘A

Hare’s Calorimotor. 417

cut into separate squares. By having them thus divided, I
have been enabled to ascertain that when all of one kind of
metal are ranged on one side of the frame, and all of the other
kind on the other side of it, the effect is no greater than might
be expected from one pair of plates.

Volta, considering the changes consequent to his contriv-
ance as the effect of a movement in the electric fluid, called
the process electro-motion, and the plates producing it electro-
motors. But the phenomena show that the plates, as I
have arranged them, are calori-motors, or heat movers,
and the effect calori-motion. That this is a new view of
the subject, may be inferred from the following passage in
Davy’s Elements. That great chemist observes, ‘“‘ When
very small conducting surfaces are used for conveying very
large quantities of electricity, they become ignited ; and of the
different conductors that have been compared, charcoal is
most easily heated by electrical discharges,* next iron, platina,
gold, then copper, and lastly, zinc. The phenomena of elec-
trical ignition, whether taking place in gaseous, fluid, or solid
bodies, always seem to be the result of a violent exertion of
the electrical attractive and repellent powers, which may be
connected with motions of the particles of the substances
affected. That no subtile fluid, such as the matter of heat
has been imagined to be, can be discharged from these sub-
stances, in consequence of the effect of the electricity, seems
probable, from the circumstance, that a wire of platina may
be preserved in a state of intense ignition in vacuo, by means
of the Voltaic apparatus, for an unlimited time ; and such a
wire cannot be oes to contain an inemtanveble quantity
of subtile matter.’

But I demand where are the repellent and attractive powers
to which the ignition produced by the Calorimotor can be at-
tributed? Besides, I would beg leave respectfully to inquire
of this illustrious author, whence the necessity of considering
the heat evolved under the circumstances alluded to as the
effect of the electrical fluid ; or why we may not as well sup-
pose the latter to be excited by the heat? It is evident, as he

* The conclusions are drawn from experiments made by the electricity of the
Voltaic apparatus.

A1S Hare’s Calorimotor.

observes, that a wire cannot be supposed to contain an inex-
haustible supply of matter however subtile ; but wherefore
may not one kind of subtile matter be supplied to it from the
apparatus as well as another; especially, when to suppose
such a supply is quite as inconsistent with the characteristics
of pure electricity, as with those of pure caloric ?

It is evident from Mr. Children’s paper in the Annals of
Philosophy, on the subject of his large apparatus, that the
ignition produced by it was ascribed to electrical excitement. —

For the purpose of ascertaining the necessity of the alter-
nation and proximity of the copper and zinc plates, it has
been mentioned that distinct square sheets were employed.
The experiments have since been repeated and found to suc-
ceed by Dr. Patterson and Mr. Lukens, by means of two con-
tinuous sheets, one of zinc, the other of copper, wound into
two concentric coils or spirals. This, though the circum-
stance was not known to them, was the form I had myself
proposed to adopt, and had suggested as convenient for a Gal-
vanic apparatus to several friends at the beginning of the win-
ter ;* though the consideration above stated induced me to
prefer for a first experiment a more manageable arrange-
ment.

Since writing the above, I find that when, in the apparatus
of twenty copper and twenty zinc plates, ten copper plates on
one side are connected with ten zinc on the other, and a
communication made between the remaining twenty by a piece
of iron wire, about the eighth of an inch in diameter, the wire
enters into a vivid state of combustion on the immersion of
the plates. Platina wire equal to No. 18 (the largest I had at
hand) is rapidly fused if substituted for the iron.

This arrangement is equivalent to a battery of two large
Galvanic pairs ; excepting that there is no insulation, all the
plates being plunged in one vessel. I have usually separated .
the pairs by a board, extending across the frame merely.

Indeed, when the forty plates were successively associated
in pairs, of copper and zinc, though suspended in a fluid held

* Especially to Dr. T. P. Jones, and Mr. Rubens Peale, who remember the

A

Hare’s Calorimotor. 419

ia a common recipient without partitions ; there was consider-
able intensity of Galvanic action. This shows that, independ-
ently of any power of conducting electricity, there is some
movement in the solvent fluid which tends to carry forward
the Galvanic principle from the copper to the zinc end of the
series. I infer that electro-caloric is communicated in this
case by circulation, and that in non-elastic fluids the same diffi-
culty exists as to its retrocession from the positive to the ne-
gative end of the series, as is found in the downward passage
of caloric through them.

It ought to be mentioned, that the connecting wire should be
placed between the heterogeneous surfaces before their im-
mersion, as the most intense ignition takes place immediately
afterward. If the connexion be made after the plates are
immersed, the effect is much less powerful ; and sometimes
after two or three immersions the apparatus loses its power,
though the action of the solvent should become in the interim
much more violent. Without any change in the latter, after
the plates have been for some time suspended in the air, they
regain their efficacy. I had observed ina Galvanic pile of
three hundred pairs of two inches square, a like consequence
resulting from a simultaneous immersion of the whole.* The
bars holding the plates were balanced by weights, as window-
sashes are, so that all the plates could be very quickly dipped.
A platina wire, No. 18, was fused into a globule, while the
evolution of potassium was demonstrated by a rose-coloured
flame arising from some potash which had been placed be-
tween the poles. The heat however diminished in a few
seconds, though the greater extrication of hydrogen from the
plates indicated a more intense chemical action.

Agreeably to an observation of Dr. Patterson, electrical ex-
citement may be detected in the apparatus by the condensing
electroscope ; but this is no more than what Volta observed to
be the consequence of the contact of heterogeneous metals.

The thinnest piece of charcoal intercepts the calorific agent,
whatever it may be. In order to ascertain this, the inside of

* See Plate. Fig. 3.

420 Hare’s Calorimotor.

a hollow brass cylinder, having the internal diameter two
inches, and the outside of another smaller cylinder of the same
substance, were made conical and correspondent, so that the
greater would contain the less, and leave an interstice of about
one-sixteenth of an inch between them. ‘This interstice was
filled with wood, by plugging the larger cylinder with this ma-
terial, and excavating the plug till it would permit the smaller
brass cylinder to be driven in. The excavation and the fitting
of the cylinders was performed accurately by means of a turn-
ing lathe. The wood in the interstice was then charred by ex-
posing the whole covered by sand in a crucible to a red heat.
The charcoal, notwithstanding the shrinkage consequent to the
fire, was brought into complete contact with the inclosing me-
tallic surfaces by pressing the interior cylinder further into the
exterior one.

Thus prepared, the interior cylinder being made to touch
one of the Galvanic surfaces, a wire brought from the other
Galvanic surface into contact with the outside cylinder, was
not affected in the least, though the slightest touch of the
interior one causedignition. The contact of the charcoal with
the containing metals probably took place throughout a superfi-
cies of four square inches, and the wire was not much more
than the hundredth part of an inch thick, so that unless it were
to conduct electricity about forty thousand times better than
the charcoal, it ought to have been heated ; if the calorific
influence of this apparatus result from electrical excitement.

I am led finally to suppose, that the contact of dissimilar
metals, when subjected to the action of solvents, causes a
movement in caloric as well as in the electric fluid, and that
the phenomena of Galvanism, the unlimited evolution of heat
by friction, the extrication of gaseous matter without the pro-
duction of cold, might all be explained by supposing a combi-
nation between the fluids of heat and electricity. We find
scarcely any two kinds of ponderable matter which do not ex-
ercise more or less affinity towards each other. Moreover,
imponderable particles are supposed highly attractive of pon-
derable ones. Why then should we not infer the existence of
similar affinities between imponderable particles reciprocally ?

