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Bb sedey. eb pak ainbe tpcitg pad 1 Hr ge oN IP ae Tak 1S UT IN wena pe ak pe eb yt Denby ta a eee kp nabs A fo a obs Bk al hte spall alot bot 9 om Rat erp ere , . ; RMT TL naira SY Ua Cr OC RN a hee rare att ae eS 7 FR eran WS ea Pn a pe beke be ke bel ee bee ork oy Pein oe DAP a ba Meek ae Wi Pe Ke WEN te RR Tet Mee Gtk ard P tard oa WE beige ged we oo ore faster eb ryt eso on TED Gee ded fete dee mice wae wu sin ete bb Hoenn a ra hab wip GoW TON bs teal i Prien areraen oo ae oh eee Ped ararcrac Tia oe ON pee SE OAT Pe Cade Crh pals Bebb hand Bain one eee nk bane en vein re ab ete Pad de th he ee i pe ba Ae Pea adit a abel ons barb testiot 0 ab eben He oped stew ar rnb te oat iy Reels rn bee eet pe bob eho baeder bed ied ol fob bbs deen bod vee de twete Bren water poder) tier it Geren? pop Wee ve esha heak dy ane rae ae rie MY feo Cee Se) TCP RL A de tert Ce a CY fT be ght we bp me Pde tis beads qb re vn ea a bhrarhinee ‘ tol Rear RMON en ie ah Le RR ca Tt Hite ‘ tinue ‘ Oo nO Syke teed Faw pu gta #8 eC rae a Peer dw eene H cre ip eaj arab seid Mate ak 1b heeds Olen feo Whe oh ya Teena age ae em oe are ee ee ’ para a otee be NAM BROT Pen eye Pees ard ied eID Rip ws nek ae hed stp has Brat en yige be eee tee He Mts B Uhre cb mane od eae B aigpde br 19 E16 hid peeve . bare da te we Pa eee ae eae ee boltese hnowt en et BE 98 ag 0 U8 pee tauy ete ‘ ‘ Cre eee bor fetes Beats Fined wee et wotec em eae via te rere me eee Aerenicae te Weer Fated pig ata boreeny a tate ue Rte hae etedey Cab bh ee eh a ene be ke dS aeebaipe ee pa bssne peel IRBs een he G2" Re by Ls 1 Wah pn cts Ua a tm Tek bee a ee eed bbw PRR ATOR IIS SE OC Re CR Lek Uh Del ih eB dB oe bend ws Pb ted be oO he ' Speaks ne abet ws be gM eh eI AD op oftagr a baa eA ha Geechee eds Ow og thee ET ibedete re PORE a: wie Hiteds Tey Ges rotee Pre ee Fak eB ote te ted ie eee ae Se ee ye ee ee Pen Be SMe et ee tain be ee teed eae reer ay rs Rawr trina tre a a Se ue a a dense de ae bei here ee td NR Oe oe te en Pa fe Para ec i i ra Par Wn re ee A ee We ye ee were Sere Fee awe Pieees ria ea ke PR Pia MMe ie Me SEL vce atid vow uae bgee tee Nbsie HP ees ate wat eek cere STRAT a TT aren Prarie me en RC We AEE UE ME Ab Ay et) seca ete ee SIA ft Hye be bd Rb Oe em te bot | Pern war ie er ie Te era ee Ph Me ok a Or ee a Pier reer ir mr a Cr Oi er CO Wi wane dese ect AE a bw ied Oa earn ee A ee Serna Te WY CITY 0) ee A adie gage sheun ae aha bs ee Ne obo nke yb Be 9 ety ore See re Ta Mere CP IT a Do A aC Nt At a A oes eee e Para ar tr in Wate vere eeepc ae er Pere een Deicke ce ee tts bento grb ka BGs om thes dna Litas as eg EL ae | ~ Pe es ae a Fr + Sak st bb ag: ok CMA a bse ie 4b ed te ae ee Gok ob O48 Cr ee eC Ce Ce t e, san dad Ad Aa ehe ee en we tear le | a reid: § ea! i : : 4 oh oa y AMERICAN JOURNAL | OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL. D. Prof. Chem., Min., &c. in ¥ale Coll.; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man. and Com.; and For. Mem. Geol. Soc., London; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., Dresden; Imp. Agric. Soc., Moscow; Hon. Mem. Lin. Soc., Paris; Nat. Hist. Soc. Belfast, Ire.; Phil. and Lit. Soc. Bristol, Eng.; Mem. of various Lit. and Scien. Soc. in America. VOL. XVUI.—JULY, 1830. NEW HAVEN: Published and Sold by HEZEKIAH HOWE and A. H. MALTBY. Philadelphia, E. LITTELL & BROTHER.—WNew York, G. & C. & H. CARVILL.—Boston, HILLIARD, GRAY, LITTLE & WILKINS. PRINTED BY HEZEKIAH HOWE. ag RAE” oat ents Fk ee geo: WR {eS Tire i gt 4 AS Lori ire, ah ek , . coal aX > 5 3 » ) A) a ©. warional Se Pier n/p oe i : ie XXII. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XVIII. —<—>— NUMBER I. Page. . Of the Phenomena and Causes of Hail Storms. es Professor Denison Oxmstep, - - - . Architecture in the United States, - - - Sketch of a Classification of the European Recles: by Henry T. De ta Becue, Esq. F. R. S. &c. - - . On the Rectification of the Ellipse; by C. Wixprr, - Notices and Observations on the American Clende, or Locust; by Dr. S. P. HILpRETH, _ The Gold of the Carolinas in Talcose Slate; by Prof. Eaton, - . On the Office of the N inenen af the air, in ae process of Respiration; by Prof. Lewis C. Becx, M.D. - . Notice of Animalcules in Snow; by Dr. Josern E. Mus, v . The Iodide of Palaceitnre, (Hydriodate of Ponca of the shops,) as a test for Arsenic; by Prof. J. FE Emmet, Univ. Virgin. > . On the Dew Point; by A. A. Ere - - . On the cause of the peculiar aspech of the ait, in the Indian Summer, - . Solution of a Problem in Fluxions; ine Prof. Taro- DORE STRONG, - - - - - = - . On capillary attraction; by Prof. 'THropore Strone, . Particulars respecting an irised Aurora Borealis by James Bowpoin, Esq. - = - - Notice and description of a Marine Ventilator By SamueL WuirTING, - - . Notice of some Localities of Minerals, near Pelee: Md.; by Puiie T. Tyson. Mi an Append, by C.U. SHEPARD, . On the Crystalline Roum of anes he eae W. W. Martuer, Assist. Prof. of Chem. and Min. U. S. Mil. Acad. W. P. - . On the Transition Boeke of the Sijenea a by Capt. R. H. Bonnycastre, R. E. Canada, - . On the Sulphate of Strontian, Kingston, (U. C. i oat notices of the Geoleey of the ayicinity, by Lieut. BapbELEy, . On the Weecaton of On Biest Beriad a an aneicat World; by Henry Witeas, of Partington, (Eng-) Fes ge 1! On the use of the Wniiereite Coal in the making of Brick; by Witiiam Meape, M.D. - - 84 85 110 118 {L107 CONTENTS. Page. XXII. Description of a frame Bree By Gro. W. Te Lieut. U.S. Art. - XXIII. Mineralogical Journey by C. Us Sioa case to the Prof. of Chem. and Mies and Lect. on Bot. in Yale Col. - - XXIV. Notice of the Qquemere io Paneer Society, Aon a letter of Dr. Jacob Porter, - XXV. Notice of the Osseous remains at Be Bone Lick, Kentucky, - - = % XXVI. Bromine in American Saline ay A. A Haxes, and the Enitor, - = = - SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.* CHEMISTRY. 1, 2, 3. Cement for hard stones, porcelain and glass—Preserva- tion of butter—Artificial preparation of ice, - 4, 5. Action of iron on ammonia—Effect of muriatic and sul- phuric acid on hydro-cyanic acid, - - - 6, 7, 8. Phosphorus in vacuo—Combustibility of carbon increas- ed by platina and COpP ETT Deh Oeeeseon of eu hatee in water by organic matters, - - - 9,10, 11. Instantaneous light Hf yiietenaeeulie ng ink—On a peculiar principle in blood, distinctive of its source, 12, 13. On the formation of acids in vegetables—Proportions of oil in different oleaginous plants, = 5 f 14, 15. Coloring matter of Lichen Rocella—Researches respect- ing platina, - - - - - 4 is 16. Process for preserving milk, for any length of time, - 17, 18. Decomposition of carburet of sulphur, by weak electric action—Combinations of bromine, - - 19, 20. Preparation of bromine—Preparation of faduret of azote, 21, 22. Chloride of nitrogen—Fulminating silver, ~ - 23. Percussion powder, - - - = = = K MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 1. Decomposition of sulphates in waters, by organic substances, 2, 3. Poisonous confectionary Meme on pyGee oyanis acid, 4. Efficacy of chlorides, - - - - 5. Deleterious effects of Sulpharetted nydecead - - 6, 7, 8. Cleansing of sewers—Chlorine—Hydriodic pase a Analysis of bile, - - - - - = NATURAL HISTORY. 1. Analysis of the Russian platina, - bay Vip eemtewen 15 2, 3. On the silicate of iron, of Badenmais—On a new mineral, hydro-carbon, = - - - = : 4 3 4. Means employed by the spider in weaving its web, - 5. Phosphorescence of seawater, - - = - B * The arranged articles communicated by Prof. J. Griscom. 123 126 136 139 142 145 146 147 148 150 166 6 ADAH we _ oo 1 3. 4 14 16, 1, CONTENTS. , 7. Analysis of a new mineral, from Hoboken—Temperature of the atmosphere and of plants, &c. - - - . Helvetic Society of Natural Sciences, - - - . Determination of the time which a drowned person has been under water, - - - - - - - MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY. . Magnetic influence of the violet ray, - - - - 3. Iron works of Sweden—Calorific effects of the Voltaic pile, . Electro-magnetic property of carbon, - - - - . On the deflection of light, - - - - - - . Preservation of firemen against fire and flame, - - , 8. Plumbago instead of oil in watches and chronometers— Optical surgery, - - - - - - . A remarkable watch, - - - - ° - . Magnetic influence of the solar beam, - - - ) STATISTICS. , 2. Number of pupils in the universities of the Netherlands in 1827—Peruvian eons and Scenes) - Revue Encyclopedique, - - , 5. Comparative number of books ces appear in France and Germany—Vauquelin, - - - - - MISCELLANIES——FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC. . Vegetable coloring materials in Canada, - - - . Phosphorescence of the sea in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, . Antarctic expedition, - - - = - - - . Gold and platina, — - - - - - - , 6. Rock crystals substituted for crown glass in Sete tele- scopes—On the temperature of the sea, ° . Proceedings of the Lyceum of Natural History, of ms ew vane. . Providence Franklin Society, - - = . Circular scale of equivalents, - - - - - . Notice of a locality of Arragonite, = - - Seaece . Thomson’s scientific medals, - - - - , 13. Porcelain clay—Galvanic currents, - = , 15. Tennessee Meteorite—Rensselaer School Flotilla, 17. Production of hydro-cyanic (prussic) acid, under uncom- mon circumstances—Dr. Morton’s paper, - - NOTICES OF RECENT AND FORTH-COMING SCIENTIFIG WORKS. Foreign. . Arcana of Science and Art: or one thousand popular in- ventions and improvements, abridged from the transac- tions of public societies, and from the scientific jour- nals, British and foreign, of the past year, (1829.) Domestic. 2. American Ornithology—Encyclopaedia Americana, Vv Page. 167 168 170 202 202 vi CONTENTS. Page. 3, 4, 5,6. The North American Medical and Surgical Journal— Conversations on the animal economy—The Southern Agriculturist, and Bepister of Rural Affairs—Elements of Myology, - 203 7. Conversations on Vegetable Pivietalseey, gainer the Elements of Potany with their epplication: to Agri- culture, - 204 - The Natural, Statistical, ane Civil History ai the State of New York, - - - - - - 206 9. Practical Instructions for the culture of silk and the ler Fracorcti ek INS DC a ai ace rae ln ig el D7 OBITUARY. Col. Jared Mansfield, LL. D. - - - - - 208 NUMBER II. Art. I. Illustrations of a View on the Genessee River; ina letter from Daniet WapswortH, Esq. - - - - 209 II. Architecture in the United States, - - 212 III. On the Manufacturing of Indigo in this Coun: by Wu- LIAM PARTRIDGE, - - 237 IV. Synopsis of the Organic Hema. of the Tamemane Sand Formation of the United States, with geological remarks; by Samuet G. Morron, M. D. &c. - 243 V. Notices of ancient and modern Greece; ina letter from Dr. Samuet G. Hower, - - - - - - 250 VI. Upon the solvent and oxidating powers of Ammoniacal Salts, &c.; by Prof. Joun P. Emmet, = - - - 255 VII. On the red color of flame as produced by Strontian and as characteristic of minerals of that genus; (E Lieut. BapDELEY, - - - - - - 261 VIII. Anew Instrument for aking Speen Gravities; hy Lieut. J. W. Bappetey, - - - 263 IX. On Springs and fotos F somsiee Translated from the French of M. Le Vicomre Heritcart Dre Tuury, 267 X. Remarks on the Resolution of Equations of the fourth _ degree; by Mr. C. Wixper, - - - - 276 XI. Practical Instructions on the Culture of Silk, and of the Mulberry Tree in the United States; by Fenix Pasca- uis, M.D. &c. Essay on Silk, by Mr. oaeaiere &e. and Mr. P. 8. Duronceav, &e. - - 278 XII. Mineralogical Journey in the northern sate of New England; by C. U. SHerarp, Assistant to the Professor of Chemistry and Aimer Oey, and Lecturer on Botany in Yale College, - 289 XIII. On the use of Anthracite in Blacksmiths? Shops; ; by G. Jones, Tutor in Yale College, = - 303 XIV. Notice of the Anthracite Region in the Valley oF the Lackawanna and of Wyoming on the Susquehanna.— Eprror, - - - - - - - - 308 uv a Z MISCELLANIES——FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC. 1. Vegetable coloring materials in Canada, - = = 186 2. Phosphorescence of the sea in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 187 3. Antarctic expedition, - - - - = 2 2 188 4, Gold and platina, - - = e 2 » A 190 5, 6. Rock crystals substituted for crown glass in making tele- scopes—On the temperature of the sea, - -., 191 So A Re La am of Matunal Hictarw of Naw Varley 102 ERRATA.—Vou. XVIII. No. I. Page 145, line 11 from top, for a fish, read the fist. “147, Art. 8 is substantially repeated on page 156. Correction. Page 64, line 12 from top, after and, read except being below. ss 6 6=©6 3 from bottom, for dividing, read multiplying, and after by, read 100 and dividing by. CONTENTS. Vii Page. XV. Extract from an unpublished Essay upon the compounds of Cyanogen; by Dr. Wittiam H. pa of Columbia College, New York, - - - - - XVI, Notice of an Essay on the Remittent onl Intermittent diseases, including generically Marsh fevers and Neur- algia; by Josn MacCuxtocu, M.D., F.R.S., &c. &c. XVII. Analysis of the Clinton Mineral Water, Cliff street, city of New York; by Georce Cuitton, = i XVIII. On the Veeetation of the Ottawa and some of, its tribu- taries (L. Canada) ; by Prof. A. Benepict, = - - XIX. Notice of Piperin; by T. G. Cuemson, - - no = ID or & 9 19, XX. An account of Depositions of Calcareous Tufa, at Chit- teningo, Madison Co. N. Y.; by Prof. Epwarp Sanrorp, MISCELLANIES—-DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. . Note on Cardamine rotundifolia, by Wa. Daruineton, M. D. . On Xanthite, with a notice of mineral localities; by Lt. W. W. Maruer, - - - - - . Mode of adjusting feline ae - - : . Practical penmanship; by B. F. Fosrer, - . On asesqui-sulphate of mercury; by Lt. W. T. Homans, . Meteorological table ; by Gen. Martin Fiexp, - . Abstract of meteorological observations, made at Maret observations on the flowering of plants, ripening of fruits, &c. in 1829, by S. P. Hitprern, - - eri . Wire gauze windows, a suggested Peete against malaria ; by R.C. Bonn, M.D. - - 10. On the heating of water; by Dr. E. i iG the carbonization of lignite, id. - - - - On the inflammation of phosphorus in a partial vacuum; by Prof. A. D. Bacue, - - . On the use of black mica in spectacles; by Dr. Wn. Meave, . Geological facts; by Davin Tuomas, - . Cannel coal in Ohio, - - = = = eh Ms . Plumbago of Sturbridge, Mass. - - : p E . Notice of the fall of the Tennessee meteorites, - - . Fountains of fresh and salt water, - - - - . Suggestions as to the variation of the magnetic needle; by Danie, Byrnes, - - - - = 2 . 20. Premiums for useful inventions—Manufacture of silk in America, - - = : : i . Porcelain of Philadel tia, - - : : : 3 23. Improved scale of chemical equivalents—Report to the Regents of the University of New York, - 25. History of the county of Berens, Mass. —History of Wyoming, - - - - - . Georgia Meteor and ine. - - = - _ Dr. Comstock’s Natural History of Birds, - 29, 30, 31. Obituary—Correction—Collections of New aes "land rocks with their imbedded minerals, for sale—'T'rans- actions of the Society of Arts, Manufactures and Com- merce, London, - - - - - : - 329 378 379 380 382 384 385 387 388 389 390 Vili CONTENTS. Page: 32. Minerals not yet described in the common syetems of min- : eralogy, - 391 33, 34, 35. Notice of an Sead ivaraces Borealis—Reliquis Tn ” vianec—Antediluvian human remains, - 393 36 37. Heidelberg collections of geological specimens —Cements for iron water pipes, - - - - - 394 38, 39. Potatoe cheese—On the supposed influence of magnet- ism in the phenomena of chemical combinations and crys- tallizations, - - - - - - - - 395 40. Animal putrefaction, - - 397 41. On the dark precipitate of qapea of Ed. Davy, and on the property of spongy platina, —- - 398 42, 43. Reduction of nitrate of bilyer Fleck of ne calves, 400 44, 45. Cloth of amianthus—Charlatanism, - - - 401 46, 47. Chemico-magnetism—Analysis of pollen, - - 402 48. On metallic decompositions by phosphuretted hydrogen gas, 403 49, 50. On the treatment of siliceous minerals by carburetted al- kalies—Change of color in the wood of certain trees, 404 ERRATA.—Vou. XVIII. Page 138, line 13 from top, for Gienofleiche read Geinsfleiche. co 6 17 «6 = S for blocks read blacks. ss s¢ -12 from bottom, for present read presented. «© 145, © 11 from top, for a fish, read the fist. «147, Art. 8 is substantially repeated on page 156. Correction. Page 64, line 12 from top, after and, read except being below. ss ss =~ 8 from bottom, for dividing, read multiplying, and after by, read 100 and dividing by. Rev. Sayrs GAzuay, of Salem Bridge, Waterbury, Conn. is the author of the article on the bones at Big Bone Lick, Kentucky. ” ) %, d. FNNIsIs pulmonalis in Yaris—Lstablismment or a mvue1 farm in Greece, 4. Science in Madrid, 5, 6. Hygiéne—English Universities, - ADDITIONAL EDITORIAL SELECTIONS. 1. Dr. Mitchell’s method of working caoutchouc, - 193 194 195 195 aan i VOL. XVIII. NO. 2. Page 363, 10th line from bottom, before scientific read un. Page 264, under construction, 372, 8th line from bottom, dele M. D. 373, 3d line from top, for appears read appeared. “ Jith* <“« <“ for or read on. “ \4th« <« <“ for Its read Vo. 375, for geodiferous read cornitiferous. ERATA.—VOL. XVIII.—NO. 2. first line after diameter, read and 9 inches long. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. ——_ Arricte L—Of the Phenomena and Causes of Hail Storms. By Denison Oumstep, Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Suowers of hail present themselves to us under two very different forms. Sometimes they consist merely of frozen drops of rain, un- accompanied by any extraordinary appearances ; and are easily ac- counted for, by supposing that the air happens at that time to be colder than the region of the clouds, and that the drops of rain are congealed in falling through it. But in those storms, whose mys- terious causes we are now desirous of penetrating, the hail stones are of great and sometimes enormous size, and are associated with the most impressive and sublime phenomena of nature. To pass over many statements on record of hail stones of a mag- nitude almost surpassing belief,* we have authentic statements of such as exceeded one foot in circumference,t and those larger than a hen’s egg are of yearly occurrence. To account for these extraordinary hail storms, is considered as one of the most difficult problems in meteorology. ‘There is little to be found on this subject in systematic works ; but the accounts of the facts lie scattered up and down in scientific journals, and in the trans- actions of learned societies. After comparing a great number of these descriptions of hail storms, the following propositions appear to me to embrace the most important facts. * It is related, that during the wars of Lewis the XII, in Italy, in 1510, there was for some time a horrible darkness, thicker than that of night; after which the clouds broke into thunder and lightning, and there fell hail stones of one hundred pounds weight. (Encyc. Perth. I, p. 14.) t Halley, Phil. Trans. Vou. XVITI.