| Hibrary of the Museum OF AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. Sounded by private subscription, in 1861. DR. L. pbE KONINCK’S LIBRARY. No. 323. COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY, " ‘ TAL Rea eg THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL. D.. Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, &c. in Yale College, Corresponding Member of the Society of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, of London; Member of the Royal Mineralogical Society of Dresden; of the Imperial Agricul- * tural Society of Moscow; Honorary Member of the Linnean Society of Paris; of the Natural History Society of Belfast ; and Member of various Literary and Scientific Societies in America. Oy VOL. XITI—JANUARY, 1828. NEW HAVEN: ‘Published and Sold by A. H. MALTBY and HEZEKIAH HOWE. KE. LITTELL, Philadelphia.—G. & C. CARVILL, New York. HILLIARD, GRAY, LITTLE & WILKINS, Boston. PRINTED BY HEZEKIAH HOWE. ETO TEARS: “ 4 pas eae na ate Get CONTENTS TO VOLUME XIII. = @-—— NUMBER I. Page Art. I. Miscellaneous contributions, descriptive of apparatus Il. Il. IV. V. VI. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. 1, Oe and inventions, by R. Hares, M. PD. &c. &c. - Rejoinder of Dr. Hare to the criticism of Professor OLMSTED, - - - - 8 Observations and papeminea on Opium; by Grorce . W. Carrenter, of Philadelphia, - = 17 Chemical analysis and description of the coal lately discovered near the Tioga Hee Penn. by Wituiam Meapg, M. D. - 32 Notice of a Meteoric Fire Ball; by the Rew! Si Dey aes Dwicut, - - - - 35 Miscellaneous geological Sheets: in Ohio; by Dr. S. P. Hitpretu, of Marietta, tii - 38 . Intelligence and remarks respecting High Pressure Steam Engines; from the Franklin Journal, - 40 . Description and specification of a hydrostat, for steam engine boilers; by Isaac DootiTTLe, - 64 . Notes on the doubtful reptiles; by Danie H. Barnes, 66 . Notice respecting Magnetic Polarity ; by D. H. Barnes, 70 . Reply of Mr. Quinsy to Mr. Blake’s criticism on his demonstration of the crank proplens - - 73 . Answer to Mr. Quinsy, 75 . Sketches of the Geology, &c. of Menetes by Te S. Porter, - - 7 Animadversions on M. Scares Momeral by Dr. Thay as P. Jones, Professor of Mechanics, &e. - 79 Notice of Mr. Nutratt’s Introduction to Botany, 99 On Volcanos—Notice of Mr. G. Peurers Scrore’s Con- siderations on Volcanos, 106 Account and analysis of the Ne ew Mineral Spring at Albany, by Wiitiam Means, M. D. 145 INTELLIGEN CE AND MISCELLANIES. I. Foreten. Prussia. Public instruction—lIron, varieties of 159 3. Astronomical Observatory, = - - 160 iv CONTENTS. Page 4, 5. Powder Mills—New Phenomena of Vapor, - 161 §, 7. Preparation of Blacking—Preservation of Alimentary Substances, - - - E 163 8, 9. Education in Hungary—A Colony formed of twelve Boys, - - - - - 165 10. Necrology, De La Place, - - - 166 11. La Rochefoucauld, Liancourt, - - - 167 12. On the action of Alkaline Chlorides, as the means of dis- infection, - - - - - 169 13, 14, 15. Magnetism of the Solar Rays—Metallic refriger- ating Mixture—Chinese Paper, - - 171 16, 17. Useful Alloy—Micrometrical observations on Saturn, Jupiter, and his Satellites, made at Dorpat, with the large Achromatic Telescope of Fraunhofer, 172 18, 19. Mutual !nstruction in Denmark—Separation of Iron from Manganese, - - - 20, 21, 22, 23. Action of Anhydrous sulphuric acid on fluor spar—Disinfection of Alcohol—Mosaic Gold—Solu- tion of Copal, - - - 7 24, 25, 26. Pyroligneous Acid—Crystallization of Camphor— 173 174 Animal Magnetism, - - = 175 27, 28. Preparation of Soda from the Sulphate of Soda— School of Arts, - - - - 176 29 Battle of Ants, = - - - - - 177 “¢ Action of Barytes, Strontian, Chrome, &c. - 178 30, 31, 32. New Agricultural and Manufacturing Establish- ment in France—Chlorate of Lime—Theory of Flame, - - - - = 179 33. Power of Steam, - - - a 180 34, 35. Cyanuret of Iodine—-Ammonia in the rust of Iron, 181 36, 37. Improved Clock—Neuchatel, - - 182 38, 39. Necrology, Pestalozzi—Progress of Science, - 183 40. Comparative Analysis of Olivine and Crysolite, 184 41, 42. Anhydrous Sulphate of Soda—ldentity of Epistilbite and Heulandite, - 185 43, 44, 45. Separation of Elaine from Oils-—-Oxide of Carbon —Enormous Fossil Vertebra, - - 186 46, 47. Phosphorus in Kelp—Bismuth Cobalt Ore, - 187 48, 49, 50. Experiments on certain Oxalates—A method of facilitating the observations in Geodoetical opera- tions—-Magnetic influence in the Solar Rays, 188 51, 52, 53. 54. Compression of Water, by high degrees of force, and Liquefaction of Atmospheric Air—Culti- vation of Plants in Moss—Strength of Bone-—Olbers on the Comet of short period, - - 189 55, 56. Monochromatic Light—Volcanos, _ - - 190 CONTENTS. ¥ Page Il. Domestic. i. On the use of Soapstone to diminish the friction of ma- chinery, in a letter to the Editor, - - 192 2. On Forest Trees, Orchard ‘Trees, &c. - - 193 3. Localities of Minerals in Vermont, - - 195 4. Phosphate of Manganese in Connecticut, new Locality of ‘Tabular Spar, - - - 196 5. New Edition of Cleaveland’s Mineralony, - 198 6, 7, 8, 9. Cabinet of Minerals for sale—The late Dr. Rob- inson’s Collection of Mineralsk—Exchange of Mine- rals—Coat of Mail, - 199 10, 11, 12. Kellyvale Senet esas of the people of Ohio—Mule Silver. - - - 200 2D4+o— NUMBER II. Art. I. Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina; by Crartes E. oe Miner and Mineralogist from Saxony, = = 201 + If. On Mystery ; ry Marx Beeane) A.M. - = 1 OORT III. Some data for the Natural History of Orange County, N. Y.; furnished by Jer. Van RensseLace, M. D. 224 IV. Ona Larva, liberated ovy Ovpa; by Jer. Van Rensse- LaER, M. D. - - - - 229 V. Notice and Analysis of Prof. Davseny’s Description of active and extinct Volcanos, with remarks on their origin, their chemical phenomena, and the character of their products, &c. - - 235 VI. Review of the Principia of Newton, continued, 311 Vil. Dr. Hare on the causes of the inadequate protection afforded by Lightning Rods, in some cases, and the means of insuring their perfect competency, &c. 322 VIII. G. W. Canrenrer on the manufacture and use of Pipe- rine, with observations and experiments on the Piper Nigrum and its preparations, - - 326 IX. Prof. E. Mrrcuett, on the character and origin of the Low Country of North Carolina. —- = 888 -X. On the supposed transportation of Rocks; by J. E. Dr Kay; communicated to the New York Lyceum of Natural History, - 348 XY. Reply to Mr. A. B. Quinby’s Question. s eer 74, of this volume; by E. W. Brake. 350 vi CONTENTS. Page XII. Rejoinder of Mr. Quivsy to the writer of the examina- tion of his Principle of Crank Motion, - 356 XII. Mr. Barnes’s Reclamation of Unios, - = 358 XIV. Notice of the pressure of the Atmosphere, &c. within the Cataract of Niagara, in a letter from Captain Baswt Hatt, Royal Navy, F.R.S. - - 364 XV. On the non conducting power of water in relation to 4, 6. heat; by W. M. Marner, eet - 368 INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. I. AMERICAN. . Captaiu Marsuai’s Temporary Rudder, - 371 . Prof. Hatx’s Miscellaneous notices among the White Mountains, &c. - - - - Bi . Mr. Genet’s remarks on Dr. Jones’ Animadversions, 377 . Proceedings of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York, = - - - - 378 . Tioga Coal, - - - mid ahi 381 . Water Cement of Southington, Conn. communicated by Mr. Tuomas Lowrey, at the request of .Mr. SHEL- pon Moore, = - - - 382. 8. Southern Review—Annunciation of the second part of Prof. A. Eaton’s Report of the Geological Survey on the Erie Canal, - - - - 382 . New Haven Gymnasium, - - - - 385 . Protest against the admission of a power of fascination in Snakes, - - - - - . 388 . New work on Ichthyology, - - 390 . Dog Trains of the North West, with a ie - 391 . Measurements of Crystals of Tirvcon, from Buncomb, North Carolina; by Cuarzes U. Suerarp, =e ode Il. Foreten. . 2. Remedy against the dangers of the inspiration of Chlorine-—Chemical researches on nce by J. B. CavENTON, = - - - - 393 . Specific heat of the gases, - - - 394 5. The Dead Sea—Hacxerre and Barttet, on a phenom- enon exhibited by Blowing Machines. - 395 Rare Insects, - 396 . 7, 8. Switzerland. due aion French instaae! J uly 9, 1827, 397 9. 10. Nature of Brome. Electric Conductibility, - 398 Adulteration of Sulphate of @uinine by Supee, by M. WINKLER, - 400 ERRATA FOR Vot. XIIL Page 335 lines 4 and 18 from bottom, for Peperine read Piperine. “¢ 329 bottom line, for Livourne read Leghorn. ¢ 330 line seven from bottom, the same. r) EWS 7 Ge av} yaa ¥ ; THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. —_{>—- Art. 1—Miscellaneous Contributions, descriptive of appa- ratus and inventions ; by R. Harz, M. D. &c. &c. &e. APPARATUS FOR REGULATING OR PROMOTING ; ABSORPTION. 1. Vases tightened by screws, substituted for Woulfe’s bottles. CR On me "4 Mel —————— aa, | si lik if Nl Kee Ohta u <== PTT oD == NNT eri In the apparatus represented in the preceding figure, the vessels, contaming the liquid to be impregnated, are, by the pressure of screws, made tight against leaden plates, which they are ground to fit, and which are cemented and nailed to the wooden cross-piece under which the vessels are situated. Vou. XIIL.—No, 1. Dy ee 2 Miscellaneous Contributions by Dr. Hare. Into the cross-piece two horizontal holes are bored, and burn- ed with a wire, from a common orifice, so as to enter, seve- rally, other holes bored vertically, of which one communi- cates, internally, with the first, the other with the second vessel. The external orifice being closed, by a screw, a com- munication is established between the cavities of the vessels, which obviates the necessity of tubes, as in ordinary appa- ratus. ‘The second vessel, communicates with the third ves- sel, in the same way as with the first. The hole over either vessel, which communicates with the inside of the preceding vessel through the wooden perfora- tion, is furnished with a tube passing downwards, a few inches, so as to enter any contained liquid. The tube, thus immersed in the first vessel, rises into and communicates with the cavity of the globe. This globe is pressed by screws against a lead plate, which it is ground to fit, so as to make an air tight juncture, in the same way, as already described, in the case of the vessels, below the cross-piece. Hence the first tube establishes a communication between the globe, and the liquid in the first vessel, below the surface of which its trumpet-shaped orifice reaches. The second tube, communicating by means of the perforations made in the wood, with the cavity of the first vessel, descends into the liquid contained in the second vessel. The third tube, in like manner, communicating with the cavity of the second vessel, descends into the liquid of the third vessel. The gas, extricated from the retort, passes into the recei- ver, where it deposits any condensible matter, and proceeds down the tube into the first vessel. Whatever gas is not there absorbed, proceeds through the diagonal perforations, in the wood, to the tube in the second vessel, escaping from that into the liquid. The excess of gas beyond what is there taken up, reaches the third vessel from the second, as it reach- - ed this from the first. 2, Apparatus for regulating the supply of a gas, by tts ab- ; thes sorption. Two open-necked bell glasses, A,B, are jomed_neck to neck, so as to be inverted as respects each other. From the cavity of the lower one a pipe leads up through the axis of the upper one. The lower bell which is the largest, is situ- ated within a large cylindrical vessel of glass, D, so as to in- clude a jar, with a perforated stem or pedestal. Over the Miscellaneous Contributions by Dr. Hare. 3 opening in the pedestal, , some irregular fragments of glass are laid, so as to furnish support to some carbonate of ammonia, subsequently introduced into the jar. Suppose the upper inverted bell, B, to S| = \ be supplied with a solution i of pearlash, and another cil “a ) smaller uninverted bell |e glass, C, placed within it, so as to include the pipe proceeding from the bell, A, below. If, while the apparatus is thus situated, diluted nitric acid be pour- ° edinto the cylindrical glass . vessel, D, it will rise into the jar containing the car- i 2 ee __ bonate, and cause it to = bye =a &Ne Out carbonic acid gas. == = This gas will at the same time press with equal force upon the surface of the acid in the glass cylinder below, and upon that of the alkaline solution in the upper bell C. If the atmospheric. air of the vessel be allowed first to escape by a hole at C, (closed or opened by a screw omitted in the figure) so that the carbonic acid may reach the alka- line solution undiluted with air, it will of course be gradually absorbed, generating bicarbonate of potash. Should the absorption thus arising, be too slow to take up the carbonic acid as fast as it is evolved by the reaction between the acid and the carbonate, the alkaline solution will be depressed within the bell glass,C. At the same time the pressure with- in the larger bell glass increasing proportionally, the height to - which the acid reaches in the jar is diminished, and of course the re-action with the carbonate lessened, until the quantity of carbonic acid evolved by it, be commensurate with the absorption by the solution in the upper part of the appa- ratus. Should the solution become saturated, the depres-. sion of this solution in the bell C and of the acid in the jar D, must go so far. as that the acid no longer reaching any ) 4 Miscellaneous Contributions by Dr. Hare. portion of the carbonate, the evolution of gas from it must cease. 3. Innustration of the cold consequent to Rareraction : or Revaxation of Pressure. Cold and cloudiness arising from rarefaction. Incipient rarefaction, in the air of a receiver, is usually in- dicated by a cloud, which disappears when the exhaustion has proceeded beyond a certain point. A delicate thermom- eter placed in the receiver, shows that a decline of tempera- ture accompanies this phenomenon. We may therefore in- fer, that the cloud is the consequence of refrigeration. But, in the present state of our knowledge, it is nearly as difficult to account for the disappearance of heat, as for the appear- ance of the cloud. This phenomenon, in common with many others, must be referred to those unknown peculiarities which determine the capacities of substances for caloric. By rarefaction the capacity of air for caloric, becomes greater than that of the aqueous vapor which it contains. This va- ~ por being consequently deprived of it, condenses into a fog. The aqueous particles, receiving heat subsequently from the surrounding medium through the receiver, and air pump plate, are vaporized again; and of course, cease to be visible, in the form of a cloud. Cold produced by the palm glass. Two bulbs are formed, at each end of a tube, one having a perforated projecting beak. By warming the bulbs, and plunging the orifice of the beak into alcohol, a portion of this fluid enters, as the air within contracts, by returning to its previous temperature. The liquid, thus introduced, is to be boiled in the bulb which has no beak, until the whole cavity of the tube, and of both bulbs not occupied by liquid alco- hol, is filled with its steam. While in this situation, the end of the beak is to be sealed, by fusing it in a flame excited by a blowpipe. As soon as the instrument becomes cold, the steam which had filled the space within it, vacant of alcohol in the liquid form, condenses, and a vacuum is produced; excepting a Miscellaneous Contributions by Dr. Hare. o small proportion of vapor, which is always emitted by liquids when relieved from atmospheric pressure. The well known instrument, thus formed, has been called a palm glass ; because the phenomena, which it displays, are seen by holding one of the bulbs, in the palm of one of the hands. When thus situated, the bulb in the hand being lowermost, an appearance of ebullition always ensues in the bulb, expo- sed to view, in consequence of the liquid, or alcoholic vapor, being propelled into it, from the other bulb subjected to the warmth of the hand. This phenomenon is analogous to the case of ebullition in vacuo, or the culinary paradox ; but the motive for referring to the experiment here, is to advert to the fact, that as soon as the last of the liquid is forced from the bulb, in the hand, a very striking: sensation of cold, is experienced by the ope- rator. Ms This cold is produced by the increased capacity of the re- sidual vapor for caloric, in consequence of its attenuation. The analogy is evident between this phenomenon and that eabove described, both being attributable to the increase of capacity for caloric, resulting from a diminution of density. Relaxation of pressure. It is immaterial whether the diminution of density, arise from relieving condensed air from compression, or from sub- jecting air of the ordinary density to rarefaction. A cloud similar to that which has been described as arising in a re- ceiver partially exhausted, may usually be observed in the neck of a bottle recently uncorked, in which, in consequence of its generation by fermenting liquor, a quantity of gas has - been evolved disproportionable to the space. 4, Apparatus for shewing that when pressure is relaxed the capacity of air for heat and moisture is increased. This figure represents an instrument which [ have employ- ed to illustrate the influence of compression, on the capacity of air for caloric and moisture. A glass vessel with a tubulure and a neck, has an air ther- mometer fastened air tight by means of a cork into the one, while a gum elastic bag is tied upon the other, as represented in this figure. Before closing the bulb, the inside should be 6 Miscellaneous Contributions by Dr. Hare. moistened. Under these circumstances, if the bag, after severe compression by the hand, be suddenly released from pressure, 2 cloud will appear within the bulb, adequate in the solar rays, to produce pris- matic colors. At the same time the thermometer will show that the compres- i.) » f i): j warmth—the relaxation of cold. The tendency in the at- mosphere to cloudiness, at certain elevations, may be ascribed to the rarefaction - which air inevitably under- the earth’s surface to such heights. 5. Apparatus for Intustratine Capacities for heat. Let the ves- sels A, B and C be supplied with water through the tube T. The water will TZ = sole same level in HA all. Of course the resistance made by the water in each vessel to the entrance of this liquid will be the same, and will be measured by the height of the column of water in the tube T. Hence if the height of this column were made the index of the quantity received by each vessel, they would all have received the same quan- tity. But it must be obvious, that the quantities severally re- ceived, will be as different as are their horizontal areas. Of sion is productive of eo oes, in circulating from . 9 rise to the. - Miscellaneous Contributions by Dr. Hare. 7 course we must not assume the resistance exerted by the water within the vessels against a further accession of water from the tube, as any evidence of an equality in the portions previously received by them. ; In like manner, the height of the mercury in the thermom- eter, shows the resistance which substances, whose tempera- tures it measures, are making to any further accession of ca- loric: but it does not demonstrate the quantities, respectively received by them, in attaining to the temperature in question. This varies, in them, in proportion to their attraction for this selfrepellent fluid ; as the quantities of water received by the vessels A, B, C, are varied in the ratio of their respective areas. Mertuop of Divinine Guass, by Friction. Some years ago, Mr. Lukens showed me, that a smail phial, or tube, might be separated into two parts, if subjected to - cold water, after being heated by the friction of a cord made to circulate about it by two persons alternately. pulling in op- posite directions. I was subsequently enabled to employ this process, in dividing large vessels, of four or five inches in di- ameter, and likewise to render it in every case more easy, and certain, by means of a piece of plank forked like a boot- 8 Dr. Hare in reply to Professor Olmsted. jack—~as represented in the preceding figure ; and also hav- ing a kerf, cut by a saw, parallel to, and nearly equi-distant from, the principal surfaces of the plank, and at right angles to the incisions, productive of the fork. , By means of the fork, the glass is easily held steady by the hand of one operator. By means of the kerf, the string while circulating about the glass is confined to the part, where the separation is desired. As soon as the cord smokes, the glass is plunged in water, or if too large to be easily immersed, the water must be thrown upon it.—This method is always preferable when on immersing the body, the water can reach the inner surface. As plunging is the most effectual method of employing the water, in the case of a tube I usually close the end which is to be immersed. RATIONALE. If the friction be continued long enough, the glass though avery bad conductor of heat, becomes heated throughout in the part, about which the friction takes place ; of course, it is there expanded ; while in this state, being suddenly refri- gerated by cold water on the outside only, the stratum of particles immediately affected contracts, while that on the inside not being chilled, undergoes no concomitant change. Hence a separation usually follows. Art. I].—Rejoinder of Dr. Hare to the criticisms of Prof. Olmsted, with strictures on the singular opinion, that atirac- tion of gravitation emanates from the sun, as heat does from ignited carbon. In the last number of the American Journal of Science, Professor Olmsted alleges that I have committed an oversight in making Davy’s hypothesis “ wear a much more mechanical aspect” than it did originally, and in “ applying to it princi- ples which have no bearing on it whatever.” According to Johnson’s Dictionary, mechanics is the ge- ometry of motion, a science which shews the effect of pow- ers, or moving forces, so as they are applied to engines, and | “demonstrates the laws of motion.” The phenomena of heat being by Sir H. Davy ascribed to motion, how can my arguments, shewing that they are not Dr. Hare’s reply to Professor Olmsted. 9 agreeable to the laws of motion, make that hypotheses un- duly “ wear a mechanical aspect,” or subject it to an applica- tion of principles “ which have no bearing on it whatever ?” In his first critique, the author alleged Davy’s reasonings to be “ zdle” because they were “ mechanical.” In the critique before us, I am condemned for treating them as “* mechan- ical.” A sufficient answer to this objection, was afforded in my essay in the following language : ‘It may be said that this motion is not measurable upon me- chanical principles. How then I ask, does it produce mechani- cal effects? These must be produced by the force of the vibra- tions, which are by the hypothesis mechanical: for whatever laws hold good in relation to moving matter in mass, must ope- rate in regard to each particle of that matter. The effect of the former, can only be a multiple of that of the latter. Indeed one of Sir Humphrey Davy’s reasons for attributing heat to cor- puscular vibration, is, that mechanical attrition generates it. Surely then a motion produced by mechanical means, and which produces mechanical effects, may be estimated on mechanical principles.” See Vol. IV, page 144 of this Journal. HO « “In the hypothesis, (says Professor Olmsted,) the motions sup- posed, are those which occur between particles of matter, and at insensible distances. In the refutation, the principles applied are such as belong to those motions which occur between masses of matter, and at sensible distances.” The laws which regulate the production, or transfer, of motion, being established as respects any given mass, or quantity, can the division of it into two parts, ten parts, or a million parts, or into any possible number of parts, or par- ticles, render those laws inapplicable? The same argument may be opposed to his distinction between sensible and in- sensible distances, as if a law could cease to operate in con- sequence of the spaces being too small for our vision ! ! ! Since a whole can be no more than a multiple of its parts, a law cannot be true of motion, in any given distance, which does not hold good with respect to any part of that distance. The minuteness of the distances within which movements - can take place, in solids, is cited by me, as a potent objection to ascribing to intestine motion the expansive power impar- ted by them, when heated, to vaporizable substances, as in the case of water converted into steam by hot iron; but if such phenomena do result from intestine motion, and if the transfer of expansive power, be a transfer of such motion, Vou. XUL.—No. 1. 10 Dr. Hare’s reply to Professor Olmsted. however insensibly small may be the spaces in which it oc- curs, however minute the atoms concerned, how otherwise can they be regulated,than by the same laws which are found to hold good in the case of larger spaces, and larger masses. Professor Olmsted proceeds : “‘ The motions contemplated by the hypothesis, are either ro- tatory, or vibratory ; those supposed, in the refutation, are rec- | tilinear, and in one continued direction ; for to no other does the law of percussion adduced apply.” As this allegation is unsupported by any proof, it can have but little weight. I will however throw my opinion into the opposite scale. I do assert that the law, which I have laid down, is universally applicable where motion is communica- ted, from one moving body, or set of bodies, to another body, or set of bodies, whether the movements be vibratory, rota- tory, or rectilinear. If while two planets are revolving, or two pendulums vi- brating, one overtake the other, will not the heavier be least altered from its previous motion? If two wheels, two globes, or two cylinders, while rapidly rotating, were to come into contact, would not the same law prevail ? ; «¢' The refutation, (says Professor Olmsted,) supposes the par- ticles to come into collision, each upon each; whereas the hy- pothesis does not warrant the supposition that any two particles ever strike against each other at all. For it is plain that the re- volutions of particles round their own axes, do not bring them into collision with each other, nor do the vibrations of the parti- cles make it necessary to suppose that they ever hit each other; for if there be space enough between the particles to permit them to vibrate at all, it is clear that they may vibrate without coming into collision.” “Finally, if they did impinge against one another, it must be remembered that the motion is backwards and forwards, and therefore this is not a case to which the law of percussion, as adduced by Dr. Hare applies.” . ¢¢ J cannot but think therefore that Dr. Hare has refuted a con- sequence, not of Sir Humphrey Davy’s but of his own creating.” It were obviously as absurd to allege, that particles cannot move without coming into collision, as to assert that the bow of a violin cannot move unless it rub against the strings. Yet as in the one case, friction is necessary to produce mu- sic, so in the other, collision is indispensable to keep the par- ticles asunder. Would the diurnal movements of the planets prevent them from falling nto the sun? Their annual mo- Dr. Hare’s reply to Professor Olmsted. 11 tion has this effect, by generating a centrifugal force ; but it cannot be imagined that in every mass, expanded by heat, the particles, by revolving about a commoncenter of gravi- ty, generate a centrifugal force which, counteracts cohesive attraction; anid thus, enables them to exist at a greater dis- tanee from each other. When by the affusion of hot water upon mercury, the tem- perature of the latter is raised, how can the velocity of the vibrations in which temperature consists, according to the hypothesis, be increased in the last mentioned liquid, without collision between the mercurial and aqueous atoms? While they remain asunder, the particles can have no influence upon each other, unless through the medium of some inherent roperty of attraction, or repulsion. Of the former, motion is the opponent, of the latter the substitute, by the premises. If motion be not productive of a collision among the parti- cles, in what way can it enable them to sustain that remote- ness, in their respective situations, which expansion requires ? It cannot be supposed that they will become either recipro- cally repulsive, or less susceptible of cohesive attraction, merely in consequence of their undergoing a vibratory move- ment. Professor Olmsted had evidently a very imperfect recollec- tion of the design, or execution of my essay, when he wrote his critique ; or he could not have denounced it as idly em- ploying, in chemistry, those mechanical reasonings which it was intended to explode. In the last number of the Journal, I devoted a page to the exposure of his error, in speaking of my essay as mtended to prove the materiality of heat, al- though described as remarks made in opposition to Davy’s hypothesis. In the article now under consideration, he re- peats this error in the following words : ‘In the year 1822, Dr. Hare published an essay aiming to prove that caloric, or the cause of heat, is a material fluid.” I never wrote an essay of which this is a correct descrip- tion. It did not appear to me expedient to recapitulate all the various well known arguments in favor of a material cause of calorific repulsion. To explain the phenomena of heat, but two hypotheses had been suggested, one ascribing them to caloric, the other to motion. ‘The object of my essay was mainly to shew, that motion could not be the cause of heat, and I only incidentally introduced some direct argu- ments in favor of a material cause. 12 Dr. Hare's reply to Professor Olmsted. - I shall proceed to give other instances of the precipitancy of Professor Olmsted, in adopting the unfavorable impres- sions of my essay with which he occupies the pages of the American Journal of Science. The existence of repulsion and attraction as properties of matter, being referred to, as self-evident, and their co-existence as properties of the same particles, shewn to be inconceivable, I assumed, that there must be a “ matter in which repulsion resides, as well as a matter in which attraction resides.” - This induces Professor Olmsted to make the following in- quiry : ; “ Does Dr. Hare maintain that the attraction which bodies ex- ert, resides in a kind of matter extrinsic to the bodies them- selves 2” It would be impossible, I think, to give a better answer to this query than is afforded by the following words of my neg- lected essay, words contained in the very next paragraph be- low that, which has given rise to Professor Olmsted’s embar- rassment. ‘© Substances endowed with attraction make themselves known to us by that species of this power which we call gravitation, by which they are drawn towards the earth and are therefore heavy or ponderable, by their resistance to our bodies, producing the sensation of feeling, or touch ; and by the vibrations or move- ments which they excite in other matter, affecting the ear with sounds, and the eye by a modified reflection of light.” Will the Professor, after reading this sentence, require any further information respecting the kind of matter in which attraction resides, pursuant to my view of the subject? In- dependently of this sentence, which £ deem it unjustifiable in him to have neglected, I do not know how he could take up - the idea, that I considered the matter, in which attraction resides, as any other than that, usually recognised as matter, by people of common sense. Does my allegation that there must be as many kinds of matter as there are ncompatible properties, convey the idea, that there must be more kinds of matter than there are of such properties ? Founding injudicious inferences with respect to my opinions upon errors, arising from his own inattention, the Professor proceeds: - “] have met with no late writer who has taken it for granted that there is matter in which attraction resides, distinct from the Dr. Hare’s reply to Professor Olmsted. 13 bodies themselves, which exert this influence on each other. But if Dr. Hare is not thus to be understood,—if he do not mean to assert such a doctrine, then why does he conceive it necessary to suppose a fluid upon which the phenomena of repulsion de- pend,—in which the self-repellent power resides, distinct from the bodies themselves, which exhibit such repulsion 2” I have said that the particles of ponderable matter obvi- ously possess the power of mutual attraction ; they cannot then be endowed at the same time with reciprocal repulsion. But if they cannot be endowed with repulsion, why should they be endowed with attraction? says my antagonist. If I were to allege the whiteness of a thing as a reason why it could not be black, would any person in his senses say, but if it cannot be black, how can it be white? Does the presence of attraction prove the absence of attraction, be- cause it proves the absence of repulsion ? Since there is no permanent quality observed in the parti- cles of ponderable matter, inconsistent with their exercising attraction, and as it would be unphilosophical to suppose ' more causes than are necessary to explain the phenomena, so it would be unreasonable to ascribe their attractive power to an extraneous principle. I allude here to attraction of cohesion, or gravitation. That chemical affinity is much un- der the influence of the electric fluid, is now generally ad- mitted. But to return to the critique. “© Will Dr. Hare explain the fuct that caloric sometimes increases the attraction of bodies for each other? ‘* What would he say: of the fact, that the attraction of two gases, is sometimes increased by heat ?” I will not undertake to explain that, which does not occur. When a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gas, is heated, it expands. So long as expansion continues, it is obvious that caloric does not merease attraction. At the temperature of ignition the heterogenous particles combine, and an explo- sion ensues. : Thus at the same moment that the simple atoms unite, the compound atoms, formed by their union, separate explosive- ly. The elevation of temperature does not therefore increase attraction, it only favors the union of heterogenous particles, by some unknown process. In a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gas, the calorie with which they are severally combi- ned, may attach itself to both poles of each simple particle ; after their union, to only one pole of each simple particle ; 14 Dr. Hare’s reply to Professor Olmsted. and of course, to two poles of the compound particle forri- ing water. Elevation of temperature may favor this change by its mysterious influence on the electric polarities of the particles ; as in the case of the tourmaline :—or because the enlargement of the calorific atmospheres, renders the preser- vation of their independency more difficult. That caloric is alternately an exciting cause of combina- tion, and decomposition, we all know. Mercury is oxydised at one temperature, and revived at another. At one tempe- rature hydrogen yields chlorine to silver, at another, decom- poses the chloride of that metal. At a low temperature, potassium absorbs oxygen more greedily than carbon, or iron, while the reverse is true, when these are heated to in- candescence. I have long suspected that heat promotes and modifies chemical action, by influencing electrical polarities. The elements of water are severed by the voltaic poles. If in this case their polarity is influenced in one way, elevation of temperature, when it causes their reunion, must have an opposite effect, and of course must influence polarity. F suppose in this case a change in the attractive power of the poles, of combining atoms, analogous to that which may be induced in iron bars, which attract or repel each other ac- cordingly as the magnetism communicated to their poles, is alike or unlike. Platina sponge, a cold metallic mass, is found to cause the union of the hydrogen and oxygen in a gazeous mixture : yet it is utterly inconceivable that the presence of inert par- ticles, combining with neither of the elements of water, can cause an increase of attraction between them. _ That the phenomena just alluded to, belong to a depart- ment of chemistry, with which we are but imperfectly ac- quainted, I admit; but on that very account inferences, founded on them, ought not to be allowed to invalidate the demonstration, of which the existence of a material cause of heat is, upon other grounds, susceptible. Professor Olmsted cannot discover that there is “© Any more difficulty in conceiving why a heated body should communicate its influence to another body without the aid of air, than why the Sun should communicate his attractive influence to Sa- turn or Uranus without the aid of such a medium’?! !! It would seem then that Professor Olmsted is of opinion, that the planets owe their power of attracting each other, and all the bodies on or near their surfaces to the Sun, as they Dr. Hare’s reply to Professor Olmsted. 15 owe their light ; and that his removal from the system would simultaneously involve them in darkness, and destroy the re- ciprocal attraction between them, and their satellites. This is a glaring error. The reaction between the Sun and plan- ets, is reciprocal, arising from a quality inseparable from either, and which admits of no increase, transfer, or diminution, If the Sun did “communicate his attractive influence” to the other bodies in the solar system, I should be unable to say why he might not communicate any other property. The transmission of heat, in vacuo, is analogous to the radiation of light not the reciprocal influence of gravitation. If the illumination of Saturn or Uranus, could be explained with- out supposing the existence of a material fluid, I grant that the passage of heat in vacuo ought to admit of a similar ex- planation. But as it is to me inconceivable, and contradictory to the obvious meaning of the word, to suppose the existence of a property without matter to which it may belong ; so it ap- pears impossible that there can be a transfer of a property, effected through a space otherwise void, without a transfer of matter. * The following paragraph was written in opposition to the hypothesis of motion, it 1s noticed by Professor Olmsted, as if tended directly to support the materiality of heat, as the reader will perceive by his remarks which I shall also quote. ‘¢ As in order for one body or set of bodies in motion to resist another body or set of bodies in the same state, the velocity must be as much greater, as the weight may be less, it is incon- ceivable that the particles of steam should by any force, arising from their motion, impart to the piston of a steam engine the wonted power ; or that the particles of air should prevent a col- umn of mercury, almost infinitely heavier, from entering any space in which they may be included by beating it out of the theatre of their vibratory, and rotatory movements.” — ‘“¢ Has not Dr. Hare plainly fallen into a mistake here? It evidently is not heat which moves the piston of a steam-engine, but it is the elastic force of steam. ‘ But, it may be asked, is not that elasticity caused by heat ?”? ‘True; but the effect is not _ the same thing with the cause.’ Was ever an inquiry more irrelevant? Where have I said that heat does move the piston of a steam-engine. In the paragraph above quoted which gives rise to the inquiry, I have only argued that motion produced among the aqueous 16 Dr. Hare’s reply to Professor Olmsted. particles, by the heated boiler, cannot move the piston, In order to shew that I have committed a mistake “ here,” it inust be proved that it is conceivable that the particles of steam should by a force arising from their motion, impart to the piston the wonted power, or that particles of air, should, in like manner, “ support a column of mercury infinitely heavier.” It evidently would be absurd to suppose that the piston of a steam engine could be propelled, by the direct influence of caloric, without the intermediate effect of the elasticity of vapor. The author combats strange opinions, peculiar to his own imagination, as if I were answerable for them. : “Tt is difficult, says Professor Olmsted, to see why heat should impart such a wonderful power to steam ; nor does our supposing it to be a material fluid diminish this difficul- ty.” He might with equal propriety add, it is difficult to un- derstand how light can impart to the objects around us, the wonderful property of conveying their images to the senso- rium ; nor does the idea of a material fluid, passing from them to the retina of the eye, diminish the difficulty. It is difficult to understand why lead should be heavy ; nor does the idea, that the earth attracts it, diminish the dif- ficulty. ; My mind is much less embarrassed by supposing a cause, where I observe-an effect. Wonderful as it is, that the earth should by solar attraction be kept in its orbit, to me it is much less wonderful than if there were no Sun to attract it; wonder- ful as it is that all the phenomena of vision should be due to the reflection, refraction, or polarization of a subtile matter emanated from every luminous point in the creation, the phe- nomena in question appear to me far less perplexing, than when I endeavor to dispense with the agency of a material eause. The opposite properties of the tenacity of ice, and - the explosiveness of steam, however surprizing, are less so when considered as belonging to different kinds of matter, than when I suppose them alternately assumed by the same particles, so as to cohere at one time, and at another fly apart, with violence, without any cause for the change. ; It seems to me, that without the special interference of the Creator, the properties of any species of matter must always remain the same. Should any property appear to cease, or to be varied, there must be an accession, or an avolation of Observations and Experiments on Opium. 17 matter differently endowed, from that in which the change is observed. “‘ Has not Dr. Hare committed a mistake in understanding Sir Humphrey Davy to assert that heat is motion ; whereas, his doc- trine is, that motion is the cause of heat.” : The author forgets that the word heat is used to signify a cause as well as an effect ; when I have spoken of motion as substituted for heat, I meant that it was substituted for the cause of sensible heat. The phenomenon which we call sensible heat, is the effect of motion according to one hy- pothesis of caloric, or latent heat according to the other. It appears, therefore, that when correctly examined, the de- finition which I have given of Davy’s hypothesis is the same as that which the author sanctions. : To conclude, I regret that instead of having only to en- counter difficulties inherent in the subject, I should be obli- ged to occupy so many pages in refuting criticisms, respecting which, I can sincerely say in the author’s own language, that they are “idle,” and have “no bearing whatever” upon the subject, which has called them forth. & Art. I1].—Observations and Experiments on Opium; by Georce W. Carpenter, of Philadelphia. OPIUM. Its varieties and appearance in commerce, &c. Tuts important article, from its extensive usefulness, in modifying and alleviating the most afflicting and painful dis- eases, incident to human nature, merits perhaps the most conspicuous place in the materia medica, and yet from the frequent abuse by injudicious administration, and more par- ticularly, from improper pharmaceutical preparations, pro- duces many injuries and distressing consequences. It is therefore an important inquiry to discover the causes of these inconveniences. For this end I have made a series of exper- ments, and am happy to submit the result, in the following observations. Before however, immediately entering upon the pharmaceutical preparations, it may not perhaps be im- proper to offer a very concise view of the natural history and physical characters of this article, as it occurs at the present day in our commerce. Vou XII —No; 1: 3 18 Observations and Experiments on Opium. Opium is the product of the Papaver Somniferum, and is the inspissated juice of the capsules of.that plant. It has been improperly termed a gum by many authors and the er- ror prevails to the present day. It is a native of the southern parts of Asia, it may however be raised in our gardens and is now cultivated in England on an imposing scale, and in- creasing for several years. It possesses the same properties as the ‘Turkey or East India opium, and is more pure, con- taming a larger proportion of soluble matter. The Turkey opium has hitherto possessed the best reputation and has been considered superior to any other. Dr. Thomson* in- forms us, that he obtained nearly three times more mor- phia from the Turkey opium, than was yielded by the same quantity of East India. I have treated equal quantities of Turkey and English opium by the same process, and ob- tained twenty per cent. more morphia from the latter than the former ; this would sanction a superiority in favor of the English, which I believe it possesses, and which I think is to be attributed to the careful manner in which it is prepared. The following are the prominent characters of the sever- al varieties of opium, by which they may be easily distin- guished. Turkey opium is of a reddish brown colour possessing a strong narcotic odour, of a solid and compact consistence, when dry has a shining and uniform fracture of a dark brown colour, producing a reddish brown powder ; the best kind is generally in flat pieces. East India opium is of thin consistence, sometimes almost like that of honey; when dry it is more friable, its colour nearly black and possesses less bitter and a more nauseous taste than the Turkey; it has a strong empyreumatic odour, and not the narcotic heavy odour which is so sensible in the Tur- key ; it is considerably cheaper but much inferior in strength to the latter, and according to Dr. Thomson, contains but one third the quantity of morphia, and a larger proportion of narcotine, which renders it a far less desirable article. Dr. Coxe, in his valuable American Dispensatory, remarks, that one eighth the cakes is allowed for the enormous quantity of leaves with which they are enveloped. This opium is little used in this country and is seldom if ever to be found in the shops of our druggists. . * London Dispensatory.. Observations and Expermments on Opium. 1g English opium is generally in smaller cakes, frequently thin and flat, of a more permanent consistence, of a clear smooth fracture and is in a great measure destitute of leaves, stalks, and other impurities which generally accompany the prece- ding varieties. It has the general character of being superi- or in quality to the Turkey opium which chemical analysis* has determmed. ‘The quality of opium differs materially, even that from the same country, climate and soil. This arises, no doubt in many instances, from the manner in which it is prepared and cultivated. It is frequently found in our market mixed with leaves, stalks, seeds, &c. and from the great proportion of these admixtures in some opium, it would lead to the conjecture that the leaves were worked in when the opium was in a very soft and recent state, for the purpose of increasing its weight and the degree of its consistence. Ihave seen opium whose external characters possessed all the features of superior quality, and when broken, exposed a large proportion of the leaves and capsules of the poppy, which although it does not alter the particular effects, must diminish the activity of the opium in direct proportion to the quantity and weight of these extraneous and insoluble mat- térs, and I have ascertained by careful experiments that the * Tt is to chemistry that we are indebted for many important facts in relation to opium, and for the knowledge of the nature of morphia, and narcotine, the two active principles of opium, thus disclosing a very singular fact, that principles of a directly opposite nature exist in the same substance, and exercise individually their particular effects on the constitution. This entirely subverts several hypotheses which had been framed to account for the modus operandi of this medicine. Many are opposed to chemical analysis as a correct mode of discovering the virtues of medicines particularly vegetable substances. Dr. Young among oth- ers was of this opinion, and stated as an argument to support his doc- trine, that Geoffroy discovered by chemical analysis that the soporific quality of opium depended upon the sulphur which it contained. (See Young on opium.) We might agree with Dr. Young, if the science of chemistry was in no greater advancement than in the times alluded to, and did experiments upon opium now lead to similar conclusions, we might as well reject as useless, the analysis of cinchona because a chem- ist has asserted that the comparative quantities of the active principles . (quinine and cinchonine) yielded by the Carthagena bark were in pro- portion to the quantity yielded by the Calisaya as one to seventy. If errors so palpable as these would have retarded the spirit of investiga- tion, or diminished the zeal of the scrutinizing chemist, the science, in- stead of holding the high reputation it now possesses, would long since have dwindled into obscurity. We must however expect that some errors and absurdities will creep into every department of science, 20 Observations and Experiments on Opium. quantity of soluble or extractive matter by the same men- strua and process, yielded by different parcels of opium, va- ried from four and a half to five and six drachms in the ounce. The consumption of opium is almost incredible. In the year 1800, 46,808 pounds were consumed in Europe, and the quantity has been mcreased largely every year smce. In 1809 the revenue which the Bengal government derived from the sale of opium was £594,978 and the exports of opium from Calcutta to China alone in 1811—12, amounted to 4,542,968 Sicca Rupees, £567,871* The supply of Calcutta for 1827 is rated as follows: | Bengal, - - - - 6,570 chests. Mahia, - - - - 4,000 «* do. smuggled, - - 1,500 “ Turkey, - - - - 1,000 “ 13,700 chests. _ The supply for 1826 was 10,300 chests making an increase of 3,400 chests in the last year. The speculating spirit in this article at Calcutta is at pres- ent said to be in a depressed state, which is attributed to the large supply, but is perhaps produced still more, by the scar- city of the circulatmg medium. Although opium is prohibited by the Chinese government, yet about 2000 chests are annually imported into Canton the average sale’ price being 1200 dollars per chest making the amount annually expended by Canton for this drug the enor- mous sum of 2,400,000 dollars ; about 40,000 pounds are an- nually imported into London. In the provinces of Bahar and Benares, among the most productive of the East Indies, the common product of opi- um is 24 pounds to an acre, besides which the cultivator reaps about forty pounds of seeds. ‘The preparation of the raw opium is under the immediate superintendence of the company’s agent, who adopts the following method to pre- pare it. It consists in evaporating by exposure to the sun, the watery particles, which are replaced by oil of poppy seeds to prevent the drying of the resin. The opium is then formed into cakes, and covered with the petals of the poppy, and when sufficiently dried, it is packed in chests with the frag- ments of the capsules, from which the poppy seeds have been * Hamilton’s East India Gazetteer. Observations and Experiments on Opium. 21 threshed out. It is said opium is sometimes vitiated with an extract from the leaves and stalks of the poppy and with the gum of the mimosa. The cultivation of opium in England if pursued extensive- ly will influence the price of the article im our market.* It has lately been cultivated more successfully by a Mr. Young than any other person who has yet attempted its culture in Great Britain, and from which more flattering expectations are entertained of its success. Dr. Coxe however in his stand- ard work, the American Dispensatory, observes it 1s. appre- hended that the climate of Great Britain will be an imsuper- able obstacle to its becoming a profitable branch of agricul- ture. It has been obtained in the United States where this objection will not prevail.t I think the southern states, par- ticularly the Carolinas and Georgia are admirably adapted, from climate, soil, &c. for the cultivation of the poppy, and this plant if properly managed, would no doubt become.a source of considerable profit to the cultivator, if not an im- mense revenue to the states and a most important addition to the productions of our country. , The opium raised in England, has been used for several years by physicians and surgeons, who pronounce it superior to the best Turkey and East India opium. One thing is very certain, it is prepared with more care and attention, and is more free from leaves and other impurities. The fracture of English opium, when dry, is as smooth and uniform as that of liquorice. What I have seen has been put up in small flat * Messrs. Cowley and Stains of Wainslow in the season of 1822 rais- ed 143 pounds of excellent opium from 11 acres and 5 poles of land, for which they received a premium from the society instituted at London for the encouragement of arts, manufactures and commerce. A medal has been given by the society to J. W. Jeston, Esq. surgeon, for an im- provement in collecting the juice of the poppy, which consists in col- lecting it immediately after it exudes from the capsules instead of al- lowing it to be inspissated on the capsule. The capsule is scarified with a sharp instrument guaged to a proper depth, when the juice is scraped off with a kind of funnel form scoop, fixed into the mouth of a vial, when one vial is filled, the scoop is removed to another, and the juice is . evaporated in shallow pans; some varieties are much more productive than others. (See transactions of the society of manufactures and com- merce, vol. 41. Mr. Ballin 1796, received a premium from the society for the encour- agement of arts for a specimen of British opium little inferior to the ori- ental. (Transactions of the society of arts, vol. 14, 260, 270.) + Philadelphia Medical Museum, Vol. II, page 428. 22 Observations and Experiments on Opium. cakes and is of a good consistence. Opium is frequently put up in a soft state and packed with a large proportion of leaves to prevent the lumps from adhering together, these leaves adhering to the sides are gradually taken into the body of the opium, which with those previously incorporated with it, constitute the impurities already described. Observations and experiments on the Pharmaceutical prepa- rations and constituent principles of Opium; by GrorcE W. Carpenter. Extract of Opium. One of the advantages which the extract of opium pos- sesses over the crude opium of commerce, is, that all the feeculencies and impurities having been separated, we obtain the soluble and active portion of the opium, in a pure state, and as the insoluble and impure parts produce no effect, and constitute a considerable proportion of the bulk and weight, the opium of commerce must differ in proportion to the amount of these impurities, and consequently cannot be depended upon so well as the extract for activity or uniformity of strength. The extract of opium, as it is generally made, is very objectionable, not being more active than crude opium, and consequently is seldom or never employed by our physi- cians. From various modes and different menstrua which I have tried, I find the following to make the most eligible preparation, possessing most advantages both in the activity and persistency of the extract, as well as having a decided superiority over crude opium, by affording all its desirable effects, without any of its inconvenience or disadvantages. Denarcotized acidulous extract of opium. Digest one ounce of coarsely powdered opium in one pound of sulphuric «ther of the specific gravity .735 for ten days,* occasionally submitting it to a moderate heat in a water bath ; distil off the zther and add fresh portions until it ceases to take up narcotine or act at all upon the opium, which may be readily known by dropping a little on a clean pane of glass which will leave no trace when the opium is completely ex- hausted. The second or third distillation will prove sufficient, * When it is necessary to prepare it in haste, less time may be em- ployed by subjecting the ether more frequently to the temperature of ebullition. ) Observations and Experiments on Opium. 23 and most of the ether may be saved, if prepared with care and in a proper apparatus. Professor Hare recommends the digestion of the opium in ether, to be performed in the Papins digesters; submit the opium thus treated to the ac- tion of spt. vin. Rect. eight ounces, acid acetic pur. one ounce,* aque seven ounces, and digest for seven days, filter and evaporate in a water bath to the consistence of an ex- tract ; this in fact will be an impure acetate of morphia, pos- sessing most of the advantages of that valuable medicine. One ounce of the best Turkey opium yielded by this process six ounces of extract. Laudanum and other preparations may be made of the usual standard, calculating six ounces of the extract equivalent to one ounce of opium. Denarcotized acidulous tincture of opium. Digest one ounce of coarsely powdered opium in one pint of sulphuric zther specific gravity .735, for ten days, occa- sionally submitting it to the influence of a moderate heat, until it ceases to act upon the opium, separate the opium and dry it, then digest in spt. vin., rect. eight ounces, acid aeetic fort. two ounces, aque three ounces, for seven days and filter. This preparation will be found to possess great ad- vantages over laudanum, and the black drop of the shops, to which it will be much preferred, inasmuch as it will be de- prived of the stimulating principle (narcotine) which produ- ces such distressing effects, and frequently prevents the ad- ministration of opium, where it might otherwise be extremely useful ; the addition of acetic acid will contribute much to increase the calming or sedative effects which are most gen- erally desired, and for which opium is particularly given. By its union with morphia, it forms in solution the active se- dative salt of opium, (acetate of morphia,) and differs only from the solution of the acetate of morphia of the shops in its state of purity, and as the extraneous matter with which it is associated has no effect on the animal system, it may be considered as good an article, and should be preferred for general use in consequence of being much less expensive. _As this preparation will always possess uniform strength, and a like proportion of opium, it certainly deserves a conspicu- ous place among our pharmaceutical preparations, and is justly entitled to supersede, entirely, the common black drop * Acid pyroligneous, pure. 24 Observations and Experiments on Opium. of our shops, which is a very uncertain preparation, diflering every where in activity, from the indefinite and vague man- ner in which it is directed to be made, to say nothing of the worse than useless articles which enter into its composition, such as yeast, nutmegs, and saffron.* The black drop owes its superiority over laudanum to the acetic acid in its compo- sition, and to that alone, and it will be admitted by those conversant with these materials, that acetic acid exercises a most powerful influence in modifying the effects of opium, and I can account for it in no other way than by its union with the morphia; which being thereby rendered more so- luble this union will consequently facilitate or produce its effects, which are directly sedative in place of the stimulating * It isa circumstance of a singular nature that so imperfect and un- scientific a preparation, should so long have maintained a place in our materia medica. I believe there is no formula for the most innocent compound in the pharmaceutical catalogue, so extremely indefinite in de- scribing the mode of its preparation, and allowing so great a scope to the judgment of the operator. In the first place, the vinegar containing the opium, nutmeg, and saffron is directed to be beiled to a proper consis- tence. The activity of the preparation will consequently be subject to as much variation as the ideas of persons may differ in relation to what is termed a proper consistence, and while one person after evaporating perhaps one-eighth of the menstrua would consider it of proper consis- tence, another might think it necessary to reduce it one-fourth, and a third might even conceive that one half was the right consistence, and the strength of the preparation would consequently be subject to a like enormous variation. In the second place, we are directed to digest for seven weeks, and then place in the open air until it becomes a syrup. We cannot see the propriety of digesting so long a time, if it be at all necessary, when the menstruum if not saturated with opium by the pre- vious boiling, has at least taken up all its soluble matter. Exposing it to the air until it becomes a syrup, is subject to as many objections as boiling to a proper consistence, and is almost as indefinite. The con- sistence of a syrup is of no fixed standard, but differing from a thin fluid to the density of honey. It is lastly directed to be bottled and a little sugar to be added to each bottle. What quantity is meant by a little sugar, and what size the bottles are to which it is to be added, we are left to surmise; the strength of the preparation will of course be diminished and subject to variation, in a ratio with the quantity which each individual may think proper to add, to say nothing about the worse than useless addition of sugar to what is al- ready a syrup. We think an article so active as the black drop should be prepared with more care, and particular and specific directions given for the mode of its preparation. A very ingenious essay upon this sub- ject is given by Mr. Thomas Fans, in the journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. Observations and Experiments on Opium. 25 effects of opium in its natural state. The Persians and others who make use of opium to excess, frequently swallow draughts of vinegar immediately after the opium. Dr. Crump observes, that when a patient finds himself in a distressed situation, he has recourse to a piece of opium as big as his thumb, and immediately after, drinks a glass of vinegar ; this throws him into a fit of laughter and every extravagance of mirth, and frequently terminates in death. To make the denarcotized extract, it has been reeommen- ded by M. Robiquet to make a watery infusion of the opium and to evaporate the aqueous solution to the consistence of thin honey ; which is to be digested in zther instead of using the powdered or shaved opium, (as described in the above and in Dr. Hare’s formula given in the preceding number of this journal.) I consider this a worse than useless expendi- ture, for the ether will act fully as well, if not more. readily, upon opium in powder, than upon anextract containing water, and it is generally admitted, at least by the best authorities, Coxe, Thomson, and Paris, that the narcotic powers of opium are impaired by boiling in water, under exposure to air. Hence it is that the officinal preparation, opium purificatum, which formerly was highly recommended, is found to be no better than crude opium, perhaps even less active, from which circumstance it has become almost obsolete, and is rarely to be found in our shops. Under this article, Dr. Coxe in his American Dispensatory very justly observes, that in conse- quence of the changes which opium undergoes, by solution and subsequent evaporation (alluding to the opium purifica- tum,) well selected species of crude opium are to be prefer- red to this preparation. | cannot see the object or any ad- vantages to result from making a watery extract, as the opi- um deprived of narcotine will be quite as subject to the ac- tion of proof spirits or any other menstrua with its foeculen- cies, as the crude opium. We do not make a watery extract of opium in the preparation of laudanum, and it would be quite as necessary in this as in the former case. Besides, water is not the most eligible menstruum for the solution of the active matter of opium. Morphia is sparingly soluble in water and the meconiate nearly the same; we therefore ob- tain but a portion of the sedative principle, as a part of the morphia will remain with the foeculencies undissolved, a less active preparation will therefore be made, but with more labor and expense than by submitting at once the crude opium Vor. XIIL—No. 1. é 26 Observations and Lapermments on Opium. to the action of sther, and the residue to proof spirits, as in the above formula, which the addition of acetic acid is ad- mirably adapted to improve, by rendering the morphia more soluble, and consequently more active, in the same manner and nearly in the same ratio, as sulphuric acid united with - quinine, which, by increasing its solubility, renders it much more active and efficient. Dr. Thomson, speaking of mor- phia, observes, that in its uncombined state, being scarcely soluble in water, or in the fluids of the stomach, it does not display its properties in a striking manner when exhibited alone, but these are very striking when combined with an acid, particularly the acetic. I would here remark that the acetate of morphia* of the shops, is a sub-acetate and is less active than the acetate or super-acetate, which being a de- liquescent salt, it is necessary to keep it in solution ; it is therefore requisite in making the solution from the sub-ace- tate to add acetic acid rather in excess, than under neutrali- sation. The following is the formula I have adopted, which will make a handsome solution and is a preparation which will keep. Sub-acetate of morphia Sen INES ON 12 grs. Alcohol acidulated with twelve drops of acetic acid pure (concentrated pyroligneous acid) 1 drachm. Distilled water - - - - at A Oz Dissolve the morphia in the acidulated alcohol, adding the water by degrees, and filter ; dose of the solution from fifteen to twenty drops. This preparation has been very successfully used by Dr. Holcombe of Allentown, and Dr. Canfield of Arneytown, New Jersey, in cases where other preparations of opium pro- duced such distressing effects as frequently to prevent its ad- ministration. This preparation is now extensively employed, and is attended with the happiest consequences. Narcotine. — By the following process I obtained narcotine in a perfect- ly pure state. * T found in one instance the morphia, under the name of acetate, per- fectly uncombined with acid. This would certainly have a tendency to deteriorate the activity of this valuable medicine, and also to ruin the just reputation this article has acquired; it is therefore highly important to test this salt when you administer it in substance, When in solu- tion it must be united with acid, as morphia is insoluble in water. Observations and Experiments on Opium. Q7 Digest one ounce coarsely powdered opium in one pint of zether for ten days, frequently submitting it to ebullition in a water bath ; separate the «ther, and add fresh portions, until the opium is exhausted ; evaporate at the common tempera- ture of the atmosphere, by placing the ztherial solution in a salt mouth bottle, remove the stopper and cover the mouth with bibulous paper, to prevent impurities falling in, and pro- tract the degree of evaporation ; as the ether is reduced, it leaves the sides of the bottle coated with crystals of narco- tine ; as the solution becomes more dense the crystals en- large and accumulate, and the bottom of the vessel is cover- ed with large transparent crystals, accompanied with a brown viscid liquor and extract which contains an acid, resin, caoutchouc, &c. ; separate these substances from the crys- taline mass, and wash the salt in successive portions of cold zther, to remove the extract. After the crystals have been sufficiently washed, dissolve them in warm zther and evapo- rate slowly as before, when most beautiful snow white crys- tals of perfectly pure narcotine will adhere to the sides of the vessel ; those on the sides of the bottle assume plumose and aborescent forms which being made up of delicate acicular crystals of a silky lustre, possess a most beautiful appearance. As the ztherial solution becomes more dense by a concen- tration of the narcotine, the crystals enlarge and the bottom of the vessel, as before, is covered with perfectly pure narcotine, assuming the rhomboidal prismatic form, with some beautiful modifications of macled crystals ; the crystals at the bottom and sides approaching the bottom, are per- fectly transparent, while the most minute at the top are opaque being snow white. By picking out the largest and most regular crystals, and again dissolving them and evapo- rating and repeating the same process, each time selecting the largest and best crystals, I obtained perfect crystals one eighth of an inch in diameter, and I believe by continuing. to operate in the same manner, much larger might be obtain- ed, as they increased by every crystalisation. _ Resin, Caoutchouc, Oil and Acid. These substances are the constituents of the extractive mat- ter which covers the crystals, and is separated in the manner above described ; on evaporation it forms an extract without signs of crystalisation. ‘This substance possesses all the heavy narcotic odour of the opium. ‘The narcotine, when perfectly . 28 Observations and Experiments on Opium. separated from this substance has very little odour and the denarcotized extract and laudanum possess less, in fact so lit- tle that they could hardly be detected as preparations of opi- um by the odour ; the strong odour of the extract arises from the oil of opium which it contains. The activity of Baume’s celebrated extract, is considered by Neuman to reside in the oil and resin. The acid which exists in this compound has not been sufficiently examined to enable us to say any thing definite in relation to it. The characters of the caoutchouc are very prominent. I have not tried the effects of this com- bination upon animals, nor have I seen a description of it, but judging merely from its sensible characters, it would ap- pear more active than the narcotine. Morphia. This substance exists in opium im union with meconic acid, its action on the human body is that of a sedative, and it possesses all the advantages which we may expect to find in opium, without any of its inconveniences. Different modes of preparation have been described by Robiquet, De- rosne, Choulant, Statuerner and others. Dr. Thomson gives an easy method to obtain it in a state of purity. He employs ammonia instead of magnesia, to decompose the natural meconiate, &c. (see Annals of Philosophy for June, 1820.) The sedative powers of morphia become more manifest, when combined with an acid, particularly the acetic, which arises from increasing its solubility. Morphia is very soluble in olive oil, and according to the experiments of M. Majendie, the compound acts with great intensity. J am indebted to Dr. Coxe for the following interesting history of the crysta- line forms of its saline compounds. The Carbonate crystalises in short prisms. The Acetate in soft silky prisms, and is very soluble and ex- tremely active, more so than any other combination of mor- hia. The Sulphate in arborescent crystals, next in solubility to the acetate and rather less active. . The Muriate in plumose crystals, much less soluble; when evaporated, it concretes into a shining white plumose mass on cooling. The Nitrate in prisms grouped together. The Meconite in oblique prisms sparingly soluble. The Tartrate in prisms. Observations and Experiments on Opium. 29 From either of the above combinations morphia may be separated by ammonia. The acetate of morphia is the most active preparation, and as it is a very deliquescent salt, it is extremely difficult to obtain it in crystals. Under these circumstances, the follow- ing process has been recommended to make the acetate from the morphia. Take morphia 4 parts, distilled water 8 parts, dilute the morphia in a porcelain vessel, afterwards add acetic acid sp. gr. 1.075, (pure concentrated pyroligneous acid,) until turnsol paper becomes scarcely red by its action ; evaporate the solution to the consistence of syrup, continue the evapo- ration slowly either in the sun or in a stove, collect the salt and reduce it to powder.* The sulphate is the next most active salt of morphia, and is employed where patients have been accustomed to the use of the acetate, for generally by varying the salts of alkaline medicines, their action may be kept up longer without in- creasing the dose too considerably. Formulas for the pre- paration of these salts in syrups, mixtures, solutions, &c. ae given in Haydens, Formulary and Formulaire de Mont- éllier. ! . The other salts of morphia, with the exception of the citrate, tartrate and meconite have not yet been employed in me- dicine. Meconic Acid, Exists in combination with morphia, in crude opium, form- ig a meconite of Morphia; it is to this salt that laudanum owes its narcotic effects. Our distinguished chemist Dr. Hare, has in the preceding number of this Journal, given an easy process for obtaining this acid; the same gentleman has also given in the same number of the Journal, a very deli- cate test and an easy mode of detecting minute quantities of opium in solution. It consists in precipitating the meconic acid with acetate of lead ; the meconic acid is liberated from the lead by sulphuretted hydrogen or sulphuric acid, to which add a solution of the sulphate of iron which produces a striking red colour. Professor Hare observes, that a quantity of opium not exceeding ten drops of laudanum may be detec- ted in a half gallon of water; his observations on the sub- se * Pharmacopeia Gallica, 1818, page 387, 30 Observations and Experiments on Opium. ject are well worthy of the attention of the chemist and phar- maceutist. Feculencies, &c. The foeculencies and insoluble matter of opium consist chiefly of the leaves, capsules and stems of the poppy; be- sides these however, extraneous matters are frequently found, having been fraudulently introduced to increase its weight. The insoluble matters in different parcels of opium vary from one and a half to near three drachms to the ounce. The effects of opium are generally so well known that it is unnecessary to give a description of it.* Sometimes, how- *The following particular account of the effects of opium on the Turks, by Baron de Tott, will no doubt be interesting to many readers. Speaking of those who give themselves up to its immoderate use, he says, «“ Destined to live agreeably only when in a sort of drunkenness, these men present above all a curious spectacle, when they are assembled in a part of Constantinople called Teriaky Tcharchissy, the market of opium eaters. It is there that towards evening one sees the lovers of opium arrive by the different streets which terminate at the Solymania, whose pale and melancholy countenances would inspire only compassion, did not their stretched neck, their heads twisted to the right and left, their back bones crooked, one shoulder up to the ears, and a number of other whimsical attitudes which are the consequences of the disorder, present the most ludicrous and the most laughable picture. A long row of little shops is built against one of the walls of the place where the mosque stands. These shops are shaded by an arbor which communicates from one to the other, and under which every merchant, without hinder- ing the passage, takes care to place a small sofa for his customers to sit on, who place themselves in succession, to receive a dose proportioned to the degree of habit and want they have contracted. The pills are soon distributed, the most experienced swallow four of these, larger than olives, and every one drinking a large glass of cold water upon it, waits in some particular attitude for an agreeable reverie, which at the end of three quarters of an hour or an hourat most, never fails to animate these machines, but they are always very extraordinary and their man- ners very gay- This is the moment when the scene becomes most in- teresting ; all the actors are happy, each of them returns home ina state of total ebriety, but in the full and perfect possession of a happi- ness which reason is not able to procure him. Deaf to the hootings of the passengers they meet with, who divert themselves by making them talk nonsense, every one of them firmly believes himself in possession of what he wishes. They have the appearance and feeling of it, and the reality frequently does not produce so much pleasure. The same thing happens in private houses, where the master sets the example of this strange debauch. The men of law are most subject to it, and all the Dervises used to get drunk with opium, before they learned to prefer the excess of wine. There are instances of persons getting Observations and Experiments on Opium. st ever, it exercises very remarkable effects on the constitution, differing materially in its action on different individuals. A case is mentioned in the Archives Générales de Medicine for December, 1826, of a lady of nervous temperament, who on taking a draught in which there was half a grain of acetate of morphia, suddenly sank into a state of syncope, which continued for two or three hours ; it was several times re- peated at intervals of an hour or two and attended with the same results. Dr. Dewees met with an instance in which the opium invariably purged, and was in the habit of employing it as a purgative in this case in doses of two grains, purga- tives not producing their usual effects ; he has also met with one instance in which opium excited violent coughing, even when administered inenema. Dr. Rousseau informs me that he had a case somewhat similar to the former, (an unmarried lady of 34 years,) where opium universally acted as a pur- gative ; the denarcotized laudanum administered by Dr. Rous- seau to the same patient, did not produce this singular effect although continued for several days.* ‘The same gentleman also informs me, that it is not unfrequent in his practice, to meget with cases in which opium will act as a purgative, and he has discovered that the addition of tartaric acid conside- rably increases its purgative effects. It is stated that highly rectified zther is the only men- struum for the solution of narcotine. If so, I cannot under- drunk indifferently with opium or with brandy. There is a decoction made of the shells and seeds of the poppy ; this the Persians call Loc- quenor, and they sell it publicly in all their cities as they docoffee. The Persians say it entertains their fancies with pleasant visions, and a kind of rapture ; they very soon grow merry, and then burst into a laugh, which continues till they die away in a swoon. It is found by those who have. a disposition for jesting, to increase that extremely. After the operation of the remedy the body grows cold, pensive and heavy, and in this dull and indolent situation it remains till the dose is repeat- ed. It is curious to observe the countenances of those who use this de- coction before it operates, and when its effects have taken place. When they come into the decoction-house they are dull, pale and lan- guid, but as soon as the remedy begins to operate, they are quite chan- ged, they run into all the extravagancies of mirth and laughter, and such an uproar is produced that it would be more proper to give it the name of mad-house than decoction-shop.” (Crumpe on opium.) - * Dr. Rousseau has since informed me that on a further continuation of the denarcotized tincture, the purgative effects recurred, and he was consequently obliged to suspend its administration. 32 Dr. Meade’s Notice of the Tioga Coal. stand how laudanum should contain this principle, when it is prepared with nothing stronger than proof spirits, and the al- cohol of this menstruum is nearly saturated by the gum, resin and other soluble matter of the opium. I am about institu- ting some experiments on the residue of opium, from which laudanum has been made, also on that matter which is pre- cipitated from laudanum by long standing, and which is so extremely active in its effects; all of which I shall be pleased to submit in a future number of this journal. The several preparations of opium as above described, may be had from Charles Marshall, Druggist, No. 221 Mar- ket street, Philadelphia. Art. 1V.—Chemical analysis and description of the Coal lately discovered near Tioga River, in the State of Penn- sylvania ; by Wittiam Means, M. D. In a message from Governor Clinton, to the Legislature of the State of New York, at their last session, it is observed that “ Bituminous coal of good quality had been found in the State of Pennsylvania, within twenty miles of the line of this State, near Tioga River, which, when the communication with Seneca Lake shall be opened, can be delivered at Alba- ny, by means of the Western Canal, on very reasonable terms.” On hearing of this discovery so important to the State of New York, in every point of view, I was anxious to satisfy myself of the nature and qualities of the coal, as well as to ascertain its geological situation, particularly as I had ventu- red in the last number of your journal to state an opinion. that the anthracites or non-bituminous coals of this country were confined to a particular district, to the east of the Sus- quehannah River, and were to be found exclusively in the transition formation, a class of rocks nearly allied to the pri- mitive, and no where to be found to the west of that river. An opportunity was soon given me to make the necessary experiments, having been favored by Mr. Knapp the proprie- tor of the mine with a sufficient quantity of this coal; but from the very limited mineralogical! knowledge which this gentleman possesses, [ have been as yet only able to learn that the country in which this coal is found is decidedly secondary, and that the veins of coal are very extensive, de- Dr. Meade’s notice of the Tioga Coal. . 33 posited, as is generally the case, in a series of beds of sand- stone, accompanied by shale or argillaceous slate, abound- ing with vegetable impressions and resting on secondary limestone, containing fossil remains. It is also an important circumstance, that in the neighborhood of the coal mine is found abundance of iron ore; specimens of which I have examined, and find it to be of that species which is called iron stone or argillaceous iron ore, precisely of the same character as that which accompanies the beds of coal in England, and which is worked so extensively in that country. The external appearance of the Tioga coal, differs so little from the well known character of the best Liverpool or New- castle coal, that it searce requires a description. Its color is. velvet black with a slight resmous lustre, its structure is slaty or foliated, and its layers, as in the best English coal, divided into prismatic solids with bases slightly rhomboidal ;: it is easily frangible and slightly soils the fingers. The specific gravity is 1.287. It burns with a bright flame and conside- rable smoke, with a slight bitumimous smell; a sort of ebulli- tion taking place, and as the heat increases an appearance of semifusion leaving a light residue or scoria. hese characters are quite sufficient to place it in the rank of the best bituminous coal, but as it may be satisfactory to establish by experiment the quantity of carbon which it con- tains, upon which its most essential value depends, I sub- mitted it to the following experiments. ; It has been long since established that nitre detonates with no oily or bituminous substance until such matter is first redu- ced to coal, and then only in proportion to the quantity of carbon it contains ; it has also been ascertained, that when the detonation ceases, it requires about fifty grains of carbon to saturate the oxygen in the nitric acid of five hundred grains of nitrate of potash ; taking this rule therefore for a guide, I fused five hundred grains of nitre in a large crucible, and having reduced one hundred grains of coal into a coarse powder, I gradually projected it, in small portions at a time, into the crucible on the ignited nitre, as long as any detona- tion took place ; observing the necessary caution that the coal was not too finely powdered, and next that it was slowly poured in, otherwise a part of it may have been projected out of the crucible by the deflagration of the nitre. Having made this experiment several times, I found that it required seventy-five grains of the coal to decompose the five hundred Vou. XIT.—No. 1. 5 34 Dr. Meade’s notice of the Tioga Coal. grains of nitre. Now as fifty grains of charcoal or of Kil- kenny coal, which is nearly a pure carbon, would have been sufficient for the same purpose, it follows, that seventy-five grains of this coal contained only fifty grains of carbon ; the remainder must of course have been bitumen and ashes. It therefore appears, that 100 parts of Tioga coal, according to experiment, contain only 66.7 parts of carbon; approxima- ting nearly in quality to the best English bituminous coal, which averages from fifty-seven to seventy per cent. of car- bon. Though it was not of much importance, yet I thought proper to ascertain the quantity of bitumen which existed in 33.3 grains, the residue after deflagration. To determine this, it was required only to ignite a certain portion of the coal on a hot iron in the air, till nothing remained but the ashes, the carbon and bitumen being entirely consumed. One hundred grains of the coal, being treated in this manner with sufficient heat, left a residuum of only 3.50 grains of brown ashes. It would not have been difficult to ascertain the na- ture of this earthy residuum, but as it was of little conse- quence, in a practical or economical point of view, I omitted it. We shall therefore now state the result of the above analysis to be as follows : In 100 parts of coal, Carbon - - - 66 7 Bitumen - - - 30 43 Earth - - - 3050 100 00 It thus appears, that the Tioga coal is of an excellent qual- ity, fully-equal to the best Liverpool coal and fit for all the purposes of manufactures, but requiring to be converted into coak before it can be made use of in the smelting of iron ore, or in many other processes in metallurgy-and the arts. This should be always kept m view, and is the principal dis- tinction between it and the anthracite or non-bituminous coal of Rhode Island and Pennsylvania. Each of them have their distinctive and valuable qualities ; while the anthracites consist nearly of from ninety to ninety-seven per cent. of pure carbon, the Tioga coal contains only 66.7, the residue being chiefly bitumen, a substance which renders it extremely valu- able in domestic use, and in the reverberatory furnaces, but inapplicable to many other purposes, which the experienced artist can easily comprehend. Notice of a Meteoric Fire Ball. 35 Considering the importance of coal, as a fuel, it would seem as if nature had formed the State of Pennsylvania for a manufacturing country ; every day brings to light some new discovery of this material which must sooner or later be re- sorted to for the purpose of manufactures. There seem to be two great coal districts in this State. We have been long acquainted with that to the west of the Susquehannah, and extending through the centre of the State to Pittsburgh, but it seems not to have been traced so far to the north of the west branch of the Susquehannah as Tioga River, where it has lately been discovered. ‘The whole of the coal in the district to the west of this river extending to Pittsburgh, is exclusively bituminous, no other kind having been traced there. The second coal district seems to be included be- tween the Delaware, the Schuylkill, the Lehigh, the Lacka- wana, and the east of the Susquehannah River. ‘This: is ex- clusively anthracite or non-bituminous coal, nor is it probable, from the geological character of each of these districts, that any other species will be found in either ; and here it is not uninteresting to observe, the uniformity which prevails in the character of the coal formations and of their geological associations, in this country and in England; perhaps it may be said, that the same analogy prevails in every part of Hu- rope and America. A description of the coal fields in Eng- land would answer for the coal districts of this country, whether bituminous or non-bituminous. The ~ associated minerals, which accompany the bituminous coal in both coun- tries, are uniformly of the same secondary character, and as far as my own observation goes, the same facts may be stated with respect to the anthracites at least in Kilkenny, which are similar to those of this country, and whose geological for- mation is, as in America, decidedly transition. Art. V.—Notice of a Meteoric Fire Ball ; by the Rev. 8. E. Dwieut. To the Editor. New Haven, June 6, 1827. Sir, Tur Meteor, of which you requested an account, ap- peared on Saturday evening, March 21, 1813, a little be- 36 Notice of a Meteoric Fire Bail. fore ten o’clock. The sky was extensively overcast, yet the covering was every where thin; and in the North where the Meteor appeared, in various tracts of considerable extent, the stars were in full view. I was standing,on a platform on the North side of the house, where I could survey the whole tract of sky over which the meteor passed. When the light first broke upon me, I was looking eastward, and for a moment supposed it to be a flash of very vivid lightning ; but from its continuance was led almost instantly to look to the lumin- ary whence it proceeded. ‘The following are the observa- tions which I made at the time with regard to it. 1. The meteor, when I first saw it, was about 35° above the horizon; and from the course of the fence near which I stood, I judged its direction, at that time, to be about N. 20° E. ; 2. Its figure was nearly that of an ellipse, with the ends in a slight degree sharpened or angular. 3. The length of the transverse diameter appeared to be about equal to the apparent diameter of the moon when on the meridian ; and that of the conjugate, about three fourths of the transverse. a 4. The color of the body resembled that of the moon, but was evidently more yellow. 5. Atrail of light was formed behind it of considerable length, perhaps of ten or twelve degrees. It was broadest near the body, and decreased in breadth very slowly for about two fifths of its length; after which it was an uni- form stripe of light, about as wide as the apparent diameter of the planet Venus. The direction of the tail was coinci- dent with that of the transverse diameter. 6. The ball was much more luminous than the tail, so that the end of the ball connected with the tail was scarcely less distinct in its form than the opposite end. 7. The illumination was so powerful, that all the objects around me cast distinct shadows, though less strongly mark- ed than when the moon is at the full. 8. Numerous sparks, of the apparent size of the smaller stars, but much more brilliant, were continually issuing from the ball of the meteor, and after descending a little distance, soon disappeared. 9. The length of time, in which the body was visible, was about eight, or possibly ten seconds. 10. A short time before its disappearance—say one or two a] ~ / Notice of a Meteoric Fire Ball. 3 seconds, three much larger sparks, or luminous fragments, were thrown from the body at the same moment. ‘Two of these were apparently as large as the planet Venus; the third was still larger. These three were the last pieces, which I saw leave the body. Their paths were at first nearly parallel with that of the meteor, yet beneathit. From this di- rection however, they all deviated constantly and rapidly in parabolic curves, until they seemed falling perpendicularly towards the earth. Each fragment became less and Jess dis- tinct, until it disappeared. The largest of the three continued visible until it was within about 20 degrees of the horizon. 11. The meteor itself disappeared as suddenly, as if, in one indivisible moment, it had passed into a medium abso- lutely opaque, or as if, at a given moment, it had left the at- mosphere; but a few moments afterwards there was a dis- tinct and somewhat extensive illumination over that part of the sky for about a second, as if the light of the departing luminary had been reflected from some unknown surface to the earth. 12. When the meteor disappeared, it was about 30° above the horizon, and as I judged from the course of the fence, in the direction of N. 45° E., or 25° eastward of the place where I first saw it. I concluded that the direction of its path was probably from W. by 8. to E. by N. It was obvi- ously going from me; its path making an angle with the optic axis of about 60°. 13. Not less than eight minutes, nor more than ten, after the disappearance of the meteor, there was a report very loud and heavy, accompanied with a very sensible jar. Though mistaken for thunder by those who did not see the meteor, it did not much resemble either thunder or the re- port of a cannon; but was louder, shorter and sharper than either, and was followed by no perceptible echo. 14. A friend of mine, who was in Berlin at the time, about 23 miles due N. of New Haven, saw the meteor dis- tinetly, but made no particular observations concerning it. His estimate of it accorded generally with mine, but it ap- peared to him larger, more elevated and somewhat more to the East in its apparent place.—I could not learn that the fragments which fell from it were discovered. {am most respectfully Your obedient servant, 8S. E. DWIGHT. 38 Coal, Diluvial. Strata, §-c. of Ohio. Arr. VlI.—Miscellaneous Observations on the coal, diluial and other strata of certain portions of the state of Ohio— contained in a letter to the Editor ; datedat Marietta, June 7, 1827, from Dr. S. P. Hitpreru. In my journey this spring I visited the Ohio canal at New- ark, Licking Co. and made some observations on the different formations over which I travelled. The road from Marietta to Zanesville, for the first twenty miles, passes up the Muskingum bottoms, which are strictly alluvial. After leaving the river, it passes over hills of a mod- erate height, which are diluvial—abounding in quarries of limestone, sandstone and bituminous coal. The coal gen- erally lies under the sandstone, and sometimes, in a thin stratum aboveit. The layers are of various thickness, from a few inches to six feet. So far as I have observed, there appears to be a bed of limestone, underlying all the hills, and the » sandstone through the whole region of the country, from Ma- rietta to Zanesville. It is laid bare by the wash of the rivers and creeks, and all the ripples and falls, are made by this bed © of limestone.—In this neighborhood, it is very compact and free generally from petrified shells. The deposit on this lime- stone, appears to have been sand, now forming sandstone ; above this, is a red imperfect stone like slate or soapstone, of various colours, and abounding with iron—then red argilla- ceous earth, originally from ten to twenty feet in thickness, but now of various thickness, as washed away by the rains and streams, in forming the surface of the earth into its pres- ent broken aspect, but easily traced in ascending and de- scending the hills; above this a deposit of ash colored earth, also argillaceous, from two to six feet in thickness, very jine and pulverulent ; and on this, vegetable mould of various thickness, according to the position and exposure of the under stratum, thicker on the north and thinner on the south sides of the hills ; occasionally on, or near the tops of the hills are thin beds of limestone; these seem of more re- . cent origin, and sometimes contain shells. ‘The stratum of red earth disappears, about thirty miles this side of Zanes- ville, and its place is occupied by a yellow loam very friable, and easily worn down by rains or running water—but the stratum of ash coloured earth on the top still continues. The rock formation is much the same in the neighborhood of — Coal, Diluvial Strata, gc. of Ohio. 39 Zanesville ; coal is more abundant, and from the bed of the Muskingum to the tops of the hills, three strata are found at different elevations, some above the sandstone and some below. The falls at Zanesville, which afford such fine mill seats, are made by the deep or lowest bed of limestone ; the sandstone is some of it very fine, and variously color- ed with iron, resembling variegated marble. I saw some near Licking creek, fifteen miles from Zanesville, quarried for the canal locks, of a deep red. I crossed the river at Zanesville and travelled on the north side of Licking creek to Newark twenty-five miles ; the country is hilly, and of the same formation as about Zanesville. At Newark the hills cease, and there is a gently.rollng country to Delaware; from near there to the Lake Erie, the country is generally flat. From Newark I travelled twenty miles in the direction of Delaware. Through all this space the formation is diluvial, being a yellowish loam, of from twenty to fifty feet in thickness based on a stratum of tough blue clay from three to six feet in thickness. In digging for wells they pass through this yel- lowish earth, to a greater or less depth, as the land is more or less elevated, and find permanent water as soon as they pass the blue clay, and not before. But the most smgular feature of all is the adundance of detached fragments and blocks of primitive rocks, with which this region is filled. All are rounded or worn by attrition, and lie in that confused state which they might be supposed to exhibit, if brought there by an immense current of water. I picked up pieces of gran- ite, hornblende, greenstone, gneiss, quartz, limestone, cc. ; some blocks of granite are large enough to make a pair of mill stones and are used for this purpose. After leaving the hills, very few quarries, or stones in place are found, except limestone all the distance to Lake Erie. Above the diluvial deposit is a bed of vegetable earth, very rich, supporting a heavy growth of timber and making excellent farming land. In reflecting on this formation, the impression is irresistible that it is the result of an immense current or body of water pouring down from the north, sweeping the south side of Lake Erie, and all the Scioto country and Miami valley, as those regions are said to furnish specimens of the same prim- itive kind. In my return I passed over “Flint Ridge,” so called; it is the dividing ridge between the waters of Licking and Jonathan’s creek. It commences five miles south-east of 40 Perkins’ Steam Engine. Newark and extends down the creek seven or eight miles. The surface of the earth is covered with quartz rock to the depth of six or eight feet, and abounds in beautiful rose col- ored and limpid crystals. It is full of excavations, made by the aborigines in search of flints for arrow heads. At the east end of the ridge, twelve miles from Zanesville, fine mill stones are made of cellular quartz, equal to, or better than French Burr. Arr. VII.—Intellgence and remarks respecting Hieu Pres- sure Steam Eneines, from the Franklin Journal for June, 1827. 1. Hien Pressure Sarety Steam Encine of Mr. Perkins. Leiter from Jacob Perkins, Esq. to Dr. Thomas P. Jones, Editor of the Franklin Journal.* Lonpon, March 8, 1827. My Dear Friend,—You must attribute my not having writ- ten to you at an earlier date, not to want of inclination, but to a desire of being able to communicate the information which I now give you, namely, that my most sanguine expect- ations are realized, and to the utmost, in the completion of my high pressure, safety engime. This I should have been enabled to say, long since, had it not been for the opposi- tion which I have encountered from the avaricious, and inter- ested individuals, by whom my course has been retarded, much more than it has been by mechanical difficulties, al- though these have been enough, in all conscience. Many of my friends, and some of them very scientific men have expressed great fears, that I had attempted impos- sibilities ; and were of opinion that steam engines were so well understood, as to leave little that is new, on this subject, to be discovered. I will ask you, and I will allow no one to be a better judge, if it is not new to generate steam of all elasticities, from the minimum to the maximum, without the least danger? If it is notnew, in the generation of steam, to substitute pressure, for surface, which I consider the basis * The high interest and importance of these communications induce us to give them entire.—Ed. Am. Jour. Perkins’ Steam Engine. Al of my invention? If it is not new, to have a pressure of 1000 Ibs. to the square inch, on one side of the piston, while on the other side of it, all resistance is taken away by a va- cuum, and this produced, without an air pump, or any more water than is used in generating the steam? If it is not new to have invented a metallic piston, which requires no lubrication, and yet is as tight as the piston of an air pump ¢ If it is not new to have applied Sir Humphrey Davy’s zinc protectors to steam cylinders, to prevent oxidation? This, I found, took place in my cylinders, when the engine was not at work, after I found that I could dispense with oil. If it is not new to dispense with the eduction valve, and eduction pipe, having no other than a small induction valve, and that, so constructed, as to neutralize the pressure, requiring no oil, and very little power to open, and to close it? If it is not new, to allow steam to escape at an opening, 250 times larger than the steam pipe? All this has been effected as our friend Lukens can avouch, he having witnessed all these facts, as well as myself. And lastly, if it is not new, to have discovered, that steam may be generated, although in con- tact with the water, at all temperatures, without producing corresponding elasticity ? As soon as my last patent is specified here, I will forward it to you, together with the drawings, not only for your in; spection, but with a request, that you will forward them to Washington, as a petition to obtain a patent, will accompa- ny them. I herewith send you a paper, “ On the Explosion of Steam Boilers, &c.” This paper I have not yet published here, as it might lead to the discovery of my method of correcting the evil arising from generating surcharged steam, before my patent is specified ; but as this will be secure, in a very short time, you are requested, if you approve it, to publish the pa- per in your interesting Journal, as I am anxious for its early appearance in my own country. I have, m confidence giv- en a copy to Dr. Wollaston, to Mr. Faraday, and to several engineers, whom I could trust, and who all agree that it as- signs the true cause of explosions. I long to see, and to _ converse with you, and my other really scientific friends in the United States, on this and other interesting points, connec- ted with my engine. I have had much interested opposition to contend with, since my residence here; but some of the best men in the Vor. XIII.—No. 1. 6 42 Perkins’ Steam Engine. country have constantly stood by me, or I must have sunk under the pressure. This government have now given the stamp business, to Perkins and Heath, which we should long smce have had, and the country thereby have been saved thousands, but for the mtrigues of an individual who is now sent to Coventry. More than a dozen projectors have attempted to make tubular boilers, smee I commenced my experiments, of gen- erating steam by small quantities of water, under pressure ; but for want of pressure, (which is the novelty I claim in my patent.) they have all failed. M‘Curdy from New York, who brought out Hawkins’ project was the first who opposed me. He stated that I had stolen Hawkins’ invention, and gave an air of probability to his assertion, by producing such evidence from the United States as he hoped would substantiate it. Yet he was altogether ignorant of my method of generating high steam ; and indeed there are not, at this day ten persons in the world who are wholly acquainted with it. M‘Curdy took out a patent in this country, and sold it to the amount of ten thousand pounds ; reserving one-third to himself. He has made three small steam boats; one large enough to take passengers to Richmond, but no one of them ever steamed more than three miles an hour. The quantity of coal con- ‘sumed I could not learn; it must however have been too great to answer, had there been no other objection, and they have all been abandoned, Of all the methods yet contrived to generate steam, this was the worst. Had the agent in this business, been considered as the representative of the mechan- ical talents of his country, it would have been most unfortu- ‘nate; but such is not the case, as there are now here, four Americans, who stand confessedly pre-eminent, viz. Mr. Lu- kens of Philadelphia, Mr. Wright of New York, Dr. Church, and Mr. Dyer of Boston. Brown’s vacuum engine, has at length given over, although its death was a very hard one. It was at last found, that al- though at the begining of the stroke, the mercury showed a vacuum equal to twenty inches, yet his rarified air became, towards the end of the stroke, more dense than the atmos- phere, and there was, consequently a great loss from its re- action. J had frequently predicted, that this would be the case and am apprehensive that Morey’s explosive engine will be unavailable, from the same cause. Brown has certainly shown great ingenuity in the variety of Perkins’ Steam Engine. 4 mechanical contrivances which he has invented, in order to overcome the difficulties with which he had to contend; his engine was a beautiful piece of mechanism ; its appearance was such as caused it to operate like a charm on his numerous visiters, and many were consequently, induced to take an in- terest in, and expend large sums of money, to perfect an in- strument from which they calculated to derive large profits. Is it not astonishing, that men of intelligence should not quickly perceive the difference, between condensible steam, and incondensible air? I have already remarked that at the beginning of the stroke, the barometer indicated a high de- gree of exhaustion ; it sometimes rose to twenty-four inches, yet his piston, if made to approach the end of his cylin- der, as closely as in a well made steam engine, could not, from the density of the contained air, pass the dead point. His first engine, you know, raised water ten or twelve feet high, and this was employed to drive a water wheel; in this arrangement, he did not discover how soon his rarified air lost its power ; but when he endeavored to make his engine work with a piston, he began to experience this unanticipated difh- culty. By a very clever contrivance, he, apparently, over- came this obstruction, but not without great waste of gas. He attached to his engine, a large separate condenser, in which he burnt his gas, professedly, for the greater convenience of condensation; but it was, in effect, nothing more than lengthening his cylinder, which would have produced the same result in a way much more simple; but to have hada ten foot cylinder, with one foot stroke, would at once have torn off the mask, by which the true features of the contrivance were concealed ; a catastrophe, which the inventor, very nat- urally endeavored, as long as possible to avoid. ‘The con- sumption of gas was enormous; but as he made his own or drew it directly from the city pipes, no one but himself could tell how much he used. Fascinated with the beauty of the machine, there are ma- ny who yet declare it to be no failure, and that Brown has been used very ill by the Gas-engine Company. One gen- tleman, who had lost much money in this concern, called on me the other day, and expressed great regret that the gas- engine had not been in my hands; | told him that this would. have produced but one advantage, that of having lost less money by the concern, as it was not from want of mechan- ical skill, that Brown did not succeed, but because the laws 4d Perkins’ Steam Engine. of nature were against him ; that I was pursuing experiments in accordance with those laws; and that in this consisted the difference in the results to be anticipated from his labours, and from mine. This gentleman expressed much surprise when I explained to him the difference between condensible steam, and incondensible air. I am now engaged in building steam artillery, as well as musketry, for the French government. The English gov- ernment would certainly have adopted this invention, had it not been for the gratuitous and false statements of certain engineers, who declared, that although I was able to make a great display at the public exhibition, made by order of government, yet it was delusive ; and that I had never made a generator which stood for a week, and that I could not keep up the steam for more than two or three minutes at one time. These statements obtained credit, the more readily, as any improvement in the art of war, which could be adop- ted by other powers, and which would have a tendency to place the weak upon a par with the strong, appeared likely to benefit other countries more than England. The French government have determined to give our nev system a fair trial. A series of experiments have been made at Greenwich, which were attended by the French engineers appointed for that purpose, by the duke d’Angouleme, to- gether with one of his aids, and prince Polignac. Their re- port was so satisfactory to the French government, that a contract was immediately made. An English Engineer of. the first class, and one who is very much employed by this government, has jomed me in the guarantee of the four points which some of the English engineers have doubted ; _namely, the perfect safety of the generator, its indestructibil- ity, the ability to keep the steam up, at any required tempera- ture, for any length of time, and its great economy. ' The piece of ordinance is to throw sixty balls, of four pounds each, in a minute, with the correctness of the mfled musket, and toa proportionate distance. A musket is also attached to the same generator, for throwing a stream of lead from the bastion of afort, and is made so far portable as to be capable of being moved from one bastion to another. This musket is to throw from one hundred to one thousand bullets per minute, as occasion may require, and that for any given length of time. It was an observation made in my hearing, by his grace, the duke of Wellington, that any Perkins’ Steam Engine. 