‘

Hare’s Calorimotor. 421

That a peculiar combination between heat and light exists in
the solar beams, is évident from their not imparting warmth to
a lens through which they may pass, ‘as do those of our culinary
fires.

Under this view of the case, the action of the poles in Gal-
vanic decomposition is one of complex affinity. The particles
of compounds are attracted to the different wires agreeably to
their susceptibilities to the positive and negative attraction, and
the caloric leaving the electric fluid with which it had been
combined, unites with them at the moment that their electric
state is neutralized.

As an exciting fluid, I have usually employed a solution of
one part sulphuric acid, and two parts muriate of soda with
seventy of water ; but, to my surprise, I have produced nearly
a white heat by an alkaline solution barely sensible to the taste.

For the display of the heat effects, the addition of manganese,
red lead, or the nitrates, is advantageous.

The rationale is obvious. The oxygen of these substances
prevents the liberation of the gaseous hydrogen, which would
carry off the caloric. Adding to diluted muriatic acid, while
acting on zinc, enough red lead to prevent effervescence, the
temperature rose from 70 to 110 Fahrenheit. j

The power of the calorimotor is much increased by having
the communication between the different sheets formed by
very large strips or masses of metal. Observing this, I ren-
dered the sheets of copper shorter by half an inch, for a
distance of four inches of their edges, where the communica-
tion was to be made between the zinc sheets ; and, vice versa,
the zinc was made in the same way shorter than the copper
sheets where these were to communicate with each other.
The edges of the shortened sheets being defended by strips of
wood, tin was cast on the intermediate protruding edges of the
longer ones, so as to embrace a portion of each equal to about
one quarter of an inch by four inches. On one side, the tin
was made to run completely across, connecting at the same
time ten copper and ten zincsheets. On the other side there
was an interstice of above a quarter of an inch left between
the stratum of tin embracing the copper, and that embracing

422 Hare’s Calorimotor.

the zinc plates. On each of the approaching terminations of
the connecting tin strata was soldered a kind of forceps,
formed of a bent piece of sheet brass, furnished with a screw
for pressing the jaws together. The distance between the
different forceps was about two inches. The advantage of a
very close contact was made very evident by the action of the
screws; the relaxation or increase of pressure on the con-
necting wire by turning them being productive of a corres-
pondent change in the intensity of ignition.

It now remains to state, that by means of iron ignited in
this apparatus, a fixed alkali may be decomposed extempo-
raneously.* If a connecting iron wire, while in combustion,
be touched by the hydrate of potash, the evolution of potas-
sium is demonstrated by a rose-coloured flame. The alkali
may be applied to the wire in small pieces in a flat hook of
sheet iron. But the best mode of application is by means of a
tray made by doubling a slip of sheet iron at the ends, and
leaving a receptacle in the centre, in which the potash may
be placed covered with filings. This tray being substituted
for the connecting wire, as soon as the immersion of the
apparatus causes the metal to burn, the rose-coloured flame
appears, and if the residuum left in the sheet iron be after-
ward thrown into water, an effervescence sometimes ensues.

I have ascertained that an iron heated to combustion, by a
blacksmith’s forge fire, will cause the decomposition of the
hydrate of potash.

The dimensions of the Calorimotor may be much reduced
without proportionably diminishing the effect. I have one of
sixty plates within a cubic foot, which burns off No. 16, iron
wire. <A good workman could get 120 plates of a foot square ©
within a hollow cube of asize no larger. But the inflamma-
tion of the hydrogen which gives so much splendour to the
experiment, can only be exhibited advantageously on a large
scale.

* This evidently differs from the common mode of decomposing the fixed alka-
lies by galvanism: there the. effect depends on electrical attractions and repul-
sions—here on the chemical agency of ignited iron produced extemporaneously in
the galvanic circuit : this mode of operating appears tobe new. Editor.

A

Hare’s Calorimotor. 423

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE.

A a, Fig. 1st, two cubical vessels, 20 inches square, inside.
6666 a frame of wood containing 20 sheets of copper, and
20 sheets of zinc, alternating with each other, and about half
an inch apart. T T ¢ t masses of tin cast over the protruding
edges of the sheets which are to communicate with each other.
Fig. 2, represents the mode in which the junction between
the various sheets and tin masses is effected. Between the
letters z z, the zinc only is in contact with the tin masses.
Between c c the copper alone touches. It may be observed,
that, at the back of the frame, ten sheets of copper between
ec, and ten sheets of zinc between z z, are made to commu-
nicate, by a common mass of tin extending the whole length of
the frame, between T T : but in front, as in fig. 1, there is an
interstice between the mass of tin connecting the ten copper
sheets, and that connecting the ten zinc sheets. The screw
forceps, appertaining to each of the tin masses, may be seen
on either side of the interstice: and likewise a wire for
ignition held between them. The application of the rope,
pulley, and weights, is obvious. The swivel at S permits the
frame to be swung round and lowered into water in the vessel
a, to wash off the acid, which, after immersion in the other
vessel, might continue to act on the sheets, encrusting them
with oxide. Between pp there is a wooden partition which
is not necessary, though it may be beneficial.

Fig. 3, represents an apparatus alluded to, page 419. It
consists of a couronne des tasses, reduced to a form no less
compact than that of the trough. Hollow parallelopipeds of
glass are substituted for tumblers or cells. The plates are
suspended to bars counterpoised like window-sashes.

The advantages are as follows. The material is one of the
best non-conductors, is easily cleansed, and is the most imper-
vious to solvents. The fracture of one of the cups. is easily
remedied by a supernumerary. They may be procured (as
in the United States) where porcelain cannot be had. The
shock from 300 pairs is such as few will take a second time.
Some of the effects have already been stated.*

At Fig. 4, one of the hollow glass parallelopipeds on an
enlarged scale is represented.

. * The glasses may be had by applying to Edw. A. Pearson, No. 71 Cornhill,
oston.

AQ Strong’s Problems.

MATHEMATICS.
—+ IOI

Art. XX. An improved Method of obtaining the Formule
for the Sines and Cosines of the Sum and Difference of
two Arcs, by Proressor Srrone, of Hamilton College.

D Ts the circle ABCD let AB
and BC denote any two arcs
contiguous to eachother. Draw
B their limiting diameters Aa,
Cc; their sines Bx, By; and
join x,y. Then will zy = sine
of (AB + BC): for if upon OB
as a diameter we describe a -
circle, it will manifestly pass
through the points «x and y,

i (since the angles OxB, OyB
are right, see Euc. 31. 3.) therefore OxBy is a quadrilateral
inscribed in a circle described on OB as a diameter, and the
angle yOx at the circumference stands upon an arc whose
chord is zy. Again, if from awe draw ad perpendicular to
Cc, it will be the sine of the arc ac (=AB+BC). If now
we describe a circle on aO as diameter, it will pass through d,
(see Euc. 31. 3.) therefore ad is the chord of an arc on which
the angle aOc stands in the circle described on aO. But in
equal circles the chords of arcs on which equal angles at the —
centres or circumferences stand are equal; (see Euc. 26. and
29. 3.) hence xy =ad = sin(AB-+ BC). Now sine OxBy is
a quadrilateral inscribed in the circle described on OB as dia-
meter, we shall have (Eue. D. 6.) OB-xy = Ba-Oy +- By-Or=
sinAB: cosCB + sinCB: cosAB. If OB be denoted by 7, we
shall have xy, or sin(AB + BC)=

sinAB- cosCB + sinCB: cosAB

Tr

If AB = A, BC=B, and the radius r = 1, sin(A-+ 8B) =sin

‘A

Strong’s Problems. 425

A: cosB + sinB‘ cosA ; which is the known formula for the
sine of the sum of two arcs, to the radius 1.