—No. 1. 1 2 Phenomena and Causes of Hail Storms. - 1. Hain storMs, WHEN VIOLENT, ARE CHARACTERIZED BY THE MEETING OF ALL THE ELEMENTS OF sTorMs; the clouds are very black; they are strongly agitated, and fly swiftly through the air, or more freqaently rush towards each other, attended by high winds _and terrific thunder and lightning.* 2. Hai sToRMS, OF THE FOREGOING CHARACTER, ARE CONFINED CHIEFLY TO THE TEMPERATE ZONES. ‘They rarely occur in any form in the torrid zone;+ and when they do, it is chiefly on high mountains. Hail is indeed frequent in the polar regions; but it is of the ordinary kind before mentioned, and is therefore not the subject of our present inquiry. Of all places in the world, the South of France is most remarkable for frequent and violent hail storms. During the year 1829, an insurance company was form- ed in France for the special purpose of affording protection against their ravages. 3. THE MOST VIOLENT HAIL STORMS OCCUR CHIEFLY DURING THE WARMER HALF OF THE YEAR, AND MOST FREQUENTLY IN THE HOTTEST MONTHS. 4. THE HAIL STONES THAT FALL DURING THE SAME STORM, ARE FOUND TO BE MUCH SMALLER ON THE TOPS OF MOUNTAINS THAN IN THE NEIGHBORING PLAINS. 5. Though hail stones are of various forms, yet THEY FREQUENT- LY EXHIBIT IN THE CENTRE A NUCLEUS WHICH IS WHITE AND PO- Rous, while the other parts consist of concentric layers of ice, either transparent or of an opake white, or alternately transparent and opake. 6. A SHOWER OF HAIL DURING THE WARMER SEASON OF THE YEAR, IS OFTEN FOLLOWED BY COOLER WEATHER}; in spring and fall particularly, hail is a well known precursor of cold. Whatever may be the remoter cause of this phenomenon, we can be at no loss for the immediate cause, namely, a sudden and extra- ordinary cold in the region of the clouds, where the hail stones be- gin to form: Nor can there be any doubt, that the degree of cold by which the nucleus is congealed, must be very intense,—far below 32°, or the freezing point of water,—since this nucleus, as there is every reason to believe, rolls up to the final size of the hail stone, by * Phil. Trans. Vols. IV, and V. t Rees says never; but the Ed. Encye. Art. Phys. Geog. says, ‘at an elevation not less than 1500 or 2000 feet.’ V.Tilloch’s Mag. Vol. XLII, p. 191. “Phenomena and Causes of Hail Storms. 3 congealing upon itself the watery vapor which it meets with in its descent to the earth. But, although the presence of such an intense degree of cold is implied in the formation of hail, yet the great ques- tion before us is, what is the origin of this cold itself? Among the different suppositions which have been made, or which may be made, there are only two that are worthy of notice. One is, that the cold is generated by the immediate agency of electricity; the other, that at is derived from the region of perpetual congelation. In the first place, what reason have we to believe, that the cold which produces hail is generated by the agency of ELECTRICITY? Were we to confine our attention to the whimsical reasons, or to the gratuitous assumptions, on which most writers upon electricity pro- ceed, in ascribing to it the power. of producing such an extra- ordinary degree of cold, we should conclude at once that the hy- pothesis was without foundation.* But it is still proper to inquire if we cannot discover a connexion between some known property of electricity, and the sudden production of an intense degree of cold. It is a known property of electricity, to rarefy air, and rarefaction produces cold. When we strongly electrify a Leyden jar, the air is frequently so much rarefied as to rush out from any opening in the cover with a hissing noise. In like manner, the air which sup- ports and envelops thunder clouds, being strongly electrical, might be conceived to be powerfully rarefied, and the temperature pro- portionally reduced. The power of a sudden rarefaction of the air to precipitate in the form of hail, the moisture contained in it, is strikingly exemplified in the apparatus employed for raising water at the mines of Chemnitz in Hungary. ‘The only point to be at- tended to at present is, that a quantity of air previously confined under the pressure of a column of water 136 feet in height, is sud- denly permitted to escape, and has its temperature so much reduced by the enlargement of the volume, that the moisture present falls in a shower of hail.+ Another argument in favor of the supposition that hail owes its origin to electricity, is derived from the protection against hail-storms *See, especially, Priestley’s History of Electricity, p. 371—Malté Brun, Phys. Geogr. Vol. f.—Van Mons, in Nicholson’s Phil. Jour. XXIV, 106. { Lib. Useful Knowl. Art. ‘ Hydraulics,’ p. 18. The same views with respect to the origin of the cold of hail storms are expressed in this Journal, Vol. XV, Morveau also has the same idea. (Journal de Phys. 1X, 64.) Idem. XXI, 146. 4 Phenomena and Causes of Hail Storms. alleged to be afforded to vineyards in France, and the neighboring countries, by erecting among them long pointed poles, or hailrods, (paragréles,) as they are called. Could the fact be fairly established that places furnished with such hail rods are protected from the rava- ges of hail-storms, while other places in the midst of them, and all around them, are laid waste by these destructive visitations, it would go very far to prove that hail is produced by the agency of electrici- ty. This point therefore requires to be considered with attention. It is now more than 50 years since it was first proposed by men of science in France, to avert the calamities which that kingdom sustains in a very peculiar degree, from hail-storms, by erecting con- ductors, with the view of drawing off the electricity that was suppos- ed to generate the storms. ‘The land proprietors, however, did not display the expected eagerness to avail themselves of the proposed security, and a writer complains that for thirty years afterwards, not ‘a single landholder had put the experiment in practice.* But as late asthe year 1821, the Linnean Society of Parist revived the interest in this subject, and caused numerous experiments to be made, which have inspired, it appears, much confidence in the effi- eacy of hail rods. In a late number of the Annals of that Society, the subject is thus noticed. “The Paragréle, or hail rod, has for several years occasioned much inquiry on the continent, and has en- gaged the particular attention of the society. In many districts, which were formerly, year after year, devastated by hail, the instru- ment has been adopted with complete success, while in neighboring districts, not protected by paragréles, the crops have been damaged as usual; and the Society are receiving from all quarters statements which fully confirm their opinion of the utility of the invention. The Society have made a report to the ministers of the terior, recom- mending that measures be adopted by the general government, for protecting the country from hail; and it is estimated, from the re- sult of experiments in numerous districts, that if paragréles were es- tablished throughout the whole of France, it would occasion an an- nual saving to the revenue of fifty millions of francs.” { These statements are certainly favorable to the hypothesis in ques- tion; but since the experiments are in their nfancy—since hail storms are often of very limited extent, and, of places very near to each other, * Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. Vol. XX VI, p. 2138. } Am. Jour. Vol. X, p. 196. tAm. Jour. Vol. XI, p. 298. Phenomena and Causes of Hail Storms. 5 one is desolated, while another escapes uninjured—and since such apparent exceptions in favor of the utility of hail rods would very naturally be exaggerated, I do not feel warranted in assuming the fact of their efficacy as fairly established.* With regard to the merits of the hypothesis in general, I would offer the following remarks. _ 1. Although we can conceive that a portion of the atmosphere, suddenly and highly rarefied by electricity, might produce the de- gree of cold requisite to form hail, yet the possibility of an event is but slight evidence of its reality ; and we have here no independent evidence that such a rarefaction does in fact take place; but, on the contrary, we have certain evidence from the concourse of opposite winds, from the density and consequent blackness of the clouds, that a great condensation of air takes place in the region of the storm. 2. If hail be produced by electricity in the manner supposed, why is it not a constant associate of thunder storms, since the same causes operate continually ; yet the rare occurrence of hail-storms, as well as their desolating effects, mark them, as out of the common course nature. Why, especially, do not hail storms occur in the torrid zone, where the electricity of the atmosphere is most abundant, and the phenomena of thunder storms the most violent and terrible? Not being able therefore to satisfy ourselves that hail storms are produced by the agency of electricity, let us inquire, in the second place, what reason we have to believe that they owe their origin to the COLD OF THE UPPER REGIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE. Tt is a well known fact, that the atmosphere grows continually colder as we recede from the earth, until, at a certain elevation, we reach the temperature of freezing water, called the term of congelation ; that the height of the term of congelation above the surface of the earth varies with the latitude, being greatest at the equator, but coming very near to the earth at the pole; that its average height at the equator is abont fifteen thousand feet, at the latitude of 30° twelve thousand feet, and at the latitude of — 50° six thousand;+ that beyond this line of perpetual congela- tion, the reduction of temperature still proceeds until it shortly * The establishment of Hail Insurance Companies, so late as the year 1829, indi- cates a want of confidence in this kind of protection. On account of the efficacy of lightning rods, no such companies are needed to secure the public against damages by lightning. | Ed. Eneye. ‘Phys. Geography.’ See figure, page 9. 6 Phenomena and Causes of Hail Storms. reaches a degree of cold the most intense that can be imagined. If we now contemplate a current of air, that is, a wind blowing horizon- tally first at the surface of the earth and afterwards at different ele- vations, we shall find that it will be subject to the following modifica- tions. We will suppose it to blow first from the polar towards the equatorial regions. When it moves at the surface of the earth, it will rapidly imbibe the heat of the earth as it traverses the warmer latitudes; at the height of one thousand feet it will feel the influence of the earth much less, and grow warm much slower than before; and at the height of ten thousand feet, it will, for the most part, sweep quite clear of the mountains, and be a current of air blowing through the atmosphere alone. And since, as in the case of the gulf stream, a fluid does not readily change its temperature merely by flowing through a body of the same fluid of a different temperature, and es- pecially air by flowing through air, a wind blowing from north to south at an elevation of ten thousand feet above the earth, will pass to a great distance without materially altering its temperature. What we have here supposed respecting the heating of a northerly wind as it blows southerly, will obviously apply to the cooling of a southerly wind as it blows northerly; and since a high wind frequently moves at the rate of sixty miles or about one degree an hour, especially where it passes without obstruction in the upper regions of the atmos- phere, it would consequently pass over ten degrees in the short space of ten hours.* These things being clearly understood, we assign as the cause of hail storms, THE CONGELATION OF THE WATERY VAPOR OF A BODY OF WARM AND HUMID AIR, BY ITS SUDDENLY MIXING WITH AN EXCEED- INGLY COLD WIND, IN THE HIGHER REGIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE. Let us examine the effects which would result from the meeting of two opposite winds, at the height of ten thousand feet, during the heat of summer, the one blowing from the latitude of 30° or from the con- fines of the torrid zone, and the other from the latitude of 50° or the northern part of British America. If they had equal velocities, they would meet at the parallel of 40°, that is, at our own latitude, in ten hours from the time of setting out; and according to what has been premised, each current would retain nearly the original tem- perature. The southerly wind blowing from a point which is still two thousand feet below the line of perpetual congelation, is com- * Daniel’s Meteor. Ess, 113. Phenomena and Causes of Hail Storms. 7 paratively warm, while the northerly wind coming from a point which is four thousand feet above the same boundary of the empire of frost, will have a degree of cold probably surpassing any with which we are acquainted. We infer from our preliminary princi- ples, that immediately on meeting, the watery vapor of the warmer current would be frozen with an intensity corresponding to the tem- perature of the colder current; that the minute hail stones thus form- ed, and endued with such excessive cold, would begin to descend, and accumulate to a size proportioned to the intensity of the cold of the original nucleus—to the space through which they descended— and to the humidity of the lower strata of the atmosphere; that is, the colder they were when they began to fall, the farther they fell, and the more humid the air, the larger they would become. We have supposed a strong case, namely, that a wind from the tor- rid zone is suddenly brought into contact with a wind coming directly from a point far within the limits of perpetual frost, a concurrence of circumstances which appears to be not improbable, and which appears also sufficient to explain the most extraordinary phenomena of hail storms. But since natural causes do not commonly operate in their greatest possible energy, it is probable that hail storms usually result from these causes acting under circumstances less favorable in vari- ous degrees. We need not even suppose any thing more than that the cold current instead of meeting with an opposite hot wind, mere- ly mixes with the stationary air of the hotter climates in order to pre- cipitate their moisture in the form of hail. In every minute descrip- tion of a violent hail storm, however, we shall probably find mention made of this common circumstance, that opposite and violent winds met,* hurrying on the clouds from opposite points of the compass. Thus a writer in the American Journal of Science describing a vio- lent storm that occurred in the state of New Jersey, adds, “I obsery- ed then, and have many times observed since, that hail is usually ac- companied by contrary winds, which seem striving over our heads for the mastery.” And Beccaria recognises the same feature of clouds congregated from opposite quarters. ‘‘ While, says he, these clouds are agitated with the most rapid motions, the rain generally falls in greatest plenty, and if the agitation be exceedingly great, it generally hails.” + * Clark in Am. Jour. II, 134, Beccaria on Elec. in Priestley, 341. t Priestley, 341, Nich. Jour. XXIV, 111. 8 Phenomena and Causes of Hail Storms. We will now see how far the foregoing explanation corresponds to the facts before enumerated. Why then are violent hail storms uiiended by all the other elements of storms,—by clouds of intense blackness, and ter rific thunder and lightning? Because the sudden concourse of a wind exceedingly cold with one comparatively hot, ought, in conformity with the known causes of these phenomena, to exhibit them in their most energetic forms. All these atmospheric phenomena are linked together, and the same cause acting with different degrees of energy, produces each of them in its turn. The mixing of portions of air differing but little in temperature is sufficient to form clouds—if the temperature differs somewhat more, the watery vapor may fall in ram—if the one portion is hot and the other cold, more sudden and powerful rains are the consequence, and thunder and lightning result from the rapid conden- sation of watery vapor—and finally, when a powerful wind from the regions of perpetual frost, mixes with the heated and humid air of a warmer sky, the same watery vapor descends in hail. Why are such violent hail storms confined to the temperate climates, and why do they occur neither in the torrid nor in the frigid zone ? This is a point of great difficulty, and the question has never to my knowledge been satisfactorily answered; but I think we perceive something in the foregoing principles, which may lead us to a cor- rect understanding of it. We have considered the case of two opposite winds from points differing twenty degrees in latitude, one blowing north from the 30th, and the other south from the 50th degree of north latitude, each being at an elevation of 10,000 feet above the earth; and we have found them sufficient to explain the occurrence of violent hail storms within the temperate zones, at least in our own latitude ; other opposite points may be as- sumed for other latitudes. But suppose we transfer this reasoning to the equator, and consider the condition of two opposite winds blow- ing from ten degrees on either side, and meeting at the equator, each being at the same elevation of 10,000 feet above the earth. Now both of these winds would be warm, and almost equally so, and here of course would be wanting that intensely cold current which we have been able readily to summon to our aid to help m forming our hailstone im the temperate climate. If we take any other point with- in the torrid zone, the case would be indeed somewhat less unfavor- able to the production of hail; the opposite currents might differ in temperature to a degree sufficient to account for the formation of Phenomena and Causes of Hail Storms. 9 clouds and rain and thunder and lightning ; but im. this region we know not when to look for that freezing current, unless we ascend so high that there, no hot air exists, holding watery vapor to be frozen by it. The case is plain, that if we ascend in the torrid zone for air that is cold enough to answer our purpose, we ascend above the re- gion of the hot air, the watery vapor of which is necessary to afford the materials for hail; whereas, in our own latitude, on ascending to the region of congelation, we find the north and south currents dif- fering in temperature, more than opposite winds in any other part of the globe. ‘There is indeed one situation where we may imagine hail to be formed within the torrid zone, and that is m the vicinity of lofty mountains covered with snow; and there in fact it does sometimes hail.