45 country defended by this kind of artillery, would never be invaded, and I am very confidently of: this opinion. As soon as this machine is completed, it is to be exhibited to this government, and to several engineers from other powers, who are over here for that purpose. I have no fears for the result, neither has Mr. Lukens, since he witnessed. the experiment made for the French government. He saw the steam gun discharge at the rate of from 500 to 1000 balls per minute, and the steam blowing off at the escape valve, during the whole time; he is equally confident with myself, that the steam may be kept up in such a man- ner as to discharge a constant stream of balls during the whole day, if required. Asregards economy, I am within the truth, when I say, that if the discharges are rapid, one pound of coals will throw as many balls as four pounds of powder. It has been stated as an objection to the steam gun, that it would take too long to get up the steam, in case of an attack. To this I answer, that a very small quantity of fire will keep the generators sufficiently heated, when there is no water in them: and that when there is any chance of their being suddenly wanted, they should be kept heated in this way. The heat of the generators would last long enough to give off steam; until the fire is sufficiently increased to fur- nish a constant supply. For naval purposes this cannot be an objection, as the steam must always be up. Lord Exmouth, after witnessing a few showers of lead observed, that he believed the time would come, when a steam gun boat with two steam guns in her bow, would conquer any line of battle ship; and Sir George Cockburn said, that the mis- chief of it was, it would be to nations what the pistol was to duellists, it would bring all, whether strong or weak, upon a par. To prove the safety of my engine, I have worked it under a pressure of 1400 lbs. to the square inch, or at a hundred atmospheres, and cut off the steam at one twelfth of the stroke; this was merely to manifest what could be done with perfect security. My usual pressure is 800. lbs. per inch cutting off at one-eighth, and letting the steam expand _to below 100 lbs. per inch. I let off at the dead point, at one flash ; the manner of doing this I long to explain to you, but must first get my last patent sealed. I am informed that our friend, Dr. Hare, thinks I have ventured beyond my depth; in this he is not singular, nor do I wonder that such an idea should prevail, after the publica- 46 Perkins’ Steam Engine: tion of so many absurd things respecting my engine; [ had no knowledge of these publications, and of course had no controul over them. Indeed I have been extremely cautious about publishing any thing myself, or sanctioning it in others; my determination having been first to complete the essential improvements of which I have been in pursuit. I presume that you have seen my last paper on the compression of wa- ter, air, &c. Its publication by the Royal Society, has cre- ated no small sensation among the philosophers of the old school. The council would not have allowed the reading of it, had not Dr. Wollaston and Sir Humphrey Davy witnessed many of the experiments. I shall soon publish an experiment with which I think Dr. Hare will be pleased, as it will, if I mistake not, prove practically, what the doctor has so ably attempted to establish theoretically, namely, that caloric is matter. The proof is simple and direct, and I am persuaded that when you see it, you will think it conclusive. I was led to the discovery of this fact by my experiments upon steam ; the results of many of which have been very extraordinary, and quite unexpected. One of the most striking, is the great repellent power of heat. I discovered that a generator, at a certain temperature, although it had a small crack in it, would not emit either water, orsteam: This fact I mention- ed to a very scientific friend, who questioned its accuracy, and to convince him, I tried the experiment ; but he conclu- ded that the expansion of the metal must have closed the fissure. ‘To remove every doubt, I proposed to drill a small hole through the side of the generator, which was according- ly done. After getting the steam up to a proper tempera- ture, I took out the plug, and although we were working the engine at thirty atmospheres, nothing was seen, or heard to issue from the plug hole; all was perfectly quiet ; I next low- ered the temperature by shutting the damper, and opening the furnace door ; a singing from the aperture was soon ob- servable, and when a coal was held before it, rapid combus- tion ensued; nothing however was yet visible, but as the temperature decreased, the steam became more and more visible, the noise at the same time increasing, until finally the roar was tremendous, and might have been heard at the distance of half a mile. This was conclusive. I should mention that, at the aperture, the iron was red hot. My belief is that water cannot be brought inte contact with iron heated to about 1200°, without a force equal to the max- Perkins’ Steam Engine. 47 imum pressure of steam, which is equal to about 4000 atmos- pheres, when the water is heated to about 1200°. That pressure would, I believe, keep it in contact with iron at any degree of heat, and the steam would then be as dense as wa- ter. It is very evident that if it would require that force to keep the water in contact, heated as it was at the vent hole, thirty atmospheres must be insufficient to effect this: but the experiment affords some data towards answering the question, at what distance from the heated metal the water yemained, when under the pressure of thirty atmospheres ? We may safely aver, that it exceeded one-eighth of an inch, as the hole was one quarter of an inch in diameter. After commencing this letter, I ascertained that my patent was likely in a few days to pass the great seal, and have de- layed forwarding it until I could give you some account of the effect upon the minds of those engineers who were open to conviction, of an experiment performed before them. The patent has been sealed, and the engine has had its pow- er and economy tested. The result has been so satisfactory, that an engineer, who employs at least three hundred hands, has taken orders to make engines, (for I license them out,) with the following guarantee, viz. that of saving half the. fuel, and three-fourths of the weight and bulk, with less liability of derangement than ordinary engines. The engineer whose name is Penn, and who is frequently employed by govern- ment, is now making an engine for steam navigation, with a nine inch cylinder, and twenty inch stroke ; he joms me in guaranteeing it to be of sixty horse power. It. will not oc- cupy more.than one-sixth of the room, nor exceed one-sixth of the weight, of the ordinary Boulton and Watt’s engine, of the same power. I have sent you the last “ London Journal of Arts, &c.” which contains some account of my engine, which is nearly correct as far as it goes. It should however have stated, that the piston was eight inches in diameter, that it was a twenty inch single stroke engine, a good seventy horse power and consuming but one-fourth of the coal of a condensing engine. The weight on the end of the lever was three hun- dred, instead of one hundred and fifty pounds. You may, my dear sir, depend upon what I have written ; it is the result of actual experiment, and there is no fallacy im it. Having succeeded in making a piston which requires no oil, J am determined to ascertain the limits to which pres- ¢ 48 Perkins’ Steam Engine. sure can be carried. I am now making a small engine, strong enough to bear 2000 Ibs. per inch, and when done you shall know the result. Nothing but the piston will limit the power. The victory which J have obtained, has been a glorious one for me. For the last three months, many of the engineers had declared me insane, as I had asserted that I could con- dense, and produce a vacuum under the piston, without ei- ther an air pump or condensing water; but the tables are now turned, and my triumph over those who have illiberally assailed me, is complete. By the next packet you may ex- pect drawings, &c. of my engine; and I[ hope within one short year to take a seat, with my friend Dr. Jones, by the side of a generator, sustaining a pressure of 3000 lbs. to the square inch; for this pressure on the generator is required to produce a working power of 2000 lbs. to the square inch up- on the piston. I have several times mentioned the name of our friend Lukens, who is here, and in pretty good health. He has been introduced to many of the first characters, and is con- sidered as very clever, particularly by one of the greatest philosophers, and best judges of the age. His fame is al- ready high, and is rising, but it must of course require a resi- dence here of some time, for him to be estimated, and remu- nerated, according to his merits. a This letter has been written, a few lines at a time, as I eould catch a spare moment, and sometimes at intervals of several days. You likewise know, that the business of wri- ting is one in which I do not profess to be at home; you will, therefore, I am sure, excuse any maccuracy, or want of con- nexion, which it may exhibit, and believe me to be, Yours, truly,. -Jacos Perkins. 2. Observations on Perkins Improved Steam Engine. By the Editor of the London Journal of Arts, &c. This important invention, respecting which, such conflict- ing opinions have been long entertained, appears to be now assuming a shape that will very shortly determine the points of controversy, (viz.) the question of the perfect safety of the engine ; its actual power ; and the great economy of fuel. Mr. Perkins last patent has passed the Great Seal; his recent improvements may, therefore, with safety now be men- Perkins’ Steam Engine. 49 tioned. The mechanical difficulties against which he has had to contend, in controlling and applymg the tremendous power of high pressure steam, have not only absorbed much more time than he anticipated, but have also demanded a greater outlay of money. The newly constructed engine, to which we have adverted im our preceding number, has been at work for some days, apparently very much to the satisfaction of the few engineers who have seen it. We have been repeatedly present during its performance, and studiously considered its operations, in which we have not been able to detect any fallacy. As, how- ever, we do not mean, at present, to pledge ourselves as to any definite power which the engine is capable of exerting, we shall simply state the manner in which a certain power has been demonstrated in our presence, leaving our readers to draw their own conclusions, from the facts set forth. The fly-wheel is eight feet in diameter, and the steam, working, as we are informed, at a pressure of twenty-seven atmospheres, caused the piston to perform sixty strokes per minute. The periphery of the fly-wheel being pressed upon by.a loaded lever, (called in mechanics,) of the second order. The power exerted by the engine at that time, may be known by calculating the amount of force, or friction, acting upon the fly-wheel. | The lever was a wooden bar, about four inches square, bearing upon the periphery of the wheel at the top. The shorter arm of the lever, or distance from the fulcrum to the. impinging point, where the pressure acted upon the wheel, was fourteen inches ; from thence to the end, that is, the lon- ger arm of the lever was ninety inches. To the extremity of the lever was suspended a weight, making with that of the bar, rather more than one hundred and fifty pounds. From this may be known the actual force overcome, or work done by the engine at that time. By the addition of fifty pounds weight to the end of the lever, the engine labored, but still worked steadily; by the removal of part of the weight, the speed of the engine became nearly doubled. _ The steam, it was said, acted under a pressure of twenty- seven atmospheres, but Mr. P. states that he usually employs a pressure of fifty-six atmospheres, and that the consump- tion of coal per hour, is about half a bushel. Under this pressure of about 800 lbs. upon the inch, the steam is admitted into the working cylinder, and when the. Vou. XIIL.—Noe. 1. 50 Perks’ Steam Engine. piston has descended through one-eighth of its stroke, the in- gress of steam Is shut off and the other seven-eighths of the stroke is performed by expansion. Mr. Perkins’ original idea of substituting pressure for sur- face, in generating steam, (which appears to be the basis of his invention,) has never for a moment been abandoned ; and the invention, if satisfactorily established, must certainly be considered as of the utmost importance, particularly in its first feature, absolute safety, which could hardly have been contemplated in any other plan of boiler, to the extent which this construction evidently exhibits the capability of effecting. From the mode of constructing the compound generator as now adopted, it becomes a safety valve of itself; for the pressure is divided into so many compartments, that any one of them may explode with impunity, without even disturbing a brick of the furnace. Although in the early part of the invention, many explosions took place, without any attending accident, (which served to show the safety of this method of generating steam, as well as to point out the proper way of constructing the generators,) yet for the last two years, it Is said that nothing of the kind has taken place, notwithstanding the steam has been frequently raised to a pressure of above 1500 lbs. to the square inch. To illustrate the safety of this method of generating-steam, let us imagine a few tons of gunpowder to be confined with- in one compartment, and if ignited, the tremendous effect will be readily anticipated ; but let this same quantity of powder be divided into a proper number of compartments, and any one coversant with fire works, would not hesitate to explode it with a match, of not more than a few inches in length. We should not have dwelt so long on this part of the invention, had not the alarm,. from the great number of explosions within the last year or two, not only m this coun- try, but in France and America, created universal terror ; particularly in steam boat travelling ; and the danger of ex- plosion would still be more alarming, since it has been re- cently discovered that the safety valve is of no use, when an explosion takes place from the sudden generation of steam. E We will now mention some of the practical. difficulties which Mr, P. has had to contend with. First, the re-action of this highly elastic steam on the eduction side of the pis- ton, occasioned by its density, and expansive property. Perkins’ Steam Engine. 51 Second, by the creased friction occasioned by the great pressure on the valves. Third, the carbonization of the lu- bricating material, whether tallow, oil, or other fat, which was used for the piston and valves. Fourth, the diffi- culty of preventing the steam from becoming surcharged with caloric, which at times, would be at such an excess, as to melt the joint packings, and heat the steam pipe red hot. The first mentioned difficulty is removed by a very novel method, by which the eduction pipe and valve are dispen- sed with. At the end of the stroke, the metallic piston en- ters an enlargement at that part of the cylinder, and passes three-quarters of an inch below it, leaving sufficient space for the steam to flash out at the dead point, into a tube lead- ing to the chimney, at which instant the vacuum valve [?] closes, and shuts off seven-eighths of the steam, which es- capes up the chimney, and the other eighth, under the pis- ton, is easily condensed by a spray of water, which is after- ward used for generating steam. At the next puff, the con- densed steam, water, and air, are thrown out, and the hea- ted water runs into the cistern of the pump, from whence it is forced into the generator, dispensing with the complicated and expensive air pump, as well as with condensing water. The second difficulty is removed by rendering the employ- . ment of an eduction valve unnecessary; for the induction valve requires to be only one thousandth part of the area of the eylinder ; the power required therefore to lift it, (even if the valve was not so constructed as to neutralize the pres- sure,) would be very little. The third difficulty, which was a very serious one, when the temperature of the steam employed was five hundred pounds upon the inch, is removed by using a metallic piston, made of a peculiar alloy, requiring no lubrication whatever, since it glazes by its working. And as for valves, there is only one little, simple, lifting induction valve, and that, be- ing destitute of friction, requires, of course no oil. Fourth, preventing the steam from becoming surcharged with caloric. This important part of Mr. P’s. invention, we, for certain reasons, are restramed from explaining at pres- ent ; it is however, accomplished, and will be made known when the specification of the last patent is enrolled. _We understand that Mr. P. has taken some orders for his high pressure, safety engines, and guarantees the saving of 52 Perkins’ Steam Engine. half the fuel commonly used, for a given power, the weight not to exceed one third of ordinary condensing engines, and not to occupy more than one-third the space ; with absolute security from the dangerous effects of explosion. ) 3. On the explosion of Steam Boilers; by Jacog Prr- Kins, Esa. It has been generally considered a well established fact, that the caloric of steam, at a given elasticity, is invariably the same, when in contact with water; but this is far from being the case. It may be and often is, so generated as to indicate very high degrees of temperature without a corres- ponding increase of power; so as evidently to prove, that temperature alone, cannot be relied on as a measure of the elastic power of steam. Many experimentalists have thus undoubtedly been led into error, especially in reference to high temperatures. If any part of the boiler which contains the steam be suffered to become of a higher temperature than the water contained in it, from want of a sufficient sup- ply, the steam will readily receive an excess of caloric, and become surcharged with it, without acquiring proportional elasticity. In some recent experiments, I have heated steam to a temperature, that would have given all the power that the highest steam is capable of exerting, which would have been 56,000 pounds to the square inch, if it had had its full quantum of water; yet the indicator showed a pressure of less than five atmospheres. Having satisfied myself, by re- peated experiments, as to the certainty of this curious fact, the thought struck me, that if heated water were suddenly injected into the superheated steam, the effect would instant- ly be, the formation of highly elastic steam; the strength of which would depend upon the teniperature, and quantity of the surcharged steam, and of the water injected. To ascer- tain the truth of this theory, I made the following experi- ments. A generator was filled with water, and heated to about 500 degrees, and consequently, exerted a force of about 50 atmospheres ; but the pressure valve being loaded to about 60 atmospheres, it prevented the water from expanding into steam. The receiver, which was destitute of both water and steam was heated to about 1200 degrees; a small quantity of water was injected into the generator, by the forcing Perkins’ Steam Engine. 53 pump which forced out, from under the pressure valve, into the receiver, a corresponding quantity of heated water, and this instantly flashed into steam ; which from its having igni- ted the hemp cord, that covered the steam-pipe, ten feet from the generator, must have been at a temperature of at least, 8000 degrees, which would be equal to about 800 atmos- pheres ; but, from want of water to give it its necessary den- sity, the indicator showed a pressure of about five atmos- pheres. Whether the pressure of the steam, which was rushing through the steam-pipe, was at 5 or 100, or more atmospheres, the steam-pipe kept at the high temperature before mentioned ; which I attributed to the steam being surcharged whith caloric. ‘The pump was now made to in- ject a much larger quantity of heated water, and the indica- tor showed a pressure of from 50 to 80 atmospheres; the throttle valve beg partly opened, it soon expanded, to the former pressure of about 5 atmospheres. The water was then injected again and again, and the indicator was observed to oscillate at each stroke of the pump, from 5 to between 40, and 100 atmospheres, according to the quantity of water injected ; clearly showing that at this reduced pressure, there was a gréat redundancy of heat, with little elastic force. It soon occurred to me, that to this might be traced the true cause of the tremendous explosions, that suddenly take place, in low, as well as in high pressure boilers. There are many instances, where, immediately before one of these terrific explosions had taken place, the engine labor- ed; showing evidently a decrease of power in the engine. To illustrate the theory of sudden explosions, let us suppose the feed pipe, or pump, to be choked ; in this case, the water would soon sink below some parts of the boiler, which should be constantly covered by it, thus causing them to become heated to a much higher temperature than the water. The steam now being in contact with the heated metal, readily takes up the heat, and becomes surcharged with it.* Since * Practical engineers have frequently witnessed the destruction of the packing of pistons, by their becoming charred, although the steam issuing was in contact with the water, the temperature of which did not exceed 230 degrees. It is very evident, that this steam was sur- charged with heat, and was much above the temperature of the water upon which it was reposing, and in a suitable state to produce explo- sion, had the water been allowed to rise with the steam, by drawing it off faster than it was generated. 54 Perkins’ Steam Engine. caloric will not descend in water, it cannot be taken up by the water which is below it! The steam thus surcharged, will heat the upper surface of the boiler, in some cases red hot,* and will ignite coals, or any other combustible matter which may be in contact with it. If the water which is kept. below the surcharged steam, by the: pressure of it, should, by any circumstance, be made to take up the excess of caloric in the steam, as well as that from the upper part of the boiler, which has become heated above the tempe- rature of the water, in consequence of the water having been allowed to get too low, it will instantly become. highly elas- tic steam, and an explosion cannot be prevented by any safety valve hitherto used. To show how the water may be suddenly brought in contact with the over-heated parts of the boiler, as well as the surcharged steam, it will be neces- sary to state the following facts. — As long as water is not heated above 212 degrees, it will simply boil, and give off atmospheric steam, without the water having any tendency to rise with it; but as it becomes more and more elevated in temperature, its disposition to rise with the steam becomes more and more apparent. As the steam presses on the surface of the water, in the same ra- tio as the water increases in temperature, it only boils with- out rising, as when at atmospheric pressure; but if the steam should be drawn off faster than it is generated, this * Mr. Moyle, a practical engineer from Cornwall, gave me the fol- lowing interesting fact : On going into his boiler room, he observed a ladder, the foot of which rested on the top of his boiler, to be in flames; he instantly as- certained that the top of the boiler, from some cause which he was then unable to determine, had become red hot; with all possible prompt- itude he ordered the fire to be quenched, which probably saved his premises and perhaps his life. Mr. Moyle found, upon examining the boiler when cold, that very little water remained in it. : A stronger case still, was that of an explosion at the iron foundry at Pittsbure, North America. As is the practice in North America, a high pressure engine, of sixty or eighty horse power, was supplied with steam from three separate cylindrical ‘boilers, each being thirty inches diameter, and eighteen feet long. One of these boilers had for some time been observed to be getting red hot; but, as the other two. supplied a sufficiency of steam for the work then deing, it was disregarded, until it exploded. The main body of the boiler separated from one of its ends, at an angle of 45 degrees, and passed off like a rocket through the roof of the building, and Janded about 600 feet from it. Perkins’ Steam Engine. 55 artificial pressure would be taken off, and the water would rise with the steam in proportion to the-suddenness and ra- pidity of its escape. The water and steam in this mix- ed state, thus filling every part of the boiler, the excess of caloric in the surcharged steam, as well as the extra heat from the boiler, will be instantly taken up by the water which rises with the steam, by which means the steam becomes sufficiently dense (or powerful) to produce the fatal effects too often experienced, not only from high, but from low pressure boilers. If for instance, the water (as has before been noticed,) should be suffered to get below any part of the boiler, which is exposed to the fire, the steam will soon become surcharged with heat. If a boiler, thus circumstan- ced, should have the weight taken from the safety valve,* or a small rent be effected in the boiler from its giving way by- the pressure of the steam, an explosion will be sure to fol- low. A remedy for this kind of explosion, which appears. to be the only serious one, is that of not allowing the water * It was stated in evidence at the coroner’s inquest taken at the Humber, in the case of an-explosion on board of the Graham steam boat, that just before the explosion took place, twenty pounds were taken off the safety valve. Now, if the steam in this boiler had been’ properly generated, the relief given to the safety valve, could not have produced explosion; but if the water had got low in the boiler, (as was probably the case,) and the steam surcharged with heat, the ready way to produce explosion, was to allow the steam to escape faster than it was. generating, when kept in the lower part of the boiler by the pres- sure of the confined steam. Several instances have occurred when there has been sufficient war- ning, by the rushing of the steam from a rent or fracture, for the by- standers to escape from injury before the explosion took place. There has been, at least, one case, where tho boiler was raised from its bed, into the air, by the force of the steam issuing from the rent, (upon the principle of the rocket,) before the water had sufficiently expanded by the removal of the steam, caused by the rent or fracture, to take up the heat of the boiler, and the surcharged steam; when an explosion took place after the boiler had been raised many feet in the atmos- phere, and it separated with a very great report, one part rising still higher, while the other was dashed with great force on the ground. It is, | believe, a fact, that more persons have been killed by low, than by high pressure boilers. It is but about twelve months, since sixteen persons were killed by the bursting of a low pressure boiler, in Flintshire. High pressure boilers have since been substituted. Some of the most dreadful accidents from explosions which have taken place in America, have occurred from low pressure boilers. 56 Hazard on the Explosion of Steam Boilers. ‘to subside below any part of the boiler which is exposed to the fire. ‘In case thé water should settle, it may be known by having a tube, with its upper end trumpet-mouthed, and its lower end fixed in the boiler, entering a few mches be- low the surface of the water; then as goon as it subsides sufficiently to allow the steam to blow off, the blast will give warning that no time should be lost in supplying the water or checking the fire.* When highly surcharged steam is rushing from the safety valve, or any other aperture, it may be known by its perfect invisibility, even in the coldest day, nor can it be seen at any distance from the valve or cock ; it is however, condensible ; as may be seen by holding any cold substance initsrange. 4. Facts and Observations, on the bursting of the boilers of Steam Engines. By Erskine Hazarp, Esq., Civil En- gineer.t The frequency of disasters arising from the bursting of boilers, in steam boats, both with high, and low pressure en- gines, makes it the imperious duty of all those who have given particular attention to the subject, to make public any ideas which may throw light on the cause of them, as they may thereby aid in preventing repetition. With this view, I take the liberty of sending you the following explanation, which was given to me by our countryman Perkins. He builds his theory, on the ground that the power of steam does not depend upon temperature alone, but principally upon the quantity of water that is contained in a given bulk of it; in other words that its power is derived from its compression. This corresponds with the experience of the late Col. Alexander An- * This will apply only to low pressure boilers, on account of the height of the column which would be required to balance the pressure of the steam. The high pressure engine as used in Cornwall, would require a column, varying from 60 to 120 feet; and the new high pres- sure safety engine, now coming before the public, would require a column more than four times as high as St. Paul’s cross, to balance the steam. , + This communication from Mr. Hazard, was received a month ear- lier, than that from Mr. Perkins, although too late for insertion in our number for May. The facts and reasoning which it contains, are inten- ded to enforce, and confirm, the theory offered by Mr. Perkins ; we, how- ever, do not apprehend that our readers will object to some repetition, on a subject so truly of vital importance.—Ed. Franklin Journal. ~Hazard on the Explosion of Steam Boilers. 57 derson, who gave me the same theory many years since, and at the same time informed me, that when distilling by steam, he uniformly found the quantity of liquor produced in a giv- en time, to be in exact proportion to the pressure within his still. He hence concluded, that atmospheric steam, confi- ned in any vessel, in such a manner that it could not get an additional supply of water, might be heated red hot, without bursting the vessel, or increasing its power. Perkins states, that he has completely realized this idea, in his experiments. He also mentions a fact communicated to him by Mr. Will- iams, principal manager of the Dublin and Liverpool steam company which was this. The people on board the boat were alarmed, while on their voyage, by the smell of pine smoke, and concluded that the boat must be on fire; but upon searching, they found a piece of pine wood on the top of one of the boilers, which was nearly burnt to a coal; it was in such a situation, that no fire could have communica-. ted with it, except through the top of the boiler. The en- gine at the time, was working with the steam only a few pounds above the atmospheric pressure. Upon mention- ing this circumstance to the captain of one of our Delaware stem boats, he informed me, that the leaden joints of his steam pipe were once melted, when the steam guage in- dicated only the pressure at which they usually worked. In both these cases, the water was so low in the boilers, that the heat was communicated to the steam through a portion of the boiler which had no water in contact with it, and which of course became red hot, while the steam could not part with its heat, downwards, to the water. The repellent power of heat, is the proximate cause of explosion, according to Perkins’ theory. This was one of the principle obstacles he met with in the progress of his experiments on high steam. In his tubular generators, he found it impossible to keep the water in contact with the metal, when a great heat was applied, until he adopted the expedient of the pressure valve, loaded with five atmospheres more than the pressure of the steam. ‘The water was, as it were wire-drawn, or passed through the centre of the tubes in a fine thread, being repelled by the heat of the sides, which increased to redness, and finally destroyed the tubes. To show this repellent power of heat, he made a hole of one-fourth of an inch diameter in one of his generators, and adapted a plug to it, which was removed when that part of Vou. XUT—No, 1. 3 58 Hazard on the Lxplosion of Steam Boilers. the tube became red hot; no steam or water escaped from it, notwithstanding the steam guage indicated a very high pressure ; a wire was introduced into the hole to ascertain that it was free. The generator was then suffered to cool to a black heat, when the steam commenced issuing from the hole with great violence. Another experiment was to heat two cast iron bowls of equal dimensions, the one black, the other red hot, and then pour equal quantities of water into both: the cooler bowl uniformly evaporated the water first. I have frequently noticed very hot pieces of iron, when thrown into a blacksmith’s slack trough, lie red hot for some time under the water, apparently surrounded by an atmosphere of heat, without throwing any steam to the sur- | face. This will never be the case if the tongs be plunged into the water with the hot iron; as their heat, in some part, is only sufficient to raise steam, and not sufficient to prevent the water from coming in contact with them, and through them, with the whole mass successively. From the above facts, Perkins’ explanation of the bursting of boilers, will, I think appear very plausible: it is this; that the water is suf- fered to get so low as to bring a portion of the boiler, not covered with water, in contact with the fire; this becomes red hot, and imparts its heat to the steam; the redness grad- ually extends itself below the water, which is at length repel- led from the boiler, and thrown up among the hot steam, (like a pot suddenly boiling over,) which surcharged steam, immediately imparting its excessive heat to the water, forms steam of the greatest power and occasions the disastrous explosions. In the late accident on board the Oliver Ellsworth, it seems to be impracticable to ascertain what was the state of the water in the boiler; but supposing it to have been at the proper height, may not the motion of the vessel, from a head sea, have left portions of the boiler exposed to the fire, for a length of time sufficient to make them red hot, and the above theory be thus rendered perfectly applicable? Should this be the fact, it appears to me an additional security would be obtained, by having the boiler divided by parti- tions, which though not tight enough to prevent a regular communication from the supply pump, and steam pipe, to every part of the boiler, would still be sufficiently so to prevent the water from rushing, in a body, from one extremity to the other, thus leaving portions of the boiler unprotected fron Perkins’ Steam Engine. 59 the fire. These partitions might be constructed of rough boards in such a manner that they could be removed when the boiler required cleaning, and would rather favor, than retard the process of making steam. The bursting of the boiler of the tna, was attributed to the supply pipe being choked. ‘To this then the theory is perfectly applicable. Your obedient servant, Erskine Hazarp. Philadelphia, April 16, 1827. 5. On the Economy of using highly Elastic Steam Expan- swely ; by Jacos Perkins, Esq.* [See the Plate.] The diagram, figs. 1 and 2, in the plate, will show the economy of using steam expansively, and also the method of compensating for the inequality of the pressure on the piston, which, if steam of 400lbs. to the square inch is used, and stopped off at the quarter stroke, will end its stroke at 100lbs. per inch. The diagram will also show that the velocity of the piston is continually varymg, while the crank is uniform in its motion.} sey, From repeated experiments and much reflection, I am led to believe that there is great economy in using very high steam, and that expansively; that the higher you can prac- tically use the steam the sooner you may cut it off. The di- agram shows the gain in cutting off the steam at quarter stroke. Let the piston, which is represented by the line k. 1 a., fig. 1, descend to 2. 6., being one quarter of the stroke, with a constant pressure of 400lbs. per square inch. At this point, let the steam be cut off and expand to double its volume ; when it arrives at h. c. it will be exerting a pressure of 200lbs. per inch, producing a mean of 300lbs. per inch, through the quarter stroke. Let the steam again expand to double its volume, and the piston will finish its stroke at f. e. at 100lbs. per inch, giving a mean of 150lbs. per inch for _ * The above article is subjoined to that on the Explosion of Boilers, in the pamphlet received from Mr. Perkins.—Ed. Franklin Journal. { Itis not pretended that this diagram is mathematically accurate ; the object being merely to explain to the practical mechanic, in a suf- ficiently clear and concise manner, the principle of the advantage gain- ed by using steam expansively. 60 Perkins’ Steam Engine. each quarter, which add to the other two quarters, 400. 300. 150. 150. and the whole sum will be 1000,* giving an av- erage pressure of 250 per square inch. It will be seen that, when the stroke is completed, the cylinder will be filled with steam at a pressure of 100lbs. per inch, which will be the same in quantity as though the steam had begun with a pres- sure of 100lbs. per inch, and continued all the stroke at that pressure. By using the same quantity of steam expansively, beginning at 400lbs., there is a gain of 150 percent. If the steam is used at 600lbs. per inch, and cut off at one-eighth of the stroke, 225 per cent. will be the gain. To compensate for the unequal pressure of the steam on the piston, two cyl- inders should be used, particularly for steam boats and pump- ing, where the fly should be dispensed with. With the fol- lowing arrangement, it will be seen, that while one of the pistons is at its greatest power, the other is acting with a di- minished power. The piston 1, fig. 1, in descending from a to 6, moves in the same time through only half the space through which the crank moves, as will be seen by its path from 1 to 3. A force of 400lbs. is exerted on the square inch (that being the pressure of the steam,) in the first quarter of the stroke: at this point the steam is cut off leaving the other three-fourths of the stroke to act expansively. ‘The piston 1, fig. 2, hav- ing completed half its stroke, when piston 1, fig. 1, begins its stroke, and consequently a compensation, near enough for all practical purposes, takes place. It will be seen, that while the piston 1, fig. 1, has perform- ed one-fourth of its stroke, that the piston 1, fig. 2. has mo- ved from c to 6, performing seven-sixteenths of its stroke in the same time. The mean in each quarter, from c to e, fig. 2, bemg 150lbs., the amount of. pressure to be added to the first quarter of the stroke of the piston, fig. 1, (which was 400lbs.) is 275lbs., producing an available power of 675lbs. at this part of the stroke. The piston, fig. 2, now moves but two-sixteenths of its stroke from 6 to e, and f te 8, while the crank moves through two of its divisions, from 6 to 8, which would, in another part of its path move (with- in a fraction,) with the same velocity as the piston. The * If the steam had continued the whole length of the stroke at 400lbs. per square inch, the sum would have been 1600lbs. consuming four times the steam with the addition of only 60 per cent to the power. Perkins’ Steam Engine. 61 piston, fig. 2, in moving from 6 to e, gives a power of 25lbs., being the last of the expansion which ends at 100lbs. per inch. The piston, fig. 2, in moving from f to 8, being the beginning of the stroke, gives a power of 100lbs.; thus a power of 125lbs. will be acting on the piston 1, fig. 1, while moving — from b to d, giving a power of 475lbs. to which add 125, will show a power of 600lbs. at this part of the stroke. The piston 1, fig. 1, now descends from d to e, being the last quar- ter of the stroke, giving 125lbs. of power to act with the pis- ton 1, fig. 2, while moving from 8 to h, giving a power of 600lbs., add to this the 125lbs. and it will give a power of 725lbs. at this part of the stroke. The piston 1, fig. 1, now begins its stroke of 400lbs. per inch at f, and continues to g, with the same power, while piston 1, fig. 2, moves from fh to 12 giving a power of 300lbs. to be added to the 400lbs., ob- tained at the first quarter of the stroke of the piston 1, fig. 1, at f and g, producing at this part of the stroke, 700lbs. of power. The piston 1, fig. 1, now moves from g to 2, giving a power of 475, while the piston 1, fig. 2, moves from 12 tok and a to 2, giving a power of 125, which add to 475, gives a power of 600 at this part of the stroke. The piston 1, fig. 1, now moves from to 1, being the last quarter of the stroke, giving a power of 125lbs.,while the piston, fig. 2, moves from 2 to c, producing a power of 600; to which add 125lbs. will make 725lbs. at this part of the stroke. By this arrangement, it will be seen, that a compensation is obtained, giving a more equable power than that which is produced by the single engine, whether high or low pressure, since it is well known, that at two points of the revolution of the crank, the power ceases, during at least one-twelfth of the time, which is the reason that so large a fly wheel is ne- cessary. It is particularly applicable to steam boats, and may be used to-great advantage in the double pump, as well as the balance-bob lifting pump, used in Cornwall for mining purposes, by the use of proper gearing. ‘The present single stroke expansive engines, used in Cornwall for pumping, are preferred to all others, on account of their economy, al- though they are very limited as to the extent of the expansive principle, for want of compensation, as nearly the same power is wanted to finish the stroke of the pump, as to be- gin it, The variation of the velocity of the piston, occasioned by the compound motion of the crank, and connecting rod, is 62 Perkins’ Steam Engine. not taken into view in this diagram. As the connecting rod is intended to be four diameters of the path of the crank, the variation will make no practical objection, being, at its greatest value, but one-thirty-second part of its range. If the engine should be worked by a connecting rod, as is sometimes the case in steam boats, say only one diameter of the path of the crank, the variation at each end of the stroke, would amount to a practical defect, since the piston would move with nearly three times the velocity at the low- est quarter of the stroke, that it would at the first quarter. Thus circumstanced, the crank must be above the cylinder. As the law of expansion seems not yet to be settled, an arithmetical expansion has been used for this diagram, which, from its approximation to the real law, will be quite near enough for practical purposes. Many who are of the school of Tillock and Wolf, believe that the expansive power of steam depends upon heat only; while the Soho experiments are said to prove that elasticity depends simply on density, without regarding temperature, viz., that if a cubit foot of steam at atmospheric pressure, weighs one ounce, 50 at- mospheres of steam would weigh 50 ounces; but Dalton, who is undoubtedly much nearer the true law, would make 50 atmospheres weigh but about 34 ounces. ; I have no doubt that the nearer the atoms of water are made to approach each other, by compression, the greater will be the repulsive action of caloric, and that, m a more rapid ra- tio than has hitherto been allowed, especially in highly com- pressed steam. Its comparative density with the increase of power, diminishes faster than has been supposed even by Dalton. 6. Perkins’ Steam Engine. We have seen this engine repeatedly in action since our last notice of it, and to all appearance giving great satisfaction to those who have visited it; there has not, however, yet been exhibited any demonstration of the actual amount of power which it is capable of exerting, nor do we consider that its present situation, in Mr. Perkins’ factory, is at all favorable to such an experiment. The public must, therefore, for the present, be satisfied with such inferencial proofs, of its ca- pabilities, as may be drawn from a consideration of the amount of friction exerted upon the fly wheel, by the weight- ed lever described in our former report. Perkins’? Steam Engine. 63 We have seen a testimonial given, for some private pur- pose, by several respectable engineers, whose names howev- er, we do not feel ourselves at liberty to publish without au- thority. It was to this effect: “ We, the undersigned, having made ourselves practically acquainted with Perkins’ high pressure safety steam engine, do not hesitate to state, that he has established the following new and important facts in the construction of his engine. Ist, Absolute safety. 2d, Greater economy in fuel than in any other engine hitherto invented. 3d, ‘The removal of all the re-action of the steam, and atmospheric air, on the eduction side of the piston, without the necessity of an air pump. 4th, A new and simple flexible metallic piston, re- quiring no oil, or lubrication, whatever. 5th, A reduction of three fourths of the weight and bulk, by very much sim- plifying certain complicated parts of steam engines, and. sub- stituting a very simple eduction valve, for the one commonly: used both for eduction and induction. By which means, a reduction is made in the size of the engine; a saving of pow- er is effected, and a diminution of friction ; less wear and tear eccur, and less destructibility of materials. And lastly, the joints, by Mr. Perkins’ peculiar mode of connecting, are more easily made secure, and tight, even with the steam at the pressure of 1000lbs. to the square inch, than the joint of the low pressure condensing engines.” This is all the information, that we are at present enabled to afford upon this interesting subject; the specification will not be enrolled until September ; we shall then take the ear- liest opportunity of laying the invention before our readers, with all its details, andin the mean time should any further information transpire, we shal] not allow it to pass unnoticed. Newton’s Journal, ( London.) Believing that Mr. Perkins and Mr. Hazard have, in the preceding pages, insisted on the principal cause of the explosion of steam boilers, and being convinced that the effectual prevention of these horrible ca- tastrophes would be a great blessing to mankind, and would remove the only important objection which exists against the general use of steam power, it is with particular pleasure that we introduce to our rea- ders the following communication from Mr. Doolittle. We have seen the working model, and cannot discover any defect either in the princi- ple cr practical operation of the machinery. Such is the opinion also of an eminent mathematical and mechanical philosopher who has exam- ined the instrument.— Editor of the Am. Journal. 64 Doolittle’s Hydrostat. Art. VIII.-—Description and specification of a Hydrostat, or apparatus intended to secure a constant and uniform supply of water in Steam Engine Boilers ; by Isaac Doo- LITTLE, of Bennington, State of Vermont.* Let a stop cock be placed in the feed, or supply pipe with- in the boiler, so as to admit or intercept the passage of wa- ter to the boiler at pleasure ; let a pinion be adapted, and se- cured to the prolonged axis of the stop-cock, let a floating body of convenient shape be placed within the boiler ; to this body attach a vertical stem having a ratchet on one side to gear into the above mentioned pinion ; let it be so geared that when the water is at its proper height the cock shall be closed and no more water admitted; but as soon as the quantity of water in the boiler shall be in any degree dimin- ished, the floating body will descend with the surface of the water, and as it descends the ratchet will open the cock and admit a fresh supply. It is evident that the weight and vol- ume of the floater must be proportioned to the effect inten- ded to be produced: it is probable that the plano-convex form will be most eligible ; as the segment of a sphere, with * BENNINGTON IRon-Works, April 28, 1827. Benjamin Silliman, Esq. New Haven. My Dear Sir,—Some two years since, when the boiler of a steam boat collapsed on the Hudson, I communicated to the editor of the Troy Centinel an idea which occurred to me of a method for preventing sim- ilar accidents in future, if, as seems now to be the general belief, those accidents are justly attributable to the want of a sufficient quantity of water in the boiler at the time of their occurrence. I am not informed that any person has applied that idea to practice ; and the late lamentable accident on board the “ Oliver Ellsworth,” has led me to reflect more on the subject; and feeling, as I do, perfectly sure that the very simple piece of mechanism which I have contrived, and which can be applied, with very trifling expense, to any of the boilers now in use, must and will fully answer the purpose for which it is inten- ded, viz. to secure a constant and uniform supply of water in the boiler, as Jong as the engine is at work. I have determined to apply for a pa- tent for the improvement; and I now send you a copy of the specifica- tion, with a sketch of the apparatus, which, if the subject matter seems to you as important as it does to me, I beg you will insert in your Jour- nal. _ Tam, Sir, with high respect and esteem, — 2 Your obedient servant, I, DooxirTLe, Doolittle’s Hydrostat. 65 the convex side downwards ; its specific gravity should be such that not more than one half or two thirds of its volume shall be immersed. At any convenient place on the feed or supply pipe, between the forcing pump and the boiler, let there be adapted a vertical waste-pipe, at the top of which there might be a valve loaded with a weight greater, per square inch, than the expansive force of the steam intended to be used, so that, whenever the stop- cock shall be opened, the waste valve shall be closed and the water forced into the boiler, and when the cock is closed, the waste valve shall open at each successive stroke of the for- cing pump, and allow the surplus water to escape into a pipe arranged for the purpose of conveying it away from the en- gine ; it will readily be seen that the supply pump must al- ways be kept working when the engine goes, and must force a quantity of water somewhat greater than is required to sup- ply the boiler. If the above apparatus is to be applied on board steam- boats, where it is feared the agitation of the water in the boiler, caused by the motion of the boat, should derange the operation of the floater, let the floater be surrounded by a sort of cistern which shall be secured to the bottom and ex- tend to near the top of the boiler, which cistern shall have a small opening near the bottom and be entirely open at the top, the pressure of the steam within and without the cistern being equal, the general level would be maintained within, while the smallness of the lower aperture would prevent any sud- — den influx or eflux of water from raising or lowering the floater more than that general level would require. ‘The stem of the floater should be continued through the lower or convex side, and traverse a guide so placed as to answer the double pur- pose of keeping the stem in its proper place, and of preventing the floater from sinking lower than to open the entire aperture of the cock, the top of the stem may also pass through a guide to preserve its position, or the verticality of the stem may be maintained by any other of the methods now used for preserv- ing parallel motion. Instead of the ratchet and pinion, a chain and counter weight may be used, or the stem of the floater, may be at- tached to a crank on the axis of the stop-cock, though I think the former method preferable. I do not claim, as new, any single or detached part of the above apparatus ; but I do claim as new the combination and Vou. XITI.—No. 1. 9 66 Mr. Barnes on the Doubiful Reptils. application of the several known mechanical principles here- in described, to effect the object above specified. I. DooxiTTie. Bennington Iron Works, April 24, 1827. ee Art. [X.—WNote on the doubtful reptils, by Danie H. Barnes, in a letter to the Editor. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. New-York, July 12, 1827. Dear Sir,—Since the publication of the paper on ‘ Batra- cians,’ in the 11th volume of your Journal, the question con- cerning the maturity of several of our reptils which were for- merly “doubtful,” seems to be settled. The Axolotl is ac- knowledged to be mature, and the Proteus of the Lakes is no longer a larva, as indeed was proved before the publication of that paper. On the subject of the Proteus some new light has lately been shed, which it is the principal object of this letter to communicate. When I visited Lake George and Lake Champlain two years ago, I made very particular inquiry after the “water Lizards.” They are not found in Lake George, but a water- man there gave me information that they were caught at the falls of the Onion River, in Vermont. By asking a variety of questions on other subjects, I satisfied myself of his intelli- gence and accuracy, and I went to the falls with strong hopes of obtaining Schneider’s animal. I inquired for fishermen, and was directed to one who was deemed expert. He in- formed me that he had very often caught six or seven in a night. As it was not the proper season, I engaged him to search, and if possible, obtain the animal for me. This in- formation I communicated to my friend Mr. G. W. Benedict, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Vermont, and the following extract of a letter, lately received from him, will show that he has pursued the subject to a very gratifying result. Buruineton, Juny 6, 1827. Dear Sir, I received early in the spring a copy of your paper on the doubtful reptiles, for which I thank you. As to the specimens Mr. Barnes on the Doubtful Repiils. 67 of the Proteus which you hoped to receive from *Chiotte, I fear you will be disappointed, at least for thisseason. I went to see him yesterday, to learn whether he had been successful in his endeavors to obtain some of them. He said that he had spent several days in fishing for them, both at the falls and at the mouth of the river, but had caught none, nor did he think it probable that he should succeed before nextspring. Another fisherman, early in the season, caught seven in one night, which were sent to me by a gentleman at the falls, whom I requested to obtain some for me, if practicable. I kept these alive several days: but from their confined situation, (all of them having hooks in their stomachs with lines attached,) I could learn little of their habits. I have thought a few re- marks on their_appearances, both exteriorly and interiorly, as appeared from the dissection of one of the largest, might not be unacceptable, especially if you have never seen any alive. I would notice, in the first place, that the figure in Silliman’s Journal does not well represent the animal, in several parti- culars. 1. The color of the living subject is very different. The grgund color on the sides and back is bluish gray, but so thickly spotted with minute dull yellow spots as to appear, at a little distance, grayish-yellow—the belly approaching nearly to white. Spots of dirty blue considerably darker than the ground and about one fourth of an inch in diameter, are scat- tered all over, usually without any regularity, though occa- sionally presenting rows. On immersing them in alcohol, the color of the abdomen is so altered as to approximate, (though not very closely,) to the figured one above referred to. 2. The forehead is much flatter in my specimens, than is represented. 3. The eyes, (black,) are distinctly on the side of the head and far apart, nearly twice as far as appears on the plate. A, The appearance of the branchiz is totally different. Those figured in the Annals of the Lyceum are pretty well ~ drawn, but the filaments are longer in the living animal and more expanded. These tufts were of a DEEP AND SPLENDID crimson. The alcohol destroys the color entirely, and in one specimen which, (apparently from the wound of the hook,) was nearly dead when I received them, the color was much like the ground ofthe body. The animal keeps these in mo- * The Fisherman. 68 Mr. Barnes on the Doubtful Reptils. tion AS AFIsH Dogs ITS GiLLs. In bringing them down fo tie neck, the filaments are brought pretty close to the fleshy branchie, on elevating them the fimbriz dilate and float, as it were, in the water, presenting, from the beauty of their co- lor and gracefulness of their motion, AN APPEARANCE BEAUTI- FUL BEYOND Description. ‘The largest specimen was thir- teen inches in length, the least abouteight. * * * * * I would notice that in the figure in the Annals of the Lyceum, the head is sharper, that is, the snout is narrower than in those which I have. The general appearance indicates a more active animal than the appearance and movements of my specimens would authorize. On dissecting one of them precisely thirty-eight vertebers were discovered, nineteen of which belong to the back and neck. I notice this particularly from your having dwelt on it in your interesting paper. Professor Sweetser of the Medi- cal school dissected it for me. There is no indication of the vitta from which the specific name was given. It seems to me that if that character is not general it would be well to change the name. oe With much respect yours, Gro. W. Benepict. The letter from which the foregoing extract was taken, was written with a modest apology that it might possibly interest me, and was not intended for publication; but, as it contains important information which the scientific world ought to pos- sess, I know the author’s goodness will pardon me for giving it the present direction. Here then we have authentic information, from a source that will put the subject beyond a doubt. Schneider’s animal came from Lake Champlain. Here seven are caught in one night. Schneider’s animal was discredited, and believed to have been mutilated. Here two Professors of the University watch the motions of the living animals for several days, and then dissect one of the largest, which in every material point exactly comcides with the published description of the Pro- teus Lateralis. On the subject of the name I agree with Professor Benedict, that it should be changed. Dr. Mitchill has latterly called it Proteus Macutarus, which, asit is a good descriptive name and comes from the right source, Iam disposed to adopt. (See vol. xi. p. 287.) Mr. Barnes on the Doubtful Reptils. 69 Ampuiuma Tripactyta. Cuvier. Cuvier has lately described a new species of Amphiuma which he calls Amphiuma tridactyla, from its having three toes. It came from America. He repeates the remarks made in this Journal vol. xi. p. 296, that others will probably be discovered ; and the remark on p. 297, that, prejudice apart, they are all good food. I confidently expect another species of Siren, and the “long black water lizard” of Lake Champlain, mentioned in vol. xi. p. 287, of which I had as good information as of the Proteus Maculatus in the Onion River where, as above stated, it has since been caught. I hope Professor Benedict and his learned associates will pur- sue the search, and fully explore the interesting and produc- tive regions bordering on the Lakes in their vicinity. Protronorpsts Horripa. Barton. Concerning the “ Menopoma” I am convinced that the name of Dr. Barton has, and of right ought to have the pre- ference. He had the animal very finely figured, and first made it known to our naturalists under the name of *“ Proto- nopsis horrida.” By Protonopsis we understand an animal hike the Proteus. Whether the name is a good one or not, we stop not to inquire, but simply remark that the two ani- mals were generally confounded until Capt. Le Conre’s pa- per on the Siren striata, was published, in the Annals of the New-York Lyceum of Natural History. For the suggestion of this correction I am indebted to Professor Jacob Green of Philadelphia. ‘The error arose from the difficulty of obtain- ing specific information from the papers of Barton, which were published in a fugitive form, and have long been out of print. This difficulty is now obviated by the direct and posi- tive testimony of one of the most accurate naturalists of this country. Itis as above stated, and the animal must hereafter be called Protonoprsis Horripa, of Barton. ° s = Siren Lacertina. Linné, Garden. The question, concerning the respiration of the Siren, and its congeners, is still agitated. Cuvier has expressed an opinion that they have a double set of respiratory organs. Professor J. A. Smith, of the Medical College in this city, is of opinion that all the blood of the animal passes through the * See Vol. xi. page 278, of the Am. Journal of Science and Arts. 70 Mr. Barnes on Magnetic Polarity. tufts of the branchiz; but by others this is doubted.. Capv. Le Cowrs has dissected a large Siren alive, and has actually seen the expansion and contraction of the lungs in the act of respiration, just as in the frogs and tortoises ; and he has also made a beautiful preparation of the lungs, by inflating them with air and drying them in that state. They are true lungs and not merely azr-sacks, and their connexion with the heart and arteries was distinctly observed. This is an important fact, and it will be duly appreciated, and placed to the credit of that very accurate observer, to whom, in various ways, natural science is already so much indebted. _ It is hoped that the learned Professor of the University of Vermont who dis- sected the Proteus Maculatus, as mentioned above, will, by the dissection of a number of living specimens, finally settle this long contested and doubtful question. He has, what very few other competent persons can have, the means at hand, and we hope that zeal and industry will not be wanting. Your cordial friend, D. H. Baryzs. Art. X.—WNotice respecting Magnetic Polarity ; by D. H. Barnes. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. New-York, April 16, 1827. Dear Sir,—Professor Eaton’s demonstration, of the fact. that the fitful variation of the compass is caused by the mag- netism of the card, gave us great pleasure, and the simple and efficient remedy which he has found, is no less honorable to himself than beneficial to the community. Mr. Patten, of this city, had discovered the same fact in a compass which he had proscribed as unsalable, and laid by as useless. Trying this compass with its proper needle, we observed that in turning the compass slowly and steadily around, there was one point to which the needle would cling, until the compass was turned full ten degrees. ‘The needle would then start off, suddenly, to the proper point, and traverse cor- rectly until again interrupted by the pomt of attraction in the rim. ‘The same compass was then tried with a short needle which lay perfectly still, and pointed with the utmost exact- ness, while the compass was turned entirely round. While Mr. Barnes on Magnetic Polarity. 71 trying these experiments, Mr. J. Dodge of the Western High School of Rochester, took the (iron?) window bar which lay near it, and placing it perpendicularly found that the lower end was a north pole. He inverted the bar and was surprised to find the same result, that is the poles were in- stantly changed by invertmg the bar. He invited me to try the experiments with him. I did so, and after verifying the fact of the instant inversion of the poles, by the change of the position of the bar, I was led to inquire at what degree of elevation this change takes place. ‘There must be some point at which the poles first become inverted and there must be some neutral point, or medium between polarities directly opposite. The idea struck me so forcibly that I im- mediately set about a series of experiments which produced the following results. Experiment 1. An iron bar was laid on the meridian ‘due north and south. . Result. It showed strong polarity. Exp. 2. The south end was raised to the Zenith. Res. No change took place. The needle at the bottom was steadily attracted as before. Exp. 3. The top of the bar was carried over from the Ze- nith to the north point of the horizon. Res. The needle was inverted. Exp. 4. The north end of the bar was raised to the Zenith. Res. The needle was inverted. If then the bar, raised from the south, traverses through 180 degrees, and becomes inverted ; and the same bar rai- sed from the north, traverses through 90 degrees and be- comes inverted, the changing point must divide the difference ; accordingly, | Exp. 5. The north pole was slowly raised, in the progress of which the needle quivered, became unsteady, and at 45 degrees was inverted. Again if the needle is inverted at 45 degrees there must be a neutral point and this again must divide the differ- ence ; accordingly, . _ xp. 6. The north end of the bar was raised to 221 de- srees; Res. And it exhibited no signs of polarity, being from end to end simply an attracting point to either end of the needle. - Exp. 7. The bar was laid due east and west, or at right angles to the meridian. 72 Mr. Barnes on Magnetic Polarity. Res. It exhibited no signs of polarity. I anticipated the next conclusion, that the change of po- larity would divide the difference between 45 degrees.and the commencement of the scale ; accordingly, Exp. 8. Giving the compass to Mr. Dodge and holding the instrument to measure the angle, I raised the bar from the east 221 degrees and said without looking at it “now the needle is inverted.””. “ True,” said he, “ so it is.”” The curious and interesting result then is, that a plane elevated from the north, at an angle of twenty-two and a half degrees, and cutting the horizon in a line due east and west, is a neutral plane or magnetical equator, and that a bar revolved on this plane shows no polarity, and if the bar makes with this plane on the upper or south side any angle equal to twenty two and a half degrees or greater, the low- er end is the north pole; and if the bar makes on the under or north side of the plane, a less angle with the plane of the horizon than the magnetical equator makes, the end which touches the equatorial plane is the south pole. Whether these results are uniform in various parts of the world, or whether there are such lines as magnetical tropics, on each side of the magnetical equator, as the above results seem to to intimate,—whether the magnetical equator is the same in different latitudes, or varies its position according to latitude, future experiments must determine. Dr. Gilbert has mentioned the fact that opposite ends of an iron bar equally affect the magnet, and in the same way, and he accounts for the fact by supposing that the earth magnetises the bar instantaneously. Is then the common remark, in the books, that a bar becomes magnetic by long standing in a vertical position strictly true? And will not any such bar instantly change its polarity by being inverted ? Should any of these facts or experiments appear to your- self to be new or useful, they are at your service for publica- tion in your valuable Journal. , Yours most truly, D. H. Baryes. We learn from Mr: Barnes, that at the time of writing his paper, he had not seen the remarks in our last number, (page 232,) signed, A Surveyor. He considers them as a covert and improper attempt to depreciate a valuable discov- Mr. Quinby’s reply to Mr. Blake. 73 ery, and as conceived in an improper spirit. In inserting them, we were not impressed with any other idea, than that @ practical man was urging a fair criticism respecting an in- novation requiring great caution, and which was therefore a proper subject of examination. We trust that it will be the means of producing additional experiments, and that in the end, the cause of truth—which should be the great object of all our labors, will be promoted.— Editor. July 20, 1827. Art. X1.— Reply of Mr. Quinsy to Mr. Blake’s criticism on his demonstration of the Crank Problem. To the Editor. Sir—In answering the criticism of Mr. Blake, in the recent number of your Journal of Science and Arts, on the demon- stration which I gave of the crank problem, it is only neces-. ‘sary to point out two misrepresentations which he has made in the remarks he has offered. ; At page 341 he says, “ But it appears from a part of Mr. Qujnby’s reasoning, the truth of which is admitted by his opponent, that when CD represents the whole degree of force exerted by the shackle bar on the crank, or, which is the same thing, (the shackle bar being perpendicular,) the whole degree of force exerted by the steam on the piston, then CG represents the mean tendency to rotation in the crank which that force produces.” In the reasoning, to which Mr. Blake refers, it is demon- strated that when CG, (not CD,) represents the. “ tendency which P has to produce rotation,” CG also represents the **mean tendency which P’,=P, has to produce rotation in de- scending in the arc ADB.” The second misrepresentation, which Mr. Blake has made, is in supposing that the whole force and the mean force are applied at different distances from the centre. In the demon- stration which I gave I reduced the problem to the case of the simple Pully, (or wheel and rack,) and supposed the whole force and the mean force to be applied at the same point G. Since I reduced the problem to the case of the simple Pully, (or wheel and rack,) and in that case considered the space through which the power moves, it is plain that the demonstra- tion which I gave is not liable to the objection which Mr. Blake has stated. ‘The demonstration, however, would be equally Vor. XITI.—No. 1. 10 74 Mr. Quinby’s reply to Mr. Blake. satisfactory if nothing had been said about the space through which the power moves; for since the problem is reduced to the case of the Pully, and the mechanical power of the Pully is known, it was unnecessary, (for the purposes of the demon- stration,) to mention the space through which the power moves. My reason for mentioning the space through which the power moves, was merely to show, to those who are not well acquainted with mechanics, what is understood to be a case in which there is no loss of power. Whena machine is reduced to any of the simple mechanical powers, it is then known that there cannot be any loss of power; and it would be unnecessary to repeat what every tyro in mechanics al- ready knows, that in all the simple mechanical powers, what is lost in force is gained in space ; and what is lost in space is: gained in force. | , : A. B. Quinsy. June 14, 1827. Note.—In the demonstration which Mr. Blake has given, he has compared the “whole degree of force exerted by the shackle bar on the crank,” with the “mean tendency to rota- tion in the crank which that force produces.” The “ tenden- cy of a force to produce rotation,” is the product of that force and the distance at which it acts from the centre of motion. The things, therefore, which Mr. Blake has compared are not of the same kind; and he has fallen into the very error of which he accuses me. The quantities which are compared in the demonstration which I gave are, “tendency of P to produce rotation,” and “mean tendency of P to produce rota- tion.” These are of the same kind. At page 339 he says, * Another [power] will drive a body against a resistance ten feet ;’’ this he states contains but two attributes; but can a body move ten feet without occupying some portion of time? and if it occupy any portion of time, does not this example contain the three attributes ? How then does Mr. Blake find the same difference between this example and the third, that there is between a square foot and a cubic foot! : A. B. Quinsy. Answer to Mr. Quinby. 73 Art. XII.—Answer to Mr. Quinsy. To the Editor of the Am. Journal of Science and Arts. Sir—The absence of argument in Mr. Quinby’s reply, (in the last number of your Journal,) to my examination of his discussion of the crank problem, is so evident, that had not misrepresentation been used, I should not have desired to be. heard in defence of the principles asserted in that examina-. tion. That such has been the case will appear in the course of this paper. I will first notice what Mr. Quinby says relative to my de- monstration of his failure in an attempt to prove the incorrect- ness of a principle assumed by Mr. Ward as applicable to the crank problem. Mr. Quinby says “the writer next undertakes to demon- strate that,im my reasoning to prove that the principle assum-. ed by Mr. Ward is incorrect, I committed an oversight, which altogether destroys my ‘demonstration of the crank problem,’ and then gravely adds, “But on this subject, I may re- mayk, that there is no connexion between my strictures on the principle assumed by Mr. Ward and my ‘demonstration of the crank problem.’” No such remark as that attributed to me occurs in the course of my examination. The words which close the paragraph, in which Mr. Quinby’s strictures -on Mr. Wards principle are criticised, are these: “ and the. remaining part of Mr. Quinby’s demonstration, founded upon this assumption can be of no avail:” what demonstration? certainly not that of the crank problem, but the “ demonstra- tion founded upon this assumption,” (see Vol. XII. No. 1,) clearly the very one under consideration, namely, Mr. Quin- by’s attempt to demonstrate that the principle assumed by Mr. Ward is incorrect. Next Mr. Quinby admits that he failed in his attempt to prove the incorrectness of Mr. Ward’s principle, but is amused that the author of the examination should have fallen “into an error much greater than the one he is endeavoring to correct :” in a note he says, “ It is pos- sible that the writer of this examination intended that the terms of these proportions should be taken alternately. In that case his demonstration would be true.” Here it is only necessary to state that Mr. Quinby was furnished with a copy of those parts of the errata of Vol. XII. No. 1, which apply to my communication, and in which this very error is noted 76 Answer to Mr. Quinby. and corrected: he knew that the terms of the proportions were intended to have been written alternately and not in the form in which they appeared, and should not have taken advantage of such a mistake to have avoided the acknowl- edoement, that his error was pointed out : had he received no correction of these proportions, the remarks which followed them would have been of themselves sufficient to have shown the intention of the writer of the examination. No credit was claimed by me for the discovery of an error which re- quired but a slight knowledge of Plane Geometry to detect. The next paragraph of Mr. Quinby’s reply contains a de- monstration of the incorrectness of Mr. Ward’s proposition: the paragraph closes in this way, “therefore the principle assumed by Mr. Ward is not correct, and my proposition, which the writer of this examination asserts is mcorrect, is true :” no such assertion is contained in my examination, the words used in relation to this proposition are these, “ but first let me remark upon the manner in which Mr. Ward’s propo- sition, relative to the crank, is treated by Mr. Quinby”—the manner,—it did not enter into my plan to touch upon Mr. Ward’s proposition further than to expose Mr. Quinby’s er- ror in his manner of treating it. Mr. Quinby then takes the equation 6R=Pz, (in which & represents the effective force, R the radius of the crank wheel, P the power applied to the crank, x the perpendicular from the point of application of the force to the vertical diameter of the crank,) given in my examination of the crank problem, to the mode of solving which, he objects; he observes, “ In the equation $R=Pz, he, (the author of the examination,) has two variable quantities ; and he supposes one of them to be equal to a constant quantity,”—not so,—in the equation éR=Pz, © and x are variables, R the radius of the crank is a constant, and P, by the terms of the question, is considered as a constant force applied to the extremity of the radius of the crank wheel; then © must vary with x, and must have its mean value when z is a mean: this was the mode used to solve the equation and to find the mean value of ©, and to this mode I can see no objection. Mr. Quinby further says: «“ The equation, however, which he,” (the author of the ex- amination,) “has given, will solve the problem; and gives the same result as that which I gave in my demonstration ; for smce $R=Pz, and this for any position whatever of the crank, it is plain that there can be no loss of power, for if Sketches of the Geology &c. of Alabama. 77 there be a loss of power, there must be a loss at some point ; but there isnotaloss at any point, and therefore there isno loss of power :” certainly, “there must be a loss at some pomt,” the equation shows that loss; 6R=Pxz, gives -= axh bis being less than R at all pomts except the extremities of the horizontal diameter of the crank wheel, ~ must be a fraction R at all other points of the revolution, showing clearly a loss of power in transmitting it by the crank. By examining this equation $R=Pz it will be seen that from the dead points where x=o and of course =o, © goes on increasing until x=R at the extremity of the horizontal diameter, which re- sults correspond plainly with the case in practice. Mr. Doolittle, (see his letter in the last number of the Journal,) will be convinced that his equation P x.6366 xsemi- circumference = X diameter, does not apply to this ques- tion, if he will consider that it has been proved that the case in practice may be resolved into one in which the shackle-bar shall remain vertical, and the power be applied to every point of the circumference of the wheel, giving the equation P x .6366 X% semi-circumference =® X semi-circumference, or &—P x.6366, the same given in my examination as showing a loss of more than one third the power applied. Arr. XIII.—Sketches of the Geology, &c. of Alabama ; by Wim 8. Porter, in a letter to the Editor. Tue Alabama river is navigable for steam boats to the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa. A few miles above this junction the rapids commence on the Coosa, and con- tinue at intervals for sixty miles. These rapids are all pas- sable for boats durmg high water, and an engineer has re- ported that by opening the river it may be made navigable at all seasons of the year. Above these rapids, the river is deep, smooth and perfectly navigable for two hundred miles, to near its source in the valley of the Tennessee river, a nav- igable branch of which, almost communicates with it. The Coosa passes through an extensive valley, known by the name of the Coosa valley. Whether this valley is interrupt- ed at the rapids by mountains I am unable tosay. If so, the 78 Sketches of the Geology, &c. of Alabama. elevation cannot be great, for waggons which pass from the valley to the market towns on the Alabama, carry as heavy loads as those that pass through only a level country. The engineer also reported that a canal might easily be made around the rapids, which would not probably be the case if there were mountains crossing the river. From these facts, and from the nature of the country which I saw. some twen- ty miles west, I conclude that the primitive mountains termi- nate east of the Coosa river. From the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa, the Alabama river pursues a westerly course one hundred miles, or about fifty, in a direct line to Cahawba. The banks are very high, more than fifty feet above low water, to which height the river often rises in the winter. The banks when they present a recent surface, ex- hibit a beautiful appearance, striped with alternate layers of gravel and different colored clays. The clays commence about twenty feet above low water. The layers are of dif- ferent thickness from one inch to several feet, and of various colors, from red and deep blue to a delicate white. The white is sometimes so pure, that the people use the substance for paint. The gravel stones in this region are mostly very small. Two specimens resembling flint, I picked up among the pebbles. Beautiful shells, of which I send you specimens, are found particularly in the islands of the river, and some which I saw are large and exhibit a most mag- nificent play of colors. I intended to have procured some of the finest, but owing to ill health, I was prevented. ‘The specimen of limestone is from the prairies nearly west from Cahawba. Much shell limestone is found in the region some distance south. Salt springs are found about halfthe distance from Cahawba to Mobile, from which much salt of a superi- or quality is made. Leaving the Alabama river in the cen- tre of the state, and proceeding north towards Huntsville, the country is somewhat hilly with few rocks to be seen for forty-five miles, where is a hill of large boulders of granite, but none in place. The first rock in place is seen at Wil- son’s Hill fifteen miles farther north. Here we find the com- mon secondary gray limestone. For the next seventy miles, the country is mountainous or rather hilly, with elevations of three or four hundred feet above the valleys. The lime- stone continues associated with sandstone of different shades of red and gray. For the next sixty miles to the Tennessee river, the country is level, but very elevated ; rock, almost Animadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, Gc. 79 exclusively sandstone. The descent to the Tennessee valley, is about a mile in length, and very steep. On the side of the mountain the rock is chiefly limestone. The valley of the Tennessee here extends into the state of Tennessee. It is a beautiful, fertile and highly cultivated country, in the midst of which, is the flourishing and beautiful village of Huntsville. In the south part of Tennessee south from Nashville there are high mountains of limestone on some of which are the most stately cedars. On the tops of some of these mountains and also on the tops of the mountains in Alabama, we find occasional ridges of very recent clay slate. The specimens of petrified shells 1 send you, were taken from a hill about thirty miles north from Nashville. The slate decomposes and turns into clay, and the shells tumble to the bottom. Yours, Prof. Struma. Wiiiam 8. Porter. Art. XIV.—Animadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial on the Upward forces of Fluids, and on his “ reply to Dr. Jones, in the Franklin Journal ;” by Tuomas P. Jones, M. D., Editor of the Franklin Journal, and Professor of Mechanics in the Franklin Institute, of the State of Penn- sylvania. ‘°° THE BASELESS FABRIC OF A VISION.” To the Editor of the American Journal of Science and Arts. Sir—Editors, it appears, are sometimes “not only witty themselves, but the cause of wit in others.” ‘Thus it seems that a note of yours, called forth the reply of Mr. Genet to my remarks on his Essay ; and I can assure you that but for the importance given to the subject of that memorial, by its analysis in your Journal, I should have spared myself a very large proportion of the labor which I have now undertaken ; but when even “airy nothings” obtain “a local habitation and a name,” they derive from this circumstance, an arti- ficial importance which no other could have obtained for them. The readers of your Journal are informed through the medium of Mr. Genet’s communications, that | have, in the Franklin Journal, controverted this opinion of that gentle- 80 Animadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, &. man as presented to the scientific world, in his “ Memoria! on the Upward Forces of Fluids ;” but, in making a further appeal on this subject to public opinion, it is so manifestly desirable that both parties should be heard before the same tribunal, that I feel assured you will allow me to occupy a few of your pages for that purpose. I agree perfectly with you sir, that the legitimate end of controversy is the discov- ery of truth, and that in conducting it, personalities ought to be avoided; should I not in this communication steer more clear of these, than has the gentleman to whom I am replying, I shall only add one other to the numerous proofs, that we are very indifferent judges where self is a party. Mr. Genet has, in your Journal, brought against me sun- dry charges, of some of which I deem it necessary to take notice, as the Franklin Journal is not in the hands of many of your readers. I am not so vain as to expect to convince Mr. Genet that he has himself committed the error which he ascribes to me, but I may, perhaps, succeed in proving this to “impartial judges.” In speaking of my first notice of his works he says, (vol. 11, p. 102.) “But I find, that excep- ting a few additional acerbities, and ungenteel allusions to my advancing age, the Editor has,” &c. The following is the only passage in my Journal, to which it is possible he can allude. “ We were, however, unwilling to interfere with the whimsies, and to disturb the reveries, of a very respecta- ble man, who, probably has cherished fond hopes of this child of [his] old age; it was the more unpleasant to us, as we have had some personal knowledge of the gentle- man, and have respected him highly.” (Franklin Journal, vol. 2, p. 44.) Few persons, I apprehend will find in this language, acerbities and ungenteel allusions. It is conce- ded, on all hands, that there is a legitimate use of ridicule, and that this weapon is very properly employed against ex- travagance, fanaticism and presumption; not only in reli- gion, but on all other subjects. ‘ Need I cite examples to show, that men in many respects intelligent, have propound- ed the most absurd doctrines, and supported the most ri- diculous projects, particularly on the subject of Mechanics ? Such instances are too numerous and too well known to re-' quire exemplification.” We might at once pronounce the man no mechanical philosopher, who should pursue the phantom, perpetual motion, yet he might be, not only a ve- ry good man, but on other subjects a very wise man. Anmadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, Gc. 81 It was my first design to treat the whole scheme as whimsical, unphilosophical, and indeed as ridiculous; and the more I have examined it, the more perfectly I have been convinced that this is the only correct mode of treating it. My reason for now departing, in some degree from this de- sign, may be collected from my preliminary remarks. In the reply of Mr. Genet, contained in the last number of your Journal, there are several expressions, which, as they are similar in character, I will group together, that the reader may judge whether I may not retort one, at least of the charges brought against me. “'The aspersions of my censor, and his uniform subversions, misnomers, and cur- tailments.” “The sneers of Dr. Jones.” “ Dr. Jones gar-— bles, when he says that I call a vacuum a gas.” “ The de- nomination of gaseous fluids, which I have given to steam, and not to the vacuum, as the Doctor very unfaithfully quotes it.” ‘ Less conceited appellate judges,” et cum mul- tis alus. These charges would be indeed formidable, were they not deficient in the essential property, correctness. I have certainly curtailed because I have not quoted the whole book, but I have not either garbled, subverted, or unfaithfully quo- ted; neither have | intentionally misrepresented the author’s meaning in a single instance. That Mr. Genet should be displeased with my manner of treating his views is perfectly natural; as he undoubtedly, has the most perfect confidence in them. The more ex- travagant the theory, the less likely its advocate to be con- vinced of its fallacy ; but although an individual may be in- curable, the spreading of his disease may be prevented. Mr. Genet may probably recollect, that about seven- teen or eighteen years ago, a number of gentlemen liy- ing in Albany, and some of them very learned men, united to build a boat, to be propelled by the motion of a pendulum, urged. by the strength of only three or four men. ‘This was to supply the place of a steam engine. A certam Mr. Letton, was the inventor of the scheme; and certain intelligent civilians, and other gentlemen of worth and standing paid fort. In the Athens of America, our sage and wary members of many learned societies, were fain to hang their harps upon the willows, after having sung the praises of Redheffer’s perpetual motion, and without claiming inspiration, I fear not to prophesy, that a similar Vou. XITI—No. 1. 11 82 Animadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, &c. termination will be witnessed, in the Commercial Emporium, should its citizens be induced to become “associates for the essay of an hydronaut.” I am aware that in every controversy carried on in a Jour- nal, it is necessary to be as brief as the merits of the subject will allow; I will therefore, at once proceed to notice some of the observations of Mr. Genet in his last ‘ Reply,’ and will afterwards attempt a short analysis of the principal projects brought forward in the ‘Memorial,’ which has given rise to this disquisition. In doing this, I shall, without an effort, avoid gatbling and misrepresentation, and should I eall the “submissive philosophy” of Mr. Genet into action, it will neither merit, nor receive my sneers; for, although he may identify himself with his schemes, I shall carefully separate the two ; and, indeed, were it not for the respectability of the former, the latter would not have received any public notice from me, however they might have answered for the amuse- ment of an idle hour. The claims of Mr. Genet, to the important discovery of ap- plying the “ Upward Forces of Fluids” as a motive power, in propelling machinery, and to various other useful purposes, have been made known to a very considerable extent, by his friend Dr. Pascalis, in Vol. XI,.at page 339, of your Journal; to this article, with the accompanying plates, I must refer those of your readers who do not possess the Memorial itself; as with the aid of the quotations which I may make from the latter, the merits of the controversy will be readily ascer- tained. ; In page 212, 213 of your last number, Mr. Genet has quo- ted from the Franklin Journal, my animadversions on his de- scription of the vis motrix of the steam engine, and proceeds, through two or three pages next succeeding, to state the great amount of information on this subject which, in the year 1784, he derived from conversation with its great improver, Mr. Watt, “all which,” he says, “is perfectly present to my memory, my mental retentive faculties bemg preserved, by the invigorating exercise of a laborious country life.” Tt must be confessed that the extent of information which he displays, accords with his own history of its attainment, and does great credit to a reccollection of between forty aud fifty years standing; the very reverse of credit, however, would be due toa man who professed to have obtained his knowledge of the engine in the ordinary way, from books, and observation. Animadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, Gc. 88 were his information as meagre as that of our author. The : 2 5 5 99 palpable errors committed by Mr. Genet, in his “ Memorial, are followed, in his “ Reply,” by others equally palpable. It may be said, that although the existence of these errors should be admitted, they do not affect the merit of his own inventions; but let it be remembered, that this merit is altogether gratui- tous, that Mr. Genet has attempted to run a parallel between his hydronaut and the steam-engine, without understanding the operation of the latter, and that there is but little proba- bility, that one whe has, manifestly, not only forgotten what he must once have known, but who has ceased for forty years, to keep pace with the improvements in mechanical and chemi- cal science, and their practical application, will present the world with any of those great discoveries, which involve a long train of reasoning, and-correct theoretical and practical know]- edge. In the race of improvement, the starting point should be the goal at which others have arrived. aide I have asserted that Mr. Genet is not acquainted with the structure, and operation of the steam-engine, and it is incum- bent on me to prove the correctness of this assertion ; unfortu- nately for my opponent he has rendered this task perfectly easy. In his “ Reply” p, 316, after detailing a portion of the information which he received from Mr. Watt, he says, “ None of the subsequent improvements were omitted by Mr. Watt, to show the gradual progress of the steam system of mechan- ics, and reach his own improvement ; in the first place, upon the open ended cylinder, in which the expansive force of steam was employed to raise the piston, which in its fall, after the destruction of the steam, as I have stated it, became, under the pressure of the atmosphere on the piston, and the weight of the said piston, the available force. And in the second place, upon the tight cylinder which is constructed in such a manner, that on one side, instead of the atmosphere, the steam is made to press on the piston, whilst on the other side the cylinder is open to the condenser. «This summary description of the two different modes of guiding and using the power of steam, improved in succes- sion by Mr. Watt, and which have both their respective ad- vantages and disadvantages, and are both in use, will, I pre- sume, Sir, satisfy you and your readers, that, in the critique of the parallel which I have drawn between the operation of the steam-piston in an open cylinder, and my hydrostat, equally placed in an open cylinder, Dr. Jones has proved 84 Animadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, &c. either his ignorance of the difference between the open ended cylinder, practically called the atmospheric engine, and the tight cylinder, called the double acting engine, or that he has purposely selected the complicated operation of the double acting engine, in which the pressure of the atmosphere is no more used, or of the high pressure engine, (in which, on ac- count of its overwhelming force, the pressure of the atmos- phere is not taken into account, and the cylinder is left open to the air,) for the unfair purpose of showing that my paral- lel was incorrect, and my definition of the steam-engine inju- dicious. Had he known, or candidly considered, that in the open ended cylinder the direct force of the steam goes only to raise the piston, and that the expansive force of that steam being condensed, the vacuum created determines the fall of the piston, under its own weight and the incumbent pressure of the atmosphere, equal, on every square inch of the area of the piston, to 15 pounds, he would not have asserted, ‘ that. the pressure of the atmosphere and the weight of the piston were not necessary to Mr. Watts’ engine, and served only to abstract from its power.’ «There is in reality no pressure of the atmosphere in Mr. Watts’ double acting engine,* which Dr. Jones has here in view. But if there is none, how can it abstract from its power? And again, if the piston works in the vacuum, as Dr. Jones has told us it did, what difference can its levity or its weight make in its power, if in vacuo, according to New- ton, the gravitation of a feather and of a ball of lead, com- pels them to obey, with the same speed, the proportionate force that draws them towards the center of the earth?” Some of those who know me intimately, will smile at the idea of my being charged withignorance upon the subject of the steam engine, by one who could write such paragraphs as those just quoted. But it must be remembered that this is from the pen of one who “is not a philosopher of common stamp,” a member of several learned societies, and one who has been the pupil, and the associate, of men who have great- ly enlarged the boundaries of science ; who have illuminated the world by their discoveries. Let all this have its proper weight, as #-appears to form one of the strongest points in the argument of my antagonist. Mr. Genet says that “ Dr. Jones has proved, either his ig- * Except on the area of the section of the piston-rod.—Ed. Aniiiudversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, ¢:c. 85 norance of the difference between the open ended cylinder, practically called the atmospheric engine, and the tight cylin- der, called the double acting engine, or that he has purposely selected the complicated operation of the double acting en- gine, for the unfair purpose of showing that my parallel was incorrect, and my definition of the steam engine injudicious.” Had this paragraph been penned by some injudicious friend to Mr. G. I should have been inclined to have exonerated that gentleman from the tissue of error which it involves ; but itis from his own pen, and must, therefore, be treated ac- cordingly. Let us first. ascertain who selected the double acting en- gine, as the subject of comparison, for the unfair purpose of showing the parallel to be incorrect. In page 61 of his me- morial, in the very paragraph in which Mr. Genet runs the parallel, he says, “Now let us examine if by mechanical means, we can avail ourselves of the upward force on an hy- drostat, with as much advantage as Mr. Watt has availed himself of the downward force of the piston, and weight of the steam engine, to procure the rotatory motion, so ingeni- ously and successfully applied by Mr. Fulton to navigation. But before I avail myself of the Hydrostatic power to accom- plish that object, as I intend to proceed step by step, (pari passu,) in a parallel line with the steam engine, I must first settle a perfect balance of forces between us, and take as a pattern one of the largest boats plying on the Hudson, for example, the Chancellor Livingston.” That Mr. Genet supposed the engine on board the Chan- cellor Livingston, and the other boats on the Hudson, to be acted upon by atmospheric pressure, is evident, and this cer- tainly gives a degree of consistency to his remarks, although without this admission they would be altogether inexplicable. Will Mr. Genet inform me in what part of the United States I can see an atmospheric engine? Will he point out any en- gine, in any part of the world, in which Mr. Watt has availed himself of this power? or of “the downward force of the piston, and weight of the steam engine, to procure the rotatory motion” ’—The fact is, that one of the earliest im- provements of Mr. Watt, and one made long before he had contrived the double acting engine, was the abandoning, alto- gether, the employment of atmospheric pressure, as a motive power. Yet notwithstanding this fact, which Mr. Genet might undoubtedly have learned from many volumes in his 86 Animadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, é-c. own library, hear what he says, “ The two different modes of guiding, and using, the power of steam, improved in suc- cession by Mr. Watt, and which have both, their respective advantages, and disadvantages, and are both in use.” &c. &e. I do not suspect that this is “unfair” on the part of Mr. G. or that he has intended to deceive, but I certainly do think that he “has proved his ignorance of the difference between the open ended cylinder, practically called the atmospheric engine, and the tight cylinder, called the double acting en- gine ;” and also that he is entirely ignorant of the structure of Watt’s single acting engine, which requires a tight cylin- der; that is, a cylinder closed at top, with the piston rod passing through a stuffing box, just as in the double engine. I presume that Mr. Genet once knew the action of the old atmospheric engine; but if he did, he has now forgotten it. His description of this, is equally incorrect with his account of those of Mr. Watt. When attempting to point out my ignorance, or want of candor, he says, “Had he known, or candidly considered, that in the open ended cylinder, the di- rect force of the steam goes only to raise the piston, and that the expansive force of that steam being condensed, the vacu- um created determines the fall of the piston under its own weight, and the incumbent pressure of the atmosphere, equal on every square inch of the piston to fifteen pounds, he would not have asserted, ‘ that the pressure of the atmosphere, and the weight of the piston, were not necessary to Mr. Watt’s engine, and served only to abstract from its power.’” Cer- tainly sir, all these things, I did not know, and I candidly, or rather confidently, aver that they are not facts. Had this description of the engine been intended as a travesty, its suc- cess would have been perfect. I scarcely know how any one could contrive to thread a greater number of errors, on a string of the same length. The direct force of the steam does not go to raise the piston ; the steam merely balances the pressure of the atmosphere, and the piston is raised by a weight sus- pended to the opposite end of the beam, which weight 1s con- siderably heavier than the piston itself. The piston does not « fall under its own weight, and the incumbent weight of the atmosphere,” but, on the contrary, a considerable portion of the pressure of the atmosphere, is expended in raising the heavy counterpoise of the piston. The critique which follows, serves to confirm, fully, this gentleman’s want of information upon the subject which he undertakes to discuss. “There Animadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, &-c. 87 is, in reality, no pressure of the atmosphere in Mr. Watt’s double acting engine, which Dr. Jones has here in view. But if there is none, how can it abstract from its power? And again, if the piston works in the vacuum, as Dr. Jones has told us it did, what difference can its levity, or its weight, make in its power, if m vacuo, according to Newton, the gravitation of a feather and of a ball of lead, compels them to obey with the same speed, the proportional force that draws them towards the center of the earth?” Here, by fair infer- ence, the fallacy, that the pressure of the atmosphere ope- rates, in Watt’s single acting engine, is repeated. We are also asked, how the air of the atmosphere can abstract from its power !—Will not the air pump, which is absolutely ne- cessary to its action, and which consumes no inconsiderable portion of the power of the engine, answer this question for me? Has not Mr. Genet himself answered it, in the following quotation from the very page on which he makes the inquiry? “The air that remains, or that is formed in the cylinder after the condensation, or the air which enters the steam-vessels, with the condensing water, and the gas, air, or steam, which f6rces itself between the piston and the sides of the steam- vessels, let the collar through which the piston-rod must work, be made ever so tight and close, cannot be drawn out, or excluded, entirely, and will always, in all kinds of engines, oppose a gradual decrement to the descending power of the iston.” The philosophy of the concluding question, is much more modern than that of Newton, or of any other philosopher with whom we are acquainted, with the exception of Mr. G. Newton never confounded momentum and velocity together, but taught that the former was compounded of velocity, and quantity of matter. Where in his Principia, his Optics, or in any other of his works, has he said, that a feather and a large mass of metal, such as the piston of a steam engine, would weigh alike, or descend with the same force, in vacuo? Real- ly sir, it seems that there is more than one person in the world, who might be benefitted by being “condemned to to study again, his experimental and mechanical philosophy.” “ Dr. Jones garbles, when he says that I call a vacuum a gas, and the vapor of water atmospheric, but he has not even suspected that I consider atmospheric air as a compound gas.” I did not anticipate this charge of garbling, as I gave the whole sentence in Mr. Genet’s own words; and if this be 88 Animmadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, dc. to garble, I do not understand the meaning of the word. { certainly might misinterpret, when an opinion is obscurely expressed ; in which case, I should wish to be corrected. The following is the paragraph in question. “How does the steam. engine perform that operation, how does it create that vis motriz, that moving force, which is the mechanical life of the machine? By the alternate increase and decrease of tem- perature, which produces in the cylinder, two kinds of fluids, the one gaseous, the other atmospheric, by means of which the piston nses and falls.” Now it so happens that when the engine is in operation, there is a vacuum on one side of its piston, and steam on the other; it follows, therefore, that if Mr. Genet does not call a vacuum a gas and the vapour of water, atmospheric, he, of course, calls the vacuum, atmospher- ic, and the vapour of water, a gas ; and from his explanation, the latter appears to have been his meaning; but as I was not aware, that he supposed all steam engines to be atmos- pheric, I was unable to construe him correctly. It is certainly very “clear, that atmospheric air itself, is a gas;” and as- suredly, I would not suspect, that he who has had Condorcet, Bailly, Lavoisier, Sage and Brisson, for his masters in Chem- istry, Mineralogy, and Philosophy, and who was the intimate of Watt, and of Priestley, would consider it as a simple gas; but what are Mr. Genet’s peculiar views respecting its com- pound nature, he has not informed us. It may be thought that I have extended my remarks, on the errors in Philosophy, and the want of information on the na- ture of the steam engine, which Mr. Genet so constantly exhibits, beyond the requisite limits; but this prolixity, has appeared to me to be necessary, in consequence of the confi- dence with which that gentleman has pronounced his opin- ions; it has also, I think, been imperiously called for, by the charge of ignorance which he prefers against me ; whilst, for himself he claims a competent knowledge, obtained “ by fre- quent observations, made on board of our steam boats, and in our steam engine manufactories, on the origin, progress, and improvements of the steam power, and the theory of eri- form fluids,” and declares, (p. 315,) that he obtained “ from Messrs. Watt and Boulton, and particularly from the first, not only the most extensive information, on the great improve- ments which had been made, in applying the gigantic power of steam, to almost all the arts; but also on its beginning, and history, all which is perfectly present to my memory.” Here Animadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, §-c. 89 are claims to information and knowledge, which ought, surely, to have been amply sufficient to have sustained him, calm and unmoved, amidst all my “ aspersions, unfair subversions, misnomers, and curtailments;” but it has been an easy, though by no means a pleasant task to show, that these high claims are preferred by one whose knowledge is limited to the action of the old atmospheric engine, and, that even in . this, it is altogether imperfect. I had been led, by a friend, to anticipate a very formidable reply to my former strictures on Mr. Genet’s work. Although I was fully aware that the ground taken by that gentleman was untenable, yet | confess that I did expect from him some- thing more imposing than the ‘ Reply’ before me. Feeble as it appears to me, it yet covers considerable space, and although I have not attempted to notice one half the errors which it contains, my animadversions have already swelled out to an undesirable extent. I proceed, therefore, to make some re- marks upon Mr. Genet’s projected improvements, and will endeavor to do so without provoking another quibble on his art. ; ol cannot better describe the claims of Mr. Genet than by quoting the words of his friend, Dr. Pascalis, who, on this subject, has fairly identified himself with Mr. Genet, although this gentleman states, that in speaking of his ‘Memorial,’ the Dr. has only “claimed for its author, on a subject entirely new, a suspension of censure, and condemnation, until the whole scheme could be matured, and rectified, by actual ex- periment.” Let us, however, hear the claims, in the words of the Dr. himself, and learn if they are thus limited. In Vol. XI. p. 112, of your Journal, he says, ‘“ Mr. Genet un- dertakes to apply the zrostatic power to the raising, or lowering, of canal boats, on an inclined plane, between a water level, and a higher level, with or without water. He will propel boats en a high level, destitute of water, and lower them to a water level. He can raise or lower carriages on rail ways, from one level to. another—relieve steam boats, stranded or grounded, &c. Combining also erostatic and hydrostatic powers, he can raise or lower canal boats, to or ‘from a high vertical altitude; raise vessels stranded, and other heavy bodies, from under water, also on land, by means of hydrostatic cranes. He can direct how to prevent ships from sinking, &c. and finally, he will protect, or guard steam boats, against snags, sawyers, shoals, and rocks.” Von. XTIT—No. 1. 12 90 Animadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, gc. And “TI can call spirits from the vasty deep,” but then they will not come when I do call them; and I apprehend that, unless the voice of Mr. Genet be seconded by means more eflicient than those presented in his memorial, he will find that matter is, sometimes, as disobedient as spirit. The basis upon which the assumptions of our author are built, is, that there is a force in fluids, which urges them in a direc- tion contrary to that of gravity: and that m consequence of this upward force, and independently of the general laws of atmospheric pressure, the motion of a balloon, im ascending, is accelerated as the atmosphere grows lighter, and its pres- sure is decreased. And that this Upward force or “ force of levity,” has been entirely overlooked, or neglected.—Caloric, or the matter of heat, is assumed to be this principle of levi- ty; it is said that it “gives levity to ponderosity, changes the laws of gravity, and denotes by its tendency to reascend to its center of circulation, that gravity is not a positive, but a ne- gative force, that it is not an active, but a passive agent.” These are “the new natural powers, put in requisition,” and for the application of which, Mr. Genet has obtained a PATENT. I have looked, in vain, for a single fact, tending to prove the correctness of these assumptions ; they stand therefore, in the same predicament with the assertion that, two and two make five; and it certainly would not be deemed wise to enter into an elaborate argument to disprove such an asser- tion, merely because some estimable, but wrong headed in- dividual had made it. The “ Preliminary principles, facts and authorities,” (Memorial p. 12 to 22,) furnish no data whatever in support of the existence of his “ New natural power,” but contain, with the exception. of many of those errors in philosophy, which are so thickly scattered over his pages, a number of admitted facts and principles relative to specific gravity ; atmospheric pressure; pressure of water ; zerostatics ; mechanical powers, &c. It was in this part, if any where, that we ought to have been informed, why bal- loons, if made air tight, should not, after they have reached that point where they shake off their mundane coil, obey im- plicitly the principle of levity, by which they are elevated, “tending to reascend to its center of circulation,” the sun, and fly off to that luminary. Why the atmosphere itself, and all other gaseous bodies, should not rise from the surface of the earth, and, borne upward by their specific levity, seek the Animadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, &c. 91 same center of circulation. Mr. Genet has repeatedly com- plained, that those who have opposed his views, have made assertions without offermg proofs, but, excepting to one in his novitiate, it would be idle to attempt to offer proofs in support of principles generally received. It is Mr. Genet who has failed in this particular; he has boldly attempted to es- tablish a new principle of specific levity ; has denied the uni- versality of gravitation; has declared that gravity is not an active, but a passive agent; and made many other assertions equally vague and fallacious, and seems to expect to sustain himself in so domg, without advancing a single step in that rigorous course of experiment, or induction, which true phi- losophy demands. Plate 1st, in the Memorial, and in the analysis by Dr. Pas- calis is a representation of an @rostatic elevator to raise and lower canal boats, on an inclined plane. 