Again, if through O we draw the diameter DE perpendicular
to Aa, then will DC be the complement of (AB + BC). Draw
Cp, the sine of DC =cos(AB+ BC). Through B draw the
diameter Bb; from 6, draw the sines bz, br, of the arcs be,
bE respectively, and join z, r. Then by describing two cir-
cles, one on 60 as diameter, the other on OC, it may be proved
as before that the circle described on 6O passes through the
points z and 7, and that the circle described on CO passes
through p: and hence, by the same reasoning as before, zr =
Cp =cos(AB + BC). Now Obzr being a quadrilateral in-
scribed in the circle described on b0, we have (by the prop.
before cited) bO- zr + Or. bz = br. Oz; and hence 60: zr=
br-Oz—Or- bz. But br =sine arc bE=sine arc BD; and
since BD is the complement of AB, br =cosAB. In like
manner. Oz=cosBC, Or = sinAB, and bz = sinBC; hence
by substitution, 60° zr = cosAB- cosBC —sinAB: sinBC. By
using the same notation as before, we have cos(A + B)
Bos colt kena an lees sce = baci rae (if r = 1) cosA cosB—sinA-: sin
B, which is the known formula for the cosine of the sum of
two arcs.

The same construction will answer for the two remaining
cases: for if we suppose that bE and bc are two arcs, then will
cE be their difference, and zr the sine of cE, as proved above ;
hence 2r (= sin(bE—be)) = OF OP
bE, and Or = its cosine ; and bz = sine be, and Oz = its cos.
hence if bE be denoted by a, bc by 6, and Od as before, then
will sin(a—6) ee — mass (if r = 1) sina: cosb—
sinb- cosa-—. Again, AB-+BC is the complement of DC
or cE; hence by the first part of the above investigation,
zy = sin(AB + BC) =coscE; but zy or sin(A+B) = cos
(a—b) Sd cos fF onP cost, and as sinA or AB

= cosBD = cosbE, Ox = cosA or AB =sinBD = sinbE, By

But br = sin

426 Strong’s Problems.

== bz = sinbe, and Oy = Oz=cosbe, we shall have, by sub-

' Cosa cosb+- sina sinb

stitution, cos(a—b) = = , = (ifr =1) cosa-

cosb -+- sina. sinb-.
From what has been said it appears, that if A and B be any
two arcs, of which A is the greatest, then
Sin(A-t B) = sinA-cosB + nine: —
T
Cos(A + B) = cosA- cosB = sinA: sinB-

When the radius 7 is supposed = 1, the denominators in
these formule disappear. In the latter, A and B are used for
a and 6, for the sake of homogeneity. The propriety of this
is manifest; for as a and b denote two indefinite arcs, the same
reasoning will apply to A and B, as to a and 8, the first being
- supposed in each case the greatest.

The following Diophantine Problem was proposed for solution
some months ago in a Periodical Journal, which: has since
been discontinued. To those who are interested in spe-
culations of this nature, we presume that the following
solution, forwarded by Professor Strone, of Hamilton Col-
lege, will not be unacceptable.

PRoBLEM.
To find three positive rational Numbers, x, y, and z, such that .

a —y, x?—z,y°—x, and y°—z may all be squares.
Assume x—ay for the root of the square x°—y: then 2?—y
2,
= (x—ay)’, whence x = —_ In like manner, by assum-

a0, Qba— 1
ing «— bz for the root of the square 2’—z, we find z = “3 .

2 2,
But yoo ay — SUE (since wm UT); and as this is

‘A

Strong’s Problems. 427

1; 3
) for its root ; whence,

2a-+c?

a?
to be made a square, assume y— e( " ne

by proceeding as before, we find y go OR But
a*y+1 a?-+-2c
=>, = (by substituting for y its value) are oer
2bx«—1

Agin z= —p—— = (by substituting for 2 its value)

2 Gearee) —! hence

a, eS a’+-2c
a G5 =) pe Tieg (= a) sie
52

(by substituting for y and z their values ;) and as this also is

: be—
to be made a square, assume for its root “; bi Then we

Q
shall have ain) xe 2 ( ausset )+1=(be— 1);

4ca—c'a 4ca—c’a?
from which, by reduction,
_ py & (Aca—c’a*)?—(a?+4-2c) (4ca—c?a?)
b= 2 Ke (4ca— egy — (Gabe...
Hence the values of the required numbers are as follows:

inj ape b. (in which the value of 6 is to be found from the
2 2
last equation,) « = ote, and y ae aoa

The numbers a, c, and e, are to be so assumed that x, y, and
z,may come out positive. If a = 1,c = 2, and e = 2, then
will « = 3, y=3, and z = 4, which numbers will be found
upon trial to satisfy the question. It may also be observed
that c and a being positive, ca must not exceed 4; but the
form of the above expressions for x,y, z, will be sufficient te
direct us how a,c, and e, are to be assumed.

428 Kain on Caves.

MISCELLANEOUS.
— —363=—

Art. XXI. An Account of several Ancient Mounds, and of
two Caves, in East Tennessee, 2a Mr. Joun Henry
Kain, of Knoxville.

(Communicated for the American Journal of Science, &c.)

Mounds.

On the plantation of Mr. John Kain of Knox county, near
the north bank of the Holston River, 5 miles above its junc-
tion with the French Broad, is a curious collection of mounds
of earth, evidently the work of art, but of an almost antedilu-
vian antiquity, if we may form any conjecture of their age,
from that of the forest which grows around and upon them.
They are about half a dozen in number, and arise on about
half an acre of level ground without any seeming regularity.
They are pyramidal in their shape, or rather sections of pyra-
mids, whose bases are from 10 to 30 paces in diameter. The
largest one in this group rises about 10 feet aboye the level
ground, and is remarkably regular in its figure. A perpendi-
cular section of this mound was made about a year since, but
no important discovery was made. It was found to consist of
the surface thrown up, and contained a good deal of ashes and
charcoal. ;

This group of mounds is surrounded by a ditch, which can
be distinctly traced on three sides, and enclosing besides the
mounds, several acres of ground. It is like the mounds co-
vered with trees, which grow in it and about it. At every
angle of this ditch, it sweeps out into a semicircle, and it ap-
pears in many respects well calculated for defence.

There are many other mounds of the same formin Tennes-
see. At the junction of the French Broad with the Holston,
there is one in which human bones are said to have been found.

‘

Kain on Caves. 429

Farther up French Broad; near Newport, is a very large mound.
It reposes on a very level and extensive plain, and is itself the
largest I ever saw. It is thirty feet high, and its base covers
half an acre of ground. As it ascends from its base, there is
a slight inclination from a perpendicular on all sides, and the
upper surface is as level as the rest is regular. From the great
size of this mound, its commanding situation, and the mystery
which veils its history, it is a most interesting spot of ground.
There are many other mounds of this description in the State
of Tennessee, but I have not visited them.