* Next, if we attentively consider the circumstances of the frigid zone, we shall see that here there is no hot region on the one side to send its heated air to mix with the cold currents from the other ; and that no meeting of very cold with warm winds could possibly take place. ‘The rain indeed, on account of the ordinary cold of this region, would frequently descend in the form of hail; but it would ne- cessarily be of that small and ordinary kind, which is formed near the earth, before described as being common in the polar regions. This will become obvious by inspecting the following figure. on cA 2a eh ag oak ND Eales Wild Somali ANNE We en SOE 9080 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 20 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 The curve B, C, D, represents the line of perpetual congelation, as given in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, under the article “« Physical Geography,” and is believed to be a very accurate delineation of it. Let then, a a! denote the path described by the opposite winds that are supposed to meet at the latitude of 40°; 6 b/, that of simi- lar winds meeting at the equator, each being at the height of 10,000 feet above the earth ; and ¢ c/, the path of two currents at the height of 2,000 feet, meeting at the latitude of 70°. These heights are taken arbitrarily, as affording a favorable view of the nature of our reasoning. The same mode of reasoning, however, may be ap- plied to other points of elevation, at which any particular hail storm may be supposed to be generated. i) * Edin. Encyc. Vol. XV, Art. Phys. Geogr. at an elevation of 1500 or 2000 feet. Vout. XVUI—No. 1. g 10 Phenomena and Causes of Hail Storms. France is so peculiarly exposed to hail’ storms, on account of its situation between the Alps and the Pyrennees. ‘The country lying between these high mountains being heated by the summer’s sun, the cold blasts from the regions of snow and ice, mingling with the hot and humid air over the intervening country, ought, in conformity with our principles, to produce frequent hail storms. The most violent hail storms occur in the warmer season of the year, and usually in the hottest month, because it is then that the heat of the sun contributes most to set the opposite currents in mo- tion. Hail stones are smaller on the tops of mountains than in the neighboring plains, because not falling so far, they have less op- portunity to accumulate by the congelation of successive layers of watery vapor. ‘The white, snowy nucleus which large hail stones frequently exhibit in the centre, indicates that the congelation began in highly rarefied air, such being precisely the appearance of a drop of water frozen under the exhausted receiver of an air pump.* And finally, the sudden and severe cold weather which often immedi- ately follows a hail storm, only indicates that the cold blast which produced the hail, extends something of its influence even to the sur- face of the earth itself. What is the cause of the small momentum of hail stones? Although hail stones, when large, do great damage to tender crops, and occa- sionally kill small animals, yet, it is on the whole, surprising that they fall with no greater force than they do. A pebble of the same size falling from the mouth of a well, upon the head of a man at the bot- tom, would kill him; and the meteoric stones which fall from the sky, many of which do not exceed the size of some hail stones, bury themselves deep in the ground, and sometimes even penetrate through the entire body of a house, and bury themselves in the cellar.| ‘The small momentum of hail stones is partly to be ascribed to their low specific gravity, which is a little less than that of water; but still they are heavy enough to fall with a hundred times the momentum which they actually exhibit, descending as they do through many thousand feet. Their velocity is in fact very small, whereas we should expect to find it immensely great: the true reason of this I * Leslie, Encye. Ed. Meteorology. . + See an amusing account of the force of falling hail stones by Fairfax, in the first volume of the Phil. Transactions, et Architecture in the United States. 11 apprehend to be the following. We are to regard the largest hail stone as commencing its formation with a small nucleus, and as re- ceiving continual accessions of matter in descending, until it reaches the ground. But the watery vapor of which these accessions are composed, is matter at rest to be put in motion by the falling body, which is therefore taking on a new load at every stage of its progress, and consequently has its speed continually retarded. 'The velocity which it acquires in falling each successive moment, is lost by com- municating motion to so large a quantity of matter at rest, as that which composes its accretions. Art. I].— Architecture in the United States. Havrne discussed the position and the planning of cities, we now come to the fillmg up—the part to which architecture applies in the true and proper sense of the term. I propose in this article to give a brief history of the art, together with its character as it presents itself in the edifices of different ages, and thus, by putting the reader in possession of facts, to enable him to draw conclusions for himself. We shall then endeavor to see why the Greeks succeeded, why the Romans failed, and why modern Europe has failed still more than the Romans. From the whole we shall attempt to ascertain our own chances of failure, and if possi- ble, the best way to success. Architecture was at first only an improvement on the necessities of man, but as man became more refined and more wealthy, its character rose also, until, at last, it took rules and forms and propor- tions and became an art. The earliest exhibitions of it now remain- ing are in the monuments of Egypt, where it appears massive, hea- vy, simple, and sometimes with a glimmering of good taste. Persia and India contend with Egypt for the precedency, but the architec- ture of Persia was light, and that of India highly labored, both evincing a greater advancement in the art: at the same time, the resemblance in all is so great as to shew that whichever was first, it gave to the others their ideas on the subject. From Egypt, the art passed into Greece, where, after accommodating itself to the modes of building in use there, it soon passed into symmetry and grace and beauty, that have never since been equalled, and on which we now look as 12 Architecture in the United States. objects rather to be reverenced than rivalled. The Doric order was at first universally employed, and nearly all the ancient monuments now remaining in that country are of this. The Ionic is a beautiful order, but its introduction seems to have marked the first downward step in Grecian taste, which had perhaps grown careless from success, perhaps was weary of the hard labor necessary for these pure produc- tions; and which at all events, seems to have lost confidence in itself: ornament was called in to act on the senses, and from this time may be dated the retrograde progress of the art. I shall say more of this hereafter. ‘The Ionic, however, provided ornament with a sparing hand ; but the course once begun, they could not be expected to stop here, and the Corinthian with its gay and rich adornmgs was next introduced. There are however few monuments of this order in Greece : before it could fairly establish itself, the country was brought under the Roman power, and Grecian artists began to carry their skill to a more profitable market in Italy. The Romans, up to this time, had been too much engaged in war to give any great attention to building, and both private dwellings and temples were of the rudest kind. Marcellus made some attempts at unproving their taste, but it was not till after the close of the My- thridatic war that architecture received any encouragement. Sylla, in his progress through Greece, was struck with its beautiful temples and porticos ; his soldiers and officers shared his admiration; an im- pulse was given to the art at Rome, ‘and in a short time Italy was covered with structures whose richness and splendor surpassed every thing that had yet been any where seen. Every traveller, however, who has an opportunity of comparing the remains of these edifices with those in Greece, is struck with the great inferiority of the Roman taste. ‘To a person who has seen the ruins of Rome,” writes Dr. Clarke, “the first suggestion made by a sight of the buildings in the Acropolis, is that of the infinite superiority of the Athenian architec- ture.” ‘ Accustomed as we were,” says Stuart, in speaking of the Parthenon, “to the ancient and modern magnificence of Rome, and by what we had heard and read, impressed with an advantageous opin- ion of what we were come to see, we found the image our fancy had preconceived, greatly inferior to the real object.” The causes of this deterioration will be considered in their proper piace: at present we will content ourselves with following the progress of the art. Rome was then in the height of its power. The most distant na- tions looked to it for laws, and took from it their character in the arts Architecture in the United States. 13 as well as in politics : its style of architecture spread in all directions, and soon fastened itself on the rest of Europe with a power from which there is perhaps no release. The Corinthian order was al- most exclusively employed : examples of the Doric were extremely rare. Their architects formed what is called the Composite order by uniting the Corinthian and Ionic : they reduced the volutes of the Tonic in size, and added new ornaments both to this order and to the Doric : they introduced a mutiplicity of curved lines: they formed their temples in every variety of outline; they aimed at delicate nicety in the parts, rather than expression in the whole. Each of these the reader will observe is a departure from simplicity. Pal- myra and Balbec exhibit the best specimens of the Roman style. It flourished most from the reign of Augustus to that of Hadrian ; after which it declined with a rapidity nearly as great as that with which it had risen. ‘To the Romans, however, we are indebted for the arch. Some traces of it may perhaps be discovered in ancient Egyp- tian and Grecian monuments, but if known to these nations it was little used: the Romans employed it frequently and with great ad- vantage, as the Pantheon and numerous triumphal arches still at- test. Their bad taste however was shewn in giving to it the Greek column for a support, an object intended for straight, not for curved lines, and adapted to no other. The pillars from which these arches sprung were sometimes single, sometimes in pairs. ‘The whole is worthy of little attention in itself, but we discover here and in the line formed by the meeting of these arches, the first hint of the Gothic style. ‘The name applied to this order is apt to lead us into error. ‘The Goths had no more connexion with it than other nations, and the term was first applied to it by Sir- Christopher Wren, when he wished to bring it into contempt. Architecture, after the time of Diocletian, had passed rapidly into neglect: the churches of Con- stantine are in barbarous taste: the best artists in the reign of Justi- nian could produce only a clumsy effort at the marvellous, and this after repeated failures; and from this time we altogether lose sight of the art. The last glimpse of it, shews it transferred to ecclesiastical ed- ifices, and used only in these. ‘Thus it rested till the crusades, when all christendom roused itself and a new impulse was given to this, as well as to the other arts. A company was formed, consisting of na- tives of Greece, Italy, France, Germany, and Flanders, who travel- led through Europe, superintending the construction of ecclesiastical 14 Architecture in the United States. edifices: they called themselves free-masons, were bound by strict rules, and from regard to honor as well as profit, confined their knowl- edge to the members of the society. ‘The arch with the column for a support had been extensively employed in churches: they gave height and lightness to both of these, adopting for this purpose the pointed arch: pilgrims from the East brought accounts of the fantastic yet graceful Saracenic, and the ornaments of this being ad- ded, the Gothic style came into existence. Its grand and solemn character was well suited to those times, and the princely revenues of the church were equal to its large pecuniary demands. It rose into universal favor, and after passing through several changes, became a style of the highest excellence and beauty, particularly in England. Until the commencement of the 14th century, it was suffered to be without a rival. In 1016, it is true, Buscheto erected the cathedral of Pisa, in the Roman style, -but this went little further until the con-— struction of the Duomo of Florence in the beginning of the 15th cen- ury. ‘The dome of this building gave eclat to the whole edifice and to this manner of building: St. Peters was commenced in 1506, and since that time the triumph of this style has been complete. The Gothic gave way before it, and then fell into undeserved con- tempt : it has however, been lately revived, and bids fair once more to succeed, as far at least as the scanty means of our times will admit. In all these revolutions, Greece, from the time when she gave the art to Western Europe, till the middle of the last century, seems to have been most strangely forgotten. In 1751, Messrs. Stuart and Revett visited Athens, where they spent three years, delineating the plans and profiles of its beautiful remains. This was done with re- markable fidelity, and once more gave to the world the true princi- ples of the art. Since that time, attempts have been making in Eu rope to revive the Grecian style, but with indifferent success. Let us pause here and look back for a moment on these facts. They are of a singular character. We have seen architecture pass in a simple yet heavy and rude state from Egypt into Greece. With its incipient stages in Greece we are not acquainted, but we know that it soon gained a majesty and power which have never since been equalled. Pagan Rome, with the revenues and genius of half the world at command, attempted these and failed : Christian Rome has succeeded still worse : all Europe has made the effort, and powerful minds have been brought to aid it, and yet Grecian architecture 1s Architecture in the United States. 15 still without a rival.* Why isit so? If the Grecian edifices were all the labor of one man or of a few men, we might attribute the suc- cess to a lucky hit of the times, and be no more surprised than we are at the fact that the world has produced but one Homer and one Newton. But this was not the case. ‘There were so many struc- tures and in so many distant places, that there must have been many architects, and yet every one of these structures seems to have been of the same grand and noble character as those which have come down to our times. Every column, every block of marble which has reached us from that age, no matter to what use it was applied, seems to have received its form from some master in the art. ‘There must then have been certain principles well known and extensively prac- tised upon to produce this constant and extensive effect. What were they, and how can they be discovered? ‘They did not consist in giving certain shapes to the building, or certain forms to a column, or certain proportions to the parts: these shapes and forms and proportions are universal in their edifices it is true, but the Romans adopted them and failed, and so have the moderns also done. ‘There is a speaking character, a majesty, a power in the expression of a Grecian edifice even in its ruins, which the Roman buildings never had, and to which modern architecture makes no approach. ‘This may seem like po- etry, but I describe only what I have often felt and what every one must feel who has an opportunity of comparing the different styles; I believe, at east, that hitherto there has been but a single exception.+ Where does this superiority lie ; what is the secret of its origin; can other nations succeed as the Greeks have succeeded ? Or does the failure during two thousand years shut out all hope of success? If the principle were known, how would it apply to the forms which architecture must take among us? Others may discuss these questions as matters of abstract knowl- edge: to us they are of the deepest practical interest. Greece was republican in its government, and was divided into rival states, and so is our country: Palmyra{ was a republic, and there the Roman style is found in its greatest perfection: Florence was a republic when she became distinguished in architecture : Genoa built her marble palaces while a republic, and Venice was a republic while her fairest edifices * «<__Compared with whose stupendous works [the Grecian] the puny efforts of modern art are but as the labors of children.”— Clarke’s Travels, Chap. XII. 1 Wheler. { Vide “* Ruins of Paimyra,”’ by Wood and Dawkins. 16 Architecture in the United States. arose. I leave to others to decide why this form of government seems to be best fitted for the success of architectural effort: it is sufficient for our present purpose that we have every encouragement from the fact. We have also a style to form for ourselves, and we have yet among us little that is calculated to corrupt our taste: we have excellent materials: we have wealth quite sufficient for our wants, but not enough to tempt to extravagance in our buildings : our institutions require many public edifices: we have a population enlightened, and prepared to reward success in architectural skill: the minds of all are beginning to awake to the subject, and it is only requisite that a proper impulse should be given. What more can we wish, un- less it would be to revive the Grecian architects themselves, and trans- fer them to our shores? We cannot do this, but we can do what will honor us more. Wecancreate the same skill, the same grandeur and power of conception, and can secure to ourselves the same success that marks every part of the Grecian architecture, and our posterity will be ableto do the same. ‘There is no greater difficulty m the art now than there formerly was: itis only necessary for our architects to take the course that was pursued by those of Greece, and they will succeed as well. What was this course? Men have reasoned about it from abstract principles: let us draw our conclusions from the Grecian buildings themselves. The artis there before us in a visible, tangible form, and in its highest purity and power; we feel this power strongly ; we can place full confidence in the subjects from which we reason; and our inferences here will also take a practical character. Such are the inferences we want. The reader has no reason to be alarmed at the task before him, for the field of our enquiry is less extensive than it would, at first thought, seem to be. Our examination is limited to a single form of building, and to a single order, the Doric. This order was almost exclusively employed till the Macedonian conquest, a term comprising the best days of the art. Of this were the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Olympia, of Ceres at Eleusis, of Minerva at Sunium, of Jupiter Panhellenius at Egina, of Theseus at Athens, and of this was the Parthenon, together with a great num- ber of other temples of inferior consequence. Indeed, scarcely a building of note, except the temple of Diana at Ephesus, can be named in Greece, or in the countries settled from it, that is not of this grave but beautiful order. And why was it so? There was no necessity for this order, or for any order: nor was there any neces- Architecture in the United States. 