'The force to be ap- plied, is the ascent of an air balloon, (an e@rostat,) which when allowed to ascend, is to draw up canal boats, by means of a rope fastened to the bottom of it, and passing through a sheeve, or pully, and thence up to the periphery of a large wifeel, thirty feet in diameter. A pit is dug, at the bottom of which is the laboratory in which the hydrogen gas is to be prepared ; the aforesaid pully, &c. Over the whole, a build- ing is to be erected, sufficiently extensive to contain the large wheel and its appendages; and sufficiently high to allow of the ascent of the @rostat. “In reference to the building and its dimensions, if an ascension of 90 feet, producing 900 feet distance, equivalent to 90 locks, was really wanted, the alti- tude from the bottom of the pit, to the top of the cupola, ought to be 96 feet, allowing six feet under, to attend to the balloon and gas.”” (Memorial, p. 29.) The balloon, accord- ing to the estimate made, if covered with sik, and forty-five feet in diameter, will possess an ascensive force of 3236 Ibs. ; and a canal boat with its load, is estimated to weigh sixty tons. Waving all remarks upon the total ineligibility of the power proposed to be applied as the first mover, as there is little danger that any engineer, or mechanician, will make an essay of it, | will repeat the question which was originally asked by the Editors of the Boston Journal, “‘ But why not use the de- scendent force of a leaden weight, as well as the ascensive force of an air balloon?” a question which it has not been convenient for Mr. Genet, or his friend, to answer. The bal- 92 Animadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, de. loon after it has ascended, is to be drawn down again ; I beg pardon, “ recalled down;” and, I will here ask another ques- tion; how much less power will recall it down, than that which it exerted in its ascent? and why not use this power to draw up another boat, without troubling the balloon? In calculating the power requisite to draw a boat of sixty tons, up a plane with a rise of one foot in fifteen ; Mr. Genet estimates it at 3200 Ibs. Now I had understood, though, to be sure it was according to the exploded philosophy, that in order to sustain a weight upon an inclined plane, the power which sustains it, must bear the same proportion to the weight, which the perpendicular height of the plane bears to its length ; and that consequently in the contemplated plane, it it must be equal to one fifteenth of the load of sixty tons, that is 8,000 lbs. instead of 3,200. ; a trifling difference this, and easily obviated by enlarging the house, the balloon and the laboratory, to considerably more than double their capacity ; but even then, the whole will be at rest, as we have yet to overcome friction, and to give motion; to effect which, an- other addition must be made to the power, which shall in- crease it to about four times the estimate. The foregoing is, comparatively, a slight deviation from correctness, as will appear upon examining the operation of the wheel thirty feet in diameter, and, in the round numbers of Mr. Genet, ninety feet in circumference. The rope or chain, which is to draw up the boat, is to pass over a drum or drums, of twenty feet in diameter, or sixty in circumfer- ence ; the large wheel is to drive a pinion on the drum shaft, and give to them fifteen revolutions for one of the large wheel so that the periphery of the drums will travel through 900 feet, whilst that of the large wheel travels 90, and of course, if the balloon be allowed to ascend 90 feet, it must draw the boat 900 feet. It is rather an mverted procedure in mechanics, to drive a pinion, by a wheel of fifteen times its size ; but the object to be gained is very great indeed ; no less than to cause a power of 3236 lbs. moving through a space of 90 feet, to raise 60 tons to the perpendicular height of sixty feet. According to the exploded philosophy, 80,000 Ibs. or twenty-five times the amount assigned in the Memorial, would just balance the sixty tons. How mighty are the Upward forces. i For the mode of filling the zerostats, znstantly, with the coal gas, Dr. Pascalis refers to the Memorial : anxious to learn how Anmadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, Gc. 93 to do this, I carefully examined the work, but alas, it was in vain. “ To propel boats on a high level destitute of water, and to lower them to a water level,” is the next scheme ; it is the child of the former and resembling it in so many of its features, may be dismissed in a few words. ‘There are to be rail-ways, with balloons and buildings, fixed as before, for raising the boats to a summit level; other balloons are to be placed, with | similar appurtenances, at suitable distances from each other,’ these, in their ascent, are to draw the boats along; after which, the balloons are to be successively “recalled down,” that they may renew their labors. “ To relieve steam boats stranded, or grounded.” The boats are to be furnished with empty balloons, which are to be filled instantly of course, with “ignited air,” cooled by passing tt through water, and with coal gas; which gases, we are told, are, in general, dissipated without any ad- vantage. Coal gas in the chimney of a steam engine! This is a discovery of Mr. Genet’s, which his masters in chem- istry and philosophy never dreamed of; they would have look- ed there for carbonic acid, and nitrogen, and would have expected to find but little else; and with these they never would have thought of filling zrostats, excepting to promote the art of sinking. Passing over various applications of the same means, we come to the “ applications of the erostatic and hydrostatic powers combined.” Mr. Genet has performed some experi- ments, by means of an instrument, which he calls an hy- droaerostatometre ; a hollow tin vessel filled with air, and of the capacity of half a cubic foot. By the use of this instru- ment, he professes to have ascertained, that, using the old French standard, of 70 lbs. to the cubic foot of water, the upward force of the instrument, when immersed in water, was 100 lbs. for every cubic foot. Although this is 30 per cent. more than could be obtained by any other philosopher, we may let it pass, as this difference will add but little to the ef- ficiency of his machines. The hydroaerostatometre, gives birth to the hydrostat, which, in principle, is the.same with the erostat, substitu- tig copper for silk, atmospheric air for hydrogen, (or for - carbonic acid, and nitrogen,) and water for atmospheric air. The hydrostat, is, mm fact, a copper vessel filled with air, and is to he used “ to raise, or LowER, vertically, canal boats. 94 Animadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, &. toa HIGH ALTITUDE.” (Memorial, p. 39.) This copper vessel, is, in the example given, to be a spherical balloon of fifteen feet in diameter, and it is said, will contain 15,000 feet of air, and allowing the 30 per cent. before given in, and reckoning nothing for the weight of the copper, the chain, &c. is to be pressed by the upward force of water, with a power of 150,- 000 Ibs. or 75 tons. This copper ball is to be placed in a well into which water when wanted may be admitted. This well if to be 16 feet broad, and. thirty feet deep; in this, the Aydrostat is to be capable of rising to the height of ten feet, and by means of a rope or chain, like that of the @rostat, is to raise a canal boat, weighing seventy-five tons, to the height of one hundred feet; its power being increas- ed ten fold, by causing a wheel to turn a pinion ;}, of its di- ameter. Comment and reasoning are here unnecessary, to those who would be capable of understanding them. Passing over several applications of this new. power, as they are mere variations of that just given, I proceed to the hydronaut, in which it is to be used as a substitute for the steam engine. It will be seen from the remarks of Mr. Ge- | net in his ‘ reply,’ that I had selected this as the pricipal ob- ject of notice, in the Franklin Journal, for January last. | beg leave to repeat a part of those observations, and to add a few-others on the same subject; but first let us hear our author speak for himself. (Memorial, p. 62.) How can I procure the same alternate motion of the hydrostat? By immersing it alternately in two different fluids, air and wa- ter ; but as a single hydrostat could not accomplish-that ob- ject, and procure an alternate motion, rapid enough to per- petuate the rotatory motion, two must be employed; and by doing so, there will be no disparagement between the steam and the hydrostatic engine; since it is well known that it has been found necessary to introduce two cylinders. in the steam engine, to perfect the rotatory motion, and re- plenish the deficiency of a single cylinder.” Mr. Genet, as usual, errs when speaking of the steam engine, it being “well known” that, although two cylinders have been sometimes used, it has not been found necessary to introduce them “ to perfect the rotatory motion, and replen- ish the deficiency of a single cylinder ;” and that they have been abandoned, in nearly every instance, excepting in the loco-motive carriage. This gentleman is perpetually haunt- ed by the ghost of the atmospheric engine, and must in his ‘ Animadversions on Mr. Genet’s Memorial, gc. 95 numerous observations, have mistaken the air pump, for a second steam cylinder. My reason for selecting the hydronaut as the object of my former animadversions, was, because, of the whole series of proposed machines, this is the most absurd. In the oth- ers, although totally inadequate to the production of the intended effects, there is a capacity for motion; but in this, there is no’ principle of motion, whatever ; if there were, it would be, to all intents, a perpetual motion, in the ordinary acceptation of that term; it is to operate without the ap- plication of any extrinsic force ; no fuel is to be expended, no springs to uncoil; no weights to descend ; no animal power, wind or running water to be used; nothing in fine but the principle of alternate, absolute levity. The thing is simply to be suspended in air, and water; is there to commence running, and to “navigate until it is stopped.” When a man undertakes to construct a perpetual motion, and at the same time thinks himself a philosopher, we must leave him to himself; and if it be thought worth while to treat the sub- ject with any degree of seriousness, it is only for the sake of the confessed tyro. For the description of this apparatus, as given by Mr. Genet, I must refer to the memorial, or to the plate and analysis of Dr. P.in your Journal. I have thus described it, in the article already referred to. “The proposed moving power of the hydronaut, consists of two hollow copper vessels, called hydrostats ; they are to be cylindrical, with conical ends, perfectly closed; these are to be suspended upon a beam, twenty four feet long, resembling that of a steam engine, and are to hang below it similar to a pair of scales upon their beam. These hydro- stats, are to be contained within two cylinders, which stand under the beam, and in which they may freely rise and fall, when the beam vibrates. These cylinders are to be open at top, and to have a valve in the bottom of them, to open a communication with the water in the river; by some means, (what means we cannot discover,) water is to be made to ‘flow, alternately, in and out of these cylinders ; that which contains water, will have the hydrostat immersed within it, forced up by its buoyancy, that at the opposite end, being allowed to descend, in consequence of the removal of the water; and so on, ad infinitum. 'The machinery by which it is intended to remove the water, is to be worked by the 96 Volcanos. 131 “‘'[he observed instances of eruptions from the sea are indeed few in number. Our author mentions those off St. Michael, one of the Azores in 1638, 1720, and 1811; of Santorini, and the Isola Nuova, in the Archipelago; another off the coast of Iceland in 1782; and one amongst the Aleutian islands in 1814. But, on reflection, we must conclude, that the weight of the water above the vent, and the refrigerating effect of its contact, must, in all cases, condense the escaping volumes of steam, and prevent their rising to the surface, and rendering the eruption visible there, except when the orifice of the volcano has been raised by the accumulated products of repeated eruptions, to within a short distance of that level; so that numerous eruptions may be con- tinually taking place within the depths of the ocean, without our being aware of their occurrence in any way. ‘There is no rea- son for concluding such eruptions to proceed in any very different manner from those which are subaerial. The expansive force and temperature of the lava must be extreme, and proportioned . to the great excess of the repressive force occasioned by the pressure of the supported column of water. The lavas, when emitted, will therefore, from the intensity of their temperature, and the resistance opposed by this dense medium, to the exu- dation of the confined vapor, retain their fluidity much longer (than ?) in the open air, and consequently, spread laterally toa far greater distance frem the vent, with a similar inclination of sur- face. According to this, lava beds, produced at the bottom of the sea, ought to exhibit a greater lateral extension, compared with their bulk, than those which have flowed from subaerial volcanoes; and, in fact, the great horizontal dimensions of the fleetz-trap formations of Ireland, Germany, Iceland, Faroe, the Hebrides, &c. have long been a subject of remark. Again, since little or no vapor can escape from the suface of the lava, such beds should show very few scorie or scoriform parts on their upper surface; and, on the contrary, vesicles, or air cells, may be expected often to abound through the interior of the rock, the extreme tension of the steam causing its parcels to expand as the lava flows on, while the rapid consolidation of the surface, and the weight of the sea above, must prevent their rising upwards. These characters also accord with the appearances of many of the fleetz-trap rocks, amygdaloids, &c. which seem clearly to be the products of submarine vents. Of the fragments thrown up by the explosions of submarine eruptions, some will accumu- late round the orifice in rude beds, others be dispersed by cur- rents, and mixed or interstratified with other marine deposits. In the north of Italy and Sicily, are frequent examples of cal-. careo-basaltic conglomerates, (peperino,) as well as of beds of "132 Volcanos. basalt, alternating repeatedly with compact limestone strata. The hills of the Phlegrean fields near Naples the author sup- poses to have been thrown up by subaqueous eruptions from a very shallow shore, which has been subsequently elevated above the sea-level, by subterranean expansion. ‘‘ When the summit of a submarine volcano is raised above the surface of the sea, it conforms to all the laws, already investigated, which regulate the conduct of a subaerial vent. Its elevation takes place in one or both of two modes, viz. i. By the accumulation of matter, protruded by repeated eruptions. 2. By elevation, en masse, from the expansion of the inferior lava. The latter mode will be often accompanied by the heaving up of more or less extensive masses of the neigh- boring strata. Examples are given of volcanic islands, which appear to owe their elevation from the depth of the sea to these different processes. Iceland, Teneriffe, Sicily, and some of the Leeward Isles, are quoted as islands which have risen by the joint effect of both the above modes of subterranean ac- tivity ; the Isle of France, Pulo Nias, some of the Madeiras, and of the Hebrides, as instances of the latter mode acting alone. The author supposes the coralline islands of the Pacific to be mostly. based upon volcanic submarine eminences ; their circular or ellip- tical figure corresponding to the ridge of the central crater of a volcano. Many have been subsequently raised far above the level of the ocean; and the earthquakes, to which they are so often liable, prove their elevation to be owing to subterranean in-- tumesence, and to be stillin progress, while the continual growth of fresh coral on their shores, augments at the same time their horizontal extent. “¢ Chapter IX treats of Volcanic Systems. «6 The volcanic vents observable on the surface of the globe, | are arranged either in detached groups, as those of Iceland, the Azores, Canaries, Cape Verd Isles, &c.; or, and this is’ the prevailing case, in linear trains, at a greater or less distance ; often so close, that the products of the neighboring volcanos are in contact, and produce ‘strings of volcanic mountains, such as occur in France, Germany, the Leeward Isles, Java, Su- matra, Japan, Kamschatka, &c. The most remarkable series of vents of this kind on the globe, is that prodigous train which, beginning in the Andaman and Nicobar Isles, runs through Su-. matra, Java, Sumbawa, Sumba, Timor, and the whole group of the Moluccas, whence taking a northerly direction, it has produced the Phillippines and Loochoo Isles, Japan, Jesso, the Kurile group, and the peninsula of Kamschatka. ‘Thence it diverges to the east, forming the chain of the Aleutian Isles, and appears to be continued southerly along the western coast of Volcanos. 133 North America into California, Mexico, Guatimala, Nicaragua, Panama, and the vast volcanic range of the South American Cor- dilleras, even to Terra del Fuego. If, as appears most proba- ble, such trains of volcanic vents indicate fissures, broken through the superficial strata by subterraneous expansion, what a prodigious compound fracture in the crust of our globe does this immense chain of volcanos disclose to us. In these systems, some few vents remain occasionally active, others closed, the’ former acting as safety-valves to the neighboring districts. In case of their permanent obstruction, some fresh vents must be produced, or some former orifice re-opened; while violent earthquakes, and elevations of the neighboring strata, will pre- cede or accompany this change. ‘The author then dwells on the appearances in the constitution of the known surface of the earth, which indicate numerous and forcible elevations of stra- ta, by subterranean expansions, more particularly in the elevated or mountainous districts, which according to him, are those points . or lines that have suffered the maximum of elevation, from the extreme developement of the expansive process beneath them.’ But since, as has been stated above, and as is shown to be conform- able to observation from a variety of instances, the existence of actiye volcanos obviates the occurrence of such extensive eleva- tions of the superficial strata, by letting off, through fissures in these strata, the superfluous caloric, which would otherwise ac- cumulate and produce successive powerful expansions in the great bed of lava beneath them, we must expect to find such spi- racles to be frequent in the lower levels of the globe’s surface, and rare in those higher,—and this is precisely true to the letter ; for we know of very few volcanic vents in the interior of the continents, or amongst mountain ranges, while they rise in vast numbers from the depths of the ocean. If the Andes are urged as a striking exception, it is replied, that this great range is it- self composed almost wholly of volcanic, or at least, pyrogenous rocks, which, like Aitna, Teneriffe, &c. have swelled to their immense height by the accumulated ejections of very productive vents. “‘ But, notwithstanding the distance usually interposed between the principal trains of volcanic vents, and the elevated continen- tal ranges, Mr. Scrope thinks he perceives a frequent and re- markable parallelism in their direction. Thus the volcanic trains of France, Germany, and Italy, run decidedly parallel to the op- posite ranges of the Alps and Apennines; that immense chain which encircles the Pacific, is almost uniformly parallel to the neighbouring high lands of Asia and America, &c. and he is thus led to suppose, that the creation of fissures of elevation, and the protrusion through them, of crystalline rock, chiefly in a more or 134 Volcanos. less solid state, together with the heaving, dislocation, and coui- tortion of the strata on either side the cleft, that process, in short, to which he attributes the production of mountain ranges, was the immediate and primary result of partial expansions of the sub- terranean lava-bed at a great depth; while the fissures of eruption, which give rise to the properly so called volcanic eruptions, on different points of these cracks, were secondary and incidental results of this process, being chiefly occasioned by the lateral drag of the superficial strata towards the line of elevation, which the action of a powerful force, heaving them upwards on this line, must necessarily produce. ‘The author remarks, that the generalization of this important fact, that the elevation, en masse, of the solid strata, composing the crust of the earth, has been inversely proportional to the developement of the volcanic phenomena in the same quarter of the globe, demonstrates, that the subterranean bed of intensely heated crystalline rock, (or lava,) whose local existence was proved in the early part of his essay, must extend generally beneath the whole surface of the globe. The transmission of caloric to this bed, from within, ap- pears also to have been uniform and constant, having produced successive expansions in it, and proportional elevations of the overlying surfaces in those parts where no facilities existed for the outward escape of the caloric, and continual eruptions attend- ed with little or no elevation, wherever vents were created for the extravasation of the heated and intumescent matter. ‘¢In the Xth Chapter, ‘on the Developement of Subterrane- an Expansion in the elevation of strata, and production of con- tinents above the surface of the ocean,” the author quits the volcanic phenomena, properly so called, to apply the knowledge with which the investigation of these phenomena has furnished him, on the nature and mode of action of subterranean caloric, to account for the geological features of the continental forma- tions. And herein appears to consist a main distinction between the geological theory brought forward by Mr. Poulett Scrope, and those of Hutton, or other writers on the same subject, who may seem to have forestalled him in some of his principal conclusions; viz. that, while the latter class of theorists directed their efforts to prove that the chief appearances in the constitu- tion of the earths crust could only, or could most rationally, be explained by the hypothesis of an intense central heat producing elevations, &c., the author we are at present reviewing, direct- ly demonstrates the existence of this central heat, and elevating power, from the phenomena of volcanos and earthquakes ; draws from the same source, conclusive evidence of the laws under which it acts; and goes on to show, that such a power must, in the nature of things, have given rise to those elevations of con- Volcanos. 135 tinents and mountain ranges, with all the minor phenomena of inclined and distorted strata, dikes, veins, faults, &c. which it is one of the chief objects of geological inquiry to account for. “This chapter commences with the. remark that the arena- ceous and sedimental strata, which compose the major part of the surface of our continents, are found to assume a great degree of inclination, and more irregularities of position, as we approach the chains of mountains, or lines of maximum elevation and dis- turbance. They, however, almost universally lean against mass- es of crystalline rocks, which form the geological axis of every mountain. Of these rocks, some are stratified, or rather have a laminar structure, as gneiss, mica-slate, &c., and show marks of the action of some violent force upon them, in their repeated flexures, cracks, and highly inclined position ; others are unstra- tified, (granite, syenite, porphyry, serpentine, diallage-rock, and ereenstones, &c.,) and usually underlie the others, or cut through them in the manner of immense dikes. The latter are supposed . by the author to be portions of the subterranean crystalline bed, protruded by inferior expansion, sometimes in a state of partial liquefaction, at others as asolid mass, through a longitudinal cleft broken across the superficial strata. ‘The laminated crystalline rocks, which formed the lower portion of these strata were forced likewise through the fissure by the tremendous friction of the rising mass, and, during this process, were folded into re- peated doublings, like those produced in a bale of cloth or linen, by a powerful pressure, acting nearly in the direction of its lay- ers. In general, the central axis of unstratified crystalline rock, will appear like a vast dike intruded between the replicated schists on either side; at others, these protruded strata will still cover the axis like a mantle. Where the temperature of the exposed parts of the crystalline axis was intense, a superficial intumescence may have taken place, the liquefied matter over- spreading the edges of some of the overlying or protruded stra- ta, and thus giving rise to the appearance of secondary granites, syenites, porphyries, &c. Portions of lava will also be injected between the folds of the lower schists; and into any crevices or fractures formed in them. Atthe same time, the upper strata recede in a lateral direction, from the axis of elevation, slipping down the inclined planes of their stratification, by the influence of gravity, and become also more or less bent and folded togeth- er, owing tothe resistance opposed to this subsidence, by the in- ertia of their distant unelevated parts. Curvatures and replica- tions could, however, only take place where the strata were in a semi-solid state, or where the peculiar structure of the rock was favourable to the partial mobility of its parts; and this ap- pears to have been particularly the case with the laminar and 136 Volcanos. schistose rocks, whose parallel plates of mica are enabled to slip, with more or less facility, over one another; such rocks appear to have often suffered an extraordinary degree of replication. By the subsequent destruction of the extreme flexures of these folded strata, they seem, to a traveller passing across their edges, to alternate repeatedly in a recurring series. Where the indu- ration was more complete, or the structure of the rock unfa- vourable to flexibility, as in the compact and massive lime- stone formations, numerous fractures, fissures of all sizes, often of great width, -witi have been broken through them, and the intervening masses of strata more or less dislocated and dis- turbed in their position, sometimes, perhaps, left in isolated patches on summits or flanks of the protruded crystalline rocks. This appears to have been the origin of the insulated pyra- mids of dolomite, which rise from the great porphyry district of the Tyrol. Indeed, any one acquainted with the aspect of the limestone formations of the whole range of the Alps, will ac- knowledge, that, in this irregularity of position and inclination, their perpendicular escarpments, and chasm-like vailies, these vast masses of strata accord precisely with what might be expect- ed from a mode of elevation, such as is here attributed to them. Thus, of the fissures broken through the elevated strata, those which descended sufficiently in depth, and opened into the inferior lava-bed, occasioned extravasations of this substance, producing dikes, &c. others which were too narrow and intricate to allow of their occupation by the intumescent matter, were yet perme- able to the vapors that rose from this subjacent and intensely _ heated mass, bringing with them both earthy and metallic sub- limations, which would be deposited on the sides of the fissures, together with fragments broken from these sides, or fallen from their upper parts, whence the mineral veins. Those fissures which did not communicate with the heated lava-bed, were fil- led in part, or altogether, by rubbish alone, and these are the faults or slips of miners. The formation of calcareous and other breccias and veined-marbles, is accounted for by the smallest of these fractures ; the still unconsolidated juices of the rock oozing into its cracks and crevices, and filling them with a deposit of jimer matter. The quartz veins of the arenaceous and micaceous rocks are attributed to the same process. ‘“‘'Tbe author goes on to draw a distinction between the prima- ry range, or axis of elevation, along which the overlying strata were burst open and elevated, solely by the developement of sub- terranean expansion beneath, and those secondary ranges, or axes of elevation, which consist in the convex flexures produced on either side of, and more or less distant from, the primary axis, by the replication of the elevated strata, as they slipped away from Volcanos. 137 ‘this axis. Whatever expansions took place in the inferior crys- talline mass beneath these secondary convexities, were occa- sioned by the reduction of pressure on it, not by the absolute increase of its expansive force, as in the primary axis. ‘These secondary ridges are more or less parallel tothe primary. The occurrence of proximate ranges of elevation, or any other cau- ses productive of local variations in the resistance opposed to the jJateral movements of the strata, would occasion proportion- ate aberrations from this parallelism. The intervals between these parallel ranges, that is the concave flexures, or fractures, produced the longitudinal vallies of mountain districts. In the north of Scotland, such vallies, separated by intervening sec- ondary ridges, are numerous and remarkable, forming the basins of the greater number of her lakes and estuaries. The author supposes even the great valley of Switzerland, on one side of the Alps, and that of Lombardy on the other, to be examples of longitudinal valleys having this origin. The range of Jura - on one side, and that of the Appenines on the other, are in this view, the secondary ridges occasioned by the replication in the strata, which were driven laterally towards the north and south by the forcible elevation of the primary range of the Alps. In England the flcetz strata are supposed, by the author, to have slid in a jateral direction towards the German ocean from off the elevated range of Devon, Wales, Cumberland, and Scotland. “¢ But besides the longitudinal fractures of the superficial strata, others will often have been formed in a direction transverse to the axis of elevation, by local irregularities in the mode or time of elevation. Many of the transverse vallies of mountain chains are referred to this origin, particularly those deep chasm like gorges which contain lakes at the foot of the higher Alps, both on the north and south. The waters of the ocean retreat- ing from the surfaces, thus suddenly raised above their level, would retire with immense impetuosity through these fissures, and enlarge and deepen them, leaving vast accumulations. of transported fragments at the lower extremity of such gorges, where the velocity of the debacle was first checked. (Diluvi- um of Switzerland, Piedmont, the Italian lakes, &c.) Other transverse vallies were, perhaps, wholly scooped out by these re- treating waters, which would excavate their channels along those lines into which they were directed by the accidents of level, and the greater or less resistance of the rocks over which they rushed. These vallies, according to the author, have been enlarged and modified, and many others, particularly all the smaller rami- fications, entirely excavated, by causes still in action, more es- pecially the fall of water from the sky, and the erosive force of its descent from higher to lower levels. It is remarked, that Vou. XUI.—No. 1. 18 138 Volcanos. there are good reasons for concluding that the quantity of water circulating over the globe’s surface in this manner, in given {imes, has progressively diminished, with its diminution of tem- perature, from the earliest ages of the world; so that we need not shrink from attributing to its agency, effects far exceeding in magnitude those of which it appears capable at present. ‘‘One decided proof of the slowness of the process of excava- tion, wherever it occurs, exists in the sinuosity of water chan- nels, and in such a case, are met with even amongst the lar- gest river vallies, it is idle to talk of transient deluges or de- bacles as the excavating agent.” ‘‘ With regard to the periods at which the different continents may have been heaved upwards, our author concludes from the analogy of the volcanic phenomena, that such elevations took place by successive shocks; the greater number being of minor violence, similar to the earthquakes which occur at present; but some of prodigious power, (paroxysmal expansions,) and an- alogous to the paroxysms of habitual volcanos. . If it is true, that outliers of the plastic clay and chalk have been recognized. ~ onthe highest summits of the Alps, it would appear that this colossat-chain, and perhaps with it the whole continent of Eu- rope, owes its elevation from beneath the sea to some catastro- phe of this nature, at what we are accustomed to reckon a com- paratively recent geological epoch. The traces of diluvian ac- tion, the boulders of the Alps and Sweden, and the alluvium of the north of Europe, may have been produced by the retreat of the ocean from this elevated surface, and the successive oscilla- tory movements to which it must have been subjected before it - regained its level. Other paroxysmal expansions may have oc- curred in earlier ages of the globe’s history, and in the old red sandstone formation, it is observed we may perhaps trace the re- sult of such a catastrophe. ‘The occurrence of repeated eleva- tions on a large scale, is, indeed, attested by numerous geological facts. It is also probable, from what we know of the power by which they are occasioned, that they were far more frequent and violent in the early part of the history of the earth than they can be at present; for, unless we suppose the proportion of caloric transmitted from the interior of the globle towards its surface to have been always on the increase, (which is directly the reverse of the opinion professed by the author,) it is clear, that the con- tinual and general increase of the repressive force, by the addi- tions made to the solid strata of the globe, in the products of volcanos, and incrusting springs, and also to the body of water and atmospheric fluids which press upon that surface, must have proportionately diminished the ratio of subterranean expansion, from the commencement of the process up to the present day. Volcanos. 139 The author then adverts to the mineral nature of the general subterranean bed of crystalline rock, (or Java.) This he con- cludes to be probably granitic; and supposes that some of the elevated portions of it, may, by the effect of repeated intumes- cences, and reconsolidations, under varying circumstances of temperature and pressure, by which the component minerals would be more or less disintegrated, decomposed, and their ele- ments recombined in new proportions, and on separate points, have been converted into syenite, greenstone, porphyry, com- pact felspar, serpentine, diallage rock, &c. The analogy of or- dinary volcanic rocks, in which such changes to a certain extent, indisputably take place under similar circumstances, supports this conjecture ; and since all the above varieties of rock are found in nature to graduate into one another, it cannot be unrea- sonable to suppose all may have been elaborated from the same raw material.” The sequel of the analysis might be omitted with less in- jury than the preceding, because the authors views are more hypothetical ; but long as this article has been, we are not willing to suppress the remainder. “The work would appear to have terminated naturally here, at least the author is anxious to keep the part of which we have now given a summary, and in which he has endeavored to con- fine himself within the bounds of strict logical inference, (dedu- cing from the evidence of the volcanic phenomena, a certain de- gree of knowledge as to the nature and mode of operation of subterranean caloric, and applying this knowledge to account as well for the detail of these phenomena, as for the mequalities in the surface of the globe,) separate from the concluding chapter, which contains theoretical matter of a more general and less sub- stantial character; in short, an attempt to sketch the outline of what may be called the History of the Globe. “‘ To this, indeed, the author was naturally led by the results of his previous investigations ; for having proved the existence of a vast subterranean reservoir of caloric, the effect of which is still to occasion violent changes in the superficial crust of the globe, and which appears to have formerly produced similar changes of far greater magnitude, it is impossible not to suppose the same cause to have had a large share in the original forma- tion and disposition of that crust. In fact, the elevating process, which, in the foregoing chapter, is shown to have produced the present irregular disposition of the superficial rocks, presupposes a peculiar arrangement of these beds, previous tg their eleya- tion above the sea level. 140 Volcanos. “The crust of the globe must then have been composed of concentric coats, consisting of ist, The secondary and transition series of strata; 2diy. The series of laminar and schistose crys- talline rocks, viz. gneiss, mica-talc and chlorite, schists, &e. ; 3dly, and finally, the granitoidal matter confined at an intense heat by the compression of the overlying strata. ‘The origin of the sedimental and arenacious deposits of the ocean, composing the first series, discloses itseif by the organ- ic remains contained in them, and their analogy to the actual deposits of our rivers, lakes, andseas. ‘The fragmentary rocks apparently owe the magnitude of the scale on which they have been sometimes produced to the violent oscillatory movements to which, as has been noticed above, the ocean must have been subjected by any paroxysmal elevation of a iarge portion of its bottom. Even where the elevation took effect only on strata already raised above the sea level, the effect on the waters of the giobe would be still most powerfui; for the radius of the globe being dilated on thet point, a proportional body of water must rush immediately towards the opposite, or antipodal point, to preserve the equilibrium of the giobe, and a series of violent oscillatory movements must take place general to the whole ocean, and producing a permanent alteration in the relative levels of land and water ail over the earth; these effects being proportioned to the mass of matter raised, and the amount of its elevation. The coarser fragments transported by such mo- ving waters, will have been deposited in the longitudinal vallies of mountain ranges, and wherever the currents were first con- siderably checked. The finer detritus will have afterwards subsided, when the ocean had regained its equilibrium, and mixed with the precipitations which were taking place contem- poraneously from its waters, and with the bituminous and cal- careous matter, proceeding from the decomposition of vegeta- ble and animal substances, the shells of mollusce, coralline bod- ies, &c. produced the sedimentary formation. As the-depth of these beds of pulpy matter increased, the consequent pressure upon the lowest of them, by bringing the similar particles slow- ly and gradually within the sphere of action of their mutual at- tractive forces, occasioned the successive formation of separate horizontal concretions, or strata, more or less fully consolidated, which some subsequent expansion elevated above the sea level, where they lost by drainage all the water they contained, and were by desiccation still farther indurated. “¢'The author opposes the Huttonian theory, that these strata were hardened by heat from the interior of the globe, which he thinks wholly disproved by the occurrences of clays and shales beneath indurated strata, ‘The consolidation of limestones, Volcanos. 141 sandstones, &c. he attributes solely to a concretionary action, accompanied by a more or less imperfect crystallization of the very finest particles. which act as a cement to the coarser. The-more complete the process of crystallization, the more sol- id and campact the rock; and therefore the larger the propor- tion of precipitated matter, (which as being much finer than any sediment, is more favorable to crystallization,) the more crystailine and the harder will be the strata. It is well known that, amongst the stratified rocks, the older are generally the most crystalline, and hence we should expect the quantity of maiter precipitated by the waters of the ocean to have been greater in former times than now. The author attributes this to t e higher temperature of the ocean in those ages, and the greater quantity of mineral matter carried into it in a state of solution by the vapors evolved from the interior of the globe. Even the more completely crystalline rocks, such as statua- ry limestone, quartz rock, and rock salt, appear to the author. in the light of precipitations from the primitive ocean, where at this time the sedimentary matter predominated, mica, talc, and chlorite slates were deposited. With regard to gneiss, the low- est of the stratified rocks, the author considers it to share in a very slight degree in the character of asedimental rock, to have been in short a granite, which, after a great degree of intu- mescense, was reconsolidated by the pressure it sustained be- tween the expansive force of the granite beneath, and the weight of the solid strata which had settled above it, as well as of the ocean and atmosphere. “'The author then generalizes these views as to the origin of the different rock formations, in a “‘ Sketch of a Theory of the Globe,” of which the following is a brief abstract. ‘The mass of the globe, or at least its external zone, to a great depth, is supposed to have been originally granitic, and that, on reaching its actual orbit, perhaps before, a great proportion of the pressure was removed which had previously preserved it in a state of crystallization, notwithstanding its intense temperature, (perhaps as an integrant part of the sun, from which the author is inclined to think it a projected fragment,) according to the notion of Buffon and Laplace.* Violent superficial expansion was the result of this diminished compression; the dilitation de- creasing towards the interior, from the surface, which would be completely voiatilized to that point where the disaggregation of the granite was wholly checked by the pressure of the zone of * The author, in a note, compares the globe at this time to an aero- lite, in which the superficial crust of vitrified matter bears some analo- gy to that which then perhaps formed on the surface of our planet. > : 4 142 Volcanos. liquefied matter gravitating towards it. Where the elastic fluid generated between the crystals of the rock, and which occasions its liquefaction, was produced in sufficient abundance, that is, in the outer and highly disintegrated zones, the superior specific gravity of the crystals forced it to rise upwards, and thus a great quantity of aqueous vapor was urged towards the surface of the globe: as this vapor rose into outer space, its continued rarefac- tion must have lowered its temperature till a part was condensed into water, which fell back in torrents upon the surface of the earth, giving rise to the primeval ocean, which, however, in- tensely heated below, would be retained in a fluid state by the loss of temperature sustained from the vaporization of its sur- face, and the pressure of the highly condensed atmosphere upon it. This ocean wiil have contained, both in solution and sus- pension, the earthy substances which proceeded from the vola- tilization of the superficial granite, or which were carried up- wards by the ascending vapor from the disintegrated mass be- low. The dissolved matters were silex, carbonates and sul- phates of lime and magnesia, muriates of soda, and other miner- al substances which water at an intense temperature, and under - such peculiar circumstances, may be supposed capable of hold- ing in solution. The suspended substances were all the lighter and finer particles of the upper beds where the ebullition had been extreme, but, above all, their mica, which, from the tenui- ty of its plate-shaped crystals, will have been most readily car- ried up by the ascending fluid, and will have remained longest in suspension. When the excess of vapor had effected its escape from the disentegrated granite, the crystals of felspar, and those of quartz, which had remained undissolved by the heated wa- ter, subsided first, torether with the smallest and least buoyant crystals of mica; and these crystals would naturally arrange themselves so as to have their longest dimensions parallel to the surface on which they were deposited. ‘This mass, when subse- quently consolidated by pressure, formed the gneiss formation, which graduates downwards into granite. Upon this, the larger plates of mica and quartz grains would continue to be deposited, while, at the same time, a large quantity of the silex, held in solution by the ocean, was precipitated as the water cooled. Thus was produced, by degrees, the mica-schist formation, grad- uating downwards into gneiss. On some spots, and perhaps at a later epoch, instead of silex, carbonate of lime was precipitated, together with more or less of micaceous sediment, producing the saccharoidal lime-stones. Upon this mica-schist, and graduating into it, were deposited in turn, as the waters of the ocean cool- ed, and its local disturbances ceased, or recommenced other stra- tified rocks, composed sometimes of a mixture, sometimes of an Volcanos. 143 alternation, of precipitated, sedimentary, and fragmentary mat- ter, giving rise to the transition formations. ‘‘In this manner was formed the first crust or solid envelope of the globe. _ But beneath this crust a new process had now com- menced, occasioned by the increase of temperature and of ex- pansive force of the upper granite beds; which, having been greatly reduced in temperature by the dilatation it had endured, and the partial vaporization of the water it contained, now be- gan to receive an accession of caloric from the more intensely heated nucleus. The first effect of such an increase in the ex- pansive force of this zone, opposed as it was by the increasing pressure of the strata, whose progressive deposition was going on above, would be to consolidate the intermediate bed of gneiss ; the next, to produce, sooner or later, the disruption of the solid crust, which impeded its actual expansion. This result took place on those parts where accidents of texture or composition in the oceanic deposits led to them to yield most readily ; and in this manner were formed, in the primeval crust of the earth, those original and deep fractures, through some of which (fis- sures of elevation) were protruded portions in a more or less solid state of the inferior granite, together with replications of the foliated rocks, (as described in a former chapter;) while others (fissures of eruption) gave rise to local extravasations of the heated crystalline matter in form of lavas, that is, still far- ther liquefied by the greater comparative reduction of the press- ure they supported. By these partial elevations of the superfi- cial strata, violent movements were at times, as has been men- tioned before, communicated to the waters of the ocean which broke up the projecting eminences, and distributed their frag- ments in conglomerate or sedimentary strata. At first, the sur- face of the globe consisted chiefly of mica-schist; and hence mica and granular quartz predominate in the earlier conglomerates and sedimentary strata, (grey-wacke, grey-wacke slate, quartz- rock.) Precipitations of silex and carbonate of lime, continued to mix with the sediments of this period, and Mr. Scrope supposes quartz rock and transition limestone to owe their dark colors to admixture with the finest particles of mica. For a long time it is probable that local developements of subterranean expan- sion, producing partial elevations of the earth’s crust, local ex- travasations of crystalline rocks in the form of dykes, beds, &c. and local deposits of conglomerate beds, alternated with periods of comparative tranquillity, during which the finer sedimenta- ry deposits and precipitations took place, and hence the al- ternations of the various sedimentary and arenaceous strata which compose the secondary formations. Meantime, as the temperature of the ocean decreased, it began to be thickly 144 Volcanos. peopled with organic beings, animals, and vegetables of sim- ple structure; the latter giving rise by. their carbonization to the coal strata. At length, as the temperature of the ocean and atmosphere diminished further, the quantity of water taken into circulation decreased; the continents were no longer deluged by perpetual floods of rain, and organized nature took possession of them also; the marine deposits contained Jess of precipitated matter, and became more earthy, and less crystal- line; strata of shales, dull limestones, chalk, marl, sands, and clay, succeeded those of clay-slate, marbles, and sandstones, until the gradual change wrought by the slow refrigeration of the outer zones of the globe brought about the condition in which it exists at present. “The author remarks that, from the circumstances of their origin, the rock formations of every kind or age must have been more or less strictly local ; and that, though the formations of any particular epoch will unquestionably have some points of general resemblance all over the globe, it would be absurd to suppose the same series of eds to have been deposited contem- poraneously over the whole of its surface. “The author sums up, by attributing the production of the mineral masses, as at present observable on the surface of our planet, to three sources, distinct in their nature, but of which the products have been often confused and mingled together from circumstances, of isochronism or collocation. These are, “1. The precipitation of some minerals, particularly silex and carbonate of lime, from a state of solution in water, as its tempe- rature was diminished, c. “2. The subsidence of suspended or fragmentary matter from water; together with the accumulation and decomposition of the shells of mollusce, corals, &c. “3. The elevation of crystalline matter through fissures in the crust of the globe. “The author conceives, that all the characteristic differences observable in the successive formations of every kind, may be satisfactorily traced to the gradual diminution in frequency and energy of those productive causes, the varying nature of the original materials acted on and the chemical and mechanical chenges they have undergone during the process ; and with due allowance for these circumstances, these three modes of produc- tion are perhaps fuily equal to account for the origin of all the mineral masses of the earths surface. They have also one im- mense advantage over other hypotheses, and which speaks es umes in their favor, and “+ this is, that they are still in operation,” and producing results completeiy analogous to those which are here atiributed to them. In fact, (the ‘author says,) the theory Account of the New Mineral Spring at Albany. 144 of the globe, which I have thus hazarded, consists simply in the application of those modes of operation which nature still em- ploys, on a large scale, in the production of fresh mineral masses on the surface of the earth, to explain the origin of those which we find there already. ‘¢If after fair discussion, and with all reasonable allowances, it is found adequate to this purpose, its truth will be established on the soundest possible basis—the same upon which rests the whole fabric of our knowledge on every subject whatsoever, the supposition, namely, that the laws of nature do not vary but that similar results always are, have been, and will be produced, by similar preceding circumstances. ‘“¢ An appendix is added to this work, containing a list of known volcanos in recent or habitual activity; and an examination of the anomalous phenomena, described by M. de Humbolt, as having accompanied the eruption of Jorullo in Mexico. The work is illustrated by engravings, lithographs, and numerous wood-cuts.”’ Art. XVII.—Account of the new Mineral Spring at Albany, with an analysis and remarks ; by Wm. Meapg, M.D. TO THE EDITOR. Srm—A mineral spring having lately been discovered in the city of Albany, which has excited considerable interest not only from the qualities of the water, but from some curious circumstances attending the manner in which it was discov- ered, I have been induced to make some inquiries on the subject, which have led me into an investigation of the chemi- cal properties of the water. The result of this inquiry I now beg leave to offer to the public through the medium of your valuable and useful Journal. Wm. Meapz. It appears that in the summer of 1826, Messrs. Boyd & McCulloch, with a laudable anxiety to procure pure water for their extensive brewery at Albany, engaged with Mr. Disbrow, to commence the operation of boring, according to the meth- od which he has submitted to the public,* and in which he has been so often successful. When they had proceeded to the depth of about 480 feet from the surface, instead of ob- taining what they expected, they observed that the water 4 * See Vol. 12, p. 136 of this Journal. Vou. XII.—No. 1. 19 146 Account of the New Mineral Spring at Albany. which ascended, had a peculiar saline taste, and a sparkling appearance. During the progress of boring through an uni- form, argillaceous, schistose rock, they also observed, when they arrived at the depth of 250 feet, that as they proceeded, a stream of gas, of an inflammable nature, occasionally arose ; 1t was perfectly devoid of smell, but easily took fire when ignited. It was soon perceived that the water possess- ed sensible medicinal qualities, which induced’ the proprietor to take the necessary steps for excluding any communication between it and the neighboring springs. A tube, 33 feet long and about four inches in diameter, was accordingly assed down from the surface till it penetrated the rock from which the water originally flowed. It now rises in this tube, within two feet of the surface, and is dipped out, in a glass tumbler for the use of the visitors, exactly in the same manner as is practised at Ballston and Saratoga. It is not ascertained what quantity flows in a minute, but it is by no means so abundant as the water of the Congress spring, and from the information which I have obtained, would not afford a supply more than sufficient for 4 or 500 visitors daily. I shall now proceed to give a chemical analysis of the water. External character, temperature, and specific gravity. The sensible qualities of this water have a great resem- blance to those of the Congress Spring, at Saratoga. Its temperature is uniformly from 51° to 52° of Farhenheit at all seasons of the year; its specific gravity when taken with great care, and after repeated trials, was found to be as 1010 to 1000. When a glass of water is taken immediately from the spring, it is perfectly clear and transparent, and minute air bubbles are seen rising from it which adhere to the side of the glass. The taste of the water is purely saline, somewhat pungent, and by no means disagreeable, but those who are best acquainted with it, think it by no means so stimulating and pungent as the waters of the Congress Spring; it has no sensible chalybeate taste, and no perceptible smell which could lead to the suspicion of its holding sulphuretted hydro- gen gas in solution. As to the gas which ascends through the tube and has been described as inflammable, it appears to be either hydrogen or carburetted hydrogen, similar to the gas which is so frequently observed to accompany the saline springs in the State of New York, but which passes Account of the New Mineral Spring at Albany. 147 through the water without giving it any sensible properties. When this water, which is at first so clear and pellucid, is al- lowed to remain, for a few hours, in a glass, the gas which is extricated from it, adheres in the form of innumerable air bub- bles to the inside surface of the glass ; in a short time after, the water loses its transparency, a thin pellicle appears on its surface, which has a slightly iridescent appearance ; by de- grees the water becomes perfectly opaque, the pellicle falls to the bottom, which as well as the sides of the giass is cover- ed with a light brown powder, which adheres firmly to it. The water after this, recovers its former transparency, but Joses its agreeable, pungent, and acidulous taste, becoming perfectly vapid, and has no other taste but that of a solution of marine salt in water. » Examination of the contents of the Albany water by tests or Reagents. Experiment 1. Litmus paper, dipped into the water when fresh from the spring, has its color immediately changed to red; but this color is fagacious, nor will any such change be produced after the water has been boiled or exposed to the air for any time, which shows that this was produced by a quantity of uncombined carbonic acid and not by a fixed acid. . Exp. 2._ Paper stained with turmeric is not altered in color by this water when fresh from the spring. Eixp. 3. Lime water produces an immediate turbidness and precipitation when added in certain proportions to this water. I know not a more decisive or accurate test of the presence of carbonic acid than this, but a variety of circum- stances are necessary to be attended to, in order to make a just estimate of it. Ifequal quantities of lime water and this water are mixed, though at first a slight color is produced, yet the water soon becomes clear again, owing to the excess of carbonic acid which is-present in this water, and which redissolves the lime. The usual directions therefore, for ad- ding equal quantities will not succeed, where the water, as in this case, contains an excess of carbonic acid. In order to insure a complete and permanent precipitation of the lime water, one ounce of the mineral water is sufficient to decom- pose three ounces of lime water. By attending to this cir- cumstance, a tolerably correct estimate may be formed of the quantity of carbonic acid in any mineral water. 148 Account of the New Mineral Spring at Albany. Exp. 4. Tincture of galls when poured into a glass of the water immediately strikes a purple color, which after stand- ing for some time increases in intensity, till it becomes near- ly black. Exp. 5. Prussiat of Potash. A few drops of this, poured into a glass of this water, changes it to a green color, which on standing for some time, gradually becomes quite blue and deposits a blue sediment; the effect of this test is, however, repressed by the quantity of alkaline earth which the water contains, for by previously adding a few drops of marine acid to saturate the earths, I found that the color was much more intense. When the water was previously boiled, neither this test nor that of tincture of galls had any effect, which showed that whatever iron was present was held in solution by carbonic acid gas. Exp. 6. Solution of silver in nitric acid. When a few drops of this solution are poured into the water, an immediate white and ponderous precipitate falls to the bottom of the glass, which after standing for some time, changes to a light purple color. This precipitate is equally, abundant, when the water had been previously boiled, which shows the pres- ence of marine acid; indeed a very accurate estimate of the quantity of this acid may be formed by the abundance of this precipitate. Exp. 7. Solution of acetate of lead, when dropped into this water, produces an immediate white cloud and a precipi- tate. The color of this precipitate decides the absence of sulphuretted hydrogen, as the smallest quantity of this gas immediately changes the precipitate to a black ; in the pres- ent case, the decomposition of the acetate was caused, either by the sulphuric or the marine acid, and that it was produced by the latter was evident both from the effect of the former experiment, and from the fact that the precipitate was again soluble in distilled vinegar, which would not have been the ease if it had been sulphat of lead, which is perfectly insolu- ble.* Exp. 8. Muriat of Barytes, produces no change in the transparency of the water, either when first taken from the *The muriat of lead is also perfectly soluble in boiling hot water, largely added, which forms a good distinction between it and the sul- phate and carbonate, the latter being also soluble in acids with effer- vescence.— EDITOR. Account of the New Mineral Spring at Albany. 149 spring, or after it has been boiled for some time, neither has nitrat of barytes or muriat of strontian the smallest. effect on the water. These are decisive proofs that it contains no salt combined with sulphuric acid. Exp. 9. Oxalat of ammoma produces an immediate cloud and precipitate when the water is first taken from the spring, but has a very slight effect when the water is boiled; this shows that the carbonat of lime is held in solution chiefly by the carbonic acid. Eixp.10. Sulphuric acid. When a few drops of this acid are poured into a glass of the water, the first effect is an immediate and brisk effervescence, from the extrication of carbonic acid gas; in a short time, however, a cloud appears and a white powder is deposited; this powder is evidently sulphat of lime, as when nitric or muriatic acids are applied, although the same appearance takes place, no deposition follows, nor is the transparency of the water altered. Exp. 11. Carbonat of Ammonia produces no effect when added to the water fresh from the spring. Exp. 12. Carbonat of Potash does not disturb the trans- parency of the water. pa \ fixp. 13. Pure Ammonia causes an immediate cloud in the water, when added to it fresh from the spring, and a co- pious flocculent precipitate takes place. This is evidently caused by its combining with the excess of carbonic acid, _ which holds the caleareous earth suspended, and becoming itself carbonated, as when a mild alkali (a carbonat) is em- ployed, no such effect is produced. Pure potash has pre- cisely the same effect, and for the same reason, but when the carbonates of potash or ammonia are employed no such ef- fect is produced, as has been seen in the previous experi- ments. When more than is sufficient either of the pure am- monia or potash is added, the precipitate is again redissolved, for the same reason that calcareous earth is dissolved in lime water. In this case an excess of pure potash deprives the lime of its carbonic acid and renders it again soluble; in this way the same may be precipitated or rendered soluble at pleasure. These are the principal tests which I employed; many more may have been used, but superfluous trials were unne- cessary and tend only to perplex rather than to lead to useful conclusions. 150 Account of the New Mineral Spring at Albany. Inferences to be drawn from the above experiments. It appears from the experiments which I have detailed. that this water has a very close resemblance to the waters of Ballston and Saratoga ; that it contains muriat of soda, and carbonat of lime, and iron held in solution by carbonic acid gas, and that it does not contain any sulphat, or differ es- sentially from the Congress spring at Saratoga. Although the use of tests or reagents affords no certain criterion of the exact proportion of any substance which a mineral water contains, yet they are an unerring guide in conducting further experiments, and save much time and labor in looking for substances which they have ascertained not to be present. Thus, experiments 4 and 5 having decided that whatever iron it contamed was suspended by the carbonic acid, it was unnecessary to look for any metallic salt. Experiment the 8th having decided that it contained no sulphuric acid, no sul- phates were to be sought for. Experiment the 6th having shown the presence of a large quantity of marine acid we of course expect to find a marine salt. Experiment 9th shows the presence of carbonat of lime supersaturated with carbonic acid gas. It then becomes necessary only to ascertain the quantity of this gas, and of those substances which were held in solution by it, which we shall now proceed with as follows : HKxamination of the gaseous contents. The importance of carbonic acid gas, in a medicinal point of view, as well as a menstruum capable of holding various substances in. solution, requires that particular attention should be paid not only to the detection of it, but to the quantity which is contamed in the mineral water. Various methods have been adopted for collecting it. That which I pursued, on this occasion, was the same which I found both convenient and successful in my inquiry into the chemical properties of the waters of Ballston and Saratoga, published in the year 1817, to which work I must refer for a plate and description of the instrument, only observing now that it consisted of atin vessel, in the cover of which, a small tube was soldered, in which was placed a glass cylinder gradu- ated in cubic inches. When heat is applied, the gas as- cends into the cylinder, and is then easily measured and ex- amined. Pursuing this method, I obtained from one pint of the Albany water, twenty six cubic inches of a gas which Account of the New Mineral Spring at Albany. 151 was incapable of supporting flame, and was quickly ab- sorbed by lime water, consequently it was ascertamed to be carbonic acid gas. This may appear to be a small quan- tity, but it is nearly as much as any water can contain, of uncombined carbonic acid, under the common pressure of the atmosphere, and at the common temperature.—lew, if any of the natural mineral waters in Europe contain so much; the waters of Pyrmont, Seltzer and Spa, according to Dr. Saunders, contains little more. Andif they are more _acidulous and pungent, it is because they contain fewer foreign ingredients. It is this gas which suspends the iron and the earths in this water as well as in those of Ballston and Saratoga, which contain a much greater quantity of these carbonates, and are also sensibly more impregnated with carbonic acid: as we shall see by referring to the anal- ysis. ‘Thus according to experiment, the Congress spring - contains about thirty-three cubic inches of carbonic acid in one pint or twenty-seven and a half cubic inches of water. The Ballston spring, thirty cubic inches, while the Albany water contains only twenty-six cubic inches in the sam quarftity. Examination of the Water after it had been boiled for half an hour. Having made the above experiments, with the water fresh taken from the spring, and having determined the quantity of carbonic acid gas, with which it is impregnated, I now proceeded in order to obtam more complete indications, to follow up and repeat some of those experiments, after the water had been previously boiled, and thereby deprived of its gas, and of those substances which were held in solution by it. I therefore boiled one pint of this water, for half an hour, and having filtered it, made the following experiments. Hixperiment 1. Nitrat of silver produced the same dense _ white precipitate as before. Exp. 2. Acetat of lead was affected in the same manner. Kixp. 3. Litmus paper was not changed in its color. Exp. 4. Paper strained with turmeric, had its color imme- diately changed to a dark brown. . Exp. 5. Muriat of barytes does not alter the transpa- rency of the water. 152 Account of the New Mineral Spring at Albany. Exp. 6. Oxalat of ammonia produces a very slight cloud in the glass. Exp. 7. Muriat of lime produces an immediate turbidness in the water, and a deposition of a white powder in the bot- tom of the glass. Exp. 8. Tincture of galls has no sensible effect upon the water. Exp. 9. Prussiat of Potash produces no change in the color of the water. From these experiments some new light has been thrown on the contents of this water; and it is decisively shown that it has now been deprived of the carbonic acid, the iron and the earths; but it also appears from the result of experiment the fourth, that this water contains an alkali which did not ap- pear from the same experiment, when made previously to the boiling and concentration of the water, nor indeed could it be expected, as the effect of the test was repressed by the carbonic acid, which we have seen, changed the color of the litmus paper. That an alkaline carbonat was present in the water was further evident by experiment seven, produ- cing an immediate precipitation of the earthly carbonat. To ascertain as nearly as possible, the quantity of alkaline salt which the water contamed, I concentrated one pint of it by boiling, and having filtered it, I carefully added pure sulphuric acid, in small quantities, noting the effect with litmus and turmeric paper, till I found the alkali was satura- ted. To effect this | found required six and a quarter grains of sulphuric acid. Now as it has been ascertained, that one hundred grains of sulphuric acid, are sufficient to saturate eighty grains of soda, it is evident that six and a quarter grains, would saturate about five. grains-of this alkali. We shall therefore estimate the quantity of carbonat of soda in one pint of the water at five grains. Examination of the Solid Contents of the Albany water, collected by Evaporation. Although a tolerably accurate judgment may be formed of the contents of this water, by the use of those reagents, which we have employed, yet the only certain conclusion as to the quantity and character of its solid contents in a given quantity, can be drawn, by submitting it to evaporation, and separately examining the different substances which we have, by these means collected. For this purpose, I proceeded Account of the New Mineral Spring at Albany. 153 to the evaporation of one pint of the water in a flat, por- celain dish, placed in a sand bath, over a steady and mode- rate fire. As soon as the water became heated to about ninety-two, air bubbles began to arise in great abundance. The water became turbid, a pellicle appeared on its surface, and as the carbonic acid was expelled, a light brown pow- der was deposited, which increased as the evaporation went on, until towards the end of the:process, when it became gelatinous. I now let the whole mass crystalize together, till it assumed the appearance of a light brown powder, which when dried and collected, I found to weigh precisely 71 grains. In order to examine this residuum, being the whole solid contents of one pint of the water, I proceeded as _ follows. ‘This powder consisting of 71 grains was collected in a phial bottle, and alkohol of the specific gravity of :817 was poured on it to the height of an inch. After submitting it to the action of the alkohol for some hours, frequently shaking the bottle, the whole contents were carefully filter- ed; after drying the residuum in the same heat as before, I found I had still remaining 70: grains, so that the alkohol had taken up only } grain; indeed the alkohol seemed to have so little action on it, that it appeared to pass off as it would from sand; this I confess surprised me, as the resi- duum from every saline water I have before examined, par- ticularly those of Ballston and Saratoga, which are so simi- lar, suffered a considerably greater dimimution from the action of alkohol. The matter which now remained on the filter after the action of alkohol, weighing 701 grains, was digested for some time, in a sufficient quantity of distilled water, till a complete solution of whatever salts it contained, had taken place. It was then filtered, and a light brown powder re- mained on the filter, which, when dried, was found to weigh exactly 61 grains: so that the aqueous solution contained 64 grains; this powder weighing 61 grains, which resisted the action of alkohol, and was insoluble in eight times its weight of distilled water, could have been nothing more than car- bonat of lime or carbonat of magnesia combined with the small quantity of iron, held in solution by carbonic acid gas. It become necessary now to examine it, and to determine not only its contents but the proportion of the ingredients; for this purpose I poured on it, by degrees, a sufficient quantity of dilute marine acid, till the whole of it was dissolved with ef- Vor. XIII.—No.1. 20 154 Account of the New Mineral Spring at Albany. fervescence. As it was evident that the iron which was sus- pended by the carbonic acid, in one pint of the water, was now held in solution by the marine acid, I made use of suc- cinate of ammonia, as the most successful method of collect- ing it, separately, preferring this to ammonia, which precipi- tates magnesia also. By proceeding in this manner, a brown precipitate was thrown down, which consisted of succinate of iron, and by calcining this in a dull red heat, I obtained one ~ grain of oxyd of iron. The solution in marie acid, bemg thus deprived of the whole of the iron, there remained 54 grains of carbonates of lime or magneisa. To separate them, i gradually poured on a few drops of pure ammonia, till the whole of the magnesia was thrown down, which when col- lected and dried, I found amounted to only 11 grains; the remainder, by examination with oxalate of ammonia, proved to be carbonat of lime. From these experiments therefore, it appears, that the residuum which resisted the action of al- kohol and was insoluble in distilled water, consisted of Carbonat of Lime, - - - A grains, Carbonat of Magnesia, - - 12 Carbonat of Iron, - - - 1 6} We have now only the aqueous solution to examine ; this, which consisted of 64 grains, after the earths had been thrown down, and the whole residuum had been submitted to the action of alkohol, I proceeded to evaporate slowly in a glass vessel; as the process went on beautiful cubic crystals appeared ; it was then evaporated to dryness, when 64 grains of a saline substance was obtained, which was ex- amined in the following manner : Experiment 1. Ona part of it a few drops of sulphuric acid were poured, and heat being applied, fumes instantly arose, which had the peculiar smell and other properties of muriatic acid. ‘ Exp. 2. A small quantity of this salt was again dissolved in a wine glass of distilled water, and to this were added a few drops of nitrat of silver, when animmediate dense white pre- cipitate was thrown down. Exp. 3. A little of this salt was dissolved in another glass of water, when a few drops of muriat of barytes were poured in, without producing any change. f Exp. 4. To asmall quantity of this saline solution, a few Account of the New Mineral Spring at Albany. 155 drops of oxalate of ammonia were added, without altering its transparency. Exp. 5. Paper stained with turmeric, when immersed in a solution of this salt, was immediately changed, to a very dark brown color. Exp. 6. Blue litmus paper, stained red, by vinegar, had its blue color immediately restored, when dipped in a solution of this salt. The aqueous solution which consisted of 64 grains, having been thus examined, it appears by experiment 1, 2, 3, and 4, that it contained no other salt besides muriat of soda, but it al- so appears from experiments 5 and 6, that it contained an al- kaline carbonat which previous experiments had detected. We have already shown that one pint of this water contains 5 grains of carbonat of soda, and as this enters into solution with the muriat of soda, it is necessary to deduct these 5° grains from the 64 grains, which the aqueous solution con- tained ; we shall then find that one wine pint of the Albany water contains, , Muriat of Soda, - - - - 59 grains. Carbonat of Soda, - - - 3 The analysis of this water having been thus completed, I shall now state the result of the inquiry, and recapitulate the contents of the different ingredients which have been found in one wine pint of the water, as follows :— Muriat of Soda, - ~~ - : - 59 Grains. Carbonat of Soda, - - - ate me ae Carbonat of Lime, - - = Abn ick Carbonat of Magnesia, —- - = pind ae Carbonat of Iron, - - - - means Muriat of Lime, - - (c4 Total, 71 Grains. Carbonic acid gas in one pint—26 cubic inches. It now remains only to make a few observations, on the striking resemblance between this mineral water at Albany, and those of the different springs at Ballston and Saratoga. Having taken great pains to make an accurate analysis of the contents of the different springs, at each of those places, the result of which I have already given to the public,* it may * Vide, An Experimental Enquiry into the Chemical Properties and Medicinal Qualities of the Principal Mineral Waters of Ballston and Saratoga, by Wm. Meade, M. D. Published at Philadelphia. 156 Account of the New Mineral Spring at Albany. on this occasion not be uninteresting to pay some attention to the comparative qualities of each. Having no theory to sup- port, and feeling no particular terest in the question of the merits of any of them, I may perhaps be brought to consider the subject with fewer prejudices than others. In stating the component parts of each, I shall give the results of my own analysis, which as it was performed with great care, and has been long before the public, I feel my- self responsible for. ‘The principal springs to which I shall refer, are the Congress spring at Saratoga, the public well at Ballston, and the Albany spring lately discovered. The following are the contents of each by analysis in one pint of water. : Congress Spring. Public Well, Ballston. Albany Water. Grs. ' Grs. Grs. Muriat of Soda, 51 1-2} Muriat of Soda, 21 Muriat of Soda, 59 Carbonat of Carbonat of Carbonat of So- Lime, 13 3-4 Lime, 45-8| da, TOR 5 Carbonat of Carbonat of Carbonat of Magnesia, 8 1-2 Magnesia, 5 5-8 Lime, Nis Ah Muriat of Lime, 1 3-4| Muriat of Lime, 1 3-4 | Carbonat of Muriat of Mag- Muriat of Mag- Magnesia, 11-2 nesia, 2 1-2 nesia, 3-4 | Carbonatof Iron, 1 Oxyd of Iron, 1-4| Oxyd of Iron, 1-2} Muriat of Lime, 1-2 Total 78 1-4 Total 34 1-2 Total 71. Carbonic acid gas, 26. Carbonic acid gas, Carbonic acid gas, 30 1-2 | Cubic inches, Cubic Inches, 33. | Cubic Inches, The first circumstance which I shall remark with regard to all these waters is, that they contain no neutral salts except muriat of soda, but that in the quantity of this they differ mate- rially, whilst the Ballston water contains only 21 grains in a wine pint, the Congress spring contains 51} grains, and the Albany water, 59 grains. But the most essential difference between these waters arises from the quantity of earths which are held in solution by carbonic acid gas; while the Con- gress spring contains in one pint 221 grains of carbonat of lime and magnesia, the Albany water contains only 5} grains. There is also another material difference between these wa- ters. In none of the springs either of Ballston or Saratoga have I observed an alkaline carbonat, nor indeed could it be expected, as the presence of carbonat of soda is mcompati- ble with either the muriat of lime or of magnesia which I have found in them, but having found five grains of car- \ Account of the New Mineral Spring at Albany. 167 bonat of soda in the Albany water, it entirely accounts for not finding either of these muriats in it, as they cannot exist together, for I consider the half grain which was taken up by the alkohol owing either to a small quantity of water which the alkohol contained, or else that it was rather the product of close evaporation than as a component and original ingre- dient in the water. With respect to the carbonat of iron, which is found, in greater or less quantity, in all those springs, the Albany water appears to contain more than any of them ; while the Con- gress spring is not rated at one grain in the quart, the Albany contains one grain in a pint. J am aware that the analyses of others have stated the iron as much more than I do, but on areference to the waters of the most celebrated chalybe- ates in Europe, I find that none of them are rated as con- taining half this quantity, though analyzed by chemists of un- . doubted skill and science, and I am satisfied that if I have erred on this occasion, it is in rather stating the amount above the real quantity. In no one quality is the analogy between these springs more striking than in the quantity of carbonic acid gas which each of them contains; a reference to the synoptical table will show that they do not differ essentially, and yet I would not have it understood, that the statement of the quantity will be always found precisely accurate, as there is nothing upon which a chemist is more liable to error, so many circum- stances*being required to insure a uniform result; above all, it is necessary that experiments should be made immediately at the spring. In stating the quantity of carbonic gas, with which all these saline waters are impregnated, it is the gene- rally received opinion, that the whole of it is in a free state, that is, that it is combined with the water, without the inter- vention of any other substance. A little reflection, however, will show that this is not the case. Although experiments with litmus paper certainly show that this gas gives the water acid properties, yet the greater part of this gas which we af- terwards collect, has been combined with carbonats of lime and magnesia, which were held in solution by it, but the union being only slight, the gas being volatile is expelled ei- ther by heat, or exposure to the atmosphere, when the earths are precipitated. It is those earths which repress the ef- fect of the acid in the water, while they are combined with it ; otherwise the water would have the same lively and spark- 158 Account of the New Mineral Spring at Albany. ling appearance that the Seltzer and Pyrmont waters have, where the gas forming no carbonats, and consequently being in a free state, these waters show quite a different appear- ance. This is fully exemplified in the artificial soda water, where no earths are made use of, and where the carbonic acid gas is in a free state, combined with the water by atmos- pheric pressure. With respect to the medicinal qualities of this water, I must refer for a full account of them to the work on this subject which I have before mentioned; feeling that this Journal is more particularly confined to other subjects. But it has been frequently asked, which of these waters is the most valuable ? To this the obvious answer is that as they differ essentially in the quantity and quality of their contents, so should they be re- commended according to the different diseases and constitu- tions to which they are adapted. As the waters of the Congress spring and of Albany differ but little in their saline contents, and are endowed with the same cathartic qualities, they seem adapt- ed to become suitable remedies in the same complaints, while the waters of Ballston containing a much less quantity of saline ingredients, and still possessing the valuable properties arising from the impregnation of iron and carbonic acid gas, they seem to be possessed of equal tonic power, and are equally valuable when cathartics* are not necessary or are injurious. As the Congress spring contains a quantity of carbonat of lime and magnesia, so vastly exceeding that which we find in the Albany water, it becomes a question to consider whether it renders it, in a medical point of view, more valua- ble. IfI were to give my opinion, I should say not ; on the contrary, when it is recollected how many pints of this water are frequently taken daily by invalids, it may be doubted whether so much of these carbonats is not injurious to the stomach, while the water at Albany, containing nearly the same proportions of carbonat of soda as of lime and magnesia, no injurious effects can be produced by the use of it. I shall now add only one remark, in which all judicious physicians will agree, and this is, that whatever benefit may be expected. from the use of this or any other mineral water, can be ob- tained only by a moderate and steady perseverance in drink- ing it, and not as is very frequently the case, by a too free use of it for a short period. * At the time of Dr. Mead’s analysis, the spring under the bath house at Ballston, had not been discovered. Foreign Literature and Science. 159 INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. I. Foreign Lxterature and Science, extracted and translated by Prof. J. Griscom. 1. Prussia. Public Instruction—There are in all the Prussian Monarchy, 20,085 elementary Schools for the peo- ple, of which 2,462 are in the towns, and 17,623 in the country. 21,885 masters are attached to these schools, of this number, 15,795 are Protestant and 6,090 Catholics. The sum employed annually by the government in the main- tenance of these Schools amounts to 2,352,752, rix dollars, (about 1,880,000 dollars.) ‘The mean annual assessment for . the support of these masters, is $150 in the cities and $70 in the country.— Reveu Enc. 2. Iron, varieties of.—The result’stated in a memoir on the different states of iron, by M. Muller, of the administration of mines of Prussia is as follows: I. Cast fron—1. Iron forms two distinct compounds with carbon: first, a little carbon and much iron, (the proto- carburet,) and a second much carbon and a little iron, the graphite, (per carburet.) 2. Cast iron is only a compound of pure iron and carbon; ‘the gray variety contains besides some graphite. 3. In high furnaces the ore ofiron begins by being deoxidiz- ed; the regulus combines immediately with carbon, and contin- ues to become charged with it as long as circumstances per- mit. This operation of reduction is accompanied with the formation of dross, which materially modifies the quantity of carbon which the cast iron contains, according to the ra- pidity or slowness of its formation; its perfect or imperfect vitrification, its liquidity or thickness of consistence, and lastly the nature of its constituent parts. 4, In the cast iron, which has but little carbon, the affin- ity of the iron for this substance is too strong to allow it to separate, and form graphite. This variety remains white even when it cools slowly. In the varieties which are rich in carbon, this substance, 160 Foreign Literature and Science. on the contrary, separates during the solidification of the metal, in forming graphite, whose particles by an intimate mixture with the rest of the mass, give to the cast iron the gray fracture. A sudden cooling not permitting the successive formation of graphite, always occasions a white fracture. 5. There are substances which, united to iron, prevent this separation of carbon, under the form of graphite, such as phosphorus, sulphur, the metallic bases, earthy oxides, &c. and other metals especially manganese. In this’ case, the cast iron which contains as much or more carbon than the greyish variety, preserves the white fracture even after it has been cooled as slowly, and as carefullly as possible. Il. Pure Iron. Forged Iron.—Forged iron is consider- ed as pure iron containing foreign substances, (especially carbon,) in too small quantities to alter its properties. The different varieties depend on the properties, more or less in- jurious, which these substances communicate. III. Steel—tIts chemical composition appears to be iden- tical with that of white cast iron, that is to say it is formed of pure iron, carbon and a third body, such as aluminum, sili- cium, manganese, &c. &c. which renders stable the union of the carbon and the iron. The difference between white cast iron and steel, appears to reside according to M. Mul- ler, only in the mechanical arrangement of the molecules—— Annales des Mines, Tome 13, 1826. 3. Astronomical Observatory.—His Majesty the King of the Netherlands whose munificence in the encouragement of public instruction, is constantly active, has just given a new Ordinance for the establishment of an Observatory at Brus- sels. The Regency of the city with a view to second so hon- orable a project, has asked permission to share in the ex- pences of its erection and has offered a site in one of the most beautiful quarters of the city. The care of preparing the plan has been confided to M. A. QueTELET, professor of Mathematics and Astronomy at the Museum, and who is to be associated with M. Walter, Inspector General of public in- struction. They are also occupied at Brussels, at the present time, in the formation of a vast Botanic garden, destined, principally to favor the progress of horticulture. The purchase of the Foreign Lnterature and Science. 161 ground which is situated in the vicinity of the projected ob- servatory, has been made by shares, or stock, the interest of which will be paid by means of 12,000 florins, (more than 25,000 francs,) which are insured annually to the establish- ment by the government and the city of Brussels. One of the principal stockholders is M. Drapier, advantageously known by various scientific publications—Rev. Enc. Aug- gust, 1826. 4. Powder Mills.—Although great care is taken to ex- clude from these manufactories all articles of iron, and to sub- stitute copper and other metals, in the metallic parts of the machinery, which will not strike fire, yet it is well known that explosions, attended with disastrous consequences, are very frequent. Excited by an occurrence of this nature, M. Au- bert, Col. of artillery, was induced, in conjunction with Capt. Tardy, to resume some experiments which he had unsuccess- fully tried, to ascertain, whether gunpowder would not ex- plode by the shock of copper. The result of these renewals was that powder would inflame by the stroke of copper upon copper, or upon the alloys of copper. This gave rise to fur- ther investigations, in presence of the committee of safety, and it was ascertained that gunpowder could be exploded by the stroke of zron upon iron ; iron upon copper ; copper upon copper ; iron upon marble; and by using the balistic pen- dulum, by lead upon lead; and with suitable precautions even by lead upon wood. The experiments were successful both with English and French powder. The experiments ' most clearly show, that in all the manipulations of a powder manufactory, all violent shocks and percussions should be carefully avoided, since they may occasion the disengagement of sufficient heat to produce the inflammation of powder. Bul. d’ Encouragement, Juin, 1826. 5. New Phenomena of Vapour, observed by Crement Dr- sormes.—This philosopher communicated, on the 4th of De- cember, to the Royal Academy of Sciences, some singular results relative to steam. When compressed in a boiler, and issuing in a violent and hissing jet, through an orifice made in a pretty large plate of a flat disk, if metal be presented to it, at a little distance from the orifice, the disk is strongly re- pelled ; but if it be brought near and placed against the plate, as if to close the orifice, although the steam issues on all sides Vou. XIIL—No. 1. 21 162 Foreign Literature and Science. like artificial fire works, and presses against the disk more than before, not only is the disk not driven away, but it ad- heres to the plate even when the jet is directed downwards. It remains suspended in opposition to its gravity, and can be detached only by force. 'The same result takes place, in an experiment with the wind which issues from the large bellows of a furnace. Another fact, also curious, though already well known, is, that a current of steam from a boiler in which it is very hot and much compressed, seems like a cool wind compared with a current at one half the temperature and at one twentieth of the pressure. ith From his first experiments, M. Clement concludes that common safety valves, which consist of real disks placed up- on openings in flat plates, present a danger, inherent in their form. Scarcely are they raised, so as to allow a thin plate of steam to escape, before it becomes impossible for them to rise higher, and if the production of vapour is too considerable for the small opening which may have obtained, and for the strength of the boiler, an explosion may take place, though the safety valve is open. This is in fact what sometimes happens, and which has hitherto appeared incredible. M. Clement had not time to give a full explanation of these sin- gular phenomena. We only know that he attributes them to the vacuum which takes place in the current of steam, in consequence of the extreme swiftness of its particles, and of the conical form the current assumes between the adjacent plates. The current, from its great force is so expanded to- wards the borders, as to become much less than the pressure of the atmosphere, which acts upon the moveable disk forci- bly enough to resist the vapour. The remedy for this danger is a good proportionate space between the orifice and their borders. ‘The first should be large and the others small. Besides, the addition of a coni- cal tube to the safety valve, would diminish the effect of at- mospheric pressure, and of the weight with which they are loaded. M. Clement thinks that experiment alone can de- ~ termine what is the best modification of safety valves to re- move the danger he points out, and which has been so long unnoticed. He wishes the manufacturers to make the neces- sary trials, agreeably to the theory which he has ey dem. Foreign Literature and Science. 163 6. Preparation of Blacking, by M. Braconnot.—Take of plaister, ground and sifted, one kilogramme (2 lbs. 4 oz.) ; lampblack 21 hectogrammes, (about 9 0z.); barley malt, as used by brewers, 5 hectogrammes, (18 0z.); olive oil 50 grammes, (1 02.) Steep the malt in water, almost boiling hot, until the solu- ble portions are well extracted ; put the solution into a basin, stir into it the plaister and lampblack, and evaporate to the consistency of paste ; then add the oil, the quantity of which may be increased by degrees. ‘To the mixture may be add- ed, if desired, a few drops of oil of lemons or of lavender, as a perfume. If ground plaister be not attainable, its place may be supplied with potter’s clay. This is undoubtedly the cheapest and finest blacking ; it spreads evenly, dries and shines quickly on the leather: by a slight friction of the brush and has not the objection of burn: ing the leather—Bul. D’Hncour. Mars, 1825. 7. Preservation of alimentary substances, by the process of M,. Appert.—The success which attended the method em- ployed by Appert in the preservation of even the most deli- cate and highly flavoured animal and vegetable substances ‘ used in cookery, induced the minister of the interior about 17 years ago to reward the author with a premium of 12,000 franes. ‘The process then employed was confined in its ope- ration to vessels of small dimensions, the multiplicity of which would too much encumber a ship, and the number of boxes to be opened at each repast would be too troublesome. On this account the Society of Encouragement proposed, in 1822, a premium of 2000 francs to any person who should preserve at least 2 lbs. of animal substance in each vessel during the space of a year; in which time the said preparations were to cross the line. One or two boxes were to be opened at the time of embarkation or prior to crossing the equator; and the others on their return to France, to be sent to the Socie- ty, all properly attested under seal of the authorities at the place of embarkation. The competitors were also to prove by their registers, that they manufactured and sold annually, to the amount of 20,000 francs, substances preserved by the same or a similar process. In 1824, two candidates appear- ed for the premium, viz. Appert, of Paris, and Collin of Nantes. The former has more than fulfilled the conditions of the premium. He produced two boxes, the first containing 164: Foreign Literature and Science. 4 lbs. of beef, and the second 3 or 4 lbs. of jelly obtained trom meat and poultry, slightly aromatic, and intended as a substitute for the common dry portable soup, but under the form of a very thick jelly. This aliment was put up on the 15th of April, 1822, and opened on the 15th of March, 1824, several members of the Society being present, together with captain Freycinet, who was invited to attend. When the boxes were perforated, a slight hissing was heard, owing to the rapid influx of air to supply the place of that which had been absorbed. When opened, the smell of meat was rather strong, but this was speedily dissipated, and nothing remain- ed but the savour of freshly cooked meat. The gravy was sweet and agreeable, the fat firm, and of a good color. The box of jelly was also in perfect condition, with only a very slight savour, which cooks call a burnt taste. The boxes were of tinned iron, and varnished. M. Appert proved by his register, that he had sold more than 100,000 francs worth of his preparations annually. Captain Freycinet attested that he had used M. Appert’s preserved aliments in his long voy- ages, to the evident preservation of his crew from various maladies which might have cost him the lives of many men. This brave and learned navigator expressed the earnest hope that the whole marine might in time be supplied with provi- sions thus prepared, in lieu of salted meats. The premium of 2000 francs was decreed to M. Appert. Bull. de la Soc. d’ Enecour. Oct. 1824. Norr.—At the termination of the Chemical Lectures in Rutger’s Medical Colfege two months ago, I opened a box of meat containing about 4 lbs. which was given me by the late lamented Captain Williams, of the Albion, and which had been in my possession more than 7 years. It had been put up by a manufacturer in England, agreeably to the method of Appert. This box was of common, but stout, tinned iron, the cover thoroughly soldered on, and varnished. On perforating the box with the corner of a small chissel, the air entered with a hissing sound. The contents proved to be veal cooked and put up with pieces of boiled carrot intermingled with jelly, the whole free from all unpleas- ant taint, and in good condition. Toward the close of the lecture the materials were dressed in a stew pan, by my assistant, and at the con- clusion of the lecture, this food, which had been cooked at least seven years before, was partaken of by a great number of the class, who pro- nounced it good, and free from all'taint of putridity. A portion of it was served upon my table several days after; and though is was less juicy than meats fresh from the market, it was quite palatable. The facts ap- pear to warrant the conclusion, that in the entire absence of air or ox- ygen in the gaseous form, animal substances may retain their charac- teristic qualities for an indefinite period. J. G. 5th Mo. 1827. fa Foreign Literature and Science. 165 8. Education in Hungary.—The Catholic population of Hungary amounts to about seven millions, and it appears that in 1824, the number of students which frequented the latin schools were 21,540. Of the Reformed Religion, the popu- lation is about 1,500,000 and the number of latin scholars 7,200. Of Lutherans, the population is 700,000, and the number of students 3,800; making the whole number of Catholic and Protestant students in Hungary, exclusive of those of the Greek ritual, about 32,000. In general, there is no village in Hungary destitute of a school, and it is very rare that any person is found, either Cath- olic or Protestant, that cannot read. This observation does not apply to the peasantry of the Greek church, who, how- ever, constitute only one eighth part of the population of ‘Hungary. From these facts one may judge of the correctness of the- Edinburgh Review, republished in the following terms in an article of the British Review: “Almost all the inhabitants of Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Bukowina, are unable either to read or write.” The heedlessness of men who de- claim against the ignorance of others, while they are them- selves ignorant of the beings they are speaking of, is certainly to be pitied— Rev. Ency. Mars, 1827. 9. M. De Fellenberg—has founded near Meykirch, two leagues from Bern and Hofwyl,a colony formed of twelve boys of the age of twelve to fifteen, to whom has been given the name of the little Robmsons, and who present in miniature, an image of the life and employments of the clearers or settlers upon new land in the woods of North America. These pu- pils, taken from the school of Vehrli, are directed by Pfiffer, a young countryman of the canton of Glaris. A few farming implements, some provisions, and two goats, composed, at first, all the wealth of the little colony ; their domain consist- ed, last spring, of a small piece of uncultivated ground, upon the side of a hill, crowned by a wood of pine, with a misera- ble hovel, which simply afforded them a shelter, and was entire- ly unfurnished with goods or utensils. Here the little colonists established themselves in the month of March 1826. The colony has already the aspect of a little farm, and satisfaction sparkles in every eye; they do not refuse the occasional assist- ance of their old companions at Hofwyl, and the Count Capo @’ Istria, who visited them a short time before I did, made 166 Foreign Literature and Science. them a present of a cow, which was received m triumph. — A cordial emulation animates them; the greater’ portion of them read correctly and know Robinson by heart. It was feared that in such an exile, the little pioneers would regret the comforts and varied occupations, amusements and ad- vantages of Hofwyl; far from this, they prefer their poor and wild Robinsoniere, as the place is surnamed. They are proud of witnessing the effects of their own industry, and enjoy at once what they have accomplished, and what they have mm anticipation. | Oh that it were in my power to bestow upon France such a school of poor children as that of Hofwyl. A good teacher is the soul of it ; but nature is avaricious of such men as M. de Fellenberg, and Vehrlis are not produced at pleasure ; much time is necessary for a young man to be informed of all that is important to know, in order to become duly pene- trated with the wholesome and fruitful ideas, with the modest, mild, persevering and religious sentiments which are requisite to the functions of a teacher of the poor—M. De B. IRadem. 10. NECROLOGY. De La Puacz, (Piere Simon,) Peer of France, Member of the Institute, Academy of Sciences, died at Paris, March 5, 1827.—Science and Letters have just sustained a grievous loss. M. De la Place has yielded to a malady, which it was hoped would have terminated favor- ably, but neither the assistance of art, skilfully employed, nor the attentive cares of a beloved wife, could arrest the pro- gress of a disease which fastened itself upon the debility pro- duced by age. His friends and illustrious confederates ac- companied his remains to their last abode, and scattered a few flowers upon his tomb. The Academy of Sciences has lost its greatest ornament; and the sceptre of astronomy, physics, and mathematics has fallen from the hands which were so worthy of bearing it. Let us hope, nevertheless, that it will not depart from France, and that one of the celebrated compeers of our great academician will be judged capable of receiving it. The art which he so well possessed, of treating profound subjects with elegance and clearness, had gained for him the suffrages of men of letters, and the French Aca- demy, over which he presided, feels all that it has lost, though it has found a worthy successor to the illustrious deceased in M. Fourier. All the governments which have succeeded each other in France, have in their turns, been well aware of the im- Foreign Literature and Science. 167 portance of honoring De la Place, and they accordingly raised him to public dignity. After the Restoration, the king confirm- ed the decision by naming him to the peerage, the duties of which never diverted him from those learned researches, in which death alone could arrest his progress. His last years produced sparks of that fruitful genius which old age had no power to chill. He honored all those who cultivated science, and granted to such his encouragement and counsel. He em- ployed the credit which his vast fame and his public employment gave him, only in assisting men who showed a taste for study ; and all his life was employed in favoring learned men and in extending the bounds of science. We propose to give an extensive notice of the labors and discoveries of this celebrated man, so worthy of holding a distinguished place in the me- mory of our descendants.—Franceur. Idem. 11. La Rochefoucauld—Liancourt.—(Francois Alexandre —Frederic, Duke of,) peer of France. member of the in- stitute, died at Paris, March 27th, 1827, at the age of 81. The sacred cause of humanity is daily losing some of its supporters and defenders. ‘The entire life of this venerable philanthropist has been a succession of good actions, and of services rendered to his country. He introduced vaccination into France and ceased not during more than twenty years, to propagate it with indefatigable zeal. He founded the schools of arts and trades, of Compiegne, of Chalons and of Augers. He presided at the creation of the conservato- ry of the arts and trades of Paris. Hospitals, and prisons whose interior discipline he contributed greatly to ame- liorate, and the greater number of the establishments devo- ted to indigence, old age, and misfortune, have by turns been objects of his active beneficence. He was also the principal founder of the school of mutual instruction in our country; and the two. societies for the amelioration of ele- mentary instruction, and for the application of christian mo- rals to the relations of social life, were established under his auspicies, and in a great measure by his exertions. He has been a powerful agent in the promotion of industry in the legislative chambers, in the society for the encourage- ment of national industry, and especially in the commune of Liancourt, where his lessons and example have given a salu- tary impulse to the whole country. The ferocious enemies of new institutions and public liberty have not spared this 168 Foreign Literature and Science. excellent man, always superior to all the influences which would violate his conscience or restrict his love of benefi- cence. Obliged to give up more than six gratuitous posts which he honored by his virtues, he felt very forcibly the pain of being separated from the unfortunate beings whom he cherished as his children. The funeral of the Duke de Liancourt was celebrated on the 30th of March, at the church of the Assumption. A numerous concourse of the peers of France, and of deputies and distinguished men of all classes of society attended the ceremony. But in the midst of the solemnity and of.the gen- eral grief, a sacriligeous profanation occurred which filled every heart with indignation and pain. A number of pu- pils of the school of Chalons who attended the procession, wished after obtaining the consent of the family, to bear the coffin which enclosed the remains of their benefactor and father. No law, no public ordinance was infringed by this popular homage, equally honorable to him who was the object of it, and those who wished to bestow it. But m the mean time, a commissary of police, and a military chief, by force of arms and at the poimt of the bayonet, tore away the coffin from the dovotion of public gratitude. Citizens were struck, overthrown in the mud, and even wounded ; blood was spilt; the coffin fell into the gutter, and was with difficulty replaced upon the carriage!!! At the barriere de Clichy, when the corpse was placed in a coach to be conveyed to Liancourt, .M. Charles Dupin, member of the academy of sciences, pronounced an elo- quent discourse, and proved himself the worthy organ of the various feelings which affected the numerous spectators. The chamber of Peers, in its session of the 31st of March, ordered, on motion of the Duke de Choiseul, that the grand Referendary should be instructed to enquire into the cause of the disorder durmg the obsequies of the Duke de La Ro- chefaucauld—Liancourt, and report the same to the cham- ber. A life so long, and so well employed, as that of the vir- tuous citizen whose death we deplore, is worthy of history. We shall present an abridged portrait to the readers of the Revue Encyclopedique, on which he often bestowed marks of his regard, as an enterprise of public good, and which he has enriched with various useful communications. We shall take delight in tracing the philanthropic views, the ef- Foreign Literature and Science. 169 forts, actions and aim of the life of the man who has done honor to his country and to humanity. The profound sen- timent of a perfect agreement between his thoughts and our own, will serve as an encouragement to continue to fulfil the difficult task in which we are engaged, and with which he had deigned sometimes to become an associate.—Idem. M. A.J. 12. On the action of Alkaline Chlorides as the means of dis- infection ; in a letter from GAULTIER DE CLauBRy, to Gay Lussac. [EXTRACT. ] It has appeared to me that after the publication of your memoir on chlorometry, (Ann. de Ph. et de Ch. XX VI, 165,) the action of the chloride of lime was perfectly understood, - for you say that “its solution exposed to the air, is by de- grees decomposed; a portion of the lime unites with the carbonic acid contained in the air, and the chlorine, which was combined with it, becomes disengaged; this decompo- sition may be retarded by introducing an excess of lime.” This observation appears to have been overlooked, since M. Labarraque tries to prove that it is the miasmatic sub- stance itself, which is attracted by the chloride, and which becomes decomposed by action on the chlorine which it contains. Chloride of lime, well saturated, dissolved in water, was subjected to the action of a current of carbonic acid gas; after a few moments, chlorine was disengaged, and by con- tinuing the operation, the whole of that gas was expelled from the combination; the liquid had no longer the power of discoloration, even on the tincture of turnsol; carbonate of lime was precipitated, a portion being afterwards redissol- ved in the excess of carbonic acid. This experiment is tedious; the decomposition of a gramme of the chloride required more than three hours, but it was compieted at the end of that time. Air which had been passed slowly through a solution of caustic potash, produced no sensible effect on a solution of chloride of lime, during half an hour’s continuance; it should be observed however that at the beginning of the experiment a slight erust of carbonate of lime was formed on the surface by the action of the air which filled a part of the apparatus. Vor. XTI.