Though not immediately connected with this subject, I take
the liberty to subjoin an account of a remarkable cave or grotto,
in a bluff of limestone, on the south bank of the Holston River,
opposite the mounds first described. The bluff is perhaps 100
feet high and 50 wide. The grotto is a large natural excava-
tion of the rock, 60 feet high and 30 feet wide. It is very
irregular, and to the very top bears marks of the attrition of .
waves. The river to have been so high, must have covered
the valley through which it now winds its quiet way. The
excavation gradually diminishes in size as you proceed back-
ward, till at 100 feet from the entrance, it terminates. A re-
markable projection of the rock divides the back part into two
stories. This grotto, whose walls are hung with ivy, and the
bluff crowned with cedars, and surrounded by an aged forest,
on which the vine clambers most luxuriantly, viewed from the
river which winds slowly around it, and reflects its image, is
more than beautiful: it is even venerable. But what renders
it Most interesting to many visiters, is a number of rude paint-
ings, which were, as tradition reports, left on it by the Che-
rokee Indians. These Indians are known to have made this
cave a resting-place, as they passed up and down the River
Holston. These paintings are still distinct, though they have
faded somewhat within my remembrance. They consist of
representations of the sun and moon, of a man, of birds,
fishes, &c. They are all of red paint, and resemble in this
respect, the paintings on Paint Rock near the warm springs.

Much has been said of the objects of curiosity in the country
north of us; and I took the liberty to describe some of them

Vou. RE 4. 33

430 Kain on Caves.

in my preceding communication. Indeed we may say, without
danger of exaggeration, that the range of Alleghany Mountains
presents a variety of the most curious features, and many ob-
jects of beauty and sublimity. I have noticed a few of the
most prominent, but ‘‘ the half is not told.”

ee

Extract of a Letter, &c.

Knoxville, Nov. 24, 1818.

I WAS on a visit to a friend a few days since, about 30 miles
to the north of this, and was invited by him to visit an inter-
esting curiosity in the neighbourhood. We crossed the Clynch
River where it is much confined by mountains, and banks as
high as mountains. Our guide conducted us to the foot of a ~
steep declivity, where we left our horses, and with some diffi-
culty ascended about 70 yards. Here we came to the mouth
of a cave which had been stopped up by a stone wall. The
wall was made of limestone and meriar, which is now harder
than the stone itself. It is, without a doubt, artificial, for be-
sides the evidence afforded by its structure, it contains bones
and animal remains. :

_ What was this wall built for? There was a tradition among
the inhabitants that it contained money, and they were much
disappointed on opening it, not to find any. Like other caves,
it contains a variety of calcareous concretions, and I obtained
some fine specimens of brown spar, which I will take the first -
opportunity to send you.

Ir remain your Friend,

JOHN H. KAUN.
N. B. This wallis 10 feet thick.

Dwight’s Cases of Delirium. 431
For the American Journal of Science, be.
Benjamin Situiman, Ese.

Dear Sir,

SHOULD you think the facts detailed in the following state-
ment worthy of publication, you are at liberty to publish them.
The knowledge of the first, I derived in the year 1802, from
a gentleman and a lady, both inhabitants of the town where
the person whose case is detailed, lived: of the third in 1802,
from the same lady : and of the second in 1802, from a lady, a
near relative of Mrs. S. When the facts were communicated
to me, I immediately committed them to writing, and to avoid
mistakes, read what I had written to the persons communicat-
ing them.

I am very respectfully,

Your Friend, and obedient Servant, .

BENJAMIN. W. DWIGHT.

Art. XXII. Fucts illustrative of the Powers and Opera- |
tions of the Human Mind in a Diseased State.

Y
i Some years ago a farmer of fair character, who résided
in an interior town in New England, sold his farm, with an in-
tention of purchasing another in a different town. His mind
was naturally of a melancholy cast. Shortly after the sale of
his farm, he was induced to believe that he had sold it for less
than its value. This persuasion brought on dissatisfaction, and
eventually a considerable degree of melancholy. In this situa-
tion, one of his neighbours engaged him to enclose a lot of
land, with a post and rail fence, which he was to commence
making the next day. At the time appointed he went into the
field, and began with a beetle and wedges to split the timber,
out of which the posts and rails were to be prepared. On
finishing his day’s work, he put his beetle and wedges into a
hollow tree, and went home. Two of his sons had been at
work through the day in a distant part of the same field. On
33 *

432 Dwight’s Cases of Delirien.

his return, he directed them to get up early the next morning,
to assist himin making the fence. In the course of the evening
he became delirious, and continued in this situation several
years ; when his mental powers were suddenly restored. The
first question which he asked after the return of-his feason,
was, whether his sons had brought in the beetle and wedges.
He appeared to be wholly unconscious of the time that had
elapsed from the commencement of his delirium. His sons,
apprehensive that any explanations might induce a return of
his disease, simply replied that they had been unable to find
them. He immediately arose from his bed, went into the field
where he had been at work a number of years before, and
found the wedges, and the rings of the beetle, where he. had
left them, the beetle itself having mouldered away. During
his delirium, his mind had not been occupied with ‘those subs
jects with which it was conversant in health.

2. Mrs. S., an intelligent lady, belonging to a reaeiaeiiie
family in the State of New-York, some years ago undertook a
piece of fine needlework. She devoted her time to ‘it almost
constantly for a number of days. Before she had completed
it, she became suddenly delirious. In this state, without ex-
periencing any material abatement of her disease, she continued
for about seven years; when her reason was suddenly re-
stored. One of the first questions which she asked after her
reason returned, related to her needlework. It is a remark-
able fact, that during the long continuance of her delirium. she
said nothing, so far as was recollected, about her needlework,
nor concerning any such subjects as usually occupied her at-
tention when in health.

3. A lady in New England, of a respectable family, was for
a considerable period subject to paroxysms of delirium. These
paroxysms came on instantaneously, and after continuing, an in-
definite time, went off as suddenly ; leaving her mind perfectly
rational. It often happened that when she was engaged in ra-
tional and interesting conversation, she would stop short in the
midst of it, become in a moment entirely delirious, and com-
mence aconversation on some other subject, not having the
remotest connexion with the previous one, nor would she ad-

Scientific Intelligence. 433

vert to that during her delirium. When she became rational
again, she would pursue the same conversation in which she
had been engaged during the lucid interval, beginning where
she had left off. To such a degree was this carried, that she
would complete an unfinished story or sentence, or even an
unfinished word. When her next delirious paroxysm came on,
she would continue the conversation which she had been pur-
suing in her preceding paroxysm ; so that she appeared as a
person might be supposed to do, who had two souls, each occa-
‘sionally dormant, and occasionally active, and utterly ignorant
of what the other was doing.

INTELLIGENCE. |

—IiIa ‘

Art. XXIII. 1. Discovery of American Cinnabar and
Native Lead.

Extract of a leiter from Dr. Comstock of Hartford, to the Editor.

Srr,

Ty answer to your inquiry concerning the discovery of sul-
phuret of mercury and native lead in this country, I send you
the following summary of a letter I received from B. F. Stick-
ney, Esq. Indian agent, dated Fort Wayne, Dec. 1, 1818.

Mr. Stickney states, that the situation of Fort Wayne, and
the country surrounding, is a high level, probably about 800
feet above the sea. From this place the water-courses divide
and take different directions, on the one hand falling into the
Gulf of Mexico, and on the other into the Bay of St. Lawrence.
The whole country is of secondary formation, chiefly calca-.
reous and aluminous.