17 sity for this form of building, since the professed object of their erec- tion would have been answered just as well by any other style. There was no necessity in the case. It is indeed difficult to find any pur- pose of equal consequence, that would leave the artist so entirely to the guidance of his own inclination, as that of the Grecian temple. He must have a spot for the image of his deity, but this spot might be enclcsed or open; the enclosure might be made light, or obscure ; it might be a single chamber, or many chambers, and of any shape whatever: the artist was left ad libitum in every point. This form and this order then, selected when architecture was at its greatest per- fection, and used almost exclusively during its perfect state, while at the same time, it was at full liberty to employ any others, present to us the best subject we could desire, from which to discover the true principles of the art. The exceeding beauty of the Grecian Doric, is acknowledged by every one, who has had an opportunity of ex- amining it. ‘In this fabric,” says Hobhouse, speaking of the temple of Theseus, “ the most enduring stability and a simplicity of design peculiarly striking, are united with the highest elegance and accuracy of workmanship; the characteristic of the Doric style, whose chaste beauty is not in the opinion of the first artists, to be equalled by the graces of any of the other orders. A gentleman at Athens, of great taste and skill, assured me that after a continued contemplation of this temple, and the remains of the Parthenon, he could never again look with his accustomed satisfaction upon the Ionic and Corinthian re- mains at Athens, much less upon the more modern specimens of architecture to be seen in Italy.” To this order and this form, we shall then direct our attention with the strongest confidence in both. The Greek temple was so simple in all its parts, that the process of its construction may be easily understood. A level area was first formed considerably larger than the intended limits of the building : this was paved and constituted the peribolus. On the peribolus a rectangular platform was constructed, of the same material as the temple, and usually of a length a little greater than twice the breadth.* The platform was ascended all around, by three low steps. ‘The * The following may be taken as a specimen of their proportions. Length. Breadth. Parthenon, 218 984 Temple of Theseus, 110 45 Jupiter Panhellenius, 94 47 Vou. XVIII.—No. 1. 3 18 Architecture in the United States. parts thus far were common to all: we must now select a particular kind of temple, and will take the one called perpteral, having a row of columns all around. | The columns had no base, being placed immediately on the upper step. Within them, at a distance nearly, equal to the interval be- tween the columns, was the cell or body of the temple, a solid struc- ture without any opening in its whole circuit, except the door for en- trance atone end. At this end the row of columns was usually double, forming the pronaos: in the Parthenon, the row of columns was doubled at both ends, but this was an exception to the general rule. The interior was lighted only by the door or by a break in the roof immediately over the central part of the cell. ‘The cell was usually quite plain and of the same material as the rest of the build- ing. ‘The height of the columns was about six times their diameter at the base, a proportion that would have given them a heavy char- acter, had this not been guarded against by twenty shallow flutings to each. Over the columns was the entablature, in this order equal in elevation to about one third of their height. The entablature con- sisted of three parts, the architrave which was plain, the frieze and the cornice. A low roof crowned the whole, the triangle formed by ‘it at each end being called the tympanum. Here only, and in the metopes of the frieze was any ornament admitted; the triglyph and other parts which resemble ornaments, being only an improvement on the original projection of the beams, and thus an essential part of the building. In most of their temples the metopes and tympanum appear to have been entirely plain. This is the Grecian temple, so highly and so justly admired, and so long retained by the art as the only one suited to the display of its greatest skill. I have gone carefully through the description, that the reader may have the whole distinctly before him, and be able to judge for himself. The most striking character of this temple is its simplicity. Its shape is the simplest possible, even more simple than a circle, when we consider that the subject is solid walls instead of lines. _ Its parts also are extremely simple: nothing can be more so than the plat- form on which it rests, or the walls which form the body of the edi- fice. ‘The former is plain and uniform all around ; the latter has no break in it, except the door: when more light is needed, the opening for it is in the roof and out of sight. The Grecian Doric is also the simplest form in which an order can appear. The pillars have no Architecture in the United States. 19 base : they are fluted, but this is necessary to prevent the appear- ance of heaviness: they have the exact shape required for strength : their capital swells out just as an object should do when preparing to support a heavy weight. The entablature is also simple. But if this quality is so striking in the best efforts of architecture, its ab- sence is no less so in those edifices which mark the downward pro- gress of the art. We know little of its early history except what we can gather from the ruins themselves, -but these are sufficient to shew us that during the period when it flourished most, which was from the time of Solon to that of Pericles, a period of two hundred years, the simplest Doric was almost exclusively employed. ‘Towards the close of this term, the Ionic appears to have come into notice. I do not wish to depreciate this order, for it is a neat and beautiful one, but it must be allowed to be far less simple than the Doric : it admits of more ornament, and one of the first temples in which it was employed in Greece,* was in shape a wide departure from the simple oblong form. It paved the way for the gay Corinthian, an order apparently unknown, at all events not used, before the age of Pericles. ‘The Corinthian is the very opposite of simplicity, and of course this quality is almost entirely unknown in the Roman style : every change they made was a further departure from it, and a still greater failure. But simplicity is only a quality of good architecture, and though the two are inseparably connected, we must look still further for the principles of the art. This quality is a striking feature in the Egyp- tian style, but although the antiquities of that country affect us with wonder and often with pleasure, they are wanting entirely in that strong mastery over the soul which is always possessed by the Gre- cian art. In what then lies this power? Let us turn again to the Grecian Doric temple and, if possible, search it out. ‘The edifice is of no great dimensions, and the effect therefore does not proceed from size: the work is exquisitely finished, but other edifices of ex- quisite finish have not this effect, and it is therefore not in careful fin- ishing : simplicity is predominant throughout, but we have just seen, that it is not in simplicity : the order is noble and striking, and the form is a beautiful one, but others have employed both of these and have failed; it is therefore not in them. Other architects, the rea- der will say, may have employed part of these ; but perhaps none * The Erechtheum.- 20 Architecture in the United States: have united them all, exquisite finish, simplicity, the best order and the best form: we can easily imagine however a building with all these unit- ed, and which would yet be very far inferior to the edifice which we have before us. I ask the reader to look again, and as he cannot dis- cover the secret of this charm by admiring, perhaps he can do it by try- ing to find fault. He answers that no one need attempt to find fault— for all is so perfect that it seems as if a taste so well disciplined and ma- tured as to know almost by instinct what were the best and happiest forms, had tried every promising combination of such forms, and that the same maturity had led it to choose the very best. In this answer is contained all the secret that there is in the.whole matter—A taste so well piscipLineD as to be able to judge with instinctive certainty as regards beauty of form, and this taste exercised with unceasing industry in combining such forms and in trying their combinations. This, and nothing but this, will make an architect. The Greeks were like other men, and came to perfection in architecture as men have come to perfection in other matters. We err most egregiously if we suppose them artists by nature, or that they gained their mighty power by folding their hands and waiting for hints in a happy dream, or even by profuse but idle admiration of the efforts of men from other countries. ‘They took the powers which nature gave them, and by unceasing culture brought them to the very iota perfection: these they applied, and they succeeded: others will succeed when they do all: this, and not till then. In this diffusion of a severe and pure taste throughout the Grecian structures lies all their charm. Tt gives them « a mental character, a soul, if 1 may use the term, which seems to elevate them above a mere union of wood and stone, and makes them almost live and breathe and hold communion with ourselves. This was the point to which the artist directed all his attention. The marble, the brass, the gold were to him inferior objects: they are never protruded on our view: he did not mean to have them seen or felt. He seized on them only ‘as the objects through which the grand and beautiful conceptions of his mind could embody themselves : as the building rose, these conceptions took shape and character and power, and it became a masterpiece fof art. We are indeed ‘sur- prised when we come to examine one of these buildings, to find how much the artist relied on expression for its effect. He seems tohave disdained all other effects; to this he directed all his efforts, the ef- forts of a taste matured perhaps beyond what we now can even ima- gine; and he could scarcely fail of success. The Gothic style cre- Architecture in the United States. 21 ates and overcomes vast mechanical difficulties, that we may be as- tonished with the display of skill; but here there is not one mechani- cal difficulty throughout the whole : the Gothic employs every varie~ ty of ornament to dazzle or distract the senses; the Grecian uses or- nament sparingly if it uses it at all: the former calls in every adven- titious circumstance to heighten the effect—painted glass, music, ob- scurity ; it awes us with its vastness, it overpowers and subdues the senses, and we gaze on it with wonder and with fear. ‘The latter re- jects every thing foreign to itself; it never affects us with its size ; it exerts itself chiefly on the outside, in the broad light of day ; our senses grow clear and critical before it, it insinuates itself into our very soul, and we become filled with hvely and almost bewildering admiration. Such was the Grecian art, and such the power of taste displayed in it. ‘T’o form their taste to this great effort and this severe scrutiny required a preparation with which subsequent artists seem not to have been familiar, and in the want of which may be traced the chief cause of subsequent failure. Let us now try to discover what this preparation was. They have left us no history of it, and we can form our judgment only through what we know of the sister arts. Let us take the pain- ter as an example. His art is far different, it is true, but yet his ed- ucation may furnish us with some useful hints. He is made to begin with the most simple lines, and one who watches him would think that all this was an exercise of the pencil only ; but it is not so. If he has the matervel of a painter in him, the moment he touched his paper, commenced an exercise not only of his pencil, but in an equal degree of his taste. He is probably not aware of it himself, for it is a delightful exercise and is unheeded, but it is this very ex- -ercise of the taste that makes the labor of the pencil even tolerable : destroy the workings of his taste, and the pencil will soon be thrown aside. We may soon know this by observing the progress of an- other: this latter has begun with the same ardor, and the same honest hopes; he draws a few lines, but grows listless as the other be- comes more engaged, and then relinquishes the study :—the clumsiness of his lines shews that taste has had no partin his labor. As the suc- cessful student proceeds, and while still confined to simple lines, he finds his taste becoming less easily gratified, and his labor therefore more severe : exercise has rendered this faculty critical : lines which pleased him at first are rejected one after another, until few are left 92 Architecture in the United States. that give him complete satisfaction ; but his pleasure from these is of the purest and most exquisite kind. He proceeds now to lines of a less simple kind, and continues the same rigid discipline through these. When his taste has grown so familiar with them as to decide with instinctive quickness and certainty on their merit, he ascends to the higher character of the art, expression in single lines. Should we look at him now, we should find that his labor has become anxious and toilsome. As he bends over it his features become animated and swollen: pleasure and vexation by turns pass rapidly over them: he draws line after line, looks intently at them and then brushes them hastily away to renew the attempt and to please himself no better than before. Why is this? Other men can see nothing to cause his sensations : they behold only a few lines and these so simple that any one could make them : in this simplicity, however, he finds their greatest difficulty and their greatest charm; each one of them has expression, and some strong feeling is acted upon by every one. Yet he is not satisfied: there is some part of that feeling left un- touched ; his art must reach the whole of it ; he tries again, and rests not till these simple lines take the full mastery of his soul. His taste well disciplined on these, he proceeds to combinations of lines and to expression in these, to complete figures, to posture, and then to grouping, and is now prepared to enter the lists with the giants of his art. In all these his taste has the same difficult duty to perform. I do not mean to say that all painters go through this course : proba- bly few could trace one so regular as this in the acquisition of their skill: but I believe that every painter of eminence proceeds. through one similar to it. The numerous steps by which he rises are probably little known even to himself; for many of them scarcely proceed further than his own mind : he gives them no shape on pa- per; they pass unheeded, and he is scarcely aware himself that his taste is constantly exercised, and that it is becoming each moment more critical and more powerful, simply from this exercise. The first known effort of West was in a portrait of his infant brother : a por- trait requires little exercise of taste compared with imaginary forms ; but how much this faculty had’ been previously exercised we have no means of judging, and probably he could not have told us himself. How much however must have passed between this and his painting of Christ healing the sick, we can easily imagine. | do not mean to say that a skilful painter may not exist without a critical taste; a man may be-an excellent copyist of nature : there are such men, a species Architecture in the United States. 293 of Camera Lucida in the art, but our reasoning is about another order of men—of men who range through all creation and all ages, who pass into the bright and boundless regions of fancy and then place in one view before us, the treasures of all this time and space—of real and imaginary worlds. ‘To these a chastened and severe taste is requisite, and this is gained only by long and unremitted effort. Is architecture a less intellectual art than painting? Grecian archi- tecture, at least, is not ; but how different from that of painters is the course of most of those persons who aim at this difficult style. ‘They read Vitruvius perhaps: more probably they examine some plans and profiles of Grecian and Roman edifices: they learn the proportion of the orders, and then, as if afraid that their skill may evaporate, go directly to work. As well might we expect to become painters by measuring the figures in Salvator Rosa’s Cataline, or in his cave of banditti. As reasonably might we prepare for writing an epic poem, by counting the lines of the Iliad, or of Paradise Lost. Taste in solid forms, is capable of as great improvement, as taste in lines. Nature, the perfection of such forms, is all around us. No one can examine an elm, or an oak, or a weeping willow, whether verdant or naked, without finding himself benefitted by the labor. If we wish to make the effort on artificial forms, it is necessary only to represent a few of the simplest kind on paper and compare them. Let any one repeat the effort a few times, and I venture to say that his judgment will be materially improved. Here probably commenced the labors of the Grecian architect. With his taste well matured on these, he rose to the more complicated kinds, still adhering to the severest simplicity, and when so familiar with these as to be almost instinctive in his perception of their merit, he proceeded next to the higher character of design or expression in solid forms. Here was to be the trial of his ultimate success, and on this part he labored perseveringly and long ;—and then he went forth confident in his powers,—not to do homage to other minds, but to claim it for his own. If he seemed to follow in the footsteps of others, it was because the qualities of true beauty are always the same, great simplicity and great finish. ‘The Doric temple seems to have been the favorite ob- ject, and no person who has seen one of them, will wonder that it was so, for no edifice can be found, so fitted for giving form to pure and grand conceptions; but every thing he touched, whether temple, or altar, or tripod base, or even if it was the covering of a well— all became exquisitely beautiful: it could not be otherwise. 