—No. 1. DO ane 170 Foreign Literature and Science. The carbonate of lime obtained from the decomposition of the chloride of lime, retains no trace of chlorine. The chlo- ride of soda is decomposed by carbonic acid like chloride of lime only more slowly, because it does not form an insoluble salt. It is difficult to obtain chloride of lime entirely free fronr hydrochlorate. I found the quantity of hydrochloric acid to be exactly the same after the action of the carbonic acid as before. ‘To determine the quantity of hydrochloric acid in the chloride before decomposition, I treated the chloride with acetic acid, and precipitated with nitrate of silver. Simple exposure to the air likewise decomposes the solu- tion of chloride of lime. A filtered solution was exposed on the 13th of August, and on the 10th of October, it would not discolor turnsol; the precipitate when washed, was found to be carbonate of lime. These experiments show clearly enough what takes place when a chloride is exposed to the action of air containing miasmatic impregnations; it appear- ed to us however that a few direct experiments would not be useless. Some air was blown through a quantity of blood, which had been abandoned to putrefaction during a week and which emitted an unsupportable odour. The infected air was then passed through chloride of lime ; carbonate of lime was formed and the air remained entirely free from smell and completely purified by the chloride. © The experiment was repeated by substituting a solution of caustic potash for the chloride. ‘The air issued from it with a very fetid odour. Air which had been left twenty four hours in contact with the putrefied blood, was placed in contact with the chloride; the disinfection was complete in a few moments, and carbo- nate of lime was formed. Another portion was treated with caustic potash, and afterwards with the chloride; but it pre- served its insupportable odour! It appears to us that nothing is at present to be desired with respect to the action of alkaline chlorides as disinfec- ting agents; the carbonic acid of the air decomposes the chloride, and sets the chlorine at liberty, which then re-acts as if it had been directly employed. It is thus easy to explain the preference to be given to chlorides as disinfecting substances, over fumigations of chlo- yine. The carbonic acid in the air, or that which arises from Foreign Literature and Science. 171 animal decomposition, drives the chlorine from its combina- tions, and as-this action takes place slowly, the chlorine is less susceptible of acting on the animal economy, but de- composes easily the putrid miasmata; it then becomes a true fumigation of chlorine only less strong and much longer im operation.—Ann. de Ch. and de Phys. Nov. 1826. Paris, October 28, 1826. 13. Magnetism by the Solar Rays——It appears from the experiments of A. Baumgartner, Professor of Philosophy at Vienna, that if an iron wire of the size of a common knitting needle, is exposed to the direct white light of the sun, while its surface is partly oxydized, it acquires magnetism. This effect did not ensue when the surface was wholly covered with oxide, nor wher perfectly polished. Having heated a. steel wire of the size of a knitting needle, so as to cover it entire- ly with black oxide, he removed, by means of an oiled stone and chalk, portions of the oxid in zones of two or three lines in length, and exposed it to the sun. After some time it was found that the polished places had become so many North poles, while corresponding South poles existed in the unpol- ished portions. A wire polished at one of its extremities only, acquires North polarity at that extremity, and South at the other. If the middle only be polished, each extremity be- comes South, and the middle North. In this manner any number of poles may be developed which the length will ad- mit. A wire 8 inches long will furnish as many distinct poles as inches in length, but of unequal intensity.—Jdem. 14. Metallic Refrigerating mixture.—It is stated by Deb- ereiner, that if 207 grains of lead, 118 grains of tin, 284 grains of bismuth, and 1617 grains of mercury be mixed together at the temperature of 17.5 centigrade, (63.5 Fah.) the thermome- ter descends to —10 cent. (14 Fah.)—Ann. de Ch. June, 1826. 15. Chinese paper, of which so much use is now made in Europe,chiefly for copper-plate impressions, is distinguished by its homogeneous texture, its smooth and silky surface, its soft- ness and extreme fineness. It is sold in very large sheets, some of which are 4 or 5 yards long and a yard wide. The Chinese fabricate their paper from different materials, In the province of Se-T'schuen it is made of hempen rags, like the paper of Europe; that of Fo-Kien, is made of the 172 Foreign Literature and Science. young shoots of the bamboo; that of the Northern provinces of the inner bark of a tree called ku-tschu which is no more than the paper mulberry, (morus papyrifera.) It is this pa- per which is most commonly employed in China. They re- sort to chemical solvents, and especially the ley of ashes to bring it to a soft pulp, or paste, and they make use of rice water and other infusions to render it properly consistent and sufficiently smooth and white—Bull d’Encour. Juil. 1826. 16. Useful Alloy.—M. Frick in melting together 50 parts of copper, 31.20 of zinc, and 18.75 of nickel, obtained a metal- lic alloy, white, not oxidable, very ductile, and which acquires a beautiful polish ; in varying these proportions, viz. by taking 53.39 of copper, 29.13 of zinc, and 17.48 of nickel, he pro- duced an alloy which has the sound and unchangeable nature of silver, but harder. It is particularly suitable for ornaments, objects of saddlery, boxes, watch chains, &c. This alloy was sold at first at 12 francs per pound, but as nickel is suffi- ciently abundant in Germany, and as many artists are enga- ged in this composition the price will necessarily fall—tIdem. 17. Micrometrical observations on Saturn, Jupiter and his Satellites, made at Dorpat, with the large Achromatic Tele- scope of Fraunhofer, by Prof. Srruve.—After having reduced the measures relative to Saturn and his double ring, to the mean distance of that planet, M. Struve obtained the follow- ing values in seconds of a degree, and thousands of a second. Exterior diameter of the exterior ring, seconds, 40.215 Interior diameter, - - - - Saco Exterior diameter of the interior ring, —- 34.579 Interior diameter, - - “sy Teese sia 26.748 Equatorial diameter of Saturn, : : 18.045 Width of the exterior ring, —- - - 2.410 —interior, - - - - 3.915 Interval between the two rings, - - 0.408 Interval between the planet and ring, - 4.352 Professor Struve adds, “I have perceived no other traces of any other subdivisions of the ring. It is surprising that ihe exterior ring should be sensibly less luminous than the in- terior. “ The fourth satellite ‘presents a small disk, whose diameter has nearly 2 of a second. I have several times seen the 6th Foreign Literature and Science. 173 satellite, but never the 7th, which Herschell discovered, dur- ing the disappearance of the ring. Schréter doubted the ex- istence of this satellite.” Relative to Jupiter, the observations of M. Struve, reduced to the mean distance of the planet give him The equatorial diameter of Jupiter, seconds, 38.442 Polar diameter, - - - - - 35.645 whence results a flattenning of 0.078, or of ,;!,;, the first diameter being taken for unity, Diameter of the first satellite, - - seconds, 1.018 second, - - - 0.914 third, - - - 1.492 fourth, - - - Leeir The third satellite has evidently the greatest diameter, while it is very inferior in clearness to all the other satellites, and sometimes appears very pale. The measurements were ta-. ken with an amplification of 540 and 600. Bib. Univ. Oct. 1826. 18. Mutual Instruction in Denmark.—M. Abrahamson has just*published his third annual report on the progress of mu- tual instruction, (Copenhagen, 1826.) It is addressed to the King, and brings up the statement to the 3d of December, 1825. It proves that the new method obtains the happiest success in the Danish States. At the end of 1823, the first year of the foundation of schools of mutual instruction, there were in Denmark, 244 schools completely organized. At the end of 1824, the number rose to 605, and on the 31st of De- cember, 1825, there were 1143 schools, in full activity, inde- pendently of 564 others in which preparation was making for the introduction of the system. It may then with certain- ty be foreseen, that at the end of this year, (1826,) there will be in Denmark, more than 1700 schools completely organ- ized.— Rev. Ency. Oct. 1826. 19. Separation of Iron from Manganese.—M. Quesneville, fils, proposes to separate these metais from each other, by adding to their solution arseniate of potash, after having rendered it as neutral as possible, and after having brought the iron to the maximum of oxidation. The iron alone separates in the form of arseniate, and the manganese remains in solu- tion.—Jour, de Pharmacie. 174 Foreign Literature and Science. 20. Action of anhydrous sulphuric acid on fluor spar.—M. Kuhlman, Professor of Chemistry at Lisle, has discovered that fluor spar cannot be decomposed by anhydrous sulphu- ric acid. This new fact is in favor of the opinion which considers this body as a fluoruret of calcium. Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. Fev. 1827. 21. Disinfection of Alcohol.—According to the experiments of M. Accaric, confirmed by those of M. Chevallier, alcohol which has been employed in the preservation of animal mat- ters, is easily disinfected by adding to it, small quantities of chloruret of lime, until the putrid odour has disappeared. It is then to be distilled, and the product may serve for the pre- servation of new substances, or for any other use in the arts. Ibid. ° 22. Mosaic Gold, by Parker anp Hamitton.—The pa- tentees employ equal parts of copper and zinc, melted at the lowest temperature at which copper will fuse ; and after hay- ing stirred the mixture so as to produce a perfect combina- tion, they add a fresh quantity of zinc in small portions, until the alloy acquires the requisite color. Ifthe temperature of the copper is too high, a portion of the zine will be volatilized and the result will be the mixture called strong solder, but if the operation be conducted at a temperature as low as possible, the alloy assumes a yellow color like brass, and then by adding zinc in small portions the color changes to purple, violet, and finally becomes perfectly white. This alloy may be cast into ingots, or any other form, and when cold it pre- sents the aspect of an alloy of fine gold and copper. But it is difficult to preserve this color when remelted as the zine is easily volatilized if the heat be raised above the melting point of copper.—Bull. Univ. Dec. 1826. 23. Solution of Copal.—Many persons do not know that the tedious process of dissolving copal in spirits of wine, be- comes at once easy and expeditious by the addition of cam- phor : thus, dissolve one ounce of camphor in a quart of alco- hol; put the solution into a suitable glass and add eight ounces of copal in small fragments, place the mixture on heated sand, whose temperature should be so regulated that the bubbles which rise from the bottom may be counied as they rise, and let it thus remain till the solution is complete. Foreign Literature and Science. 175 This process will dissolve more copal than the liquid will contain when cold. The most economica! method is to put the vessel aside for some days and when the soijution is ef- fected, to decant the clear varnish and leave the rest for a second operation.—Ilid. 24. Pyrolignous acid.—Agreeably to the experiments of Berzelius, detailed in the transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, every trace of empyreumatic oil _ may be removed from this acid by animal charcoal. It is only necessary to mix the charcoal with the acid and fil- ter immediately. ‘The charcoal which remains in the pro- cess of making prussian blue was found to be very efficacious, even in exceedingly small quantities —Bull. Univ. Juillet, 1826. 25. Crystallization of Camphor, by M. Joun.—I have ob- . served that the vapours of camphor, which are spontaneously developed in the course of a few years in a glass well closed and containing camphor wrapped in paper, crystallize in small tables with six faces, of which the two which are op- posite are larger than the four other faces. The crystals are transparent and very brilliant—Bull. Univ. Mars, 1826. 23. Animal Magnetism.—A volume on this subject enti- tled, Lettres physiologiques et morales sur le magnetism animale, contenant l’expose critique des experiences les plus récentes et une nouvelle theorie sur ses causes, ses phénome- nes et ses applications a la medicine, &c. par J. Amedée Dupau, D. M. 1 vol. 8vo. was published in Paris in 1826, in the form of letters addressed to Professor Alibert. The spirit which has directed the author, in these letters, is that of doubt and examination, the only sure guide to the truths of science. Without troubling himself with vain denomina- tions, M. Dupau has enquired by researches into the mysteries of ancient temples, and the magical secrets of the middle ages, whether all the physical and moral phenomena, which certain practises determined, were not owing to the same cause and belonged not to the same series of facts. The author has sought to demonstrate, not that animal magnetism is no- thing, but that it is a different thing from what the magne- tisers suppose : he shows that magnetic phenomena have ex- isted at all times, and that they present themselves to the ob- 176 Foreign Literature and Science. servations of medical men in various nervous and mental diseases. From all the facts before him, the author deduces the followmg conclusions : 1. That magnetic effects are only nervous diseases under the form of convulsions, extatic delirium, comatose sleep, somnabulism, d&c. 2. That magnetism developes these cerebral neuroses only in persons predisposed to these affections. 3. That magnetism is a dangerous process, since it tends to favor the developement of these diseases. 4. That magnetism is still more dangerous in its moral relations. Such are the principal results of this work, which by its mass of facts, and the novelty of its views must very much contribute to extend a knowledge of the nature of animal magnetism.—Bull. Univ. Mars, 1826. 27. Preparation of Soda from the Sulphate of Soda.— Dissolve, with or without heat, lime or calcareous matter, m pyrolignous acid; the liquor becomes covered with the vegetable oil which this matter contained, and which can be mechanically separated; dissolve in the liquor thus saturated with lime, a quantity of sulphate of soda, determined by the degree which the calcareous solution indicates on the hy- drometer for saline solutions, (pése-sel.) By this procedure, the sulphuric acid, quits the soda, and forms with the lime a solid salt which precipitates to the bottom of the containing vessel. The supernatant fluid, evaporated and crystalized, gives acetate of soda. This salt, collected dried, and cal- cined, either on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, or in front of a furnace adjusted for the purpose, gives carbonate of soda, which a warm ley, on cooling, reduces to the state of crystals, of the greatest purity.—Ibid. 28. School of Aris.—Major General Martin, a Lyonese, who died 25 years ago in Bengal, left to the city of Lyons 250,000 rupees, (1,200,000 franes,) on condition that the in- terest should be applied to an institution which should be acknowledged to be the most useful for the public good in his native city. The institution is to be called the Martin- iére. ‘The royal academy of Lyons decided on the 10th of December, that the Martiniere should be a gratuitous school ef arts and trades, especially applied to the progress and Foreign Literature and Science. ae perfection of Lyonese industry. M. Tabareau, member of the academy of Lyons and professor of Philosophy has been placed at the head of the course of instruction, and has been directed to repair to Paris, in order to become acquaint- ed with the course professed by Baron Dupin; and thence to Chalons-sur-Marnec, to learn the organization of the royal school of arts and trades at that place. The instruction will be theoretical and practical. The theory will embrace grammar, arithmetic, drawing and designing, architecture, notions of algebra, elementary and descriptive geometry, and their applications to the arts, a course of chemistry, applicable especially to dyeing, and a course of machines. The principal shops attached to the school, shall be those of joinery, lockmaking, turning in wood and metals, casting, machinery and silk dyeing.—Zbid. 29. Battle of Ants; by M. Hannart.—The author in this memorr describes a battle which he saw between two spe- cies of ants; one the formica rufa, and the other a little blagk ant, which he does not name, (probably the fofusca.) In other respects there is nothing new on this subject, this kind of combat having been described in detail, and in a very interesting manner, by M. Huber, (Recherches sur les meeurs des Fourmis, 1810,) a work to which we refer, not be- ing able here to enter into the requisite details. M. Hanhart saw these insects approach in armies composed of their respective swarms and advancing towards each oth- er in the greatest order. The formica rufa marched with one in front on a line from nine to twelve feet in length. flanked by several corps in square masses composed of from, twenty to sixty individuals. The second species, (little blacks,) forming an army much more numerous, marched to meet the enemy, on a very ex- tended line, and from one to three individuals abreast. They left a detachment at the foot of their hillock to defend it against any unlooked for attack. The rest of the army marched to the battle, with its right wing supported by a sol- id corps, of several hundred individuals, and the left wing supported by a similar body of more than a thousand. These groups advanced in the greatest order, and without changing their positions. The two lateral corps took no part in the principal action. That of the right wing made a halt and formed an army of reserve ;. whilst.the corps which Vou. XITI.—No. 1. 23 178 Foreign Literature and Science. (om) marched in column on the left wing manceuvered so as to turn the hostile army, and advanced with a hurried march to the hillock of the formica rufa, and took it by assault. The two armies attacked each other and fought a long time without breaking their lines. At length disorder ap- peared in various points and the combat was maintained in detached groups; and after a bloody battle which contmued from three to four hours, the formica rufa were put to flight and forced to abandon their two hillocks and go off to estab- lish themselves at some other point with the remains of their army. The most interesting part of this exhibition, says M. Han- hart, was to see these insects reciprocally making prisoners, and transporting their own wounded to their hillocks. Their devotedness to the wounded was carried so far, that the formica rufa in conveying them to their nests, allowed them- selves to be killed by the little blacks without any resistance rather than abandon their precious charge. From the observations of M. Huber, it is known that when an ant hillock is taken by the enemy, the vanquished are reduced to slavery, and employed in the interior labors ef ther habitation — Bull. Univ. Mai. 1826. 29. Action of Barytes, Strontian, Chrome, &c.; by C. G. Gmue.in.—Experiments made upon animals have furnished the following results. 1. Bodies similar to each other in their chemical proper- ties may have a very different action upon the animal organ- ization, such are barytes and strontites. 2. Muriate of barytes, oxide of uranium and oxide of pal- ladium, coagulate the blood when they are injected inte the vessels of circulation. ‘These three metals are the only ones which produce this phenomenon. 3. Chromate of Potash applied to the cellular tissue acts upon the bronchia, and augments the secretion of saliva, which becomes thick. It produces only inflammation of the _ conjunctiva. 4. The oxide of osmium acts upon the stomach, produces vomiting and excites in the lungs the exudation of a serous liquid. . 5. Sulphate of magnesia, injected into the vascular system, acts evidently upon the face, producing inflammation, and Foreign Literature and Science. 179 increasing the secretion of bile to such a degree, that the large vessels even are colored yellow by it—Ibid. 30. New Agricultural and Manufacturing Establishment in France.—The king has directed the purchase and addi- tion to the domains of the crown, of the territory de Grignon, at the price of about a million. It will be placed at the dispo- sal of a stock company who will manage the concern so as to derive the greatest advantages from the soil, agreeably to the most judicious procedures. They will receive 300 pupils who will be taught the theory and practice of agriculture, horticulture, the economy of farming, and the art of deriving by means of various fabrications, the greatest possible ad- vantages from the productions of the soil. The shares are 1200 francs each; the society is chartered for 40 years; the king takes 400 shares, and abandons the profits, which are to be applied to the increase of the establishment, and to the diminution of the pension required from the pupils.—Ibid. .o1. Chlorate of Lime.—M. Lemaire states that a solution of chlorate of lime in the proportion of one part of the salt to three of water, has proved very useful in the cure of ulcers, which have thereby been cicatrised in the course of eight or ten days. The proto-ioduret of mercury has had the same ef- fect. M. Latbert asserts that in the military hospitals, the good effects of the chlorate of lime had been before verified. M. Vauquelin remarks that Dr. Chamsem had for some time employed the oxygenized muriatic acid diluted with water, as a drink in syphlitic diseases, but the irritation which it cau- sed in the stomach obliged him to renounce it. The urine and the foeces were white and entirely discolored.—Bull. Univ. Jan. 1826. 32. Theory of Flame.—An interesting paper on the na- ture and properties of flame, was read by G. Lrsri, at the Society des Georgophiles (Florence,) on the 3d of Decem- ber, 1826. The author was led to doubt the correctness of the theory or explanation given by Sir H. Davy, in order to account for the phenomenon of his safety lamp. The dis- tinguished inventor ascribes the security which the lamp af- fords to the conducting power of the metallic gauze, by which it is supposed the temperature of the flame is so much lower- ed as to be insufficient to ignite the inflammable mixture on 180 Foreign Literature and Science. the outside. Some facts known to the author were at vari- ance with this hypothesis: and he found upon trial, that when single rods were made to approach a flame, the latter was al- ways inflected, on all sides, from the rod, as if repelled by it, and that this effect was independent of the conducting power of the rod, whether good or bad. The amount of inflection or repulsion, was directly as the mass and inversely as the distance from the flame. It was not diminished by increas- ing the temperature of the rod, even to such a degree as to render it scarcely possible for it to abstract any of the calo- ric. In fact, when two flames are made to approach each other, there is a mutual repulsion, although. their proximity increases the temperature of each instead of diminishing it. « From these principles,” says the author, “the theory of the safety lamp is easily deduced. A metallic wire, exerting, according to its diameter and its own nature a. constant repulsion upon flame, it is evident that two parallel wires, so near each other as not to exceed the distance of twice the ra- dius of the sphere of repulsion, will not permit a flame to in- sinuate itself between them, unless it be impeiled by a force. superior to the intensity of repulsion. If to these two wires others be added, a tissue is formed impenetrable to flame, es- pecially when the conducting power of the wires adds its in- fluence to that of the repulsion.” : The author conceives, that, from the views above stated, the number of cross or horizontal wires in the Davy lamp, is unnecessarily large, and that by rejecting all of these except- ing a number sufficient to secure the firmness of the tissue, the lamp would afford as great a security as at present, and at the same time diffuse a much greater light. This opinion he has verified by actual experiment. Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneva, Mars, 1827. 33. Power of Steam.—The following laws of steam were announced by M. Morin, in an interesting course of Lectures at Geneva, attended by philosophers as well as artists. First Law—Whatever may be the temperature and press- ure under which the steam is produced, the same quantity of heat must be employed to produce the same weight of steam ; and as the quantity of heat developed is proportion- ed to the quantity of fuel, it is obvious that a given weight of steam, a kilograme, for example, will always cost the same price, whether it be produced at a low or a high pressure. Foreign Literature and Science. 181 This important discovery is due to M. Clements, and is one of the finest results of his numerous investigations. Second Law.—The volume of the same quantity of steam, is in inverse proportion to the pressure to which it is subjected. This law, discovered by Mariotte, is applicable to all gases. Steam acts, in many respects, as a permanent gas. Third Law.—The dilatation of steam is 53, of its volume at zero, for each degree of the centigrade thermometer. We are indebted for this law to the remarks of Gay Lussac and Dalton. Fourth Law.—The latter gives the elastic force of steam, according to the degree of heat at which it is produced. The followmg table exhibits this law, which can be expressed only by numbers. Pressure. Centigrade. Difference. i Atmos. - - LOO?! Tt - - — 2 - - 122 - - - 22 3 - - 135 os - - 13 4 - - 145 - - - 10 5 > - 153 abs Nm - 8 6 - - 160 : - - 4 of - - 166 - - - 6 &c. é&e. &c. Idem. Feb. 1827. 34. Cyanuret of Iodine-—To obtain this substance in a manner as Curious as commodious, place upon a large square of glass, a very large bell or receiver, of the same material ; and on another side, a mixture in the requisite proportions of cyanuret of mercury and iodine is to be heated mm a porcelain capsule until the cyanuret is plainly beginning to form. The capsule is then to be expeditiously placed under the bell and the operation abandoned to itself; when the production of eyanuret of iodime will continue during 15 or 20 minutes, presenting the spectacle of a multitude of flakes of snow, ex- tremely light and of a dazzling whiteness. Annals de Chimie. Jan. 1827. 35. Ammonia in the rust of fron.—it has been experimen- tally ascertained by Chevallier, that ammonia not only exists in the oxide of iron which is formed in situations exposed to animal effluvia, but that it may be obtained from oxide arti- ficially prepared, under such precautions as will exclude the / 182 Foreign Literature and Science. presence of animal matter. Two ounces of clean iron filmgs were heated in a closed crucible, and when cold introduced into a flask with an ounce of water, the opening of the flask being dipped in mercury. Ammonia was evolved in decisive quantity, proving, as had been previously advanced by Aus- tin, that ammonia is formed when pure iron is oxydised by contact with water and air. Chevallier found also that am- monia existed in a great variety of natural oxides, such as the micaceous iron ore of Elba, the red hematite of Spain, the jenite of Elba, &c. &c.—Idem. 36. Improved Clock.—Among the articles displayed at the “ first national exhibition of the objects of art and industry,” at Neuchatel, (Switzerland,) last year, we may mention par- ticularly a clock made by Freprericx Hovriet, of Locle in which steel was used only in the main spring, and in the axes of the moveable parts: all the other parts aré in brass, gold alloy, gold of 18 carats, and white gold. The number of pieces in pure gold, gold and silver, gold and platina, is six- ty-two : all the pivots turn on javels and the functions of the free escapements, are effected also by means of pallets in precious stones. Some artists had observed to M. Houriet that the escapement and the spiral spring not being of steel, the inconvenience would result of a less degree of elasticity ; but numerous trials and favourable results have removed the objection, and it appears evidently that gold hardened either by beating, (refoulement) or any other means known to the author, is more elastic than hardened and untempered steel. This clock has gone for six days, exposed to the contact of an artificial magnet, of the strength of 25 or 30 lbs. without experiencing any derangement. ‘This new method of fabri- cating chronometers, may become of great importance to those bold navigators, who, like captain Parry, explore the Northern regions where the magnetic influence often exer- cises a very sensible action upon time keepers of the ordinary eonstruction.— Rev. Ency. Feb. 1827. 37. Neuchatel.—A steam boat entered the ports of this town, under the roaring of cannon and the applauses of the popu- lation, assembled from all parts to enjoy the new spectacle. We are assured that the bed of the Thielle, a small river which will open the passage into lake Bienne, is to be clear- ed out, and from the latter lake, by means of a little labor, Foreign Literature and Science. — 183 the same steam boat can enter lake Morat, and thus establish. a communication, rapid and convenient, between the can- tons of Vaud, Berne, Neuchatel and Fribourg.—Idem. 38. Necrotocy.—Pestalozzi (Henry,) born at Zurich, the 12th of January, 1746, paid the debt of nature, after a short and painful illness, on the 17th of February last, at Neuhof, near Brugg, in the canton of Argovie. Pestalozzi held the first rank among the philanthropists _ who aimed at the reformation of the people, through the in- strumentality of education. Exalted virtues, an ardent zeal for the happiness of his fellow creatures, persevering labors in the career in which he had voluntarily engaged, useful. works which have given him a title to the gratitude of man- kind: we owe him the tribute of a gratitude which we de- light to pay to the memory of the most illustrious benefactors - of humanity ; and we shall perform a duty to Pestalozzi, in a detailed notice of his life, his works, and his institutions of education. For some years Pestalozzi had witnessed the progressive, decline, and eventually, the complete ruin of his institution, at Yuerdun, on which he had formerly founded his highest hopes. But, if he was not able to end his days in the midst of friends and disciples, whose care and affection would have sweetened his last moments, he was at least able to carry with him to the tomb the consoling certainty, that his examples and lessons will not have been expended in vain, for already many of his pupils, spread over various portions of Europe and America, have obtained, in the application of his method of education, a success which was refused to the venerable Pestalozzi, in his own country, during his long and beneficent career.—Idem. 39. Progress of Science—An Atheneum has been esta- blished at Brussels, under the influence and authority of the king, in which are given ten courses of instruction, open gra- tuitously to all classes who seek for knowledge. The Profes- sors have been selected among the most able men in the country, and the letters, it is said, informing them of their appointments, were conceived with a delicacy and nobility of sentiment which are at once an honor to the Monarch who dictated them, and to the philosophers to whom they were addressed. The professorships are, General History, (Le- +84 Foreign Literature and Science. broussart,) Domestic History, (Dewez,) Ancient Literature, (Baron,) National Literature, (Lants,) History of Philoso- -phy, (Vandeweyer,) Physics and Astronomy, (Quetelet,) Chemistry, (Drapiez,) Botany, (Kickx,) Natural History, (Vanderlinden,) History of Architecture, (Roget.) The king has just created also a conservatory of arts and trades, and appointed M. Onder De Weyngaert Cantius, the director.. A garden of plants was some time since establish- ed, of which M. Drapiez is one of the directors.— Idem. EXTRACTED BY C. U. Sueparp. 40. Comparative Analysis of Olivine and Chrysolite, by M. Stromeyer.—The specimens analysed were as follows :— 1. Olivine occurring in the basalt of Vogalberg, near Gles- sen, very pure ; specific gravity, 3.3386. 2. Olivine occuring in the basalt of Kasalthof, in Bohemia, very pure ; specific gravity, 3.3445. 3. Chrysolite from the collection of M. Blumenback ; spe- cific gravity, 3.3514. nee 4, Olivine occurring in the meteoric iron of Pallas: specific gravity, 3.3404. 5. Olivine occuring in the meteoric iron found at Olumba, in South America ; specific gravity, 3.3497. 6. A mineral having the aspect of Peridot, taken from a mass of iron, which is said to have been found at Grimme, and which has been preserved at Gotha, specific gravity, 3.2100. From the é Vogel- | .. | Chryso- From | Grim- berg. een EL lite. et Olumba.| me. Cy Ry Roh. Aroha) opa@) Silex, - - 40.09) 40.45} 39.73) 38.48} 38.35] 61.88 Magnesia, - 50.49) 50.67; 50.73) 48.42) - 49.68) 25.82 Protox. Iron, Sly PB.07o (O19 yhlet9) asa B42 Protox. Mang. .20 .18 .09 34 ul Frans A i Ox. Nickel, sai! i233 Bh Ieahee SWS Fe eed Ox. Chrome, | - - Bees [icy Lene bsg: 33) Alumine, - yb 19 322 ASP pote iors 99.51 99.89| 99.68} 98.61| 99.89 97.46. On a ee nn _ Foreign Literature and Science. 185 These analyses prove the chrysolite and olivine to be iden- gical. The presence of oxide of nickel in these minerals is remarkable, and has never before been detected ; it appears to exist in all the specimens which occur in volcanic rocks, for M. Stromeyer has found it in those of Vesuvius, of Au- vergne, of Hifel, and of Itabichtswalde, while, to the contrary, it is wanting in the olivine of meteoric stones. The mineral of Grimmee differs totally from olivine and chrysolite in its composition.— Annales des Mines, Tome XII. 1826. 41. Anhydrous Sulphate of Soda.—Dr. Thomson has dis- covered the existence of an anhydrous sulphate of soda. It oc- curred in a manufactory of carbonate of soda at Glasgow, where the process consisted in mutually decomposing proto- sulphate of iron and common salt. ‘The sulphate of soda thus produced is decomposed and converted into carbonate of soda in the usual manner. They were formerly in the habit of ‘boiling their saturated leys, during which part of the pro- cess, large crystals were observed to form on the inside of the boilers ; these crystals are the anhydrous salt, their form is that of an octohedron with a rhombic base, they are translu- cent, firm and solid in their texture, and of a glassy appear- ance. Thus it is ascertained, that sulphuric acid and soda are ca- pable of combining and crystallising without water, as well as sulphuric acid and potash. ‘Three distinct species of sul- phate of soda are now known to exist. 1. Anhydrous sulphate, crystallismg in a boiling solution, in the form of an octohedron with a rhombic base. 2. Common sulphate of soda, contaming ten atoms water, crystallising in a cold solution, and forming crystals which have the shape of doubly oblique four-sided prisms. 3. Sulphate of soda, crystallising in a supersaturated solu- tion of sulphate of soda, made in a high temperature, and set ° aside for some days in a well corked phial, the crystals are opaque, white, four sided prisms, and contain eight atoms of water instead of ten—Annals of Philosophy. Dec. 1826. 42. Identity of Epistilbite and Heulandite.—It is extreme- ly probable that epistilbite is identical with heulandite. Dr. Rose who described epistilbite, was led to regard it as a dis- tinct species, chiefly in consequence of its difference from the Vox. XII.—No.1. 24 186 Foreign Literature and Science. heulandite in the form of its crystals; the physical characters and chemical compositions of both species bemg almost pre- cisely the same. Mr. Levy has demonstrated that the forms and angles of epistilbite are derivable from the primitive form of heulandite, by simple and frequently occurring decrements. —Phil. Mag. and Annals Philosophy, Dec. 1827. 43. Separation of Elaine from Oils.—M. Pechet has pro- posed a new process for the above purpose, which is founded upon the property possessed by a strong solution of soda, of saponifying stearime in the cold, without acting upon elaine. Shake the alkaline solution with the oil, then warm it slight- ly to separate the elaine from the soap of stearine; it is then passed through a cloth, and the elaine is then separated by decantation from the alkaline solution. This process always succeeds, except with rancid oils or such as have been heat- ed.— Ann. de Chim. i 44. Oxide of Carbon.—M. Dumas has proposed the follow- ing method of preparing this gas : he mixes salt of sorrel with five or six times its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid ; the mixture, when heated in a proper apparatus, yielded a considerable quantity of a gas composed of equal parts of carbonic acid gas and oxide of carbon; after absorbing the carbonic acid gas by potash, the oxide of carbon remains in a state of purity. This result will be easily comprehended by supposing that the sulphuric acid seizes the potash and the water, and that the oxalic acid being incapable of existing under these cir- cumstances, is resolved into carbonic acid and carbonic oxide. This process may be successfully employed for examining the salt of sorrel of commerce. Bitartrate of potash, treated in the same manner gives oxide of carbon, carbonic acid and sulphurous acid, and the liquor becomes black by the depo- sition of carbon. The salt of sorrel, on the contrary, never yields sulphurous acid, and the sulphuric acid employed re- mains perfectly limpid and colorless.—Ibid. Sept. 1826. 45. Enormous Fossil Vertebra.—In the neighbourhood of Bridport, in Dorsetshire, a short time ago, a laborer digging for an ingredient used in mortar, found a vertebra of an enor- mous animal, larger than that of the whale, and supposed to belong to a land animal. ‘This curiosity is in the possession Foreign Literature and Science. 187 of a gentleman at Bridport, who generously rewarded the fin- der with ten guineas. Search has been made after the other parts of the same animal, but hitherto without success. The perforation for the spinal marrow is stated to be nearly equal in circumference to the body of a man.—Jbid. 46. Phosphorus in Kelp.—Repeated trials, by Van Mons, have proved, that the roundish and longish veins found in the varec-soda or kelp, after the matter soluble in water has been removed, are principally composed of phosphorus. How did the phosphorus escape combustion ? Phil. Mag. and Annals Phil. Feb. 1827. 47. Bismuth Cobalt Ore-—This mineral has hitherto been found only at Schneeberg in Saxony: for a knowledge of it we are indebted to M. Kersten, of Gottingen —EHzternal Characters: Colour intermediate between lead gray and steel gray; lustre metallic, and glistening or glimmering; texture radiated, partly stellular partly parallel. It scratches fluar spar, but this degree of hardness is occasioned by inter- mixed quartz. Streak dull, color not changed, but the pow- der soils. Specific gravity = 4.5 —4.7.—Chemical Charac- ters: Before the blowpipe on charcoal gives out white vapors of arsenious acid; deposits on it a yellow crust, during which the ore becomes of a brown color. When well roasted be- fore the blowpipe, and then mixed with glass of borax and melted, it communicates to it a smalt blue color. If some small pieces of the ore are exposed to a low red heat in a glass tube, it affords a considerable quantity of arsenious acid. It is composed of Arsenic, . * - 77.9602 Cobalt, Bid Drei 9.8866 Iron, - - - 4.7695 Bismuth, - - - 3.8866 Copper, - - - 1.3030 Nickel, - - - 1.1063 Sulphur, — - - - 1.0160 99.9282 The characteristic ingredients of this ore are arsenic-cobalt, and arsenic-bismuth, a combination of these metals hitherto not met with in the mineral kingdom. Jameson's Edin. Journ. Jan. 1827. 188 Foreign Literature and Science. 48. Experiments on certain Oxalates—M. Srrutias finds that when dry and pure oxalate of potash, either acidu- lous or neutral, is finely powdered with an equal weight of antimony and heated in a forge fire for eight or ten minutes in a covered crucible, there is always procured a button which is an alloy of potassium and antimony. When well dried oxalate of lead mixed with very small por- tions of potassium, perfectly freed from naphtha, is put into the bottom of a glass tube, air being carefully excluded, by excess of the oxalate, a violent detonation suddenly takes place, before the heat is sufficiently great to effect the de- composition of the oxalate, when no potassium is present. The tube is spotted with metallic lead, the potassium is oxi- dized, and there is no carbon deposited. An examination of the gas resulting from this instantaneous decomposition, may elucidate the nature of the oxalates; but hitherto the appa- ratus employed has always been broken by the explosion. Oxalate of copper treated in the same way also occasions strong detonation, and metallic copper appears. Journ. de Pharm. Nov. 1826. - 49. A method for facilitating the observation of distant stations in Geodoetical operations.—Lieut. Thomas Drum- mond, of the royal engineers, having observed that quick- lime when intensely heated, has the singular property of giving out a most vivid light, availed himself of a ball of that substance of the size of a pea, so placed in the focus of a parabolic mirror as to admit of being intensely ignited by the flames of several spirit lamps directed towards it by as many streams of oxygen gas issuing from separate blow-pipes; by which means a light of from seventy-five to ninety times the intensity of a well trimmed Argand lamp was obtained.— Quarterly Journal, Jan. 1827. pn 50. Magnetic Influence in the Solar Rays.—Mr. Christie has ascertained that a magnetic needle comes to rest more quickly when vibrated and exposed to the rays of the sun, than when vibrated in the shade, and this entirely independ- ent of any mere effect of change of temperature. When the needle was shaded, he could easily make the fiftieth vibration; when it was exposed, he could not distinguish beyond the fortieth—Idem. — Foreign Literature and Science. 189 51. Compression of Water by High Degrees of force, and Liquefaction of Atmospheric Aur—Mr. Perkins states that a column of water eight inches long, subjected to a pressure of 2000 atmospheres, suffers a compression equal to one-twelfth of its length and that, atmospheric air, under a pressure of 1200 atmospheres, was seen upon the surface of the quicksilver of “a beautiful transparent liquid, in quantity about one-two-thousandth part of the column of air.”— Idem. . 52. Cultivation of Plants in Moss.—Mt. Street has ascer- tained, that many plants thrive better if planted in common moss than in garden mould. The mosses used are various species of Hypnum, collected with the decaying stalks and. leaves which are found amongst them. They are pressed closely into the pot, and the plants are put into them as if mto mould.—Idem. 53. Strength of Bone.—Mr. Bevan finds that bone of horses, oxen, and sheep, has a cohesive strength per square inch, varying from 33,000 pounds to 42,500. One specimen of fresh mutton bone supported a load in proportion to 40,- 000 lbs. per square inch, for a considerable length of time, without any visible injury to the bone.—Idem. 54. Olbers on the Comet of short period.—Dr. Olbers has calculated the approximation of the orbit of this comet, to that of our globe, near the ascending node of the former. The heliocentric elongation of that point in the orbit of the comet, which most nearly approaches the terrestrial or- bit, calculated from the ascending node is 1° 3' 32”; the heliocentric longitude of this point m the orbit is 7231.2; the heliocentric longitude of the point in the terrestrial orbit nearest to that of the comet is 7229.26; the distance which separates these two points is 0.00.55604 of the mean radius of the terrestrial orbit, or 133+ radii of the earth. The last time of the appearance of this comet therefore, (which was the 27th of February, 1826,) it passed by the earth’s orbit, at only a little more than twice the great- est distance of the earth from the moon. The perturba- tions occasioned in the orbits of comets by the action of the planets, and especially by the powerful attraction of Ju- piter, should make this distance vary at each revolution of 190 Foreign Literature and Science. the comet, and may tend as much to diminish as to increase the distance. It is therefore not impossible, that at some time the comet may pass at a very small! distance from us, and even so near, that its atmosphere may be in contact with our globe.—Idem. 55. Monochromatic Light—Upon the discovery of Dr. Brewster, that the flame of alcoho! diluted with water, con- ~ sists chiefly of homogeneous yellow rays. and his suggestion, that it would afford a monochromatic lamp useful for obser- vations with the microscope, Mr. Talbot has constructed a lamp, which affords an abundance of yellow light for a long time. A cotton wick is soaked in a solution of salt, and when dried, placed im a sprit lamp. By employing ten of these wicks, which were arranged in a line in order to unite their effect for a microscope, a light was obtained little inferior to thatof a wax candle. Its effect upon all surround- ing objects was very remarkable, especially such as were red, which became different shades of brown and dull yellow. A scarlet poppy was changed to yellow, and the beautiful red flower of the lobelia fulgens, appeared entirely black.— Idem. 56. Volcanos.—Have the elevating effects of voleanic power been perceived on the Eastern side of the American conti- nent ? Eziract of a letter from G. Poutett Scrorsz, Esq. to the Editor, dated, London. March 21, 1827. In reply, I have to thank you particularly for your very liberal offers of contributmg any facts, which may come to your knowledge, bearing upon that peculiar branch of the history of the globe, which I have applied myself to investi- gate. Such communications, I beg to say, will be most val- uable to me, as materials for a second edition of the work* in question, which will probably at some time another be called for. May I take the liberty of hinting a few observations, connected with this subject, to which if the attention of some of your numerous geological friends and correspondents were directed, it must, I conceive, elicit some very important infor- mation. The volcanic force seems to have developed itself very rarely, if at all, under its most usual form, on the East- em side of the great longitudmal axis of America, whether + Considerations on Volcanos, &c.” Foreign Literature and Science. 19% North or South. But this fact would lead to the supposition, that the general subterraneous force of expansion, must have exerted itself the more conspicuously in this direction, under its other mode, viz. the elevation en masse of solid strata. Is not this view corroborated by observations: are there no traces along the Eastern coast of North or South America, of former or continually progressive elevations? Does not the ocean seem to retreat more rapidly than can be explained by the accumulative action of the Gulf Stream on its shores ? In Europe, on the rocky cliffs of Italy and Norway, we meet with the remains of recent lithophytes, and beds of fresh shells, on ledges, at heights of some hundred feet above the present level of the sea. Are there no traces of this nature to be met with in America ? Pray excuse my writing so hastily on a subject of such im- portance. Remarks.—We shall be much gratified, if any of our cor- respondents will point out such facts as are alluded to by Mr. Scrope, for, the subject is one of deep interest. We take it for ranted, that mineralized organic bodies, imbedded in solid limestone and other rocks, are not within the present inquiry, and therefore we do not mention the vast ranges of the Catts- kull mountains, full of organized remains and bearing the re- lics of madrepores, encrinites, &&c. and the vast formations of fragmented and brecciated rocks, (puddingstone and grau- wackes,) to the elevation of three and four thousand feet ; nor are we permitted to mention the elevated transition limestone of the Alleghanies, with its marine treasures. Our inquiries must therefore be limited, principally to the range of accu- rate history or of credible tradition. The voice of history respecting the American continents, speaks only for two or three centuries, and tradition, usually compensating by extent ofrange for the want of definiteness, has here little or nothing to suggest. We may therefore ask directly : Is it within the knowledge of any one that the sea has any where receded from our shores except as alluvion has en- trenched upon it? Does any rock, any promontory, any sea- girt fortress, on our coasts, or on those of the neighboring continent or islands, now stand higher out of the water than formerly ? Have any rocks formerly sunken, or giving rise to 192 Domestic Intelligence. breakers, raised their heads above the surf, and do they now receive the sun-shine as well as the impulse of the waves ? We will proceed one step farther: are there any decided- ly volcanic appearances on the great Eastern water-shed of the North American continent? Is there an indubitable cra- ter, a fragment of pumice, trachyte, obsidian, compact or cellular lava, or a current which may be supposed ever to have flowed, from an “ ignivomous”’ mouth or fissure: any thing and every thing connected with this subject is interesting, provided it bear the stamp of sober and intelligent observa- tion. Apocryphal stories, fables, and dreams of the imagi- nation, would be as useless as undesirable.-—EpirTor. L II. DOMESTIC. i. On the use of soapstone to diminish the friction of ma- chinery, in a letter to the Editor, dated, Boston, Aue. 6, 1827. Dear Sir: My time and attention having been very much occupied with the duties of my profession, since ] was at New Haven, I had almost forgotten your request, that I should communicate for your inspection, such facts as I could learn, relative to the use of steatite or soapstone, as a means of reducing the friction of machinery. I have observed in the July number of the Franklin Journal, a short article copi- ed from the Edinburgh Journal, in which reference.is made to this use of soapstone. The fact is simply stated, that “ it facilitates the action of screws, and from its unctuosity, may be employed with much advantage, for diminishing the fric- tion of the parts of machines, which are made of metal.” I understand that soapstone has been used for this purpose in the extensive manufactories at Lowell, for about two years, and with great profit and success. Besides answering the purpose to which it is applied, very much better than any oth- er substance that can be procured, it saves a great deal of trouble and expense. It is first thoroughly pulverized and then mixed with oil, tallow, lard, or tar, which ever may be the best adapted to the use for which it is designed. It is, of course, important to procure that which is free from grit ; and it can be purified, in a good degree, by mixing the pow- Domestic Intelhgence. — - 193 der with oil, and diluting it after it has stood a few minutes. The heavier particles will form a sediment to be rejected. It is used on all kinds of machinery, where it is necessary to ap- ply any unctuous substance to diminish friction ; and it is said. to be an excellent substitute for the usual compositions appli- ed to carriage wheels. Some idea of the value of soapstone, in this use of it, may be formed from the following fact, communicated by D. Moody, Esq. the superintendent of the Tar Works on the _ Mill Dam, near this city. Connected with the rolling ma- chine of that establishment, there is a horizontal balance wheel, weighing fourteen tons, which runs on a step of five inches diameter, and makes from seventy-five to a hundred and twenty-five revolutions in a minute. About a hundred tons of iron are rolled in this machine in a month; yet the wheel has sometimes been used from three to five weeks, with- . out inconvenience, before the soapstone has been renewed. The superintendent thinks, however, that it ought to be more frequently applied. This use of soapstone was discovered at Lowell, by an accident, the circumstances of which it is not necessary now to repeat. It is sufficient to say, that it is regarded by those who have used it, as an invaluable discovery. I have been assured that it has never been known to fail of producing the desired result, when applied to machinery which had begun to be heated, even in those cases where nothing else could be found which would answer the purpose. Very respectfully your friend, &c. : Epeens. Batey. [A Fragment by Professor Eaton.] 2. On Forest Trees, Orchard Trees, 6c. | TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. if I do not misconceive the design of your Journal, one object is, to form a repository of insulated, as well as connect- ed facts, which may be advantageously used by system- atic authors. In accordance with this construction, I con- tinue to send you items, which may be ranked among “ the scientific mites which, in skilful hands, make up the grand phalanx of human knowledge.” : Effects of Inght.—Clouds and rain have obscured the hemisphere during the last six days. In that time the leaves Vou. XUT.—No. 1. 25 194 Domestic Intelligence. of all the forests, which are seen from this place, have greatly expanded. But they were all of a pallid hue, until this after- noon. Within the period of about six hours, they have all changed their color to a beautiful green. As the only efficient change which has taken place is, that we have a serene sky and a bright sun, we may say with confidence, that this change of color is produced by the action of the sun’s rays. Seven years ago next month, I had a still more favorable opportunity to observe this phenomenon, in company with the Hon. J. Lansing late Chancellor of this State. While we were engaged in taking a geological survey of his manor of Blenheim, the leaves of the forest had expanded to almost the common size, in cloudy weather. I believe the sun had scarcely shone upon them in twenty days. Standing upon a hill, we observed that the dense forests on the oppo- site side of the Schoharie were almost white. The sun now began to shine in full brightness. The color of the forests absolutely changed so fast, that we could perceive its prog- ress. By the middle of the afternoon the whole of these ex- tensive forests, many miles im length, presented their usual green summer dress. Direction of the branches of trees.—A tree shoots out its branches like all other trees of. the same species, external cir- cumstances being similar. But there is one remarkable fact in the direction of branches, which I have not seen noticed im any publication. - All trees with spreading branches, accommodate the direction of the lower branches to the surface of the earth over which they extend. This may be seen in orchards growing on the sides of hills, and in all open forests. But the crowded situ- ation of the wild woods of our country, prevents a sufficient extension of branches to exhibit this character. This fact presents a curious subject for the investigation of the phytologist. The question presented is this: What in- fluence can the earth have upon the branches on the upper side of the tree, which causes them to form a different angle with the body of the tree from the angle formed by the branches on the lower side, so that all the branches hold a parallel direction to the earth’s surface? Hollow Trees—The growth of trees is not influenced by any circumstance connected with their internal woody parts. Mr. Knight’s central vessel hypothesis, and the authority of numerous able physiologists, seem to be at variance with Domestic Intelligence. 195 this position. I shall not enter upon a discussion of the sub- ject, but merely introduce a few facts. The sugar maple (acer saccharinum,) after being tapped and drained of its internal sap fifty years, and after the whole interior has become dead, grows as fast and presents an as- pect as vigorous and blooming, as any sound tree of the same species and same age, which stands by its side. For the truth of this fact, I refer to all manufacturers of the ma- ple sugar. I suggested this opinion more than twenty years ago, and frequently afterwards, when I was employed among the tenants of Messrs. Livingston, McEvers, Ludlow, Cutting, and others, between the spurs of Catskill mountain. [Every manufacturer with whom | conversed, in this native residence of the sugar maple, confirmed my opinion. The common apple tree (pyrus malus) grows thriftily and bears abundance of fruit, many years after its interior is so _ completely rotted away, as to leave but a very thin hollow cylinder in possession of the living principle. We prefer solid trees in our forests and orchards; because they have more strength to withstand the force of winds, and because the unfavorable circumstance, which caused the in- terior to decay, may effect the total destruction of the tree. But as all depositions of matter, in any way affecting the growth of the tree, are made between the bark and wood, af- ter the first year, in the form of a mucilage, called cambium, it seems that the internal woody part has no influence upon the external growth. Yours respectfully, Amos Eaton. Rensselaer School, Troy, April 30,1827. # 3. Localities of Minerals in Vermont ; communicated by Avueustus A. Hayes. Brown compact feldspar, Tron sand in limestone, Calcareous spar in short hexahedral prisms, Flesh red feldspar, - Earthy carbonate of copper, Common serpentine, containing compact asbestus: this mineral is susceptible of a fine polish, and when polished, ex- hibits in a beautiful manner, the play of light, peculiar to fibrous minerals. The above are found in the township of Weathersfield, Vermont. 196 Domestic Intelligence. Actynolite in tale with brown spar and dolomite, Acicular Actynolite, Radiated mica of a dark brown color. The above are found in the township of Reading, Vermont. Granular foliated limestone, Compact do. Granular foliated dolomite, Dolomite, White tremolite, Green do. é Adularia and green scaly talc, at Cavendish, Vermont. Siliceous oxide of manganese, in all its varieties, Octahedral iron, in small but very perfect and brilliant crys- tals, Fibrous schorl, at Plainfield, N. H. Phosphate of lime, and fibrous, and lamellar zoisite, At Windsor, Vermont. Wie The above minerals are generally abundant at their several localities, and I have purposely omitted, mentioning many others, from which, as yet, but few specimens have been ob- tained. ; 4. Phosphate of Manganese in Connecticut, New Locality of Tabular Spar, §c. by Cuartes U. Sueparp.—Speci- mens of an ore found in this state, at Washington, were brought here, some time since, for examination, by Mr. Horace ‘Bushnell, a member of the late senior class. A larger and more recent supply, of the same substance, through the kindness of another student, who lives in that neighborhood, has en- abled me to examine and ascertain its nature. It is said to occur in a vein of considerable thickness, tra- versing quartz, which is embraced in granite. Itis massive; and traversed with fissures in two directions, perpendicular to each other, to effect the separation of which, the strength of the hands issufficient, even when exerted upon very considerable masses. So frangible isit rendered by these natural seams, that the slight- est blow of the hammer reduces it at once to fragments, which, for the most part, affect a cubical form, although the third cleavage which produces this shape is not remarkably distinct. Externally, it is brownish black and dull; but, within, and es- pecially in more compact specimens, it presents a clove brown color, and a glistening and resinous lustre. Its powder is a reddish brown. The cross fracture is imperfect flat con- Domestic Intelligence. 197 choidal. It is opaque: scratches glass: and possesses a spe- cific gravity of 3.5. A fragment brought within the exterior flame of the blow pipe, melted with intumescence into a glo- bule, of a metallic lustre, and, which, when reduced to powder, was taken up by the magnet. It was soluble in nitric acid. The following chemical trial confirmed the opinion I had formed concerning it from the above characters. Fifty grains - in the state of an impalpable powder, were boiled with pot- ash, to dryness, ina silver crucible. The alkaline mass, hence resulting, was lixiviated with water, and the insoluble part being separated and dried, had assumed a blackish color, and weighed more than the entire mineral employed. The wa- tery lixivium was slightly supersaturated with nitric acid, and then boiled in order to expel any carbonic acid which might have combined with the alkali ;—lime water being now. ad- ded, a copious, white flocculent precipitate took place, which . _ was phosphate of lime, and when dried and weighed, indicated a proportion of phosphoric acid in the mineral, equal to thirty per cent. The residue, which resisted the action of the alkali, was repeatedly digested in acetous acid ; a considerable quan- tty’of red oxide of iron was deposited. The fluid supposed to contain acetite of manganese, gave, as was expected, on the addition of potash, a copious precipitate of oxide of man- ganese. | Disseminated through the phosphate of manganese, and slightly adhering to it, occurs the carbonate of manganese, in a pulverulent state, of a delicate red color. Owing to the pres- ence of this substance, the streak of the phosphate of man- ganese, may, at first be taken to be, of a deep red color, which we shall find not to be the fact, if we make trial of a more compact mass, or of a surface which is the result of a cross fracture, when we shall find it to be of a greyish brown. Intermingled with it also, are scales of mica, and occasionally a yellowish brown substance, having a laminated structure, and a considerable lustre, which appears to be garnet. If I am not in an error, this is the only locality of phosphate of manganese in the United States, with the exception of Sterlmg, Ms. where, only a very few, minute specimens have been found, accompanying the spodumene ; and as Limoges and Bavaria, its only other localities, afford it only in very small quantities, I doubt not, that this occurrence of it, espe- cially, as it is abundant, will appear interesting to the min- eralogist. 198 Domestic Intelligence. We are indebted to Mr. Bushnell for a beautiful specimen of Mesotype, which he discovered also at Washington. It is attached to a fragment of gneissoid hornblende, in which rock it appears to occur in veins. It consists of fibrous crystals about an inch in length, which are arranged in a stellular form, the centre of the aggregation being sufficiently compact to yield a splintery fracture. Its color is white, tinged oc- casionally with blue. It scratches calc. spar. Before the blowpipe, it immediately curls up, becomes opaque and vitri- fies without intumescence : with borax, it, with difficulty, af- fords a transparent glass. Attached to the same specimen, and intermingled with the mesotype, I noticed several little masses of transparent, lamellar Stilbite. Iam unable to give any information, at present, respecting the quantity in which this mineral exists, but the specimen before me seems to pro- mise, that it will be found to be abundant. I have much satisfaction in being able to indicate another occurrence of tabular spar in our country. Mr. Oliver P. Hubbard, a student here, has brought me a very beautiful specimen of this mineral, which he discovered at Boonville, Oneida county, N. Y. It precisely resembles the same mineral found at Willsborough, and with it, is associated, in place of the colophonite, which there accompanies it, a green granular Pyroxene, which, for transparency and richness of color, surpasses every thing of a similar nature hitherto known in this country. The contrast afforded by the delicate white- ness of the tabular spar and quartz, with which, it is mingled, and the fine green of the coccolite, renders it, if possible, more beautiful, than the Willsborough specimens. At any rate, the difference of appearance in the accompanying minerals of these places, will contribute, mutually, to enhance the in- terest of their specimens. Mr. Hubbard informs me, that it promises to be very abundant, although as yet he has not noticed it, in place ;—the specimens he obtained, were from large boulders, which had been dug up, in effecting some im- provements upon the public common in that place.— Yale College, Aug. 15, 1827. 5. New Edition of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.—We under- stand that Professor Cleaveland is preparing for the press, a new edition of his treatise on Mineralogy. We are informed far as possible, a view of the state of the science, at the time fer it will be considerably enlarged, and that it will give, as of its publication. Domestic Intelligence. 199 Every new edition of this invaluable work will be received with interest by the public, as evincing the increase of know- ledge in this important department, and as contaming notices of all our most important discoveries and observations in min- eralogy and geology. 6. Cabinet of minerals for sale—We are requested to state that a gentleman in this country has a fine collection of minerals which he would dispose of on very reasonable terms. They consist of about four thousand specimens of every variety of Minerals that has as yet been discovered in the United States, as well as specimens of all the most rare foreign Minerals, systematically arranged and described. The whole would be sold together, or any number not fewer than five hundred, at fifty cents a specimen. Further particulars may be learned by reference to the Editor at New Haven. — 7. The late Dr. Robinson’s Collection of Minerals.—This collection of minerals, which some time since (see Vol. 10, p. 227, of this Journal,) contained “ upwards of 4000 fair specimens labelled, wrapped in papers, and boxed in divi- sions ready for exchange, consisting mostly of New England minerals, including all those lately discovered,” is now, in consequence of Dr. Robinson’s death, offered for sale. It is understood to be a valuable collection, and reference for terms, and farther information may be had to Dan Robinson, Pawtucket, R. I. 8. Exchange of Minerals——The subscriber having on *:: hand, large duplicate collections of Pennsylvania minerals, is % desirous to exchange them for those of other regions, either domestic or foreign. Groree W. Carpenter, Philadelphia. 9. Coat of Mail.*—The antiquarian would delight to hear, that there has been discovered, about fifteen miles north of this place, a shirt, without sleeves, made of wire, a little larger than that of the small steel purses ;—in fact, a real coat, or shirt of mail, of the ages of Chivalry. It was found in the * Communicated by Professor Hall, from James A. Paddock, of Craftsbury, Vt. 200 Domestic Intelligence. valley of Black River, I believe, within the limits of the town of Coventry. It was much rusted and eae but sufficient of it remains to show its shape. 10. Kellyvale Serpentine.*—As connected with a favorite science, you would, perhaps, be glad to learn that there is a prospect of the serpentine of Kellyvale beg worked the next season, on a considerably large scale. Mr. J. son of the honorable Mr. J. of Middlebury, who is engaged largely in the marble manufacture, informed me, that he should venture 1000 dollars in the business at Kellyvale. Men are now sawing slabs of serpentine, by hand, to take down to New- York in the spring, to try the market. 11. Character of the People of Ohio.—A warm panegyric- on the character of the people of Ohio, is contamed in an address by Cates Atwater, Esq. which we have recently re- ceived in a pamphlet. Even if we abate somewhat for the ardor of the animated orator, descanting on a favorite and popular theme, we may still allow ourselves to believe, that enough is true to command our confidence in the people of a State, whose growth has been without example, and whose geographical position and physical advantages as well. as mor- al and intellectual traits evidently destine them to stamp the character of the West, and to exert an influence there, not less prevailing than that which Virginia has commanded in the South, Pennsylvania in the middle States, and New York and Massachusetts in the North. The Eastern States, and especially Connecticut, justly re- gard Ohio as their favorite daughter, and if they are too near- ly interested to judge with impartiality of a population, and of institutions, which are, to so great an extent, their own, they cannot fail to sympathize feelingly, in the amazing pros- perity of this noble State, which will soon contam a million of freemen, without one slave. 12. Mule Silver—We are informed, by a correspondent, that the mules employed at the amalgamating mines, in Mex- ico, are opened after death and that from two to seven pounds of silver are often taken out of the stomach. He says that he isin possession of a specimen which is perfectly pure and white as it generally is. * Communicated by Professor Hall, from James A. Paddock, of Craftsbury, Vt. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. Art. l—Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina; by Cuartes K. Rotue, Miner and Mineralogist from Saxony. Art the solicitation of some of my scientific friends, as well in Germany asin this country, I will proceed to offer at this time, afew observations on the Gold Mines of North Caro- lina, in anticipation of a more regular account, of the geol- ogy of that region of country, which I contemplate publish- ing at some future day. My first visit to these mines, was made more than two years ago, under the patronage of the “ North Carolina - Board of Agriculture &c.” to which duty I wa¥ assigned by my scientific friend, Professor Olmsted, now of Yale College, but then Professor in the University of North Carolina and geologist of the State. During that excursion, my investi-- gations were directed to ascertain the geological formations of the whole region, rather than to make a particular exam- ination of the mines themselves. Having performed this duty, as well as circumstances would permit me, and made my report to Professor Olmsted, accompanied by a geologi- cal map of the country, I immediately returned to the Yad- kin, with a view of examining more minutely the mines them- selves. I accordingly spent several months at two of these — mines, and during the summer, visited and examined all the others of any note, spending at each, sufficient time to ascer- tain, as far as possible, its extent and formation. Thus, I think my opportunities of forming a correct opinion of the Gold Mines of North Carolma have been superior to those of any other person, who has ever attempted to describe them. (a.) The geographical situation of the mines of North Carolina | is too generally known to require any further description at this time. I will therefore proceed to give my ideas,—first, Vor, XIII.—No. 2. aaa ee we 202 Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. on the geological structure of the gold region: and then on the causes which have heretofore rendered the mines of this region less productive than they will hereafter become, under a different state of things ; concluding with a few general ob- servations growing out of the nature of the subject. (A.) Granite is the base of the formations of the gold re- gion of North Carolina. It is constituted of course of crys- tals, and its surface is very irregular. On its more elevated situations, it has been much worn by the action of water in early times, and now lies exposed, at places on the surface of the earth in large masses, some of them round, as on the small mountain four miles south east of Salisbury. In the lower parts of the country, greenstone and greenstone slate are commonly found in beds in the granite. (6.) The greenstone and greenstone slate, in respect of struc- ture, differ in two particulars : Ist, In stratification, and 2d, In conzposition. . As to stratification. We occasionally find the greenstone distinctly stratified in almost regular parallel strata, which continue for some distance, when they are intercepted by a mass of the same substance, stratified ina different di- rection. (c.) At other places, the greenstone is found in ir- regular masses, showing no inclination to stratification. As to composition. The composition of the greenstone and greenstone slate, bears a striking relation to the stratifi- cation. For example, I have noticed at those places where the greenstone is stratified, that the hornblende forms but a small constituent ; while at those places where the greenstone is not stratified, the hornblende is the chief constituent ; and sometimes so much so, as to lose its character of greenstone and to become basaltic hornblende. (d.) ‘In looking over the whole of this formation, we have abun- dant evidence to conclude that great derangements have ta- ken place in it since its first construction. The cause and manner of these derangements, whether by earthquakes, by the contraction of the greenstone itself, or, from some other cause, we are left to conjecture. On some future occasion I may: give my ideas on the subject. ge This formation of greenstone is characterized by the exis- tence of veins in it, containing gold and, in this particular, it differs from all others. PERN We here find the gold in two different situations. _ I. As apart of the constituents of the veins, and Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. 203 II. As an ingredient in the alluvial spots of ground in the ranges of this greenstone formation. I. Inveins. Before I give a particular description of the veins containing gold, it may be proper to give a short ac- count of veins in general. (e.) Veins, in general, are fissures in rocks, which were occa- sioned by the contraction of the original mass from its soft state, to a harder, or as some say, by earthquakes. These veins, at one time were open, and were subsequently filled by other materials than the rocks, or substances in which they are situated. Hence, from this it is clear, that different veins in the same formation of rocks may not only be of different ages, but may be made up of different materials ; while veins of the same age in the same formation of rocks always very much resemble each other in their composition. For this reason, in all mining countries, where the mineral is found in veins, whenever a new vein is discovered, it be- comes an important point to ascertain whether the new vein is of the same formation as that of any vein before known. After ascertaining this, an estimate may be formed of the richness or poverty of the new vein from analogy with the others. é n't my Experience has also taught, that we may form a pretty cor- rect idea of the extent of a vein, in length and depth, from its thickness on the surface. The last remark I shall make on this part of the subject is, that a vein cannot extend farther than the depth of the form- ation of rocks in which it is situated, but must terminate there. Hence it is highly necessary, in mining, to know the depth of the general formation at the place where you wish to operate. These general remarks were necessary to a correct under- standing of the veins in the greenstone formation embracing the gold region of North Carolina. On a former occasion, I remarked, that the veins of the greenstone now in. question are distinguishable ito three formations, as well on account of their age as in other par- ticulars. I will extend the view I then took of the subject. _ The oldest formation of veins, pertains more particularly to the south west part of the gold region. The thickness of these veins is from two to four feet; their extension in length is known already to exceed a mile. This gives assurance that they sink to a considerable depth. Their general direction is east and west, dipping occasionally 40° to 50° North.— ie ce A SS a a ets Re a aE le eT WE SIS TS EI tte II CI I GE Oe I 204 Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. The ores and minerals in these veins are: rhomboidal iron ore, prismatic iron ore, pyramidal copper pyrites and pris- matic iron pyrites. In the last two, is a mechanical mixture of native gold. All these ores are m a mechanical mixture with each other. They show distinct signs of having been changed from their original form. Where the atmospheric air could have any influence on these pyrites, we find that one part of the sulphur has escaped ; the consequence of which is, the metallic appearance of the pyrites is changed to that of brown reddish oxid of iron; and owing to this color we can see the fine particles of gold, and ascertain the richness of the deposit. But where the pyrites have not undergone this change, then the gold cannot be discovered, owing to the col- or being nearly the same. (¢.) The second formation of veins in which gold is found, is more extensive than the first, and occasionally contains rich- er deposits of gold; but I think they are less to be rehed on for regular profits, than the veins of the first. The most of the veins in the eastern and north eastern section of the gold region belong to this formation. hth T hazard the opinion, that the veins of this formation do not always extend to so great a depth as those of the one before mentioned ; first, because, the greenstone supermcumbent on the granite in this part of the region is comparatively not so deep, and secondly, the veins already discovered are seldom more than twelve to fifteen inches thick. The gold, and other ores particularly belonging to this formation are enclosed in rhomboidal quartz. It also appears, that the gold is sometimes deposited in other substances, which however are peculiar to certain places. (R.) The greenstone near the veins is most generally decomposed, and mixed with a great number of loose crystals of prismatic iron pyrites. Between the green- stone and the vein, or at the place of their junction, the gold is most generally found. Hence it is, that we often see speci- mens or pieces, composed partly of the vein, and partly of the greenstone apparently held together, and united by the gold which runs through both substances. All the large pieces of gold that have been found in this country, pertain to the veins of this formation. (2.) The third formation of veins, is more widely dispersed than the two others, and may be found over the greater part of the region. Their thickness generally exceeds that of the veins of the first and second ; and their direction, in length and depth, is Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. 205 seldom one like the other. The materials composing these veins are: rhomboidal quartz mixed with, pyramidal cop- per pyrites, prismatic blue malachite, diprismatic green mal- achite, prismatic iron pyrites, prismatic arsenical pyrites, prismatic tellurium glance, prismatoidal antimony glance, and lastly, here and there, fine metallic gold. It is very prob- able, that these veins, should they be pursued, if not produc- tivein gold, may, at a greater depth, become valuable on ac- count of the copper and other metals found in them. After this brief description of the characteristical difference of these veins, it follows, that I should add something as to the relative purity or fineness of the gold in each. The gold of the first formation may be stated at twenty-two and half carats fine; the alloy being iron and copper. The gold of the second formation seems to vary in its fine- ness, at different places. The finest, as yet found in this formation of a beautiful gold yellow color, may be stated at twenty-two to twenty-three carats fine. (j.) While that found at other places does not exceed nineteen carats fine, containing a portion of iron and copper. (4.) The gold of the third formation, as yet has but seldom been found in its original state, but mostly in the alluvial deposits. II. We not only find gold as aconstituent of the veins, but al- soin the alluvia! depositsin theranges of the greenstone forma- tion. Ona former occasion, I expressed an opinion, that this country must in ages past, have experienced an mundation. This overflowing was perhaps occasioned by an accumulation of waters on the other side of the blue ridge, which breaking over the ridge at some of the points now lowest, spread itself in rapid torrents over this region ; and at places breaking up the veins containing gold, scattered them over the surface. An accumulation of water at one time must have taken place, above the range of little mountains which are cut by the Yad- kin river, at the place called, the Narrows. For, at the Nar- rows, are evident marks on the rocks of the acclivous banks, showing that the water was once manv feet above its present bed; and the highest hills near the river, as you go up the country are covered with alluvial deposits. (/.) The break may have taken place at the Narrows, that happening to be the softest place, and thus gradually letting the waters off. By this means, or perhaps others, the gold now found in the alluvial deposits, has been removed from the veins, and scat- tered as far as the water had any influence over it. 206 Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. It will follow of course, that at some places the gold will be further removed from its vein, or native bed, than at others, for the reason, that at some places the action of water was more powerful than at others. The gold is most commonly found in the natural channels or beds of the water courses from the larger rivers and creeks to the smallest rivulets, and in the hollows formed by hills—— When found on hills or level ground, it is always in the vicini- ty of the veins, from which the weakness of the current could not remove it very far. (m.) If we look at the gold deposited in the alluvial spots, we find a great resemblance to the gold as found in the veins ex- cepting the changes which are produced on‘it by the action of water. The gold found in alluvial spots in the ranges of the first formation, is most generally deposited in a soil partly compo- sed of red oxid of iron, and magnetic iron sand. ‘This bed or layer containing the metal, is nothing else than a mass of the vein, decomposed, and scattered over a greater or less surface. The proof of this is: first, that we discover the gold only in this peculiar layer, while we find it neither above nor below it, and secondly, the gold we here find is like the gold found in the veins. Near the veins, we find the gold much in appearance as it is in the vein; while as it is removed, it becomes finer, and is washed smoother: and it becomes purer in the proportion it has been acted on; for the water and atmosphere purify it from those metals which are subject to oxidation. (7.) The gold which is found in the alluvial deposits in the ran- ges of the second and third formation of veins, is always dis- covered in a decomposed greenstone, mixed with pebbles of quartz, the angles of which have been worn off by attrition. Here may be seen very distinctly the different layers, which at different times have been deposited. On the surface of the greenstone below all the other layers, is found a bed of a greenish colored substance, sometimes three or four inches thick, which is nothing but materials proceeding from the de- composition of the greenstone itself. (0.) The next bed is the one in which the gold is generally found. The thickness of this bed varies at different deposits and often at different places of the same deposit. . In lower places, where the water stagnated or had less force, it is sometimes three or four feet thick, or even more. At other places, where the water had Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. 207 a more powerful current and where it still acts, it is thinner, often only two or three inches thick. (p.) Where this pecu- liar layer or deposit is not found, there is not much chance of obtaining gold; but this is seldom the case in the vicinity of veins. The properties of the gold found in these layers or beds like those of the first formation, resemble those of the gold found in the veins from which it was washed. The gold found near the vein looks very much like that in the vein ; but is broken into smaller pieces, and rounded off at its corners according to the distance it has been removed, and the quantity of attrition it has received. (q.) The deposits of gold belonging to the second formation are often very rich and extensive. (r.) (B.) Having made these remarks on the first division of the subject, it now remains for me to add some observations on the second head, namely, as to the causes that have heretofore’ retarded the development of these mines, and also on the prospect they present of becoming more valuable under a. different state of things. If will be recollected, that in the course of the preceding re- marks, the mines were considered under two heads, first, the mines in veins, and secondly, the mines of the alluvial depos- its. In my additional remarks, I will keep up the same dis- tinction, first beginning with the alluvial deposits, for the reason that they have been more worked than the veins. First. The most of the labor heretofore expended in pur- suit of gold in this country, has been on the alluvial deposits, and from the best information I can obtain, some of these have been known and worked for a number of years; while, the existence of gold here in veins, is but a recent discovery, and no serious attempt has yet been made to pursue a vein to any considerable extent. (s.) When it is considered that the alluvial spots alone, with few exceptions have been worked; and more particularly when we look at the manner in which they have been worked, we cannot but wonder at the great success that has attended these operations. As yet, but little science or skill has been applied to the gold mines of North Carolina. They have been worked in the rudest manner, and still continue to be worked in the same way. (t.) | _ The gold diggers generally may be arranged in two classes; one of which is composed of those who do little else than fol- 208 Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. low that business during the temperate part of the year; the other consists mostly of the less wealthy farmers of the neigh- boring country around ; who seize on spare times from their regular pursuits to work at the mmes: for instance, a week or two after their crops are put in, and before they require much attention ; and after their harvest is got in and their corn laid by. The latter class is by far the most numerous. No permanent fixtures are made at the mines, for the ac- commodation of the workers. . Each man goes to the mine armed, with a few necessary tools, such as a mattock, a shov- el, a bucket or water dipper and a rocker; also a stock of provisions sufficient to last during the time he allots to stay. They all encamp out of doors, each little company of three or four by themselves, sometimes under temporary coverings, made by a few boards, or formed by stretching a few blankets over poles set up for that purpose, but more often without any other protection from the dews of the night, than shel- ters made by the boughs of trees. It is very common for two persons, and sometimes as many as five or six, to agree to work together and divide the pro- ceeds equally. Where this is the case, they of course, mark off a larger lot of ground, for their operation, than when on- ly one works by himself. Each man, or set of men having selected, and marked off their lot of ground, they commence digging down a few inches or even feet, until they reach the layer m which the precious metal is deposited,—throwing aside all the top earth. They then carefully take up the grit, as they call it, and remove it in buckets, hand-barrows or wheel-barrows, to the waterside where the rocker is placed. A rocker is a simple machine, made of inch, or three quarter inch plank, in the shape of a cylinder equally divi- ded lengthwise. ee A common barrel thus bisected would, in form, make two of these rockers, though, they would be rather smaller than is common, : The rocker is placed on two poles, laid on the ground par- allel with each other, and crosswise to the rocker, one near each end, so as to make it rock easily and regularly. The whole is near the water, so that the person using the rocker can reach the water with his dipper without moving more than a step or two. ‘Thus arranged, the auriferous earth is thrown into the rocker, the same being nearly filled with water. The earth and water are then stirred up together with a com- Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. 209 mon hoe, for a few minutes, or until the earth is well saturated and dissolved. Then the rocker is put in motion, like a cradle, until the water is charged with as much of the dissolved earth as it can suspend, when the rocker receives a tilt to one side, and the fluid is thrown out.* More water is then thrown in, and the same process repeated several times, or until the earthy part is all washed away. As this operation goes on, the larger stones are picked out with the hands, so that the washing being over, nothing remains but the gravel and sand in which the gold is mixed, which is still further reduced, by taking off the coarse gravel, to a gallon or two of fine sand. This is very nicely searched, and the fine gold picked up with the point of a knive,—the larger pieces having been previous- ly taken up: with the fingers. Sometimes the sand is trans- ferred to a vessel smaller than the rocker, in order to collect all the fine gold. The whole of this process in washing down a rocker load of earth, is performed by an expert hand in thirty or forty minutes, unless where the rocker is very large, and the earth very tenacious, when a longer time is re- quired. The principle on which the gold is here separated from the earth and gravel is its great specific gravity, which always carries it to the bottom, while lighter substances re- main above it, and the dirt passes off with the waters. On no other principle than this can any machine be constructed to separate the gold from its other admixtures. The gold thus obtained is carefully preserved, until the hour arrives for dividing what has been found. This gener- ally takes place every evening at the mine, where the propri- etor or his agent attends with his gold scales, and makes the division. When the proprietor has confidence in the hones- ty of a man, he allows him to keep the gold he finds, until the last of the week before the division is made. From this manner of doing business, it is very evident, that the workmen have every facility to cheat the proprietor, in not making re- turns of all they find; and the general belief is, that but few make true returns. Nor are there any means of detecting the unfaithful workman, there being so many places, where he can convert his gold into money. About every mine of note, there are generally to be seen a number of lazy worthless fellows, who resort thither as the * The gold from its great specific gravity remaining on the bottom. Vor. XTT—No. 2. 2 ; ; 210 Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Caroline. place where they can most easily support themselves. They labor only enough to get bread and whiskey, perhaps a few hours in the day, or a few days in the week, and the remainder of their time they idle away in lounging from camp to camp, and in hanging about the whiskey carts, or huckster waggons, of which there are always several on the ground, with cider, spirits, provisions and other articles to sell. It may be asked why the owners of these mines do not adopt a system, and carry on the business with more regular- ity. That they should do this is very clear, but there are sev- eral reasons why they do not :-— First. The proprietors of the mines, as yet discovered, gen- erally are persons not well informed on the advantages of a different method. In the present way, without any expense on their part they have a handsome income ; and they are un- willing to forego these daily profits obtained. in the old way, for the chance of getting even more gold on any new plan. Besides, they have but little confidence in any other method of operating. They think the rocker the best and perhaps the only way of getting the gold. In this opinion they are strengthened, by the failure of several injudicious and unskil- ful plans to wash the dirt, and separate the gold. The own- ers of the lands therefore on which the deposits are found, are the last persons that will expend money on any new plans, or for the erection of any sort of machinery. Second. The owners of the richest mines, have heretofore, been unwilling to rent their lands to enterprising individuals on such terms as they could afford to take them. They are accustomed to receiving the half or third of what is found on their land, by means of the rocker, and it is difficult to make them understand, that they ought to take one tenth or one twelfth from those who would rent with the view of erecting labor-saving machmery. This prevents the best mines from passing into the hands of enterprising strangers, who might introduce system and method. Third. The proprietor of a mine, much resorted to, does in fact make more for a time, by permitting the same to be worked in the old way, than he possibly could in the same time by any new ‘method. For example: at the Beaver- dam mines, during a part of last summer, there were daily about one hundred hands at work, and the income to the pro- prietors was six or seven hundred pennyweights of gold per week, This was too large an income to be given up, for one de- Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. 211 pending on other and slower operations. ‘The proprietors of these mines or deposits, resemble very much the boy with his goose that laid golden eggs. ‘They are impatient to get the whole at once, and (as the boy served his goose,) they rip up their mines and greatly injure them. Instead of beginning at one end or side of the deposit, and carrying it on regularly, eve- ry digger sets in at any spot he pleases, and sinks down his pit. The consequence is, that in a short time, pits are sunk on every part of the ground, and the top earth thrown up in heaps all over the face of it. ‘The old pits are now and then filled up, with the earth thrown out of the new ones, and ina short time it is difficult to tell what part of the ground has been worked and what not. Hence, it is not uncommon for persons to find more the second search than the first. New hands always miss the greater part of the gold, while experi- enced ones know how to save it. When the deposit is very rich, but little pains is taken to wash clean ; all are impatient to get fresh dirt, in the expectation of finding large pieces. Hence it is, that at some of the mines good wages have been made by washing dirt over, that had before been washed not sonce, but five, or six times. This is the case at Reed’s and Barringer’s mines. ' _ Thus it may be seen, that there is nothing like a regular bu- siness carried on at any of the mines; and, yet in this loose and unskilful manner, during every summer, large amounts of gold are extracted from these deposits. (w.) It may be stated as a fact, that no mine is considered worth working, or is resorted to by the diggers, at which the hand cannot make his one pennyweight per day, clear of the proprietors share. A pennyweight of gold is worth from eighty-seven to nine- ty cents in cash. First rate experienced hands, consider that they are doing bad busines, unless they can make ten to twelve pennyweights clear per week. These facts, show that the mines of North Carolina are much richer than the alluvial mines of Brazil, where 2s. ster- ling is rather more than any hand can average, even with the aid of jetties. (v.) But the difference is, that in Brazil, labor and provisions are more than one hundred per cent cheaper than in North Carolina. It is unfortunate for the gold mines of North Carolina, that they are situated in a part of the country where cotton is the leading staple of production. The cultivation of this article, 212 Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. has heretofore made labor high and provisions scarce. Du- ring the last summer, corn commanded one dollar per bushel at the mines, and even in the country as far up as Salisbury ; this however we are told wasa year of extraordinary scarcity, and that forty to fifty cents per bushel may be set down as the average price of corn in this region. I entertain the opinion, that the great fall in the price of cotton, will soon begin to produce considerable changes in this country. It will drive part of the labor heretofore ap- plied in that way, into new channels of industry; some to the mines, and some to the production of smal! grain and corn. This in time, will not fail to make, the gold mines of North Carolina assume a different character ; when system, science and skill will render them extensively productive. That these alluvial deposits of gold, can be worked with regular profits, [ have no manner of doubt from my knowl- edge of the mines of other countries, and from the facts we know concerning these deposits themselves. The great desideratum is labor-saving machinery. There are many extensive deposits, where, on a general average, each ton of earth promiscuously taken up, will yield sixty grains of gold.—Now if one ton yield sixty grains, it is easy to calcu- late what a machine would make, that could wash twenty or thirty tons per day. From a small experiment I made, I doubt whether the ma- chines used at some mines in Europe for washing gold and other metals will answer here. The gold there is mostly de- posited in sand of a regular grain, while here, it is mixed with earth and stones of different sizes. New machinery must therefore be invented, and we ought not to doubt the practicability of doing it. Secondly. The foregoing remarks apply altogether to the alluvial deposits. ‘The working of the mines in veins, is yet to be spoken of. ‘These, I think, will turn out, to be the most profitable. First, because the subject of veins is better un- derstood and is susceptible of a more regular and certain busi- ness ; secondly, in the alluvial deposits, the gold is spread over whole acres, while in veins it is more concentrated. There are however some causes that will retard the working of the veins. ‘To work the alluvial spots in the common way, re- quires no capital. A few dollars worth of tools, is all that is necessary ; each day pays its own expenses, and leaves a prof- it: while to work a vein, requires some capital more or less, Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. 213 as the casemay be. Money has to be expended to some ex- tent, even before the mining operation can commence ; hou- ses have to be built for the accommodation of the hands, the permanent fixtures made, tools and provisions provided, and all this before any gold is found. In this section of the country, but few persons possess funds available to an enterprise of this kind, and as yet, the exist- ence of regular metallic veins in this region, has not been known long enough to bring enterprising capitalists from a distance. In Europe, in Mexico, and South America, mining operations are generally carried on, either by the government, or by incorporated companies with ample funds and protect- ing privileges. And they must be carried on in this country in the same way, before much success will follow. (w.) Another desideratum even more than capital, is wanting here—I mean science and skill. At Barringer’s mine, a vast deal of labor has been expended, and after all the vein has . been pursued only about thirty feet deep ; the fact is, the most of the labor was misapplied, in sinking large pits at spots not near the vein, some places, two or three hundred yards off, and not even in the range or direction of the ven. Now, if aman acquainted with the subject had been present, nine tenths of this labor might have been saved, or directed to the proper point. These injudicious attempts have the effect not only to abate the ardor of persons concerned, but to deter others from making even proper efforts. (z.) But this sort of bad management, and consequent failures, more or less, attend all new undertakings, and always retard success. ‘Time and experience, however will in the end, over- come all obstacles, and we may with confidence conclude, that, as the gold mines of North Carolina become better un- derstood, they will become more valuable and productive. NOTES. (a.) During the past two or three years, several notices of the gold mines of North Carolina have appeared in the public pa- pers; but few of these are to be relied on. The reports of Pro- fessor Olmsted however are of a different character. They con- tain much correct and valuable information. Mr. Olmsted’s re- ports may be found in ‘ Silliman’s Journal,” and in the small volumes published by the North Carolina Board of Agriculture. (b.) This granite, in its structure, resembles very much the 214 Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. granite called ‘“ Central Granite” of the mountains of Silesia and others parts of Europe. (c.) This may be very distinctly seen at Barringer’s gold mine, Montgomery county. (d.) I followed this formation of secondary greenstone, passing into hornblende, in a north east direction, from Salisbury as far as the Virginia line: and it seems that the hornblende, west of Lynchburg in Virginia, belongs to the same formation. (e.) My views on this part of the subject are according to the Wernerian theory. (f-) Veins of two feet thickness in other mining countries have been followed two thousand feet deep, with but little variation. _ (g.) My own experiments have satisfied me of the correctness of these remarks. Within the past two years, veins have been worked on, and at the depth of eight or ten feet no more gold is seen, but pyrites in great abundance are found. I have analysed some of these pyrites and find in them the same relative propor- tion of gold, as in the brown red oxid of iron. (h.) As before stated, the first gold found, was in a matrix of quartz. The last finding was ina different substance. Professor Olmsted writes to Mr. Fisher of Salisbury that Professor Silli- man has analysed some specimens sent him, and pronounces it to be “bitter spath—a magnesian carbonate of lime.” (i.) Barringer’s and Reed’s mines are examples in point—and it is very clear that the rich deposits of gold on the lands of Mr. Parker belong to the same, 7. e. the second formation. (j.) For example the gold found at Reed’s. (k.) For example the gold found at Barringer’s. (/.) For example the mountains on the Beaver-dam Creek. (m.) Parker mine and several others furnish examples of this kind. (n.) For example iron and copper. (o.) Between this and the next bed, in the course of my exper- iments I have found pieces of wood and roots changed to bitumin- ous mineral coal, lying about six feet below the surface; a proof that the inundation which broke up the veins and scattered the gold, probably took place at a time when vegetation already cov- ered the earth. (p.) Those places last mentioned are generally rich, because, the gold from its great specific gravity, remained, while the lighter parts were washed away. (q.) "This may be seen at the mines in Anson county and others. Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. 215 (r.) For.example the Beaver-dam mines, &c. (s.) Almost every mine here, has been found by accident, which leaves a fair presumption, that there are as good or better ones yet to be discovered, as those already known. (t.) See the note on Barringer’s Mine. u.) The last report from the United States mint, states, that about $20,000 of North Carolina gold was received at that insti- tution during the year 1826. It is well known that but a small portion of the gold found at these mines goes to the mint. The silversmiths in every part of the country, north and south, pur- chase it up to be wrought into jewelry, and plate of all descrip- tions in their line of business. It is preferred by them on several accounts to gold coinage, and they consequently give a better price for it, than is given at the mint. (v.) See Shaw’s travels and others. (w.) A year or two ago, several gentlemen of high vespecta- bility formed themselves into a company, with the view of work- — ing the gold mines on a scale of some extent and with skill and labor saving machinery. They applied to the Legislature of the State to incorporate them; but one branch of that body imposed such restrictions on the charter as to render it unacceptable to the applicants, and their friends rejected the bill. ‘These gentlemen have purchased aconsiderable quantity of land in the gold dis- irict, mostly in Montgomery county; with what views I am not informed. I presume however, they calculate on finding their profits in the rise which will inevitably, at no distant period take place in the price of lands there. It is probable they also ex- pect that mines may from time to time be found on their lands, as they lie in the gold region. _ (a.) The gold is found at Barringer’s mine, as well in the allu- vial state as in the vein. The following diagram, will give the reader a correct representation of this mine. 4 H i H H E i] \ 4 EN a ai ZAiay \ ZA te 8 4 IHN i . TR NG, i _ AB is a small branch, running along a hollow, formed by hills rising pretty abruptly on each side, e, e, d, d BC is long Creek into which the branch runs. Along the bed and sides of this branch from B to the line E and F and in the éreek from B to C, gold for several years had been 216 Remarks on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. found by washing in the usual way. Mr. Barringer employed the time he could spare from his farm in searching for gold in this way; and asit wasaregular business with him, he began at B and worked up the stream towards A finding gold as he advan- ced until he passed the line EF when he ceased finding. The sudden failure of the gold appeared to him as something strange, and uncommon, and he determined to search into the cause. ‘The idea struck him that possibly “the gold might have come out of the hill’? ashe expressedit. Returning to the spot where he ceased finding gold, to wit, to the line E and F and see- ing a few flint rocks on the side F he commenced digging at that place. He had not dug more than two or three feet into the side of the hill, and as many deep until he struck a nest of gold richly intermixed with quartz and running through it in all direc- tions. About twelve or fifteen hundred pennyweights of gold were taken out here in the course of the day. The gold was now ascertained to be in aregular vein, situated in the green- stone slate. ‘The matrix of the gold was quartz, andin fact, the vein at this place was constituted mostly of quartz. In pursuing the vein afew feet deeper and further into the hill a second nest of gold was found equally rich, and still following on further and deeper, a third a fourth and fifth deposit a few feet a part, were found, making in the whole 1600 to 2000 dollars worth of the precious metal. As they descended, the gold was found in a dif- ferent matrix from quartz, but whether belonging to the same vein or not, [have no datato determine. By this time the pit was sunk ten or twelve feet below the level of the branch, and at about twenty-five feet below the surface of the earth, the ascent of the ground froma tob being twelve or fifteen feet in thirty yards. The water now began to flow in, through the fissures of the rock, in such quantities as considerably to retard the work. The pit from a to b in its whole length was laid open from the surface down, and the earth and pieces of rocks carelessly heap- ed up on the sides, so that every rain, that fell carried its tor- rents into the pit,—no part of it being covered, and the rain too falling on the piles of earth and stones on the sides of the hole, large parcels very often slid into the pit, and of course gave new employment until removed. Under these disadvantages, and for the want of skill, the work of following the vein went on slowly. The winter rains setting in, made it still worse, and it was found necessary to abandon the whole work until the fol- lowing summer. During the following summer, the work was resumed under an ephemeral association of a few individuals, who expected without capital to open the vein, and make their fortunes. But their limited means were exhausted in removing the rubbish and they had scarcely commenced operating, when On Mystery. . 217 their money and enterprise gave out at the same time, and they too stopped with a view of resuming their labor, but before they could do so, their lease expired. I have been thus particular in describing Barringer’s gold mine, because it is the first place in this region, at which the metal was found in a vein, and this discovery has at once thrown so much light on the subject as fully to develope the character and nature of the gold mines of North Carolina. The line E and F represents a section of the vein, running nearly north and south. Torrents of water passing down the hollow, where the branch now runs, gradually wore away the earth, and broke up part of the vein, scattering it with its gold in the direction of B, and by the force of the current, carrying some of the gold down long creek towards C. The gold found in the branch and the creek is at once recogniz- ed to be like that taken out of the vein at EF with the exception that it plainly shows the effect of having been worn by attrition. No attempt has yet been made, to pursue the vein in the direc- tion of E, though reason and analogy would teach us, that it may be as rich in that direction as in the contrary one. In fact no se- rious attempt has been made, to pursue any part of the vein; but this cannot long continue to be the case. “& 7 Art. I.—On Mystery; by Marx Horxtns, A. M.* We may well suppose that the first feeling of Adam was a feeling of mystery. With the conviction, elementary in every mind, that there can be no effect without a cause; with the consciousness of his own inexplicable being; crea- tion in its original brightness, bursting at once upon his view, and indicating itself through all his senses; he must have felt that mystery enveloped himself and all that he beheld. Ac- cordingly, ; “* As new waked from soundest sleep,”’ said he, “* Soft on the flowery bank I found me laid, Straight toward heaven my wandering eyes I turned, And gazed awhile the ample sky. Thou Sun, said I, fair light, And thou enlightened earth, so fresh and gay, And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell, Tell if ye saw, how came I thus, how here.” _ That was a sublime moment—such an one as none of his descendants, under the deadening influence of the familiarity ont * Late a Tutor of Williams College.—Ep, Vor. XIII.——No. 2. 