_ Bitumen and sulphur are every where to be Suid. and as

nals accompanied by the metals.

In speaking of the cinnabar, his words are, ‘I have found
a black and garnet-coloured sand, in great abundance on the

434 Scientific Intelligence.

shores of the Lakes Erie and Michigan, this is a sulphuret of
mercury, and yields about sixty per cent. It is so easy to be
obtained, and in so convenient a form for distllan is that it
must become an important article of commerce.” __ i

The native lead was feund on the Anglaize River, at a con-
siderable distance from the fort.

Of this he says, ‘‘ metallic lead is so interspersed with ga-
lena, as to prove incontestably the existence of native lead.”

Respectfully,
Your obedient Servant,
J. L. COMSTOCK.

Hartford, Conn. Feb. 17, 1819.
Benjamin Silliman, M. D., &c.

2, Theoretical views of Professor Hare of Philadelphia.

We are authorized to mention, that Dr. Robert Hare has
- taught in his lectures during the last eighteen months, that acid
properties never appearing in the absence of water, this fluid
or its elements are most entitled to be considered as the acidi-
fying principle : but that probably it does not exist in acids as
water, but is decomposed when added to them, the particles
of hydrogen and oxygen by their different polarities taking
opposite sides of those composing the base. The extrication
of hydrogen by the action of diluted sulphuric acid on iron or
-zinc, being the consequence of a previous, not simultaneous
decomposition of water. Hence when sulphuric or nitric
acids are so concentrated as to char or ignite, they are not
acids really.

. 3. New Work on Chemistry.

Dr. John Gorham of Boston, Professor of Chemistry in
Harvard University, &c. has published the first volume of his
Elements of Chemical Science. The work will be comprised ©
in two volumes, and its completion will be anticipated «Sosa in-
terest by the scientific public. |

A

Scientific Intelligence. 435
4. Botanical.

Dr. Romer of Zurich, has begun, since 1815, to publish a
new edition of the Systema Vegetabilium of Linneus ; he pro-
ceeds i in its publication ; ; it will form several volumes.

- Robert Brown of London, is endeavouring to group the na-
tural orders of plants into natural classes, or rather into larger
natural orders, with determinate characters : he has communi-
cated some parts of his labour to the botanists of Paris. He
has been the first to employ as a new character in the distinc-
tion of natural orders, the estivation of flowers, or the manner
in which they are folded in the buds.

C. S. Rafinesque, in his Analysis of Nature, has adopted a
new practice, that of giving single substantive Latin names to
the natural orders and families of plants.

Mirbel has proposed a new nomenclature of fruits in his
Elements of Botany.

Decandolle, after publishing the principles of the science in
his Theory of Botany, has begun to undertake a general spe-
cies plantarum, according to the natural classification.

Three splendid Floras of the south of Europe have been
undertaken. 1. Flora Graca, by Sibthorp and Smith in
England. 2. Flora Lusitanica, by Link and Hoffmansegg in
Germany. 3. Flora Nepolitana, by Tenore in Naples. They
are very expensive works, and are not yet terminated. Re-
cetved in January, 1819.

5. Staurotide.

x tract of a letter to the Editor, from John Torrey, M.D., of New-York.

“Mr. Pierce and myself lately found staurotide on the
island of New-York. It occurs in considerable quantity in a
rock of mica slate, on the banks of the Hudson, about three
and a half miles from the city. The crystals very seldom form
the perfect cross, though many were found, intersecting each
other imperfectly at angles of 60°. Several single crystals
were obtained exceedingly perfect. They were short 4-sided
prisms, with the acute, lateral edges truncated at each ex-

436 Scientific Intelligence. sain

-tremity on the two solid angles of the most oltnge, lateral
edges, forming diedral terminations at each ex-
tremity of the prism. The faces of these ter-
minations were inclined to each other at an angle
of 67° and afew minutes. The annexed figure
shows the form of the crystal.

~—~éGz Supplement to the ‘* Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy
of a Section of Massachusetts, on Connecticut River, &e.”
contained in No. 2, Art. I, of this Journal, by E. rg
cock, A. M.

The follewing minerals, found in the region above named, —
were either omitted in the former list, or have been noticed
since that was made out.

Bog-iron Ore. In Greenfield and Warwick.

Hornstone. Rare ; in Deerfield and Conway.

Stlictous Slate. In rolled pieces, on the banks of Deerfield
river ; not abundant.

Basanite, or Ly ydian Stone. Same locality.

Augite. In an aggregate of greenstone, quartz, and calcareous
spar, in the greenstone range, Deerfield. Colour
black, and the crystals usually imperfect, or broken.

Staurotide. In mica slate, Northfield, one mile east of the
village, on the turnpike to Boston. The crystals ob-
served were six-sided prisms. The same rock con-
tains reddish garnets.

THE LEVERETT RANGE OF GRANITE.

‘This name is given toa granite range that emerges from
the puddingstone near the centre of Amherst, and extends
northerly, with some interruption, nearly thirty miles, through
Leverett and Montague to Northfield. And, indeed, there is
some reason to suppose that it again appears to the north of
Northfield. The range is widest in Leverett, where its
breadth is more than a mile. It is noticed in the ‘‘ Remarks,”
No. 2, Art. I, of this Journal, and may be seen on the section

‘

STAMFORD

Vermont Line

SD
.

EFTTA ELEN ETT

= =
es. 4
= /

Granular Limesi

Green River ~

} Lime

f Quartz k Gra.

rqllactous SlatesNone

Wat: Broce

Lim

le DB

‘ LORI DA
Z Argillaceons Stat

_A Gronocican Mar or THE Nortu-Wrst Parr OF DMASsSAChvSETTS.

Meal 4
; Pre esti a ; es
eR fon ie Sa an A as rat! “alse

* saa

Pee ECG ERS hay pS Mean ae Tee
SURO PEE Sarees PEP athe ED analy rs

"Ss

a

hgeerg eft

im

ree

Sinisa

be) Sao, we

Pahoa 3 ony uty

Scientific Intelligence. 437

accompanying that communication. But on further examina-
tion it has been found to be more extensive than was sup-
posed. The texture of the rock is coarse. Plates of mica,
3 or 4 inches across, are common in it; and one specimen of
a beautiful blue feldspar, the fragment only of a crystal, mea-
sured in one direction 8 inches.

Two circumstances in this range give it an interest in the
eye of a geologist. The one is its proximity to sandstone and
puddingstone ; and the other, its small elevation in compari-
son with the surrounding rocks of later formations. In some
places no other rock could be found lying between the granite
and puddingstone ; though the soil prevented my observing
whether there is an actual contact. But in general there is a
Stratum of mica slate a few rods wide between these rocks,
and not unfrequently gneiss lies between the mica slate and
granite.

Standing on this range in Leverett, you have on the west,
at about 100 rods distant, a precipitous mountain of sandstone
and puddingstone, five or six hundred feet higher than the
granite. On the east, a mile or two distant, a mountain of
sienite gradually rises to a still greater height than the pud-
dingstone ; and on the southwest, at nearly the same distance,
you can see an alluvial formation. In general this granite
does not rise so high as the adjacent rocks, whether secondary
or primitive.

VEINS OF ORE IN THIS GRANITE.

1. Of Galena in Leverett.

This ore forms a narrow vein in the southwest part of the
town, on land of Moses Smith, two miles from the Congre-
gational meeting-house. The direction of the vein is nearly
north and south, and where I saw it, only a foot wide. The |
gangue is sulphate of barytes.