24 Architecture in the United States. The Romans failed simply from a want of this discipline of taste. If we were ignorant of the Roman style, and were acquainted only with the fact, that they had the Grecian models before them on which to form themselves, we should at first thought, expect them to have pursued this art with the greatest success. Their first artists were Greeks, and these it is-true employed, most probably, the Cor- inthian, the least pure order of the three. But the Romans were fast becoming a refined nation, and it might have been expected that architecture, as their knowledge of it was enlarged, would ascend to the pure source, instead of drawinz from a corrupted stream. But it wasnotso. In their-high admiration of the Grecian art, they turn- ed copyists, and to do this requires little effort of the mind. Ar- chitecture was among them a fair and well proportioned body, but it ‘wanted life. «°Tis Greece, but living Greece no more.” Any one who passes from a contemplation of the Grecian to the Roman monuments, will feel all this: the Romans seem to have felt it also, and they resorted to ornament to supply or conceal the deficiency. Sensible that power and majesty of expression were wanting in their edifices, they began to amuse the attention with what was finical and nice, and then ended with being absurd. There is scarcely any species of form into which their temples did not pass,* or any kind of ornament that may not be found on them, until at last, the effort seems to have been solely to produce something new, and something pretty, not something noble or grand. Their wealth is to be considered an evil, as it furnished them with the means of supporting this perverted taste. 'There are some exceptions to all this, but they are few. The arch had no prototype in the architec- ture of Greece, and its employment required the exercise of their own faculties. ‘The Pantheon and some of their triumphal arches, shew how well they might have succeeded, had they only employed with diligence the powers with which nature had provided them ; but the impulse was too slight to carry them far, and they appear to have soon passed into many puerilities, even in the arch. I have shewn how the Roman style fastened itself on the rest of Europe, and how it has come down to modern times. Europe by degrees became Christianized, and here was another change in the * The reader is.referred to Montfaucon for an exhibition of some of them. Architecture in the United States. 95 art,—a still greater failure than that which had accompained its trans- fer from Greece to Rome. The purposes of public buildings were nearly the same among the Romans as among the Greeks; they worshipped the same gods and with similar rites: it was easy then to adhere closely to the Grecian models, and though the new building might want beauty of expression, or have no expression at all, still, this close adherence would keep it from being absurd. This saved the Romans for a while, and would have saved them altogether, had they been contented with this. But Christian edifices must be of a different character: their objects were different: their plans, their whole structure must be different: here there could be no security from simple copying. Failure was inevitable, and the Grecian art took its last downward step. Even the boasted St. Peter’s is but a ‘a labored quarry above-ground :’”* it affects us with wonder, with astonishment, but at what? At the rich marbles, the gorgeous adorn- ings, the vastness, the splendor: but all these can exist without a particle of true architecture. Money can buy them all, and when we stand before St. Peter’s, we think not of its majesty—but of its cost! And if this is St. Peter’s, what are most other modern edifices ? Away with such architecture, or at least, degrade not the art by coup- ling them with its name. The Grecian architecture grew up in a manly discipline of the taste : it is founded on this: every part of it shares this character, and no one can ever succeed in it without having passed through the same severe course. All attempts even to blend any part of it with our buildings will end in failure without this. As well might our newspaper poets expect to draw admiration by mingling the lines of Milton or Homer with theirs. We may succeed in the Egyptian, the Indian, the Chinese, the Saracenic; we may succeed also in the Gothic, if wealth can be found equal to its demands ;—but, in the Grecian, sine pulvere nulla palma, is the language of reason, and is echoed back to us from the experience of more than two thousand years. We may, however, succeed : the prize as well as the race is placed before us, and we have every thing that can give us hope. Whatever labor it may impose on our architects, to all other persons the means of success are the easiest possible: we need scarcely do more than * « A person accustomed to the cumbrous churches of Christendom, those labored quarries above-ground, &c.”—Hobhouse’ Albania, Letter X XII. Vou. XVIIL.—No. 2 4 26 Sketch of a Classification of the European Rocks. _ wish for it and it will come. Iwill point out the way. The artist who loads our edifices with ornament or multiplies the parts more than is necessary, is either ignorant of his art, or means to slight his work and throw dust in our eyes so as to blind us to its de- fects. Let us begin then with requiring simplicity in our buildings. We shall soon have it, and its immediate effect will be a powerful and favorable action on our taste. Ihave seen such a result. In one of our cities there was erected during the past year an edifice after the Grecian plan. it is of the Doric order, and is marked with much simplicity in all its parts. Itis of the cheapest and coarsest ma- terials, and is yet unfinished, indeed is still very rude in its exterior. This building has already had very great effect on the minds of the population of that city : men are beginning to judge of expression and force in architecture who never thought of such things before. | So much for the efiect of simplicity on the taste of our people : let us look for a, moment at the effect our demand for it will have on the archi- tects themselves. Finding it impossible to dazzle or bewilder the mind, by factitious helps they will from necessity attempt beauty and power of design: their taste will thus begin a course of discipline and will again act on ours. Mind will continue to operate on mind. And then will arise among us men of pure and lofty conceptions, who will scorn all tricks of art, and whose taste will be content only when it makes each object it touches, an unage of itself: architecture, no longer disguised by tinsel or borne down by profuse ornament, will rise once more in majesty and power, and will once more take its prop- er rank among the arts: cherished by the nation, it will in return add honor to our halls of legislation ; it will meet us with its purifying in- fluence in our houses of worship; it will assist as in rewarding the brave ; it. will encourage us in our reverence for virtue ; it will draw a bright halo around the name of our country ; it will make us a better and, a. happier people. (®o be concluded in the next. Mumber.) Arr. IIl.*—Sketch of a Classification of the European Rocks ; by Henry T. Deva Becue, Esq. F. KR. S. &e. To propose in the present state of geological science any classifi- cation of rocks which should pretend to more than temporary utility, "+ From the London Philosophical Magazine for December. + Communicated by the Author. Sketch of a Classification of the European Rocks. 27 would be to assume a more intimate acquaintance with the earth’s crust than we possess. Our knowledge of this structure is in reality but small, and principally confined to certain portions of Europe; and even in many of these portions we are continually presented with new views and a detail of newly discovered phenomena by able ob- servers, which so modify our previously received opinions, as im ma- ny instances almost to amount to a change of them. Still, however, a large mass of information has been gradually collected, particularly as respects this quarter of the world, tending to certain general and important conclusions; among which the principal are,—that rocks may be divided into two great classes, the stratified and the unstrati- fied ;—that of the former some contain organic remains, and others do not ;—and that the non-fossiliferous stratified rocks, as a mass, oc- cupy an inferior place to the fossiliferous* strata, also taken as a mass. ‘The next important conclusion is, that among the stratified fossiliferous rocks there is a certain order of superposition, marked by peculiar general accumulations of organic remains, though the mine- ralogical character varies materially. It has even been supposed that in the divisions termed formations, there are found certain species of shells, &c. characteristic of each. Of this supposition, extended ob- servation can alone prove the truth; and in order properly to mves- tigate the subject, geologists must agree to what mass of rocks they should limit the term Formation: if, as some now do, they apply it to every accumulation of ten or twenty beds, which may happen, in the district they have examined, to contain a few shells not found in the strata above and beneath, the investigation is not likely to Jead to any extended conclusions. To suppose that all the formations into which it has been thought advisable to divide European rocks can be detected by the same or- ganic remains in various distant points of the globe, is to assume that the vegetables and animals distributed over the surface of the world, were always the same at the same time, and that they were all de- stroyed at the same moment to be replaced by a new creation, dil- ~ fering specifically if not generically from that which immediately pre- ceded. This theory would also infer that the whole surface of the world possessed an uniform temperature at the same given epoch. It has been considered, but remains to be proved, that the lowest fossiliferous rocks correspond generally in their fossil contents, in pla- “The term fossiliferous is here confined to organic remains, 28 Sketch of a Classification of the Huropean Rocks. ces far distant from each other. Leet us for the moment suppose this assertion to be correct. ‘To obtain this uniform distribution of ani- mal and vegetable life, it seems necessary, judging from the phe- nomena we now witness, that there should also have been an uni- form temperature over the surface of our planet. To obtain this, solar influence, as it now exists, would be inadequate; we must therefore have recourse to internal heat to produce the effect requir- ed. In the present varied temperature of the earth’s surface, if we imagine a rock to be formed which should envelop every animal and plant now existing, the fossil contents of one district would differ from the fossil contents of another ; if we except man, whose bones would more or less become the characteristic fossils of those por- tions of the rock which might overlie the present dry land. ‘The rock supposed to be now formed would present a striking contrast with the old fossiliferous, and we should have two very distinct ac- cumulations of organic remains. ‘The question arising on such phe- nomena would be, Has so great a change of organic character been effected gradually or suddenly? 'To suppose it sudden, will not agree with the phenomena presented to us, even by the now known European rocks ; and if it be considered gradual, we cannot expect that rocks should every where contain the same organic remains, even in those that have commonly been called secondary : conse- quently the organic remains considered characteristic of any particu- lar formation in one part of the world, may not be found at all in an equivalent formation in another. Upon the theory that the world cooled in such a manner that so- lar heat, as now existing, gradually acquired its influence, the warm climate vegetation would gradually be restrained within narrower limits, until it became circumscribed as it now is; consequently all rocks formed within the tropics would probably contain warm cli- mate plants, while these would gradually cease on the N. and 8.5; so that it would be by no means safe to deduce the kind of Flora that should be found in any given rock in the tropics from the fossil plants discovered in an equivalent rock in Europe. _ If vegetable life might under such circumstances so vary, there seems no good rea- son why animal life might not equally differ. To what extent the mass of organic fossils found in any particular European formation or group of formations may exist in equivalent rocks (of Africa or Ame- rica for instance), remains to be seen. In the present state of our knowledge, it is only safe to state that certain remains have been dis- covered in a given rock, not that they are absent from it. Sketch of a Classification of the European Rocks. 29 The old divisions into primitive, transition, secondary, and tertia- ry, are now admitted by many persons to be founded on an errone- ous view of nature; yet such is the force of habit, that many geolo- gists, aware of the fallacy of these divisions, still continue to use the terms, and we hear nearly as much as ever of transition rocks. Would it not be imagined by the person first directing his attention to the study of geology, that there were three great marked periods, during each of which rocks of a peculiar character, distinct from each other, were formed, and that there was a transition or passage only between the first and second of these. I appeal to those who have examined rocks in the field, and not merely in cabinets and useums, whether or not the student would entertain correct opin- iéns. ‘These divisions may be said to have been made in the infan- cy of the science, and doubtless contributed much to its present com- paratively advanced state ; but it should always be recollected that they were formed from limited observations, and were connected with particular theories, which recent and more accurate observa- tions have shown to be any thing but correct. If it shall be proved that there is an occasional passage between the old tertiary and sec- ondary classes, there would appear to be more or less transition throughout the whole series of the stratified rocks, showing that the term transition, at least, is incorrect. A great mass of evidence is, indeed, in favor of a break at the epoch of the Exeter Red Con- glomerate (Rothe Todte Liegende), resulting from a great derange- ment in the previously existing rocks, and the grinding and rounding of detached portions of them into gravels, which when comparative tranquillity was restored, were deposited in horizontal beds on the disturbed strata. Yet able observers assert, that there is an occa- sional passage of these rocks into the coal-measures, upon which they so commonly rest in an unconformable manner. We have now so many instances of great differences in the mineralogical structure of the same formations, either original or consequent on disturbance, that such structure is no longer a character of importance; and it yet remains to be seen how many of the strata supposed to belong to the primitive class are altered rocks. M. Brongniart’s division into “ Sediment Rocks,” would be both natural and useful were it certain where such rocks’ commenced, and that all those necessarily included in the class were so formed. This division has been much used in France of late, and would ap- pear infinitely superior to the terms secondary and tertiary. 30 Sketch of a Classification of the European Rocks. In offermg the annexed sketch of ‘a classification of European rocks to the attention of the reader, it is merely my intention to show that divisions can be made for practical purposes, independent of the theoretical terms primitive, transition, secondary and tertiary ; terms which, not being founded on an enlarged view of nature, but ground- ed on peculiar views, now doubted, there would appear no good rea- - son for preserving. It is not presumed that this classification will _be adopted, and I am well aware that many just objections can be made to it; but it pretends to nothing beyond convenience: and if geologists could be induced to use something of this kind, or any other that would better answer the purpose of relieving us from the old theoretical terms, I cannot but imagine that the science would derive benefit from the change. In the accompanying ‘Table, rocks are first divided into stratified and unstratified, a natural division, or at all events one convenient for practical purposes, independent of the theoretical opinions that may be connected with each of these two great classes of rocks. The same may perhaps also be said of the next great division; viz. that of the stratified rocks into superior or fossiliferous, and inferior or non-fossiliferous. The superior stratified or fossiliferous rocks are divided into groups, nearly the same as those which I published in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles for August last. I have my- self found them useful in practice, more particularly in the examina- tion of districts distant from each other. Srrativisp Rocxs.—Group 1. (Alluvial) seems at first sight natural and easily determined; but in practice it is often very diffi- cult to say where it commences. When we take into consideration the great depth of many ravines and gorges which appear to origin- ate in the cutting power of existing rivers, the cliffs even of the hardest rocks which more or less bound any extent of coast, and the immense accumulations of comparatively modern land, as for in- stance, those great flats on the western side of South America, there is a difficulty in referring these phenomena to the duration of a com- paratively short period of time. Geologically speaking, the epoch is recent; but, according to our general ideas of iime, it appears to be one that reaches back far beyond the’ dates usually assigned to the - present order of things. Man and the monkey tribe seem to be the most marked new creation of this epoch. I would by no means be supposed to deny that they may not have previously existed, but at present the mass of evidence is against their prior appearance. There Sketch of a Classification of the European Rocks. 31 seems, indeed, no good reason why man and the monkeys should not have lived as well as the bears and hyenas at periods antecedent to this epoch; but until the remains of the two former be found in rocks proved to be formed previous to this period, it cannot be affirmed that they did.