8 218 f On Mystery. attendant on gradual perception, can ever enjoy. But his de- scendants have shared largely of the emotion ; and who of us, as we too, have gazed the bright earth, and the ample sky, has not found himself insensibly fallmg into this original feel- ing, and one bewildering sense of the mystery of being and its phenomena engross his soul? But it is not only in these mo- ments of higher and intenser feeling that it arises; life is full of it, and to a thoughtful mind, it is constantly springing up. The philosophy of our emotions, consisis in a knowledge of the occasions: on which they arise; and as the exertion of great power is essential to the sublime, and slight incongrui- ties to the ridiculous, so there must be somewhat in mysteri- ous facts which render them mysterious. To ascertain what this is, and how far mystery can be solved, will be the objects of the present inquiry. Some remarks will also be made on the nature, extent, and practical bearing of the emotion. I shall first speak of the mystery of particular facts, and of the solution which it is ordmarily supposed to admit; and then of the mystery of general laws. To discover the true foundation of this emotion, it is necessary to distinguish it from ignorance, with which it is often confounded. Mystery dees indeed imply ignorance, and in the removal of both, the principle of curiosity is involved ; but there may be ignorance without mystery. In an ignorance of any disconnected fact, or class of facts, as of topography, or chronology, there is, and can be no mystery. One may be ignorant of the year in which the battle of Actium was fought, and unable to ascer- tain it; but it is simple ignorance, there is no mystery about it; it may have happened, and no reason can be given why it should not have happened, in one year as well as in another. One may be ignorant whether Actium was in Europe or in Asia, but he has only to consult authorities, and his curiosity is satishied, but no mystery is solved. re Further, though there be a connexion between facts, yet, if the rule by which their cause operates be entirely unknown, there can be no mystery. This is the case in the blowing of winds; and for the most part in human conduct, which last however, is so much governed by known principles, that it may become mysterious when conduct runs greatly counter to’ its ordinary course. I am now prepared to observe, Ist, that those events are mysterious which apparently conflict with a general law pre- viously known, or with a theory, which, as a ground of refer- \ On Mystery. ‘ 219 ence, is equivalent to a general law, or in other words, that mystery lies in the apparent contradiction between particular facts and general principles, where we conceive that there ought to be agreement; and 2d, that the only solution of which mystery admits, isa discovery of the manner in which the mysterious fact conforms to the general law. ‘These po- sitions I proceed to illustrate. For those facts which can be referred to a general law, a reason can be given, and they are not generally deemed mys- terious. If we inquire the cause of sound, we are referred to vibrations, and our inquiry is satisfied. It is a general law that vibrations produce sound. If we imquire why heavy bodies descend, we are, in the same manner, satisfied by a reference to gravitation. But let a fact conflict with the gen- eral law—let vibration come to an organ seemingly perfect, and no sound be produced—let a stone thrown into the air, re- main suspended, and there is a mystery at once; there are - curiosity and wonder blended together, and these form mys- tery, as expectation and desire form hope. . But to mention instances which actually occur. We are jnformed that the north star has no actual motion; we ob- serve that it has no apparent motion; but since the earth moves, this fact is mysterious, till we learn the effect of dis- tance in destroying parallax ; then the mystery vanishes. On first learning the tendency of all matter to all matter, the as- cent of smoke, and light bodies is an apparent exception, and a mystery to him who is unacquainted with the weight of the atmosphere ; but when this fact is known, the mystery is solv- ed, and the general law confirmed. Again: a pendulum of a given length vibrates seconds at the equator. It is found that a longer one is required at the poles. This is a mystery till it is ascertained that the earth is a spheroid, flattened at the poles, and then the mystery is solved. Such apparent ex- ceptions to her general laws are the mysteries which nature presents, and which it is the business and delight of philoso- phers thus to solve, by showing their conformity to the gener- al law. In the origin and growth of a new science the general prin- ciple is the same, though somewhat modified. Suppose we have hitherto known of motion only as communicated by im- pulse and gravitation—by accident a magnet is applied toa piece of iron, and the iron approaches it. It is mysterious. Experiments are performed, and a bar of iron magnetized 220 On Mystery. and;balanced on a pivot, is found to point invariably north and south. This is another mystery. These facts are pub- lished, and philosophers over the world are in commotion. Experiments, dissertations, and treatises succeed, till the facts -are all ascertained, a science formed, and a name given to it— and now if we are asked why the iron approaches the magnet, we say that it is by the influence of magnetism, and the mys- tery is solved. This sketch applies with perfect truth to the formation and growth of every physical science. If the facts can be reduced to no order, as was long the case in astrono- my, no science is formed, and philosophers continue to observe, form theories, and make experiments till they effect it. If they succeed in some measure, as in electricity, but many facts still remain anomalous, the science is imperfect. If no anomalous fact remain, as in astronomy, the science is per- fect. What the facts are, and the manner in which they con- form to the general law, is all philosophy can know, allit can teach. Thus physical science is but a history of facts which take place ina certain determinate order, and differs from other history in nothing but the assurance which it brings with it, that in this, past and future experience will invariably ac- cord. : Tn theology and morals, our theory, or the obvious dictates of the understanding, are in place of the general law; and facts that conflict with these, are mysterious. : Our whole nature leads us to the conclusion that the ob- ject of God in his creation and government, must be happi- ness. ‘The extent to which evil and misery prevail, is a mys- tery. When we shall see the bearing of all this on the gen- eral and greatest good, then will this mystery be “ finished.” Our practical feelings tell us that we are free and accounta- ble agents ; but the possibility of this is to some minds a mys- tery. Upon them the conviction of the contrary comes with all the force of a demonstration,—drives out the belief if not the sense of guilt,—beats down the natural sense of things,— destroys the force of motives,—and in the fierce struggle of feeling and conviction, prostrates the best powers of the man. This mystery would be solved, by a knowledge of the man- ner in which motives act upon us. Of this kind are most of the mysteries mentioned in the Scriptures. “That you may understand” says St. Paul.“ my knowledge in the mystery of Christ, that the Gentiles should be fellow heirs, and par- takers of the promise.” To a Jew, whose conviction it had On Mystery. 221 been from childhood, that the Gentiles were to be excluded, their reception was a mystery. It is obvious from the above, that facts may, in our present sense of it, be mysterious to one person and not to another, may be so to ourselves at one stage of our inquiries, and not at another. Anomalous facts are distressing to a well con- stituted and philosophic mind, and few pleasures are greater than the unexpected reconcilement of a perplexing phenom- enon with our theory, or what is the same thing if our theory be true, with the general rule. But when, by an induction of particulars, we infer the law itself, as did Newton that of gravitation, it is a-discovery in the highest sense, and no earthly pleasure is more sublime. It is no wonder that his frame trembled as the mystery that had brooded over a chaos of facts was solved at once, and that he relinquished to an- other the details of the calculation. neers But could all facts be thus reduced, and every science, in . the sense above mentioned, become perfect, would mystery cease, and our knowledge become perfect? To all practical - purposes it would. Nature is uniform, and we have the most entire conviction that as she is to day, she will continue till her dissolution. If then we knew perfectly, the laws by which her sequences are regulated, facts would become em- phatically of the nature of language, announcing what was to come. It would enable us to exercise far more perfectly the high prerogative of man, as the interpreter of nature, and to consult more surely for our happiness as prophets of future events. It would confer upon us the “nil admirari” of the wise man, and nothing couldsurprise us. Humble as it may appear, it is the only true and practical knowledge, and if we think of attaining farther, we are ignorant of our powers and pursue a phantom. But the human mind does not rest at this point. Men of every age have felt, as we do, that there was a higher and deeper mystery beyond, and asked after the mysterious pow- er which carried the general law into effect. ‘To the mystery of general laws therefore, we now proceed. I have before . alluded to the fundamental principle of conception by which it is absurd to suppose an effect without a cause, and by which Adam was susceptible of the emotion of mystery ; and it is by the operation of this that we feel the mystery of gen- eral laws. A permanent and universal tendency is obvious, but the cause is concealed. To solve the mystery of these, 222 On Mystery. it is necessary to find some cause still more general, to which they may all be referred. With regard to such a cause vari- ous hypotheses have been formed, all of which however are entirely unsatisfactory except that which resolves all effects into the immediate agency of one mighty and intelligent Being. This would doubtless have been generally adopted, were it not, that though the cause at work, in general oper- ates like a wise and intelligent agent, yet if it be artificially thwarted, it will still go on, and-form ludicrous, abortive, and monstrous combinations. If then we suppose it to operate otherwise than by a surd necessity, we must conclude that such operations are called for by the general scheme of Provi- dence, to announce, (which is of great importance,) the stabili- ty, in all cases, of the general rule. If this hypothesis be adop- ted, we may consider every general law asa single fact, and all general laws as a class of facts, referable to the simple volition of the Deity as their cause. In such a case, the voli- tion takes the place of the general law, as being that to which every thing is to be referred ; and the mystery remains in the fact that volition can communicate motion at all, and in the existence and infinite energy of the will exerted. ‘This sublime view of the universe and its Author, we may perhaps hereafter fully take in and enjoy. In all this however, it will be perceived that we have mere- ly traced causes more limited to those more general, but have not proceeded one step in removing the obscurity which hangs over existence, and the nature of causation. It will also be perceived, since a general law is only an abstract name for a uniform mode of operation, which name can have no efficiency, that the power which operates according to the law, must be immediately exerted in producing every individual effect ; and that if the law be mysterious, the par- ticular facts, from an observation ef which the law was in- ferred, must, truly and philosophically speaking, be equally so. It will then follow that every event is in fact equally mysterious,—yes, every event, and it is familiarity alone that deadens the sense of it. From this universal mystery, it results, that the creation of the world, the resurrection of the dead, the mode of God’s being, and all those facts which from their nature, admit to us, of no experience, or analogy, but still involve no contra- diction or absurdity, are to be believed on good testimony however far they may be removed from the course of our ex- On Mystery. 223 perience, or strange to our manner of conception. Since all events are equally mysterious, we ought, as philosophers, on equal testimony, to believe one thing as readily as another, and upon sufficient testimony, to believe any thing that is not absurd. Pure spiritual existence is much more simple in the conception, than the complex manner in which we exist, and _ we may easily suppose that when the rumour of man’s crea- tion reached the other world, some sceptical spirit may have entered into a disquisition on the possibility of such a mode of being. It must have appeared, if not impossible and absurd, at least highly improbable, and testimony alone could have been appealed to, by his fellows, who knew as little of the nature of the case as himself. The feeling excited by mystery, is, as I have said, a union of wonder and curiosity, and when the mystery is deep, becomes a sublime, and at the same time a humbling emotion. Hay- ing, as we have seen, its foundation in a principle of order, . and always implying the conviction of this, it necessarily in- volves the higher powers of intellect, and affords, what phi- © losophers have sometimes been at a loss to find, a ground of gistinction between man and the brutes. We may therefore ‘esteem it, notwithstanding it implies ignorance, an evidence of our dignity. Itis obvious also, that it must most frequently arise in contemplative and philosophic minds. Of its uses, we may say, that as it is, in great minds, a deep and absorbing feeling, it gives a powerful stimulus to physical inquiry. That it enters largely into the devotions of the pious, and affords an occasion for the exercise of the highest possi- ble faith, and the most sublime confidence in the divine ad- ministration ; and that without it, the present state, as a scene of discipline, would be essentially changed. Even in the way of argument, important conclusions may sometimes be dedu- ced from it, as that for a future state of rewards and punish- ments from the mystery of the present mode of administra- tion. Of the essence of mind or matter we have not, and perhaps no finite being can have the power of forming an elementary conception. But aside from this, we see from what has been said, that the intelligence and experience, which we may hope for hereafter, may enable us to solve all those difficulties, which we now term the mysteries of Providence, to reduce every physical fact to its general law, (consequently to behold the universe without an anomaly,) and to refer all general laws 224 Some data for the Natural Estory of Orange Co. N. Y. immediately to the volition of the Almighty. That will in- deed be a noble elevation of being to attain unto, when, as clearly and as directly as the rays of light emanate from the sun, every being and event shall seem to flow from the ener- gies of Omnipotence, and the depths of ineffable love. But though all mystery may thus far be removed, clouds and dark- ness must still rest upon the existence, creative energy, and attributes of the Great Cause uncaused, and the darkness of “ excessive bright,” forever encompass his throne. Art. II].—Some data for the Natural story of Orange County, N. Y.; furnished by Jer. Van Rewssevazr, M. D. New York, May, 1827. Dear Sir, I send you a few observations made in Orange county in . this state, and taken from the MS. Medley Book of Jesse Booth, an old gentleman who has long been an accurate ob- server of nature. Some of these notices may prove interest- ing to your readers, and thus will be valuable to the future historian or naturalist, if recorded in your Journal. They will serve as data in writing the natural history of Orange county. Yours respectfully, — Jer. Van Renssevarr. — Prof. Silliman. On the habits of the locust cicada septemdecem. When I was a small boy, observes Mr. Booth, I saw the locusts in their winged state—and when I saw them the sec- ond time, which happened in 1792, my curiosity was excited to know in what year they were up when I wasa boy. From many facts that came to my knowledge, and from its bemg well remembered by most of my neighbors, I ascertained that the first time I saw them was in the year Eamon er aciia)s The second time I saw them up in the year 1792, The third time “ 23 és 1809, The fourth time Ks 4 ci 1826. The first time that I saw the locusts in their winged state, ihey were according to my recollection, much more numerous than when they returned in 1792, and their numbers were Some data for the Natural History of Orange Co. N. Y. 225 very perceptibly lessened the third time, and still more dimin- ished the fourth and last time. When returning from New York in 1817, Col. W. Faulkner informed me that he had seen four locust years, or periods of their being in the winged state ; that at the first period they were in vast numbers, and that at every subsequent period, or time they were up, their number visibly decreased. There are several probable causes why they should de- crease in this country at the successive periods of their visit- ation. : First.—The soil best adapted for breeding them was for- merly burned over, almost every year by the Indians, so that the female locusts had small suitable brushwood of one or two years growth to deposit their eggs in. | Secondly.—When land has been divested or cleared of brush and timber for more than seventeen years, none of the young insects or crysales live or breed in it—as no eggs are» deposited in it—so that the clearing of the lands of timber lessens their means of depositing their eggs. ial Thirdly.—There is every locust year, great destruction ‘anade of them by our domestic as well as wild fowls. _ It was on the 5th June, 1809, that I saw the first locusts for that period, that had left their holes in the earth to become aerial inhabitants. It is interesting to observe the habits of these insects, when they leave the earth in which they have been so long imbed- ded. - Such of them as came out of their holes near sunset, and through the night, and so on till sun an hour or two high next morning, would climb up trees, shrubs, rails, or whatever might be convenient to them—so that they got to an eleva- tion from the earth, some of them not more than five or six inches, and at all heights from that to twelve feet, as the bod- ies they happened to climb would admit of. Here they re- mained firmly attached, until the day became warm and dry, when a crack or fissure would form on their backs, and a lo- cust would come out of its earth-coat, nearly one third larger, and as white as milk. In an hour or two after (if the day was dry and warm) they were perfectly released from their old coats or suits, they became black, and then took wing and flew about. ; Such of them as happened to leave their holes in the early part of a dry and warm day, would most commonly get some Vou. XILI.—No. 2. A 226 Some data for the Natural History of Orange Co. N. Y. distance from the ground, and then shed their coats, turn black, and fly about in two or three hours. There was a difference of several days in the leaving of their holes, between such as bred in warm soils and situations, and such as were in soils and situations that were damp and cold. On the 11th June, (1809,) near twelve o’clock, was the first that I heard the locusts sing that year—so that they must have been out of their earth-suit six days. On the ist day of June, 1792, the locusts were at their great- est height of singing for that year, but in 1809 it must have been nearly the middle of June, which was owing to the cold- ness and backwardness of the season. The two first. locust years that ! saw them, they would collect on trees, bushes, é&c. and their songs might be said to be heard every where: but in the year 1809 they seemed to collect mostly in warm situations. ‘They flew from my orchard between ninety and one hundred rods, to my timber land, by thousands; and at that distance I have often amused myself by listening to their united songs. It is only the male that sings, and he makes the sound or song with a small white spot under each wing. ‘It appears to be a note or love call to the females, for they commonly flew in greater numbers to the spot where the loud- est songs were heard. — ch The female, after union with the male, deposits her eggs, by means of a probe or sort of sting, in the tender twigs and branches of bushes and trees, with a great deal of application and labor. . _ It was on the 12th of July, 1809, that I heard the last sing- ing of the locust, so that the males live probably only about forty days after they begin to sg; and in about fiity days or less the whole of them die. ; After the females had deposited their eggs'in the summer of 1809, my curiosity was so excited that I constantly exam- ined the eggs, deposited by thousands in the small limbs of bushes and trees; and I found that they were all hatched (in other words, were all empty) in the latter part of August. In digging or ploughing land that has young locusts in it, they are found two or three years before the locust year. They are then small, and each one occupies its own appro- priate hole or cell, which is a little wider than the body of the insect, and approaches within two or three inches of the sur- face of the earth. In the succeeding years, each one, as it Some data for the Natural History of Orange Co. N. Y. 227 increases in size, keeps widening its hole, and working it nearer to the surface, so that each locust has its opening worked to the surface two or three weeks before leaving it. In some suitable places and soils their holes are very near each other, and the surface is perforated like a riddle. Thave not transcribed my observations for this year, (1826,) It is an erroneous opinion that locusts appear only at stated periods. ‘That they have appeared in very large numbers, at regular intervals of seventeen years, during the last eighty five years—making five visits—is beyond all dispute: but, a few locusts are heard to sing almost every year. On the 14th of June, 1812, I heard one smg—on the 11th of June, 1913, I heard several. It should have been mentioned in a former part of this pa- per, that in clay land there appear to be more holes than in any other soil—in loam not so many—in stony ground fewer —and in morasses none. They breed mostly in woodlands, - none in old clear fields, except under hedges, single trees or orchards. In case a piece of wood or brush land is cleared the summer after a locust year, they will come out of it in as great numbers as if it were covered with wood and timber, and the usual period of visitation had arrived. Date of the annual song of the Kitty Didet.* It is known that it is the male Kitty Didet that sings, (as it is improperly called,) its love song-to- attract the females. The noise is made by flat transparent plates, one on each wing, near to the back, which are grated on each other with some force and great rapidity. When they first sing, they are only heard in the evenings and nights, but after the severe white frosts in October, and the weather has become cold, they sing only in the warm sunshiny days. ‘They usually ap- pear in the month of August, as will be seen by a record of the last sixteen years. 1809, they were first heard on the evening of Aug. 22, 1 8 1 0, be C6 (74 6G 4 74 S. 1811, 66 6c 3 3 6“ 8, * This insect was considered by Linnzus and his followers as a Gryllus, but since the division of that genus by Fabricius and others, it has been assigned to the new genus Acheta, of which there are about twenty species, but the spe- cific name of our Kitty Didet, has not, I believe, been determined. 228 Some data for the Natural History of Orange Co. N. Y. 1812, they wert Ths heard ea the Brenise of Aug. 21, 1813, 1814, 1815, 1816, 1817, 1818, 1819, 1820, 1821, 1822, 1823, 1824, 6s 6c i, «“ 13; «“ 25, « 16, 14 2 66 3, 66 , 2 66 6, 66 1, 66 ts “ 16 Remarks.—The summer of 1809, was cold and moist; an early frost happened on the 3d Sept. so that but few fields of indian corn were ripened when the frost first came on; and those that did were planted in warm situations about the Ist of May. 18] é .—A cold dry summer, with light dews and poor. crops of indian corn. 1818.—A warm summer.—1819.—Do. Mo’ See ise do. 1820.—A very warm summer.—1821.—Do. do. 1822.—A very hot and dry summer—heavy dews. 1823.—A cold, wet, cloudy summer—last of Aug. and. Sept. warm and dry. © 1824. —A cold and wet summer. Register of the flowering of Chesnut trees for eleven years. 1816, Chesnut trees were in full eg July 22, 1817, 1818, 1819, 1820, 1821, 1822, 1823, 1824, 1825, 1826, 66 ce 74 oe 66 co 66 (74 «6 34 oo 3) 7 14 44 4 44 17, 66 8, 4 2, Ge ee cen ae June 29!!! July 7, 6s 10, 66 2, June 27!!! Remarks.—1816.—A cold and dry summer. 1318.—A warm summer.—1819.—Do. do. Larve in the Human Body. 229 1820.—A very warm summer.—1821.—Do. do. 1822.—Very hot and dry. 1823.—Cold and wet.—1824.—Do. do. 1825.—Warm and dry. 1826.—Very hot and dry. Art. IV.—On a Larva, liberated ow Ovpw; by Jer. Van Rewssexvagr, M. D. Corresponding Secretary of the Lyce- um of Natural Eistory, New York. (READ BEFORE THE LYCEUM.) A few English words have been translated into Greek.— Editor. Ir must be well recollected that some months ago, [ laid on the table, as a donation, a small vial, received from a re- | spectable physician, one of our associates, labelled “ Larvee, passed cuv Oupw Tuvouxoe ofopov.” ‘The larva was in spirits, and | may thus be described. Body, rather more than an inch in length, about a line and an half in breadth; glabrous, translu- cent, light clove brown color cylindrical, tapering gently at each extremity; consisting of twelve articulations with the head. Head, small andlong. The last, or anal articulation of the body, small, acute, and terminated by two short pro- cesses. Legs, six. At the time this specimen was added to our Cabinet, some doubt existed as to the correctness of the statement respect- ing the manner in which it had been obtained. Its size cer- tainly could present no obstacle. It is a well established fact, that animals have issued from various parts of the human frame, however much the idea may have been ridiculed. But scepticism in science is daily yielding to observation, and the investigations of practical men are clearing away much of the rubbish that popular belief and prejudice have placed inthe way of naturalists. Facts, well authenticated and indisputable, are now received as scientific _. records, which a few years ago would have startled the best informed minds of the day ; whence we are led to hope that science will continue to advance, and unfold to us more of those hidden operations of nature, which are yet mysteries te us, and seem now inexplicable. A case similar to the one now under consideration, is re- 230 Larve in the Human Body. corded in the valuable work of Messrs. Kirby and Spence on Entomology,* which I transcribe. A medical friend of mine, says one of the authors, at Ips- wich, gave me this winter an apode larva, passed ow Ovpw by a person of that place, which I now preserve in spirits, and can show you when you visit me. It appears to me to belong to the Diptera order, yet not to the fly tribe (muscide) but rather to the Tipulida, with which, however, it does not so entirely agree as to take away all doubt. It is a very singu- lar larva, and I can find none in any author that I have had an opportunity of consulting, which at all resembles it. That you may know it, should you chance to meet with it, I shall describe it. Body, three-fourths of an inch in length, and about a line in breadth; opaque, of a pale yellow color, cylin- drical, tapering somewhat at each extremity; consisting of twenty articulations without the head. Head, reddish brown, heart-shaped, much smaller than the following joint, armed. with two strong unguiform mandibles, with a biarticulate pal- pus attached exteriorly to the base of each. These mandi- bles appear to be moved by a narrow black central tendon under the dorsal skin, terminating a little beyond the base of the first segment; besides these are four others, two on each side of it, the outer ones diverging, much slenderer and very short. The last or anal joint of the body very minute; ex- erting two short filiform horns, or rather, respiratory organs. I could discover, in this animal, no respiratory plates, such as are found in the larvee of muscidze, nor was the trachea visi- le. When given to me, it was alive, and extremely active, writhing itself into various contortions with great agility. It moved, like other dipterous larvee, by means of its mandibles. Upon wetting my finger more than once to take it up when it had fallen from a table upon which. it was placed, the saline taste with which it was imbued was so powerful, that it was — sometime before it was dissipated from my mouth. Man, wonderfully and fearfully made, is heir to ills un- known to most of us—among which may be enumerated those arising from punitive insects, that “bore into his flesh, de- scend into his stomach and viscera, derange his whole system, and thus often occasion his death,”—of which several instan- ces are related in the work above mentioned. I am convin- eed that many of those village tales that excite derision at the * Vol. I. p. 139. Larve in the Human Body. 231 moment in most but the unfortunate sufferer, would if thor- oughly investigated, and plainly recorded, shed light, when properly collected and compared, on many of the mysteries that now perplex us. In the valuable collection which our learned member, Dr. Mitchill, has just deposited in our cabinet, is a vial containing six (of thirty) larvee vomited up by a girl seventeen years old. She was the patient of a late respectable physician of our city, and had “suffered severely, for eighteen months, from spas- modic and nervous affections.” Abundant evidence has been adduced, say Messrs. Kirby and Spence, to establish the fact beyond all controversy, that the meal worm, (Tenebrio Molitor L.) whose usual food is flour, has frequently been voided by human beings* and in one instance is stated to have caused death. How these grubs got into the stomach, unless the eggs were swallowed in some preparation of flour, itis difficult tosay. But that the animal should be able to sustain the heat of this organ, so far exceeding the temperature to which it is usually accustomed, is the most extraordinary fact of all. ‘» Dr. Martin Lister, so well known to geologists, was also, it seems, an attentive observer in his profession, and has record- ed{ the case of a girl who voided three hexapod larve similar to what are found in the carcasses of birds. In the German Ephemerides{ is related the case of a girl, from an abscess in the calf of whose leg crept black worms re- sembling beetles. The larvee of some beetle, it seems, have been ejected from the lungs. Four, of which the largest was three fourths of an inch long, were discovered in the mucus expelled after a se- vere fit of coughing by a lady afflicted with a pulmonary dis- ease; and similar larvee of a smaller size were once afterwards _discharged in the same way.|| No one would suppose that caterpillars which feed upon vegetable substances, could be found alive in the stomach. But a case is recorded in the Phil. Trans. by Lister, of a boy who vomited up several, which had sixteen legs. The eggs, * * Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. No. 35, 42, 48.—Phil. Trans. Vol. 3.— Derham Physic Theol. 378. { Phil. Trans. 1665.—Shaw’s Abridg. II. t{ Mead, Med. Saer. 103. || London Medical Review, Vol. v. 340. 232 Larve in the Human Body. it is observed, might have been eaten with salad, and enough of the vegetable might have been retained to support them when hatched. Linnzus mentions that the caterpillar of a moth (Cranibus Pinguinalis #.) has also been found in the stomach. A case is related by Angelinus and Alsarius,* who give the figure, of a caterpillar of great length, said to have been voided from the nostrils of a young man long afflicted with dreadful pains in the head. ° It is well known that the gad-fly, (Hstrus L.) sorely annoys cattle and other quadrupeds—but it is not generally known that there is a species appropriated to man. Its existence has been unnoticed by entomologists, at least in books, since Gmelin’s edition of the Systema Nature, until Humboldt and Bonpland mentioned, that, to the myriads of musquitos, which render uninhabitable a great and beautiful portion of the tor- rid zone, may be added the estrus hominis, which deposits its eggs in the skin of man, and causes tumors.| Gmelin men- tions it on the authority of the younger Linnzus, and says that it remains beneath the skin of the abdomen six months, pen- etrating deeper, if disturbed, and sometimes occasioning death. Even the gad-fly of the ox, leaving its proper food, has been known to deposit its eggs in the jaw of a woman, and the bots produced from the eggs finally caused her death.{ Other flies of various kinds thus penetrate into us, either preying upon our flesh, or getting into our intestines. Lew- enhock|| mentions the case of a woman whose leg had been enlarged with glandular bodies for some years. Her surgeon gave him one he had cut from it, in which were several mag- gots; these he fed with flesh till they assumed the pupa, when they produced a fly as large as the flesh-fly. A patient of Dr. Reeve, of Norwich, (England,) after suf- fering great pain, for some time, was at last relieved by void- ing a considerable number of maggots, agreeing with the lar- vee of the muscida domestica minor of De Geer.§ Azara mentions that mn Paraguay he has known instances of persons, who, after having bled from the nose in their sleep, * De verme admirando per nares egresso. } Essai dur le geograph. des plantes, 136. } Clark in the Linnean Trans. Vol. IIT. || Epistles, 1687. § Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. Larve in the Human Body. 233. were attacked with the most violent head aches; and only received relief when several great maggots, the offspring of the flesh-fly, issued from their nostrils. -In Jamaica a large blue fly hovers around the sick, and is with difficulty prevented by nurses from depositing eggs in the nose, mouth, and gums of the invalids. Lempriere re- cords* the case of alady, who after recovering from fever, fell a victim to the maggots of this fly, which from the nose, found their way through the os cribiforme into the cavity of the skull, and afterwards into the brain. The larve of the Hlophilus pendulus F. a fly peculiarly formed for inhabiting fluids, has been found in the stomach of a woman.{ Bonnet relates} that he had seen the certificate of an Eng- lish physician, stating that a girl, who had by prescription of a quack, swallowed some sow bugs alive, threw up a prodi- gious number of them, of all sizes, which must have bred in her stomach. 3 In a Memoire Apterologique, Hermann gives the figure of an Acarus marginatus seen running on the corpus callosum -. of the brain of a patient, at the military hospital at Strasburgh, just as the pia mater was separated. He adds, that it is not the first time insects have been seen in the brain. He quotes C. Gemma, who says, that, on dissecting the brain of a wo- man, there were found abundance of vermicles and punaises. It is well known that beans and other extraneous bodies often form a nucleus for stones in the bladder—and it is not more wonderful that a larva should be found in that viscus than that a’bean should have germinated there—and that fact is sufficiently established. ve The late Dr. Stringham, Professor in Columbia College, has recorded in the New York Medical Repository, (Hex. I. Vol. 6, p. 262,) the case of a lady, whose long sufferings had so “enfeebled her health that it was thought death alone could alleviate her miseries, but who was relieved and cured by the passage of a great number of non-descript insects. They were three-fourths of an inch long; the back covered with a * On the Diseases of the Army in Jamaica. + Phil. Mag. IX. ¢ Vol. V. Vor. XUI.—No. 2. Or 234 Larve in the Human Body. firm cartiliginous substance, and to the inferior part of each body were attached a considerable number of legs.” Dr. S. “considers them to belong to the order of vermes, molusca, and to that genus termed Actinia.” His paper is accompa- nied by drawings of them. Dr. Crumpe has published in the sixth vol. of the Transac- tions of the Royal Irish Academy, a case very similar to the above. Another, very analogous, has been inserted by Dr. Pascalis, in the seventh vol. of the Med. Repository, p. 342. Dr. John Archer, of Maryland, communicated to Dr. Mitch- ill of this city, in 1808, an instance of his « opening a tumour, and “extracting from it a worm eight or nine inches long, which appeared to be like a lumbricus, and alive.” Med. Repos. vol. XII, p. 367. Dr. Hazard, of S. Kingston, Rhode Island, while attending Mr. S. Chappel, (of that town,) aged about 70, “while view- ing attentively the tumour, discovered an undulating mo- tion, like that arising from the movement of some living creature. He opened the tumour, and on examination with a probe, he raised up and immediately extracted a worm, which bore an exact resemblance to the lumbricus, was about nine inches in length, and very active. The phenom- enon was witnessed by a large number of respectable char- acters.” See also Med. Rep. Hex. III, vol. 2, p. 388. I trust that these, and the other instances related by the au- thors before. mentioned, will at least establish the possibility that larva may pass from the urethra or bladder—and that, although uncommon, it does occasionally occur. For accounts of larve ‘voided through natura] passages of the human body, I may refer to Rudo Entozoa, Vol. II, p. 164-5. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 235 - Art. V.—Notice and analysis of “A Description of Active and Extinct Volcanos, with remarks on their origin, their chemical phenomena and the character of their products, as determined by the condition of the earth, during the period of their formation; being the substance of some lectures de- lvered before the Unwersity of Oxford, with much addi- tional matter ; by Cuartes Dauseny, M. D.,F.R.S., F. G. S., and Col. Phys. Lond. &c. &c., and Professor of Chem- istry and Fellow of the Magdalen College, Oxford. 1 Vol. 8vo. London, 1826.” In the last number of this work, we gave, principally from the British Journals, an analysis of the elaborate and very able work of G. Poulett Scrope, Esq. on Volcanos. It would perhaps, be most natural to give next, some account of his more recent and not less interesting volume, on the extinct volcanos of France, &c. But this notice we shall, for the present defer, to make room for the work of Prof. Daubeny, which, although entirely independent of Mr. Scrope’s in its origin, has followed close upon its track ; is like that an ori- ginal elementary treatise on volcanos, and although differmg from Mr. Scrope’s work in some points, conducts us in gener- al, to similar conclusions. : Professor Daubeny was before advantageously known, es- pecially by his Sketch of the Geology of Sicily,* and by oth- er valuable productions, He had qualified himself for his survey of volcancs and their phenomena, by attending the usu- al courses of lectures, especially at Edinburgh, where he was a pupil of Prof. Jameson. ; At this time, (the winter of 1816—17,) his mind was partic- ularly directed to the long and much agitated question of the origi of the trap rocks, and he resolved not to trust to the ex- amination of hand specimens, but to visit the “very spots,” and to examine “the circumstances of geological position, as well as the nature of the rocks associated,” and carefully to compare them with what we see in the trap districts—but he was then far from believing, as he now does, that “volcanos and trap rocks are, for the most part, at least, analogous for- mations, calculated mutually to reflect light on each other.” He evidently carried with him to the investigation of this * See Vol. X, p. 230 of this work. 936 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. question, all the science which was necessary to his underta- kine—with a spirit of careful and accurate examination, and a capacity for generalization, which enabled him to make the best use of what he saw. His observations were made, prin- cipally from 1819 to 1823. The following are the leading divisions of his work. 1. The extinct voleanos of France and Germany. 2. The volcanic districts of Hungary, Italy, Sicily and the Lipari islands, including the active as well as dormant and extinct volcanos of those countries—all the important points of which, he examined in person. 3. From the best authors, he describes the volcanos of oth- er parts of the world, including the islands. 4. The fourth division or lecture is devoted to general in- ferences respecting volcanic phenomena. In his introduction, Professor Daubeny states the distinction between active and extinct voleanos—the former including all those which have been eruptive at any time since the ex- istence of authentic records—the latter those that have, with- in the same limits of time, exhibited no signs of activity, al- though incontestably of the same origin. Thus, although a mountain should not exhibit a crater and the usual figure and stratification of a voleano,—if its mate- rials have “a vitreous aspect and fracture together with a cel- lular structure—cells generally empty and elongated in the same direction and if they have a glazed internal appearance” there need be no hesitation in pronouncing that the materials are of volcanic origin. All voleanic rocks may be included under 1. Trachyte, 2. Basaltic lava. 1. Trachyte—(from the Greek yeas so denominated from the harsh earthy feel which it often possesses— is essentially composed of erystals of glassy felspar, often cracked, which are imbedded in a basis generally considered as being itself a modification of compact felspar. ‘To this are sometimes su- peradded crystals of hornblende, mica, iron pyrites, specular iron and more rarely augite and magnetic or titaniferous iron.’ 2. Basaltic lava— appears to be some fae aon of ba- salt—consisting essentially of augite, felspar and titaniferous or magnetic iron generally pecompaniey with olivine and sometimes with hornblende.” Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 237° Although the ingredients are too intimately mixed to allow of our always ascertaining their nature by inspection—it can always be done by the blow pipe—for trachyte melts into a white enamel whatever may have been its color, while basalt after fusion, retains always its original color. Fe!spathic lava is therefore, in the language of our author, synonymous with trachyte, and augite lava with basaltic lava. The only essential ingredient of trachyte appears therefore. to be felspar while basalt always contains augite. 1. Extinct Volcanos of France and Germany. Under this division of Professor Daubeny’s work, we shall not enter into much detail, because, should we be able on a future occasion to give some account of the separate work of Mr. Scrope on the extinct volcanos of France and Germany d&c. we shall necessarily travel over the same ground and in doing it we can if necessary revert to the present treatise. We believe much philosophical scepticism formerly existed with respect to extinct volcanos. ‘They were vaguely referred to, but without decisive proof of their real volcanic origin, and many persons very imperfectly qualified to judge of such ques- tions, were sufficiently inclined to infer the existence of vol- canos of former ages, wherever they saw a conical hill or al- most any hill with a hollow on its summit, and porous stones of whatever kind, were referred to a similar origin. It was a very imposing and sublime idea, that volcanic fire, still active in our planet, and still bursting forth in many places, with des- tructive energy, had, in ages long past, erected agencies still more extensive—covering provinces with ruins, and operating even in the bed of the primeval oceans. The speculation seemed however to claim quite as much affinity with poetical as with philosophical conceptions, and it was not till the mid- dle of the last century that the subject of extinct volcanos be- gan to be investigated with accuracy and skill. . The much disputed region of Auvergne, Velay and Vive- rais, in France, has been often visited, and examined by able ' geologists, and we believe that within a few years past, no one of them has left that region, without being convinced that it is _ of voleanic origin. The celebrated geologist D’Aubuisson visited the country in question, with the strongest belief that he should find this district of Neptunian origin, but he returned a convert to the opposite opinion; a change the more credit- { 238 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. able to his candor and to the vigor of his mind, because he had before published an able and interesting treatise, to prove that basalt, and especially the basalt of Saxony, was of aque- ous formation. The volcanic district of France lies upon the river Rhone, nearly in the angle formed by it with the Mediterranean, and covers an area nearly square, of from forty to fifty leagues in diameter. We have never visited that country, but the evidence of its voleanic origin exhibited by Mr. Scrope and Professor Daube- ny confirming, extending and giving precision to the observa- tions of many previous writers, leaves not the shadow of a doubt, that the tremendous subterraneous agency of fire has covered this fine country with floods of molten rock ; no more doubt indeed, than that similar events have happened at Vesu- vius, Cotopaxi and Aitna. : Being possessed of a fine series of specimens, from this very region, furnished to the cabinet of the American Geological Society by our celebrated geologist, Mr. Wiliam Maclure— we sit down with these specimens—with the full descriptions of the authors whom we have just named and with the noble atlas —geological—geographical and picturesque, of Mr. Scrope, illustrating the striking features of this interesting region, and while we feel the fullest conviction that their conclusions are substantially correct, we can easily imagine that we see the floods of lava, pouring from the now quiet and cold craters, and that the skies of France were once dimmed by the clouds of voleanic ashes, as those of Italy are at the present day. Craters, regularly formed, often entire, sometimes with the thin and scorified edge of the lip in fine preservation, and oc- casionally of vast dimensions; here, black, rugged and scathed with fire, there, overgrown with trees and there, filled with water forming lakes; currents of lava, lying where they flow- ed from the crater, or where they burst from the side or foot of the ruptured mountam, extending many miles and many leagues, traceable directly to their parent mountain, winding along the gorges and the sinuosities_of the vallies, now and then diverted from their course by rocks, hills and other obsta- cles; sometimes damming up rivers, whose courses they have crossed or obstructed, and thus forming lakes of considerable dimensions ; exhibiting all the varieties of lithoid lava, from that which is compact and rock-like, to that which is porous and vesicular in an incipient or in a prevailing degree; crown: Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 239 ed or mixed with slag, scorize, pumice, olivine and other exuvice of known and active volcanos; displaying frequently a struc- ture now spherical, ovoidal and concentric, now prismatic and columnar, and fronting streams and bounding vallies with ranges of columns, equalling or rivalling the regularity of the famous colonnades of Fingal’s cave, and the Giant’s Cause- way; these are a few of the most striking features of these countries, which are so affluent in proofs of their igneous ori- gin, that there is nothing needed but to select carefully and ju- diciously, those proofs which will be the most decisive, espe- cially with respect to minds not familiar with such contempla- tions. The volcanos of the Auvergne, &c. are regarded as of differ- ent ages; some appear to have been active before the forma- tion of the present vallies, and some since; where the cur- rents of lava have been cut through, by those causes which formed the present vallies, they are obviously older than the vallies, and where these currents have flowed into vallies, beds of rivers, &c. they are as obviously of a more recent date. Although the local geographical names may be supposed to allude to the former character of the country as Auvergne, (Avernus,) Valleé d’Enfer, &c. still, it is thought that these names convey no allusion to historical events, but rather to the actual appearance of the surface. ‘“CIndeed, (says Prof. Daubeny,) the streams of lava are often so little decomposed, so partially covered with vegetation, that we imagine they must have been formed within the limits of au- thentic history. ‘The records, nevertheless, of the eruptions are no where to be found, and the evidence we are in quest of can be collected, it would seem, only from the volume of nature, which in this instance speaks a language so intelligible.” “The high antiquity of the most modern of these volcanos is indeed sufficiently obvious. Had any of them been in a state of activity in the age of Julius Cesar, that general, who en- camped upon the plains of Auvergne, and laid siege to its prin- ciple city, could hardly have failed to notice them. Had there been even any record of their existence in the time of Pliny or Sidonius Apollinaris, the one would scarcely have omitted to make mention of it in his Natural History, nor the other to in- troduce some allusion to it among his descriptions of this his na- tive province. “The case is even stronger, when we recollect that the poet’s residence was on the borders of the Lake Aidat, which owed 240 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. its very existence to one of the most modern volcanos; and that he was aware of the nature of such phenomena, appears from a letter extant of his addressed to the Bishop of Vienne, in which, under the apprehension of an attack from the Goths, he informs him that he is going to enjoin public prayers, similar to those which the bishop had established, at the time when earthquakes demolished the walls of Vienne, Cohen the mountowns opened and vomited forth torrents of inflamed materials, and the wild beasts, driven from the woods by fire and terror, retired into the town, where they made great ravages.” Although the formation of these volcanic regions was an- terior to the records of history, it was evidently in the most recent portions, posterior to the existence of organized beings, which are found imbedded im the volcanic tufa. ‘¢ The tuff in some places, as at Salers, is composed of minute fragments so highly charged with oxide of iron, that it has much the appearance of a ferruginous sandstone.’ In this state it sometimes contains impression of leaves and branches of trees, which appear in no respect mineralized, but carbonized and re- duced to an impalpable powder by the ‘ordinary process of de- cay. In other cases, where the tree has wholly disappeared, the hollow which it occupied i in the midst of the tuff still remains. This circumstance tends ina still greater degree to identify the tuff of Auvergne with the trass of the Rhine volcanos. «¢ The shells that are found at Gergovia near Clermont, and at Aurillac in Cantal, both belong to the fresh water formation, and the recent discovery of bones belonging to the Mastodon, and to extinct species of several existing genera of animals, in the. volcanic tuff of Mount Perrier, near Issoire, completes the re- semblance with the rocks of the Paris basin. “¢ This discovery is announced in the Bulletin des Sciences for November 1824, p. 328, in an extract from. a memoir read by M. le Comte Laizer at the annual meeting of the Philosophical Society of Clermont in Auvergne. Between Champeix and Is- sore, an elevated platform of basalt and tuff occurs, the latter composed of fragments of pumice and trachyte cemented by the usual argillaceous paste. _ In this aggregate, are the bones of no Jess than twenty extinct species of Mammalia, several of which have been pronounced by Cuvier to be new. “¢ Among the Pachydermata are, the Mastodon, Elephant, Rhi- noceros, Hippotamus, Tapir. “¢s Ruminantia—two species of Ox, like the Auroch, two spe- cies of Stag,—all four extinct. ** Rodentia—a Beaver. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 241 ** Carnivora—two new species of Bear, three species of the G. Felis like the Panther, one species of the Hyzna, one species of Fox, one species of Otter,—all of them new. * Besides the above, occur bones of Birds, and impressions of Fish. . “* Drawings of these bones are announced as about to be pub- lished by subscription.” Speaking of another place, M. Daubeny says :— ‘“« A limit on the other hand is set to the age that can be assign- ed to this volcanic breccia, by the circumstance of its being su- perposed on strata, containing fresh water shells, and bones of mammalia* similar to those of the basin of Paris. Hence the eruptions to which the materials of this tuff owe their existence, though anterior to the period at which the vallies were excava- ted, must date from one subsequent to the formation of the ter- tiary rocks found in that neighborhood.” «Thus during the period immediately antecedent to that.at which man and other exis ting species of Mammalia first came into being, at a time when the lower parts of the country were still under water, but the higher had become peopled with va- rious tribes of land animals, the neighborhood of the Puy ap- ‘spears to have been agitated by volcanos, which overspread the country with their ejected materials, caused the destruction of the animals that existed there, and according to M. Roux, ob- structed the drainage of the district, and consequently raised the waters to a still higher level than before. ‘The ejected materi- als, intermixed with fragments of older rocks washed down at the same time from the neighboring high ground, were deposited at the bottom of the water, forming the immense masses of tuff which now cover the valley of Puy, and during the latter part of the period occupied by this process, the same volcanic forces elevated from the midst of the then existing lake the trachytic rocks which constitute the ridge of Mont Mezen. *¢ But besides these traces of volcanic action at a period an- tecedent to the formation of the valleys, the neighborhood of the Puy, no less than the province of the Vivarais ‘which bounds it on the south-east, exhibits also decided evidence of post-dilu- vial eruptions having taken place. “West of the town of Puy is a series of little volcanos, -amounting according to M. Bertrand Roux to more than a hun- * Cuvier has ascertained that they belong to the genus Paleotherium and Anthracotherium; the former contained in a gypseous deposit similar to that of Montmartre ; the latter in a caleareous rock, in which were found fresh water shells. The same bed inclosed bones of other Mammalia, and portions of the shell of the Turtle. Vou. XII.—No. 2. 6 242 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. dred, the two most remarkable of which are the Lake de Bou- chet and the crater of Bar. The former, which is situated near the villages of Cayre and Bouchet, is of an elliptical form, and without any outlet. Itsdepthis about ninety feet, and its great- est diameter two thousand three hundred. The character of the rocks in its neighborhood corresponds very well with the idea of its volcanic origin. The crater of Bar is piaced on an isolated mountain in the midst of granite, forming a truncated cone about twenty thousand feet in circumference at its base, and eight /un- dred and thirty in height. It is- composed entirely of lapilli and scoriform lava, and on its summit is the crater, which is almost perfect, one thousand six hundred and sixty feet in diameter, and one hundred and thirty in depth. It appears that a lake once existed there, but itis now nearly dried up.” That the changes in the rocks have been scarcely appreci- able within the limits of history is considered as proved by the fact that the rock on either side of the old Roman roads, none of which can be less than one thousand and three hun- dred years old, has undergone since that period, scarcely any sensible decay. Volcanos of Germany. With this slight notice of the volcanos of France, we pass to those of Germany. _ Although no active volcanos are found in any part of that extensive country, and the recognition of those which are ex- tinct dates only from the last century, yet those who have visi- ted the spots themselves will feel no more doubt as to their hav- ing once existed, than an American who had witnessed the burn- ing mountains of his own hemisphere, but had never heard of those in Europe, would entertain with respect to the real nature of Vesuvius, if landed at its foot when it chanced to be in a tranquil state. “This remark applies to no case more completely feta to that of the rocks which occur in a district commonly known by the name of the Eyfel, situated between che Rhine and the Bree ent frontier of the Netherlands. ‘“¢ This country is bounded on the south-east by the Moselle, on the north-east by the Rhine, on the west by the Ardennes and the other mountains round Spa and Malmedi, and on the south by the level country about Cologne. “ The fundamental rock which comes to view is clay-slate, as- sociated with greywacké, and with asaccharoid magnesian lime= Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 245 stone containing trilobites and other petrifactions, which stamp it as belonging to the transition series. _ *‘ These rocks in a few places support horizontal beds of what appears to be the second or variegated sandstone formation. Scattered however over the greater part of the district alluded to, are a number of iittle conical eminences, often with craters, the bottoms of which are usually sunk much below the present level, and have thereby in many cases received the drainage of the surrounding country, thus forming a series of lakes, known bv the name of “ Maars,’”? which are remarkably distin- guished from those elsewhere seen by their circular form, and by the absence of any apparent outlet for their waters. ‘“ Steininger, a geologist of Treves, who has published the most circumstantial account of this district that has yet appeared, dis- tinguishes these craters into three classes. ; *¢ The first includes those properly speaking known by the name of ‘“* Maars,’’—volcanos which have ejected nothing but loose fragments of rock with sand and balls of scoriform lava. In this class are :— . The Lake of Laach. . The Maar of Ulmen. Three Maars at Daun. . Two at Gillenfield. . One at Bettenfield. One at Dochweiler. . One at Waisdorf. . One at Masburck. No. 6 and 7, however, have fallen in. “The second class is distinguished from the preceding in consis- ting of those which have ejected fragments of slag, sometimes loose, and sometimes cemented together into a paste. Of this de- nomination are :— Three Craters at Gillenfield. - Two at Bettenfield. - One at Gerolstein. . One at Steffler. . Two at Boos. . One at Rolandseck. “The third class includes such volcanos as have given out streams of lava as well as ejections of loose substances. Of these _ latter we may mention :— . Two at Bertrich (one very small.) . One at Bettenfield (the Mosenburg.) One at Ittersdorf. One at Gerolstein. . One at Ettringen. CONE? OV 09 1 OD OB o9 to Dos wt 244 . Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. “¢ Thus the whole number of craters in the Eyfel district, inclu- ding those of the same date that are scattered along and near the left bank of the Rhine within the limits marked out, appears to be no less than thirty. ‘‘'Phe sides of these craters, wherever their structure was discernible, appeared to me to be made up of alternating strata of volcanic sand and fragments of scoriform lava, dipping in all directions away from the centre at a considerable angle, and ihe same kind of material has in many instances so accumulated round the’ cones, as to obliterate-in great measure the hollow be- tween them, and to raise the level of the country nearly up to the brim of the craters. “The formation of these cones seems likewise to have been in some instances followed by an ejection of substances of a pumiceous character, and the same kind of material, (whether derived from these or from some antecedent eruptions, will be afterwards considered,) is spread widely over the country bor- dering onthe Rhine, either in loose strata alternating with beds of aloamy earth, derived probably from substances in a minute state of division thrown out by the same voleano, and mixed up into a paste with water; or else forming masses of considerable thickness, in which the fragments of pumice are intermixed with the latter substance, and constitute together with it a cohe- rent mass known by the name of T'rass. ; ‘“‘'The volcanos of the Eyfel are also, as above noticed, ac- companied by streams of lava, but these have not in my opinion, like the generality of those seen elsewhere, been satisfactorily traced to the craters, butseem rather to have flowed from the sides or base of the mountains with which they are respectively connecied. “These Coulées, like the volcanic cones themselves, are sometimes almost buried under heaps of matter subsequently ejected, so thatin the lava of Neidermennig, the quarry, from whence the millstones are obtained, is worked at a depth of eighty feet from the present surface. ‘They are in some cases analogous to the ejections of existing volcanos, but at others they possess more of a basaltic character, being freer from cells than true lavas generally are, although it can be demonstrated that they too are (geologically speaking) of modern formation, inas- much as they follow the inclination of the vallies, and must therefore have flowed since the latter were excavated.” In order justly to appreciate the full extent of evidence for the volcanic character of the countries on the Rhine, it is ne- cessary to go through with the details of description, which are exhibited by Professor Daubeny, which at present it is Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 245 not in our power todo. Suffice it to say, that the trass or tar- ras, of the Rhine, so esteemed as asubaqueous cement, is a. volcanic production, and that the evidence is generally of the same nature as that which relates to the volcanic district of France. The trass is regarded by all as pumiceous conglom- erate; it exists in vast quantities, but geologists are not ex- actly agreed as to the mode of its deposition—whether it is an ejection from craters, in the form of ashes, or a muddy eruption like those of South America. Hungary. Professor Daubeny visited Hungary as well as the voleanic regions on the Rhine, and he has availed himself of the elaborate work of Beudant, which describes in full detail this interesting country. In the opinion of our author, Hungary is the country which should be principally examined in study-_ ing the natural history of trachyte, which plays so important a part in the ancient voleanos—as trachyte appears to be little known in this country, we will quote the account of this substance which Prof. Daubeny has abstracted from Beudant, and we do it with the more satisfaction as we are in possess- ion of Beudant’s work, and an extensive suite of trachytic rocks, from Hungary, which were put up at Vienna, and la- belled with great care, and with a very judicious selection of excellent characteristic pieces.* We have compared them with the following description, and have great reason to be satisfied with its accuracy. -Trachyte includes five varieties :— . Trachyte properly, so called. . Trachytic porphyry. . Pearl stone. . Millstone porphyry. . Trachytic conglomerate. Gr 09 tO *“* Trachyte, properly so called, ischaracterized by its porphy- ritic structure, by the scorified and cellular aspect which it has such a tendency to assume, by its harsh feel, and by the presence of crystals of glassy felspar, generally cracked, and sometimes passing into pumice. Besides these, which may be regarded as essential to its composition, crystals of mica and hornblende are * They have been added by, Col. Gibbs, to the great collection purchased of him for Yale College, in 1825. 246 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. often present, and all these minerals are either confusedly united without any apparent cement, or by the intervention of a paste of a felspathic nature, sometimes compact, and sometimes cellu- lar. This paste is generally light colored, though different shades of red and brown are sometimes communicated to it by the presence of iron, and there is one variety in which the paste is perfectly black and semivitreous. intermediate in its characters between pitchstone and basalt, but distinguished from either rock by meiting into a white enamel. Augite is sometimes present, and grains of titaniferous iron are.often discoverable, but olivine rarely, if ever, occurs, andtherefore appears to be the only min- eral which has any claim to be considered as peculiar to basalt. *¢ The second species, called by Beudant Trachytic Porphyry, is distinguished from the preceding by the general absence of scorified substances. Neither hornblende, augite, nor titaniferous iron enter into its composition, but quartz and chalcedony, which are wanting in the former, are commonly present in this species. In its general aspect it bears a much nearer resemblance to the older formations than trachyte properly so called. ‘This description however applies only to the characters of the larger portion of the mass, for Mons. Beudant is compelled, in order to include all the varieties, to establish two subspecies, the one with, the other without quartz, and in both of these he notices a variety possessing a vesicular structure. ‘The subspe- cies indeed, which is without quartz, even passes into pumice. Many varieties of Trachytic Porphyry contain a number of very small globules, which seem to consist of melted felspar, having often in their centre, a little crystal either of quartz or of mica. The assemblage of these globules, leaving minute ceils between them, sometimes gives to the rock a scoriform aspect. The chal- cedony often occurs in small geodes, and sometimes intimately mixed with the paste in which the crystals are imbedded. “ Trachytic porphyry also appears to pass by imperceptible gradations into the next species, pearlstone which is characteri- zed by the vitreous aspect generally belonging to its component parts. It is evident, that this definition includes pitchstone and obsidian, but these are of rare occurrence in Hungary, the great mass of this formation being composed of the mineral called pearlstone, some varieties of which pass into pumice. “In its simplest form, this rock presents an assemblage of globules, varying from the size of a nut to that of a grain of sand, which have usually a pearly lustre, and scaly aspect, and are set, as it were, one upon the other, without any substance intervening. “From this, the most characteristic variety, the rock passes through anumber of gradations, in which its peculiarities are more or less distinctly marked. In some varieties the globules s Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 247 are destitute of lustre, and exhibit at the same time sundry al- terations in their size, structure, and mode of aggregation, till at length they entirely disappear, and the whole mass puts on a stony appearance, which retains none of the characters of pearl- stone. On the other hand the globules, becoming less distinct either resolve themselves intoa paste resembling enamel, very fragile, in which separate portions approaching to a spherical form are indistinctly visible, or into a more vitreous and more homogeneous mass, which is generally black, and presents all the characters of pitchstone or obsidian. Among these latter vari- eties is one which resembles the marekanite of Kamschatka. ‘Sometimes globules consisting of felspar occur in the rock, which are either compact or striated from the centre to the cir- cumference, and these are sometimes so numerous that the whole mass is composed of them. Various alternations occur between the glassy and stony varieties of the pearlstone, sometimes so frequent as to give a veined or ribboned appearance to the rock, at others curiously contorted as though they had been disturbed | in the act of cooling. “‘ Lastly, all these varieties occasionally present a cellular, porous, spongy, and fibrous aspect, and pass into pumice. With respect to their chemical characters, it may be sufficient to re- mark that the vitreous varieties of pearlstone usually effervesce under the blow-pipe, but the stony do not. These rocks often contain geodes of chalcedony and opal, the former existing in the more vitreous, the latter in the more stony or felspathic por- tions. The opal is commonly opaque, but is occasionally met with more or less translucid. *‘ The fourth species is distinguished for its hardness and cel- lularity, qualities which have caused it to be employed all over Hungary for the purpose of millstones, from whence the name of Millstone Trachyte has been applied to it by Beudant. ‘“‘ Unlike the other rocks comprised under the same generic term, it abounds in quartz, or in silex under some one of its modifications, and in proportion as the latter earth is more or less abundant, the substance puts on the characters either of horn- stone or of clay porphyry. The paste is always dull and coarse. looking, its colors vary from brick-red to greenish-yellow, its fracture is generally earthy, its hardness very variable, but usu- ally considerable. It contains crystals of quartz, of felspar, lamellar, and sometimes glassy, and of black mica, imbedded. Jasper and hornstone also occur in nests, or in small contempo- raneous veins very abundantly disseminated, and siliceous infil- trations, posterior to the formation of the rock, seem likewise te occur among the cells which are every where distributed. ‘In examining these rocks with a glass, we discover a multi- . 248 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. tude of little globules analogous to those in the pearlstone, which seem to be of a felspathic nature, and when broken, are found to contain in their centre a little crystal of quartz, or a speck of some siliceous substance. ; “These globuies in some cases compose the whole substance of the paste, in others they are held together by a sort of har- dened clay, which here and there resembles porcelain-jasper. Notw:thstanding these distinctions, there is a greater degree of uniformity in the characters of this, than in those of the other species of trachyle, and the most obvious differences between the several parts of this formation relate to the size and direc- tion of the cells, which are sometimes so small and narrow, as to give to the rock a fibrous character, sometimes of considerable size, in which case they are in general coated internally with crystals of quartz. . ‘The fifth and last species comprehended by Beudant under the generic term of Trachyte, consists of those heaps of pum- ice, and other loose materials, that occur agglutinated together on the slopes and at the base of the rocks belonging to the four preceding classes. Although the prevailing constituent is pum- ice, every variety of rock found in the neighboring hills is met with amongst the fragments. ‘The latter vary extremely in size, as well as in the mode of their aggregation; the cement which unites them is often of a porphyritic character, hardly distin- guishable from the fragments themselves. Like them it often contains crystals of felspar, mica and hornblende, and sometimes grains of titaniferous iron are diffused through it, or it is colored red by the peroxide of that metal. ““ The fragments of pumice are united together either imme- diately, or by the intervention of a paste of 2 vitreous character resembling obsidian, into which the pumice passes insensibly. Here and there the rock itself has become decomposed, and its destruction has given rise to beds either of acellular nature ari- sing from minute portions of pumice, which-still preserve their fibrous texture, or (where all traces of this have been oblitera- ted) to masses of an earthy character similar to the trass of the Rhine volcanos or the “ tripoli” of those in Auvergne.” The trachytic conglomerate has evidently undergone de- composition in various ways. Sometimes it contains marine shells, similar to those found in the calcaire grossier of the Paris basin ; sometimes the infiltration of siliceous matter has mineralized in it the stems of vegetables of a cylindrical form, often. hollow, and crystals of felspar, mica, quartz, and garnet, are distributed through the substance of the mass. It is also decomposed into alum. which is profitably ex- Notice of Active and Hxiinct Volcanos. 249 iracted by the usual modes, with the addition of five per cent, of sub carbonat of potass, to make it crystalize, there not being suflicient alkali in the stone. 5 Opal and hyalite are found in the trachyte of Hungary. The geological portion of the different varieties of trachyte, is stated to be constant. — 1. Trachyte, properly so called, in the centre of the group. 2. Trachytic conglomerate surrounding the flanks of the mountain. 3. Trachyte-porphyry—the pearl stones and the millstone porphyry intermediate. “The following is a synopis of the genus Trachyte, as given by Beudant. | 1st Species, RacnytTs, properly so called. Ist variety granitoid, no apparent cement, numerous crystals of glassy felspar, confusedly united; crystals of black mica; hornblende rare. Qnd, with mica and hornblende—these crystals abundant, and gene- rally black ; paste of compact felspar, pretty pure, and fusible into a white enamel; crystals of glassy felspar. 3d, porphyritic—paste of compact felspar, fusible into a white enamel; crystals of felspar, glassy, lamellar, and compact; au- gite more or less abundant; no mica or hornblende. Ath, black,—the paste black, dull, fusible into a white enamel, with biack spots, more or less numerous, disseminated; crys- tals of glassy felspar, sometimes of augite. 5th, ferruginous, paste ferruginous, dull, of a red or brownish color, blackening when heated; fusible into a black or scori- form enamel; crystals of glassy felspar; numerous crystals of black mica. 6th, earthy or domite, paste earthy, porous, light-colored; crys- tals of glassy felspar rare ; crystals of black mica abundant. 7th, semi-vitreous, (Pseudo-basalte of Humbolt,) paste semi-vitre- ous, black or brown ; fracture large-conchoidal, losing its color in the fire, and melting into a white enamel. 8th, cellular, paste of various descriptions ; contains numerous cells more or less imperfect, either round or elongated. — 2d Species, TRacuytic Porpnyry. Ist Subspecies, with crystals of quartz ; base of compact felspar, with or without lustre, more or less abundant, containing most commonly a great number of small semi-vitreous globules ; crystals of quartz, more or less numerous ; crystals of glassy felspar, generally well defined ; black mica, in small hexage- nal plates more or less numerous. Vor. XII.—No. 2. 7 250 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. Ist variety, glistentng, base composed of compact felspar with ati enamelled surface, easily fusible. 2nd, semi-vitreous (vitro-lithoide,) almost entirely composed of semi-vitreous globules, amongst which are disseminated crys- tals of glassy felspar, and some of quartz. 3d, scoriform; paste semi-vitreous and dull, porous, or with ir- regular and imperfect cells. Ath, cavernous ; paste scarcely discernible ; small and very nu- merous cells; irregular cavities of various sizes; mass infu- sible. 2d Subspecies, without quartz: base of compact felspar with or without lustre, more or less fusible before the blowpipe; small crystals more or less numerous, often with imperfect termina- tions, of glassy or earthy felspar ; black mica in small hexa- gonal plates ; no crystals of quartz or semi-vitreous globules. Ist variety glistening; base of compact felspar, easily fusible into a white enamel ; small crystals of felspar, commonly of the glassy kind. 2d dull; base of compact felspar, dull, difficulty fusible before the blowpipe; smail crystals of felspar, commonly earthy, sometimes very rare. 3d, cellular or pumiceous; base almost infusible, full of cells; crystals of felspar rare and indistinct. 3d Species, Pearlstone. . Ist variety, testaceous, made up of an assemblage of vitreous glo- bules more or less distinct, generally scaly (testacés) and with a pearly lustre; mica and felspar very rare. 2nd, spherolitic. paste of pearlstone not testaceous, with an ena- melled lustre, and a grey color; numerous crystals of very brilliant black mica; glassy felspar in small crystals, ordinarily with their terminations imperfect. 3d, pitchstone, vitreous paste approaching to obsidian, often with afatty lustre; crystals of glassy felspar with imperfect ter- minations ; little geodes of chalcedony more or less numerous. Ath, globular stony, stony mass, composed of globules with acom- pact or radiated structure, semi-vitreous or altogether stony. 5th, stony in mass. ‘The whole mass semi-vitreous, or altogether stony; the structure passing sometimes into porphyritic. _ The Millstone Porphyry is so uniform in its composition, as not to admit of being distinguished in the manner of the preceding species; but ‘The 5th Species, TRacuytic Conctomerate, is divided into Ist, the conglomerates made up of the debris of Trachyie, cemen- ted by an earthy or more or less crystalline paste. 2d, the conglomerates consisting chiefly of the trachyte and millstone porphyry, rounded or angular. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 251 3d, the pumiceous conglomerates, composed of fragments of pumice. and obsidian, agglutinated either immediately, or by the inter- vention of some cement more or less earthy. 4th, the porphyritic conglomerates, resulting from the decomposi- tion of the pumice. 5th, the aluminous beds, consisting of tufaceous or conglomerated rocks impregnated with alum.” Transylvania. Professor Daubeny, derives his knowledge of the rocks of ‘Transylvania from a private communication of Dr. Boué, of whose geological labors there is a notice from the pen of Dr. J. W. Webster. See vol. 6, p. 185, of this Journal. Unfortunately, Dr. Boué’s contemplated journey through the Bannat and the provinces of the Austrian empire as far as Trieste, was prevented by “a severe illness occasioned by the villany of a servant, who attempted to poison him in order the more readily to make off with his money and prop- erin.” es In the eastern part of Transylvania there are volcanic rocks of undoubted tertiary formation. “They are for the most part composed of various kinds of trachytic conglomerate ; of which the best sections are presen- ted along the course of the Marosch, for elsewhere a most im- practicable forest of pine and oaks covers it nearly throughout. From the midst of these vast tufaceous deposits, the tops of the hills composed of trachyte, a rock which forms all the loftiest eminences, hereandthere emerge. Of these the most elevated is called Kelemany; the other principal ones are Fatatschion, Pritzilasso, Hargala, Barot, the hills south of Tuschnad, &c. &c. The trachyte is ordinarily reddish, greyish, or blackish ; it most- ly contains mica. Inthe southern parts, as near T'schik Sereda, the trachyte incloses large masses, sometimes forming even small hillocks, of that variety of which millstones are made, having quartz crystals disseminated through it, and in general indurated by siliceous matter in so fine a state of division that the parts are nearly invisible. The latter substance seems to be the result of a kind of sublimation, which took place at the moment of the ’ formation of the trachyte. . “¢ Basalts were no where observed, although black trachyte abounds. Distinct craters are only seen at the southern extremi- ty of the chain. One of the finest observed by Dr. Boué was to the south of Tuschnad; it was of great size, and well charac- terized. surrounded by pretty steep and lofty hills composed of 252 Notice of Actiwe and Extinct Volcanos. trachyte. The bottom of the hollow was full of water. The ground near has avery strong sulphureous odour. A mile in a S. S. E. direction from this point there are on the table land two large and distinct “‘ maars,” like those of the Eyfel, that is to say, old craters, which have been lakes, and are now covered with a thick coat of marsh plants; the cattle dare not graze upon them for fear of sinking in. ‘6 Some miles farther in the same direction is the well known hill of Budoshegy (or hill of bad smell,) a trachytic mountain, near the summit of which is a distinct rent, from which exhale very hot sulphureous vapours. The heat of the ground is such as to burn the shoes. A deposition of sulphur has taken place there, and the rock is converted into alum-stone by the action of the va- pors upon the constituents of the trachyte. In this manner hol- lows are formed in the rock. At the base of the hill are some very fine ferruginous sulphur springs, much resorted to for vari- ous diseases by the inhabitants, who encamp near them in the open air during summer. Chalybeate sulphur springs generally abound at the base of this volcanic range, and chalybeates with carbonic acid still more. Some of these appeared as good as those of Pyrmont, and the most famous, that of Borsah, a bathing place much resorted to by the Transylvanian nobles, contains more carbonie acid than Pyrmont water itself. “The craters last described have thrown out a vast quantity of pumice, which now forms a deposit of greater or less thick- ness along the Aluta and the Marosch from Tuschnad to Toplitza. Impressions of plants and some siliceous wood are likewise to be found in it, as is the case in Hungary.” In Styria, the volcanic appearances are not very remarka- ble—but there are hills of trachyte, surrounded by mantle shaped strata of volcanic tuff consisting “in general of a congeries of very minute fragments of volcanic matter which - seem to have been immediately ejected from the volcano, mixed up and looseley agglutinated with small quartz peb- bles. In the midst of it are fragments of cellular and com- pact basaltic lava, sometimes containing nests of olivine. ftaly. Euganean Hills—Entering Italy, by the side of Venice, and passing to the south of Padua, we come to the Euga- nean Hills, an isolated tract of high ground, in the midst of a level country, consisting of a trachytic formation, similar to that of Hungary, “ which from its cellular structure in some cases, and its semi-vitreous aspect in others, would at once be taken for a volcanic product.” Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 253 “© The trachyte of the Euganean hills rests upon a calcareous rock, which appears to correspond with the chalk of Great Brit- ain. It is called Scaglia, from its slaty structure, being disposed in thin horizontal layers. Its color is commonly white, now and then with ashade of red, and its compactness usually is quite equal to that of our hardest chalk, though softer varieties are sometimes met with. ‘¢ The points however chiefly to be insisted on, as establishing the identity of the two formations, are, the kidney shaped masses of flint disposed in beds throughout the Scaglia, asin the chalk of England, and the nature of the petrifactions that occur in it, which, from the list given in the Abbé Maraschini’s late work, appear to consist of ammonites, terebratulites, and various spe- cies of the echinus family ; viz. the echinoneus, galerites, anan- chytes, spatangus, cidaris, nucleolites, and echinus proper, of La- marck.”’ : ‘Indications of volcanic action may perhaps be gathered from the springs of hot water impregnated with suiphuretted hydro- gen, which gush out from the rock near the village of Battaglia, and are still in repute, as they were in the time of the Romans, for their medicinal qualities. ‘¢ Perhaps the fable of Pheton, who was said to have fallen from heaven, or to have been struck by lightning on the borders of the Po, may refer to some tradition that existed of volcanic phenomena, which may have continued here as they now do in Transylvania, long after the formation of the trachyte.’’ Vicentin.—This country is interesting, especially on ac- count of the alternation and mixture of volcanic products. with limestones contaming organized remains, with lignites, &c. The petrifactions are such as indicate a tertiary forma- tion, and in the hill of Bolca are contained those remarka- ble ichthyolites (usually called the fossil fish of Mount Bolca, near Verona,) which are so conspicuous in cabinets, and which are so interesting to the geologist. As there are fine specimens of these ichthyolites in the Cabinet of Yale Col- lege, the following passage relating to them will be interest- ing to those who visit that collection. ‘¢ At Monte Bolca, the only locality which I visited, the ichthy- olite limestone, as it may be called, rests upon a calcareous rock with nummulites, and is covered by the same; whilst a deposit consisting of volcanic tuff lies both under and above. The alter- nations indeed between these two classes of deposits are often extremely numerous; at a place called Ronca alone we have in a very short compass no less than six, but the lowest volcanic bed 254 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. is not tufaceous, but consists of cellular basalt. The occurrence of this substance, sometimes cellular, sometimes amygdaloidal, and sometimes even compact, interstratified with the other rocks, renders the structure of Vicentin less simple than it would other- wise be considered, and inclines one to think that streams of lava were thrown out during the formation of the tufaceous and cal- careous beds. That the whole indeed of the basaltic, as well as the materials of the tufaceous rocks are referable to igneous ac- tion, I cannot bring myself for amoment to doubt, although aware that Brocchi, the first of Italian Geologists, has in his Memoir on the Val de Fassa expressed himself with some degree of hesita- tion on the subject.” “‘ The presence of shells in the tuff itself, and its alternation with regular beds of unaltered shelly limestone, prove that the sandy matter and loose fragments of which this aggregate is com- posed, were originally deposited under the surface of water, at the period during which the calcareous beds, were in the act of forming. That the accumulation of the materials of which the tuff consists was a slow and gradual process, | infer among other reasons, from a specimen in my possession, in which a rounded fragment taken from one of these beds is seen covered by serpu- lz, a plain proof that the stone remained for some time under water, uncovered by any of the matter which afterwards formed above it. ‘The occurrence therefore of beds of volcanic tuff alterna- ting with strata of shelly limestones seems in this instance capa- ble of explanation, by supposing showers of ashes and lapilli to have proceeded from some adjacent volcano, which, as they sunk to the bottom of the water then covering the face of the country, would become intermixed with the fragments washed down from the adjoining rocks, andbe consolidated like mud in a stagnant pool, acquiring additional consistency in proportion to the mass of matter superimposed. “That the volcanic action was indeed going on in this very spot, is proved by the hills of cellular lava, or of basalt, that occur in the midst of this formation, and the effects of these operations upon the tuff itself may be traced in the inclined position of its beds, so different from what would occur in a mass of matter deposited tranquilly under the surface of water. As there is probably no locality of ichthyolites more in- teresting than that of Bolca, we will introduce a more par- ticular account and description from M. Brongniart’s Jc- moire sur les terrains de sediment supérieurs—calcaréo-trap- péens du Vicentin, of which we have received a copy from the author. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 255 Mount Bolca. ‘¢] am now arrived at one of the principal objects of my work, that is to say, the crisis, when | shall determine, with some probability, to what epoch of formation, the celebrated locality of fossil fish at Mount Bolca ought to be referred. «I shall not attempt to describe this mountain, or rather this collection of very high hills; I have not studied it sufficiently to induce the hope that I could give a description of it, which would be more complete than that given by the naturalists who have made it known: but I think nevertheless, that I shall be able to distinguish the characteristic traits of the formation to which it belongs. It will suffice, therefore, to fix these characters, to give a short account of the quarry which I visited, or rather to give an explanation of the section which I have made of it. ‘It is known that the quarries of ichthyolites are situated to- wards the summit of the hills which are to the south east of Mount Bolca, and which descend towards Vestena-Nova. Ingen- | eral the base of these hills towards the east, that is to say, towards the vallies of Chiampo, has appeared to me to be composed of a _ compact limestone, amygdaloidal, reddish and analagous in its structure to the marble known under the name of Verona marble or limestone, which in the Euganean mountains is evidently infe- rior to the trachyte and other felspathic rocks of these moun- tains, which include some ammonites, and which seem to me to possess the most of the characters belonging to the Jura lime- stone. Upon these beds of limestone, and as it were issuing from their bosom, are some very elevated and extensive hills, compo- sed of almost all the species and varieties of trap rocks, the spi- lite, the basanite, the brecciole, which are scattered about either without any order, or in an order which I was unable to discover. These trap rocks, existing here upon a grand scale, elevated and extensive, alternate, especially, towards the highest parts of the hills, and of course with their most superficial parts, with some beds of a limestone, often calcareous or marly, which are equally extensive: this is the limestone which contains the fossil fish, and this is the limestone, of which the point is to determine the epoch of its formation. Finally, the highest summits and parti- cularly that called la Purga di Bolea, are crowned with basalt, which seems of course to cover the preceding rocks, and which, in fact, does cover them very often, without any doubt. Such is the general disposition of the rocks in the mountains which com- pose the group of which Bolca makes the principal elevation. The following description will make known the particular dis- position of these rocks in some cases. “The ichthyolite hill which I have visited, and of which i here give a drawing, in section, but without exact proportions, 256 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos, although less high than another quarry situate upon the other side of a very deep valley, is already sufficiently elevated and probably four hundred metres at least, above the level of the Adriatic sea, according to the barometrical measurements taken by M. Pollini, and given by M. Bevilacqua-Lazise. It presents two quarries of ichthyolites placed the one above the other, and has shown me the succession of rocks which I describe from the summit to the last quarry. ue a ia) ar ff , i 1 iy ZU ‘©1. The summit A, presents brown compact limestone, very much in fragments and disintegrated, but nevertheless in its stratification very distinctly inclined towards the south. “2. In Ba bed, (filon-couche) of brown basanite very much in fragments and disintegrated. This bed or vein of basa- nite is very extensive; we follow it with ease, as far as its position is constant and regular. A little way from the ichthyolite quarry we perceive another bed of it which in. its position is absolutely similar to that of the basanite B. ‘3. Below, are many layers of a compact limestone C, like that which occurs above the basanite. .The layer which touches the basalt is blackish ; the others are dirty white, traversed with veins of cale-spar and by fissures lined with little crystals of lime. “The angles of the fissures of these beds are as it were roun- ded, and worn off or corroded on the side of the basalt ; they are moreover much in fragments ; their parts or natural fragments at curved surfaces have a resemblance to large almonds produced by the compression and sliding one upon another of subellip- tical fragments. ‘¢ These layers, much more multiplied than the drawing rep- resents, are almost vertical. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. Q57 4. We come to a bed D, of a brown color, composed of curved layers, and resembling by their disposition, their struc- © true in the middle, &c. a stratum of concretionary limestone. ‘5. There follow afterwards some beds of marly limestone very large, very numerous, divided naturally into parallelopipe- dons of which the centre is blackish, and inclosing in E, more nodules of ‘“‘silex corné’’ more or less abundant. “6. Below these layers, are found those of the marly lime- stone or calcareous schist, hard, yellowish, compact, and very fissile, which contains the fossil fish. “* Des déblais abondans” cover the lower beds here. **6. In descending below these déblais to come to the inferior quarry, we find at first in G, some new layers of marly limestone, among which we have remarked two beds in particular. The upper (a,) is there, brownish, and presents some impressions of ' very small and almost indeterminable shells; but which have appeared to me however, to be of the genus avicule. * The other bed (2) larger and very hard, is full of shells, and presents the aspect of a true lumachelle. ‘These shells as far as we are able to observe them, are nummulites, fragments of bivalve shells, and alveolites, which appear to belong to the alve- olites festuca Bosc, &c. “¢'These two beds and the very numerous layers which accom- pany them make some curves which are very remarkable, and which the figure indicates. ; “© 7. Finally, below their contorted, and shelly layers, a se- cond deposit P2, of ichthyolite presents itself, composed like the one above of veins or numerous fissures of marly limestone. or rather of marly schist. Between these beds, divided by a mul- titude of fissures, traversed by veins of calc spar, are found to- gether, the numerous fossil fish and the numerous impressions ef plants which are for the most part terrestrial or fluviatile. “¢ Lignite in scattered masses at Montechio—Maggoire, in thin beds at Monte-Viale, presents itself here abundantly and often in beds which are very large. We have seen it in thin beds ina vol- canic earthy and fusible breccia in ascending to the quarries I have just described, and we have found it in the same portion in return- ing from those quarries towards Vestena-Nova. “¢ Numerous beds, and sufficiently extensive to be quarried, oc- - cur at the foot of the isolated and basaltic cone, called la Purga di ' Bolea. These beds of lignite described by M. Bevilacqua Lazise, are inclined from the north west, to the south east, covered and in- tersected also by basanite (volcanic trap, B, L,) and also some- times in immediate contact with the compact and almost prisma- tic basanite: it is surrounded and as it were enveloped with plas- tic clay, white, yellowish, or bluish ; it is covered by a bitumins Vou. XTII.—No. 2. 8 258 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. ous schist, and reposes in this place upon the ichthyolite lime- stone.—Bevalacque-Lazise, page 29 et 36.” Monte Cimini, Viterbo, and other places on the road to- Rome, present traces of voleanic action, but not in every in- stance of an unequivocal character. A small lake near Vi- terbo, emits a sulphureous odour, and the water is agitated by air bubbles. The lake Vico resembles a crater, and was said by the ancients to have been formed by the sinking of the ground. The lake Bolseno resembles an ancient crater, but its circumference is twenty miles, which is greater than that of any known volcano.* The lagunes of Tuscany evolve sulphureous vapours and gases, and the boracic acid is sub- limed alike from the lagunes of Tuscany and from the crater of the island of Volcano. ‘“‘'The lagunes in question are represented as being little cra- tershaped cavities formed on the surface of the ground, by the continual escape of sulphuretted hydrogen gas from fissures in the rock. These cavities, according to Prystanowski, (a German, who has published the most modern account of this phenomenon,) are at the bottom of a valley, and are therefore often filled with water, either by the rain, or by the overflowings of an adjoining brook. ‘ “This water is raised to a boiling temperature by the passage of the heated gas through it, and hence it is that the lagunes gen- erally emit a lofty column of steam, which first arrests the tray- eller’s attention, and has consequently led to the adoption of the name Fumacchie, by which the lagunes are often designated.— The sulphuretted hydrogen carries up with it in a gaseous state some boracic acid, but this is condensed by the water, and is found amongst the mud, when the pool has dried up in consequence of the evaporation from it exceeding the supply from without. ‘The lagunes are situated a few miles to the S. W. of Volterra, near Monte Rotundo, and near Monte Cerboli, the rock, from whence the vapor issues is calcareous.” Rome.—It was a favorite idea with Breislac, that “ Rome itself occupied the site of a volcano, having been erected on the tottering edge of a crater.” Professor Daubeny thinks that however well suited this idea may be “to point an an- tithesis, or to illustrate the vanity of human pretensions, it * Kirauea in Owyhee, (Hawaii,) is ten miles in circumference. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 250 rests on too slender grounds to deserve a place in a scientific treatise.” “‘'The soil of Rome, as an eminent Italian geologist has since fully proved, is in reality composed of an alternation of sandy or calcareous beds, with a tuff containing fragments*of scoriform as well as compact lava, often rolled, and accompanied likewise with pebbles of the Appenine limestone, that display evident marks of attrition. There is however no proof that these frag- ments of lava were ejected by any volcano which occupied the immediate site of Rome, on the contrary the nearest spot from which we can suppose them to be derived, is the Lake of Albano, more than twelve miles distant.” *¢'The whole of the country for several miles around Alba- no, abounds in volcanic appearances. Amongst the mountains in this group are no less than four lakes, which appear originally to have been craters, the one already mentioned, that of Nemi, Joturna, and Vall. Aricia. With respect to the latter place, Pliny mentions a report that the ground would set fire to charcoal, and Livy notices a shower of stones that fell there, as well as the _ bursting out of a warm spring, having its water mixed with blood, which Heyné supposes to have been bitumen. ‘“‘ Yet the differences of mineralogical character between the volcanic rocks of these mountains, and those found at Rome it- self, oblige us to abandon the idea that the latter can have been derived from the same quarter. ‘The hills in the immediae vi- cinity of Rome, consist of that aggregate of volcanic materials which all are agreed to designate as tuff, whilst the neighbor- hood of Albano is constituted of a material which the Italian geologists have chosen to mark as a separate rock under the name of Peperino. It is easy, says Von Buch, to distinguish these two substances ; in peperino nearly the whole mass is fresh, unde- composed, and bright to the eye, whereas in tuff the greater part is dull, and appears weathered. ‘The former resembles a porphy- ry, the latter a sandstone and other similar aggregates. ‘The sub- stance, of which peperino consists, preserves almost uniformly an ash-grey colour, but the tuff of Rome is generally darker. With respect to its fracture too, peperino is less friable than tuff, and the mica, which is distributed over it either in detached plates, or collected into masses, sometimes as large as a cannon-ball, ' mixed with crystals of augite and magnetic ironstone, preserves its original black colour and lustre, which in the tuff is not the case.” Professor Daubeny is of opinion not only that the materi- als constituting the immediate substratum of Rome and of 260 Notice of Active and Extinct Volvanos. its vicinity, are of volcanic origin, but that there are evi- dences of a still subsisting languid volcanic action. “It would appear, that these indications, (if they may be so considered,) of languid volcanic action, were more extensively distributed about the neighborhood in earlier periods than at the present. Thus Varro makes mention of warm baths near the temple of Janus, whence the spot obtained the name of Lautole ** id Lavando ;” aspot on the Esquiline Hill was called Putecule, from the sulphureous smell which it emitted; and the wood con- secrated to the Goddess Mephitis renders it probable that a nox- ious gas arose from that place. All these have now ceased, and nothing remains but the Lago de Solfatara to remind us of their existence. ‘It is remarkable that no kind of animal is seen near this water, a circumstance which can only be attributed to the noxious quali- ties of the sulphuretted hydrogen, for the Lago de Tartaro near, so well known for its calcareous incrustations, contains abundance of mollusce. Shells are also rare in the ancient travertine near Rome. “The existence of masses of this latter substance, on the very summits of the Seven Hills proves, that at the period of its form- ation, the site of Rome must have been covered with water to the depth of at least one hundred and forty feet. ‘From the character of the shells sometimes contained in the Travertine, which Brocchi has ascertained to belong to existing species, we may conclude that the water, which deposited it, was not impregnated with salt, and are consequently enabled to fix the date of the volcanic tuff which accompanies these Neptu- nian deposits, as corresponding with that of the latest fresh water formation. ** Brocchi has further shewn, that the beds above noticed all rest upon a formation containing oysters and other marine shells, which is seen underlying the rest at the Monte Mario, and in the excavations made at the foot of the Capitoline Hill.” Rome to Naples.—After passing the Pontine marshes, the traveller comes to the town of Sessa, standing on volcanic tufa, which covers the rus of an ancient city, built like Herculaneum. A chamber with antique frescos and an ampitheatre have been discovered, by digging, and not far off, a rivulet has uncovered streams of lava. But there is neither history nor tradition of the eruption or of the volcano. ‘¢ Rocca Monfina seems to retain the vestiges of the great origi- nal crater from which these volcanic masses proceeded. In Notice of Actwe and Extinct Volcanos. 961 many parts indeed its sides have fallen in, but enough yet re- mains to enable the eye of the traveller to fill up the outline. The now detached hills, which appear to have resulted from the destruction of the walls of the crater, must have enclosed a cir- cumference of no less than nine miles, but it is probable that the actual section is much below its former elevation, and that its height was at first considerably greater. «¢ Within the space occupied by the original crater, two other volcanic cones have since been thrown up, each provided with its crater; the magnitude of one of them may be judged of by the fact, that on the summit of the cone isa plain near a mile in circumference, bounded by two lofty eminences, which are the remains of it. “‘ It appears therefore that the latest eruptions of this volcane have taken place since tiie country was inhabited by man.” The Ponza Islands are composed principally of rocks of the trachytic series. ' We In the midst of the chain of the Appennines is mount Vul- tur, celebrated by Horace, as the scene of some of his early poetical adventures. It is covered with cones and craters— one of which is two thousand feet deep, and two of them are lakes. The lava of this mountain abounds with the mineral called Hayne. *¢ About a mile to the east of Mount Vultur, in a place called Rendina, is a Moffette, or an exhalation of some noxious vapor, which produces a sharp, smarting sensation on the organs of sight, smell, and taste, and causes fainting in those who breathe it too freely. Near Atella, on the western side of Mount Vultur, are waters impregnated with. sulphuretted hydrogen, and carbonic acid gases. I know not whether the neighboring town of Ache- rontia, now Achera, derived its name from any appearances of the same kind, like Lake Fusaro, near Naples. “The magnitude of Mount Vultur, which is stated differently at twenty-two and at thirty miles in diameter at its base, indicates the extent of the volcanic operations that formerly must have taken place, yet all records of its eruptions are lost in the dark- ness of antiquity.” Between the two volcanos of Mount Vultur and Rocca -Monfina, is the lago de Ansanto. “It has a circumference of about one hundred and sixty feet; and is no more than five or six in depth; its waters are from seven to twenty-one degrees of Reaumur above the temperature of the external air, the excess being least in winter and greatest 262 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. in autumn; it is in continual and violent ebullition from the rise of much sulphuretted hydrogen gas, the odour of which is very per- ceptible at adistance. Besides this there are given out from clefts in the rock near the lake much sulphurous acid, carburetted hydro- gen, and carbonic acidgases. These being wafted to different pla- ces, according to the direction of the wind, become fatal to the ani- mals in the lower parts of the valley, the specific gravity of the sulphureous and carbonic acid gases causing them to accumulate near the surface of the ground. Asno injurious effects are caused to the windward of the spots from whence the vapour issues, we may readily explain the seemingly capricious action of the mo- fette upon animals in different parts of the valley, by the direc- tion towards which the wind blows. ‘The waters of the lake be- ing impregnated with hepatic air are celebrated in many diseases of cattle, and provided there be the slightest movement in the atmosphere, the gases do not accumulate around its borders in suf- ficient quantity to be pernicious. “¢'There is one spot however in the midst of a torrent which flows along the valley, called the “* Vado Mortale,” from the na- ture of the mofette existing there. ‘This, which consists entirely of carbonic acid, attains usually to the height of four or five feet, so that it is constantly fatal to the auimals that pass the stream at that point. ‘“¢ A vast accumulation of sulphur takes place in this valley, owing doubtless to the decomposition of the sulphuretted hydro- gen, which is emitted in such quantities that it has been proposed to collect it for commerce ; and petroleum has likewise been met with intermixed with the former combustible. Volcanic products occur in the neighborhood.” Vesuvius.—To the east of the bay of Naples, rises the most recent of the volcanos in this region, and the only one that is in activity. The present cone probably dates from the year 79 of the Christian era, when Pompeu, Herculaneum and Stabice were destroyed, as is believed on strong evidence, by the explosion of the ancient Somma, a vastly larger volcanic mountain, a part of the walls of whose ancient crater stillremain. Vesu- vius is in the centre of this ancient volcanic amphitheatre, and is supposed to be only the subsidiary cone, which was thrown up after the grand explosion of Somma. We must refer to Professor Daubeny’s work, and to the ancient authors whom he quotes, for the details of the evidence which go to_ establish the above positions. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 263 It is believed that within the crater of the ancient Somma, Spartacus the general of the Roman insurgents took refuge, when pursued. ; ‘6 Vesuvius was the spot pitched upon for their first enterprise. Being besieged there by Clodius Glaber, they descended through the defiles of this mountain by means of vine twigs, and reached its very bottom, where they surprised by a sudden assault the camp of the general, who anticipated nothing of the kind. *‘ Plutarch, who evidently refers to the same event, notices if in a manner, which perhaps will enable us to ascertain what the real structure of the mountain at that time must have been. After describing the first successes of Spartacus and his army, lie says: “‘Clodius the Pretor was sent against them with a party of three thousand men, who besieged them in a mountain (meaning evi- dently Vesuvius) having but one narrow and difficult passage, which Clodius kept guarded; all the rest was encompassed with broken and slippery precipices, but upon the top grew a great many wild vines; they cut down as many of these boughs as they had need of, and twisted them into ladders, long enough to reach from thence to the bottom, by which, without any danger, all got down except one, who stayed behind to throw them their arms, after which he saved himself with the rest.” The direction of the strata of Monte Somma, is such as corresponds with the supposition that it was anciently a cra- ter, and notwithstanding some difficulties as to the dykes of this mountain, the passage is instructive as to the formation of volcanic mountains ; we shall quote it. ‘¢ Every mountain of this description, he maintains, has been originally produced by a series of operations succeeding each other in the following order. When once the violence of the volcanic operations has arrived to such a pitch as to create a rupture of the strata of the earth, the elastic vapours, hitherto pent up, throw out portions of the liquid lava, through which they force their way, just as takes place when a mass of melted metal happens to fall into a vessel containing water. ‘These por- tions, projected into the air, descend again either in the form of scorie or sand, and collect into an aggregate, which when ag- glutinated together will formtuff. But the projection of these fragments is soon followed by the overflow of the melted lava it- self, which by degrees reaches the brim, spreads over the tuff, and forms a regular bed encircling the original aperture. The repetition of these successive operations causes that alternation of beds of lava and tuff which compose the substance of most volcanic mountains. and it will be at once perceived, that the di- 964 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. rection in which they are found to lie, rising on all sides towards the crater, is anecessary result of this mode of formation.” In the notice of Mr. Scrope’s work on volcanos, in our last number, allusion was made to the cultivated state of Vesuvius, immediately before the catastrophe of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Aitna was active and familiarly known by its eruptions, but Vesuvius was as truly, to appearance, an ex- tinct volcano, as the cones of Auvergne are now. Its crater was covered by vegetation, and its slopes by vineyards, fields,. and villas. History gave no distinct account of its eruptions, and even tradition had transmitted only an indistinct suspi- cion of its real character. Diodorus Siculus, Vitruvius, and Strabo, were impressed with the appearances of igneous ac- tion around Vesuvius, and the philosophers of those days, al- though unaided by accurate science, reasoned as to Vesuvius as we reason now, with regard to the extinct volcanos of France and Germany. ‘This period of apparent security was however at length to cease; in the year 63 after Christ, the volcano gave the first sympton of internal agitation in an earthquake, which occasion- ed considerable damage to many of the cities in its vicinity. A curious proof of this is exhibited by the excavations made at Pompeii, which shew that the inhabitants were in the very act of rebuilding the houses overturned by the preceding catastro- phe, when their city was finally overwhelmed in the manner I am about to describe. “On the 24th of August of the year 79, the tremendous erup- tion took place, which has been so well described in the letters of the younger Pliny. It was preceded by an earthquake which had continued for several days, but being slight was disregarded by the inhabitants, who were not unaccustomed to such phenom- ena. However on the night preceding the eruption the agitation of the earth was so tremendous, as to threaten every thing with destruction. At length about one in the afternoon, a dense cloud was seen jn the direction of Vesuvius, which after rising from the moun- tain to a certain distance in one narrow vertical trunk, spread it- self out laterally in a conical form, in such a manner, that its up- per part might be compared to the branches, and the lower to the trunk of a pine. It was descried from Misenum, where the elder Pliny, as commander of the Roman fleet, was stationed, with his family, among whom was his nephew the younger Pliny. The latter, who seems already to have imbibed somewhat of the spirit of the Stoical philosophy, which inculcated rather an in- Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 265 difference to the course of external events, than an inquiry into their nature, pursued his usual train of studies as before; but the former, with the zeal and enterprize of a modern naturalist, prepared in defiance of danger, to obtain a nearer view of the phenomena. ‘¢ Accordingly he first repaired to Resina, a village immediately at the foot of Vesuvius, but was soon driven back by the increas- ing shower of ashes, and compelled to put in at Stabie, where he proposed to pass the night. Even here the accumulation of vol- canic matter round the house he occupied, rendered it necessary for him to remain in the open air, where it would appear that he was suddenly overpowered by some noxious effluvia, for it is said that whilst sitting on the sea-shore under the protection of an awning, flames, preceded by a sulphureous smell, scattered his attendants, and forced him to rise supported by two slaves, but that he quickly fell down, choaked, as his nephew conjectured, by the vapor, which proved the more speedily fatal from his pre- vious weak state of health. ‘The absence of any external injury proves, that his death was caused by some subtle effluvia, rather than by the stones that were falling at the time, and it is well Known that gaseous exhalations, alike destructive to animal and vegetable life, are frequent concomitants of a volcanic eruption. *¢ The other circumstances of this memorable catastrophe are sketched by the younger Pliny with a rapid but masterly hand. The dense cloud, which hovered round the mountain, pierced occasionally by flashes of fire more considerable than those of lightning, and overspreading the whole neighborhood of Naples with darkness more profound than that of the deepest night; the volumes of ashes which encumbered the earth, even at a distance so great as that of Misenum; the constant heaving of the ground, and the recession of the sea, form together a picture, which might prepare us for some tremendous catastrophe in the imme diate neighborhood of the volcano. *¢ Yet the covering of three entire cities under an heap of ashes from sixty to one hundred and twelve feet in depth, would seem an effort almost too gigantic for the powers of this single moun- tain, if we were not aware of the vast depth at which the volca- nic operations are going on, and the immense extent to which their influence may therefore be supposed to reach. It has been calculated indeed that the masses ejected at different times from Vesuvius vastly exceed the whole bulk of the mountain ;* and yet the latter seems upon the whole to undergo no dimunition, ~ * This was remarked even by the ancients, and Seneca, Letter 79, after start- ing the difficulty, solves it by remarking, that the fire of the volcano, “in ipso monte non alimentum ae sed viam.” Vou. XITN.