2. Of Galena, Copper Pyrites, and Blende.

This vein is a little more than a mile north of the one
above described, and it may be a continuation of the same

438 Scientific Intelligence.

vein. The gangue is nearly an equal admixture of sulphate
of barytes and quartz; and galena and sulphuret of copper
are disseminated through it in about the same, that is, equal
proportions. The blende; which is of a yellowish aspect
when the fractured crystal is held in a certain position, ap-
pears only occasionally. This vein is several feet wide, has
been wrought toa small extent in two places, and its direc-
tion is nearly north and south. It is on land of Mr. Field.

Radiated quartz.. In the above vein. A considerable:ten-
dency to crystallization appears at this place, not only in the
quartz, but in the foliated structure of the barytes.

Brown spar. In the same place. But little of this mineral
was noticed. It exfoliated before the blowpipe, turned black,
and became magnetic.

3. Of Specular Oxide of Iron in Montague.

This is found in a partially detached eminence, 100 feet -
high, near the north line of Montague, on land of Mr. Taft, a
little southwest from the confluence of Miller’s river with the
Connecticut. The whole hill, not less than 100 rods in cir-
cumference at its base, is traversed by numerous veins of this
ore; and scarcely a foot of the rock is to be seen that does
not contain these, varying in width from a mere line to several
inches. The principal vein appears on the top of the hill ;
and is, as nearly as I could determine, not less than ten feet
wide, lying in a north and south direction. The ore seems
to be abundant, and generally pure. Masses, that have been
separated by blasting, and weighing from 100 to 200 pounds,
lie on the surface. A small proportion of sulphuret of iron -
was observed in some specimens. The gangue is quartz, and
the walls and hill granite. |

No opinion is here intended to be offered concerning the
probable value of these ores, if worked. If they be useless
to the present generation, they may not beso to some future
one, when labour shall be cheaper; and therefore it was
thought to be of some consequence to point out their localities.

In the remarks, to which this paper is a supplement, blue
quartz was inadvertently put down among the minerals found

‘4

‘Scientific Intelligence. 439

in Deerfield. I presume it does not exist there. Itis also
probable that the variety of garnets found in Conway, is not,
as formerly stated, the melanite.

7. New Process for Tanning.

A process for effecting the tanning of leather in a neat, ex-
peditious, and thorough manner, has been discovered by a
Mr. Steel, of Connecticut : some account of it may be given
hereafter.

8. Connexion between Chemistry and Medicine.

This subject has been discussed in an able and interesting
manner by Professor Cooper, of Philadelphia, in a public dis-
course, which has now been some months before the public.

9. Brucite.

A new Species in Mineralogy, discovered by the late Dr.
Bruce. We hope to publish in the next Number a descrip-
tion and analysis of it.

10. Lithography.

We are promised for our next Number, a full account of
this art, of which we have received a beautiful specimen,
A Minerva, executed by Mr. Bates Otis, an ingenious and en-
terprising artist of Philadelphia, who, under the patronage of
Dr. Samuel Brown, is preparing to disseminate the produc-
tions of his skill, and to make this important art (executed with
American materials,) extensively useful in this country.

—KELf DDD
N.B. As this number has already much exceeded its

proper size, we are obliged to suppress many articles of do-
mestic, and all those of foreign intelligence.

440
CONCLUSION.

In the prospectus of this work, the expectation was expressed
that each Number would contain from 64 to 80 pages ; that as
many as four Numbers might be issued within the year, and
engravings were promised for such subjects as might require
them.

The Numbers published, have actually contained from 104
to 132 pages, the four have been issued within a period of ten
months, and twelve copper-plate engravings and several wood-
cuts, illustrate the present volume.

Of the subjects proposed in the plan of the work, our pages
contain notices, more or less extensive, of Geology, Mineralogy,
Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Natural Philosophy, Mathematics,
Useful Arts, Fine Arts, Inventions, Reviews, Biography, and
Intelligence. How far then we have redeemed our pledge,
we leave it for our readers to decide. ‘

In the commencement of an enterprise, for the first time
attempted in this country, an enterprise arduous in its nature
and uncertain in its issue, it will not be doubted that consider-
able solicitude was experienced.

To concentrate American efforts in science and the arts, by
furnishing a Journal to record their proceedings, will, in our
view, not only have a direct influence in promoting the honour
and prosperity of the nation as connected with its physical 1 in-
terests, but will also tend in no small degree to nourish an
enlarged patriotism, by winning the public mind from the odi-
ous asperities of party. That entire success will attend our
efforts, it would perhaps be presumptuous to expect, but we
trust that the interesting previous question, whether such a
work can be adequately sustained, by appropriate materials,
may be considered as now decided. The support which we
have received, and for which we are deeply grateful, has been
far beyond our most sanguine hopes, and has caused us to dis-
pense with no small portion of those less important efforts of
our own, with which we were prepared to succour our infant
undertaking.

‘

Conclusion: “44t

If we may be allowed to express a wish relative to the nature
ef future communications, it would be, that those of a scientific
nature should not be diminished, while those relating to the
arts, to agriculture, and to domestic economy, should be in-
creased ; we particularly solicit the communications of practi-
cal men, versed in the useful and ornamental arts, and they will
be acceptable should they not even be clothed in a scientific
dress.

Arrangements have been made for the reception of an in-
ereased number of the best European Journals, both from the
continent and from Britain ; they have already begun to arrive,
and we hope to give in future numbers, more full details of
foreign scientific intelligence, although it is true that this spe-
cies of information has hitherto been stinted, not from poverty
of materials, but from the pressure of original American com-
munications.

—>--

{n justice to the publishers of this work, we add, that this
publication is an expensive one ; very heavy advances have been
already made by them, while only a trivial amount has been
veceived inreturn. It is hoped, therefore, that subscribers
will promptly remit, free from postage, the small stipulated
sum, and also make the required advance for the succeeding
volume. This lastis not due till the first number of that volume
has been issued, but it would save postage te remit both sums
at once, and thus also it will be known what subscriptions are
continued. In a subscription so widely dispersed over a large
portion of the United States, an inattention to punctual payment,
must soon put in hazard the existence of a work, having other-
wise the fairest prospects of continuance, and we hope of use-
fulness.

Should this appeal be promptly answered, the first number
of the next volume (already in considerable forwardness,) will
be published in the course of the summer, and should men of
ability continue to furnish communications, and the public be

442 Postscript.

willing to pay for the work, it is our wish to publish future num-
bers with greater frequency, and to complete our volumes
whenever we are prepared, without confining ourselves to par-
ticular periods of time. ;

New-Haven, Conn. May 17, 1819.

mney Dates

POSTSCRIPT.
AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

We have the pleasure to announce, that an American Geo-
logical Society has been recently organized by an association
of gentlemen, residing in various parts of the United States.
An Act of Incorporation, conferring the necessary powers, has
been granted by the Legislature of Connecticut, and farther
accounts of the plan and progress of the Society may be ex-
pected in future numbers of this work.

INDEX.