* The animals now existing, considered as a mass, appear to differ specifically from those whose remains are found en- tombed in the various rocks, gravels, clays, &c. formed previously to the existing order of things. ‘There are deed a few exceptions to this observation, but the body of evidence seems to render a new creation presumable. Group 2. (Diluvial) comprises those gravels so commonly occur- ring in situations where actual causes could not have placed them, but where, on the contrary, such causes tend to destroy them. ‘The most extraordinary feature of this group is the distribution of those enormous blocks or boulders found so singularly perched on moun- tains, or scattered over plains far distant from the rocks from whence they appear to have been broken. Many valleys appear to have been scooped out of horizontal or nearly horizontal strata at this epoch; the force which excavated them having acted often upon strata shattered and broken into faults. Of course a general modifi- cation of the previously existing forms of mountain and valley must have taken place, if we are to consider the catastrophe general. Much information is yet wanting respecting this group, which it is hoped those observers who have been more especially occupied with it, will soon afford us. Group 3. (Lowest Great Mammiferous) comprises the rocks com- monly known as tertiary: they are exceedingly various, and contain an immense accumulation of organic remains, terrestrial, fresh-water, and marine. ‘The recent observations of some able geologists have shown that the upper members of this group approach more closely than was formerly supposed to the existing order of things. We yet require much information respecting even the European rocks com- posing this class, notwithstanding the labors of those who may almost *Should such observations as those lately made on the caverns of the department of the Gard by M.de Christol (Annales des Mines, 1829) be multiplied, and should it be always shown that human bones and pottery are, as is stated to be the case, in these caverns, really of the same date as the hyena’s bones, dung, &c. with which they are mixed,—we can scarcely refuse to admit that man existed previous to the alluvial epoch; supposing it in all eases proved that these eavern remains are of the same date: as those considered of the diluvial period. 32 Sketch of a Classification of the European Rocks. be said to have devoted their exclusive attention to them. The group is characterized by the first appearance, in the ascending se- ries, of any abundance of the mammiferous animals, many genera of which are now extinct. Group 4. (Cretaceous) contains the rocks which in England and the North of France are characterized by chalk in the upper part, and sands and sandstones in the lower. ‘The term “‘cretaceous” is perhaps an indifferent one; for, possibly, the mineralogical character of the upper portion whence the name is derived is local, that is, con- fined’ to a particular portion of Europe, and may be represented elsewhere by dark compact limestones or even sandstones. As how- ever the geologists of the present day are perfectly agreed as to what rock is meant when we speak of “ the chalk,” there seems no objection to retain it for the present. The French geologists have jong considered the sands beneath the chalk, known as green-sands, as belonging to the same formation with the chalk. That the fresh- water character of the shells contained in the Wealden rocks is more or less local, it seems but rational to infer ; for it cannot be imagined that all the waters of the globe became suddenly fresh in order that these rocks might be formed, and as suddenly salt again for the de- position of the green-sands and chalk. Some French geologists moreover consider that in France there is a marine equivalent of the Wealden rocks. As far as our observations of fossil organic remains have yet ex- tended, it would seem probable that the ammonites and belemnites ceased to exist after the formation of this group; for, as yet, their remains have not been detected in Group 3. Should this, after a greater extent of the world has been examined, be found generally true, it will be a most valuable guide in determining the relauve ages of this and the previously noticed group in cases where the minera- logical structure is of no avail. Group 5. (Oolitic) comprises the various members of the oolite or Jura limestone formation, including lias. ‘The term oolitic has been retained upon the same principle as that of eretaceous: in point of fact even in England and the North of France the oolites, properly so called, form but an insignificant part of the mass of rocks known by the name of the oolite formation; this character is also not con- fined to the rocks in question, but is common to many others. In the Alps and Italy the oolite formation is replaced by dark and com- pact marble limestones, so that its mineralogical structure is of no val- Sketch of a Classification of the European Rocks. 33 ue. Saurians would appear to have been abundant in some places. The prevailing fossil characteristic seems the extraordinary quantity of ammonites and belemnites, the remains of which are so numerous in.this group. It is remarkable that the nautilus should have been continued down to the present time, and that the other camerated shells which swarmed at this epoch should not have been found. The belemnites do not appear to occur beneath the lias, at least as yet we have no well authenticated instance of such occurrence. Group 6. (Red Sandstone) contains the variegated marls (Marnes irisées, Keuper) the Muschelkalk, the New Red Sandstone (Gres Bigarré Bunter Sandstein), the Zechstem, and the Exeter Red Conglomerate (Rothe Todte Liegende). ‘The whole is considered as a mass of conglomerates, sandstones, and marls, generally of a red color, but most frequently variegated in the upper parts. ‘The lime- stones may be considered subordinate. Sometimes only one occurs, sometimes the other, and sometimes both are wanting. ‘There seems no good reason for supposing that other limestones may not be devel- oped in this group in other parts of the world. When the muschel- kalk is very compact with broken stems of the lily enerinite,* one of its characteristic fossils, it might easily be mistaken for some of the varieties of the carboniferous limestone. In some places the new red sandstone contains an abundance of vegetable remains, at others none can be detected init. ‘The saurians first appear in the ascend- ing series, at least in any abundance, in this group. As I have be- fore observed, the lower part of this group generally rests uncon- formably on the inferior rocks, and seems to have resulted from a very general upheaving and fracture of the pre-existing strata, ac- companied by the intrusion of trap rocks. Group 7. (Carboniferous) Coal-measures and carboniferous lime- stone. ‘The former would appear in the greater number of instances to be naturally divided from the group above it, but the latter would seem more allied to that beneath: there is however so much con- nection in this country between the coal-measures and the carbonif- erous limestone, that it would appear convenient for the present to keep them together. Judging from Europe, the coal-measures pre- sent us with the largest mass of fossil vegetables. Corals were common, but they occur in as great abundance, if not more plentifully now; though the recent species, generally *Encrinites moniliformis. A/7Ilez. Vou. XVITI.—No. 1. 5 34 Sketch of a Classification of the European Rocks. speaking, differ from the fossils. But Producte, the abundance of which characterizes this group, are now unknown; and the Crinoi- dea which occur in these rocks in multitudes are very rarely found in a living state. Group 8. (Grauwacke) This may be considered as a mass of sandstones, slates and limestones, in which sometimes one predomi- nates, sometimes the other; the old red sandstones of the English geologists being the upper of its sandstones. ‘Trilobites are the most remarkable and abundant fossils of this epoch, and corals and ortho- ceratites occur in great numbers. It is difficult to fix the inferior limits of this group. Group 9. (Lowest Fossiliferous) It is very difficult in the present state of our knowledge to say whether or not this constitutes a sepa- rate group from No. 8; and I have here introduced it more in ac- cordance with the views of other geologists than with my own. A difference in mineralogical structure proves nothing; the changes in this respect are so various, that the different appearance of one slate from another, if not shown to o¢cupy a different geological po- sition, is of no value. It has indeed been supposed that the Snow- donian slates are older than the grauwacke series, but we yet require the proof of this. ; Inventor on Non-rossiLirerous Stratiriep Rocxs.—lIt would be useless ina sketch of this nature to enumerate the varieties of slates and other rocks that enter into this division, they will readily present themselves to the mind of the geologist ; recent observations show that many rocks to all appearance of this division may belong to the preceding. M. Elie de Beaumont, in one of his late letters to me, states, that mounting the Val Bedretto from Airolo to the foot of the Col, which leads into the Haut Vallais, he found ‘an al- ternation many times repeated of small beds of a compact and grey- black limestone, and a nearly black limestone mixed with clay slate thickly studded with crystals of garnets and staurotides. Both the one and the other of these rocks contain a considerable number of belemnites transformed into white calcareous spar, but of which the general forms and alveoli are nevertheless very visible, and can leave no doubt as to the nature of the fossils. As these limestone beds are the prolongation of those in which the gypsum of the Val Canaria is found, and as these are the same with those in which the dolomite of Campo Longo occurs, we can assure ourselves that all the curious mineralogical phenomena of the St. Gothard have been Sketch of a Classification of the European Rocks. — 35 introduced into beds contemporaneous either with the oolite series or the greensand.” Now when such important changes as those no- ticed by my friend M. Elie de Beaumont can be fairly traced, what may we not expect to find in the sequel, when geologists shall cease to be contented with referring a particular mineralogical structure to the old divisions transition and primitive, of which the former seems only to have been created as a geological trap. Unstratiriep Rocxs.—This great natural division is one of considerable importance in the history of our globe. ‘To the rocks composing it, and the forces which threw them up, may be attributed the dislocations and fractures in the stratified rocks every where so common, and in any instances their elevations into lofty mountain ranges. In many of the great chains the trap rocks are visible along their line of elevation, as was first observed by M. Von Buch in the Alps,—on the southern side of which they are exposed at intervals ; and it is on this side that there is somuch dolomite in the limestones. To assert that igneous rocks cannot be present along the whole of ihis line because not every where visible on this surface, is like af- firming that there is no table beneath a cloth spread on it except m the cases where there may be a few holes. Weare too apt in judg- ing of the mass and thickness of rocks to compare them with our own size, and imagine them enormous, expressing surprise at the immense forces which it must have required to raise such masses into moun- tains; when if they were compared, as they ought to be, with the mass of the world, the thickness becomes trifling, the highest moun- tains insignificant, and the forces required to raise them comparatively small. . That granitic, trappean, and serpentinous rocks have exercised a great influence on the present position of the stratified rocks, few geologists will doubt. ‘The igneous origin of the two former is also very generally admitted ; but though the third is not so generally re- ferred to that origin, | know not how we can deny that it was pro- duced by a cause somewhat similar to that which produced the oth- ers, when we consider its mode of occurrence, more particularly in the Alps and in Italy. The geological dates of the elevations of mountains is a most im- portant subject, and one on which M. Elie de Beaumont read a very interesting paper, in June last, before the Institute of France.* His * The first part of this paper has been published in the Annales des Sciences Wat- urelles for September. 36 Sketch of a Classification of the European Rocks. recent observations have tended to confirm his previous remarks on four of these epochs. Ist. That the Ezgeberge, the Cote d’Or, &c. have been elevated between the epoch of the Jura limestone and the green-sand and chalk. (Groups 5 and 4 of the annexed Table.) Qnd. That the Pyrenees and Apennines were thrown up between the epoch of the chalk and tertiary rocks (Groups 4 and 3.) 3d. That the Western Alps were raised between the tertiary epoch and the first ‘‘ terrains de wansport” (Groups 3 and 2.) 4th. ‘That still later, there was an elevation of mountains, in which were comprised some in Provence, the Central Alps, &c. How far the igneous rocks have been connected with these phe- nomena remains to be seen ; but, as before stated, it is by no means fair to infer that because not seen on the surface they do not exist beneath. Volcanoes, properly so called, both existing and extinct, seem to have exerted a minor influence in the elevation of strata com- pared with that exerted by the igneous rocks which were shot up previous to the action of these volcanoes. Elevations of land do however take place apparently from the causes that produce volca- noes ; and of these the rise of land noticed in Chili by Mrs. Maria Graham, in consequence of the earthquake of 1824, is a striking ex- ample. Should the annexed Table succeed in calling the attention of ge- ologists to other divisions than those made in the infancy of the sci- ence, and grounded on particular theories, one supposing three great epochs and a transition between the first and second of these, another considering rocks divisible into two great classes, a primary and sec- ondary, the primary containing organic remains in its- upper part,— my object will, as I before stated, be fully answered. We are yet acquainted with so small a portion of the real structure of the earth’s exposed surface, that all general classifications of rocks are prema- ture ; and it seems ieee to attempt any others than those which are comparatively local, calculated for temporary purposes, and of sucha nature as not to impede by an assumption of more knowledge than we possess, the general advancement of geology. 37 of the European Rocks. won O Sketch of a Classificat (Supmrior Srrar- IFIED or Fossiu- IFEROUS. STRATIFIED Rocks. INFERIOR STRAT- IFIED, or Non- FOSSILIFEROUS. UNSPRATIFIED Rocxs CLASSIFICATION OF EUROPEAN ROCKS. f 1. Alluvial Group - - - Detritus of various kinds produced by actual causes. Co- ral Islands. Stalagmitical incrustations. Peat bogs, &e. 2. Diluvial Group - - - Transported boulders and blocks; gravels on mountains, hills, and plains, which actual causes tend to destroy. 3. Lowest Great The various rocks known as tertiary; characterized by Mammiferous a great abundance of terrestrial, marine, and fresh- water remains, some of which approach, and others re- semble, those now existing. 4, Cretaceous Group - Chalk, green-sand, and Wealden rocks; the latter per- haps a local variety of marine formation. 5. Oolitic Group - - - - Rocks usually known as the Jura limestone or colite for- mation, including lias. L 6. Red Sandstone Variegated marls (Marnes Irisées Keuper), Muschelkalk, New Red Sandstone (Grés Bigarré, Bunter Sand- stein), Zechstein, Exeter Red Conglomerate (Gres Rouge, Rothe Todte Liegende.) Group Group } 8. Grauwacke Group - Old Red Sandstone, Grauwacke, Grauwacke limestones, Grauwacke clay slates. 9. Lowest Fossilifer- 2 Snowdonian Slates. Tintagel Slates, &c. ous Group Talcose Slate. No determinate or- Clay Slate. der of superposi- Flinty Slate. tion Micaceous Slate. Gneiss, &c. &c. 1. Volcanic Group - - Ancient and Modern lavas, Trachyte, Basalt, &c. 2. Trappean Group - - Greenstone, Basalt, Porphyry, Amygdaloid, &c. 3. SerpentinousGroup Serpentine, Diallage Rock. 4, Granitic Group - - - Granite, Syenite, Porphyry, &c. Probable appearance of Man and the Mon- key Tribe, according to existing informa- tion. Valleys cut in previously horizontal, or cracked strata; modification of the ante- rior forms of mountain and valley. First appearance of any abundance of mam- miferous animals in the ascending series. Last appearance, in the ascending series, of Ammonites and Belemnites. Great abundance of Ammonites and Belem- nites; last appearance of Belemnites in the descending series. First appearance, in any abundance, of Sau- rians in the ascending series. 4 Abundance of vegetable remains, Enerinites and Products common in the limestone. Trilobites common. Organic remains rare. Tt would seem that the superior stratified may, from various circumsiances, assume the appearance of the inferior stratified rocks. The trappean and granitic rocks so pass into each other, that they can often be consid- ered only as modifications of the same aub- stances. SBM Rectification of the Ellipse. Art. IV.—On the Rectification of the Ellipse; by C. Witwer. Draw the indefinite right les, AB and A’B’, intersecting in C, and between the lines AB and A’B’ place the given right line DE, so that the point D may be in AB and the point Ein A’B’; through D and E draw DF and EF, parallel to A’B’ and AB, then the locus of F isan ellipse, AA’BB’. Put z=CE=DF, y=CD=EF, DE equal to unity, and 9 for the obtuse angle ACB’, then by trigonometry y?—2 cos. ovy+- a? =1; from this equation it is seen that » and y are positive in the direction CA’ and CA, and that 9 is estimated from the line CB’. Draw df. indefinitely near to DF, and through f draw fe, parallel to FE, then without more words it is evident that we have : gk? —2 cos. ogfeF ef? =F Ff ; and at its limit iy? — 2dady cos. p+dx? =dz?, z being the arc, AF. Passing to the factors of the first member of y? —2xy cos. p+-x22=1, and we have necessarily Soy y —a(cos. 9—sin. 94/ —1)=e and —zl — a(cos. 9+ sin. oof —1 er 3 e being the Hee of the Naperian system, and 2’ a function of w and y to be determined. : ; Nae arf! Differentiating and dy —da(cos. 9 — sin. pf — 1) =tdz’ e- —zl dy —da(cos. p+ sin. 04/1) =j7de’er 3 multiplying and dy? —2daxdy cos. p++ dx? = — dz’? ; integrating we have JV dy? — 2c — 2dady cos. p--dx? aera ors Rectification of the Ellipse. 