—No. 2. 9 266 Notice of Actiwe and Extinct Volcanos. for the falling in of its cone at one period appears to be balanced by the accumulation of ashes at another. “The cities of Stabie, Pompeii, and Herculaneum, which were destroyed in the course of this eruption, appear to have been overwhelmed, not by a stream of melted matter, but by a shower of cinders and loose fragments ; * for the various utensils and works of art that have been dug from thence nowhere exhi- bit any signs of fire, and even the delicate texture of the Papyri appears to have been affected only in proportion as it has subse- quently been exposed to air and moisture. Thus in those at Pompeii, which was covered by a mere uncemented congeries of sand and stones, decomposition has proceeded so far that their contents are illegible, whereas at Herculaneum, where they have been preserved under a species of tuff, their characters often admit of being decyphered. Now the formation of this latter substance is explained on the supposition of a torrent of mud having accompanied in this quarter the ejections of the volcano, which favoring the agglutination of the loose materials, reduced them toa state, which though less consistent than tuff generally is, was capable of preventing in some degree the access of air and humidity to the substances underneath. Sir W. Hamilton notices a fact, which shews very conclusively both that the tuff of Herculaneum was once in a pasty state, and that it owed its softness not to heat but to moisture, the head of a statue that was dug up, having left a cast in the tuff which had formed upon it, without appearing to be itself in the least scorched.” In the notice of Mr. Scrope’s work the principal recorded eruptions of Vesuvius have been already mentioned, and it is not necessary to repeat the statement. During the late century the voleano was very active—there being eighteen ’ eruptions in the course of one hundred years. « That of 1737, gave rise to a stream of lava, which pass- ed through the town of Torre del Greco, and continued its course until arrested by the sea, at which time its solid con- tents were estimated at thirty three millions five hundred and eighty seven thousand fifty eight cubic feet.” ' In the formidable eruption of 1794, the town of Torre del Greco was again destroyed, and the current of lava advanced into the sea three hundred and sixty two feet, with a front of one thousand one hundred and twenty seven feet. The cubic contents of this current were estimated by Bries- * The stones that fell at Pompeii are said many of them to weigh eight pound, the largest of Stabiz only an ounce. Notice of Actiwe and Extinct Volcanos. 2967 lak at forty six millions ninety eight thousand seven hundred and sixty six cubic feet. It is remarkable that among the ejections of Vesuvius, including chiefly those of the ancient mountain, more than one third of the minerals of the globe are included. The gaseous exhalations from Vesuvius are principally sul- phureous and muriatic acid gases and some nitrogen and much aqueous vapor: the latter is often the sole emission from the fumaroles that surround the crater, when the mountain is quiet. Fatal exhalations or moffettes are given out from the crevices of the mountain; they run into the neighboring cellars and destroy the vegetation in the fields; they are supposed to be chiefly carbonic acid gas. ; We omit the mention of the facts connected with the dis- cussion respecting the reputed change in the elevation of the temple at Puzzuoli, although it is evident from the hot springs which now gush out from its side, as they did one thousand six hundred years ago, that no very great change can have hap- pened. _ Much more decisive evidence of change is presented by the Monte Nuovo whose rise on the northern side of the bay of Baice, is thus described by our author. Monte Nuovo. ‘Vesuvius had at that time been for a long interval tranquil, but a succession of earthquakes had taken place in the country for two years previously. At length onthe 28th of September, of the year 1538, flames broke from the ground between Lake Avernus, Mount Barbaro, and the Solfatara, followed by several rents of the earth from which water sprung, whilst the seare- ceded two hundred feet from the shore, leaving it quite dry. At last, on the 29th, about two hours after sun-set, there opened near the sea a gulph, from whichsmoke, flames, pumice and other stones, and mud were thrown up, with the noise of thunder. *¢ In about two days the ejected masses, formed a mountain 413 feet in perpendicular height, and 8000 feet in circumference. The eruption finally ceased on the 3dof October. On this day the mountain was accessible, and those who ascended it reported, . that they found a funnel-shaped opening on the summit—a crater, a quarter of a mile in circumference.” “The Monte Nuovo is composed entirely of fragments of sco- riform matter, or of a compact rock of an ash grey color, some- times resembling trachyte, and at others approaching to porphyry slate. The scoriform matters include pumice, and most other 268 Notice of Actie and Extinct Volcanos. varieties of volcanic substances, intermixed with a white sand, but never agglutinated so as to forma tuff. Its form is that of a compressed or oblong cone, and it has in its centre a crater al- most as deep as the mountain is lofty. *¢ Near the bottom of the crater are one or two small caverns, the interior of which I found covered here and there with an efflorescence, having an alkaline taste. The sand near the foot of the mountain, even under the sea, possesses so high a temper- ature when brought up from a little below the surface of the wa- ter, that we are led to conclude that the volcanic action is still going on to a certain extent, and the same inference may be drawn from the extreme heat of the water which gushes from the rock in a cavern not far distant, called the Baths of Nero, which is sufficient in a very few minutes to boil an egg.” Solfatara—The celebrated hill of Solfatara is an extinct or dormant volcano; the rock is a variety of trachyte, the ground returns a hollow sound when struck, indicating a cav- ernous basis, the gases collected are a little muriatic acid and much sulphuretted hydrogen from the decomposition of which, as the author ingeniously reasons, the abundant sul- phur of this place arises, and not from sublimation of free sul- phur. The Puzzolana so much celebrated in other countries as an ingredient in hydraulic mortar “is a formation of volca- nic tuff, bearing many analogies to the trass of the Rhine and the pumiceous conglomerates of Hungary.” “The height of this tuff, in many places near Naples, is very considerable; the hill of the Camalduli, the loftiest eminence next to Vesuvius in the whole country, is composed of it, and to the west of Naples it forms a sort of wall, so lofty and abrupt, that the former inhabitants of the country apparently found it easier to avail themselves of the soft and friable nature of the stone, and to cut through, than to make a road over it. ‘This is the origin of the celebrated Grotto of Posilippo, a cavern three hundred and sixty-three toises, or two thousand one hundred and seventy-eight feet in length, fifty feet in height, and eighteen in breadth, which strikes every stranger with surprise from the mass of rock cut through, until he reflects at the ease with which a stone of such a description admits of being hollow- ed out. “This immense mass of Puzzolana forms some considerable hills round Naples, many of which, as the Monte Barbara, As- troni, and others, have very regular craters, but do not appear to have thrown out any currents of lava.” Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 269 The Grotto del Cane or Dog’s grotto is mentioned by every traveller; it is in the same situation as in the days of Pliny. It is on the borders of the lake Aquano, an ancient crater ; it has a stratum of carbonic acid gas on the fioor which flows over the lip of the cavern like water, and suffocates a dog whose nose is immersed in this deadly atmosphere, while a man walks in security. Phosphorus would burn at two feet from the floor but the heat of the steel spark was not sufficient to explode gunpowder in a pistol pan. The Lake of Avernus is supposed to have been the cra- ter of a volcano; birds now resort to it with impunity. The Monte Barbara, the most lofty ancient extinct voleano near Naples, has a solitary farm house in its now verdant cra- ter, and the crater of Astroni, nearly a mile in diameter, is so perfect an inclosure that the king of Naples uses it “as a pre- serve for his wild boar and other animals destined for the chase. Its walls are a congeries of scoriz, pumice and other ejected materials.” The region around Naples and Vesuvius still retains its ancient name—The Pilegrean Fields, and the appearances which it now presents, justify the belief that it was anciently a region of extensive and furious volcanic action. “Even if we limit the craters that existed in the Phlegrean fields to those of which present appearances leave no doubt, their number will be sufficient to give us a frightful picture of the condition of the country at an early period of history, and serve to account for the fables of the Poets, who imagined the entrance to the Infernal Shades to lie among these recesses. ‘¢ It wasnot then, asat present, a single mountain which sent forth flames and melted matters at certain intervals, and secured a comparative immunity to the rest of the district; but there was a constant exhalation of noxious vapours from a variety of orifi- ces, attended with earthquakes, and other phenomena, which bespeak the operation of volcanic agency over a widely exten- ded surface. “If then the early settlers, in Sicily were so alarmed at the _ eruptions of Mount Etna, as to fly to some other part of the isl- and, and if in modern times, among the Canaries, the inhabi- tants of Lanzerote were compelled to migrate on account of the ravages made upon their possessions during a succession of years by subterranean fire, itis not unnatural that the picture which Homer had received of the Phlegrean fields should have beense 270 Notice of Active and Extinct Volconos. terrific; as to have led him to describe them as placed at the ut- most limits of the habitable world, unenlightened either by the rising or setting sun, and with groves consecrated to Proserpine, rivers with streams of fire, and enveloped in an eternal gloom. These ideas would be confirmed, if we imagine that the Cimme- rians, who first peopled the country, lived in those caverns and hollows of the rock which now exist, and were thus by the very nature of their habitation shut out from the light of day. ‘¢ Such a picture indeed accords very little with the ideas sug- gested by the luxuriance of modern Campania; but it must be recollected, that at the time when Homer wrote, that luxuriance had not yet ‘been developed by cultivation, that the recent occur- rence of the eruptions had probably devoted many parts to a tem- porary sterility, and that others were overshadowed with thick and gloomy forests.” Procida and Ischia, islands contiguous to this coast are composed of voleanic materials; but the only immediate proof of volcanic action is the temperature of 110° of Fah- renheit, which is found in the sand, two feet below the surface at Monte Vico, and the hot vapor which in many places in that neighborhood issues from the ground. The fiorite or hyalite appears to arise from the action of the steam upon the fissures through which it passes, and simi- lar facts have been observed at the Solfatara at Santa Fiora in Tuscany, at Teneriffe and Lanzerote and at the Geysers. The Lnpari Islands, lymg between Naples and Sicily, form both a geographical and a geological connexion between the volcanic systems of the two countries. . Stromboli has already been mentioned as a volcano which is incessantly active. ‘The crater is on the side of the hill and rismg at a great angle immediately on the margin of the sea, most of the ejections tumble into the water. “J reached with considerable difficulty the summit of the mountain, which, rises at an angle often of nearly 40°, and is covered completely with volcanic sand, consisting of titaniferous iron, amongst which I found numerous crystals of augite, and masses of black pumice, or of an highly scoriform and fibrous description of lava, which seems to approach nearly to that min- eral, “¢On looking down from that elevation upon the volcano, I per- ceived that its minor explosions were in general almost continu- ous, but that the greater ones, which alone were audible below, take place at intervals of about seven minutes. ‘The latter were Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. Q71 sufficiently terrific to give me an idea of what takes place during aneruption of Etna or Vesuvius, but as the wind did not blow the stones in our direction, we should have incurred no conside- rable risk inapproaching it nearer. On expressing however this wish to my guides, I was reminded, by their refusing to accom- pany me, of the remark which Spallanzani makes in respect to the superstitious horror entertained in his time by the Liparotes of the crater of Volcano, which obliged him to procure a Cala- brian for his attendant; and finding that no one would venture to accompany me nearer, I thought it prudent to abandon the at- tempt.” Pumice so well known in the arts, abounds in the Lipari isl- ands, whence most of that used in Europe and America is ob- tained, and obsidian is considerably abundant, although it is difficult to say what circumstances determine volcanos to pro- duce these forms of ignigenous materials rather than others. Dr. Daubeny thinks that. es “ For the formation of pumice it seems requisite that a con- siderable disengagement of vapor should have taken place, during the time at which the body acted upon was in a plas- tic, though not in an altogether fluid condition.” The vitreous lavas of Lipari, (obsidian,) are not always loasely ejected, suddenly cooled masses, but they constitute “extensive beds, which ought, it would seem to have been subjected to the same laws of congelation as the lavas of oth- er volcanos.” ‘ The only indications of active volcanic agency now exist- ing in the island of Lipari, are the hot springs, about four miles west of the town, but ancient authors speak of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes as so common in these islands that probably the inhabitants had acquired that degree of familiar- ity with them which is ascribed by Humboldt to the inhabit- ants of Peru :— *¢On the coast of Peru, earthquakes are so frequent, that we become as much accustomed to the undulations of the ground, as the sailor is to the tossings of the ship, caused by the motion of the waves. “From our infancy, the idea of certain contrasts fixes itself in our minds; water appears to us an element that moves; earth, a motionless and inert mass. ‘These ideas are the effect of daily experience; they are connected with every thing that is trans- mitted to us by the senses. When a shock is felt, when the earth is shaken on its old foundations, which we had deemed so stable, 272 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. one instant is sufficient to destroy long illusions. It is like awa- kening from a dream; but a painful awakening. We feel, that we have been deceived by the apparent calm of nature; we be- come attentive to the least noise, we mistrust for the first time a soil, on which we had so long placed our feet with confidence. If the shocks be repeated, if they become frequent during suc- cessive days, the uncertainty quickly disappears. In 1784 the inhabitants of Mexico were accustomed to hear the thunder roll beneath their feet, as we are to witness it in the region of the clouds.” The Island of Vulcano is separated from Lipari by a nar- row channel. It affords one peculiar product that is “ borac- ic acid, which lines the sides of the cavities with beautiful white silky crystals.” “The operations of this voleano appear to be going on with much greater vigor than those of the Solfatara, and exhibit per- haps the nearest approximation to a state of activity, during which a descent into the crater would have been practicable. “‘ Nor can I imagine a spectacle of more solemn grandeur than that presented in its interior, or conceive a spot better calculated to excite in a superstitious age that religious awe which caused the island to be considered sacred to Vulcan, and the various cav- erns helow as the peculiar residence of the God. “* Quam subter, specus, et Cyclopum exesa caminis Antra Etnea tonant, validique incudibus ictus Auditi referunt gemitum, striduntque cavernis Stricture Chalybum, et fornacibus ignis anhelat, Vulcani domus et Vulcania nomine tellus.” “To me, I confess, the united effect of the silence and solitude of the spot, the depth of the internal cavity, its precipitous and overhanging sides, and the dense sulphureous smoke, which, issu- ing from all the crevices, throws a gloom over every object, proved more impressive than the view of the reiterated explo- sions of Stromboli, contemplated from a distance, and in open day.” 3 Sicily. The account of the geology of Sicily contained in Dr. Dau- beny’s memoir on that country, already alluded to, (see Vol. 10, p. 230 of this journal,) will induce us to confine our rela- tions principally but not exclusively to the facts connected with Aitna. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 973 - The central portion of Italy is occupied by a vast deposit of blue clay or marl containing numerous and thick beds of gypsum, with sulphur and the sulphurets of iron and copper. “The crystals of sulphat of strontian, found in the sulphur mines are unrivalled for their beauty; and are mixed with those of sulphur, lining the fissures, often in large and regu- lar octahedra.” The celebrated mud eruptions especially at Macaluba, which sometimes throw mud, bitumen and gases, mixed, to the height of two hundred feet are attributed by Professor Daubeny to the slow combustion of beds of sulphur. But we dismiss subordinate considerations that we may bestow the greater attention on Aitna. Aina. “This mighty and imposing mountain, which rises in solitary erandeur to the height of above ten thousand feet, and embraces. a circumference of one hundred and eighty miles, is entirely composed of lavas, which, whatever subordinate differences may exist between them, all possess the appearance of having been ejected above the surface of water, and not under pressure. ‘In the structure of this mountain, every thing wears alike the character of vastness. The products of the eruptions of Ve- suvius may be said almost to sink into insignificance, when com- pared with these coulées, some of which are four or five miles in breadth, fifteen in length, and from fifty to one hundred feet in thickness, and the changes made on the coast by them are so con- siderable, that the natural boundaries between the sea and land seem almost to depend upon the movements of the volcano. “ The height too of Etna isso great, that the lava frequently finds less resistance in piercing the flanks of the mountain, than in rising to its summit, and has in this manner formed anumber of minor cones, many of which possess their respective craters, and have given rise to considerable streams of lava. ‘*¢ Hence an antient poet has very happily termed this volcano the parent of Sicilian mountains, an expression strictly applica- ble to the relation which it bears to the hills in its immediate neighborhood, all of which have been formed by successive ejec- tions of matter from its interior. “The grandest and most original feature indeed in the physi- ognomy of Etna, isthe zone of subordinate volcanic hills with which it is encompassed, and which look like a court of subaltern princes waiting upon their sovereign. “Of these, some are covered with vegetation, others are bare and arid, their relative antiquity being probably denoted by the Vou. XIII.—No. 2. 10 274 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. progress vegetation has made upon their surface, and the extra- ordinary difference that exists in this respect seems to indicate, that the mountain, to which they owe their origin, must have been in a state of activity, if not at a period antecedent to the commencement of the present order of things, at least at a dis- tance of time exceedingly remote.” ‘The silence of Homer on the subject of the eruptions of Et- na is indeed often quoted in proof of the more modern date of this volcano; but to such negatiwe evidence we have to oppose the positive statement of Diodorus Siculus, who notices an erup- tion long anterior to the age of this poet, as he says that the Si- cani, who with the exception of the fabulous Cyclops and Lestri- gons, were the first inhabitants of the island, and who are admit- ted on all sides to have possessed it considerably before the 'Tro- jan war, deserted the neighborhood of Mount. Etna in conse- quence of the terror caused by the eruptions of the volcano. “‘ This is confirmed by Dionysius Halicarnassus, who states that the Siculi, who passed over from Magna Grecia about eighty years before the ‘Trojan war, first took possession of that part of the island which had been deserted by the Sicanians, so that it is probable that the mountain was at that period tolerably tranquil, and supposing no eruption to have taken place from that time till the age of Homer, it is by no means unlikely, that in a bar- barous age, the tradition of events so remote may have been in great measure effaced, and thus have never reached the ears of the Greek poet. ““'The earliest historian by whom the eihtialo has been noti- ced is Thucydides, who says, that up to the date of the Pelopon- nesian war, which commenced in the year 431 B. C. three erup- tions had taken place from Mount Etna, since Sicily was peopled by the Greeks. It is probably to one of these that Pindar has alluded in his first Pythian Ode, written according to Heyné in consequence of the victory obtained by Hiero in the year 470 B. C. It may be remarked that this poet particularly speaks of the streams of lava which if we may judge from Vesuvius, are less usual concomitants of the first eruptions ofa volcano. : ‘¢ Diodorus Siculus mentions an eruption subsequent to the above, namely in the 96th Olymp. or 396 years B. C. which stop- ped the Carthaginian army in their march against Syracuse. The stream may be seen on the eastern slope of the mountain near Giarre, extending over abreadth of more than two miles, and having a length of twenty-four from the summit of the moun- tain to its final termination in the sea. The spot in question is called the Bosco di Aci; it contains many large trees, and has a partial coating of vegetable mould, and it isseen that this torrent covered lavas of an older date which existed on the spot. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 275 ** Four eruptions are recorded to have happened between this period and the century immediately preceeding the Christian era, during which latter epoch the mountain seems to have been in astate of frequent agitation, so that it is noticed by the poets among the signs of the anger of the gods at the death of Cesar. “ After this for about a thousand. years its eruptions are but little noticed, but during the last eight centuries they have suc- ceeded each other with considerable rapidity. Referring how- ever to the chronological list of the eruptions of the mountain for a specification of these, I shall here merely allude to such as have produced some remarkable change in the character of the country.” “In the memorable eruption of 1669, arent twelve inches in length took place on the flank of the mountain above Nicolise, about half way between Catania and the summit; and from this fissure descended a torrent of melted matter, which con- tinued flowing for several miles, destroyed a part of Catania, and at length entering the sea, formed a little promontory, which serves to arrest the fury of the waves in that quarter ; at the same time the accumulation of matters ejected, raised on the mountain two conical hills called the Monti Mossi, which measure at their base, about two Italian miles, and are in height more than three hundred feet above the slope of the mountain, on which they are placed,” Ferrara. Professor Daubeny has given a table shewing the corres pondence in point of time between the eruptions of A\tna, Ve- suvius and the other voleanos connected with them. The earliest eruption of Etna that is recorded, was about 480 years before Christ, and there were nine others before that epoch, besides one of the Eolian Isles and one of Ischia. Vesuvius had no eruption during this period nor is any previ- ous one known although it is certain that there must have been eruptions more ancient than any that are recorded of Etna and the same remark may be made of Etna itself. From the birth of Christ to 1824, there were only six erup- tions of Etna; in the mean time there were nine of Vesuvius. In 1198, the Solfaterra was inflamed, and in 1302 there -was an eruption of Mount Epemeo in Ischia. From 1329 to 1719 there were forty-two eruptions of Etna, not quite one to acentury. Vesuvius gave in the same time, or rather from 1306 to 1822, forty-two eruptions; the ratio of time a little more. etuimei nt 276 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. “‘{t appears from this table that the nearest coincidence be- tween the eruption of the twe volcanos was in 1694 and in 1811, when they occurred within a month of each other; and that on eight several occasions an interval of less than half a year elap- sed between them, viz. that of Vesuvius December 2, 1754, was followed by one of Etna on March 2, 1755; Vesuvius Au- gust 3, 1779, by Etna May 18, 1780; Vesuvius October 31, by Etna July 28, 1787; Etna June, 1788, by Vesuvius February, 1799; again followed by one of Etna in June, same year; Etna March 27, 1809, by Vesuvius-December 10, 1809; Vesuvius October 12, 1811, by Etna October 25, 1811; again followed by Vesuvius December 31, same year ; Vesuvius May 27, 1819, by eS November 25, same year.” The analysis already given, embraces all the countries in which Professor Daubeny made personal observations and in- cludes about half his volume. In the remainder we have a notice of volcanos existing in countries not visited by the au- thor; and general remarks on volcanic phenomena. As it is our object not merely to display the uncommon merit of Dr. Daubeny’s performance, but by its aid to bring under the eyes of our readers, a succinct and yet comprehensive ac- count of volcanic formations both ancient and modern; and of the most important phenomena connected with them, we will procecd upon the plan already presented. Iceland, Sir G. Makenzie, in his work on Iceland “ notices two varie- ties of volcanic products in this island, one of which appeared to him of submarine, the other of terrestrial origin. “¢ Among the rocks referred to the former period, the prevail- ing substance wasa tuff containing fragments of cellular lava, of pearlstone, and of amygdaloid, the cavities of which were filled with calcareousspar. With this tuff alternate beds of scoriform lava, and both are traversed by dykes of greenstone, perfectly compact, and without any vitreous aspect, thus serving to shew the manner in which the characters of a rock depend upon the degree of pressure @xerted during its formation. In the case of the bed the structure is cellular, because it probably flowed free- ly over the surface, without being subjected to any pressure con- siderable enough to counterpoise the expansive force of the elastic vapours disengaged ; in the case of the greenstone dykes, the rock itself, through which they forced their way, may have opposed a resistance sufficiently considerable to have prevented the formation of cells.” Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 277 “The cellular aspect of the constituents of these submarine lavas seems to shew that theirage is, comparatively speaking, modern, and with this the almost total absence of any Neptunian products completely accords. “‘ Sir G. Makenzie has noticed an effect of volcanic action of a kind rather different from that which has hitherto come before us. “In many places, he says, an extensive stratum of volcanic matter has been heaved up into large bubbles or blisters, vary- ing from a few feet to forty or fifty in diameter. It also contains numerous little craters, from which flames and scoriz had issued, but no lava. These craters.are often partially covered in by domes of the same materials, as though the whole rock had been first softened by the operation of heat; and portions of it had then been made toswell outwards by the extrication of elastic vapours. _ “Our author has chosen to distinguish this variety by the name of cavernous lava; its date is probably anterior to that of the commencement of the present order of things, for it is in ma- ny cases covered with gravel, and seems to extend under the sea. *‘ When I come tospeak of the Island of Lanzerote, I shall have occasion to point out appearances described by Von Buch, of a very analogous kind; and shall therefore defer any attempt to explain them for the present, proceeding in the mean time to some other phenomena connected with the same subject, which iceland presents to our contemplation.” The sulphur mountains of Krisiavik, consist of alternating beds of white clay and sulphur, from all parts of which steam is given out. ‘This was remarkably the case in a deep hollow into which the author descended, where a confused noise was heard of boil- ing and splashing, joined to the roaring of steam escaping from narrow crevices. At the bottom of this hollow was a cauldron of boiling mud about fifteen feet indiameter. There wasa constant sublimation of sulphur, which formed beautiful crystals round the sides of the cavity. “The celebrated springs of Geyser are, however, the phe- nomena which most forcibly arrest the attention of the traveller inthis country. The intermitting character of these fountains _ mnay be, in some measure, imitated by pouring a stream of water through a bent tube depressed about the centre, and heated in that pari alone. . “‘ Under these circumstances the steam suddenly generated at bottom will force one portion of the water out in a jet from the opposite extremity to that at which it entered, driving back at 278 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. the same time the current of water that continued to flowin. In this manner the water might be propelled in jerks, as happens in the case of the Geyser springs. “¢ Such an explanation however is far from being adequate to account for the complicated phenomena of these fountains, which, after a pause of many hours, first threw up water, and after- wards vast columns of steam, to the height sometimes of two hundred feet, and then immediately sunk into a temporary re- pose ; neither is it applicable to the singular circumstance men- tioned by Mr. Henderson, as to the possibility of bringing on the explosion at any given time by merely throwing large stones into the orifice. The latter fact indeed seems to prove that the gen- eration of steam is constant, and that nature has provided other vents sufficient to carry off a certain portion of the elastic va- pour, unless when obstructed in the manner produced by Mr. Henderson, in which case its rapid accumulation gives rise to an almost immediate explosion.” The celebrated surturbrand of Iceland is spoken of as being almost the only substance in that country not connected with volcanic operations, for almost the whole island is the work of volcanic fire. ‘¢ The west side of a perpendicular cleft in the side of amoun- tain called Hagafiall exposes a section of ten or twelve horizon- tal strata, of which the surturbrand is undermost, occupying four layers, which are separated from each other by intermediate beds. of soft sandstone and clay. ; “¢ They vary in thickness from a foot and a half to three feet, and differ also in quality, the two lowest strata exhibiting the most perfect specimens of mineralized wood, free from all foreign admixture and of a jet black, the numerous knots, roots, &c. leav- ing no doubt of its vegetable origin. ‘The two upper strata con- tain an admixture of earthy and ferruginous matters, and in the midst of them occurs a thin layer, four inches in thickness, con- sisting of a schistose mass which appears to be made up entirely of leaves closely pressed together, separated only by a little clay. These leaves are chiefly of poplar, a tree, Mr. Hender- son says, at present not met with on the island. The beds of surturbrand support an alternation of basalt, tuff, and lava, which extend to the summit of the hill. ‘¢ With the sole exception perhaps of this substance, the whole of the mineral structure of Iceland may be said to have origina- ted more or less directly from volcanos, and there is probably no part of the globe in which operations of this kind have been going on withso much activity, and for so considerable a period. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 279 The existence of submarine lavas proves the action to have com- menced before the retreat of the ocean, notwithstanding which eruptions occur here more frequently at present than they do at Vesuvius or in any other known case. ‘“‘ Besides Hecla, which has been twenty-two times in a state of activity during the last eight hundred years, five ‘other volca- nos are enumerated, from which the total number of recorded eruptions during the same period is no less than twenty. Some of these happened at the same time at which the volcanos of the Mediterranean were in action, but the instances of this coin- cidence are not sufficiently numerous to lead to any certain con- clusion. *‘in the year 1783 a submarine eruption took place six or eight miles from Reykiavess, which gave birth toa new island a mile in circumference, which however the following year again disappeared. A submarine eruption also took place about the same time seventy miles from the same cape, which is said to have thrown up pumice sufficient to cover the sea for a space of one hundred and fifty miles round.” Greenland. In the island of Mayen, off the coast of Greenland, there is a volcano whose crater is five hundred feet deep, and two thousand indiameter. In 1807, Captain Scoresby saw marks of a recent eruption ; cellular lava, tufa, scorie, &c. Grecian Archipelago. Our limits will not permit us to follow Professor Daubeny through the historical research connected with the volcanic history of the Grecian Archipelago, and we must be in general satisfied with conclusions only. The island Santorino or Thera, and the smaller neighbor- ing one Therasia are stated by Pliny, to have been thrown up by the sea, and they are composed almost entirely of volca- nic substances. There is also, Canimeni or Micronesi, thrown up in 1573; and new or black island in 1707. The following facts are too interesting to admit of > and therefore we quote them entire. ““'Thevenot mentions a great eruption of pumice as having ta- ken place in the sea near Santorino in 1638, and Father Goree in 1707 was eye witness of the appearance of a new rock be- tween little and great Cammeni, which increased in size so rap- idly, that in less than a month it became half amile in circum- 280 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. ference, and had risen twenty or thirty feet above the level of the waters. “¢ The following is an extract from the account he has transmit- ted to us of the circumstances attending this event. “On the 23d of May 1707, the commencement of a new island between great and little Cammeni, was perceived from Scaro, and from all that side of Santorino. It was at first taken for the wreck of a ship, but those who visited the spot under that impression, found that it was a mass of rocks, which rose from the bottom of the water. Some, whose curiosity got the better of their fear, had the hardihood to land upon it, and found the surface covered with a white and verysoft stone; but, what was very remarkable, a large quantity of fresh oysters, which are rarely seen about Santorino, were found adhering to the rock. newly thrown up. Whiist in the act of collecting them, they were frightened away by feeling the ground shake violently. ‘¢ Between this and the month of July the island was observed to grow gradually larger, for though many of the rocks which were added to it sunk again into the waters, a sufficient number remained to add considerably to its volume. “In July the appearances were more awful, as all at once there arose, ata distance of about sixty paces from the island al- ready thrown up, achain of black and calcined rocks, soon fol- lowed by a torrent of black smoke, which from the odour that it spread around, from its effect on the natives in producing head- ache and vomiting, and from its blackening silver and copper ves- sels, seems to have consisted of sulphuretted hydrogen. *¢ Some days afterwards the neighboring waters grew hot, and many dead fish were thrown upon the shore. A frightful subter- rannean noise was at the same time heard, long streams of fire rose from the ground, and stones continued to be thrown out, un- til the rocks became joined to the White Island originally exis- ting. “ Showers of ashes and pumice extended over the sea, even to the coasts of Asia Minor and the Dardanelles, and destroyed all the productions of the earth in Santorino. “These, and similar frightful appearances continued round the island for nearly a year, after which nothing remained of them but a dense smoke. “On the 15th July, 1708, the same observer had the courage to attempt visiting the island, but when his boat approached within five hundred paces of it, the boiling heat of the water deter- red him from proceeding. He made another trial, but was driven back by a cloud of smoke and cinders that proceeded from the principal crater. This was followed by ejections of red-hot stones, from which he very narrowly escaped. ‘The mariners Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 284 remarked that the heat of the water had carried away all the pitch from their vessel. ‘‘ During the ten subsequent years, the volcanic action had given rise toseveral other eruptions, but the same reporter states, that in 1712 all was quiet, and no other indication of the kind existed, excepting a quantity of sulphur and bitumen, which floated on, without mixing with the waters. Its circumference at that time was about four miles. ‘It is important, with reference to the natural history of vol- canos, to remark that in this case, as in many others, the moun- tain appears to have been elevated, before the crater existed, or gaseous matters were given out. According to Bourguignon smoke was not observed till twenty-six days after the appearance of the raised rocks.” Milo appears also to be volcanic; it abounds in hot springs, sulphureous and chalybeate : sulphur is sublimed in the crevi- ces of the rock, and alum is abundant as it was in the time of Pliny. Here, as well as in the Phlegraean fields, the noxious miasmata so abound, that the few inhabitants of this once populous island, are the very pictures of wretchedness and disease ; perhaps, however, attributable in part to other causes. The theatre, which was covered with a shower of volcanic ashes, has been in part uncovered, and the steps were found to be of the marble of the island, fresh and uninjured. It is probable that Argentine, the ancient Cimoli; Cerigo, the an- cient Cythera ; Tq cae and other islands are more or less of volcanic origin. Continent of Greece. Whether the burning mountain of Megalopolis, mentioned by Pliny, and the mud eruptions of the Lelantic fields, are connected with volcanic action, cannot be determined. “The neighborhood of Troezene in Argolis, would appear from Ovid to have been the seat of a volcanic eruption, which created an entire mountain, just in the same manner as in the last century the mountain of Jorullo was elevated i in the midst of the table land of Mexico. “ The description of Ovid is so applicable to both these events, that | have introduced an extract from it in the frontis- piece of this work, which represents the mountain Jorullo as described by Humbolt. . Vox. XIII.—No. 2. 11 282 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. The following is the entire passage :— «< Est prope Pitheam tumulus Troezena, sine ullis Arduus arboribus, quondam planissima campi Area, nune tumulus; nam (res horrenda relatu) Vis fera ventorum, cecis inclusa cavernis, Exspirare aliqua cupiens, luctataque frustra Liberiore frui coelo, cum carcere rima Nulla foret toto, nec pervia flatibus esset, Extentam tumefecit humum; ceu spiritus oris Tendere vesicam solet, aut direpta bicornis Terga capri. Tumor ille loci permansit ; et alti Collis habet speciem, longoque induruit evo.” Merramorpu. 1. 15. “It is probable that Strabo may refer to the same event, where he speaks of a tract of land seven stadia high, being el- evated round about Methone, owing to some exhalation of an igneous nature, for these two places are so near to each other, that they might very readily be confounded.” It seems to be agreed, that the promontory of Methone is volcanic. “It would appear from Strabo, that even in his time the rage of the volcano was not exhausted, for he says that the mountain was sometimes inaccessible from the intensity of the heat which it occasioned, and the sulphureous odour which it diffused. ‘6 He adds, that it was visible at night from afar, and that the sea was hot for five stadia round. te “Chandler, who visited the spot, merely mentions as still ex- isting, the hot springs about three miles and three quarters from Methone, which first appeared after the eruption in the reign of Antigonus. ‘The springs are on the side of the mountain near a village, and tinge the soil néar them with the color of ochre.” The Bosphorus, as it would seem from the notices publish- ed by Dr. Clark, Andreossi and others,- consists in part, at least, of volcanic materials, and that there is probably a true volcano, in the little island of Taman, which connects the chain of mountais traversing the Crimea, with the Asiatic continent. Sardinia is the seat of ancient volcanos, in groups of great- er or less extent, and reposing in general, on the most recent rocks. In general, the craters are effaced, but there are caps and currents of cellular lava, and there are pearlstone, obsidian, pumice, puzzolana, &c. Spain, as appears by the high authority of Mr. Maclure, exhibits proofs of ancient volcanic action. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 283 *¢ Having passed the Pyrenees to go to Barcelona, he found in the bed of the fluvia lavas and scorie. He ascended towards the source of the river, traversed four leagues of a volcanic country, round Ollot, and observed there several streams of lava, volcanic cinders or Puzzolana, and lastly craters not yet effaced. This volcanic district extends from six to eight leagues to the south be- yond Amera, where in 1428 there was an eruption which destroy- ed Ollot, and left only one house standing. He found much lava in the bed of the river Tor, and traversed near Massanite a cur- rent of ancient lava, almost a league in breadth, in a state of de- composition, and covered by an alluvial soil. From Massanite to Ollot, is a distance of fifteen leagues, so that the theatre of vol- canic action in these countries is much more extended than that around Vesuvius.” The beautiful specimens of phosphat of lime, (asparagus stone,) found near Jumella,in Murcia, are deposited in ancient lava, lying under an old secondary compact shell limestone : the volcano was probably submarine. Spain contains also other volcanic regions near Almeira, and in the chain of mountains that separates it from Portugal, near its southern extremity. Portugal is not without volcanic appearances ; in the vicin- ity of Lisbon, and in the Siera de |’Estrella, the ancient Her- minius, there is an appearance of an ancient crater, contain- ing a lake through which air bubbles arise. Africa. The islands that are contiguous to the African coast, are decidedly volcanic. The Canaries are among the most remarkable; and of these, the most striking feature is Teneriffe ;, whose highest peak, that of Teyde, is twelve thousand and ninety feet above the sea, The rocks compo- sing this colossal structure are the productions of volcanic fire; but the basaltic rocks through which they have risen, are scarcely one third of the elevation of the peak itself. -% Hence we may characterize the two classes under the name of ancient and modern lavas, just as has been done in the case of those which are found at the foot, and which compose the mass of Mount Etna. ‘The modern lavas however of the peak admit likewise of a two-fold division, 1st, into those composing the nucleus of the mountain, which are of atrachytic character, and appear to have 284 Notice of Actwe and Extinct Volcanos. been forced up through the midst of the older basalts, and 2dly, into the products of the volcanic action to which this central mass furnished an appropriate vent. “The latter are very various in their nature and character: we may distinguish, first, the lavas, which have sometimes a stony, and sometimes a vitreous aspect; and secondly, the loose ejected masses, such as pumice, obsidian, and Japilli. ** Of the lavas, such as have a stony aspect, appear to be confi- ned to a comparatively low elevation, and to have proceeded ex- clusively from the flanks of the volcano—whilst the vitreous are found only near the summit, the lowest point at which they occur being eight thousand nine "hundred feet above the level of the sea.” There is however one vitreous current near the top of the mountain ; and this region is covered with obsidian, and with showers of pumice, but they do not reach the lower parts of the mountain, which are mostly covered by rapilli, resembling lithoid lava, and not mixed with pumice or obsidian. ‘¢ This latter distribution, says Humbolt, seems to confirm the observation made a long time ago at Vesuvius, that the white ashes are thrown out last, and indicate that the eruption is at an end. In proportion as. the elasticity of the vapours. diminish- es, the matter is thrown to a less distance; and the black ra- pilli, which issue the first, when the lava has ceased flowing, must necessarily reach father than the white rapilli. The last appear to have undergone the action of a more intense fire. “‘ The size of the crater that exists in the summit of the Peak is diminutive compared with that of Etna or of Vesuvius, being only three hundred feet in its greatest, and two hundred in its les- ser diameter, whilst its depth does not exceed one hundred feet. ¢ Indeed it may be remarked in general, although the rule is _ liable to exceptions, that the dimensions of acrater are in an in- verse ratio to the elevation of the mountain ; for in proportion to the height which the ejected masses must attain before they reach the orifice, will be the resistance to be overcome in for- cing a passage by this channel, so that in a mountain like the Peak of Tenerifie, the force applied will in most instances be instrumental in creating apertures in the flanks of the mountain, rather than in enlarging the cavity on its summit. “¢ The existence nevertheless of this chimney preserves the island in Von Buch’s opinion from those destructive eruptions which convulse some of those adjoining it, since elastic vapours, ihe immediate and necessary concomitants, of volcanic action, thus find a readier vent, and confine their violence to the imme- diate precincts of the volcano, Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 285 « We must not however go so far as to suppose, that Teneriffe itself is altogether exempted from those convulsions of nature which are so common in the neighboring islands. “ Its lofty peak, although it may act as asafety valve, and moderate the violence of the volcanic action by determining it io a point at which it can obtain a vent, proves nevertheless from this very circumstance a dangerous neighbor to the tewns that lie underneath it. In the years 1704 and 1706 lateral erap- tions took place from the Peak the latter of which destroyed the port Garachico, the finest and most frequented harbor in the isl- ~ and. In 1798 too, the mountain Chahorra threw out lavas and scorie for the space of more than three months, and the violence of the eruption may be judged of by the fact mentioned by Humbolt on the authority of an eye witness; namely that con- siderable fragments of stones were thrown to such an height, that from twelve to fifteen seconds were reckoned during their descent. This curious observation proves, that rocks were pro- jected from this crater to a height of three thousand feet and up- wards. ‘‘ Before I conclude the subject we are upon, I may remark, how strikingly the difference between the volcanic products of Teneriffe illustrates the manner, in which the effects of heat are modified in such cases by the influence of pressure. 6 At the bottom of the mountain are the basaltic lavas or tuffs, which being produced probably under the ocean, and at a very re- mote period, are compact and possess a stony fracture. Through these have been protruded the trachytes of the peak, which, having had the resistance of so large a body of rock to overcome, also possess a considerable degree of compaciness. ““'This conical and upheaved mass having become the centre of the volcanic operations subsequently carried on, is surrounded by products of later formation, some of which were ejected from the summit at a time when a free channel of communica- tion existed between it and the interior of the volcano, others from the flanks at a later period, when the aperture had become obstructed by the falling in of its sides, or the accumulation of ejected substances. It is clear, that in either of these cases, the pressure exerted upon the substance whilst in a melted state was less considerable than that which prevailed during the for- mation of the submarine lavas, or even of the trachyte, and hence it is found to possess more of a vitreous aspect, and is more completely penetrated with cells. The pumice never covers any of the currents of lava, a proof of its greater an- tiquity. See Von Buch. In Leonb. Min. Tasch. 4 part. 1823.’* Palma presents a very instructive scene. Like the other 286 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. islands of this group, ‘the strata seem to have been elevated from the bottom of the ocean, by the force of elastic vapors ; for they dip away in all directions from some central point, where a crater still exists to attest the former agency of elastic fluids.” ¥ “The beds are all intersected by dykes of granular basalt, which become more and more abundant as we proceed along the valley, until, at length the lofty wall of rock which bounds it, is covered with a net work of them. *¢ These beds all rise towards the crater, or, as it is called by the people, the great Caldera, a circular opening in the centre of the island, the depth of which is stated by Von Buch as ex- ceeding five thousand feet. From its brim we are enabled to Jook down upon the abyss, and observe underneath us the ter- minations of the strata, which we have successively passed in our way to it. Viewed from this point they all appear horizon- tal, but this, as I observed in speaking of the Monte Somma, is an iliusion, and arises from their terminations only being visible, and from their ranging at an equal elevation in every part of the circular wall, which bounds the internal cavity of the crater. ‘““The caldera of the Isle of Palma, says Von Buch, differs much from the crater of an ordinary volcano.. Here are no streams of lava, no slags, no rapilli or ashes. Nor do we ever find the latter of such a circumference, or so profound and ab- rupt. Its general aspect seems to shew that it was formed by the pressure of those elastic fluids which raised the whole island above the level of the ocean, and changed the strata composing it from an horizontal to their present highly inclined position.” “6 Considering therefore that the crater inthis instance is unat- tended with the usual phenomena of a volcano, and is even dis- tinguished from the latter by the preceding characters, Von Buch has chosen to denote it by the name of “ Erhebungs cra- ter” or crater of elevation, and he proceeds to shew that the same distinctive title is applicable to many craters both among these islands and in other parts of the globe.” The Great Canary has a structure very similar to that of _ Palma; “the same heaving up of the strata round a central point, the same deep and abrupt vallies, (called barancas,) the same description of crater, exhibiting the successive out crops of the adjoming beds.” ‘The order of superposition in the latter is such as to illus- trate apparently the gradation that often occurs in the character of volcanic products, and perhaps the manner in which they Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 287 have been derived by successive changes from the fundamental granite. Lowest of all Von Buch descried the primitive rocks ; then masses of trachyte; afterwards an aggregate consisting of angular fragments of the latter rock, forming either a conglome- rate or a tuff, which alternate with one another several succes- sive times; still higher an augite rock (dolerite) with felspar, ‘interstratified with beds of rolled masses of the same composi- tion, but of a cellular structure; then an amygdaloid; and last of all basalt.” Lanzerote has a similar structure, and had evidently a sim- ilar origin, but it has been since augmented by eruptions of volcanic matter upon its surface. It is unlike the other isl- ands of this group, flat, without abrupt cones and lofty preci- pices, and with only one vestige of a crater, like those in Pal- ma and the Grand Canary. Still there have been in this isl- and, within the records of history, terrific and devastating eruptions, particularly in the year 1730. “ After a painful walk, (says Von Buch,) over a tract of harsh, undecomposed lava, I reached at length an eminence composed entirely of an accumulation of slag and lapilli, which were heap- ed in successive layers upon each other. In the centre was a crater walled in by precipitous rocks, of which one side was broken away by a lava which had proceeded from its interior. Within the compass of this hollow two other minor craters ap- pear, which emitted at the time volumes of aqueous vapour mix- ed with sulphureous exhalations. Hence itis that the hill has obtained the name of Moniagna di Fuego. ‘¢ It is impossible, continues Von Buch, to describe the scene of desolation, which presents itself from the summit of this cra- ter. A surface of more than three square miles in a westerly direction is covered with black lava, in the whole of which space nothing occurs to break the uniformity of the prospect, but oc- casional small cones of basalt scattered over the plain. “It is clear that this vast mass of lava is not derived from any one point; even the Montagna di Fuego appearing to have con- tributed but little to its formation, for the lava actually procee- ding from the latter is found to take an easterly instead of a wes- terly direction. During my ascent, I felt very anxious to as- certain, what the other sources might be which assisted in emit- ting so vast amass of lava. How much was I astonished, when on reaching the summit I perceived an entire series of cones, all nearly as lofty as the Montagna di Fuego, placed so exactly ina line, that the nearest covered the farther ones in such a manner. that their summits alone were seen peeping from behind. ‘ 288 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. “‘ Between the western coast and the little village of Florida, I counted twelve cones of larger size, of which the Montagna di Fuego was the sixth in the series, besides a considerable number of smaller cones, partly between and partly on the side of the larger ones. It was an exact. repetition of the phenomena of Jorullo, or of the puys in Auvergne. The whole of this erup- tion proceeded in all probability from a large fissure, the exis- tence of which is in all cases found to produce effects of the more alarming kind, the more distant it is from any volcano, the latter serving as a sort of chimney for the escape of the matter within. “On my road to Florida, I visited several such cones. They all alike consist of heaps, three or four hundred feet in height, of harsh, porous, sharp lapilli, of the size of a bean, which cause a grating sound when they roll upon each other. ‘“¢ These craters open for the most part towards the interior of the island, where the streams of lava unite to form one vast continuous bed, which, the farther we trace it from its source, is found to be less and less charged with olivine.” These devastations took place in the island, between the ist of September, 1730, and the 16th of April, 1736, during which period of less than five years and an half, the miserable inhabitants being perpetually in terror, on account of the flames and smoke, ejected fragments and currents of lava, the gaseous exhalations which destroyed their cattle, and other frightful phenomena ; the most fertile part of the island being covered with ruins, and despairing that the eruptions would ever cease, abandoned their homes and took refuge in the Great Canary. During these eruptions, flames rose from the midst of the sea. After this, the island enjoyed a period of repose for eighty-seven years; for on the 29th of August, 1823, a volcano broke out a league from the harbor of Rescif, and half a league from the mountain called Famia. It vomited from its crater, terrible flames which lighted up the whole island, and enormous ignited stones, which in less than twenty-four hours formed a mountain of considerable size. It continued to burn over a space of half a league in length, and a quarter in breadth, for some days, and three weeks after poured forth a torrent of water. The island of Madeira—according to Von Buch, is “ form- ed after the same manner as the Canaries, consisting of beds which have been elevated above the level of the ocean by elastic fluids, but destitute of any crater from whence smoke and lava have been ejected.” Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 289 The Cape de Verd Islands are little known (geologically,) but “ they are said to consist principally of volcanic matter, and the island of Fago contains an active volcano.” The Azores are thoroughly volcanic. Dr. J. W. Webster, of Boston, U. S. Am. has given us a very interesting account of them.* Trachyte, obsidian, pumice, &c. abound there. There is an ancient crater in St. Michael fifteen miles in circumference, containing a lake and the rest covered with vegetables and a thin population. There are great caverns in the lava like those observed in Iceland by Sir George Mackensie, and in them hang the congealed droppings, in the form of stalactites—curious arborescent figures, &c. In St. Michael there are hot springs charged with carbonic acid and sulphuretted hidrogen gases and a siliceous sinter is deposited, similar to that of the Geysers inIceland. That voleanic energy is still active beneath the seas mm this region, is evident, from the remarkable occurrence of the rise of a volcanic island through the ocean. *¢ In the year 1811 a phenomenon occurred, similar in kind to that, which I have already described, as having happened in the Grecian Archipelago. After a succession of earthquakes, expe- rienced more or less sensibly in all the neighboring parts, a new island arose in the midst of the sea, of a conical form, and with a crater on its summit, from which flame and smoke continually is- sued. ‘The island, when visited soon after its appearance by the crew of the frigate Sabrina, was about a mile in circumference, and two or three hundred feet above the level of the ocean, it continued for some weeks, and then sunk again into the sea.” Dr. Webster has given drawings and a very interesting de- scription of this remarkable occurrence so instructive in the history of volcanos. Among the Azores, El Pico is the only one which contains a volcano at present in activity; its summit is not less than nine thousand feet above the sea; it consists of a conical mass of trachyte, and is constantly emitting smoke. Ascension Island is of volcanic origin, containing abund- ance of ignigenous materials, particularly in a hill about seven hundred feet above the sea, in which is a hollow, pro- bably a crater now filled with volcanic substances. The island * See the notice of Dr. Webster’s work, Vol. IV, page 251 of this Journal. Vor. XITI.——No. 2. 12 290 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. is very rugged and forbidding; its highest mountain is two thousand eight hundred and eighteen feet above the sea, and is covered with pumice sustaining a thin soil. St. Helena rendered memorable as the prison and grave of Napoleon, was probably raised out of the sea, by volcanic action. In the mterior of the island, is a crater called the devil’s punch bowl; its dimensions are in two diameters, one thousand and seven hundred yards, and it is two hundred and fifty yards deep. mie The Isle of France, on the eastern side of Africa is itself a conical mountain, as it rises on all sides towards the center, and there is besides a range of mountains, all of which con- sist of volcanic matter, either lava or basalt. Bourbon has a similar character ; it slopes on all sides up- ward towards a centre, and consists of two volcanic moun- tains of different ages: the southern, which is the smallest, being still active, while the western is extinct. Earthquakes are sometimes experienced in those parts of the island that are most remote from the active volcano. This volcano produces a variety of pumice, resembling spun glass, similar to that which is so abundantly produced at Hawaii (Owyhee.) Africa is fringed with volcanic islands, but it is still perhaps doubtful whether there is any active voleano, whose existence is well established, on the African continent, although many circumstances, mentioned by ancient authors, would lead to the presumption that some portion of the chain of Atlas is of this character, and modern travellers lead us to suppose that some of the mountains of Egypt and Lybia are referri- ble to the same class. Asia. - Asia and its islands abound with volcanos, and whatever may be said of Egypt, there is no doubt of their existence on the opposite shore and in the Red Sea itself. Bruce de- scribes an active volcano in the island of Zibbel Teir, in north latitude 16°, and other voleanic appearances are de- scribed as existing about Suez; the Arabian gulph at Donnar, Medina, &c. Wemustrefer our readers to Professor Daube- ny’s work for the course of investigation, which leads him to conclude that Palestine has been the scene of extensive vol- canic agency, and that the very imagery and allusions of the Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 291 sacred writers, especially of the prophets, were often drawn from these physical occurrences.* The author has rendered it very probable, that voleanic agency was the physical instru- men, employed by the Almighty, to destroy the five cities of the plain, that the Salt or Dead Sea arose either from the sub- sidence of the plain or from the damming of the Jordan,} by a current of lava; that the showers of fire and brimstone were occasioned by the fall of volcanic ejections, and Mr. Henderson, the celebrated missionary traveller in Iceland, imagines that Lot’s wife, lingering behind her friends, may have been first suffocated, and then incrusted with saline and other volcanic materials. “That the volcanic eruption which destroyed the cities of the Pentapolis was accompanied by the flowing of a stream of lava, may be inferred, (says our author,) from the very words of scripture. Thus when Eliphaz reminds Job of this catastrophe, he makes use of the following expressions, according to Hender- son’s translation of the passage :— Hast thou observed the ancient tract That was trodden by wicked mortals? Who were arrested on a sudden, Whose foundation is a molten flood. Who said to God; depart from us, What can Shaddai do to us? Though he had filled their houses with wealth ; (Far from me be the counsel of the wicked !) The righteous beheld and rejoiced, The innocent laughed them to scom ; Surely their substance was carried away, And their riches devoured by fire. Job xxii. 15—20,”’ “¢'The Phlegrean fields, (in the words of Dr. Clarke,) and all that can present an idea of volcanic destruction, form but a feeble image of the frightful country through which I passed. From the bridge of Jacob to Sassa, the whole ground is com- posed of nothing but lava, basalt, and other volcanic produc- tions; all is black, porous, or carious; it was like travelling in the infernal regions. Besides these productions, which cov- er the country, either in detached masses, or in loose strata, the surface of the ground is entirely covered with loose volca- nic stones, from three to four inches in circumference to a foot in diameter. all equally black, porous, or carious; as if they had just come out of the crater. But it is particularly at * See Nah. i. 5, 6. Mic. i. 3, 4. Isai. xiv. 1, 3. Jer. iv. 25, 26. + He supposes that the Jordan may have formerly flowed into the Mediterra- nean or into the Red Sea. 299 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. the approaches to Sassa, that the traveller meets with groupes of crevices, and volcanic mounds, of so frightful a size, that he is seized with horror, which is increased if he allows his imagin- ation to wander to the period, when these masses were hurled forth with violence from the bowels of the earth. There are evident signs that all this country was formerly filled with volca- nos, for we beheld several small craters in traversing the plain.” Our author is inclined, likewise, to conclude, that the coun- try around the lake of Tiberias is volcanic. It is obvious that these general views concerning the vol- canic features of this country are not inconsistent with the late statements of the American missionaries,* confirmed by spe- cimens, which go to prove that a great deal of Palestine is composed of transition and secondary limestone; for vol- canic eruptions occasionally visit nearly every variety of geo- logical formation, and the currents and ejections cover them and intrude among them wherever they may chance to be driven. Although there are now, no eruptions in Palestine, there are still earthquakes as in ancient times—“ which changed the face of Antioch, Laodicea, Tripoli, Berytus, Tyre and Si- don.” In 1759, there happened one which destroyed twen- ty thousand persons, in the valley of Balbec. For three months the shocks so much terrified the inhabitants of Leb- anon that they abandoned their houses and dwelt under tents. Very recently, and even within three or four years, Antioch has been severely shaken and the lives of many people destroyed. We shall not occupy our readers long with the interior of Asia. There seems to have been, in 1737, a volcano near Scandaroon, and near Smyrna there is a district of country which from its burnt and arid appearance was called xazaz:- xoyuevy. Strabo says, “it is without trees with the excep- tion of the vine; the surface of the ground is cindery and the mountains and rocks are black as if they had been cal- cined.”’ Strabo mentions volcanic appearances in the neigh- borhood of Laodicea. Mr. Brown, the African traveller says: ** My eyes have been very much opened in this journey, to the volcanic nature of certain parts of Asia Minor and its con- fines. At Kélah, near the Hermus, only three days from Smyr- na, may be seen an unquestionable site of volcanic eruption. * See Vol. IX, page 337, and Vol. X, page 21, of this Journal. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 293 It is one of the most recent, though still probably of a very re- mote period. Carabignar is another, but this probably may have been noticed by others. Kélah, I imagine, has not hitherto been observed. I shall have something to say of Afium Karahissar. The neighborhood of Konié, and still more of Kaisarié, is over- spread with fragments of lava, some of it almost in the state of scorie. The quantity of lava in the district of Erzerim is im- mense, and the whole country about Mount Ararat is voicanic. The eruptions in these places seem to be of great antiquity.” Caucasus exhibits rocks containing glassy felspar, and Mount Ararat presents extensive volcanic remains, but al- though there are rumors of eruptions, there is no account that can perhaps be distinctly relied upon. Between the Caspian and the Black Sea, there are volca- nic appearances, pumice, glassy felspar, &c. in this portion of the range of Caucasus. It would seem that the following statement respecting an occurrence in the island of Azof, countenances the idea of volcanic action there. ‘¢The account is, that on the 10th of May in that year, a frightful noise was*heard in the sea, round a distance of two hun- dred toises. Flames rose from the water, accompanied by explo- sions as loud as those of acannon. A thick smoke was blown about by the violence of the wind, and enormous masses of earth were seen thrown up in the air, together with large stones. “¢ Ten eruptions of this kind took place at intervals of a quar- ter of an hour. Similar phenomena continued during the night. There then rose out of the sea an island, which threw out from several apertures a muddy substance, that acquired by degrees some consistency. *‘ During this time, a remarkable smell, which had nothing of a sulphureous nature, was perceived over a space of ten wersts. On the 20th of April, a nearer examination of the island was un- dertaken, and it was found almost inaccessible, being surrounded on all sides with hardened mud. When they had at last succee- ded in reaching the interior of the island, its height above the level of the sea was found to be a toiserand a half, and its surface was seen to be every where covered with a stony material of a whitish color.” “ Tn the chain of Elbur’s which bounds the Caspian Sea on the south, there occurs a lofty mountain called Dervavend, which has long been noted as a voleano:” it exhibits lava and columnar basalt, and sometimes emits smoke; sulphur is found in small craters near its base, and the Persian fables 294 Notice of Actwe and Extinct Volcanos. have buried beneath it Zohag, one of their tyrants, whose struggles agitate this mountain, as those of 'Typhoeus did Etna. From India the accounts of volcanic appearances are few and scanty. The island of Salsette, near Bombay, is basaltic, and a vol- cano emitting smoke, but not flame, is said to have been dis- covered in the Himalaya mountains. In China and Tartary it would appear that there are sev- eral volcanic mountains in a state of activity. The mountain Ho-chan, to the north of Khouei-thsu, is said to throw out stones in a burning and melted state; the lava first flows and then congeals. Sal-ammoniac is obtained from this moun- tam: it forms a part of the snowy chain of the celestial mountains. Sal-Ammoniac, which, when formed by nature, always indicates a voleanic country,is produced in two moun- tains in central Tartary; the one, the volcano of Tourfair, the other, the white mountain ; these two mountains throw out, continually, flames and smoke; these volcanos are one thousand and two hundred miles from the Caspian. They obtain Sal-Ammoniac there which the people collect by en- tering into hot caverns, with wooden shoes, as those of leath- er would be burnt. (See Ferussac’s Bulletin, Vol. 3, 1824.) The number of volcanos and solfaterras, in central Asia, does not appear to be determined. Pallas, in 1770, visited one in the government of Orenberg, near Soulpa, which threw out smoke by day and light flames at night. “The only active volcanos on the Continent of Asia, that ap- pear to be fully ascertained, are those on the Peninsula of Kamt- schatka. “‘ Kraskeninikoff, in his history of that province, translated into French in 1767, makes mention of three; viz. “© 1, Awachinski, north of the bay Awatscha, which had an eruption in 1737, followed by a tremendous earthquake, during which the sea overflowed the land, and afterwards receded so far, as to leave its bed, between the first and second of the Ku- rule Islandss, dry. oh “© 2. Tulbatchinski, situated on a tongue of land between the rivers of Kamtschatka and Tulbatchik. Its first eruption took place in 1739, and caused the country for 50 wersts to be cover- ed with ashes. “3. Kamtschatka Mountain, the loftiest in the country. It was in a state of eruption in 1737, the same year in which the Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 295 mountain Awachinski was in activity. It continued for a week to throw out streams of lava with great vehemence. Since that time it usually ejects ashes and scorie three or four times a year. ‘“¢ Besides the above, there are said to be two which only emit smoke, and two which are extinct. ‘They appear to be all situa- ted about the southern part of the Peninsula. “ From Kamtschatka we may, to all appearance, trace a line of volcanic operations along the chain of the Aleutian Islands to the Peninsula of Alaschkain North America, where indications of the same kind are saidto occur. Among the Aleutian groupe, Langsdorf has described a rock near the Island of Unalaschka, three thousand feet in height, consisting of trachyte, which made its appearance in 1795, and seems to have been thrown up all at once from the bottom of the ocean, and not formed by succes-- sive accumulations of ejected materials.” “The volcanos of Kamschatka are connected again in the south with those of Japan, by means of the Kurule Islands, where no less than nine active volcanos occur according to Krascheni- nikou. “In the islands of Japan ten volcanos have been enumerated, but little is known concerning them.” *¢ Langsdorff particularly mentions a volcano in Satzuma bay, into the crater of which the Christian proselytes were thrown if they would not renounce their faith, during the severe persecu- tion carried on against them in the last century. ‘“¢ From the southern point of Japan, a chain of headlands ig continued along the groupe of Loo Choo to Formosa, and thence to the Philippine Islands. “© Off Loo Choo, Captain Hall discovered an isolated rock, on which was the crater of a volcano reduced apparently to the condition of a solfatara. Its sides were stratified, as were also the rocks on the south side of the Island, which are penetrated with great dykes of a material more durable than the stone they intersect, and therefore standing out toa considerable distance in relief from the face of the rock. “The Island of Formosa -is described by Klaproth in Malt- brun’s voyages, and in the Asiatic Journal for December, 1824. A high chain of mountains, which is covered with snow in No- vember and December, stretches across the country. Abundance of salt and sulphur is met with, and flames are said to rise occa- sionally from the waters of the lakes and from the ground. There is a tradition as to the summit of one of these mountains having become the seat of a volcano. There issaid to be on the top of the mountain, called Pa-lee-fen-shan, a block of iron of the highest antiquity, to which the natives attribute many extra- ordinary qualities. 296 Notice of Actwe and Extinct Volcanos. ‘‘Tucon one of the Philippine Islands, contains three active volcanos, ove of which, Taal, south of Manilla, had an eruption in 1754. ‘The Islands of Fugo, and Magindanao likewise, each con- tain a burning mountain. “¢ We know nothing of the volcanos said to exist in Borneo, but it appears that the Andaman Islands, west of Pegu, and north of Sumatra, contain one in activity, called Barren Island, nearly four thousand reet in height, which frequently emits vast columns of smoke, and red hot stones three or four tons in weight.” In Sumatra the volcano of Priamang, twenty miles inland from Bencoolen, sends forth smoke, and the inhabitants are alarmed when the vents are tranquil, because they then ex- pect earthquakes. In a plain between Bencoolen and Palembang, rises the mountain of Gunong Dempo, twelve thousand feet above the sea, and the highest in the island; it is almost constantly emitting smoke and hot springs, and other volcanic phenome- na are common in the neighborhood. ‘wat Java, in its whole extent, is penetrated by voleanic moun- tains, rising from five to eleven, and even twelve thousand feet. There are thirty-eight mountains in this range, which however differing in form, in other particulars agree in “ hav- ing a broad base, gradually verging towards the summit in the form of a cone.” “¢ They all rise from a plain but little elevated above the level of the sea, and each must, with very few exceptions, be consid- ered asa separate mountain, raised by a cause independent of that which produced the others. Most of these have been form- ed ata very remote period, and are covered, by the vegetation of many ages; but the indications and remains of their former eruptions are numerous. and unequivocal. The craters of seve- ral are completely extinct; those of others contain small aper- tures, which continually discharge sulphureous vapours and smoke. Many of them have had eruptions during late years. Almost all the mountains or volcanos in the large series before noticed, are found on examination to have the same general con- stitution; they are striped vertically by sharp ridges, which, as they approach the foot of the mountain, take a more winding course.” - There are also various ridges of smaller volcanic moun- tains. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 297 Professor Daubeny inspected a collection of the modern lavas of Java, and thought them very similar to those of Ve- suvius; several of them contained leucite, and there were al- so specimens of pitchstone, which, as was stated, formed dykes. Dr. Horsfield relates the following astonishing in- stance of volcanic action :— “ The Papandayang, situated on the south western part of the island, was formerly one of the largest volcanos, but the greater part of it was swallowed up in the earth, after a short but severe combustion in the year 1772. The account which has remained of this event asserts, that near midnight, between the 11th and 12th of August, there was observed about the mountain an un- commonly luminous cloud, by which it appeared to be completely enveloped. ‘The inhabitants, as well about the foot, as onthe declivities of the mountain, alarmed by the appearance, betook themselves to flight; but before they could all save themselves, the mountain, began to give way, and the greatest part of it ac- tually fell a, and disappeared in the earth. At the same time a tremendous noise was heard, resembling the discharge of the heav- iest cannon. Immense quantities of volcanic substances, which were thrown out at the same time and spread in every direction, propagated the effects of the explosion through the space of many miles. “It is estimated, that an extent of ground, of the mountain it- self, and its immediate environs, fifteen miles long and six broad, was by this commotion swallowed up in the bowels of the earth. Several persons, sent to examine the condition of the neighbor- hood, made report, that they found it impossible to approach the mountain, on account of the heat of the substances. which coy- ered its circumference, and which were piled on each other to ‘the height of three feet, although this was the 24th of Septem- ber, and thus full six weeks after the catastrophe. It is also mentioned that forty villages, partly swallowed up by the ground, and partly covered by substances thrown out, were destroyed on this occasion, and that two thousand nine hundred and fifty seven of the inhabitants perished. “The mountain of Galoen-gong, which had never been reck- oned among the volcanos of the island, broke out with terrific vi- olence in 1822. The eruption began by a tremendous explosion of stones and ashes, followed by a stream of lava which covered alarge tract. Four thousand persons were destroyed.” In the centre of the plain, which interrupts the large se- ries of voleanos, there is a mud eruption, a large hemisperi- cal mass of black earth and water, about sixteen feet in diam- Vou. XIII.—No. 2. 13 298 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. eter; after rising to the height of twenty or thirty feet in a perfectly regular manner, as if it were pushed by a force be- neath, it suddenly explodes with a dull noise, and scatters black mud in every direction; this phenomenon is repeated at in- tervals of from two to five seconds, and is attributed to the general causes of volcanic action existing in the island. These explosions are never violent; they are attended by a smell like naptha. The Javanese have a tradition, and their records even assign the date of the events, that Java, Suma- tra, Bali, and Sumbawa, were once united. However this may be, the volcanos of Java and of the Philippine groupe ap- pear almost connected with one another, through the medi- um of those which exist in Sumbawa, Flores, Daumer, Ban- da, and the Moluccas. ‘© That of Tomboro in the Island of Sambawa is perhaps one of the most considerable in the world, according to the descrip- tion given of it by Sir Stamford Raffles. «¢ Almost every one, says this writer, is acquainted with the intermitting convulsions of Etna and Vesuvius, as they appear in the descriptions of the poet, and the authentic accounts of the naturalist, but the most extraordinary of them can bear no comparison, in point of duration and force, with that of Mount Tomboro in the Island of Sambawa. This eruption extended perceptible evidences of its existence, over the whole of the Molucca Islands, over Java, a considerable portion of Celebes, Sumatra, and Borneo, to a circumference of a thousand statute miles from its centre, by tremulous motions and the report of explosions; while, within the range of its more immediate activ- ity, embracing a space of three hundred miles around it, it pro- duced the most astonishing effects, and excited the most alarm- ing apprehensions. In Java, at the distance of three hundred miles, it seemed to be awfully present. The sky was overcast at midday with clouds of ashes, the sun was enveloped in an atmosphere, whose “palpable density” he was unable to pene- trate; a shower of ashes covered the houses, the streets, and the fields, to the depth of several inches, and amid this darkness, ex- plosions were heard at intervals, like the report of artillery, or the noise of distant thunder. “¢ At Sambawa itself three distanct columns of flame appear- ed to burst forth, near the top of the Tomboro mountain, (all of them apparently within the verge of the crater,) and after as- cending separately to a very great height, their tops united in the air in a troubled, confused manner. In a short time, the whole mountain next Sang’ir appeared like a body of liquid fire, extending itself in every direction. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 299 “ The fire and columns of flame continued to rage with unaba- ted fury, until the darkness, caused by the quantity of falling matter, obscured it about eight P. M. Stones at this time fell very thick at Sang’ir, some of them as large as two fists, but gen- erally not larger than walnuts. Between nine and ten P. M. ashes began to fall, and soon after, a violent whirlwind ensued, which blew down nearly every house in the village of Sang’ir, carrying the alaps, or roofs, and light parts away with it. In the port of Sang’ir adjoining Sambawa, its effects were much more violent, tearing up bythe roots the largest trees, and carry- ing them into the air, together with men, horses, cattle, and what- ever else came within its influence. (This will account for the immense number of floating trees seen at sea.) The sea rose nearly twelve feet higher than it had ever been known to do before, and completely spoiled the only small spots of rice land in Sang’ir, sweeping away houses and every thing within its reach. The whirlwind lasted about an hour. No explosions were heard till the whirlwind had ceased, at about eleven A. M.: From midnight till the evening of the 11th, they continued without intermission ; after that time their violence moderated, and they were heard only at intervals, but the explosions did not cease entirely till the 15th of July. Of all the villages round Tomboro, 'Tempo, containing about forty inhabitants, is the only one remaining. In Pekaté no vestige of a house is left: twen- ty-six of the people, who were at Sumbawa at the time, are the whole of the population who have escaped. From the best en- quiries there were certainly not fewer than twelve thousand in- dividuals in Tomboro and Pekaté at the time of the eruption, of whom five or six survive. The trees and herbage of every de- scription, along the whole of the north and west of the penin- sula, have been completely destroyed, with the exception of a high point of land near the spot where the village of Tomboro stood. At Sang’ir it is added the famine occasioned by this event was so extreme, that one of the rajah’s own daughters died of starvation.” “In the Island of Timor, the volcano of the peak served, like that of Stromboli, as a sort of light-house, seen at more than three hundred miles distance. In 1637, this mountain, during a violent eruption dissappeared entirely : a lake at present takes its place. - 'The Island of Daumer is also said to contain a volcano, and Dampier in 1669 saw one burning between Timor and Ceram. ** Goonung-Api,* one of the Banda Islands, contains an active _ * Tt appears from Marsden’s Sumatra that this word signifies in the Malay language volcano. 300 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. volcano, which had an eruption in 1820, and ejected red-hot stones of prodigious size.” Among the Moluccas there are two volcanos in the islands of Tervati and Tidore, and in the island of Machian, a moun- tain was rent from top to bottom, in the year 1646, emitting horrible streams of smoke and flame, and now stands divided into two distinct eminences. In New Guinea, south latitude 5° 33’, Dampier discovered an active volcano. ‘The volcano in the Island of Sang’ir, one of the largest in the world, seems to connect those last mentioned with the burn- ing mountain which I have before described as existing among the Philippines, thus appearing to establish a line of communi- cation between those of Kamschatka and of the Indian Sea.” “In the Great Pacific Ocean, the islands, according to Kotze- bue, may be referred to two classes, distinguished by their eleva- tion into high and low. The latter class appear to be entirely of modern formation, the product of that accumulation of coral reefs, which Flinders and others have described in so interesting a manner. “¢ The high islands on the contrary are chiefly volcanic, though in the Friendly and Marquesa Islands primitive rocks occur, and in Waohoo porphyry and amygdaloid. ‘The Mariana or Ladrone Islands constitute a sort of moun- tain chain, consisting of a line of active volcanos, especially to- wards their north, which is parallel to that of the Phillippine groupe, whereas the islands that lie detached in the middle of the basin, of which these two groups are the boundaries, seem for the most part to be extinguished. “©The Island of Ahrym, in the groupe of the New Hebrides, contains an active volcano, and the same thing is stated by Fors- .ter with regard to that of Tanna. -A volcano is said by Kotze- bue to be burning in Tofua, one of the Friendly Islands.” The island of Owyhee is one of the grandest scenes of vol- canic action in the world; but having given in this Journal, Vol. XI, page 1, a full abstract and analysis of Mr. Ellis’ Missionary ‘Tour, to which we are indebted for a very full and interesting account of this volcanic island, and havin published also, the account of the Rev. Mr. Stewart, Vol. XI, _ page 362, describing his descent with Lord Byron and party into the great crater of Kirauea, we shall abstain from any citations from this part of Prof. Daubeny’s work. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 301 Among active volcanos, we believe that the crater of Ki- tauea is unparalleled for magnitude and depth, and its situa- _ tion in the midst of a vast elevated plain is also peculiar ; we subjoin the following short additional notice of it from a news paper. Hawan. ‘6 Crater of Kirauea.—Jan. 5, 1826, Mr. Bishop, the Mission- ary at Hawaii, visited this volcano. He says, we started early on our way. Before we had travelled far, the sulphureous va- pour, the wind being ahead, became very perceivable, and indi- cated our approach to the volcano. For many miles before we arrived there, the air wasso much charged with this vapour, as to be very offensive, and, at times almost suffocating. We arri- ved at the crater about eleven o’clock, by a path which led around to the southern side, at this time the windward, our ap- proach to the other quarter being deemed unsafe. We found the crater much altered from what it was in the summer of 1823, when I visited itin company with Mr. Ellis, and others. I was greatly surprised to find, that since the visit of Lord Byron and company in June last, the crater had been filled, apparently to the height of more than five hundred feet with fresh lava. The smoke ascended in immense columns from a hundred blazing fur- naces, and compieteiy obscured the sides on the north and east, together with a greater part of the interior of the volcano. As the wind occasionally blew away the smoke, I could discover an immense number of fires, some spouting forth from cones that arose to the height of fifty or one hundred feet above the sur- face of the surrounding crust of lava; and others boiling with the greatest agitation, like vast caldrons of liquid fire, and every now and then sending forth agust of vapour and smoke with great noise, when the view would again be obscured. The natives inform me, that after rising a little higher, the lava will discharge itself as formerly, towards the sea, through some aper- ture under ground.” ‘¢ Other volcanos, (says Prof. Daubeny,) are stated to occur in different parts of that extensive tract, known by modern geogra- phers under the name of Polynesia, as far as to New Caledonia and the New Hebrides. The separate mass of New Zealand, with ‘which Norfolk Island is connected, may be viewed as the south- ern end of the Bulwark; its eastern can hardly be fixed at any nearer point than the coast of America, for I am assured that an active volcano at present exists among the Galapagos, only 10 deg. West of Quito. “‘ Far therefore from believing that volcanos have been instru- mental in the destruction of continents, or that their history 302 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. lends any countenance to the fables respecting the Atlantis, we should rather be led to consider that they were more generally among the means which nature employs for increasing the extent of dry land, and for gradually converting an unprofitable tract of ocean into an abode for the higher classes of animals.” Volcanos of America. West Indian Archipelago.—The West Indian islands are geologically divided into 1. Primitive. 2. Volcanic. 3. Calcareous. 4, Volcanic and calcareous, with organized remains. To the first class belong Trinidad, Cuba, St. Domingo, Portorico, and in part Jamaica, which contains also transi- tion, secondary, and tertiary rocks, and there are rocks sup- posed to be volcanic at Black hill, between Lennox, Low Layton and the sea. ‘Trinidad is in fact an appendage of the South American continent. The most remarkable circumstance in its geology is the celebrated pitch lake, existing in the midst of a clayey soil: it is three miles in circumference, firm in the wet season, but almost fluid in the hottest weather. Probably its origin is connected with volcanic action, especially as there is on the eastern coast a pit which throws up asphaltum with explosions of smoke and flames. A similar vent exists in the sea to the west of the island. ‘¢ Of the second class of islands, which consist exclusively of volcanic rocks, the follwing is a summary, commencing with the most southern. “61. Grenada, an extinct crater filled with water; boiling springs; basalts between St. George and Goave. “9. St. Vincent, an active volcano, called Le Souffrier, the loftiest mountain in the chain which runs through the islands. It first threw out lavas in 1718, but its most tremendous eruption was in 1812, when there issued from the mountain so dreadful a torrent of lava, and such clouds of ashes, as nearly covered the island, and injured the soil ina manner which it has never yet re- covered. The total ruin of the city of Caraccas preceded this explosion by thirty-five days, and violent oscillations of the ground were felt both in the islands, and on the coasts of Terra Firma. “¢ 3. St. Lucia contains a very active Solfatara, from twelve to Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 303 fourteen hundred feet in height. Besides a considerable con- densation of sulphur given out from the crevices, jets of hot wa- ter likewise take place, which fill periodically certain small ba- sins like the Geysers of Iceland. ‘© 4, Martinique can hardly be said to belong to this class, for limestone is seen resting upon the volcanic products. “The latter however constitutes the fundamental rock through- out the whole island, and forms three principal hills called Vau- clin, the paps of Carbet consisting of felspathic lava, which are the most elevated summits in the whole of this series of islands, and montagne Pelée. Between the first and second of these is found in a neck of land a tract composed of ancient basalts, cal- led La Roche Carrée. Hot springs at Précheur and Lameutin. “5. Dominica is completely composed of volcanic matter, but the action is extinct. **6. Gaudeloupe may be divided into two parts, according to its physical structure. “The first, properly called Gaudeloupe, consists entirely of volcanic rocks, and therefore belongs to this division of our.sub- ject ; the second named Grande Terre, is calcareous, consisting of a shelly limestone, covered by a bed of clay, and containing rolled masses of lava. The volcanic part of the island contains fourteen ancient craters, and one in a state of present activity. The eruption of 1797 took place from an elevation of four thou- sand eight hundred feet. Pumice, ashes, and clouds of sulphu- reous vapours were thenejected. ‘The particulars are given in the report made to the French government on the state of the volcano in 1797 by Mons. Amie. ( *©7. Montserrat—-a Solfatara; fine porphyritic lavas, with large crystals of felspar and hornblende, near Galloway, often much decomposed by the sulphureous exhalations. © 8. Nevis—a Solfatara. “9. St. Christopher’s—a Solfatara at mount Misery. 10. St. Eustachia—the crater of an extinguished volcano, sur- rounded by pumice. “The third class comprehends the islands of Margarita, Desi- rade, Curacoa, Bonaire, and in general all the islands of low ele- vation ; they consist entirely of limestone of very recent forma- tion. _ “ The fourth class, partly composed of volcanic products, and partly of shelly limestone, comprises the Islands of Antigua, St. Barthelemi, St. Martins, and St. Thomas. Antigua is remarkable for its siliceous petrifactions. (See Vol. I, page 56, and 140, and Vol. XII, page 378, of this Journal.) 304 Notice of Active and Extinct Volconos. “The process, by which these islands, according to Moreau de Jonnes, are in many instances formed, is sufficiently curious ; first a submarine eruption raises from the bottom of the sea masses of volcanic products, which as they do not rise above the surface of the water, but form a shoal a short way below its surface, serve asa foundation on which the Madreporites and other marine animals can commence their superstructure. Hence those beds of recent coralline limestone, seen covering the volcanic matter in many of the islands.” Some valuable geological information respecting the West India islands may be found in the report of Mr. William Maclure, the ceiebrated American geologist, in the Jour- nal de Physique. Continental America. Californa.—There are three active volcanos in the penin- sula of Californa; Mount St. Elia, seventeen thousand eight hundred and seventy-five feet high, being the highest land in North America. Mount del Buen Tiempo, and volcano de las Virgines. Mezxico.—In this country, in the 24th degree of north lati- tude, commences that great volcanic chain which extends with little interruption to the 2d degree of south latitude. The first active volcano is in the parallel of the city of Mexico itself. “¢ And here almost in the same line occur five, so placed that they appear to be derived from a fissure traversing Mexico from west to east, in a direction perpendicular to that of the great mountain chain, which extending from north-west to south- east, constitutes the great table land of the American Continent. it is interesting to remark, that if the same parallel line, which connects the active volcanos of Mexico, be prolonged ina wes- terly direction, it would traverse the groupe of islands called the Isles of Revillagigedo, which there may be reason to consider volcanic from the pumice found amongst them.” The most eastern is a few miles northwest of Vera Cruz, it is called Tuxtla and had a considerable eruption in 1793, on which occasion, the ashes were carried fifty-seven leagues to Perote. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 305 Further to the west is the volcano of Orizaba, seventeen thousand and three hundred feet high, and the peak of Popo- cateplt seventeen thousand and six hundred feet high, and the most lofty eminence in New Spain; “ the latter is con- tinually burning, but for two or three centuries has thrown nothing from the crater but smoke and ashes.” *¢ On the western side of the. city of Mexico, are the volcanos of Jorullo and Colima. 'The elevation of the latter is estimated at about nine thousand feet. It frequently throws up smoke and ashes, but has not been known to eject lava. ** The volcano of Jorullo, situated between Colima and the town of Mexico, is of much more modern date than the rest, and the great catastrophe which attended its first appearance, is per- haps, (says Humboldt) one of the most extraordinary physical revolutions in the annals of the history of our planet. “6 Geology points out parts of the ocean near the Azores, in the Egean sea, and to the south of Iceland, (?) where, at recent epoques, within the last two thousand years, small volcanic isl- ands have risen above the surface of the water; but it gives us no example of the formation, from the centre of a thousand burn- ing cones, of a mountain of scorie and ashes one thousand six hundred and ninety-five feet in height, comparing it only with the level of the adjoining plains, in the interior of a continent, thirty-six leagues distant from the coast, and more than forty-two leagues from every other active volcano. ‘A vast plain extends from the hills of Aguasarco nearly to the villages of Teipa and Pelatlan, both equally celebrated for their fine plantations of cotton. Between the Picachos del Mor- tero, the Cerros de las Cuevas, and de Cuiche, this plain is only from two thousand four hundred to two thousand six hundred feet above the level of the sea. In the middle of a tract of ground in which porphyry with a greenstone base predominates, basal- tic cones appear, the summits of which are crowned with veg- etation, and form a singular contrast with the aridity of the plain, which has been laid waste by volcanos. cha _“ Till the middle of the last century, fields covered with su- gar-cane and indigo occupied the extent of the ground between the two brooks called Cuitimba and San Pedro. They were bounded by basaltic mountains, the structure of which seems to indicate, that all this country, at a very remote period, had been already several times convulsed by volcanos. These fields, wa- tered by artificial means, belonged to the farm of Don Pedro di Jorullo, and were among the most fertile in the country. Vou. XITI.—No. 2. 14 306 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. ‘In the month of June, 1759, a subterraneous noise was heard. Hollow sounds of the most alarming nature were accompanied by frequent earthquakes, which succeeded each other for from fifty to sixty days, to the great consternation of the inhabitants of the farm. From the beginning of September every thing seemed to announce the complete re-establishment of tranquillity, when in the night of the 28th and 29th, the horrible subterraneous noise recommenced. 'The affrighted Indians fled to the mountains of Aguasarco. / tract of ground from three to four square miles in extent rose up in the shape of a bladder. 'The bounds of this con- vulsion are still distinguishable from the fractured strata. *¢ The Malpays near its edges is only thirty-nine feet above the old level of the plain, called Las Playas de Jorullo ; but the con- vexity of the ground thus thrown up increases progressively to- wards the centre to an elevation of five hundred and twenty-four feet. *‘ Those who witnessed this great catastrophe from the top of _Aguasarco assert, that flames were seen to issue forth for an ex- tent of more than half a square league, that fragments of burn- ing rocks were thrown to prodigious heights, and that through a thick cloud, of ashes, illumined by volcanic fire, the softened surface of the earth was seen to swell up like an agitated sea. The rivers of Cuitimba and San Pedro precipitated themselves into the burning chasms. The decomposition of the water con- tributed to invigorate the flames, which were distinguishable at the city of Pascuaro, though situated on a very extensive table land, four thousand five hundred and ninety-two feet above the plains of Las Playas de Jorullo. Eruptions of mud, and espe- cially of strata of clay, enveloping balls of decomposed basalt in concentrical layers, appear to indicate that subterraneous water had no small share in producing this extraordinary revolution. Thousands of small cones, from six to ten feet in height, called by the natives ovens (hornitos) issued forth from the Malpays. Although, according to the testimony of the Indians, the heat of these volcanic ovens has suffereda great diminution during the last fifteen years, I have seen the thermometer rise to two hun- dred and twelve degrees on being plunged into fissures which exhale an aqueous vapour. Eachsmall cone is a fumarole, from which a thick vapour ascends to the height of from twenty-two to thirty-two feet. In many of them a subterraneous noise is heard, which appears to announce the proximity of a fluid in ebullition. “Inthe midst of the ovens, six large masses, elevated, from three hundred to one thousand six hundred feet each, above the old level of the plains, sprung up from a chasm, of which the di- Fe Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 307 rection is from N. N. E. to S.S. W. This is the phenomenon of the Monte Nuovo of Naples, several times repeated in a range of volcanic hills. "The most elevated ef these enormous masses, which remind us of the Puys in Auvergne, is the great volcano of Jorullo. It iscontinually burning, and has thrown up from its north side an immense quantity of scorified and basaltic lavas, containing fragments of primitive rocks. These great eruptions of the central volcano continued till the month of February, 1760. In the following years they became gradually less fre- uent. “The Indians, frightened at the horrible noises of the new volcano, abandoned at first all the villages situated within seven or eight leagues distance of the Playas de Jorullo. They be- came gradually however accustomed to this terrific spectacle ; and having returned to their cottages, they advanced towards the mountains of Aguasarco and Santa Inés, to admire the streams of fire discharged from an infinity of small volcanic aper- tures of various sizes. The roofs of the houses at Queretaro, at a distance of more than forty-eight leagues, in a straight line from the scene of explosion, were at that time covered with ashes. ** Although the subterraneous fire now appears far from vio- lent, and the Malpays and the great volcano begin to be covered with vegetables, we nevertheless found the ambient air heated to such a degree by the action of the small ovens (hornitos) that the thermometer at a great distance above the ground, and in the shade, rose as high as one hundred and nine degrees of Fah- renheit. This fact proves, that there is no exaggeration in the account of several Indians, who affirm that for many years after the first eruption, the plains of Jorullo, even at a great distance from the ground which had been thrown up, were uninhabitable, from the excessive heat which prevailed in them. “ The traveller is still shewn, near the Cerro de Santa Inés, the rivers of Cuitimba and San Pedro, the limpid waters of which formerly watered the sugar-cane plantations of Don An- dre Pimental. These streams disappeared in the night of the 29th September, 1759; but ata distance of six thousand five hundred feet farther west, in the tract which was the theatre of the convulsions, two rivers are now seen bursting through the ar- gillaceous vault of the Hornitos, which make their appearance as warm springs, raising the thermometer to one hundred and twenty six degress of Fahrenheit. ** The Indians continue to give them the names of San Pedro and Cuitimba, because in several parts of the Malpays, great masses of water are heard to run in a direction from east to west, from the mountains of Santa Inés towards [’ Hacienda de la 308 Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. Presentacion. Near this habitation there isa brook which dis- engages sulphuretted hydrogen. It is more than twenty-three feet in breadth, and is the most abundant hydro-sulphureous wa- ter which I have ever seen.* “¢ The five active volcanos just noticed appear to be connected by a chain of intermediate cones running in a parallel direction, and exhibiting evident indications of a similar origin.” “ Thus Orizaba is connected with Popocatepelt, by the Coffre de Perote, and with Jorullo, by the extinct voleano of Mexico, otherwise called Iztaccihualt;” the substance of which they are composed is trachyte through which the vol- canic, vents act. In Guatimala and Nicaragua between Mexico and the isthmus of Darien, between 10° and 15° of north latitude, twenty-one active volcanos are enumerated ; the direction of the chain is parallel with that of the Cordilleras. South of the isthmus there are three volcanos in Pasto, three in Popayan, and five in Quito. ‘“‘'The connexion of that near the town of Paste with those of the province of Quito, was shewnin a striking manner in 1797. A thick column of smoke had proceeded ever since the month of November, 1796, from the volcano of Pasto; but to the great surprise of the inhabitants of the city of that name, the smoke suddenly disappeared on the 4th of February, 1797. This was precisely the moment, at which, sixty-five leagues farther south, the city of Riobamba, near Tunguragua, was destroyed by a tremendous earthquake. ‘6 Between Quito and Chili only one volcano is known to occur, and this is situated in Peru.” ‘6 Nevertheless the frequent occurrence of earthquakes in the intermediate country renders it probable, that no natural separa- tion exists between the two provinces, but that the same opera- tions are in fact proceeding throughout the whole intermediate tract. “It appears probable, says Humboldt, that the higher part of the kingdom of Quito, and the neighboring Cordilleras, far from * Mr. Poulett Scrope has given a different theory as to the formation of the volcanic mountain and homitos of Jorullo, for which see his Considerations on voleanos or the abstract of it, in our last No. Notice of Active and Extinct Volcanos. 309 Being a groupe of distinct volcanos, constitute a single swollen mass, an immense volcanic wall, stretching from south to north, the crest of which exhibits a surface of more than six hundred square leagues. Cotopaxi, Tunguragua, Antisana, and Pichinca, are placed on this immense vault, and are to be considered rather as the different summits of one and the same volcanic mass, than as distinct mountains. 