—

Accidents from fulminating powders, 168.
Acid, (sulphuric) lake of, 49, 58.
river of, 59.
Address to the people of the Western Country, 203.
Agates, 49, 134, 236.
Alkali, a new one, 309, 310.
Alleghany mountains, 60.
Alluvial formation, 324.
A lveolites, 383.
Alumine, pure, 310.
American Geological Society, 442.
Amianthus, 55.
Analcime, at Deerfield, 134.
Antigua, silicious petrifactions of, 56—geology of, 141.
Apatite, 236.
Apparatus, improvement on Woolf’s, &c. 410.
Asbestos, 237, 243.
Asclepras lanceolata, 252.
Atwater, (Caleb, Esq.) on prairies, 116—on Ohio, 207—on Belmont
county, 226—on winds of the west, 276.
Augite, 244, 310. i
Baldwin, (Dr. William) on Rottbdllia, 355.
Barbuda, (island of) its geology, 142.
Barrens and Prairies of the West, 116.
Barrow’s travels, extract from, 148.
Barytes, (sulphat of) 63, 237, 240.
Basins, peculiar formation of, 213. i
Battery, (electrical) of Dr. Dana, 292.
_ Beck, (Dr. John B.) on salt storms, 386.
Belmont county, Ohio, its geology, &c. 227.
Beryl of Haddam, 242.
Bigelow, (Prof.) on American climate, 76.
Blende, 50.
Blow-pipe, compound, priority of discovery and use of, 97.
Boats, steam, 8.
Bodies, dead, preservation of, 307, 8.
Bones, extraction of gelatine from, 170.
Botany, American, 5.
Brace,(Mr. John J.) on cut-worm, 154—on minerals of Litchfield county,
&c. 350.
Breccia of the Potomack. 216.
Brest, experiments at, 174.
Bridge, natural, 66,319.
Brongniart on organized remains, 7i—his address in Paris, 74.
Brown, (Dr. Samuel) 147, 439.
Bruce} (Dv.) 3, 37, 255, 299, 439.
Bufo cornuta, 265.
Burial ground of the Aborigines, 108.
Burrstone of Indiana, 132. *

Cabinet of Col. Gibbs, 6—of B. D. Perkins and Dr. Bruce, 37.
Calendar, floral, of United States, 76—near Philadelphia, 77—of Plain-
field, 255—of Deerfield, 359.

444 Index.

Calorimotor of Prof. Hare, 413.

Calton hill, its structure, 230. )

Carbonats, hard, of lime, 63—of magnesia, pulverulent, at Hoboken, 54—
crystallized, 142.

Cave, Wier’s, 59, 64, 317—in Mount Toby, 111—at Corydon, with Ep*
som salt, 133. eH

Caves, in Tennessee, 429.

Chabasie, at Deerfield, 49, 134.

Chalcedony in silicious wood, 57, at Deerfield and East Haven, 134.

Characters of minerals, 43—45.

Cinnabar, in Michigan, 433.

Clays, porcelain, 57; 58, 242.

Cleaveland, (Prof.) Review of his mineralogy, 35—-noticé of, 308. __

Coal mines of Virginia, 125—of Tennessee, 63—-o0f Ohio, 239—of Con-
necticut, ibid. and 240. ;

College, (Medical) of Ohio, 311.

Coluber trivittata, &c. 260—262.

Comstock, (Dr.) 433.

Cooper, (Prof. Thomas) 439.

Copal, identity of, with amber, 307.

Copper-head snake, 84,

Copper, native, 55. "

Cornelius, (Rev. Elias) 59, 214, 317.

Crotali, 263.

Cumberland mountain, 221—223.

Cut-worm, 154.

Cuvier’s geology, 68.

Cylactis, &c.5 377.

D.

Dana, (Dr. J. F.) on electrical battery, 292—on Myrica cerifera, 293-

—on flame, 301.
Deerfield, Floral Calendar of, 359.
Delirium, intermissions of, 431.
Dewey, (Prof. Chester) his sketch, &c., 337.
Diplocea barbata, 282.
Disruption of the ground at Deerfield, 286:
Distillation of seawater, 172.
Doolittle, (Mr. Isaac) on gelatine, 170.
Drake, (Dr. Daniel) and others, 206.
Dust, atmospherical, 397.
Dwight, (Dr. B. W.) on delirium, ae

Earthquakes of 1811 and 1812, 93.

Eaton, (Mr, Amos) on New-England geology, 69—oa Southampton’
level, 136. °

Elliott (Stephen, Esq.) 5.

Engine, (Steam) its importance, 7.

Exzxoglossum (a freshwater fish) ee

Falls in Connecticut river, 111.

Favosites, 389.

Fish, impressions of, 110.

Fisher, (Prof.) his essay, &c., 9, 179.

Flame, how affected by steam, &c., 401.

Flint, 225.

Floral calendar of the United States, 76—Plainfield, 254—Deerfield, 359.

Index. 445 —

Floerkea, genus, 373.

Fluor Spar, 49—52. &

Galvanism, Dr. Hare’s discovery in, 413.

Gambold, (Mirs.) on the Cherokee plants, 245.

Gas, (Oxygen) respiration of, 95. ;

Gases, (Inflammable) in Ohio, 49.

Guadaloupe, minerals from, 237.

Gelatine, how obtained from bones in Paris, 1'70.

Geological society, (American) 442.

Geology and mineralogy of Virginia, &c. 50, 317—New-England, index
of, 59—Deerfield and vicinity, 107—Indiana, 131—Antigua, &c. 140
—introduction to the study of, 50.

Gibbs, (Col. George) on gunpowder, 87—on light and magnetism, 89,
207—on tourmalines, &c. 346.

Gill, (Mr. Thomas) his new lamp, 207.

‘Gnaphalium, new species of, 380.

‘Gneiss, 339.

‘Gorham, (Prof. John) elements of chemistry, 434.

Granite, 237, 339, 437.

Grammer, (Mr. John) on coal mines of Virginia, 125.

Graphite, 237.

Grindstones, 62.

Gunpowder, its force, how increased, 87.

Gypsum, 62, 211, 245.

H.

Hard carbonate of lime, 63.

Hare, (Dr. Robert) his blow-pipe, 97—on Woulfe’s aperieb 411—
his calorimotor, 413—theoretical views, 434.

Harrodsburg salts, analysis of, 403.

Hayden, (Dr. H. H.) on new ” minerals, 244, 306.

Heat and light, new mode of producing, 91.

Herpetology, Thomas Say on, 256.

Hitchcock, (Mr. Ed.) on Deerfield, &c. 105—disruption, ri Bi i

- ment, 426.

Hoboken, carbonate of magnesia at, 54.

Hematite, brown, 236.

Hornstones, 62, 225.

Ice, (Greenland) 101.

Indiana, geology of, 131.

Insect, destructive, 328.

Intellgence, botanical, 435.

Tron ores, 50, 62, 438.

Ives, (Prof. Eli) on limosella, 74—asclepias, 252—the potato, 297—
gnaphalium, 380.

Java, river and lake of sulphuric acid in, 58, 59.

Jameson, (Prof.) his additions to Cuvier, 69.

Jasper, 62, 236.

Journals, scientific, 1—3—of vegetation, 76, 77, 255, 359.
K.

Kain, (Mr. John H.) on geology, &c. 60—mounds and caves, 428—430.
L.

Lane, (Ephraim) his mine, 316.
Lamp without flame, 207.

Vou. I....No. 4. 34

446 Index.

Lead ore, 53, 63—native, in Michigan, 434

Light, connexion between, and magnetism, 89, 207—~and. riba new
mode of producing, 91.

Lime, augments the force of gunpowder, 87.

Limestone, with shells, 61—carbonates of, 63, 131, 237, 241, 307, 341.