39 Consequently, y—a(cos. p—sin. oW uupyere Ve (1) and y —x(cos. +sin. @ Cle eae | ; (2) also, accenting, y/ —a’(cos. 9 — sin. oY wee Vas (3) and y’ —x'(cos. o-+-sin. WV —1)=e Suda: (4) then (1), (3), yy pad (ae p— 2 cos. 9 sin. Oxf —1 —sin.?9) — (y’e@+y2’)(cos.o— sin. eof — 1) = An hr and (1), (4), yy’ +x! —(y'x-+-yu’)cos. o — (y/x — yx’) sin.p f= ' r ee i Punaand B for the co-ordinates of the arc (z+-2’) ay a’ and 8 for those of (z—2’), and then $8 —a(cos. o—sin. oV —1)= and —o/(cos. p—sin. oY — Ege ye Consequently yy’ -- xa’(cos.29 —2 Cos. p sin. p»/ —1 — sin.?p) —(y/x + yx’) (cos. p —sin. op —1)=8—a(cos. p— sin. oof —1) and yy’ x2! —(y/x+y2"’) cos. 9 — (ya’ —y’x)sin. o»/ — 1=f/ —a’(cos. 9 — sin. 9»/ —1). Comparing the homologous parts of these equations we have a=y'e-+ yx —2xx' COS. ?, B=yy/—aw! ; of = Y' x asad io B’=yy! + axa! — 2yx' cos. o. When 9 is a right angle, cos. o=0, and the ellipse becomes a circle, and the co-ordinates take the name of sine and cosine : we then have sin. (z-+2’)=cos. 2’ sin. z--cos. zsin. 2/3 * cos. (z-++2’)=cos. 2 cos. 2/— sin. 2sin. 2’ 5 sin. (2—2/)=cos. 2’ sin: 2—Cos. 2 sin. 2’ 5 cos. (2 — 2/)=cos. 2 cos. 2’-++ sin. zsin. 2’. Writing nz for z, in (1) and (2) we have y —«x (cos. p—sin. yee inate and (5). y—« (cos. o-+sin. o,/-1) = re aoe (6) a and y being the co-ordinates of any multiple, nz of the are z, er Vat Roa a from which (6) — (5) 1 MO ane eae (7) and (6)+(5)+ cos. o mee we Ww ores ane +cotan. o/ —1 er ee ay oo) DT SO) Rectification of the Ellipse. When 9 is a right angle, (5) and (6) become ne V-1 cos. nz-+ sin. nz./ —1=e (9) cos. nZ— sin. ay oe (10) Deeg oe i d (9) and (10) are sin. nze= 11 ane ead Nl) Sree ee yo (11) eee Toe ay at cos. nz= 3 , (12) writing 1 for n and 9 for z, then (9) and (10) become Cos. o-FSiN. O\/ — sca ta and cos. p—sin. p=e Tikecs ; we may write therefore (5) and (6) thus: y— Lg Re ee (13) and y— Bi paises ga a ! (14) hence, nz/ —1=log. (y- xe ov =i 10) (15) —nzs/ a= log. (y—we?™ a) (16) when «=0 we have y=+1, and ne=loe.(+41¥ ~*) ; the upper sign indicating any complete number of circumferences, and the lower sign any odd number of semi-circumferences, as is easily seen by counting from A positively. When y=0 we have r=*1, and nz=log. (cer? )V log. ( - an a " commences at A, and terminates at A’, com- prising any number of circuits together with AA’, log. CO OO i comprises any number of circuits, commenc- ing at A and terminating at B’, counting positively, log. @ SOY Nae commences at A and terminates at B/ and log. CE eat begins at A, and ends at A’, counting nega- tively. When g is aright angle nz=log. levies When txr=y it indicates the vertex of the greater and lesser axis, as is seen by making the first member of y? +2.2xy cos. 9+”? =CF? maximum ; writing therefore tx for y, in (15) and (16) and we have nz=log. x (1—e ree ies AG; (17) —nz=log. x (1 ea Nore =— AG; 4 (18) Rectification of the Ellipse. Al nz=log.— x1 a By tee Nic (19) eine slog. = aides OY en 4 = A (20) then n (17 — (18) nz=log. - ae 2 =AG (21) tse “9-1 ieee and (19) — (20) —ns=log.(— Lieven Naa 2 =—AK (22) consequently, (21) = (22) ne=log. G1” 7) =AG-+ AK =GK equal to the elliptic quadrant. Drawing the figure below, and following the description at the commencement, it is evident that we have CD?+2CE CD cos. ACB/+CE?=CF? or y?+2ay cos. o+a?=1. Parting the first member of this equation into its simple factors, + we have y+ 2 (cos. o—sin. 9/—1)=e~ and B Lie io ric y+ (cos. o+sin. p/ —1)=e* ; differentiating both of these aur observing from ada sin.” dy = —dz cos. a rae —x ‘sin.2 @ =e dx and dy have different signs, we have dy — dz (cos. 9— sin. 4/ i) ee nd dy — dx (cos. o+sin. ox/ —1) = zdzet multiplying, dy? —2dzdy cos. 9+dx2=— “de? the differential relation of the circular arc AF, and its co-ordinates, as is seen by Vol. XVIII._—No. 1. 6 42 Rectification of the Lilipse. the figure, hence, what has been said of the ellipse, AB/BA’ is equal- ly applicable to the circle AB/BA’. Developing (15) and (16,) y bemg ia as the li a we have nz/ —1=log. (y) FeV Fa a2 20-1 = 530" sp 1 — x4 ay" es —nz/ —1= log. Wes =e 9-1 e-49*-1 — ete, and Tae 2 39/71 ~ Oy? By? hp ay -—-e44/-1_ ete. then taking the difference of these two equations and Cae pe equations “un and apes we get ae sin. 2 sin. 3 7 sin. 4p-+ etc. =y ota ras ota Bo the sum au these two equations gives xn? log. (y) <3 o-tpye cos. ot 5 COs. S045 Ay 7 cos. 40+ etc. When 9 is a right angle, the sines roe the even multiples of 9 are equal to zero, and of the odd, alternately plus and minus ; the reverse ip happens to the cosines ; the ratio y takes a name, and then tan.? nz tan.° nz tan 7 nz =tan. nz — ae etc. Nz, n 3 5 i + ete ! my tan.* nz tan.* nz tan.* nz antliloss (Cas. G2 i crise ane 6 rete. when x is greater, we have nz¥ —1=log. (—axe“PV-1) — Lee De ae oye Lea 1—etc.. and —nzV —1=log. Nina a al me. rout LEW eri NEI Spey 336 ze 1'—ete. the difference ie nd two equations gives MEY esa WA ami (TAC aye Ye z=log.(+e ov 1) / ae sin. ota sin. oe sin. do+ Reap. + aya sin. 4pete. Rectification of the Ellipse. 43 . and log. («)=2 Cos. otes 3 COs. 2ote: cos. 39+ * +2 Ana cos. 40-- etc. Se is a right angle, we have cotan.? nz cotan.* nz nz=log. (V1)¥~'—(cotan. ie arin Wp cotan.” nz 7 —+etc. cotan.? a cotan.4 go cotan.® o 2 4 6 log. (sin. nz) = — + ete. when tz=y we have % sin. 30 sin. 4 nz=sin. me oe 3 oe Bil etc. =AG, sin. sin. mg sin. 4p and nz= —sin. 9+ any 3 a mn — etc.= —AK, n. 39 _ sin. dp Le hence nz=2 (sin. aa oe --etc.=AK equal to the elliptic quadrant; and their sum is 20 sin.4p_ sin. 6 ae oe Pete. =AG—AK. When 9 is a right angle, we aa nz=2(—5 yal nz=2(1 —3+5—7 7 etc. equal to the circular quadrant and AG—AK=0. With regard to the circle, AB’BA’, it is sufficient to observe that its equations new —1=log. (ytre?”~*) nev —1 =log.(y-+-ae?Y y give the co-efficients of and x SM the even powers of ae Z negative in the developement of nz. The equations ytwxe and ytae?Y = aga (24) include both the circle and ellipse, and we have by eliminating y jai gal a etmiuie” Me Lp eV ep oe en), ibe or ee) (ae (sin. op —1) tW1 se a i 44 Rectification of the Ellipse. and dz=dxr a i (1 — a? sin. 29) — es Developing and z?sin.tp 3. 3..£° sin.%o 2 le any es sin. o-+- 2.3 ane oe 34.5 ete. or z= log. (tyv + circular arc AF from which it would appear that Si dz sin. 9 (1—2? sin. 7) “2 is either an elliptic or circular arc. 4 We come to the same conclusion, by calculating dz directly from the equations y?t 2 cos. oxy +x? =1 dy?+2 cos. pdxdy+du? =dz?. From (23) and (24) we have ne - iar = (2042) f-1 —Z4f-1 Vie vm1 al ptf =e J ae ot 1 7 et y gov Tg From these two equations come (amend WCMae OW de+C eae? Var Mies) a and Cee 1 A Ae a/.21 rill Qe" 2904/1 ae tA(e ne u =1) sf (ydx —ady) the ellip- tic sections, vee by an axis, the sais vector and curve. We arrive at the equations (1) and (2) by simply changing the direction of the axes of the co-ordinates of a?y?+6?x?=a?b? where x and y are supposed to be at right angles. It is evident from what has been said that x= cos. 9 (2’+y') and y=sin. 9 (2’ -y’) but dz and dy have different signs, as is seen from a?y? +622? =a° 6? ; consequently, de=—cos. 9 (dz’+dy’) and dy=sin. (dz’—dy’) dropping the accent, and we have, after substitution t a? sin.2 9 —b? cos.?2 9 DOF y —22y( = sin.2 0-62 cos.? 4 a? sin.? o-+-b? cos.? @ and dy? +-dr? =dz? =y? + 2drdy (cos.? o—sin.? 9) +dxr? o being arbitrary, we have the right to make ; a? sin.? o—62 cos.2 © a? sin.? 0-62 cos.2 o sin. 9 frdy=—\" and ee! —— aa ady — ydx) ane cos.” o—sin.? = Rectification of the Ellipse. 45 a Be os 6 Ve whence, cos.? o>= Eb and sin.? @ +54 its plain that we must use + Ge the lower sign, and consequently o is in general less than the half of . Danes a right angle, and therefore cos.* » —sin.? =cos. 2p= => 1s to be + taken negatively, sce cos. 9 is negative. We have then, dy’ — 2drdy cos. 29+ dx? =dz? and y?—2zy cos. 294+27=1; parting y? —2zxy cos. 20-+-2x? into its simple factors, and we have as sah y—z (cos. 2p—sin. 20V — 1)=e7 y—x (cos. 20-+sin. eV Wye differentiating and dy —dz (cos. 20—sin. 207 —1 oe dy —dx (cos. 29-++sin. 2eV —1) =jdz/ et multiplying and dy? —2dzrdy cos. 29+-dxr? = — dz’? consequently f-Vdy? — 2% Qdedy cos. 2@+dz? =2',f —1=z and z/=z4/ —1 and we have y — x (cos. 2?—sin. 294/ — =e y— x (cos. 2?+ sin. 29,/ —1) =e aM, When 6? is negative, we have 62? —a?y? =a°b?, eZ TE a coeny é Oe and cos.” » — sin.? 9 = cos. er hai and then cos.? arr a and sin.? o= and we have then dy? —2dxdy cos. ee =dz? and y? —2zry cos. 29+ x? =1, by making ab=/f —1, and by the same steps, we have for the hyperbola Hi ieee got "5 y —2(cos. 20 — sin. 29V y — (cos. 2p-+sin. IV —1 ie JF by putting 2=cos. 9(2/+y/’) and y=sin. o(x/ — y’)4/ —1, it will be seen that z comprises also {VW dx? —dy?, both for the ellipse and hyperbola. The equation Ay? + Bry+Cx?+Dy+Ex+F=0, may take the form y?-+-nx-++-mx? =0, without losing its generality. Put x=a-+cos. o(x’+y’), y=sin. o(2/—y') 5 then dx= cos. o(dx’+dy’), A6 Rectification of the Ellipse. dy=sin. 9(dx’—dy’); we have, after writing for x, y, dx sin.* 9 —m? cos.” h sin.? p-++m? cos.? -) ee as (2am? cos. 9-1-7 COS. 9) (2am? cos. 9+ Cos. p)_, sin.2 o+m? cos.” sin.2 90+? cos.2 0 ma? +-na sin.? o-+-m? cos. Fata And dz? +dy? =dz? oe + 2dx'dy'(cos.2 o—sin.? 0)+dz’*, the arbitraries @ and o authorise us to make sin.? o—m? cos.? 9 sin.? o--m? cos.? @ and 2am? +n=0. and dy, their values, y’? —22’y’ G x! =COs.? p—sin.? p ; i ;m ; S 2 1 — ——_ 9; 1 2 o=T From the first we have cos.? I=m and sin ° ey tm and then cos.? 9 —sin.? i ena 20 5 oraay { and from the second a= 2 1tm f . ae We see from cos. oo er >» by using the lower sign, that in general + 20 is less than a right angle, and therefore its cosine has the same sign as that of ». When dz and dy have different signs, cos. 9 is negative, and we have y’? ick cos. 2p-+2/?=1, (by making m? a? 2 Ena. ae sin.? p-+m? cos.29. 9 \m? — al )s and dy ak cos. 29-++- dz’? =dz?. From these equations we have, as before, y’ — «’(cos. 29 — sin. Bay ae ame y’ —x'(cos. 29+sin. QoV —1) Suge ae When m=0 we have y?+-nxz=0, the equation of the parabola, then 1 cos.29=1, sin.p=0, and consequently the equations above fail in this case. The determination of the primitive function [V dy? +dx?, y being a function of w, given by Ay? + Bay+Cux? +Dy+Er+F=0, leads to the determination of /Vdy?--dx?, y being a function of a, given by F(2y)=0; for parting F(«y) into its simple factors and we have (y--av-+b)(y-+er-+d)(y-+eu-+f) etc. =F (ay), (A); a 2 é pee Ve FYE D F “p Vikas 2) “DpRID. YUL P JO MA PLO "GaN liaky wn? gyi D Jo #2 YQ “F ZW ADULY P JO Mal QUOY. “GE GANC ‘JL 7D BwilyD JO MAA YO "GZ ZAr DUM DpO2? YOUle P JO Med YP] “LT o\" CLI KY HO {BI0I7O. UMM IUWU DPD - 1 sy Z American Cicada or Locust. 49 parting y?-+Acvy+Be?+Cy+Da+E=0 into its simple factors and we have (yta’e+b'\(ytcr+d')=y? + Ary+Be?2 +Cy+Dr+E, (B). Comparing the factors of (B) and any two of (A), for example the first and second, and we have a/=a, b’=6, c/=c and d/=d, and (B) be- comes a factor of (A), independently of x and y, for there are but four independent co-efficients in (B) ; the co-efficients in (B) being known in functions of those in F (zy), we have then SV dy? +dz?. Arr. V.— Notices and Observations on the American Cicada, or Locust; by Dr. S. P. HitpRretH. Crcapa, Septemdecem of Lin. 'Tettigonia, Septemdecem of Fabr. Head black, eyes brick red, thorax and back black or very dark brown, the latter edged with orange ; wings transparent, immaculate, lower margins of a-rich orange; abdomen dark brown, the rings of a dark yellow or of dun color ; youl oval; legs and breast, same color as that of the rings. No part of natural history more abounds im wonderful and extra- ordinary productions, than that portion of it embraced in the study of Entomology. Whether we consider the number and variety of in- sects, or the curious changes they undergo in the progress of their existence, we are led to admire not only their elegant forms and beautiful colors, but also the harmony and order which attends all the operations of nature. Amongst this numerous class, none ex- cites the wonder and admiration of man, more: than the cicada sep- temdecem. ‘The regularity with which they return at the expira-~ tion of seventeen years, their simultaneous appearance over a vast extent of country, and the countless myriads of their numbers, equal- ly arrest our attention. ‘They have made their appearance’at Mari- etta, Ohio, at three different periods, since its first settlement, viz. : in the year 1795; again in 1812; and now in 1829. With us they have commenced their ascent from the earth the last of May and first days of June; and disappear the beginning of July, two or three days earlier or later according to the temperature of the season. The month of May this season was very warm, and the cicade made their appearance rather earlier than heretofore. By the 15th of this month, they had risen so near to the surface of the earth, American Cicada or Locust. that the depth of a common furrow in ploughing, turned them out in their chrysaloid state. By the 24th, they had begun to arise from the earth, burst their transparent covering and expand their wings. From this time to the 10th of June, their numbers daily creased, until woodlands and orchards were filled with countless multitudes. A continual singing or scream was kept up by the males, from sun- rise till evening, and so loud that in a calm morning the sound was heard a full mile. For this purpose the male is furnished with an air bladder under the axille, of a pale blue color, as represented in the figure ; the females make no noise. ‘They appeared only in situations which were covered with trees, as was the fact when they were here in 1812; thereby proving that they had not wandered far in their jour- ney of seventeen years. The earth was perforated like a riddle, with holes about a third of an inch in diameter. In an orchard im this town, I counted twenty-five holes on a foot square, and an intelli- gent acquaintance told me that in his neighborhood, he had seen more than double that number in the same space. Where trees were not near each other, the ground underneath them was covered with their skins or cast off robes, to the depth of two or three inches. These shells retain the exact figure of the insect when it leaves the earth, with a rent on the back, through which the cicada creeps as from a coat of mail—and are firmly fastened by the feet to the bark and twigs of trees and bushes, until they are thrown down by the winds or rain. Instinct leading them to seek the nearest tree, bush or post, as soon as they leave the earth; here they remain until they have left their shells for some hours, or until their wings are dry and sufficiently strong for flying. There appeared to be two varieties of the cicada, one much smaller than the other: there was also a strik- ing difference in their notes. ‘The smaller variety were more com- mon in the bottom lands, and the larger in the hills. A continual scream was kept up by the males during the day, but they were si- lent through the night. Their flight was short, seldom exceeding eight or ten rods, and their whole lives appeared to be spent near the place of their nativity. I could not discover that they made use of any food ; they certainly eat no leaves of trees or plants, as they are not furnished with jaws or teeth. ‘They have a hard and sharp pro- boscis, about two lines in length, which is generally compressed closely to the thorax: this I have seen inserted in the smooth bark of young trees, and when driven from the spot, a drop of juice issued from the puncture: they would also, when disturbed, throw outa American Cicada or Lecust. 49 small jet of thin watery liquid, as if in self defence. From their be- ing unprovided with organs for eating, it would seem that their whole business during their short visit to the surface of the earth, was to propagate their species and to die. While here they served for food for all the carnivorous and insect-eating animals. Hogs eat them in preference to any other food; squirrels, birds, domestic fowls, &c. fattened on them. So much were they attracted by the cicade, that very few birds were seen around our gardens during their continuance, and our cherries, &c. remained unmolested. By the fourth or fifth day after their leaving the earth, the female began to deposit her eggs in the tender branches of most kinds of orchard and forest trees. She generally selected the wood of last years’ growth, and commenced her task on the under side of the twig, by slitting the bark with her puncturing instrument, which embraced the properties both of a saw and a punch, the point being lancet-shaped and ser- rated, and then making a hole in an oblique direction to the pith of the branch, she withdrew the instrument a little way, and deposited an egg through a tube in the punch. ‘This was repeated until from ten to twenty eggs were deposited on each side of the center of the pith, the center wood having been previously comminuted and cut up so as to make a soft bed for the eggs, and to afford food for the em- bryo until it hatched. ‘There was daily an evident increase in the size of the eggs, until they were hatched, and an evident diminution of the comminuted woody -fibres and enlargement of the cells con- taining the eggs, so that they must have derived some sustenance from the juices of the twig. Another proof that they did so, was, that the eges invariably perished in those branches which withered and dried’ up soon after the punctures were made. ‘This work continued from day to day, until the female had expended her stock of eggs, which, so far as I could ascertain, amounied to about one thousand. When this operation was completed, the object of her existence seemed to be fulfilled, and in a few days she dwindled away and died. The whole period of the life of a single individual, from her leaving the earth to her death, averaged from twenty to twenty-five days. The life of the male continued for nearly the same time. When the ci- cade first leave the earth, they are plump and full of oily juices, so much so that they were made use of in the manufacture of soap ; but before their death they were dried up to mere shells; and I have seen them still able to fly a few feet, after one half of the body was wasted away, and nothing remained but the head, wings and Vou. XVIII.