'The fire findsa vent sometimes from one, sometimes from another of these apertures. The obstructed craters appear to us to be extinguished volcanos; but we may presume, that, since Cotopaxi and Tunguragua have only one or two eruptions in the course of a century, the fire is not less con- tinually active under the town of Quito, under Pichinca, and Im- baburu.” In Chili it is said there are sixteen active volcanos ; their range is nearly parallel to the coast, near the summit of the middle of the Cordilleras ; the lava and ashes which they discharge never extend beyond the Andes. “Only two volcanos are found among the maritime and midland moun- tains; one at the mouth of the river Rapel, which is small and emits only a little smoke at intervals; the other, the great volcano of Villarica distinguishable at the distance of one hun- dred and fifty miles, and said to be connected at its base with the Andes.” “It continues burning without intermission, but its eruptions have seldom been violent. The base is covered with forests, and its sides with alively verdure, but its summit reaches above the line of perpetual snow. “ The most remarkable eruption of the Chilian volcanos was that of Peteroa, on the 3d of December, 1760, when the volca- nic matter opened for itself a new crater, and a mountain in its vicinity experienced a rent of several miles in extent. A large portion of the mountain fell into the Lontue, and having filled its bed, gave rise to a lake in consequence of the accumulation of the water. “ Thus a line of volcanic mountains may be traced at inter- vals from the 5th to the 40th degree of south latitude, running nearly parallel to each other; whilst the intervening spaces ex- hibit, in the frequent earthquakes that occur, phenomena of an analogous kind. ‘“‘'This apparent communication, or at least similarity of con- stitution, subsisting between the several parts of this tract, is 310 Notice of Actwe and Extinct Volcanos. the more remarkable, from the absence of all indications of vol- canic action from the countries situated on the eastern side of the Andes, whether in Buenos Ayres, Brazil, Guyana, the coast of Venezuela, or the United States. “It is true there exist a little to the east of the Andes three small volcanos, situated near the sources of the Caqueta, the Na- po, and the Morona, but these in Humboldt’s opinion, must be attributed to the lateral action of the volcanos of Colombia. ‘There is one remarkable phenomenon belonging to volcanos of the new world, which, though not altogether peculiar to them, is more frequent there than among those of Europe. “It often happens, that instead of ejections of lava proceeding from the volcano during its periods of activity, streams of boil- ing water mixed with mud alone are thrown out. “Tt was once imagined that the mud and water were genuine products of the volcano, derived from some spot in the interior of the mountain, equally deep-seated with that from which the lava itself proceeds; but a fact recorded by Humboldt has done much to dispel this illusion. ‘6Tt seems, that with this mud are often thrown out multitudes of small fish (Pymelodes Cyclopum,) sometimes indeed in num- bers sufficient to taint the air. Now as there is no doubt that these fish proceeded from the mountain itself, we must conclude, that it contains in its interior large lakes suited for the abode of these animals, and therefore in ordinary seasons out of the im- mediate influence of the volcanic action. _ “‘ Admitting the existence of these lakes, it is certainly most natural, to attribute the water thrown out to the bursting of one of them, and the mud to the intermixture of the water with the ashes at the same time ejected.” For the general conclusions of Humboldt, to whom we owe most of our knowledge of American volcanos, we must re- fer to the abstract given by Professor Daubeny from page 345 to 352. The remarks of Prof. Daubeny and others on the causes of earthquakes and volcanos, with some of our own, must, on account of the great length of this article, be postponed to a future, probably the next number. Review of the Principia of Newton. 311 Art. VI.—Review of the Principia of Newton. (Continued from Vol. XII, page 338.) In a review, which has for its objects, some account of the inventions and discoveries of the greatest genius and inven- tor, that has ever appeared on earth, and which aims at truth, by asserting the rights due to an illustrious progenitor, in op- position to plagiaries and pretenders, it would evidently be a dereliction of its purpose, not to exhibit some of the greater and more marvellous productions of our author, however lit- tle they may be understood or appreciated by the readers of the present times. We,have now come to that which has been denominated the most noble problem, (problema nobilissimum,) viz: the 41st of the principia, we may add the epithet of the most universal in the whole theory of motion. It is thus enunci- ated in the translated work of our author. ; “ Supposing a centripetal force of any kind, and granting the quadrature of curvilinear figures, it is required to find as well the trajectories in which bodies will move, as the times. of their motions in the trajectories found.” ai The form of expression here used, viz. the quadrature of curvilinear figures, would not be very intelligible to those not well versed in the history of mathematics, neither would that used in the 39th proposition, where the velocity of a falling body is proved to be as a right line, whose power is as the area of a certain curve; but in modern phraseology, the quadrature of curves is the integral, or fluent of an express- ion, involving only one variable, the function of the abscissa, into its differential, which constitutes the differential of the area ; and by the power the ancient mathematicians meant the square or second power. The analysis of this proposition would be impossible with- out the aid of the physical discoveries previously made in the poneiple, viz. the laws of motion, the composition and reso- ution of motion, the uniform and equable description of areas, and the more profound principles of the 39th and 40th propositions. We are hence led to the precepta or princi- ples of the analysis, which consist in finding the angular space passed over, and the altitude or distance of the body from the centre of force, after any elapsed time. There are 312 Review of the Princya of Newton. given the direction and initial velocity, and by the 39th pro- position the altitude from which a body falling by virtue of the variable centripetal force would acquire the same veloci- ty. This, by the same proposition, will ever be proportion- al to the nascent increment, fluxion, or differential of the curvelinear trajectory, (see page 336 of the last volume of the American Journal,) this nascent increment is an element, on the quantity and direction of which, together with the radius vector depends the paracentric velocity, and the generation of the area. The fluxion of the area and of the time, is therefore to be expressed in terms of those quantities, the in- tegral of which will be the whole area, or time, correspond- ing to any altitude, or vice versa, the time being given the al- titude will be given. If we put the distance of the moving body from the center of force = 2, its distance at the com- : Q : mencement of the motion, = a, and z = a the fluxional for- mula of Newton, for the area corresponding to any elapsed Qa: ——— ———— / 2,/ABFD a2 where ABFD is an area, or as a right line expressive of the velocity as ob- tained in the 39th proposition. In a similar manner, the area generated in a circle, of a radius, equal to the initial ) QxXa?%a: distance, will be expressed by 22? SAPD wei, and that Q Xa, x x7 / ABFD—z?. fluxonial expressions of the quadratures of curves, and there- fore easily integrated. There will result the angular space, or position of the body, and its distance from the center of force, and from this a point in the trajectory, and all its points or loci, may be expressed in terms of the radius vec- tor, and the functions of an arc of a circle, and the curve will be algebraical, when any sector of a circle can be ex- pressed by a finite equation, equal to the sectoreal area, generated by the initial radius vector, otherwise it will be. transcendental. The celebrated Bernouilli, so often mentioned, some twen- ty or thirty years after the publication of the Principia, pro- duced what he called an analytical solution of this great problem, or more properly, he converted Newton’s geometr!- time from the beginning, is of the arc itself” by These are the. Review of the Principia of Newton. 313 eal solution into one which was algebraical ; his formula for the increment, or differential of the arc Z, the measure of h ] ion is Z eee 3 hich the ancular notion 1s 4S eee, wie 6 Vab 2t—x4f 9t—a2c? x?” is precisely the same as that of Newton, if ab —/ ox be substituted for the area ABGE, ac for Q, and a for the radius of the circle measuring the angular motion. But this mathe- matician affects to consider Newton’s solution as incomplete, because he had not applied it to the most important cases of a body acted on by a force varying in the inverse duplicate ratio of the distance. In this, he appears not to have recol- lected, or regarded the copious investigations of the direct problem of centripetal forces in the 2d and 3d sections of the Principia, and of the converse of this particular case in corol. 1, prop. 13, and the more general solutions in proposi- tions 16 and 17. ‘The same author, for the purpose of show-. ing the necessity of his own solution, says, that many other curves besides the equi-angular spiral may be described by a force varying in the inverse triplicate ratio of the distance. This subject has also been fully developed, in a general man- ner, in the 3d corollary of the proposition now under conside- ration, which, on account of its profundity, and most curious results, we would gladly exhibit ; but of this, a review would hardly be possible, on account of the mutiplicity of diagrams and symbols, necessary for its illustration. Though it be simply a corollary, it is susceptible of expansion to volumes, and comprehends an immense portion of the theory of motion: we can do little more than state its substance, and some of its results. If a body be projected perpendicularly to the radius vector, and be acted on by a force varying in the inverse triplicate ratio of its distance from the center of force, the curve in which the body will move, will be determined by taking the angular motion as the sector of a conic section whose center is the center of force, and the distance equal to the distance from that center to the point of intersection of the tan- gent with the axis of the figure. The particular section as- sumed for the construction of the trajectory, will depend on the initial velocity. If this be such as would be acquired by a body falling from an infinite height, and the projection be perpendicular to the radius vector, the differential or fluxion of the trajectory becomes equal to the element of the tan- Vor. XIIL—No. 2. 15 314 Review of the Principia of Newton. gental projection, and the curve is a circle. If the veloci- ty of projection be still the same, but the direction of it be not perpendicular to the radius vector, the differential of the trajectory will have a constant ratio to the element of the mo- tion perpendicular to the radius vector, and consequently the curve will make equal angles with the radius vector. In both cases the trajectory will make equal angles with the radius, and is therefore the equi-angular spiral, for the circle is a curve which every where makes equal angles with the radius. If the velocity of projection be either more or less than that which would be due to an infinite height, the differen- tials of Newton’s expressions become those of hyperbolic or elliptical sectors, and of the distance of the centers of the figures from the points of intersection of the tangent and axis. ‘The former figure will be used when the velocity is less than that in the first cases, and the trajectory will be a spiral constantly approaching the center of force ; but if the velocity be greater than that due to an infinite height, the curve by which the trajectory may be constructed, will be an ellipse, and the trajectory itself a spiral constantly recedng from the center and terminating in an assymptote after an infinite number of revolutions; the degree of its approxima- tion to the assymptote, will depend on the direction and ve- locity of the moving body. When the trajectory becomes the hyperbolie spiral, as under certain conditions it necessa- rily must, this curve having its sub-tangent a constant quan- tity, the centrifugal and centripetal forces will be equal, and therefore no change in the paracentric velocity will arise from. the comparative effect of those causes, and the latter motion will be uniform. This principle may not appear obvious, but may be shown thus: the equation of the hyperbolic spiral is zw=a, where z is the radius vector, and w the angle which it makes with the axis of co-ordinates, whence w is always in- versely as Z, and the centripetal or centrifugal force in cir- 2 cles beg always as =~ where V expresses the velocity in de- scribing similar evanescent areas of circles by substituting 1 1 Rp & V, we get F: py the centrifugal force = to the cen- tripetal; whence no variation of the paracentric velocity in this curve can arise. Or thus, the absolute velocities in a given time, or for a given area, will be inversely as the dis- Review of the Principia of Newton. 315 tance, whence the formula for the centripetal or centrifugal v? 1 force F : -, becomes Re As we have before observed, the various and copious re- sults of our author’s great problem cannot be fully exhibited in our review. ‘They have been spun out by his successors into volumes, and may be found in the writings of Keil, Ber- nouilli, Simpson, Maclaurin, Dawson, Matthew Stewart, and others. The last writer has afforded some very elegant geo- metrical propositions, illustrative of our author’s work, on this and other propositions of the Principia. There is, how- ever, one corollary of too much importance to be passed over, especially as it relates to the subject of the subsequent sec- tion, viz. the motion of the apsides. The apsis of a trajecto- ry, or orbit, is that point where the curve is perpendicular to the radius vector, or where the paracentric motion ceases ; whenever that is the case, the motion in the curve, and that along the perpendicular to the radius vector, which constitutes. the generated element ofthe area, are equal. This determines the apsis of the curve, which, however, in all cases may not obtain, or if it should, it may be only for a determinate num- ber of revolutions, and after that, the body may go off ad in- finitum, or be urged to the center. Our great author, in order to show the motion of the ap- sides in cases most applicable to the motion of the planets, has devoted a whole section of his work to the investigation of this subject, of which we shall endeavor to give some ac- count. When the centripetal force is accurately in the inverse du- plicate ratio of the distance, the revolving body may describe either a circle about its center, an ellipse, or other conic sec- tion about its focus. If the force be as the distance direct- ly, it will describe either a circle, or an ellipse about its cen- ter. These are the only laws of force, by which a body can describe an ellipse accurately, or so that the curve should perpetually return into itself, without any variation of the similar and homologous parts of its orbit, or without any va- riation of the position in space of that distinguished point denominated the apsis. This point under the influence of such forces must be fixed. If now we suppose the force to act by laws differing from these, it is evident that the trajec- tory cannot be a conic section, but some other curve, the ap- sis of which must be a different point from that of a conic 316 Review of the Principia of Newton. section, or it may never come to an apsis. If, for instance, as has been shown in the last problem, the force be as the cubes of the distances inversely, and the velocity of pro- jection be perpendicular to the radius vector, and such as would be due to an infinite height, the revolving body makes always the same angle with the radius vector, and has no tendency to come to an apsis, after any number of revolu- tions however great, but will revolve in an equi-angular spi- ral, or a circle which is a limit to such spirals. On the oth- er hand, if the force vary in a less inverse ratio than the du- plicate, the revolving body will have a tendency to an apsis, or will come sooner to it than if it were accurately in that ratio, and when the force varies so far from that accuracy as to be in the direct ratio of the distance, the moving body. then comes to an apsis by performing half the angular mo- tion it otherwise would in a fixed orbit, and has, in reality, in comparison of this, four apsides. Now if we regard nothing but the mere motion or mutation of the apsides, and the or- bits otherwise to be unchanged ; we may consider that point changed, while the body is moving in an ellipse, and all other circumstances to remain the same. This however cannot take place, unless the orbit itself, or its plane, be changed by a revolution about its center. This compound motion of the orbit and of a body moving in that orbit, would constitute a curve in an immoveable plane; but the curve generated would not be the true curve unless the distances and rela- tive positions of the moveable and immoyeable curves were always the same. This condition being supposed, the forces necessary for the retention of a body in an orbit which is itself moveable, may be investigated, if by its compound motion it describe equal areas in equal times about a fixed point. Newton has used this principle for ascertaining the motion of the apsides in elliptical orbits not much differ- ing from circles. Supposing the motion of the apsides to be produced by this compound motion, viz. the motion of a body moving in an ellipse, and a motion of rotation in a Cir- cle. This latter motion is additional, or subductive of the former, but the areas generated by it, if the rotatory motion be uniform will always be proportional to those in the fixed ellipsis, and with proper degrees of force, the body may re- volve in this manner about a fixed point as a center. But the forces for its retention in the ellipse and circle, act ac- cording to different laws. If Q be the force in either, for Review of the Principia af Newton. 317 1 : . the ellipse we have Q : az, d being the distance ; in the cir- , 1 ie cle we must have Q: rES for, as has been shown in the last sections, a body to preserve an equality of areas at different distances, moving in a circle or equi-angular spiral must have the central force acting on it in that ratio. Hence we conclude, that if a body by a central force de- scribe a curve, it will describe the same curve moveable about the center of forces by compounding with the proper force in the immeveable orbit, another force, which is in the inverse triplicate ratio of the distance. If this force be added, the motion of the curve and that of the body tend the same way. Ifit be substracted, they will be directed to- wards contrary parts. In order to investigate the motion of the orbit, or of the apsides, in virtue of the new or extrinsi-. cal force, Newton assumes a moveable elliptical orbit, and calculates the ratio of the forces necessary for the movement of a body in such an orbit, and the angular motions in the fixed and moveable orbits. The formulas of the forces in terms of the angular motion being obtained, the angu- lar motion of the orbit may be found, and vice versa. This angular motion is that of an ellipse, whose retaining force varies in the inverse duplicate ratio of the distance, to- gether with that of a circle, whose force varies in the inverse triplicate ratio of the distance. The angular motion of other orbits whose forces vary in other ratios, may be deduced from the formula for that of the ellipse, if we suppose those orbits not to vary much in their radu vectores from circles. For circles can be described by forces varying according to any law, and trajectories varying little from them in distance, are little affected by variations of force depending on the dis- tance, compared with the extrinsical force which produces a revolution of the orbits themselves. If now the motion of the body in the curve be similar to that of a body in a move- able ellipsis, the force by which it is retained in its trajectory must be analogous to the force by which a body is retamed in such an ellipse: for it is by analogous forces only, or such as consist of corresponding proportional parts, that similar curves are described. The analogous forces, as ex- pressed by the formula, being compared, it will be seen what part of the force retaining the body in the curve, is in excess, 318 Review of the Principia of Newton. or defect of that which is necessary to retain a body in an immoveable ellipse, and consequently what angular motion in consequentia or antecedentia will be given to the apsides. If there be a force, which is in any given ratio of the dis- tance, and its index be denoted by n—3, and M be to N in the ratio of the angular motion of the body in the moveable, to that in the fixed ellipse, we derive this proportion M: N:: 1: nm, or the angular motion in an ellipse, moveable about the center of force, is to the angular motion in the same el- lipse at rest, as one to the square root of a number, which exceeds by 3 the index of the power, whose ratio the force fol- lows. Therefore, from the force given, the angular motion of the orbit, or apsides will be given, and vice versa, the mo- tion of the apsides being given, the law of the centripetal force may be found. The results, though not accurate by this method, or such as can much improve practical astrono- my, are sufficient for physical purposes, and the verification of the Newtonian system of philosophy, for which they were intended. They are, moreover, curious and instructive, as more principles are employed than perhaps in any other iso- lated problems of our celebrated author. His deductions, however, embrace only the effects produced by forces in the direction of the radius vector, which is a general problem in Physico-Mathematics. The application of this to the lunar orbit will be found to produce not more than one half of the real motion of the moon’s apsis, of which deficiency our au- thor was fully aware, the other part of the motion is the ef- fect of the sun’s force acting perpendicularly to the radius vector ; Mr. Clairaut was the first mathematician who in- stituted a rigid analysis of the moon’s motion. His calcula- tion of the motion of the apsides brought out results very dif- ferent from their true motion. Not suspecting that he had made any material mistake, he began to question the accura- cy of Newton’s laws of gravitation. Similar doubts on this point had also been entertained by Leonard Euler, the greatest mathematician at that time in Europe. Mr. Clairaut, how- ever, revised his calculations and detected a mistake, which, when corrected, brought out the motion of the apsides, from Newton’s principles of gravity and motion, agreeing precise- ly with their real motion, as ascertained by observation, and established the Newtonian Celestial physics on the most im- moveable basis. Euler, also, after very elaborate calcula- tions, confirmed those of Clairaut; his words are, “I have Review of the Principia of Newton. 319 renewed my inquiries on this affair, (the motion of the apo- gee), and after most tedious calculations, I have at length found to my satisfaction, that Mr. Clairaut was in the right, and that this theory is entirely sufficient to explain the motion of the apogee of the moon. As this inquiry is of the great- est importance and difficulty, and as those who have hitherto pretended to have proved this nice agreement of the theory with the truth, have been much deceived : it is to Mr. Clair- aut, that we are obliged for this important discovery, which gives quite a new lustre to the theory of the great Newton, and it is but now that we can expect good astronomical ta- bles of the moon.” The anticipated imprevements in as- tronomy deducible from our author’s philosophy, have been realized to an astonishing extent, principally by the research- es of Kuler, and Laplace. The most minute irregularities in the motions of the moon and other planets, which observa- tions could never detect, are now like truth in the abstract © mathematics, derived directly by calculation, from their phys- ical causes. Newton’s philosophy could have no higher evi- dence of its truth, than the exact coincidence of these mathe- matical results im innumerable complicated actions, with the real motions of the celestial bodies. The practical utility of these great refinements in astronomy, is now well known, and explained in navigation, geography, and other useful ap- plications. To pursue inquiries through the different corollaries of this great problem of the motion of the apsides, would lead us in- to a field of speculations too extensive for our object. It may be proper, however, to state, summarily, a few of the dedue- tions not less curious than important in the theory of orbicu- lar and trajectory motion. 1. The species of the curve which the moving body will describe, depends principally on the law or variation of the central force, except the circle, which may be described by an uniform force of any kind, it having no variation of curva- ture will want no variation of force, with which it is always commensurate. : 2. 'To revolve in an accurately immoveable ellipse, the force being in the focus, its variation must be according to the law of the inverse duplicate ratio of the distance, and if the force be in the centre, it must vary directly as the distance from it. In the first case, the body will come to an apsis in a semi-revolution, or to the same apsis in an entire revolution 320 Review of the Principia of Newton. of 360°. In the latter case, it will come four times to am apsis, in an entire revolution of 360°. | 3. Again, if the force vary as the cubes of the distances in- versely, the trajectory will every where make such angles with the radius vector, as will never come to an apsis. 4. If the force be not such as is necessary for the descrip- tion of an accurate ellipsis, it is evident that the body must. describe some other curve, whose apsides will be in different places from those of an immoveable ellipse. If that force be in a greater inverse ratio than the inverse duplicate ratio of the distance, the trajectory then verges towards such an one as is produced by forces in the inverse triplicate ratio of the distance, which prevents the body from coming to an apsis as soon as it otherwise would, consequently the motion of the apsides is progressive. i 5. If the force vary in a less inverse ratio of the distance than the duplicate, it then verges to the case where it is directly as the distance, and comes to an apsis in moving only 90°, or over half the angle of revolution necessary for a fixed orbit, the motion of the apsides is then regressive. 6. By these laws of force variously compounded, bodies may move so as perpetually to form apsides, or so as to have’ none, or to have a determinate number of them, and then to fly off ad infinitum. Some of these cases it would not be amiss to state. ; 1. When the centripetal force is as any power of the dis- tance directly, or less than the first power thereof inversely, the orbit will always have an higher and lower apsis, beyond which the body cannot ascend or descend. 2. If p, the velocity in the trajectory compared with that of a circle be as p: 1—and n be the index of the power of the force, according to the distance,-then when the centripetal force is as any power of the distance, (whole or broken) betwixt the first and third, the orbit will have two apsides, if p be less than wh > , but otherwise only one ; in which last case n the body, after it has passed its apsis, will continue to recede from the centre in infinitum. 3. When the centripetal force is inversely as any power greater than the third, the orbit can, at most have but one apsis ; but in some cases it will have none at all; it may go off ad infinitum, or it may revolve in a spiral, approaching the. Review of the Principia of Newton. 321 centre, but never coming nearer to it than a certain distance, or to a circle which is the limit of the spiral motion. The philosophical discoveries of Newton, which we have al- ready attempted to review, and the more numerous and pro- found investigations contained in the subsequent portion of the Principia, could not, it is evident, be made or generally demonstrated without a perfect knowledge of that science or art of analysis denominated fluxions, or the differential calcu- lus. This branch of the mathematics is grounded on the rea lations which subsist between the increments of variable quan- * tities considered as evanescent, and the quantities them- selves; but this principle which constitutes the rationale or metaphysique of the science, of itself would afford no advan- tage unless we were able to determine those relations, and it never could be estimated as ascience unless we were in pos- session of general rules, or a general method by which those relations might be calculated in all cases, to which the prin- ’ ciples were applicable, or in the language of our author, “ Methodus que extendit se citra molestum ullum calculum, in terminis surdis @que ac integris procedens.” Fluxional principles had before Newton been used by Farmat, Rober- val, Napier, Barrow, Wallis, Mercator, Gregory, and others, for the solution of particular problems of drawing tangents, but in a partial degree, and limited to such quantities as could be expressed by rational functions and of course affording very simple expressions of the ratios of the nascent incre- ments. No rules or system of rules which extend generally to the solution of all kinds of difficult problems were thought of, or if so, were supposed susceptible of discovery, unless the arithmetic of infinites of Wallis may border on systemization, but the grand discovery, the clue which should lay open all the intricate recesses of the Labyrinth, was yetto be made. It was the development of any function of a binomial, whether radical, fractional, or any how involved, so that the second term of that development, which is the nascent increment, fluxion, or differential of the function, may be correctly calcu- lated. That clue was furnished by Newton by his methods of series interwoven with his fluxional calculus, and this long before any other person had laid claim to this invention ;* he therefore must be considered as the first inventor of a scicnce * Vide Lemma 2d of the 2d book of the Principia, and analysis per equationes terminis infinitis, by Stewart. Vou. XIII.—-—No. 2. 16 322 Dr. Hare on Lightning Rods. which has been the prolific source, or rather instrument of thie greatest discoveries in mathematics and natural philosophy. ‘Thus much appears consistent with our views of asserting the claims of our great author, both physical and mathematical, in opposition to those writers of modern times, who have endea- voured to deprive him of some of the honours of his inventions, especially in the mathematics. Let any one read all his writings on algebra, fluxions, and the geometry of curve lines, and he will hesitate to decide in which he was the greatest, in mathe- matics or philosophy. Mr. Maclaurin was of opinion, that his genius shone most transcendently in optics, though the Principia, on account of the dignity of its subjects, has excited ihe greatest admiration. It is certain, that our author touched no subject, but with that masterly and almost supernatural power, which was peculiar to him. The style of his writings is indicative of his mind, always clear, but concise, and so much so, that one would suppose he was speaking to none but his equals, who were masters of all the principles of which he was possessed. Hence the advantage of comments and elucidations, and in our opinion, of a review of his works, which, however imperfectly executed, would at least lay open the fountain, from which almost all our boasted discoveries in philosophy are derived. Art. VII.—On the causes of the inadequate protection afford- ed by Lightning Rods, m some cases, and the means of in- suring their perfect competency: also, a refutation of the prevalent idea, that Metals are peculiarly attractive of Electricity; by R. Harz, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Unwersity of Pennsylvama. Ix some of our American newspapers, a letier has been republished from the London Times, calculated, as I con- ceive, most perniciously to lessen the confidence of the pub- lic in metallic conductors, as a means of protection against lightning. In common with many other persons, the author of the letter appears to suppose, that metals are peculiarly attractive of electricity ; and infers that, when a metallic rod is attached to a house, or ship, a discharge of electric fluid may be induced from a cloud, which otherwise would not Dr. Hare on Lightning Rods. 323 have been sufficiently near to endanger the premises. Noth- ing in my opinion can be more erroneous than this notion. The truth is, that the earth and the thunder clouds being in op- posite electrical states, the electric fluid tends to pass from one to the other, in order to restore the equilibrium. ‘The atmosphere being a non-conductor, through which a dis-’ charge cannot be accomplished without a forcible displace- ment of air, any solid body rising above the earth’s surface, which may be more capable than the air, of transmitting elec- tricity, is made the medium of communication. Metals being pre-eminently capable of acting as conductors, the transmi- sion of electricity is made through them, with proportionably greater facility. Yet they do not attract it more than other substances, similarly electrified. A glass, or wooden ball, is as readily attracted, by the excited conductor of an electrial machine, as a ball of metal; and as much more, than a me- tallic point, as the superficies of the ball, may be greater than that of the point. . Nothing, to me, appears more unfounded than an idea, lately suggested, that the attraction between a ship, and a thunder cloud, can be increased, by the presence of a point- ed metallic rod surmounting the main-mast. If houses, or vessels, have been struck with lightning, while provided with conductors, it is, in my opinion, owing to the conductors being improperly constructed; or having no adequate connexion with the earth. The power of any body to receive an electric discharge, is dependant on the conducting power of the medium in which it terminates, no less than upon its own. A metallic rod, held by a glass han- dle, or entering a mass of pounded glass, or dry sand, would not be more efficacious, as a conductor, than a glass rod similarly situated. If terminated by an imperfect conductor, as for instance by earth or water, its power is reduced in pro-. portion to the imperfection of the medium thus bounding it. This influence of the media, in which conductors terminate, has not been sufficiently insisted upon in- treatises on electri- city. I should not consider a metallic rod, terminating, with- out any enlargement of surface, in the water or the earth, as an adequate protection against lightning ; but were such con- ductors to terminate in metallic sheets, buried in the earth or immersed in the sea, or by a connexion duly made with the iron pipes, with which our city is watered, or the copper with which ships are generally sheathed, | should have the most perfect confidence in their competency. 324 Dr. Hare on Lightning Rods. It isnot only important that the points of contact, between the metallic mass, employed to afford lightning an adequate passage, and.the earth or water, in which it terminates, should be so multiplied as to compensate for the inferior conducting power of the earth or water; but it is also necessary that the conducting rod be as continuous as possible. When con- ductors are to be stationary, as when applied to buildings, they should consist of pieces screwed together, or preferably, joined by solder, as well as by screwing. Where flexibility is requisite, the joints should be neatly made, like those of the irons in fall top carriages; and should be rivetted so as to ensure a close contact at the junctures. In all cases, the ordinary, but important precaution of having the rod to terminate above, in a fine clean point, should be attended to. Where platina tips cannot be had, multiplying the points by splitting the rod into a ramification of pomted wires, may compensate for the diminution of con- ducting power, arising from rust. The efficacy of the point or points, is, however, dependant on the continuity of the conductor of which I have already spoken: since it is well known, that if a pointed rod be cut — into parts, so as to produce intervals, bounded by blunt ter- minations, its efficacy will not be much greater than if it had no point ; because the fluid will, in that case, pass in sparks, instead of being transmitted in a current. It is on this account that I object to chains, or rods jomed by loops or hooks and eyes. The error of supposing that a metallic rod must be more capable of attracting electricity injuriously, because of its known wonderful power in transmitting it, will be evident, when it is understood that the only difference between metals and other bodies, arises from the superier power of transmis- sion. Hence, when by a defective communication with the earth or sea, the efficacy of the metal, as a conductor, is-di- minished, or destroyed, its influence over a charged cloud is proportionably lessened. It follows, therefore, that so far as it acts, Its action must be beneficial, unless its lower termina- tion should, by an inconceivable degree of ignorance or in- attention, be so situated, as to render it more easy for the electrical fluid to leave the rod, and pass through a portion. of the house or vessel, than to proceed, by means of the rod, into the earth or sea. Thus, Richman was killed by a conductor which he em- ployed to receive electricity from the clouds, and to convey Dr. Hare on Lightning Rods. 325 it to an electrometer, necessarily insulated: under these cir-. cumstances, the head of the pofessor being about a foot from the conductor, he became a part of the channel of commu- nication with the earth. Had the apparatus been surround- ed by a cage of wire, and this duly connected with a me- tallic rod, soldered to a sheet of metal buried in the earth, Richman might have made his observations with perfect secu- rity. That, with due precaution, experiments, analogous to his, are not productive of injury to the operator, is rendered evident by the subjoined quotation from Singer’s Electricity. I must premise, that the apparatus, by means of which the phenomena alluded to were produced, consisted of a wire a mile long, supported and insulated, upon very high poles, and terminating in the-house of the electrician, Andrew Crosse, Esq. . “The approach of a charged cloud, produces sometimes positive, and at others negative signs, at first: but, whatever be the original character, the effect gradually increases to a certain extent, then decreases, and disappears, and is follow- ed by the appearance of the opposite signs, which gradually extend beyond the former maximum, then decrease, termin- ate, and are again followed by the original electricity. These alternations are sometimes numerous, and are more or less rapid on different occasions, they usually increase in intensity at each repetition, and at last a full dense stream of sparks, issues from the atmospherical conductor to the receiving ball,* stopping at. intervals, but returning with redoubled force. In this state a strong current of air proceeds from the wire and its connected apparatus ; and none but a spec- tator can conceive the awful, though sublime, effect, of such phenomena. . At every flash of lightning, an explosive stream, accompanied by a peculiar noise, passes between the balls of the apparatus, and enlightens, most brilliantly, every sur- rounding object, whilst these effects are heightened by the successive peals of thunder, and by the consciousness of so near an approach to its cause.” “ During the display of electric power, so awful to an ordi- nary observer, the electrician sits quietly in front of the ap- paratus, conducts the lightning in any required direction, and employs it to fuse wires, decompose fluids, or fire inflam- ‘ ‘ae is, a ball communicating with the earth, by an adequate metallic con- ductor, 326 Remarks on the Use of Piperine. mable substances ; and when the effects are too powerful, to attend to such experiments securely, he connects the insula- ted wire with the ground, and transmits the accumulated electricity with silence, and with safety.” Art. VIII.— Remarks on the use of Piperine, with the for- mula for its manufacture, together with observations and expermments on the Piper Nigrum and is preparations ; by Grorce W. Carpenter, of Philadelphia. Since the discovery of quinine and cinchonine, by the celebrated chemists Pelletier and Caventon, vegetable che- mistry, previously almost unknown as a science, has made rapid advancement ; and the still further successful experi- ments and discoveries since made upon vegetable matter, have not only swelled the catalogue of highly important and useful materials, but have given an additional stimulus for the undertaking, and created an ardent zeal for investigation in those already engaged in researches, as well as opened a field of encouragement, in which numberless votaries have appeared. By these means, this department of science, hav- ing emerged from a stage of neglect and obscurity, has risen with unparalleled rapidity, even within the space of a few years, to its present exalted position ; and the numerous ad- vantages and useful discoveries, resulting from its rapidly improving condition, have caused it to rank as one of the most important branches of chemical science. Every vegetable substance in the materia medica, which has yet been subjected to chemical analysis, has produced an elementary or alkaline principle, upon which the virtues and activity of the medicine entirely depend. An instance is found, even in opium, which, acting in a double capacity, both as a stimulant and sedative, has afforded two principies, corresponding with the operations of the crude material : one is stimulating, the other sedative. When administered in combination, acting like the crude substance ; when sepa- rate, individually exercising the sedative or stimulating ef- fects, as one or the other may be employed. ‘These isolated substances possess many and great advantages over the. crude materials. The activity of those particular effects, which are desired from the administration of the medicine, Remarks on the Use of Piperine. 327 being concentrated, and consequently greatly increased by the separation of the mert and injurious portions, obviates almost entirely the difficulty of exhibition, as well as facili- tates a more speedy and certain action on the constitution. It is well known that many substances, in their crude state, in consequence of bulk and insolubility, cannot be ad- ministered in many stages of debility in sufficient quantity to produce the desired effect. In such instances, the alkali is well adapted to form a substitute ; for being separated from the more gross, ligneous, and inert portions, it requires a comparatively small dose, and constitutes a valuable remedy in cases where the former would be rejected. Another, and no less important advantage in favour of the alkaline princi- ples is, the uniform persistency of their strength. No one will for a moment question the many inconveniences and evils, resulting from the great uncertainty of effects and dif- ference of activity, in most of the crude materials ; and some of the most important are subject to these defects. Peruvian bark, for example, is composed of twenty-five species, and each one differing in strength. Bark, even of the same spe- cies, from a difference in adventitious circumstances,* to which it is always exposed, (although its external characters are sometimes scarcely affected, its quality is always injured) is scarcely ever found alike. Ihave met with bark in the preparation of quinine of the same species and of the same importation, differing twenty-five per cent. in the product of the active alkalies. The physician, therefore, would have been deceived in the strength and consequent effect of this bark, while the quinine is universally the same. For exam- ple, the quinine, produced by the inferior bark, although much less in quantity, was fully equal in quality. If the practitioner, therefore, may be so much deceived by the dif- ference of strength of the same species, how much more would he be disappointed by those which produced but one- eighth or one twelfth the quantity—and some yield even but a trace of the principles upon which their febrifuge proper- ties exclusively depend. _ The preceding observations in support of concentrated medicines, are made in consequence of there existing, even at this period of time, some few who disapprove of vegetable alkalies, and reject their use on all occasions, by giving pre- * See Carpenter on Cinchona, in vol. IX, of this Journal. 328 Remarks on the Use of Piperine. ference to the crude material. If their conclusions were drawn from experiment they would most certainly be entitled to credit and respect; but where a determination is made against admitted facts, without advancing new grounds drawn from argument or reason, and where new discoveries are denounced without even a single experiment or authori- ty of any kind, I am sorry to say that such a course can be attributed only to prejudice, and should accordingly be so appreciated. There is another class of opposers, governed by envy: this is a worse spécies than the former: they are, however, of little importance as to influence. It has ever been a griev- ous circumstance, that, in almost every department of sci- ence, criticism is so easy a task, that the least informed and most unintelligent will make bold opposition against the most useful and important researches, and sometimes from no other cause than that they themselves were not the authors. Their efforts are, however, overbalanced by the happy conse- quence, that sentiment and expression do not, in the least, alter or modify the condition of matter; and follies of this nature, therefore, so far from effecting an injury or causing the least impediment to the march of science, merely offer an exposition of error, either to be dispersed by truth, or cor- rected by the light of science. . The object of the present communication is, to describe a new principle recently discovered in black pepper, which has been denominated piperie, and which is proved, from care- ful experiments, to be a successful remedy in intermittent fe- vers, and has been employed with advantage in typhus fever and periodical headache ; and from the respectability of the authorities given in its support, bids fair to become an impor- tant addition to the materia medica. It may be given in doses of from one to four grains. It has been employed in doses of one grain every hour, in several cases of intermittent fever, with as much success as the quinine. It is found to be a valuable adjunct to that substance, equal parts acting with more energy and success than the whole quantity of quinine. Black pepper, in its crude state, has long been known as a valuable medicine, and is stated to be an excellent adjunct to bark, in intermittents, and the author* observes that Mr. * Rennie’s Supplement to the Pharmacopzias of London, Edinburgh, Dublin, and Paris. ‘ Remarks on the Use of Piperine. 329 Brande must certainly be mistaken when he says, it acts only as a warm condiment, agreeable to the stomach.* It is mentioned sn Dr. Coxe’s valuable dispensatory, under the article piper, that Dr. Frank, physician to her Majesty, Marig Louisa, recommends the black pepper in different spe- cies of intermittent fevers. This had previously been used in the east, with success, after every known means had been mmeffectually tried. The dose is five to ten grains, twice a day; and Dr. Ghigini re- ports ten cases cured by it. Dr. Frank mentions seventy patients, who came under his notice between April and June, of whom fifty-two had tertian, ten quotidian, and eight the quartan fever. Fifty-four were completely cured within a week or so, without any subsequent relapse. He dips the seed of black pepper into a mucilage of gum arabic, and sub- sequently into powdered colombo, to disguise it, and gives from five to eight pills twice a day. None of his patients.re-_ quired more than from seventy to eighty pills for a complete cure. Dr. Frank recommends to the profession to try the ex- - tract of black pepper, in intermittent fevers. This prepara- tion was tried on nine individuals, affected with intermittent fevers of different types, in doses of four, eight, ten, or twelve grains, dissolved in water in some cases, and given in the form of pills in others, by Dr. Clock, of Trent ; and the effects surpassed his warmest expectations. From these experiments it is concluded, that the extract of pepper is not only one of the best succedaneums for the bark, but that it is even preferable to it, on several accounts.: First. It never produces disturbance in the stomach or bowels. Second. It never fails in producing a cure. Tlurd. 'Those who were cured did not in any one instance experience a relapse. | Fourth. It produces a regular alvine discharge, as well as. the excretion of urine and sweat. Fifth. None of those who were cured, experienced that sensation of languor, so common to a state of convalescence. The following cases, treated with piperine, are given by Dr. J. Gordoni, physician, to the hospitals of Livourne :} * It may be observed, with deference to Mr. Brande’s opinion, that there never has been a medicine yet discovered, respecting whose qualities, some di- versity of opinion has not existed, and every medicine, however valuable, has met with some opposition. { Bulletin des Sciences Medicales, Avril, 1826. uN - Vor. XITI.—Noe. 2. $30 Remarks on the Use of Piperie. Cleonice, of Paoli, entered the hospital in the month of March, 1824, to be treated of an incipient phthisis, im com- bination with amenorrhea, a treatment lightly depleting for several months produced sensible advantages ; and although the disease could not be called perfectly cured, a strong indi- cation of a speedy recovery was apparent, for the crachats presented a better appearance, the cough was diminished, and the plethoric habit, accompanied with a kind of melan- choly, had disappeared ; when, towards the end of Septem- ber, of the same year, she was attacked with a violent inter- mittent fever, having the type of a double tertian. This dis- ease was treated without success, by the skillful Dr. Guidotti, both by quinine in substance, and the sulphate of quinine in pilis. On the 16th of October, having succeeded Dr. Gui- dotti in the hospitals, I found the patient much dejected and disgusted with the insufficiency of the means employed. Supposing the failure of the quinine depended upon some neglect in its administration, or that the pills were perhaps difficult of solution, I prescribed three doses of the same sub- stance, in powder, to be taken daily. Two days after this treatment the fever stopped short, and the patient recovered a repose, which she had lost for a month. ‘The remedy was continued for six days, which prevented a relapse, which had always been dissipated by the same remedy ; but every time the use of it was suspended, the fever invariably returned. As there were not sufficient symptoms to consider it of an inflam- matory nature, I determined, on the 2nd of November, to substitute for the sulphate of quinine, eight grains of piperine, to be taken in three doses, as the sulphate, and with the same precautions. ‘The fever ceased the first day, and never re- turned. The piperine was continued several days after, and I assured myself of the certainty of-the cure, having attended the patient from her first disease until the end of December. Second. A man aged thirty years, at Castiglione, on the sea shore, in the beginning of December, was seized with a tertian fever, which obliged him to enter the hospital of St. Antoine, of Livourne. Dr. Nicholas Orisini, being assured that the patient had never before been afflicted with a like fe- ver, nor ever made use of the quinine, thought proper, as a good opportunity, to employ in this case the piperine, to as- sure himself of its efficacy. With this view, he let the fever run out one of its intermissions, without employing any re- medy, in order to be better acquainted with the nature of the Remarks on the Use of Piperine. 331 alisease. He then ordered a scruple of piperine, divided into six pills, to be taken in three doses, the last of these doses to be given two hours before the fever, and the two others at intervals of two hours preceding. After the administration of this remedy the paroxysm did not appear; the patient, who believed himself cured, wished to leave the hospital, notwith- standing the remonstrances of the physician, who assured him he could not calculate yet upon an entire cure. ‘The pa- tient soon repented not having taken counsel, for on his way to the shore, he had a fresh attack of the fever, and was obli- ged to return to the hospital. He again made use of the pi- perine, and having continued it for several days, he went out perfectly cured. Third. Joseph Torsi, aged twenty-six years, entered the hospital of St. Antome, the evening of the sixth of Septem- ber, 1824; had been attacked six days before, with a true quotidian fever, and it was the first he had ever experienced. ‘On the morning of the 17th, sixteen grains of piperine were ordered to be divided into eight pills, of which, four should be taken every two hours before the fit: but before the last dose was taken, the fever returned in spite of these means. The piperine was then carried to eighteen grains, to be taken in the same manner—when the fever disappeared : and the use of the remedy being contmued for several days, preserved the patient entirely from all symptoms of recidivation. Dr. Orisini, who directed the treatment, was fully convinced of the perfect recovery and cure of the patient, who, having en- tered the hospital three months after, to be treated for peri- pneumonia, assured him that he had had no accession of fever since he left the hospital. aay _ From these observations, and many others, Mr. Gordoni draws the following conclusions :— 1. That the piperine will cure intermittent fevers, in the dose of eight or even six grains. 2. That it will cure fevers which have resisted the sulphate of quinine. _ Finally: That it will prevent a relapse of fever better than that substance. ___M. Meli* has also successfully employed the piperine, and considers it more certain, as a remedy in intermittents, than the sulphate of quinine. — * Ainslie’s Materia Indica, vol. 2. page 622. 332 Remarks on the Use of Piperine. For the following interesting communication on the use of piperine, I am indebted to Dr. J. 8. Rose, of Philadelphia, who was the first to employ it in this city. I have employed the piperine, prepared by Mr. Carpenter, in twenty cases of intermittent fevers, and am decidedly of the opinion that it will be found by all who may be disposed to try its virtues, a more certain and efficient remedy than any preparation of bark heretofore used. I have also used it in two cases of low nervous fever or typhus. I was induced to employ it in these cases by ob- serving, that in intermittents it did not prevent (in the first in- termissions) all the stages of the paroxysm; at the time the patient expected his chill he found a gentle diaphoresis, which continued to increase for two, three, and in some cases, for four hours ; on the next day, however, (of the expected re- turn) there was nothing like diaphoresis or fever ; the patient passed this period without the least mconvenience, and re- mained exempt from a relapse, which is not always the case after the use of quinine. These facts led me to believe, that in typhus, when we wish a stimulating diaphoretic, nothing is better adapted, not even volatile alkali, which I have proved satisfactory to myself. In this form of febrile action, when the animal powers are about to yield to the influence of disease, and the patient falls a victim to the timidity of the practitioner, | have boldly withheld all other remedies, and administered the piperine in doses of two grains every two hours, until eight grains had been taken ; in one of these cases, the low, muttering delirium now began to subside, the skin be- came moist, and the patient, sensible of his improvement, pro- nounced himself better. On the following day, the same doses were administered and repeated, for three, four, or five days, when I found no fever ; the strength increased, and the patient, with an inclination for food, was certainly convalescent. These two were the only cases of typhus I have treated since I be- came acquainted with this valuable remedy. But these alone would incline me to say, with one of our professors, “ as well might we deny the power of bark in intermittents, or mercury in syphilis,” as piperine in the cases alluded to. Yet I am not prepared to adopt his language fully and call it a Panacea. . . J. S. RB. I subjoin the following important results from the use of piperine, by Dr. J. C. Rousseau, of Philadelphia, whose ex- Remarks on the Use of Piperine. 333 perience with the articles of our materia medica, entitles his observations to the highest confidence and estimation. Dear Sir, In compliance with your request to state my opinion upon. the efficacy of the piperine in the cure of intermittent fever, I can testify, that although I have been able to administer this new article of our materia medica in few cases, it is satisfac- tory to inform you, that it has been successful in every one. The paroxysms left the patients on the first, and never later than the second day. Some few remarks may with propriety be added to this succinct account, which may become instructive, and incul- cate the necessity of caution in prescribing it in too large doses ; the following case will illustrate this position :— A young girl, about 12 years of age, having had a return of an intermitting fever, that had been stopped by the sulphate of quinine, was directed to take one grain of the piperine, ‘made into a pill, with conserve of roses. She was a short time after seized with a vomiting, which was repeated to the number of seven times in the space of two hours. It then began to promote alvine evacuations to the extent of twelve. or fifteen times. The fever did not return, and she was di- rected to continue one grain of the medicine night and morn- ing. It invariably produced alvine discharges in an unusual quantity. In another case, a subject of about forty: it produced a. radical cure in the dose of three grains, taken every twenty- four hours, and continued for some days after; and it is so much the more remarkable, as this patient had taken the sul- phate of quinine for some days, in the quantity of thirty grains in every twenty-four hours, as he informed me, remarking at the same time, that during the use of it, he was under a most violent and painful state of excitement. Ican state with confidence, that this preparation of the black pepper, may be as useful and beneficial, as the like preparation of the Peruvian Bark, and J entertain no doubt of the probability of obtaining similar products, from all the other peppers, having been for many years, in the habit of ad- ministering the black and red peppers, with decided success, in the cure of intermittent fevers. Yours, d&c. J. C. Rousseau, M. D. Geo. W. C. ! 334 Remarks on the Use of Piperine. T have just received the following valuable illustration of the effect of piperine, from my friend Dr. J. R. Black, of Philadelphia, which is an additional strong testimony of the success of this medicine, in the cure of intermittent fevers. Mr. 8. aged about forty years, during the first part of last month, applied to me, with a severe quotidian fever, attended with rejections from the stomach, and with violent pain, and great determination of blood to the head, during the hot stage, with cold feet and slight delirium. The case was treated with the lancet, emetics and purges, which on the third day changed its type to the tertian. On the day of intermission, sul. quinine was administered, which was often rejected, while it always increased the patient’s nau- seau and head ache. Piperine was substituted in doses of one grain every hour, to the number of tenaday. The par- oxysms immediately ceased, and the patient was in a few days discharged, radically cured. © A Al 5 Numerous other cases might be quoted in which this medi- cine has been employed, with the like happy results; but 1 think sufficient has been advanced, to satisfy the most scepti- cal, of its active properties. Alcohol and sulphuric zther are the best menstrua, for the active properties of the pepper, which very soon impart its acrimony to these fluids. Mr. Brande gives aicohol and wa- ter; Iam surprised that Mr. Brande should have omitted gether, since it is the most powerful solvent, and particularly that he should quote water, since it requires five hundred and fifty pints to extract the sapidity of one ib. of pepper. Water — appears to be the best solvent for the coloring matter, for after pepper has been exhausted of its acrimony, by ether and al- cohol, water will make a dark solution, which on evaporation, produces an extract exhibiting hitle of the pungency of pepper. The piperine, employed in the above cases, I prepared ac- cording to. the following formula. Digest one pound of coarsely powdered black pepper, in one gallon of alcohol, for ten days, distil off one half of the alcohol in a water bath, add by degrees, diluted murtatic acid, to hold in solution the piperine, then add water sufficient to precipitate the resin, and separate the oil, a muriate of pipe- rine remains in solution, concentrate this solution by evapora- tion, and add pure potass to decompose it, and neutralise the acid, when the piperine, in consequence of the diluted state of ey P Remarks on the Use of Piperine. 335 the alcohol, and the absence of the muriatic acid, will be de- posited in yellowish transparent crystals. The crystals may be obtained perfectly colorless, by observing great care m sep- arating the oil and resin, but as there is no disadvantage in the color, the additional trouble and expense would not be compensated. The piperine, in a colorless state, is insipid and inodorous; but united with as much resin as enters into its crystallization, its taste is extremely powerful, possessing in an intense degree, all the heat and acrimony of the pepper, with considerable of its odour, and I think is a more active preparation than the former, it was in this form exhibited in the treatment of the cases above described. Ihave obtamed larger crystals, by employing sulphuric zther as a menstruum, instead of alcohol. The crystals of piperine are transparent, of a straw color, and assume the tetrahedral prismatic form, with oblique sum- mits ; I have obtained them larger than the ordinary crystals of sulphat of magnesia. Lixtract of Black Pepper. - Digest eight ounces of black pepper coarsely ground, in four pints of diluted alcohol, for four days, occasionally sub- mitting it to a temperature near ebullition in a water bath, filter and evaporate to the consistence of an extract. This is found also to be an active remedy in intermittent, in doses of two or three grains. Ina soft state it has proved very convenient to give consistency to peperine or quinine for the formation of pills, while at the same time it increases their activity, particularly the latter; it is certainly preferable to conserve of roses, or gum arabic, which enlarge the pill without increasing the effect. The extract of pepper in every formula I have seen, is direc- ted to be prepared with water. This forms a much less ac- tive preparation and possesses several inconveniences, to which the above is not subject. I have employed the white and black peppers in the above preparations, and although it is stated that the white pepper is milder than the black, I have found it to yield more pipe- rine and an extract of much more acrimony and activity, and to contain much less coloring matter. The constituent principles of pepper, are peperine, oil, resin, extract, coloring and fecular matters. The -above preparations, may be procured from Charles Marshall, Druggist, 221 Market-street, Philadelphia. 336 On the Low Country of North Carolina. Ant. [X.—On the Character and Origin of the Low Country of North Carolina; by Exisna Mircuett, Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Geology, in the Unwersity of North Carolina. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir—I was a good deal surprised on looking over the Jast number of the Amer. Journal, to find an intimate agree- ment betwixt the conjectures of the author of a recent work on volcanos, (with an abstract of which you have favored us) and some conclusions which seemed to be forcing themselves upon me whilst engaged in examining the low country of North Carolina. I beg leave to quote the following passage from his letter to yourself :— « May I take the liberty of hinting a few observations con- nected with this subject, to which if the attention of some of your numerous geological friends and correspondents were directed, it must, I conceive, elicit some very important in- formation. The volcanic force seems to have developed it- self very rarely, if at all under its most usual form, on the eastern side of the great longitudinal axis of America, wheth- er north or south. But this fact would lead to the supposi- tion, that the general subterraneous force of expansion must have exerted itself the more conspicuously, in this direction under its other mode, viz. the elevation en masse, of solid strata. Is not this view corroborated by observations? Does not the ocean seem to retreat more rapidly than can be ex- plained by the accumulative action of the Gulf Stream on its shores ?” My views were, in part, exhibited in a communication made to our board of Agriculture, in January last, but as there is a call for information respecting the appearances presented by the Atlantic coast of the United States, | may be excused for entering into the subject somewhat more in detail, than could with propriety be done at that time. As there appears to be, even amongst geologists, some degree of mistake and misapprehension about the constitution of what is commonly denominated the alluvial district of our country, at least of that part of it which lies within the limits of this State, I have thought it necessary to state a few facts respecting it, such as must have direct and positive influence upon our On the Low Country of North Carolina. 337 opinions, in regard to the time and mode of its formation. ‘The remarks which follow, are thrown into the form of preofs and illustrations of a few propositions; chiefly for the sake of perspicuity, and convenience to myself, and not because I suppose the truth of these propositions to be fully established, and placed beyond the reach of controversy. Most of cur conclusions, in the science of geology, are founded on proba- ble arguments of greater or less force. It is proper for me to remark, that by the expression “low country,” I mean es- pecially the low country of North Carelina, to which my ob- servations have been confined. Of the composition and constitution of the low country. 1. The low country of North Carolina is made up of strata of clay and sand, alternating with and resting upon.each oth- er, so as to present an endless variety in regard to the extent, thickness, composition, and order of succession, of the differ- ent beds. Itis possible that a more extended and careful examination will detect an unsuspected degree of order and regularity in the midst of the chaos that first presents itself to the observer. At present, individual strata appear to be of limited extent, and of very variable composition and thick- ness, so that the sides of two wells, sunk at a short distance from each other, present but few points of resemblance. In general the clay predominates. In many places it is very fine, and free from any admixture of sand; so fine that the streams which flow pretty rapidly over it make little or no impression upon it; and a person viewing them at a distance, would suppose their beds to be a mass of solid rock. There is a remarkable instance of this kind in the upper part of Bladen county. Pieces of clay that have been broken off, remain unchanged apparently for years. They look like masses of stone, and we are surprised to find on taking them up, that they can be cut with the greatest ease. Even in the deepest of the sand hills, a considerable admixture of clay is found in digging a short distance. _It is carried down by the rains, and jeaving the sand by itself upon the surface, makes the country appear more sandy and sterile than it really is. Waiter worn pebbles, (quartz exclusively,) from four or five mches in diameter down to the size of common grains of sand are abundant along the upper border of this district ; they diminish in size as we recede from the border, and final- Vou. XITL.—No. 2. 18 338 On the Low Country of North Carolina. ly, as I believe, disappear altogether in the neighborhood of the ocean; though they may be found in some situations. The claycontains masses of iron pyrites, imbedded in it, which are converted into copperas by exposure to the air. There are also quantities of bog iron ore—the kidney shaped masses of ochre, mentioned by Maclure, lignite and wood, of which the original particles have been replaced by silex. These, along with the limestone marl and shells, constitute the mine- rals of the district. . 2. The upper border of the alluvial is very irregular. Mac- lure draws the line of separation between it and the upper country, “a little to the westward of Halifax, Smithfield, Averysborough, and Parkersford, on Pedee river, in North Carolina ;” and for communicating a general idea of the boun- daries of this formation, it is probable that a better designa- tion of them could not be given. It is, nevertheless, certain, that many thousands of acres of sand lie on the north west- ern, and that there are a great many fixed rocks on the southeastern side of this lme. The latter occur in the bed of the Neuse, more than twenty miles southeast of Smithfield. It would appear that the sand once covered the whole coun- try much higher up than it does now, but that it has been re- moved in the neighborhood of the streams, so that we have a broad zone extending quite across the state, exhibiting sand, clay, and water worn pebbles, upon the high grounds, com- pletely covering up the rock formations; whilst m the neigh- borhood: of the streams, there is a soil formed from rocks that have undergone decomposition in their original beds. The width of this zone is from twenty to forty or fifty miles. It is important to remark, that the hills covered by the sand and pebbles of the alluvial, frequently attain an elevation of three or four hundred, and I think some of them are five or six hundred feet, above the level of the sea. There are whole counties whose surface must be two hundred feet above the same level. The pebbles, found at the greatest heights, are of the size commonly used in paving, and the quantities col- lected in some situations are immense. 3. As we approach the sea, we fall in with marine organic remains, at the distance of from sixty to eighty miles from it. They are found in greatest abundance, along the banks of the largest rivers, where a high perpendicular bluff pre- sents us with a section of the strata; but they are occasion- ally met with in places remote from the rivers, where an ex~ On the Low Country of North Carolina. 339 cavation is made. When a well is dug, a bed of shells is sometimes struck. The natural well in Duplin is ten miles from any large river. It has been found by the sinking of a cylinder of earth about ninety feet in diameter, in the midst of the flat piney woods, where there was nothing at the sur- face to create a suspicion that any thing besides clay and sand would be found below. ‘The covering of sand is here about five feet in thickness, and is succeeded by a layer of shells, resting upon a bed of marl of unknown depth. Theshells are sometimes intermixed with, and imbedded, in large quantities of clay and sand, and sometimes constitute nearly the whole stratum. They are in a state of decay; many of the smaller ones, especially, are easily crumbled be- tween the fingers. Such as are thick and heavy retain their firmness. 4. In the southern and south eastern part of the State, there are large bodies of rocks, sometimes made up entirely of shells, sometimes containing pebbles imbedded, constituting a siliceo-caleareous conglomerate or pudding stone, and sometimes presenting only the siliceous casts of shells, with a small portion of lime. These rocks are older than the remains spoken of in the last article. They are generally covered up by the clay and sand, so that it is difficult to reach them for the purposes of observation. They are well exhibited with the more recent shells resting upon them, about the town of Wilmington. Where they have not been covered by the clay and sand, but left to form by their decomposition, a soil of their own, it is wonderfully fertile. Rocky point on the north east branch of the Cape Fear, is an instance and the only one that I have examined. ‘They appear to be the exuviae of races of animals bearing little resemblance to those now inhabiting the waters of North Carolina. They, however stand in need, and are worthy of a more minute and careful examination, than it has been in my power to give them. Of the mode in which the low country has been formed. 1. The low country has not been produced by the action of causes that are still in operation.—W hen our ancestors land- ed on these shores, they were struck with the peculiarity of their appearance, and observing that they were made up of strata of sand and clay that had evidently been deposited from water, and that contained marine organic remains in 340 On the Low Country of North Carolina. ereat abundance, they inferred, that they had been gained from the ocean. The gulf stream being a peculiar feature in the physical geography of the western world, and passing along, at the distance of seventy or eighty miles from the coast—it was conjectured, apparently from the circumstance of proximity alone, to be the cause of the peculiar aspect of our shores, and the agent by which the low country had been created. Philosophers acquiesced in the popular theory, with- out ever troubling themselves to enquire whether it was war- ranted by facts, and could be supported by argument. Its correctness is tacitly admitted by Mr. Scrope, in his letter to the Editor of the Journal. “ Does not the ocean seem to re- treat more rapidly than can be explained, by the accumula- tive action of the gulf stream upon its shores ?” We have no evidence whatever, that the gulf stream has the effect of accumulating sand and gravel on our coast, and least of all is there any probability that it is pilmg them up, in situatidns elevated above the level of the ocean. The waters of the West Indian seas are-described as so clear and transparent, that the vessels which navigate them seem to float in the air, and the mariner can discern fish and coral at sixty fathoms below the surface. The waters of the gulf stream are of a deeper blue than the rest of the ocean, a circumstance which seems to prove at least, that they are not turbid. The rate of the current is from one to three miles an hour, and with only this velocity, its propelling force must be feeble—hardly adequate to the transportation of sand and gravel. And even if we suppose these substances to be brought along by it from the gulf of Mexico, it can only strew them over the bottom of the sea—it can never elevate them above its surface. It will perhaps be said, that the stream brings along the materials and deposits them, and they are afterwards thrown up by the waves. But we are altogether destitute of evidence that the waves have any tendency to the production of such an effect. Our theoretical views of the nature and mode of their action would lead to the conclusion, that they would de- molish and disperse existing sand-banks rather than pile up new ones—and the former rather than the latter has in fact been their effect, at least of late years, along the coast of North Carolina. A new inlet was opened, not long since, at the mouth of the Cape Fear river. It is well known that the island which was then formed is gradually wasting away. On the Low Country of North Carolina. 341 The fortifications built during the last war, on the banks at the mouth of Beaufort harbor, have been undermined and destroyed. There may be acontrary process in a few cases— thus, the wasting of the island at the mouth of the Cape Fear, is said to be accompanied by a corresponding exten- sion of another, and to an effect of this kind I believe the action of the waves will be found to be confined. It is acknowledged, that to a person who casts his eye over a map of the United States, and sees the long chain of sandy islands that lines our coast, the idea is apt to be sug- gested that they have been thrown up by the waves, and itis possible, but not proved, that this may be the case. But it will not follow that because the waves are adequate to the erection of a low sand-bank, they can throw up a body of clay and sand an hundred miles in breadth, two, three, and four hundred feet in thickness, and having its ugper surface ele- vated nearly the same number of feet above the greatest height at which the waves are ever known to roll. Is it with- in the memory of man that a sand bank has ever been form- ed upon our coast that is not covered, if not by the highest spring tides, at least during every considerable storm? In- deed, if any person who is travelling through the country, will notice his elevation above the bed of the Cape Fear, as he crosses Clarendon bridge at Fayetteville,* and how much he has to ascend to gain the summit of Hay Mount, and the general level of the sandy country on the west side of the town, and recollect that he is one hundred miles in a direct line from the sea, he will acknowledge that of all the theo- ries that have been invented, to account for the formation of the low country, that which attributes it to the action of the gulf stream, such as it now is, and to such waves as now break upon the Atlantic coast, though at first sight, appear- ing to be the most simple and rational, is in truth the wildest and least capable of defence. Though the considerations that have been already offered seem to be sufficient to establish the truth of our proposition, “ that the low country has not been produced by the action of causes that are still in operation,” it will be still further il- lustrated by the remarks that are to follow. I proceed there- fore to observe that— '*T have selected this place in preference to any other, because it is in the heart ‘of the alluvial—or the great northern and southern road, and the thickness and elevation of the strata are well exhibited in its neighborhood. 342 On the Low Country of North Carolina. 2. The low country has not been produced by a gradual encroachment of the land upon the sea, but became dry land, throughout its whole extent, or nearly its whole extent, at one time. The human mind is very averse to admitting amongst the causes of the phenomena it would explain, such as it has never witnessed the action of; and rather prefers the supposition, that the known causes which are now confessedly inadequate to the effect, are, at sometimes, or have been on some former eccasion, so magnified and enlarged, as to acquire the requi- site degree of efficiency. Thus, finding the gulf stream and the waves, such as we now observe them, inadequate to the creation of the low country, we are ready to conceive of some condition of the Antediluvian ocean, when they operated with far greater energy, and when they threw up this district as easily as they now form the low sandy islands that are cover- ed at every tide—that during this state of things, the land en- croached continually upon the sea, till the low country, such as we now behold it, was the final result. If, instead of the strata of which this district is composed, we met with a totally irregular and confused collection of heaps of sand, this account of the matter would have more plausibility. The tendency of the irregular action of the waves, beating upon the coast, would be to form such a col- lection, and not those alternate layers of clay and sand, which we actually find. But the extension of the argument, that might be drawn from this source, is rendered altogether unne- cessary, by the appearance of marine organic remains. This is quite decisive of the point, that the low country has not been gradually thrown up by the waves, during either the present or any former condition of the ocean. It may be doubted whether Bergman was aware of the strict and philosophical accuracy of his language, and wheth- er he did not consider himself as describing them by an ele- gant metaphor, when he denominated the shells that le im- bedded in the strata of the globe, the medals of creation. But, that this is their real character, that they furnish us with the only clue that can guide us in our attempts to unravel the ancient history of the earth, and the data from which we are to estimate the number, magnitude, and durations of the re- volutions it has undergone, is becoming more and more evi- dent, from day to day. It is by means of their organic re- mains, that the geology of other countries has been establish- On the Low Country of North Carolina. 343 ed on firm foundations, and it is to the same objects, that we must apply ourselves, if we would give precision and accuracy to that of our own. Hitherto, they appear to have been ob- served in a very general manner, if not altogether neglected. And yet, they offer a rich harvest of discovery, to the individ- ual, who has the requisite skill and leisure to gather it. The person who, with a good knowledge of the conchology of our waters, should pass through the alluvial district, and examine its marine organic remains, would soon educe light from darkness. The shells are fragile from decay, but so far as their forms are concerned, often in a state of perfect preser- vation, and they may be had to any amount. They have withal, a few characters, which must strike the most casual observer, and these are all that are necessary for our present argument. Shells that are tossed by the waves, are soon ground to a. fine powder, or at least worn smooth and deprived of their sharp processes and projections. Every person who has been | upon the sea beach must have observed this. But the shells of the low country present no such marks of attrition. I should not be safe in the assertion that I have never seen a water worn shell amongst our marine remains ; I have occasionally picked them up—especially in the beds of branches and gullies, where the water and sand were con- tinually passmg over them, but they are exceedingly rare. The great body of the shells offer by their appearance, con- clusive evidence that they have never been tossed upon the beach. ‘They still preserve in perfection, their minutest fur- rows and most tender and delicate processes. I have small bivalve shells, of which the two parts still cohere, though it requires the application of but a gentle force to separate them. That the low country has not been gradually formed is further proved, by the fact, that the shells are every where of the same age. They belong to the same genera and species, with such variations only as are common in the living ani- mals in neighboring bays and harbors, and, in many cases, to the genera and species now inhabiting the Atlantic coast. How far the agreement between them and the living races will be found to extend, I cannot say—the subject stands in great need of investigation, but it will probably be found to be pretty intricate. It is however to be remembered, that the eye of an experienced naturalist, will sometimes detect specific distinctions, where to one whose opportunities for ob- 344 On the Low Country of North Carolina. servation had been less ample, there will appear to be a very exact resemblance. That the shells are every where in the same state of decay, in places remote from each other, at a distance from and contiguous to the sea, is a matter of no uncertainty. If a person be presented with parcels from the upper part of Bla- den county, from the bank of the northeast at Wilmington, seventy miles nearer to the sea, from the sides of the natural well in Duplin, and the banks of Fishing creek near Infield, and of the Meherrin at Murfriesborough, he will be unable to tell, except from the color and consistency of the sand and clay that is intermixed with them, from which locality they came. All these appearances are totally at variance with the theo- ry which attributes the low country to the gradual accretions of its shores. Were this view of the matter correct, we should have few large beds of shells—the shells would be- worn smooth by the attrition of the sand, and the genera and species, and the state of preservation or decay, in which they are found, would be continually varying as we approached the ocean. This argument will not apply to the tract of al- luvial that lies between the first shells and the fixed rocks, but most persons will be inclined to assign a common origin to the whole of this district. via 3. Though the low country became dry land throughout its whole extent, or nearly its whole extent, at one time, it was not formed by the sudden transportation, from a distance, into the beds which they now occupy, of the sand and clay, which constitute its strata. It isnow a long time since I read Dr. Hayden’s Geological Essays, so that I have but an imperfect recollection of their con- tents ; but I believe he attributes ‘the low country, in part at least, to the currents that have swept across the continent, and brought the sand and gravel of the regions about Hudson’s Bay, and deposited them along our seaboard. Of course, that which now occupies the lower district of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama, must have been borne across the central and western parts of North Carolina. That such currents may have swept over the Northern States, I am, from the few faint recollections I have of the beds of sand and gravel, strewed over the interior of the country, inclined to believe. But that they did not pass over the central and western parts of North Carolina, or that if On the Low Country of North Carolina. 345 they passed, they brought nothing with them to deposit in the regions south of us—conclusive evidence is furnished by the fact, that no where, on either hill or valley, have they left the least trace of their action. They must have permitted some small quantities of the sand and pebbles they were bearing on, to settle down and remain behind, but none areto be found. Immediately east of the University of North Carolina, is a bed of red sandstone, about twenty miles across ; immediately west, a still broader bed of ancient transition rocks. This is succeeded by a body of granite, not as I believe of the oldest formation, and the granite by the gneiss and mica slate of the Alleganies—about twenty-five miles of the extreme western part of the State, still held by the Indians, belongs to the transition argillite of Tennessee. Throughout the whole line from the Hiwassee on the west, to the commencement of the alluvial on the east, a distance of about four hundred miles, and over all these formations, I have sought carefully for traces of. currents and of diluvial action and deposit, but have found | none. It is manifest that this entire region was originally thrown up in the state of rock, that this rock has gradually mouldered into the soil that now covers it, and that no for- eign matters are mingled with it. Except in the beds of the streams, the gravel is all sharp. There are no marks that a flood of waters, holdmg any thing suspended, has ever pass- ed over it, or that during the deluge, recorded in the Scrip- tures, any thing was deposited upon it. That the low country was not formed by the sudden intro- duction of the sand and gravel, that compose its strata, from the quarter of the sea, or indeed from any quarter whatever, conclusive evidence is furnished by the composition and as- pect of the strata themselves. Passing by the shells, the appearance of which is alone de- cisive of the point, we may remark that none of the recent beds of fine clay occurring amongst the strata of the globe, can have been produced by a cause that operated suddenly and violently. They cannot be the effect of a rapid motion of any kind, such as the rushing of a current, or the dashing. . of waves upon the shore. Large bodies of clay are never - transported like sand in this way, or if this should be thought possible, they will not be deposited in regular horizontal beds, Wherever such beds are found, they prove incontestibly, that over the spot where they now lie, waters rendered turbid by the presence of particles of clay, which they held suspended Vou. XITI—No. 2. oe 346 On the Low Country of North Carolina. have stood till the clay was deposited. A single deposition will seldom be sufficient to account for the appearances. When the bed is thick, and especially ifit separate readily into thin laminae, or if it be made up of alternate laminae of clay.and sand, it will follow, that the same cause has operated there a nnmber of times—that waters holding particles of fine clay suspended, have been repeatedly brought to the spot and detained there, till the earthy matters they contain- ed have subsided. All these appearances are exhibited by our low country. It is true, as has been already observed, that individual strata are of moderate extent and very variable thickness and com- position, yet their appearance is such as to force conviction upon the mind, that they have been deposited from water at rest, and that considerable time was occupied in their forma- tion. They are horizontal or nearly so. The beds of clay are sometimes free from admixtures of sand, but composed of a great number of layers, many of them not thicker than a wafer, that have evidently been added in succession, and sometimes there are alternate layers of clay and sand, from a twelfth to a quarter of an inch in thickness. 4. The strata of the low country were formed in the bed of the sea, and this district became dry land either by a depres- sion of the level of the ocean, or by the elevation of its bed, by a force operating from beneath. In support of this proposition, I can offer only the single argument, upon which all our conclusions in the science of geology must necessarily rest, that, it will account for all the appearances—the perfect preservation of the most delicate ridges, furrows, and processes of the shells—the uniformity of their characters, and the aspect of the beds of clay and sand. The particular by which the geologists of the present day are most remarkably distinguished from their predecessors of the last age, is the extreme caution with which they make their deductions. We are compelled by the evidence that surrounds us on every side, to admit the occurrence of ancient revolutions in the condition of the globe, of the particular causes of which we shall probably remain forever in dark- ness. The effects and attendant circumstances are so remote from any thing we are in the habit of witnessing, that we are at a loss to conceive of any cause adequate to their produc- tion. All that we can do in these cases is to classify the facts. But the nearer we approach to our own age, with the greater On the Low Country of North Carolina. 347 safety, apparently, may we reason from the effects to the cause. It is what I have ventured to do in the preceding pages; it being acknowledged on all hands that the forma- tion of the low country is among the more recent geological phenomena. Having satisfied my own mind of the correct- ness of the views here taken, I determined to submit them to the consideration of geologists; believing that the establish- ment of a sound and accurate theory, or even an approach to it, always affords us essential aid in the further prosecution of our investigations. If their correctness shall be admitted, there will appear to be no improbability in the idea, that our sand and clay have not been brought to us, from the gulf of Mexico, but are the debris of rocks, that have been worn to pieces in the neighborhood of the places where they now lie, and strewed over the bottom of the sea—sand, from un- known causes, having been deposited in some situations, and clay in others. hatin Which of the causes, just specified, has produced this en- croachment of the land upon the sea—whether a depression of the level of the ocean, or an elevation of its bed, we have no means of determining, from evidence furnished on the spot. We meet, occasionally, amongst the sand hills, with a sandstone and conglomerate of a tolerably firm texture, of which the people living where it occurs, say that it has-been melted. But the marks of fusion are not as distinct as they are in the trap rocks. The question will probably be decid- ed in favor of elevation, on the ground of what has been ob- served and settled in other countries. Age of the Low Country. The shells that occur in it prove it to be a recent member of the series of strata, but the forests, by which it has long been covered, prove the era of its emerging from the sea, to be considerably remote. In digging the Clubfoot and Har- low canal, near the mouth of the Neuse river, the remains of both the mastodon and elephant were found. The races to which these remains belonged, are supposed to have become extinct, either before or at the time of the last great catastro- phe, that changed the face of the globe. The low country was inhabited, by these animals, therefore, before the time of the deluge recorded in the scriptures. I am, very respectfully, yours, KE. Mrrcuet.. University of North Carolina, Oct. 10, 1827. 348 On the supposed transportation of Rocks. Ant. X.—On the supposed transportation of Rocks; by J. E. De Kay. Communicated to the New York Lyceum of Natural History. Mr. Haypen, in his truly valuable and original essays on geology, alluding to the large masses of rock scattered over the country, coincides with the chief modern geologists, in supposing that they have been transported to these places, by means of torrents and ice. Indeed one of the strongest points in his peculiar geological views, is based upon this sup- position, for he not only adopts it to its fullest extent, but by a careful and patient investigation of the surrounding coun- try, endeavors to show the precise locality from whence these detached masses originally came. In almost every instance we believe, he has shown that these bowlders are situated ina direction uniformly south west from the spot, where he sup- poses them originally to have belonged. These considera- tions give deservedly great weight to his theory, of a powerful current having at one time swept over the whole continent of America, in a north east and south west direction.* Without calling in the aid of ice, or torrents, or volcanos or the extravagant hypothesis of Chabrier,} that these isola- ted rock-masses have fallen from the atmosphere, we suppose that their appearance may sometimes be accounted for in a different manner. A fact recently communicated to the Ly- ceum, suggested the idea. It is well known that all the southern part of the island of New York, is composed of gneiss covered with sand. Pro- miscuously scattered over the surface and imbedded in the sand, are bowlders of different sizes, up to several tons in weight. They are totally unlike any rocks, in place, in the immediate vicinity, being chiefly greenstone or trap, occasion- ally slaty, sometimes granitic and not unfrequently calcare- ous, containing organic remains. Agreeably to the ideas generally entertained by geologists, Dr. Akerlyt has referred the schistose rocks to the region above the Highlands, the greenstone to the pallisado rocks * Geological Essays ; or an Enquiry into some of the geological phenomena to be found in America and elsewhere.—Baltimore 1820. } Dissertation sur le deluge universel.—Montpelier 1823. { Essay on the Geology of the Hudson river &c.—New York 1826. On the supposed transportation of Rocks. 349 on the Hudson, and others, to rocks, similar in composition and structure nearest to the place where these bowlders are now observed. Among other loose rocks, a solitary mass weighing several tons, has for a long period attracted the at- tention of our mineralogists. Itis, or rather was (for it has now disappeared,) at the corner of Broome and Willet-streets, and is called stellated asbestos, although its real nature has not we believe been fully ascertained. It has been always referred to the serpentine rock at Hoboken, from whence ac- cording to the received theory, it must have been transported by ice across the Hudson river, to its present situation. Recently, a bed of serpentine occupying at least twenty acres, and containing the same radiated asbestos, has been - discovered on the island nearer to this loose mass. Its greater proximity would then naturally lead us to refer this detached mass, to the newly discovered bed instead of supposing it to have been derived from Hoboken, and subsequently transpor-. ted across the river. In a line with the large rock and the bed recently discovered, Mr. I. Cozzens, has pointed out an- other similar mass, about three hundred pounds in weight, near the three mile stone on the middle road. Reflecting on these circumstances, I have been led to suppose, that wherever these apparently foreign rocks occur, a careful examination of the surrounding country will in ma- ny cases, prevent us from looking very far from the spot where they are now found. Where secondary rocks occur scattered over a primitive country, it is easy to conceive that the original strata of which they formed a part have been in the course of time, disinte- grated and destroyed, leaving a few of the harder portions on the new surface thus exposed. Examples of this sort of destruction of entire strata are numerous. In our own coun- try we need only allude for the present, toa paper by Mr. Barnes in the fifth volume of this Journal, on a geological section of the Canaan mountain. Where primitive rocks, on the other hand, are scattered over a secondary or alluvial region, we need not look to primitive mountains several hundred miles distant, in order to find their origin. We know that primitive rocks, frequently thrust themselves through all the superincumbent strata. Now on the supposition that these peaks may have been destroyed by some convulsion of nature, or by the resistless tooth of time, and their origin concealed by the detritus, we can ac- 350 Mr. Blake’s Reply to Mr. Quinby. count very naturally for their appearance in a region, to which they are apparently strangers. The speculative part of geol- ogy is, at present, but a series of hypotheses, and we may ad- mit temporarily the most probable. In every case we should admit that which explains the phenomena of nature in the simplest manner. Art. XI.—Reply to Mr. A. B. Quinby’s Question, at page 74, of this volume ; by E. W. Buiaxe. TO THE EDITOR. Sir—A little more attention on the part of Mr. Quinby, to the communication of mine, which has drawn forth his reply to me in your last number, will satisfy him that, as I neither stated nor pretended to state, either his ideas or his lan- guage, on the points referred to,‘so I cannot have “ misrep- resented” him on those points. By the same means, he will also perceive, that I have no where charged him with the error of having made a direct comparison between two un- like quantities : and when he fully comprehends the nature of the distinctions on which my argument was founded, he will see most clearly, that I have not fallen into that error myself.* That Mr. Quinby has not apprehended the nature of those distinctions, is evident from the irrelevant question concern- ing them, with which he has concluded his remarks. Being engaged in active business, I have neither time nor inclination to write for the sake of disputation, and shall, therefore, pass over Mr. Quinby’s strictures, without further comment ; not doubting that the above hints will enable him to set himself right. But to the question just referred to, I shall reply at length, embracing the opportunity which it gives me, to illustrate the distinctions on which my argument, relative to the crank, and other machinery was founded. These distinctions I would recommend to the particular at- tention of Mr. Quinby, and any other of your readers who are engaged in the pursuit of mechanical science, as con- * Mr. Quinby’s measure of tendency to rotation is correct, for the purpose of comparing tendencies at different distances from the centre of metion ; but it is no measure of a determinate tendency, at an assumed distance. Mr. Blake’s Reply to Mr. Quinby. 351 ducting to a method of contemplating mechanical power, which will very much abridge the labour of acquiring defi- nite ideas with regard to it ; if indeed it be not the only medi- um through which such ideas can be attained. This method of considering the subject, opens a door of immediate access to many arcana of the science, at which our predecessors have arrived, by a far more tedious and intricate path ; and developes others, in the pursuit of which they have all been led astray. The part of my communication to which Mr. Quinby’s question refers, is as follows, viz :— « A certain power will exert a pressure of ten pounds.” i « Another will drive a body against a given resistance ten cet, “¢ Another will elevate water one foot, at the rate of one gallon per minute.” “'The powers necessary to produce these several effects: are definite, and may be definitely measured, by referring them respectively to their proper standards. But even after this is done, no one can say that either of them is equal to, or by how much it is greater or less than another, because they are dissimilar in ther nature. The first consists of one attribute only, like linear measure. The second, of two, like superficial measure. The third, of three, like solid measure. To say, therefore, that one of them is greater or less than another, would be as absurd as to say that a mile is greater ee a square foot, or that a square foot is less than a cubic inch.” : Mr. Quinby’s reference to this, and question, are as fol- ows :— “ At page 339, he [Mr. Blake] says, ‘ another [power] will drive a body against a resistance* ten feet ;’ this, he states, contains but two attributes ; but can a body move ten feet without occupying some portion of time ? and if it occupy any portion of time, does not this example contain the three attributes ? How then does Mr. Blake find the same differ- ence between this example and the third, that there is be- tween a square foot and a cubic foot ?” _ *T said “ a given resistence.”” The word, given, (the omission of which was doubtless accidental,) is not important as it respects the purpose for which Mr. Quinby made the quotation, but it is essential in the connection in which it stands in my piece. 352 Mr. Blake’s Reply to Mr. Quinby. Mr. Quinby’s embarrassment has arisen from not distin- guishing power, in the sense in which the second example re- quires its mensuration, from power in another sense, in which the mensuration of it is not required by the example ; and for the mensuration of which the example does not furnish the data. The three examples were carefully selected, as fur- nishing data for the mensuration of three distinct species of power or of power presenting itself for mensuration, under three different aspects. The first requires the mensuration of power, without relation to time or space. ‘The second re- quires the mensuration of power in its connexion with space, but without relation to tame. The third requires the mensu- ration of power, in its connexion with space, and also in its relation to time. The quantity sought by the first example, is a simple determinate quantity ; that sought by the second, is a determinate product of two simple unlike quantities ; and that sought by the third, is indeterminate, being merely a ratio of a product of two simple unlike quantities, to a third quantity, unlike either of them. It is true that a lapse of time will necessarily attend the operation of the power, men- tioned in the second example ; but the operation of a power may be attended not only by this, but by a variety of other circumstances, which may, or may not, become attributes in the mensuration of the power, according to the purpose for which the mensuration is made. It is the purpose for which the mensuration is made, or in other words, the nature of the quantity sought, which determines the number of attributes of which the power to be measured consists. For those cir- cumstances, and those only, attending the operation of a power, which affect the amount of the quantity sought, are to be taken as attributes of the power to be measured. Circum- stances or incidents, which do not ‘affect the amount of the quantity sought, cannot be said to be attributes of the power to be measured, however inseparable their occurrence may be, from the operation of the power. In the mensuration of the power, which produces the result specified in the second example, it is manifest that ¢zme cannot affect the amount of the quantity sought ; for it will require the same quantity of power™* to produce that result, whether it be effected in a mo- ment, or in a twelve month, or in any longer or shorter period _* The phrase, quantity of power is here used, as in my former communica- tion, to denote the product of the degree of force and distance. Mr. Blake’s Reply to Mr. Quinby. 353 of time whatever ; and if we could even suppose this result to take place without the lapse of time, it would still require the same quantity of power to produce it. * For the illustration of these points, with regard to the men- suration of mechanical power, let us take a familiar example in the mensuration of other objects. The distance between the cities of New-York and New-Haven, by road, is the same, whether the road be wide or narrow; and if we could even suppose the road to have no width at all, the distance would still be the same. In measuring the road for the purpose of ascertaining the distance, it is the length of the road, which is to be measured, and which is the quantity sought ; and of this quantity, the width of the road is not an attribute, how- ever inseparable width may be from the existence of the road. It is believed, that Mr. Quinby will now perceive, that time has nothing to do with the quantity, of which the second example requires a mensuration. But as these distinctions - can not be too much insisted on, for the sake of further ilus- tration, and also to show the analogy, which subsists between — the mensuration of power, under the distinctions pointed out, and the mensuration of other objects, let us take another familiar example. Suppose I should say to Mr. Quinby, that I have-a board, which will exactly reach from a certain point to a certain other point, which two points are 31 yards asun- der. Mr. Quinby, upon this statement of the case, immedi- ately perceives that I have furnished him with data for deter- mining the length of the board, and replies, that it must be 10 feet long. And this is all he can determine with regard to the dimensions of the board, notwithstanding it is certain that the board must have width and thickness, as well as length. Suppose I should then say, that the board is also 12 inches wide, and require, as before, the measure of it. He will now determine the area of the board, and reply, that it measures 10 square feet. I next say, that the board is also one inch thick, and require again its measure. He will now determine the solid contents, and reply, that it measures 1° of a cubic foot. Thus, in the mensuration of the board, three different quantities have been obtained, corresponding with the data respectively furnished. Just so, the three examples for the mensuration of power, require the measurement of three different quantities, corresponding respectively with the data furnished by the example; and, as in the case of the - board, the three different quantities all arise in the mensura-. Vou. XIIL.—No. 2. 20 354 Mr. Blake’s Reply to Mr. Quinby. tion of one and the same board; so the three examples for the mensuration of power, may all be drawn from one and the same operation of power. For example; suppose that we have ascertained with regard to a steam engine, which is in operation, that the pressure on the piston is five hundred pounds. We may now tell what degree of resistance, if di- rectly applied, will be overcome. Suppose we next ascertain the area of the piston, and that five hundred cubic feet of the steam have been expended in giving it motion; we may then tell, what determinate quantity of mechanical effect it might have produced, if properly applied. Suppose that we next ascertain, that the steam in the boiler is maintained at a, uniform density, when it is drawn off at the rate of fifty cu- bic feet per second; we may then tell the magnitude of the effect, in relation to time. ‘These three examples, drawn from the steam engine, correspond exactly with the three ex- amples before given; except that in these, the effect is to be determined from the power, while in those before given, the power was to be determined from the effect. No other distinctions are here insisted upon, in the mensu- ration of power, than such as we always make, in the men- suration of other objects. In the mensuration of other things, we have different names for the different sorts of quantities that are obtained, expressing respectively, the nature of the quantity ; as, length, area, contents, specific gravity, &c. and the distinctions are made, as a matter of course, and without reflection. But in measuring power, we have no appropriate names to designate the difierent natures of its dimensions, and hence it is, that they are so often confounded. We readily perceive, into what confusion and embarrassment we should be immediately thrown, by discontinuing the use of the terms, length, area, contents, é&c. and substituting for them the general term, measure. From an equal amount of the same kind of embarrassment and confusion, with regard to the mensuration of mechanical power, should we be imme- diately relieved, by the introduction of appropriate terms, to distinguish, without circumlocution, the different natures of its dimensions. Whoever shall introduce these terms, so that they shall come into general use, will, in my view, have con- tributed in no small degree, to the advancement of this branch of science. : The quantities, which most require to be distinguished by appropriate names, appear to me to be these, viz. Mr. Blake’s Reply to Mr. Quinby. 