Limosella, description of, 74. \

Lithia, a new alkali, 309.

Lithography, art of, 439.

Localites, (American) of rentenale)

Maclure, (William, Esq.) his geological survey, 37—map, 61—on m geolo-
gy, 209.

Magnesia, sulphat of, 49—carbonat, 49, 54, 236—of hydrate, 55.

Magnetic, iron mine ‘of, 89.

Magnetism and light, their connexion, 89.

Malachite, compact, 236.

Manganese, 50.

Marten, new species of, 82.

Matches kindling without fire, 308.

Mercury, falminating explosion of, 168.

Metal, new, 310.

Meteors, theory of, 266.

Mica, plumose, 50—of Porto Rico, 237—of slate, 339.

Mill stones, 62, 132.

Mineralogy, elementary works on, 38.

Minerals of Deerfield, &c. 112—of Indiana, &c. 132—of donshamstien
level, 136-—silicious, 224—localities, by Rev. Mr. apie 237—
American collections, of, 310.

Mineral springs, 66.

Mind, human, its operations in a diseased state, 431.

Mitchill, (Dr. S. L.) 37, 55.—his edition of Cuvier, 68.

Mois; indena, 50, 238, 242

Morey, (Samuel) his fire apparatus, 91—steam engine, 162.

Mounds, ancient, 322, 428.

Mountains, Alleghany, 60.

Mustela vulyina, 82.

Myosurus Shortii, 379.

Myrica cerifera, pou of, 294,

.

Native copper, near N pacanede 55—sulphur of Java, 56—237.
Natural Bridge, 66. vi
Necronite, 306.

_ New England, its geology, 69. vis
Nitrate of lime and of potash, 65: ;
Nitre, natural, 321.. tw
Nomenclature of minerals, 45.
Nugent, (Dr.) on Antigua, &c., 56, >

Ohio, notes on, 207—its medical so ail; ,
Opal, semi, 225, 237. )
Ophisaurus ventralis, 262.

Organized remains, Brongniart on, 71.

Oxygen gas, respiration of, 95.

Paint, rock, 77,
Paris, porcelain of, 56.

Index. 447

Paris, (Dr. John Ayston) on sandstone, 234:
Passage, northwest, 101.

Peat of Dutchess county, 139.

Perii, (Mr. Pelatiah) 85.

Perkins, (Dr. Benjamin) 37.

Petroleum, 49.

Phalena devastator, 154.

Picture of Independence, 200.

Pierce, (James, Esq.) on magnesia, 54, 142—on Staten-Island, 143.
Plants of Cherokee country, 245.
Plumbago, 239.

Pole, north, attempts to discover the, 101.
Pomeroy, (T.) his certificate, 87.

Porcelain and porcelain clays, 57.

Porter, (Dr. J.) on vegetation at Plainfield, 254.
Potato, Prof. Ives on, 297.

Powders, fulminating, 168.

Prairies and barrens of the west, 116, 331.
Prehnite, 50, 135.

Pyrites, magnetical, 49.

'Pyroxene, red, 244,

Q.
Quartz, 53, 237, 238, 241, 340, 345.
; R.

Ray (solar) connexion with magnetism, 90.

Rafinesque (C. S., Esq.) on vegetation, 77—on mustela vulpina, 83—
on copper-head, ” 84—on sponges, 149—on Xanthium maculatum, 151—
Exoglossum, 155—on Diplocowea barbata, 352—on discoveries in the
West, 311—on genus Floerkea, 373—on Cylactis, &c., 377—on Myo-
surus shortii, 379. abate dust, 397.

Rain, red, 309.

Refraction, (polar) effects on magnetism, 90.

Respiration of oxygen gas, 95.

Review of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy, 35.

Reynolds (Dr. W. G.) on meteors, 266. ‘

Ridge, (Blue) its geology, 217.

River, (White) in Java, 59.—In a cave, 320.

Rock paint, 67.

Rocks, transition, of East Tennessee, 61.—Of Indiana, 131 fe uesay w
213.

Rottbollia, 355.

s.

Sandstone, old red, 212—of the Capitol, Washington, 215—of Cornwall,

England, 234
Sait, its effects on vegetation, 389—391—on animals, 394.
Salts of Harrodsburg, 403.
Say (Mr. Thomas) on Herpetology, 256—on zoophytes, &c., 381.
Schaeffer, (Rev. F.C.) on peat, 139—localities, 236.
Sea-water, (distilled) 172.
Seybert, (Dr. Adam) 37.
Sienite, 106.
Sheldon (Wm.) on tanning, &c., 312.
Silver, (fulminating) accidents from, 169. a
Sines and Cosines, formule for, 424. |S &
Slate, argillaceous, 62, 67, 70—342.
Smith (Professor E. D. ) on earthquakes, &c., 93-

~

448 Index.

Soapstone, 62. P|:
Society, (American Geological) 442. Pon
Southampton level, 137.
Spar, (fluor) 49, 52.
Sponges, on Long Island, 149.
Springs, saline, 49—mineral, 66.
Steam decomposed, 92—engine, 93—rotatory of si Morey, 162.
Stilbite, 134.
Stilson (Mr. W. B.) on Indiana,
Storms, salt, 388. it
Strong’s (Prof. ) mathematical papers, 424,
Sullwwan (John S., Esq.) on heat and light, 91—on steam — 157.
Sulphur, (native) 237—springs in Indiana, 133.

T.

Tabular view, 46, 134. ; - Ak,
Talc, fibrous and scaly, 237.

Tanning, by means of chesnut wood, 312—notice of a new mode of, 439.
Tar, used to afford light, 92—to work steam engines, 164.

Tennessee, (Kast) its Geology, &c., 60.

Temperament (Musical) essay on, 9, 176.

Thoraz, (affection of) relieved by oxygen gas, 95.

Titanium, oxyde of, 50, 134, 355.

Tom (Mount) rests on sandstone, 109.

Torpedoes of fulminating silver, i69.

Torrey, (Dr. John) on Staurotide, &e.

Tourmaline, 237.

Tourmalines of Goshen, &c , Col. Gibbs on, 346.

Trap, what it is, 51—primitive and transition, 212.

Trumbull, (Col.) his picture of Independence, 206. 2? 4 ©

Tungsten: and Tellurium, American, a 316, 405.

Vapour, effects of, on flame, 401.

Vauguelin, a new alkali, 310.

Vegetables, effects of their combustion, 334.
Vegetations Journals of, 76,77, 256, 359.
View, tabular, 46.

Vu irginia, geology and mineralogy eo) &c., 60.

Wacke, of aqueous origin, eet of, 296.

Warm springs, 66.

Waterhouse, (Dr. Benjamin) 37.

Webster (Dr. I. W.) on Calton Hill, 230—letter from, 243—on wacke, aie
296—his lectures, 304—cabinet, 305.

Wells (Mr. RW.) on Prairies, &c. 331--of Columbia affected bys
earthquakes, 93. m

Western Museum Society, 203.

Williams, (Dr Stephen) his calendar, &c., 359.

Williamstown, its geology, &c., 337.

Winds of the West, 276.

Wood, petrifactions of, 50—56—chesnut applied to tanning, 313,

Woolf's apparatus, substitute for, 410. ;

AY orks: ay) on mineralogy, a

' ae thium ent 151. A
Xa ’ Zz /

ee Zedudy, American, 5—fos si 381. ap 3 7 | e bah
ea &c. 381. Fj

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