355 I. That which I have called degree of power ; or power in its most limited sense, without relation to time, space, or ve- locity. II. Power, as a magnitude, varying with time only. III. Power, as a magnitude, varying with space only. IV. Power, as a magnitude, varying with velocity, that is, with space directly, and time inversely. The method usually pursued by writers on this subject, is to treat power as an object having but one dimension, and to consider the circumstances of time, place, and velocity, mere- ly as multiples of it. The method I would propose, is, to treat power, as an object having several dimensions ; and to con- sider the circumstances of time, space, and velocity, as con- stituents of it. By their method of considering the subject, authors have often been led into the most circuitous mazes of analytical investigation, in order to discover truths, when the very same truths would flow almost spontaneously, from self evident principles, which will immediately suggest them- selves, in the method of considering the subject, here propos- ed. The doctrine of percussion, as copied by Gregory from Don Juan, is a remarkable instance of this kind. Every use- ful result, which he has there deduced from many pages, may be drawn, with much more clearness, from as many lines. Had this method of considering the subject been pursued, by those who have contributed the theorems which now con- stitute our volumes of mechanical science, those volumes would have contained fewer errors. It is these errors which have given rise to so many complaints, of the difference be- tween the results of theory and practice, and which have brought the science into disrepute. Of these errors, the absurd doctrine ofthe “maximum effects of machines,” is a prominent example. This doctrine was justly condemned by Mr. Quinby, in a recent number of your Journal; and though I think he is mistaken, with regard to the error, on which the fallacy of the doctrine is based, he is, in my view, entitled to no small credit, for having perceived and exposed its absurdity. 356 Rejoinder of Mr. Quinby on Crank Motion. Art. XII.—Rejoinder of Mr. Quinpy to the writer of the examination of his Principle of Crank Motion. TO THE EDITOR. Stir—Tue allusion, which the writer of the article entitled, +‘ Examination of Mr. Quinby’s Principle of Crank Motion,” has made in the last number of this Journal, to a private communication from yourself to me, makes it necessary for me to state to the public, all the facts relative to the commu- nication alluded to. By referring to my reply it will be seen that it is dated March 28. The private letter I received from you, in which you communicated the errata you had receiv- ed from the writer of the ‘examination,’ is dated April 28; and was received by me two days after that date. The fol- lowing is a copy of that part of your letter, which relates to the errata you communicated. “T requested a mathematical friend to look over your late communication, in reply to the writer who criticises you, and to compare it with a list of errata which had been forwarded to me, by the author alluded to above.” In reply, my friend has handed to me the following remarks :— Q « Among the errors pointed out by , the only one no- ticed by Mr. Quinby, is that which occurs at page 126, line 14 from the top, where, (as would seem from the printed demon- stration,) Cc and Ce, two unequal lines, are found to be the same. ‘This was an error of the author, for it is printed pre- cisely as it stood in the MS. Yet it is not altogether candid in Mr. Quinby to avail himself of it, for it is evident that the writer intended to have the terms taken alternately, though he forgot to repeat them in that order.. Thus, as printed, it stands as follows :— am:aS:Cc:CsS dn: aS :: Ce: Ct where the writer infers, that the third terms are the same; he evidently should have said the second, namely, aS. But his conclusion is correct, and is precisely the same as though he had taken the terms alternately, in which case aS would become the third term in each couplet, viz. am: Ce :: aS: CS and dn: Ce :: aS: Ct: the whole error consists in acciden- tally saying third for second—a mistake evidently accidental, and one which it is unfair for a disputant to avail himself of, as every reader will perceive.” ) Rejoinder of Mr. Quinby on Crank Motion. 357 A list of errata, forwarded by the author to me, is as fol- lows: page 124, line 5 from bottom, for circle “vc1G,” ircle v2 G line 4 fi ae read circle vl Gw; page 126, line 4 from top, for“ ag P xrad =Cc,” read — XC: Page 126, 1. 13 from top, for « But Ced,” read But Ce. Page 126, |. 14 from top, for “a@m:aS :: Cc: CS and dn: dt, (or aS,) :: Ce: Ct,” read am : Ce ::aS: CS and dn : Cc:: dt, (or aS,): Ct. Page 126, |. 11 from bottom, for “ refutation,” read repetition. I would have sent you these notices earlier, but it has been out of my power, dc.’ From the part of your letter which I have quoted, it will be seen, 1st, that my reply was written a month, (and had been in your hands two weeks,) before I received the com- munication alluded to; and 2nd, that in no part of the com- munication is it intimated, that it was made at the request, or with the knowledge of the writer of the ‘examination.’ The next thing which it is proper to state to the public, is, the manner or view in which I received this communication, and the answer I returned to the suggestions which your mathematical friend and yourself had made. I received the communication as the voluntary offering of the Editor of the American Journal of Science and Arts, in a pri- vate correspondence. The answer I returned was, that I thought that the error in question was not of that class which is properly denominated errata. I gave my reason for this opinion, and declined making the alteration in my reply, which your friend and yourself had suggested. I also stated, (on this point I write from memory,) that if the error in ques- tion were of that class which is properly denominated errata, I still could not see that I was bound to treat it as your friend and yourself had proposed—the usual course in such cases being for each writer to correct his own errata. In conclud- ing my answer, however, I gave you a note, which I request- ed might be added at the bottom ofa suitable page, of my xeply. This was done. I have now stated all the facts, (at least all that are known to me,) relative to the communication to which the writer of the ‘examination’ has alluded, and without offermg any comment, and with but one remark, I will submit it to the public to judge whether I] was bound to treat the error in question differently from what I did or not. 358 Mr. Barnes’s Reclamation of Unios. ‘The terms of the propositions that are in the ‘ examina- tion,’ require to be taken both alternately and im cross or- der :* the author, in his correction, has written them zn cross order. The error cannot, therefore, be considered accidental. In concluding this rejoinder I will inform the author of the ‘examination’ that there is no other part of his ‘ answer’ which I deem it important to notice. I have never possessed the hope that I should be able to convince him of the truth of my demonstration, or of the errors in his; and I have nei- ther time nor inclination, to pursue a controversy which I think can never convince my antagonist, or afford benefit to the public. My reasoning on the crank problem is given in my demonstration: and the public have the means of judg- ing whether there is, or is not a loss of power. ; I will add one remark to the public, and take my leave of the crank problem forever. There is at this time an amount of power passed through the crank, to various appended ma- chinery, equal to the labor, daily, of half a million of men. If therefore, it would be important to know whether the labor of half a million of men be efficiently applied, it is equally im- portant to know whether there is or is not a loss of power, oc- easioned by the crank.. A. B. Quinsy. Sepi. 6, 1827. The private communication to Mr. Quinby was made at the request of the author.—EpirTor. Art. XIII.—Mr. Barnes’s Reclamation of Unios. (Read before the Lyceum.) TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. New York, Nov. 12, 1827. Dear Sir—tn looking over the continuation of Humboldt and Bonpland’s Zoological Observations, just received, I ob- serve, that a portion of that splendid work is devoted to * When I wrote the note, (which was written without having the ‘ examina- tion’ or the communication alluded to before me,) I did not perceive that the terms required also to be taken in cress order. Mr. Barnes’s Reclamation of Unios. 359 American Unios, of which the author, Mons. A. Valenciennes, describes nine species, all of which have been previously de- scribed by American naturalists, either under the same or dif- ferent names; but, in several instances, no notice is taken of the original author, from whom those names were derived. This is a singular oversight, in the French naturalists, who have been distinguished by their liberality towards American authors ; inasmuch as these shells have been sent to the Bar- on Ferussac, and set forth in his excellent Bulletin, with all due praise. It is an act of duty to Mr. Say and myself to notice this departure from the law of naturalists, that priort- ty must have preference, in all regular publications. I have, however, no doubt, that the oversight was unintentional, and such as will sometimes unavoidably occur. After the publi- cation, in your sixth volume, of the shells brought from the northwestern territory, in 1820-1, I was shown a paper. by Professor Rafinesque, published in Brussels, without a date, in which I discovered some of those which I had published. © I am not sure which had the priority, but ifit belongs to Mr. R. that circumstance probably occurred from the delay in printing the paper in your Journal, caused by my absence from the city, during the prevalence of the yellow fever, and several other unfavorable events. The want of a date in Mr. R’s paper, sent to Dr. Mitchill, the only one I have seen, was I believe, owing to its being a part of a larger work of which some extra copies were bound up for the author. Mr. R’s paper was totally unknown to me at the time of publishing mine, as you will perceive by the introduction, in which Mr. Say’s paper is mentioned as the only one then known. In the paper of A. Valenciennes, which is the subject of this reclamation, Mr. Rafinesque is mentioned but not fol- lowed ; and the author’s view appears just and reasonable, which is to leave the genus as it now stands, and not to con- stitute other genera from it, by the external form of the shells. Mr. Say is also respectfully mentioned, but no notice what- ever is taken of the paper in your sixth volume, though sever- al of the same species are set forth under the same names, even those of which you have given plates; and others are republished under different names. [I shall notice them in detail with corrections to each. 1. Unio ovata. (ovatus.)—The gender of the word Unio - is again mistaken. Itis masculine. This error is noticed in \ 360 Mr. Barnes’s Reclamation of Unios. your Journal, Vol. vi, page 115; and has since been correct- ed by Dubois, the translator of Lamarck, in his synoptical table, page 30th. This Unio is referred to Lamarck, vol. vi, page 75, No. 23, and Lamarck in this place quotes Say’s American conchology, pl. 2, fig. 7. Now it so happens, that the shell thus referred, is not Mr. Say’s Unio ovatus, but his U. cariosus, in a young state, and the author is correct in Saying, that it nearly approaches the Unio cariosus, of La- marck, vol. vi, p. 226. The Unio ovatus, of Mr. Say, is emin- ently distinguished by a slightly elevated obtuse keel around the anterior slope, (posterior of Cuvier and Blainville.) See American Journal of S. and A. vol. vi. p. 113. 2. Unto Domsryanus.—The author has made two species of Lamarck’s Unio Peruvianus. The one is what I have na- med Unio rugosus, with a plate and description, in the Jour- nal, vol. vi, p. 126, and the other is the ! 3. Unio unputatus.—The same shell as that figured in the Journal, with the same name, and from the same locality, the Ohio river. In the Journal, vol. vi, p. 120, Lamarck’s Unio Peruvianus is quoted with a mark of doubt. The same rea- son which caused that doubt, has induced M. Valenciennes to recommend, that Lamarck’s name should be discontinued. It comes from the Ohio, and not from Peru. ‘The shell here figured is a younger and smaller one than that figured in the Journal. 4, Unio verrucosus.—This, again, is our shell with the same name. It is the variety (6) mentioned on page 124, which is always much less than the one figured in the Journal. The dimensions of the plate, of M. Valenciennes, are the same as those of our shell. 5. Unto tusercu.osus.—This is the young of our U. ver- rucosus, and not as the name might seem to indicate, our U. tuberculatus. 6. Unio Rostratus.—This the author marks Nobis. It is Mr. Say’s well known nasutus, but not the nasuta of La- marck, which circumstance probably led him into the error. Lamarck’s name should be changed, and Mr. Say’s must. have preference. Both the names, nausutus and rostratus, Mr. Barnes’s Reclamation of Unios. 361 ate descriptive of the same character of the shell—the unu- sual extension of the anterior side. (See Journal, vol. vi, p. 110—111, and p. 273, No. 26.) 7. Unto navirormis. Lam.—For this, both Lamarck and this author refer to Mr. Say’s Unio cylindricus, with a mark ef doubt. It is the same. Mr. Say’s figure represents an old shell from Dr. Barton’s collection, now in the Philadel- phia museum, and the figure of this author represents one which is rather younger and smoother than an intermediate one now in my collection, received from Mr. King of Bufialo, and by him brought from the Ohio. This species, of which we have now several specimens, was mentioned, p. 127 of the Journal, but not described as it had been previously descri- bed, by Mr. Say, and as one specimen only had then been found ; and it seems there is yet only one known in France, . which one was carried thither by the younger Michaux, and given to the museum of natural history. 8. Unio rectus.—This shell resembles the Unio przlon- gus, of the Journal, and, indeed, it has been supposed to be the same. Lamarck’s shell is, however, much less in size, and uniformly, as far as my observations have extended, different- ly colored on the inside. The rectus has the inside either white or with a pale tinge of red, and the prelongus is of a deep and splendid purple. The variety, with the inside whi- tish green, mentioned in the Journal is the Unio rectus, of La- marck, which name, and not his purpuratus, has the prefer- ence to ours. Most beautiful specimens of the Unio rectus are found in Lake Champlain, at Ticonderoga point. 9. Unio n1ans.—This is the Alasmodonta undulata, of Mr. Say; a genus which the French have not yet admitted into their books. It is, however, a natural genus, of which we have now five or six well characterized species ; every one of which may be instantly distinguished from the Unios, by the color and pe- ~ culiar smell of the animal, and by the yellowish tinge on the inside of the shell. It is a matter of regret that the animals _have not yet, to our knowledge, been carefully examined by an acute and discriminating comparative anatomist. They will, no doubt, prove to be different. It is remarkable that this genus should still be included under the Unio, when it has Vou. XIIL—No. 2. 2h, 362 Mr. Barnes’s Reclamation of Unios. not the generic characters of that genus. It always wants the LoNG, COMPRESSED LATERAL TooTH, which Lamarck in- serts as a part of his generic description, (alter (sc. dens) elongatus, compressus, lateralis, infra pubem productus,) Lam. Genus Unio, vol. vi, p. 69; and yet, Lamarck himself, has put a shell of exactly this kind, at the head of his genus Unio. This fact led me into a mistake concerning the Alas- modonta arcuata, which is Lamarck’s Unio sinuatus, and the Mya margaritifera, of authors; and Lamarck has again de- seribed the young of this same species, under the name of Unio elongatus. Neither of these ever has the long, com- pressed, lateral tooth. They, therefore, belong properly to Mr. Say’s genus, atasmoponTa. Am. conch. p. 14—15. Both the young and the old, answering to the two species of Lamarck, just mentioned, are figured in the Journal, vol. vi. pl. 12. The same shell is figured by Pennant and Lister. it is very remarkable, that a shell found in our waters, should be so exactly like one found in Europe. This species, though so well known abroad, was unknown to Mr. Say, when he published his treatise. It was brought to me from Tappan and Canada creek, in this state, and being unknown to Mr. Say, I supposed it new, and so described it. I find it difficult to believe, what seems to be a very plain fact ; I suspect there must be some mistake: the figures and description of this shell seem to show an exact identity, and we have compared ours with specimens labeled, Mya marga- ritifera, from Liverpool, Eng. They are the same ; and yet, if the Unio sinuata, of Lamarck, has the long, lateral, lamelli- form tooth, ours is a different shell, and the original name must stand. If that is the fact, neither of us has made a mis- take. Inthe case of the Unio hians, of M. Valenciennes, we seem to perceive the same error as that above imputed to La- marck. His shell is from our waters, and we have numerous fine specimens, all of which are destitute of the lateral tooth, by which the genus Unio is characterized. This natural and useful genus contains now six species, as follows :— 1. Alasmodonta margaritifera, Mya L. Unio, Lam. 2. = complanata, ? American Journal, vol. vi, 3. :& rugosa, p. 75—80. 4. & marginata e ye aa dal ae : f Say, Am. conch. |]. ¢. 6. $ purpurea, of M. Valenciennes, mentioned below. Mr. Barnes’s Reclamation of Unios. 363 All these, except the last, are known to us as well charac- terized, and perfectly distinct ; and to persons less cautious than we are, the northwestern expedition might have afforded an opportunity of increasing the number. (See Journal, vol. vi. » 279. 7 Ae She of Mons. Achille Valenciennes, on the Naiades terminates, with an account of two Anodontas: the first js called Anodonta glauca, which is said to be new. It is well known to us, and is Mr. Say’s Anodonta marginata. The Anodonta has numerous varieties, but I have yet seen no evi- dence of more than one species; although Lamarck de- scribes fifteen, Mr. Say, two; this author, two; and others, more. In the same way it would be easy to increase the number to a hundred; but they would all be more alike than the numerous varieties of the Unio purpureus. The identical variety here figured has been brought from our southern wa- ters, and laid on the table of the Lyceum, without being sup- posed worthy of particular notice. The next the author calls Anodonta purpurea, which with- out doubt, is another of Mr. Say’s genus Alasmodonta. This is evident from the figure, and the following part of the de- scription. “Cette espéce est trés remarquable par |’epaisse- ment du bord inférieur, sous les crochets.” I believe that no one ever saw an Anodonta thickened about the beaks. They are always thin, and uniformly thin throughout. But this is not all. ‘Ce bord un peu relevé, semble montrer un com- mencement du dent, et conduire ainsi vers la charniére des muilettes.” This again is never found in the proper Ancdon- ta, but it is a very good description of a young Alasmodonta before the teeth of the hinge are fully formed. When this shell is again examined the learned author will find, if my conjecture is right, on the inside, near the hinge, where the shell is thickened, a tinge of yellow. The animal, when ex- tracted, was yellow, and had a rank, offensive smell, different from the fresh and not unpleasant smell of the Unios. The description of the Unzo hians, mentions the same appearance about the cardinal tooth, “ sous cette dent le test est trés- épais: il devient ensuite tres-mince.” ‘This is an exact de- scription of the Alasmodonta, which is common to several species, but not often seen in the Unio, and never, to my knowledge, in the Anodonta. We are gratified to perceive, that the method of measur- ing shells, and inserting the length, breadth, and diameter ; 364 Notice of the pressure of the Atmosphere, &c. (which method was commenced and recommended in this Journal,) is uniformly pursued in this paper. It has also been adopted in England. But the French, instead of diameter, use thickness ; as it seems to us, with less propriety, for the reasons given, vol. vi, p. 111. : We regret to see the exploded error, of the axolotl’s being the larva of a water salamander, again put down as a matter of undoubted science. It rests, indeed, here as elsewhere, ~ on the authority of Cuvier; but even that authority cannot support it against a simple examination of the specimens now in the New-York Lyceum. The animal is, beyond all doubt, mature and distinct from all others. Your cordial friend, D. H. BARNES. Art. XIV.—WNotice of the pressure of the Atmosphere, &c. within the Cataract of Niagara, im a Letter from Captain Bast Hatt, Royal Navy, ¥. R. s. , TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. New York, Ocvt. 29, 1827. My Dear Sir: If you think the following notice of an ex- periment which I made at Niagara, early in July last, wor- thy of a place in your excellent Journal, it is much at your service. You may remember, perhaps, that some time ago, it was suggested by Messrs. Babbage and Herschell, in a paper, I believe, upon barometrical measurements, that there was rea- son to suspect a change of elastic pressure might be found in the air near a water fall; and it occurred to me, when I was making preparation for the present journey, that a good op- portunity, for bringing this subject to the test of experiment, might present itself at the Falls of Niagara. I accordingly provided myself with a mountain barometer, of great delicacy of workmanship, in some degree differently fitted up from the ordmary instruments of this description ; and it may be worth while, to mention the particulars of its construction. In the first place, as it is essential to the accuracy of baro- metrical measurements, that the tube be held in a vertical po- sition, and as the instrument is often exposed, especially at the upper stations, to the action of high winds, it is of con- within the Cataract of Niagara. 365 sequence to have some method of ensuring this position throughout the observations. Mr.'Thomas Adie, instrument maker, in Edinburgh, in conjunction with Mr. Jardine, the em- inent civil engineer, devised a small fixed circular spirit level on the top of the instrument, the bubble of which is made to stand at the centre, when the tube is perfectly upright. In order to bring it to this position, four screws are necessary at the collar, near the centre of motion, by which not only the requisite adjustments are made, but the instrument can after- wards be firmly secured in its place. In other respects, it did not differ from the best mountain barometers, where both sur- faces of the mercurial column are capable of being observed; and where, consequently, the observation being direct, no al- lowances or corrections are required. Some days after reaching Niagara, I went behind the sheet of water, on the Canada side of the Falls, and although cir-. cumstances did not promise very favorably, I resolved to try what could be done with the barometer, in a place where no- similar instrument had probably ever been set up. I think you told me that you did not enter this singular cave on your late journey; which I regret much, because I have no hope of being able to describe it to you. In the whole course of my life, I never encountered any thing so formidable in appearance: and yet, I am half ashamed to say so, as I saw it performed by many other people, without emotion ; and it is daily accomplished by ladies, who think they have done nothing remarkable. You are perhaps aware, that it is a standing topic of con- troversy, every summer, by the company at the great hotels, near the Falls, whether the air within the sheet of water is condensed or rarefied ; I had therefore a popular motive as well as a scientific one, in conducting this investigation. And the result [ hope, will prove satisfactory to the numerous per- sons who annually visit Niagara. As a first step, I placed the barometer at the distance of about one hundred and fifty feet, from the extreme western end of the Fall, on a flat rock, as nearly as possible on a level with the top of the ‘ talus’ or bank of shingle, lying at the base of the over-hanging cliff, from which the cataract descends. This station was about thirty perpendicular feet above the pool or basin into which the water falls. The mercury here stood at 29.68 mches. I then moved the instrument to another rock, within ten or twelve feet of the edge of the fall, where 366 Notice of the pressure of the Atmosphere, &-c. it was placed by means of a levelling instrument, exactly at the same height as in the first instance. It still stood at 29.68—and the only difference I could observe, was a slight continuous vibration of about two or three hundredths of an inch, at intervals of a few seconds. So far all was plain sailmg: for though I was soundly ducked by this time, there was no particular difficulty in making these observations. But within the sheet of water, there is a violent wind, caused by the air carried down by the falls water, and this makes the case very different. Every stream of falling water, as you know, produces, more or less, a blast of this nature: but I had no conception that so great an effect could have been produced by this cause. J amreally at a loss how to measure it—but | have no hesitation in saymg, that it exceeds the most furious squall or gust of wind I have met with in any part of the world. The direction of the blast is generally slanting upwards, from the surface of the pool, and is chiefly directed against the face of the cliff, which being of a friable, shaly character, is gradually eaten away ; so that the top of the precipice now overhangs the base thirty-five or forty feet ; and in a short time, I should think, the upper strata will prove too weak for the enormous load of water, which they bear, when the whole cliff will tumble down. These vehement blasts are accompanied by fioods of water, much more compact than the heaviest thunder shower ; and as the light is not very great, the situation of the experimenter with a delicate barometer in his hand, is one of some difficulty. By the assistance of the guide, how- ever, who proved a steady and useful assistant, I managed to set the instrument up, within a couple of feet of the “ termina- tion rock,” as it is called, which is at the distance of one hun- dred and fifty-three feet from the side of the water fall, meas- ured horizontally along the top of the bank of shingle. This measurement, it is right to mention, was made a few days afterwards, by Mr. Ed. Deas Thompson, of London, the guide, and myself, with a graduated tape. While the guide held the instrument, firmly down, which required nearly all his force, I contrived to adjust it, so that the spirit level on the top indicated that the tube was in the perpendicular position. It would have been utterly useless to have attempted any observation without this con- trivance. I then secured all tight, unscrewed the bag, and al- lowed the mercury to subside: but it was many minutes be- within the Cataract of Niagara. 367 fore I could obtain even a tolerable reading, for the water flowed over my brows, like a thick veil, threatening to wash the whole affair, philosophers and all, into the basin below. I managed, however, after some minutes delay, to make a shelf or spout with my hand, which served to carry the water clear of that part of the instrument which I wished to look at, and also to leave my eyes comparatively free. I now satisfied myself, by repeated trials, that the surface of the mercurial column, did not rise higher than 29.72. It was sometimes at 29.70, and may have vibrated two or three hundredths of an inch. This station was about ten or twelve feet lower than the external ones, and therefore I should have expected a slight rise in the mercury ; but I do not pretend to have read off the scale, to any great nicety; though I feel quite confident, of having succeeded in ascertaining, that there was no sensible — difference between the elasticity of the air at the station on the outside of the falls, and at that, one hundred and fifty-three feet within them. I now put the instrument up, and having walked back to- wards the mouth of this wonderful cave, about thirty feet, tried the experiment again. The mercury stood now at 29.68, or at 29.70, as near as I could observe it. On coming again into the open air, I took the barometer to one of the first stations, but was much disappointed though I cannot say, surprised, to observe it full of air and water, and consequently, for the time, quite destroyed. My only surprise indeed was that under such circumstances, the air and water were not sooner forced in. But I have no doubt that the two experiments on the out- side, as well as the two within the sheet of water, were made by the instrument, when it was in a correct state; though I do not deny, that it would have been more satisfactory to have verified this, by repeating the observations at the first stations. On mentioning these results to the contending parties in the controversy, both sides asked me the same question. “How then, do you account for the difficulty of breathing, which all persons experience, who go behind the sheet of water!” ‘To which I replied, “ that if any one were exposed to the spouts of half a dozen fire engines, playing full in his face, at the distance of a few yards, his respiration could not be quite free ; and for my part I conceived that this rough dis- cipline would be equally comfortable in other respects, and 368 / On the non conducting power of Water. not more embarrassing to the lungs, than the action of the blast and falling water, behind this amazing cataract. I remain most sincerely your obedient servant, Basit Haut. Art, XV.—On the non conducting power of water in rela- tion to heat; by W. M. Maruer. Warer has by some been considered as a conductor, by others a non-conductor of heat downwards. Count Rum- ford, seems to have been the first who developed the manner, in which fluids receive an increase of temperature. He ob- served during the cooling of water in a glass vessel, two cur- rents running in opposite directions. The exterior one was directed from the upper to the lower part of the vessel—the other passing through the centre from the bottom to the sur- face of the fluid. The reason of this is perfectly evident; the particles of the fluid adjacent to the surface of the vessel, give up a portion of their free caloric, and become specific- ally heavier than the neighbormg ones, in consequence of which, they sink to the bottom, displacing others that are warmer, which rise to the surface, give out a portion of their caloric and sink in their turn to give place to others. This motion of the particles continues, until the fluid acquires the same temperature as the surrounding bodies. “The Count conceived that if the motion of the particles could be pre- vented, the fluid would not receive an increase of tempera- ture. He rendered this highly probable ; for by introducing into water, substances not chemically soluble in it, it was found that the tendency to receive an increase of tempera- ture (when exposed to heat) was diminished in proportion, as the motion of the particles was retarded. From this he in- ferred, that water could not conduct heat, except by the mo- tion of its particles. Dr. Murray’s experiment to shew that water is a conductor of heat downwards, seems at the first glance to be conclusive. The following account of it is given in Websters Manual of Chemistry. “If we carefully pour hot oil upon water, in a tall glass jar with delicate thermometers placed at different distances under the surface, it will be found that those near the heated surface indicate increase of temperature ; it might here be said, that the heat was conducted by the sides of the jar, and so communicated to the water; to obviate such ob- On the non conducting power of Water. 369 jection, Dr. Murray made the experiment in a vessel of ice, which bemg converted into water at 32° cannot convey any degree of heat above 32° downwards, yet the thermometers were affected as in the former trial.” From this experiment, Dr. Murray draws his conclusion, that water is a conductor of heat downwards. Is it not as probable that the thermom- eters beneath the surface of the water (in the preceding ex- periment,) were affected by radiant heat from the heating body, as by conducted heat? This question suggested itself to me while reading the preceding experiment. It is a well known fact, that highly polished metals, reflect radiant heat perfectly, and are excellent conductors. If then in the ap- paratus used by Dr. Murray, a burnished metallic disk be placed between the surface of the water and the thermom- eters, it is evident that it would not prevent the passage of caloric by conduction, so that should the thermometer be’ affected under these circumstances, it would show that water — did conduct heat downwards. All heat that might radiate from the heating body, in the direction of the thermometers, would be reflected off by the disk, so that all possibility of caloric passing from the heating body, except by conduction, is intercepted. During the months of January and February last, [made many experiments upon this subject. Iam un- der many obligations to Dr. Torrey for his assistance, and for furnishing the necessary apparatus. The first few exper- iments were of no avail, from the circumstance that the ther- mometer was not of sufficient delicacy to detect a change of temperature, either when the plate was, or was not interposed. An air thermometer was then constructed, of such delicacy that a change ef temperature of ;1,° of Fahrenheit, would drive the bead of fluid along the stem one inch. The stem of the thermometer was luted into the tu- bulature of a common gas receiver, so that when the receiver was inverted and filled with water, the bulb was covered to the depth of from half an inch to one inch. The receiver was coated internally and ex- ternally with ice, from half to three quarters of an inch in thickness, placed upon a stand, and filled with water, which (having ice dissolving in it) re- mained at 32°. A few drops of ether were poured carefully upon the surface and inflamed. The bead of fluid moved along the tube about one inch, indi- cating a change of temperature in the air of the Vou. XIII.—No. 2. 22 370 On the non conducting power of Water. thermometer of ;1,° of Fahrenheit. The polished metallic disk was then carefully introduced, resting upon the bulb of the thermometer. Ether was then again poured upon the surface of the water and inflamed. In this case, the bead of fluid in the stem, did not move in the least sensible degree. These experiments were many times repeated, and the uni- form results were, that when no plate was interposed to in- tercept the radiant heat, the bead was moved along the stem of the thermometer, and when the plate was interposed, no appreciable effects were produced. A cannon ball heated to redness, and suspended within one or two inches of the water, was substituted for the inflamed ether, and with the same result. The conclusion to be drawn from these experiments is, that water is a non-conductor of heat downwards. Another proof equally strong of water being a non-con- ductor of heat downwards, is mentioned by Mr. Perkins, in his explanation of the bursting of some steam-engines. In some cases, the steam above the surface of the water in the boiler, was of a temperature equivalent to ared heat, although the water was not heated very highly, neither was it under a great pressure. In that case, had water been capable of con- ducting heat downwards, a portion of it would have been converted into highly elastic steam, by receiving an additional portion of caloric from the surcharged steam above its sur- face. Itappears highly probable that other fluids, elastic and non-elastic, are governed by the same law as regards their conducting powers. Ihave not performed a series of experi- ments upon any other fluid than water, but it is my intention so to do, as soon as I shall have completed my course at this Institution. I have one remark more to make. During the combustion of the ether, (in the experiment for determining whether water will conduct heat downwards,) the bead of fluid in the stem of the thermometer, did not move until just as the flame of the last lamina was expiring. The bead then commenced moving, and for an instant continued in motion, after which it ceased. This tends to show that radiant heat does not pass freely through ether, as it does through most fluids. W. M. Matuer. West Point, Sept. 1827. Intelligence and Miscellanies. 371 INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. I. American. 1. Temporary Rupper, fitted at sea, to the Liverpool Packet Britannia, by her commander, Cuartes H. Mar- sHaLt.—The public papers have recently informed us, of the circumstances which led to the invention of this rudder, and of the great satisfaction expressed by the passengers, in the skill and intrepidity of Captain Marshall, which so soon res- eued them from an anxious situation. Capt. Basi Hatt, (so well, and so advantageously known, in both hemispheres,) in a letter to the Editor, dated, New York, Nov. 5, 1827, mentioned this rudder, as “ the best thing of the kind he had ever seen,” and kindly forwarded a draw- ing, of which the annexed figure is a copy, intended to exhibit the rudder in its connexion with the ship. Captain Hall’s opinion, from his high standing as a nautical as well as scien- tific man, being a very decisive recommendation of the utility. of Captain Marshall’s invention—a letter was addressed to the last named gentleman, requesting his permission to make the drawing public, and asking any additional information which might be necessary to elucidate the subject. The following is his reply :— New York, Nov. 15th, 1827. TO B. SILLIMAN, ESQ. Dear Sir—l! received your letter a few days since, and I ean assure you, I feel great pleasure in giving you every pos- sible information respecting the fitting of my temporary rud- der, and in order to give you a full idea of its construction, I must beg your acceptance of a wooden model, fac simile, of the original; it has been examined with great interest since my arrival, and I believe pronounced, without a single excep- tion, the best thing of the kind ever adopted. I consider the knowledge of this, so simple, so easily made and requiring so little material, and one that can be shipped in a tolerably mod- erate sea, particularly valuable to all nauticalmen. I was not more than twelve or fourteen hours in making it and fitting it to its place, and I found it would stear, wear, and stay the ship with as much ease as the former one. You will observe the piece across the top of the rudder post, that is tended to fit under the carlings of the deck, provided it is necessary to have any thing to keep it down, and if it is necessary to have any thing to sink it down to its place, the end of a chain ca- qr of) a between you I shal} al- 9 I trust with b) I shall feel myself Respectfully, and pting your kind offer of the Number, containing the drawing a das Ihave not had Should I have omitted respecting it an Cuartes H. Marsuatt. you, leasure of perusing your Journal rv’t nd description. your obedient se Intelligence and Miscellanies. . appy to confer with mucn flattered in acce 1 s, be h sincerely, the planks of the rudder ; the square piece that is attached, is in- the p tended to show the form of the ship’s stern post the model, and what I have endeavoured to describe here, will have a clear idea of the work. ble may be used, the end of it beng lowered down any thing that you may wish to know way ‘soseo AivUIpio uy se “zaaym oy} 0} poy ore AY) OOWOY) UtOIy pur ‘paw jres doy oreds v *,T ‘ON JO Spula at} UO sxo0]q 0} (‘97/22 10 IAA9] OY) *9 PUL Sg “p SON] JO AjTUNEYXO 10yNO OY) UiO’; BUTPUd}Xe ‘GT pue St ‘sSoN—‘sodor oy} 0} STIR 9IQNOp ‘9T puke QT ‘SON—'SSE[PUTM OY} 0} pomoes pue ojoy osneYy oY} JV Ut Udy} ‘aTqeo urays'e jo yred “py “ON—osmvy e Jo sjied “gy pur “ZL “LT ‘soN'—'sosi0Ary Joppha oy} Yor uo pur ‘{ ‘oxy “sod Joppns ay) puno.t dorm} ysed ‘sjooys [res doy uazturoaeds Aes “ureyo Jo Sovaid ‘oT pue ‘6 ‘8 “2, ‘SON—'G pur Pp ‘sony Jo Ajruladjxo9 19}NO VY} UT jy 0} AoquAT Jo eoard y *9 ‘ON — ‘sieds 9A0Ge Ol} JO Opis Yous uo “yory} soyour eoiy) “yuefd yeo Jo sodard om} “toy oY) “Gg pue Pp “SONT —'W00q [res SuIppnjs tomoz Jo yred “g puv J ‘soON— seur yuryes do} aiedg “| ‘oN—saoNauaaay, Ze = "YO A MONT 07 ‘foodioary voy yno skep omy} AyUOMI—ZG “UOT PUL GF ye] UT “}9Q WLT OY UO “appna soy ysoy SurAvy os “ZZEE "390 UIST ey) Uo TeysieAl HO eH soy Aq ‘ermuejug dryg oy) soy poyy ‘1oppna Axerodwa} @ Jo SMOIA OAK, Intelligence and Miscellanies. 373 If the drawing and description furnished by Captain Hall, (clear and intelligible as they are,) should leave any thing to be desired, to a perfect understanding of the subject, especially by those not familiar with ships, the Editor will have great pleasure in exhibiting and explaining the model, furnished by Capt. Marshall. It renders the invention and its application, perfectly intelligible, even to mere landsmen. 2. Miscellaneous notices among the White Mountains and other places, by Prof. F. Haut. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Sir—If the following localities have not been made public by yourself, or some other individual, I will thank you to in- sert a notice of them in the “American Journal of Science and Arts.”’ F. Hatt. Beryls occur at Fryeburg, Maine, a few rods from the vil- lage, in great abundance and variety. Some of them are four or five inches in length, and from one tenth of an inch, to two inches in diameter. They exhibit the usual color, and form, and articulations of the beryl. This information is de- rived from Amos J. Cook, Esq. Preceptor of the Academy, in Fryeburg, who had the kindness to furnish me with several beautiful specimens of the mineral, which he had procured fron this locality. Permit me, Sir, to remark, that m whatever part of our country I travel, I find enterprising and enlightened mineral- ogists. ‘Twenty-five years have not yet fully elapsed, since total darkness, in relation to mineralogy, brooded over our whole land. Now, light is springing up, and diffusing itself, im every direction. Much of this light has unquestionably, been produced by the lectures* given in Yale College, by the publications from that seminary, and from Professor Cleaveland; much by the exertions of that excellent man, Dr. Bruce, who now rests from his labors, and much by those of that able geologist, William Maclure, the actual President of the American Geological Society. The gentleman last * If Prof. Hall thinks the efforts that have been made in Yale College, at al! importamt to be mentioned on the present occasion, he would not, we presume, omit to honor the zealous and successful exertions of Dr. J. W. Webster, and Dr. H. H. Hayden, nor the early labors of Dr. Seybert and Dr. Mitchill, and the cabinets formed by, or under the auspices of, the late B. D. Perkins, Mr. Gilmor, the late Dr. Smith, (of Philadelphia,) Dr. Hosack, and Dr. Water- house, and more recently, by many other gentlemen. 374 Inielligence and Miscellanies. named, planted the seeds of this science at Fryeburg. He imparted to the Principal of the Academy, Mr. Cook, a taste for this useful branch of natural history. He transmitted to him a few specimens of foreign minerals, which have served as a nucleus, around which are now assembled six or eight hundred, and, perhaps, a thousand elegant American speci- mens. ‘These are systematically arranged, and occupy, and adorn, an upper apartment in the academical edifice. Amethyst, of adelicate purple color, in hexagonal prisms, is found near the bottom of an avalanche, occasioned by the fiood of 1826, a mile above the elder Crawford’s, on the Saco river. The crystals are of very different magnitudes; the smallest being the most perfect. Some of them are white and transparent, like quartz, and terminated at one extremity, by six sided pyramids of the richest amethyst. Smoky quartz occurs at the same locality, crystallized and massive. At this spot, the mineralogical traveller will delight to linger some hours. It is the only spot, known to me, on, or near the White Hills, where specimens of much interest have been found. A large mass may be seen, in Crawford’s bar-room, constituted chiefly of the two minerals, amethyst and crystallized smoky quartz. Most of the country between Portland and these moun- tains, is extremely rocky, but the soil is good, yielding large crops of grass and grain. The rocks are principally granite, which, in a number of townships, is wrought and employed as a building stone. The Unitarian Church in Portland is con- structed of this stone, obtained by means of wedges, and not hewn. It is a noble edifice. The object which monopolizes, and rivets to itself, the at- tention of the stranger, as he passes up the valley of the Saco, is the desolation, produced by the deluge, on that awful night of August 28, 1826. The windows of heaven were then literally opened wide, and in a sad moment the full con- tents of the sky exhausted on this loftiest and wildest portion of our country. ‘Traces of the disastrous effects of the moun- tain torrent are visible on the borders of the Saco, in several places in the township of Conway, and even below; but they become remarkably striking on arriving at Crawford’s inn, situated on a tract of land, called Hart’s location. His farm is nearly ruined; its most productive soil is all swept away, and gone to enrich the lands below; lands whose increased Intelligence and Miscellanees. $75 fertility is evinced by the unusually abundant crops, with which they are loaded the present season. East of Crawford’s, and in his immediate vicinity, stands an enormous spur of the White Hills, whose summit towers, I conjecture, to the height of two thousand feet above the bed of the stream, that laves its base. This spur is in the form of a crescent, perhaps two miles in extent, bending its arms to the west. The higher regions of the mountain yield noth- ing but a stinted growth of shrubs and briars, and lichens ; towards the bottom it is skirted with full sized forest trees. The western area of this mighty protuberance is thickly striped, from top to bottom, with wide channels formed b the water, rushing from the mountain, and bringing with it immense quantities of earth, shrubs and stones, some of which weigh fifty tons, and leaving, in most instances, noth- ing in its track but the solid granite, of which these moun- ~ tainous regions are almost entirely composed, laid bare to the light of heaven. Here, the traveller begins to imagine himself in the midst of the mountains of Switzerland. Every thing he sees is Al- pine. The White Hills are more rugged, and precipitous, and loftier ;—they excite bolder ideas of the sublime in nature, than any other American mountains, east of the Mississippi. Proceeding up the Saco, you are barricaded on both sides of the road, by chains of mountains, rising to an astonish- ing elevation, which are all striped, in a manner somewhat similar to the one already described. I ought here to state, for the benefit of those, who may not be acquainted with the fact, that there are two Craw- ford’s—the father, and the son—who keep public houses, the former at the foot of the mountain, in Hart’s location, and the latter, on the highest land, over which the road passes, and which this gentleman supposes to be the most elevated land, inhabited in. the United States. This farm isthe one, which, when Dr. Dwight gave the world his beautiful descrip- tion of the White Mountains, was owned and occupied, by _“ old Mr. Rosebrook”—the father of the person, of the same name, who keeps a tavern, a few miles to the north of Craw- ford’s. These two men, the Crawford’s, are situated twelve miles apart, and there is at present, no human dweller be- tween them. The road from one house to the other, and in- deed, over the whole distance from Conway to Littleton, is 376 Intelligence and Miscellanies. badly repaired, and excessively rough, passable in strong waggons, in which the mail is conveyed, but not in coaches. Six miles above the elder Crawford’s, stands on the leit of the road, the Willey house-—a melancholy spectacle. No voice of man, or child, or dog is heard at the stranger’s ap- proach. All is still as the rocks around it ; its owner, and alk its occupants, having been swept from the land of the living by a fatal avalanche, and buried under it. The tale of this shocking event has been told, better than I can tell it, all over the civilized world, and it would be useless to repeat it. I will only say, that an immense mass of matter—liquid and solid——rushing from the mountain, west of the house, mena- cing with destruction, every thing that lay in its way, was separated, two or three rods before it reached the dwelling, by the hand of Him, “who rideth upon the wings of the wind and directeth the storm,” into two branches, the one passing to the south, and the other to the north, leaving the house uninjured, in the angle between them. Standing at the younger Crawford’s, and casting your gaze around the ridgy horizon, surveying the wildness of nature’s works, your eye is attracted to the south-east, by a vast pyra- mid, that mocks, and holds in utter contempt, those of Egypt —raising its majestic summit among the clouds:—itis “a tower, whose top reacheth unto heaven.” When I saw it first, from this spot, the last beams of light, from a bright set- ting sun, were falling fast upon it, which, being reflected, with diminished, and softened lustre, presented the object be- fore me, clothed with imexpressible beauty and grandeur. Light and shade were sporting onits front. The dark shad- ows of the opposite hills and mountains were slowly travel- ling up itsrugged cliffs, and vanishing in thin air. But soon clouds and darkness concealed it from my vision. ‘This is mount Washington. Its distance from Crawford’s is nine miles. ‘Three miles of this, can now be travelled with safety, and some comfort, on horse-back, and even in strong vehi- cles. This road has recently been made, by Mr. Crawford, who designs to extend it to the foot of the mountain, three miles further, the present summer. Schorl, in small, imperfect crystals, thickly interspersed in granite, occurs on the very pmnacle of mount Washington. The mica, contained in the granite, is distinctly foliated, and has the whiteness, and lustre of silver. Intelligence and Miscellanies. 377 3. Mr. Gener’s Remarks on Dr. Jones’ Animadversions. TO THE EDITOR. New York, August 30, 1827. Sir—Through the kindness of your printer, I have re- ceived a proof sheet of Dr. Jones’ (1 am ashamed to repeat it, for the honor of philosophy,) animadversions on my memo- rial on the upward forces of fluids, and if it is not too late*, T hope that these few lines will also find, in the same num- ber of your Journal, where those appalling animadversions will appear, the following humble and short rejoinder, name- ly ; that being satisfied that in experimental philosophy and practical mechanics, results and facts are the best means of settling points in dispute, I have cultivated, since last fall, in this city, the friendship of philanthropic philosophers, whose pleasure consists in encouraging whatever may eventually be. useful; of liberal citizens, who are always willing to promote the arts, of good hearted mathematicians, who like better to rectify than to rebuke, and of able and public spirited me- chanics, whose experience is a sure guide; and that owing to those favorable circumstances, and an elaborate investigation of whatever, in the science of mechanics, has any connex- ion with my plans, I have very much improved my mechani- cal combinations, for the navigation of the air and water by hydrostatic and aerostatic forces. I shall, in a few days, Sir, be able to make experiments that will attest, 1st, the available power of hydrostatic pressure, and aerostatic levity to propel boats or vessels, deducting all friction and resistance, and 2nd. the additional advantages of a pump totally different from those that I had at first contemplated, that will double instead of diminishing my powers. I have been also prepar- ing a system of machinery very much simplified, to steer the aeronauts in favorable currents, and endow them with the faculty of raising and lowering themselves by inclined planes, into more favorable strata, if they meet adverse ones; and when my friend Eugene Robertson, whom I expect every day, is arrived, we shall be able to begin progressively, ac- - cording to our means, our aerostatic experiments in a fort of this city, which, under the auspices of our general government © solicited by Mr. Clinton, governor of this State, has been de- *The number containing Dr. Jones’ animadversions was already finished when this letter arrived.— ED. Vou. XIIL—No. 2. 23 378 Intelligence and Miscellanies. signated for that purpose. The spacious and circular yard of that’ fort, called, after the late general Gansevoort, and the adjoining buildings, will become an excellent laboratory, and school of aerostation. In the mean while, Dr. Jones, may animadvert as much as he pleases, he may rest assured that I shall not take the trouble of answering his lucubra- tions, following in that respect, the example of Montgolfier, who, when he published his discovery of the balloons and his contemplated experiments, was assailed from all quarters, with the most scientific dissertations, attempting to prove by ali the rules of mathematics, and the formulas of algebra, that he would fail. I am, I confess, more than ever san- guine in my expectations, but if I am disappointed, you will I know, Sir, be one of those who will say, as of the unfor- tunate Phaeton, Magnis tamen excidit Ausis. Respectfully yours, E. C. Gener. 4. Proceedings of the Lyceum of Natural History, N. York. January, 1827.—A communication was read by the Sec- retary on the Sorghum saccharatum, as an important material to be employed in the manufacture of hats. The author was requested to give publicity to his communication. Mr. Bull presented a valuable series of specimens illustrat- ang the Lehigh coal formation, and announced his intention of presenting a detailed memoir, on the subject at a future meeting. The same gentleman presented fossil ferns, and a new and very remarkable variety of pulverulent talc from the above locality. Major Delafield, presented a remarkable specimen of na- tive magnet, from Warwick, Orange county, and of spinelle in calc. spar from Amity, Orange co. of the variety called ceylanite. . The Prince of Musignano read a continuation of his Sy- nopsis of the genera of American birds. Mr. Barnes communicated a paper on several rare and new species of mollusca. February.—Mr. Barnes presented five varieties of clay from the vicinity of Augusta, Geo. one of these a very fine white clay, is from the locality called chalk hills, and is sup- posed there to be properly a chalk. Inteiligence and Miscellanies. 379 Major Delafield announced the discovery of the aleyonium, im a green sand formation, near Annapolis Maryland, and ex- hibited the fossil. The same gentleman presented a valua- ble collection of European and American minerals; among the latter were beautiful specimens from Warwick, Orange co. N. Y. of massive brown and yellow brucite, granular do. large crystals of a new ore of titanium, with spinelle pleonas- te in brucite and serpentine. Large terminated crystals of hornblende ; gray spinelle with brown brucite, and purple fluate of lime. A paper was read by Dr. De Kay on the Lepidopus cauda- tus, from the coast of North America, presented by Captain Fowler, with a description by Dr. Mitchill, of a new species of cod fish, from our waters. The gadus atro-marginatus formerly described as the ophidium barbatum. The following officers were elected at the anniversary meet- ing of the Society. Joseph Delafield, President. shiahen ay “ Vice Presidents. Jer. Van Rensselaer, Corresponding Secretary. J. S. Graves, Recording Secretary. March.—Major Delafield presented a suite of thirty speei- mens from Easton, Pennsylvania, illustrating the mineralogy of that interesting region. They consisted principally of choice specimens of the talcose and serpentine rocks, with their accompanying magnesian minerals. He, at the same time, exhibited the crystahzed serpentine of that locality, and intimated a belief that the crystals were not pseudomorphous. Capt. LeConte communicated a paper entitled observa- tions on the American plants of the genus tillandsia with de- scriptions of three new species; and another paper describ- ing a new species of Siren, the S. intermedia. See An. Lyc. Vol. 2. ' A communication was received from Dr. De Kay, respect- ing the lower Jaw bone of a Mastodon, recently found at the falls of the White river, Indiana. A box of bituminous coal was presented by governor Clin- ton, from Pennsylvania, about twenty miles from Newton, Cayuga county, N. Y. 380 Intelligence and Miscellanies. Mr. Peale, of the Parthenon Museum, exhibited a small fresh water, double headed tortoise, ina living state. It ap- peared to be the young of the 7. Muhlenbergu, or T. bigut- tata of Say. A superb copy of Ruiz and Pavons’ Flora Peruviana, in three folio volumes, and other rare and valuable works on Natural History, were presented by Dr. David Hosack of this city. A paper was read by the Prince of Musignano, describing several species of birds, recently added by him to the Orni- thology of the United States. Dr. Mitchill communicated a paper entitled observations on the Lythrum verticillatum, popularly known as loose strife, milk-willow-weed, &c. Many facts were stated exhibiting its deleterious effects upon parturient animais. April_—A letter was read from Dr. Woodbury, a corres- ponding member, now in the city of Mexico, accompanied by a box of clover seed, of a peculiar species. It is said to grow to the height of four feet in twenty or thirty days. Mr. Cooper reported on the large serpent. recently exhibit- ed alive, in this city. as the Boa constrictor. It was obtain- ed from Batavia, and Mr. C. regarded it as the Python ty- gris, the rock snake of the English residents at Batavia. Mr. C. presented, at the same time, prepared specimens of the tibia of this animal, illustrating the recent discoveries made by Mayer, of Bonn, that many serpents are provided with feet, although they exist only in a rudimentary state. Professor Dana offered precious garnet from Hanover, New Hampshire. A paper was read by Dr. Torrey on several new plants col- lected by Dr. James, from the Rocky mountains. Major Delafield offered, for inspection, crystalized brucite, from Franklin, N. J. This specimen was interesting, as some foreign mineralogists have doubted whether it ever oc- curs in thisform. The specimen exhibited, is conclusive on this point. The same gentleman also exhibited crystals of sapplure, from Newton, Sussex county, N. J. Prof. J. A. Smith announced his intention of delivering a course of lectures on comparative anatomy, before the society. Intelligence and Miscellanies. 381 Prof. Dana read an account of some experiments on the Sanguinaria Canadensis, from which he had obtained a pe- euliar vegetable principle, termed by him Sanguinarina. He suggests that the coloring matter of the root is a peculiar al- kaline salt. The paper was referred to the committee of pub- lication. See An. Lye. Vol. 2. The same gentleman presented a large mass of sulphuret of copper from Franconia, Vt. He communicated an anal- ysis of this substance, with remarks on Pyritous copper. Re- ferred to the committee of publication. See An. Lyc. Vol. 2. 5. Tioga Coal.—The following additional facts, respecting the Tioga bituminous coal are furnished to us, by Dr. T. Romeyn Beck, of Albany, who read a paper on its topo- graphy and analysis, before the Albany Institute in the win- ter of 1824-5. “It is found at and near the head of the © south branch of the Tioga river, in the town of Covington, Wayne county, Pennsylvania, and about thirty miles south from Painted Post, and fifty miles southwest from Elmira, (both in Tioga county,) in the State of New York, following the course of the river. It was first discovered about the year 1796, by a Mr. Benjamin Patterson, while crossing the coun- try with a party of German emigrants. In the course of a hunting excursion, he found the coal on the top of a hill, where the wind had blown over trees by the roots. . The abundance of wood in this district of country has, un- til late years, prevented much attention to it. Blacksmiths, in the immediate vicinity, have, however used it for some time. The quantity of carbon obtained, in several experiments, was rather larger than that stated by Dr. Meade. While making these experiments, it was deemed worthy of examination, whether the Tioga coal was calculated for the production of carburetted hydrogen. An ounce in powder was put into a stone ware retort, and the heat of a portable furnace applied. Gas soon came over, which had the peculiar smell of carburetted hydrogen, when obtained from bituminous coal, although there was less of petroleum floating on the sur- face of the water thanis usually observed. The gas was pass- ed through water, not lime water, and hence its impurities were not removed. We had obtained two gallons and up- wards, when the process was stopped. It burnt with a yel- low flame, occasionally mixed with blue, the latter doubtless 382 Intelligence and Miscellanies. being carbonic oxide. Works on chemistry mention that one pound of coal will furnish twenty gallons of coal gas. When passed through lime water, its flame could not be distinguished from that of carburetted hidrogen, made in the common way. Both however yielded in brilliancy to the na- tural carburetted hidrogen, which is generated in such abun- dant quantities in Chatauque county, on the borders of Lake Erie, and with a quantity of which I was favored by several friends residing in that vicinity. No doubt can exist of the Tioga coal becoming a satisfac- tory substitute for European coal, whenever the projected wa- ter communication shall render its transportation sufficiently cheap and convenient.” 6. Water Cement oF Soutuineton, Conn. communicated by Mr. Tuomas Lowrey, at the request of Mr. Suetpon Moore.—The hydraulic lime stone of Southington, is found about two and a half miles east of the turnpike road, in Southington, and directly east of the meeting house. The stone is of a blueish grey cast, veined with thin continuous layers of slate, nearly devoid of lime. It is found near the surface of the earth, and is remarkable in having a southerly dip, or inclination of about fifteen degrees, while the strata of slate and secondary rocks in general, incline nearly as much in a north east direction. The quantity of it is doubt- less inexhaustible. The operations of manufacturing it are simple, though attended with considerable labor, and some expense for fuel. The stone is burnt in a common kiln, like quick lime, and requires about the same burning ; it is next ground fine with mill stones, and is then ready for use. The - mode of using it, and mixing the mortar is as follows :— Take about two parts of sand and one of cement and form it into mortar, somewhat thinner than quick lime mortar. If the sand is not good, equal parts of sand and cement should be used. Ifthe situation in which it is employed will admit of its having a short time to dry, before water is admitted to it, it will sooner become firm and secure. But it will set, if ex- posed to water immediately, provided it has sufficient consis- tency, not to be carried away by the water. ‘The uses to which it is applied are various. In addition to its use in the construction of canals, it has been employed for mill dams, cis- terns, cellar walls, vats, and all kinds of mason work, exposed to water. It has been used, in several instances, for the out- side walls of wood houses, and in some instances, for the Intelhgence and Miscellanies. 383 roofs of houses. Its quality is believed to be equal to that of the cements manufactured in the State of New York, for ca- nal, and similar purposes. It has been used in the construc- tion of the aqueducts and culverts on the Farmington canal, and the engineer, and those who superintend the works on. that canal recommend it as being of a good quality. 7. Southern Review.—We have received the Prospectus of a Southern Quarterly Review, to be published at Charles- ton, South Carolina, and to commence on the first of Febru- ary. Judging from our knowledge of the source whence this plan derives its origin, we cannot doubt, that the work will be sustained with talent, learning and industry; and that it will be a source of honor and advantage to the southern states, and contribute to the stock of mental and moral power which constitutes the most important item in our national - wealth. We wish the Southern Review ample success. Each number will contain about two hundred and fifty pages, and the price will be five dollars per annum. Orders for the work may be sent to A. E. Mitusr, Charleston, 8. C. 8. Annunciation of the second part of Professor A. Earon’s Report of the Geological survey on the Erie Canal. Professor Eaton having collected the materials for the second part of the Erie canal survey, which was made at the expense of the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer, its publication willsoon commence in this Journal; and a few pages of each number will be devoted to it until the whole is completed.* Prof. E’s views of geological nomenclature, founded on his ' own examinations, and on those of his colleagues and as- sistants, will appear first. He thinks he has made several discoveries, and detected some errors, since the publication of the first part. Particularly in the argillite, sparry limerock, graywacke, calciferous slate, pyritiferous rock, and old red sand stone. He wishes the following tabular view to be pre- sented to the scientific public for criticism. Any suggestions communicated to him at Troy, New York, before the middle of next February, will be thankfully received by him. In this tabular view, the superincumbent, or basaltic rocks, and alluvial formations, are omitted. The particular locali- * After it is completed in this Journal, it is to appear in the form of the first part, that the whole may be bound up in one volume, 384 Intelligence and Miscellanies. ties upon which Mr. E. relies for the support of his views, will be carefully described, so that any one will be enabled to judge of his accuracy. TABULAR VIEW OF NORTH AMERICAN ROCKS, "PRIMITIVE CLASS. General Strata. |Subordinate rocks. Varieties. Principal Beds. {. Granite, Crystalline, Graphic, Diallage. Slaty (gneiss,) Porphyritic, Steatite. . |Sandy, II. Mica-slate, Fissile, Compact, {11. Hornblende |Granitic, : rocks, Gneissoid, i Augite. Slaty, Green, Sienitic, Porphyritic, IV. Taleose slate, |Chloritic, V. Granular quartz. Opake, Translucent, VI. Granular lime-|Statuary marble, — | White, rock. Slaty, Variegated. TRANSITION CLASS. VII. Argillite, Roof-slate, Shining, Purple, Red, i Earthy, Calciferous sand- Glazed slate, e rock. Flinty slate, Jaspery, Striated quartz. VIII. First gray-|Inclined, Chloritic, wacke, Rubblestone, Chloritic, IX. Sparry lime- Slaty, rock, Compact, X&. Calciferous sand Sparry, rock, Geodiferous, _|Semi-opal. XI. Metalliferous |Compact, . Birdseye marble, limerock, Shelly, XII. Second gray-|Horizontal, Red sandstone, wacke, (old red sandstone) Grey sandstone, - Argillaceous, Anthracite. 3 Rubblestone, SECONDARY CLASS. XIII. Millstone Sandy, grit, Conglomerate, Red, (variegated,) | (breccia, ) XIV. Saliferous Sandy, rock, Grey (greyband,) |Marly slate, Sandy, Marly slate, XV. Ferriferous Green, Argillaceaus, slate, Blue, iron ore. XVI. Ferriferous Compact, ~ | Argillaceous, sandrock, Gravelly, ‘| ron ore. XVII. Lias, | Calciferous slate. Gypsum, Intelligence and Miscellanies. 385 General strata. \ Subordinate rocks. Varieties. Principal Beds. Conchoidal slate, Shell limestone. Oolitic limestone, XVIII. Geodifer- Fetid, ous limerock, Sandy, XIX. Cornitiferous : limerock, Hornstone. XX. Third gray- |Pyritiferous slate, Bituminous shells wacke, Red sand (old red and coal. sandstone ?) Grey sandy, Argillaceous, XXI. Pyritiferous |Calcareous, Hornstone? grit, Conglomerate, (breccia, ) 9. New Haven Gymnasium.—The great importance of this undertaking, its close connexion with the interests of learn- ing, the high standing and eminent qualifications of the gen- tlemen concerned, the happy location, the ample accommo- dations of the buildings, and the deep interest of the com-— munity in the success of the enterprise, have induced us to insert, not a mere notice, but the entire prospectus of the in- stitution.—Eprror. Prospectus of the New Haven Gymnasium; a School for the education of Boys, to be established at New Haven, Conn. ; by Sereno E. Dwient and Henry E. Dwient. WE propose in the ensuing spring, to establish, at New Haven, a school for the education of boys; and, have en- gaged the large and commodious building, originally intend- ed as a steam-boat hotel, with the adjacent grounds. ‘The house is one mile from the college, and three fourths of a mile from the centre of the town; and commands a fine view of the New Haven valley, and the surrounding mountains, of the harbor, the Sound, and Long Island. New Haven, as a place of moderate size and great salu- brity, as distinguished for the beauty of its site and environs, the neatness of its buildings and grounds, and the richness of its foliage, and as presenting a state of society in a high degree moral, enlightened and polished, is a favoured seat of educa- tion. It is within eight hours travel from New York, and within less than twenty-four from Boston, Albany, and Phil- adelphia, and has a direct communication with every part of the United States. The proposed institution, in its general plan, is intended to resemble the Round Hill School, at Northampton; the proprietors of which, for having introduced the Gymnasium Vou. XITIL—No. 2. Q4 386 Intelligence and Miscellanies. into this country with so much talent and success, deserve the thanks of the friends of literature; as they do ours also, for the frankness and cordiality with which they have second- ed our design. We propose, with the boys, to occupy the house as a fami- ly, to take the entire charge of them, and to stand in the place of their parents. The government of the institution will be at once strict and parental. The boys, unless on special oc- casions, will not be allowed to leave the grounds, except in company with a teacher or guardian. They will be permit- ted to contract no debt, and to make no purchases for them- selves. It is intended to have them always, in effect, under our own eye, and to fill up their time with study and useful recreation. Wishing to form the character from an early period, and not to be responsible for habits and a character formed else- where, we propose to receive boys of the age of siz, and to decline (unless in peculiar cases) commencing with any after the age of fourteen. A part of each day is to be regularly devoted to Gymnastic exercises. These, with other active employments, are the best means of preserving the health, and invigoratmg the constitution. Assiduous attention will be paid to the subject of Manners.’ bee As some boys are designed for college, and others are not, the course of education will be accommodated, in each case, to the wishes of the parent. Both classes of boys will need instruction in Spelling, Reading, Writing and Drawing, in Declamation and Composition, in Arithmetic and Alge- bra. Geography, with the aid of the best books, of maps, charts, and globes, ig to be pursued as an object of prime importance. Both will also study French, Spanish, Ger- man and Italian under native teachers: and for this end measures have been taken to procure the assistance of gentle- men of acknowledged talents and character. The boys preparing for college will likewise be taught Lat- in, and Greek, with the elements of History, and where it is wished the Hebrew. The boys not intended for college will, in addition to the above, be taught Latin if the parents consent, English Gram- mar, Rhetoric, and as extensive a course of Mathematics as is desired. | They will have the opportunity to receive a regular course of instruction in Botany, History, Logic, Ethics, Men- tal Philosophy and Political Kconomy. It is expected also, Intelligence and Miscellanies. 387 that, those students, who have been sufficiently long in a course of education, and have made the requisite attainments, will be permitted to attend the course of Lectures on Chem- istry, Mineralogy, and Geology, by Professor Sintiman ; and the course on Natural Philosophy and Astronomy, by Profes- sor OLMSTED. The religious instruction of the pupils will be parental. The great aim will be to train them up in the fear of God. Each day will begin and end with reading the scriptures and prayer. The Bible will be a class-book on the sabbath ; and the pupils will attend church at the place designated by their parents. This is our general plan: we shall aim to execute it with fidelity ; reserving, however, the right of making such altera- tions as experience shall show to be necessary. -With the subject of education, we are not wholly unacquainted. -One of us has been occupied for a considerable period, in a course of collegiate instruction. Both of us have had the privilege of surveying many of the principal seminaries of Europe ; and one of us, during a long residence in Germany, has exa- mined, with the utmost attention and care, the system of ed- ucation pursued in several of her Universities, and in her Aca- demic and Commercial Gymnasia. There will be two vacations in the year, each of three weeks ; the first to commence on the first Wednesday of May; the other on the second Wednesday of September. During both, the boys may remain at the school without ad- ditional expense. We shall have a valuable library of the best authors in English, Latin, Greek, French, Spanish, Italian, and German. The annual charge for boys of ten years and over is three hundred dollars ; but a deduction will be made where two or more come from one family, at the same time. The charge for boys under ten is two hundred and fifty dollars. In this sum are comprized all charges for instruction, including the tickets for the college lectures, board, washing and mending, room, fu- el, lights, and furniture, except a bed or mattress, and bed- . clothing, to be furnished by the pupil. These may be procured on the spot, at a fair price. Where it is wished, the cloth- ing of the boys can be procured by us, and on terms advan- tageous to the parent. It is intended to open the institution on the ist of May, 1828. Sereno E. Dwieut, New Haven, Nov. 28, 1827. — Henry E. Dwieut. 388 Intelhgence and Miscellanies. 10. Protest against the admission of a power of fascination in Snakes. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. West Chester, Penn. August 4, 1827. Sir—I was rather surprised to observe an article, in the last number of the American Journal of Science and Arts, (Vol. xii. page 368,) which speaks of the supposed fascinating power of snakes, as though it were an established fact. The writer professes to be “convinced by ocular demonstration ;” and yet, so differently do men view occurrences of a similar character,—I have witnessed cases fully as much in point, and [ think even stronger than the one there related, which “ con- vinced” me, that the notion of a fascinating power, in those animals is an utter fallacy, and delusion. I had supposed, indeed, that the doctrine, (so far as intelligent, cautious ob- servers of the phenomena of natural history were concerned,) had long since descended to the “tomb of the Capulets,” together with the kindred belief, that certain aged and ill-fa- vored females, of our own species, were also endowed with the power of incantation. At all events, I think those who undertake, at this time of day, to demonstrate the existence of such a power, in serpents, ought at least to furnish cases in which the process was consummated; and not content themselves, as they almost invariably do, with relating in- stances in which the operation was interrupted by some ac- cident, or interference. Such evidence I consider very in- adequate to the establishment of so extraordinary a process as that which is understood by fascination. In the numerous cases which I have heard related, something always occurred to break the charm; and the excited feelings of the observer enabled him to imagine the catastrophe that was about to happen! 'Testimony of this de- scription can never satisfy a mind that-is not strongly pre- disposed to an implicit faith in the marvellous. What is there in the eyes of a snake, more than in those of a cat, by which birds may be fascinated? Birds will flutter and hover round both these relentless enemies, at certain sea- sons and do often fall victims to the wiles and dexterity of both: but to assert that there is a magic influence by which they are attracted into the jaws of a known enemy, is an at- tempt to tax our credulity rather too severely, for the present condition of science. The artifices of birds, to decoy unwel- Intelligence and Miscellames. 389 come visiters from their nests, are oftentimes very remarkable. I have seen them simulate lameness, and flutter about as though they were much crippled, evidently for the purpose of attracting attention, and drawing the visiter in pursuit of themselves, in order to save their tender young. Indeed, their extraordinary manceuvres, on such occasions, might readily be mistaken, by a believer in fascination, for the effect of some such imaginary power. ‘That the same artifices are employed by the feathered tribes to divert snakes, cats, and all other in- truders, known, or supposed to be dangerous, from the neigh- borhood of their nests, there can be little doubt. The grave tales, however, which are related of snakes charming birds, drawing squirrels down from tree tops, and even subjecting human beings to their incantations, are so entirely foreign to all my ideas of rationality, and so inconsist- ent with all my own observations, that I am fully prepared to reply to such representations, in the language of the Roman Poet :— “< Quodcunque ostendis mihi sic, incredulus odi.” I do not deem it necessary to detail my reasons, tn extenso, for disbelieving what I am convinced is a vulgar error. I should as soon think of troubling you with a series of argu- ments against the doctrines of water smelling or witchcraft. It is for those who contend for the facts, to furnish conclusive evidence of their existence. The actual state of natural science, requires that substantial proof be afforded, to induce a belief of improbable things. My only object, in this hasty notice of the matter, is to enter my humble protest against such a doctrine passing to the world through an “ American Journal of Science,” without something like satisfactory evi- dence of its correctness. The preceding article was intended for the former number of this Journal, but arrived too late for insertion. The very respectable author has, by fair implication, conceded in his denial and rebuke, all that any sensible man probably be- lieves on the subject ; that is to say, that by terror or by en- grossment of the faculties in some other way, one animal has it sometimes, in his power, to place another animal off his guard, and to bring him within his reach, so that he thus becomes his prey ; just as a child, or even a botanist, fasci- nated by the beauty of flowers and plants, may so far forget > 390 Intelligence and Miscellanies. his safety, as to venture too near to the edge of a precipice, till an unconscious movement precipitates him fatally to the rocky bottom, or into a watery abyss. ‘This is, (at least figuratively,) fascination, but it is not witchcraft, and it was all that was intended by the case stated by us, in support of the communication on the so called, fascinating power of snakes.—Ep1Tor. 11.—New work on Ichthyology.—Proposals for publishing by subscription, a work on the Fish of North America, with plates, drawn and colored from nature, by C. A. Lesueur. This work will be published at New Harmony, Indiana, in numbers, with four colored plates in each, and the neces- sary letter-press containing the descriptions of the species represented. Twelve numbers will constitute a volume. Messrs. Tiebout, and other artists from Philadelphia, who were there occupied on the “‘ American Entomology,” are engaged for this work. Books with colored plates, are gen- erally beyond the reach of persons of limited means ; but it is intended, that the present work shall be adapted to the circumstances of all. The price to subscribers will therefore be forty centseach number. Subscriptions for the above work may be sent in to the Ed- itor of this Journal, who will be furnished with copies to sup- ply all the subscribers whose names may be sent to him, and he is authorized to receive the subscription money for the publishers. ; The scientific and graphic skill of Mr. Lesueur are so well known, that any recommendation is superfluous. It must however appear to al] persons interested in natural his- tory very desirable to obtain faithful copies from nature, with accurate descriptions for so small a sum, as the expense of colored engravings of natural objects is generally so great that they are beyond the reach of all, except the wealthy. The present work would have cost six times as much in France, and eight times as much in England. Sea vidne A « Rage dh —e : . — 7 ~ im a Intelligence and Miscellanies. 391 12. Doe Tras or toe Norte West—wity A Paint. Extract of a Letter from Dr. Lyman Foor, from Canton- ment Brady, Sault St. Marie, Lake Superior, to the Editor. Thinking it might be some amusement to you, fo see the mode of travelling in the Northwest, Mrs. Foot, has sketched a dog train, which I enclose you. ‘Three dogs will carry a man and his provisions. ‘The traders travel all over the wilderness with them, over unbeaten snow, generally fol- lowing the course of rivers. As night approaches, the traveller seeks a thicket, to pro- tect him as much as possible from the wind. He then digs an elliptical hole in the snow, with a snow shoe, at one end of which a fire is built. The bottom is covered with ever- green boughs, on which he spreads a blanket, and: wraps himself up, with his feet to the fire. If the night is stormy, large evergreen boughs are placed across the hole, support- ed by the walls of snow on each side. Thus the traveller. and his dogs sleep comfortably, in the coldest weather. A more particular notice contained in a letter from Dr. Foot, to the Editor is subjoined :— The dogs are easily trained to turn, halt, and go by word of command. The whip is only meant to crack at them or give any one of them a severe whipping if he is obstinate. When the traveller wishes his dogs to turn to the left, he says “ chuck,” or “ chuch,” and cracks his little whip on the right side of his train; if to the right he says “ge,” and cracks it on the left side. When they wish them to start or quicken their gate, he says “ march,” or “avance;” (avancez,) when they wish to turn short about, they most commonly get out, or put one foot out, slew the train partly round and say, “ vena isse,”’ (venez ic?,) or as the Canadians pronounce it “ vena issit,”” making a motion with the little whip at the same time. It is astonishing to see with what facility dogs are taught and managed. J! own a train of dogs, one of which I broke my- self. They are a great amusement to me in winter. » I fre- quently ride over the river, and a mile or two round for - amusement, and have, with three dogs, taken my wife and little boy a mile, to make calls on a genteel family, over the river, (a Mr. Erwatingen,) who has resided here ten years, carrying on the fur trade. As to the traveller’s sleeping, you will hardly believe what I tell you. Those who travel with trains, think no more of sleeping in the woods, in the coldest nights, than you would of sleeping on your dining room carpet. There is a little man- 392 Intelligence and Miscellanies. agement necessary, however. They first endeavor to select a thicket: they next dig away the snow to the ground, with a snow shoe, which they always carry, and build a large fire. They then (after boiling their chocolate, &c. &c.) cover a spot close to the fire, with some small boughs of evergreens, such as hemlock or spruce, and if it storms, raise a little covering of evergreens over them, a little resembling a rural cot. There, with two blankets, they will lie down by their fire, dogs and all, and sleep comfortably all night. 13. Measurements of Crystals of Zircon, from Buncomb, North Carolina; by Cuaries U. Sueparp. The Zircon, of whose crystals are subjoined figures, was discovered in 1820, by Dr. T. D. Porter, and described in Vol. iii, p. 229, of this Journal. It is so interesting from the unusual dimensions, and perfection of form, possessed by its crystals, that I am persuaded a more particular account of it will not be unacceptable, and may be of use in leading some mineralogist to explore a locality which has been too much neglected, for one, which promises to be so peculiarly rich. Dr. P. does not mention whether the Zircon is found im- bedded or detached ; but as all the specimens furnished by him, to the Yale College cabinet are loose, and as some of them present rounded angles, and occasionally have their cavities occupied by a soft decomposing feldspar, it appears probable, that they might have occurred in an alluvial situation, agree- ably to the manner in which they are found in other coun- tries. The fine lustre of the crystals enabled me to avail myself of the use of the reflective goniometer in determining the value of their angles. P on P, or P’ on P’ over the summit - 95° 30’ = - 2 - - 132, 19 Oo - - oe - 162. o—a - - - : 152 Foreign Literature and Science. 393 ' These figures embrace all the modifications possessed by the collection sent hither by Dr. P. with the exception of a crystal, in which, one of the solid angles formed by the meet- ing of the prism with the pyramid, was replaced by a single plane, whose inclination to the adjacent planes, it was impos- sible to ascertain, owing to its smallness and want of lustre. The beautiful form, fig. 1, appears to be the most abundant modification of this locality. In some cases, the prism inter- vening between the two pyramids is not so long as is repre- sented in the annexed diagrams, and rarely, it is so short, as to bring the bases of the pyramids nearly into contact. Il. Foreign Literature and Science, extracted and iranslated by Prof. J. Griscom. 1. Remedy against the dangers of the inspiration of Chlo- rine.—M. Kastner has advised liquid ammonia on sugar. The following method is of certain efficacy; it consists in breathing the vapor of spirits of wine, or in swallowing lumps of sugar, steeped in alcohol Annales des Mines, prem: Liv. 1827, 2. Chemical researches on Starch, by J. B. Cavewron.— Starch is insoluble in cold water ; it forms with boiling water what is called, (in French,) empois. I distinguish two kinds of empois: 1, that which contains the least starch, (minimum d’amidon,) and which is entirely transparent, and soluble in cold water; 2, that which contains the most starch, (maxi- mum d’amidon,) which is almost entirely opaque, because it contains starch in suspension. Starch, rendered soluble in . cold water, is modified in its properties; it is the amidine of M. de Saussure; its characters are solubility in cold water, and the property of acquiring a blue color by Iodine. : If a solution of starch is boiled for a long time, it assumes with Iodine, a purplish color. Starch may be brought imme- . diately to the same condition, either by a strong torrefaction, or by heating it with sulphuric acid, diluted with twelve times its weight of water. 7 : If a hot solution of starch be left to itself, during some weeks in the heat of summer, it becomes sour; and if it be then diluted with water, and filtered, the liquor becomes colored Vou. XIIT.—No. 2. ao 394 Foreign Literature and Science. with iodine of a purple, while on the contrary, the insoluble part acquires a blue color.—Idem. 3. Specific heat of the gases—A memotr on this subject, so important in all theoretical discussions upon the physiology of respiration and animal heat, by Aue. De La Rive and F. Marcer, was read before the “ Société de physique et d’his- toire naturelle” of Geneva, on the 19th of May, 1827. After a statement of the difficulties attendant on the practical mves- tigation of the question, and the sources of fallacy which they conceive interfered with the results of their predecessors, and especially with those of De La Roche and Berard, the au- thors explain their procedure, and arrive at the following con- clusions. “1, That under the same pressure, and in equal and con- stant volumes, all gases have the same specific heat. 2. That all other circumstances being the same, the spe- cific heat diminishes, cotemporaneously with the pressure, and in an equal degree in all the gases, following a progres- sion slightly convergent and in a ratio much less than that of the pressure. 3. That each gas has a different conducting power ; in other words, all gases have not the same power to commu- nicate heat.” ‘“« We are of opinion (say the authors) that it is to the want of attending to this last property, that we are to attribute the great difference which is found im the result of different experiments on this subject. In fact, a simple variation in the volume of the gases, may, in many cases, totally change the result; thus M. M. Clement and Desormes, who endeav- oured to determine the specific heat of the gases, by the sudden cooling of large masses, found a very considerable difference for the expression of the capacity of caloric in each gas. In the same manner M. Gay Lussac, in employ- ing considerable volumes, did not find that equality of spe- cific heat, which he had obtained with smaller volumes, and what proves that this remark is well founded, is that the re- sults have always varied in the precise manner in which a difference of conductibility ought necessarily to cause them to vary. Theoretically considered, it was not improbable that the gases, which have all an equal dilatation, and in which this dilatation remains uniform at all temperatures, should have Foreign Literature and Science. 395 the same capacity for caloric ; and that the law which gov- erns this element of heat should be with respect to them, similar to the law of dilatation, in consequence of their con- dition of aeriform fluidity. The memoir of De La Rive and Marcet is published in the Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. for May 1827. 4. The Dead Sea.—An analysis of the water of the Dead Sea, by C. C. Gmelin, has furnished the following result :— The density of this water at the temperature of 163 (Cen- figrade) is 1.21223. Itis composed of Chloride of Calcium - - - 3.2141 Chloride of Magnesium - - 11.7734 Bromide of Magnesium - - - 0.4393 Chloride of Sodium - - FOCTE Chloride of Potassum .— - - - 1.6738 Chloride of Aluminum - - 0.0896 Chloride of Manganese’ - - - 0.2117 Sal Ammoniac - - 0.0075 Sulphate of Lime s - =)" 0527 24.5398 Water - - - - 75.4602 100. Extracted from the Naturwissenschafftiche Abhandlungen. Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. March 1827. 5. Note on a phenomenon exhibited by Blowing Machines ; by M. M. Hackerre and Batttet.—M. Hackette has an- nounced to the society of encouragement that, Thenard and Clement have observed in a blowing machine connected with the works of Fourchembault, department of Nievre, a phe- nomenon which appears at first sight, contrary to the general laws of motion. They were shewn that a pine board placed near the opening of the tube of the bellows, was pressed forcibly against the sleeve into which the tube was adjusted. M. Hackette produced the same effect with a common double bellows, whose tube or muzzle terminated in the cen- tre of a disk of copper, of about three inches in diameter ; the orifice of the tube, flush with the disk, is one fourth of aninch in diameter. A disk of paper or thin card being 396 Foreign Literature and Science. placed under the disk of copper, while the air of the bellows was issuing from the circular border of the two opposite disks of equal diameters, the inferior disk remained suspended, and fell immediately when the bellows were stopped. Hachette has obtained similar results in causing water to flow between disks of various forms in a fall of about sixteen feet. An experiment was made by M. Baillet, some time since, which confirms that of M. Clement, on the valves of steam engines and blowing machines. It shows, that when an elas- tic fluid moves in a tube of a widened form, or in a conical adjutage, the pressure of the fiuid on the interior sides of the adjutage may be less than the atmospheric pressure ; he adds, that this fact beng admitted, we ought to infer from it that when the sides are flexible, they may be crushed by the weight of the atmosphere : this is in fact what has occurred in M. Baillet’s experiment. This experiment consists in giv- “ ing to a sheet of paper the form of a funnel, or a horn, open at each end, and in adapting to the little end the nozle of a common bellows; as soon as the bellows are worked, the paper cone becomes flattened and the expelled air escapes into the atmosphere by an opening less than the primitive opening of the cone.—Bull. d’Encour, Avril, 1827. 6. Rare Insects.—There exists in Livonia, a very rare in- sect, which is not met with in more northern countries, and whose existence was fora long time considered doubtful. It is the Furia Infernalis, described by Linneus in the noveaux memoires del’ Academie d’Upsal, in Sweden. This insect is so small that it is very difficult to distinguish it by the naked eye. In warm weather it descends from the atmosphere upon the inhabitants, and its sting produces a swelling, which unless a proper remedy is applied, proves mortal. . During the hay harvest, other insects named meggar, oc- casion great injury both to men and beasts. They are of the size of a grain of sand. At sunset they appear in great num- bers, descend in a perpendicular line, pierce the strongest linen, and cause an itching and pustules, which if scratched, become dangerous. Cattle, which breathe these insects, are attacked with swellings in the throat, which destroy them unless promptly relieved. They are cured by a fumigation from flax, which occasions a violent cough. Rev, Ency. Juillet, 1827. Foreign Literature and Science. 397 7. Switzerland. Education—The city of Zurich is march- ing in the same career as the capital of Argovie. Its citi- zens have formed an association to which some bring the tri- bute of mere scientific knowledge, and others the needful pe- cuniary aid for the support of a Technological College, where at. the age of 16 years, are received the pupils of other schools, who abandon their classical studies to devote ‘themselves more especially to commerce and the arts of. life. It is only since the commencment of the present year, that this Institution has been open, and it already includes some of the most skillful professors of the canton. . The Instruction is divided into two classes ; the first com- prehends commercial arithmetic and logarithms, applied ge- ometry, practical mechanics, an abridged history of the three kingdoms of nature; geography, physical and mathemati- cal; natural philosophy ; technology ; statistics, commercial and manufacturing, of different nations; the German and Frenchlanguages ; calligraphy; Drawing; and manual exer- cises in different trades. The second class are taught algebra, trigonometry, the- oretical mechanics, zoology, mineralogy, botany, applied chemistry, descriptive geometry, civil architecture, commer- cial law, the art of modelling, and German, French, Italian and English literature. ‘Thus, the impulse given in England and France, by a few philanthropists, is communicated by degrees, to various parts of the continent ; Lausanne, Berne, Geneva and Basle, have already technological Institutes for youth, or Scientific courses, brought to the level of the com- prehension of ordinary adult workmen. These beneficent creations, besides yielding the happiest fruits to the soil where they are already transplanted, cannot fail to extend the in- fluence of good examples to the neighboring cantons, which include a numerous manufacturing population, worthy of en- joying the zeal of the philanthropists.——Idem. 8. French Institute, July 9, 1827.—Cuvier T. Corpizr made.a report on a memoir of Constant Prevost, entitled: Geological examination of this question; Have the conti- nents which we inhabit, been, at various times submerged by the sea? The author arrives at this first conclusion; “ The coun- tries which are occupied by alluvium (terrain de transport) and sediments, have been covered by the waters during all” the times that these deposits required. Supposing that in 398 Foreign Literature and Science. general, the level of the sea has actually undergone a slow and progressive abasement, since the origin of things, the au- thor undertakes to explain the manner in which the tertiary deposits of the environs of Paris have been formed, and those connected with them, both in the direction of the Loire, and beyond the channel, to the neighborhood of the Isle.of Wight. The substance of his mode of explanation is this: First epoch. A sea, calm and deep, deposits the two varieties of chalk, which constitute the borders of the bottom of the great tertiary basin we are speaking of. Second epoch. In con- sequence of the progressive sinking of the ocean, the great basin becomes a gulf, in which the flow of rivers forms chalk, breccia and plastic clay, which are soon covered by the marine spoils of the first calcaire grossier. Third epoch. The deposits are interrupted by a commotion which breaks and visibly displaces the beds.. The basin becomes a salt lake, traversed by voluminous currents, issuing alternately from the sea and from the continents, and which present the mixture and intermingling of substances which characterise the second calcaire grossier, the calcaire siliceux, and the gvp- sum. Fourth epoch. An irruption of a great quantity of fresh water, charged with clay and marl, in the midst of which there continued to form some deposits of bivalve marine shells. The basin isno more than an immense pond of brackish water. Fifth epoch. The basin ceases to com- municate with the ocean, and the level of its waters sinks be- low that of the sea. ‘The muddy depositions of the continen- tal waters continue. Sizth epoch. An accidental irrup- tion of the ocean, which deposits sand and superior marine grit; immediately after, the basin almost filled, contains only fresh water, of little depth ; it receives a less influx from the land vegetables, and lake animals begin to prevail, and mill stone and fresh water calcaire are deposited. Seventh epoch. The succession of these various operations is terminated by the diluvian cataclysm.” The academy directed that the work of Constant Prevost should be printed in the Recueil des savans etrangers.—Idem. 9. Nature of Brome. Electric Conductibility.—A letter from Aveuste De La Rive, professor of chemistry, of Ge- neva, to M: Araco, dated Geneva, June 4, 1827, contains the ’ following interesting particulars. Foreign Literature and Science. 399 “1, I filled a small glass capsule with pure brome, (taken from a portion which had been received from M. Balard, the discoverer,)into which I plunged the two platina wires of the pile, (a pile of sixty pairs, very strongly charged.) very near each other, without obtaining the least deviation in the needle of the galvanometer. 2. In lieu of the capsule of brome, I substituted a perfectly similar capsule of distilled water, and in the same circumstan- ces, I obtained a deviation scarcely sensible. Other trials in- duced me to believe that water, perfectly distilled, and con- tained in a vessel composed of a substance absolutely inat- tackable will not conduct electricity at all. The purer the water, and less attackable the vessel, the more feeble is the conductibility, until the deviation becomes insensible. 3. Into the capsule containing distilled water, I poured a ‘few drops of brome; a small portion only of which was.dis- solved, coloring the water yellow: placed in the voltaic cir- cuit, this solution produced a deviation of 70°, and a disen-. gagement of gas, very abundant, was manifest on the two platina wires. This gas, collected and examined with care, proved to be oxygen at the positive pole, and hydrogen, in precisely double the quantity, at the negative pole, showing that the water alone was decomposed.” It appears from this, that a non-conductor, or at least, a very imperfect conductor, such as pure water, may, by mix- ture with a few drops of a substance, also a non-conductor, brome, become a good conductor. I have found that 1odine is in the same predicament with chlorine and brome; when pure, it is a non-conductor; in solution, it conducts well and gives rise to the decomposition of the water. My father, a long time since discovered, that sulphuric acid, when diluted, is a better conductor than when concentrated. Could it be obtained perfectly anhydrous, it might, perhaps, prove to be a non-conductor of electricity. Is it not possible, that in the phenomena I have described, the interposition of heterogeneous molecules, between the mole- cules of water, may bear some resemblance to that of inter- posed plates in the passage of electricity in a liquid.” With a view to determine whether brome contains iodine, as has been supposed, professor De la Rive further states, that to a solution of starch colored blue by iodine, he added a few drops of brome, and obtained a compound which gave to starch two distinct colors, the one brownish and the other 400 Foreign Literature and Science. yellowish. When this compound was submitted to the ac- tion of the pile, the yellowish solution assumed a fine blue color at the negative pole, indicating the presence of iodine ; and an orange color at the positive pole, to which the brome appeared to be transported. The smallest quantity of brome or of iodine, found in a state of combination may, it appears, be thus manifested. If then brome is a compound which contains iodine, by putting a solution of brome and starch in the voltaic circuit, the iodine will be seen giving a blue color at one of the poles. But though the experiment has been carefully made, no such change has been apparent, and) hence, there is good reason to infer, that brome is an element, of the same genus as chlorine and iodine. Brome, when combined with iodine, goes to the positive pole, and consequently is more negative, which agrees with the observations of Balard, who found that brome had more affinity for bases than iodine. But when water, which holds brome in solution, is decomposed, hydrogen is obtained at the negative pole, as when a solution of iodine is decomposed. If the water be impregnated with chlorine, no gas is obtained at that pole, because chlorine having a greater afiinity for the bases than iodine or brome, combines immediately with the hydrogen and forms hydrochloric acid which remains dis- solved. “'These few experiments appear to me sufficient to con- firm the opinion of M. Balard relative to the nature of brome, and the place it should occupy between chlorine and iodine.” —Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. June 1827. 10. Adulteration of Sulphate of Quinine by Sugar, by M. Winxier.—The author having received some sulphate of quinine mixed with sugar, invites the attention of physicians and pharmacopolists to this new species of fraud, and propos- es the following method of detecting it. Dissolve the salt in water, and precipitate the quinine by carbonate of potash. Filter the liquid and evaporate to dryness; the residue: being treated with alcohol, the latter dissolves the sugar and. leaves the sulphate of potash and the excess of carbonate un- touched: on evaporating the alcohol the sugar is obtamed quite pure.— Bull. Univ. Fer. 1827. INDEX TO VOLUME XIII. = 9-—— A Arrica, volcanic character of, 183 Alabama, geology cf, 77 Alcohol, disinfection of, 174 Alimentary substances, preservation of, 163 Alkaline Chiorides. 169 Alloy of copper, zinc, and nickel, 172 America, voicanic character of, 302 Ammonia, in the rust of iron, 181 Analysis of a Mineral Spring at Albany, 145 — of the Tioga Coal, 32 of Mr. Scrope’s work, on volcanos, 108 — of Olivine and Chrysolite, 184 Anhydrous sulphuric Acid, action of, 174 sulphate of Soda, 185 Answer to Mr. Quinby, 75 Ants, battle of, 177 Apparatus, chemical, description of, 1 Asia, volcanic character of, 290 Astronomical Observatory, 160 Atmosphere, pressure of, within the cataract of N lagara, 364 Atmospheric air, liquefaction of, 189 B Bailey, E. on the use of Soapstone to diminish friction, 192 Barnes, D. H., his reclamation of Unios, 358 on magnetic polarity, ‘71 on doubtful reptiles, 66 Barytes, action of, on Animals, 178 Bismuth Cobalt ore, 187 Blacking, preparation of, 163 Blake, E. W. his reply to Mr. Quinby, 350 Blowing Machines, 395 Bone, strength of, 189 Brome, nature of, 398 Vox. XIII.—No. 2. 96 402 INDEX. C Camphor, crystallization of, 175 Carbon, Oxide of, 186 Carpenter, G. W. on Opium, 17 , on Piperine, 326 Chinese Paper, 171 Chlorate of Lime, 179 Chlorine, remedy for the inspiration of, 393 Chrome, action on animals, 178 Chrysolite, analysis of, 184 Cleaveland, Prof. new edition of his Mineralogy, 198 Clock, improved one, 182 Coat of Mail, 199 Comet of short period, 189 Continent of Greece, volcanic character of, 281 Copal, solution of, 174 Cyanuret of Iodine, 181 D Daubeny, Prof. upon volcanos, notice and analysis. of, 235 Dead Sea, analysis of, 395 De Kay, J. E. on the supposed transportation of rocks, 348 Dog Trains, 391 Doolittle, I. his description of an Hydrostat, 64 Dwight, S. E. notice of Meteoric fire ball, 35 and H. E. new Seminary, 385 — E Eaton, Prof.. remarks on Forest and Orchard Trees, 192 - annunciation of his geological report, 383 Elaine, separation of, from oils, 186 Epistilbite, identity with Heulandite, 185 Fascination by Snakes, 388 Fellenberg, M. de, his new school, 166. Flame, theory of, 1'79 Fossil Vertebra, enormous one, 186 French Institute, 397 G Gases, specific heat of, 394 Genet, animadversions on his memorial, 79 INDEX. 403 Genet, his reply to Dr. Jones, 377 Geodoetical observations, 188 Gold Mines of North Carolina, remarks upon, by Charles E. Rothe, 201 Gold, Mosaic, 174 Grecian Archipelago, volcanic character of 279 Gymnasium in New Haven, 385 H Hall, Capt. Basil, on the pressure of the atmosphere within the cataract of Niagara, 364 Hall, Prof. his Miscellaneous notices, 373 Hare, Prof. description of chemical apparatus, 1 on lightning rods, 322 Rejoinder to Prof. Olmsted, 8 Hayes, A. A. his localities of Minerals, 195 Hazard, Mr. on the bursting of boilers of Steam Engines, 56 Heulandite, identity with Epistilbite, 185 High pressure Steam Engines, 40 Hildreth, S. P. Dr. upon the coal and diluvial strata of Ohio, 38 Hopkins, Mark, on Mystery, 217 Human body, ie in, 229 Hungary, education in, 165 volcanic character of, 245 Hydrostat, description of, 64 1 Iceland, volcanic character of 276 Ichthyolites, of Mount Bolea, 255 Ichthyology, new work upon, 390 Insects, rare ones, 396 Introduction to the study of Botany, by T. Nuttall, notice of, 99 Iron and Manganese, separation of, 173 Iron, varieties of, 159 Italy, volcanic character of, 252 J Jones, T. P. his animadversions upon Mr. Genet’s memorial, 79 L La Place, de, death of, 166 La Rowchefoucauld, death of, 167 404 INDEX. Larve, Jer. Van Rensselaer on, 229 Light, Monochromatic, 190 Lightning rods, Prof. Hare on, 322 Localities of Minerals, by A. A. Hayes, 195 M Magnetism, animal, 175 Magnetism by solar rays, 171 - Marshall, C. H. Capt. on a temporary rudder, 371 Mather, W. M. on the non conducting power of water, 368 Meade, Wm. Dr. Analysis of Mineral Spring, &c. 145 - Analysis of Tioga Coal, 32 Mesotype, locality of, 198 Meteoric Fire Balls, notice of, 35 Micrometical observations, 172 Minerals, cabinet of, for sale, 199 — exchange ‘of, proposed, 199 Mitchell, Prof. on the low country of North Carolina, 336 Mount Bolca, formation of, 255 Mule Silver, 200 Mutual Instruction, 173 Mystery, Mark Hopkins, on, 217 N Natural History of Orange co. N. Y. data for, 224 North Carolina, Gold Mines of, 201 — ———— on the low country of, 336 Notice and Analysis of Prof. Daubeny’s work upon active and extinct Volcanos, 235 Necrology, 166 Neuchatel, 182 New Haven, Gymnasium at, 385 Nuttall, T. notice of his introduction to the study of Botany, 99 O Ohio, Coal and diluvial strata of, 38 - people of, 200 Olivine, analysis of, 184 Opium, observations and experiments upon, 4 Oxalates, experiments upon, 188 P Piperine, experiments upon, 326 Perkins, Jacob, Esq. nO Steam ana 40 INDEX. 405 Pestalozzi, death of, 183 Phosphate Manganese, new locality of, 196 Phosphorus in Kelp, 187 Plants, cultivation of, in Moss, 189 Porter, Wm. S. remarks on the geology of Alabama, by, ‘77 Powder Mills, 161 Principia of Newton, review of, continued from Vol. xii. 311 Proceedings of the Lyceum of Natural History, 378 Public Instruction, 159 Pyroligneous Acid, 175. Q Quinby, Mr. his reply to Mr. Blake, 73 - —- answer to, 75 - — rejoinder of, 356 Quinine, Sulphate of, 400 R Reclamation of Unios, 358 Refrigerating mixture, metallic, 171 Rejoinder to Prof. Olmsted by Prof. Hare, 8 Rensselaer, Jer. Van, Dr. on the Natural History of Orange county, New York, 224 ———————— on Larve, 229 Reply of Mr. Quinby to Mr. Blake, 73 Rocks, on the supposed transportation of, 348 Robinson, Dr. his Cabinet of Minerals, 199 Rothe, Charles E. remarks upon the Gold Mines of North Car- olina, by, 201 Rudder, temporary one, 371 School of Agriculture, 1'79 Arts, 176 Science, progress of, 183 Scrope, G. P. his work on Volcanos, analysis of 108 ; his letter to the Editor on Volcanos in North America, 190 Serpentine of Kellyvale, 200 Shepard, Charles U. on Phosphate of Manganese, Tabular Spar, &c. 196 — measurements of crystals of Zircon, by, 392 Sicily volcanic character of, 272. ae 406 INDEX. Soapstone, its use to diminish friction, 192 Soda, preparation of, 176 Solar rays, Magnetic influence of, 188 Southern Review, 383 Specific heat of the Gases, 394 Starch, Chemical researches on, 393 Steam, power of, 180 Strontian, action on Animals, 178 Switzerland, education in, 397 — ae Tabular Spar, new locality of, 198 Tioga Coal, 381 Transylvania, volcanic character of, 251 4 Vapor, new phenomena of, 161 Volcanos, notice of Prof. Daubeny’s work on, 235 Mr. Scropes letter on, 190 Ww Water Cement, 382 Water, compression of, 189 its non conducting power, 366 Z Zircon, measurements of crystals of, from North Carolina, 392 Fig 1. KA. 400, nh AAU O75 Fig.1.BB. 475. » 2BB, 125, G00. Fig. 1.C€. 125. 2. CC. 600. 4 TE "Fig LDD.A00. LDD. 275, Fig.l. EE. 475. FGPG ZA Fig lL YE, 125. » 2. EF. G00. GAS: Ls | | _ teed or supply pipe leading trom orang pump. . stop cock. ; : . piretare. - Hoater with stern. & ratchet. . guides. 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