—No. 1. a 50 Gold of the Carolinas. thorax. From the time the eggs were deposited to the period of hatching, was, as nearly as could be ascertained, sixty days, and al- most daily attention was given to the subject. When first placed in the twigs, the eggs are about the sixteenth of an inch in length, and the thickness of a coarse hair, appearing through a small magnifying glass of the shape and size of a grain of rye: at the period of hatch- ing, they had increased about one-third in size. They are white and transparent, with a black spot on the larger end, just before hatch- ing. ‘They are placed very closely by the side of each other, in an oblique direction to the line of the twig; several portions of the branch of an apple tree, full of the eggs ready to hatch, were placed on a bowl of earth, with a glass tumbler inverted over them, in the afternoon ; by morning nearly a hundred young cicada were found in the earth, and a few on the surface, who had just left their woody cells. ‘They were about a twelfth of an inch in length, with the ex- act shape, color and appearance of the parent when she first comes to the air, and before bursting the transparent shell which covered her while in her terrene abode. From the fact, that the young ones immediately seek a retreat in the earth, I am led to believe that these insects are tenants of the ground for seventeen years, and until He who created them again calls them forth to propagate their kind, to fulfil their destiny, and die. As to their extent, so far as I can as- certain, they covered the woody regions from beyond the shores of the Mississippi, to the heads of the Ohio river ; embracing the States of Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and the western parts of Penn- sylvania. Whether they appeared in Kentucky and Tennessee, I have not yet learned. Marietta, (Ohio,) 20th Dec. 1829. Art. VI.— The Gold of the Carolinas in Talcose Slate ; by Prof. Eaton. TO THE EDITOR. Ir may appear arrogant for one, who was never in the Carolinas, to give an opinion on the subject of the geological associations of the gold of that district, after reading the elaborate statements of Profes- sors Olmsted and Mitchell, and of the practical miner, Mr. Rothe. But, since these gentlemen, though learned, and indefatigable in their inquiries, do not agree in opmmion, the subject is still open for discus- sion. I claim nothing, but the right to state facts. Gold of the Carolinas. 51 It seems, that Prof. Olmsted supposed the gold embraced in ar- gillite,* Mr. Rothe assigned it to granite, and Prof. Mitchell expresses less certainty on this point. It is not a subject of surprise to a geol- ogist, to learn, that there is such a difference of opinion among the most careful and: judicious observers. Were all the detritus swept from the earth, leaving the rock formations naked and clean, mere inspection would settle this, and numerous other important geological questions. As it is, we are left to infer much from a few well ascer- tained facts. This day, Nov. 7, 1829, Dr. Isaac Branch of Abbeville, S. C. gave me a fine suite of specimens from Charlotte, (Cabarras Co.) of the gold, gangue, and rock walls of that remarkable formation. Though I had seen numerous specimens of the gold and its quartzose gangue, I had never seen perfect specimens of the rock before, with the gold and gangue attached to it. The rock is most surely the talcose slate of Prof. Strouve. Its gangue is the quartz which is found, exclusively, in the talcose slate. In these specimens, specular iron ore is associated with the gold ; and the gangue is that interme- diate variety between the opake milky quartz of the argillite, and the translucent variety of the granite. All the quartz contained in the talcose slate of ‘Taughconnuk and of other places in New England and New York, is precisely the same. One of the specimens has its gangue connected with coarse novaculite. ‘The same fact was no- ticed by Prof. Olmsted. Ihave never seen novaculite in connex- ion with any American rock, but talcose slate. ‘The localities of no- vaculite in Memphremagog, Belchertown, &c. are merely talcose slate, where the tale diminishes in proportional quantity, and becomes more closely, (perhaps chemically,) combined with silex and alumine. These specimens precisely resemble the talcose slate of Hawley, Mass. which embraces the specular and micaceous iron ore. From the geographical situation of these gold mines, they all ap- pear to be embraced in the range of talcose slate, which forms Kil- lington Peak in Vermont, and runs down along the heads of Deer- field River, Mass. through Hawley, and appears more or less con- * In the second part of his Report, written in 1825, Prof. Olmsted remarks, that he had originally supposed the “slate formation,” (consisting not merely of argillite, but of novaculite, tale slate and several others,) to be the peculiar repository of the gold, but that subsequent observations had taught him that it extended likewise over a region based on granite and gneiss.—(See Geological Reports made to the Board of Agriculture of N. Carolina, 1826.) 52 | Office of the Nitrogen of the Air, tinuous in a south westerly direction along the east side of the High-~ land range, crossing New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas. It passes into novaculite in many places. ‘The Rev. John C. Keeney sent me specimens of novaculite from Sparta in Georgia, which is directly m the gold range. I wish not to press any unsupported hypothesis upon the scientific republic ; but shall I be deemed extravagant in the following opinion? If Gen. Field’s specimen of gold, found in Newfane, Vermont, was a native speci- men; we may anticipate the discovery of gold in the talcose slate from Georgia to Canada, along the east side of the Green Mountain range. I am aware of the danger of deciding geological questions from hand specimens. But these are so well characterized, that I do not hesitate to commit myself fully on this statement—ZJ have before me gold from North Carolina, connected with a gangue of quartz, semi- translucent, which is embraced in talcose slate.* Rensselaer School, Troy, Nov. 7, 1829. Art. VII.—On the Office of the Nitrogen of the air, in the process of Respiration; by Lewis C. Beck, M. D. Professor of Chemis- try, &c. in the Vermont Academy of Medicine. Tuer part, which the large proportion of nitrogen in our atmos- phere performs during respiration, has often excited the attention of chemists and physiologists. But until recently the investigations up- on this point have not been attended with much success, and even at * Remarks.—The above’ paper was mislaid, which prevented its appearance in the January number of this Journal. Ina communication from Pref. Eaton, dated Feb. 18, 1830, it is mentioned that a little gold has been lately found in talcose slate in Maryland. He mentions also that two of his pupils have recently crossed the Carolina gold region, and from their report and other concurrent testimony, he concludes ‘that the gold is in the talcose slate.” He adds— “ At p. 353, of Vol. 17, under Minerological Journey, &c. I observe that the ‘soapstone quarry” is not referred to the talcose slate stratum. It seems, that the doubt thrown upon this subject in the treatise on the geology of Connecticut River, still remains. Itis too important a point in the geology of North America to remain in doubt; especially as it is so easily determined. I have traced the talecose slate from Savoy and Florida, Mass. to the great soapstone quarries of Windham, Vt. and found the soapstone there to be a continuous variety of the very same individual tal- cose rock of Massachusctts.”’ wm the process of Respiration. | 38 the present time the opinion is generally maintained that the nitrogen is entirely passive, or at least that its only use is to neutralize the en- ergetic properties of the oxygen. This view which has retarded, nay almost stopped the progress of enquiry, has however, been sha- ken by the recent and well conducted experiments of Dr. Edwards. In examining these experiments, it occurred to me that nitrogen per- formed other offices which have not to my knowledge been assigned to it. ‘These views I now present for publication, in the hope that even if they are ultimately found to be incorrect, they may oper a new subject for chemical and physiological enquiry. That acute physiologist Dr. Edwards, has shown that the quan- tity of nitrogen given out by the same animal during respiration is ve- ry variable, being at one time increased, at another diminished, and at a third remaining wholly unchanged.* ‘These phenomena he has traced to the influence of the seasons and to other causes. It has also been shown by Mess. Allen and Pepys, that when animals are confined in vessels of oxygen gas, or in an atmosphere composed of twenty one measures of oxygen and seventy nine of hydrogen, the residual air contains a large quantity of nitrogen, and in the latter case a portion of hydrogen wasconsumed. Mess. Dulong and Des- pretz inferred from their experiments that the proportion of nitrogen is in all cases greater in expired air than in that which is inspired. Tt does not appear then to admit of a doubt, that nitrogen is con- stantly exhaled cr given out by the lungs. The accurate experi- ments of Priestley and of Davy show that nitrogen is also absorbed or consumed during respiration. Having premised these observations, the position which I shall ad- vance is,—That nitrogen as well as oxygen is absorbed by the blood, that during its passage through that fluid, it combines with carbon, and forms cee) and that this last uniting with iron exists in the blood in the form of a cyanide of Lron. In favor of this view I offer the following facts and reasonings. 1. It has been satisfactorily shewn that many, if not all, the gases may be taken into the circulation. It is also known that a large pro- portion of carbon exists in the blood. If then nitrogen is absorbed during respiration, there is no greater difficulty in supposing that it combines with a portion of carbon, than that oxygen should do so, which appears to be quite generally admitted. * De Influence des Agens Physiques sur-la Vie. 54 Office of the Nurogen of the Air, 2. As tothe nature of cyanogen, which it is important to under- stand in this enquiry, it may be stated that Gay-Lussac has ascertain- ed by detonating that gas with a,due proportion of oxygen that one hundred measures of cyanogen require two hundred of oxygen for complete combustion, that no water is formed, and that the products are two hundred measures of carbonic acid and one hundred of ni- trogen. From which it follows that cyanogen contains its own bulk of nitrogen and twice its volume of the vapor of carbon, and conse- quently consists of 1 proportional of Nitrogen, and 2 proportionals of Carbon. 3. Cyanogen is obtained from blood as well as other animal mat- ters by various processes, though the opinion heretofore maintained by chemists is, that it is generated during the processes employed, and that it does not exist ready-formed in the blood. But upon studying the processes with attention, it will be found that they all have in view the formation of the hydro, or ferrocyanates; and no attempt has to my knowledge been made to obtain the cyanogen in a separate state. Granting, however, that cyanide of iron or even of mercury existed in the blood, would the process for obtaining Prussian blue differ from that now adopted? Lanswer no. The same steps would be necessa- ry 3—the decomposition of the cyanide by means of an alkaline metal would require the application of heat, and after that, the addition of the sulphate of iron would furnish the ferrocyanate. 4, ‘The view which I have proposed will happily reconcile the discordant results of chemists concerning the existence of iron in the blood. ‘This point has exercised the ingenuity of some of our ablest chemists. Although iron had been detected in the ashes of blood by several, it is only lately that we have been made acquainted with a method of proving its existence by the liquid tests. This meth- od was discovered in 1825, by Dr. Engelshart a German Chemist. It consists in transmitting a current of chlorine gas through a solution of the red globules, upon which the color disappears, white flocks are thrown down, and a transparent colorless solution remains in which the peroxide of iron can be detected by the usual reagents. ‘These results have since been confirmed by Professor Rose and other chem- ists. | Now it is believed that the presence of cyanide of iron cannot be detected by any of the liquid tests with which we are acquainted, or in other words, that the iron in this compound cannot be made ap- parent. But it has been ascertained by M. Serullas that when mois- in the process of Respiration. 55 tened cyanide of mercury is exposed to the action of chlorine gas, cyanide of chlorine is formed and bichloride of mercury is thrown down. Reasoning analogically, similar phenomena would be presen- ted by passing chlorine gas through a solution of cyanide of iron ; the compound of chlorme and cyanogen would be formed, and the iron would be rendered evident to the liquid tests inthe form of the peroxide. These are the principal arguments which I have at present to of- fer in favor of the opinion which has been advanced. If it be asked why it has not been submitted to the test of experiment, my answer is that there is greater difficulty in doing so than may at first sight ap- pear. Supposing it previously proved that cyanide of iron or the hy- drocyanate of iron exists in the blood, what process would be adop- ted for separating the cyanogen from its combination? If in the state of a hydrocyanate, we might by passing through it a stream of car- bonic acid, separate the hydrocyanic acid, but even this would re- quire the application of heat; and moreover, hydrocyanic acid is ve- ry liable to spontaneous decomposition and is resolved into its ele- ments. Or supposing the actual existence of cyanide of iron, we should probably be able to decompose it by a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, which would afford hydrocyanic acid and sulphuret of iron ; but in this case also the expulsion of the acid would require heat. In either of these methods, therefore, though as might be inferred from what is already known, we should be successful, the formation of hydrocyanic acid, might be ascribed to the heat employed in the processes. There is one method, however, which appears to me destitute of objection on this score. And it is to submit a portion of blood to the action of chlorine gas, for the purpose of ascertaining whether cy- anide of chlorine can be formed in this manner. If successful, it would, taken in conjunction, with the known effect of chlorine upon blood, (viz. that of rendering the iron manifest by the ordinary tests) amount to a complete demonstration of the presence of cyanide of ron. But this process is tedious and difficult, and I must leave it to those who are better acquainted with the nature of this singular compound, and who possess better advantages for pursuing research- es of this kind. f cannot refrain from applying the above view of the constitution of the blood, to the explanation of the production of Animal Heat. 56 Animalcules in Snow. Notwithstanding the experiments of Mr. Brodie, it appears to be allowed that at least a portion of animal heat is derived from the for- mation of carbonic acid during respiration, in the manner suggested by Dr. Crawford. But according to the most accurate experiments only apart of the heat is accounted for in this manner. The remain- der has been ascribed to various causes, as the processes of nutrition and secretion, and even to the friction of the different parts of the body upon each other. But it occurs to me that if the views here advanced are correct, we need not look elsewhere to account for the additional quantity of heat. If cyanogen is formed in the course of the circulation and united with iron, a portion of heat must in this way also be generated ;—and thus the whole might be placed to the account of respiration alone. These are the facts and reasonings which have induced me with some confidence to advance the opinion that during respiration the mitrogen of the airis absorbed by the blood ;—that it combines with the carbon in the blood ;—that the cyanogen thus formed unites with wron ; and that cyanide of iron is therefore, one of the constituents of that fluid. If this is admitted, the formation of hydrocyanate of iron could be easily shown, and perhaps the study of this would lead to more correct notions concerning the difference between venous and arterial blood, especially as it regards color. But fearimg that I may already have trespassed the precepts of the Baconian philoso- phy, I forbear pursuing the subject at present. Albany, N. Y. July, 1830. Art. VII.—WNotice of Animalcules in Snow; in a letter to the Editor, from Dr. Joseph E. Muse. Dear Sir—lI believe it is universally admitted, that in the wide, or rather unlimited, range of the natural sciences, nothing has attracted the attention and inquiry of man, more anxiously, than the mysteries of ‘animal life.” ‘The circumstances under which it is occasionally observed to be supported, in repugnance to our common experience and limited knowledge, are worthy to be recorded ; and though appa- rently trivial m themselves, yet when accumulated, arranged, and appropriately digested, they may, by their concurrent influence, throw new light upon this interesting branch of physiology, which is now enveloped in much darkness. 7 tr Ammaleules in Snow: Tam conscious of the unrequited hazard of a statement of any facts, inconsistent with ordinary observation; yet I am equally con- scious of the propriety of courage to bear witness to truths, however extraordinary may be their aspect. With this, perhaps necessary preface, I will state to you a phe- nomenon which, a few winters ago, came within my observation, as well as that of most of my friends, who are in the habit of social in- tercourse with me. When the winter had made a considerable progress, without much frost, there happened a heavy fall of snow ; apprehending that I might not have an opportunity of fillmg my ice house with ice, I threw in snow, perhaps enough to half fill it; there was afterwards severely cold weather, and I filled the remainder with ice; about August the waste and consumption of the ice, brought us down to the snow ; when it was discovered that a glass of water which was cooled with it, contained hundreds of animalcules; I then examined another glass of water, out of the same pitcher, and with the aid of a microscope, before the snow was put into it, found it perfectly clear and pure ; the snow was then thrown into it, and on solution the water again ex- hibited the same phenomenon; hundreds of animalcules, visible to the naked eye with acute attention, and when viewed through the microscope resembling most diminutive shrimps, and wholly unlike the eels discovered in the acetous acid, were seen in the full enjoy- ment of animated nature. I caused holes to be dug in several parts of the mass of snow in the ice house, and to the centre of it; and in the most unequivocal and repeated experiments had similar results ; so that my family did not again venture to introduce the snow ice into the water they drank, which had been a favorite method, but used it as an external refri- gerant for the pitcher. Task, whence these animalcules could possibly have been derived? how, and where generated? how so intimately mixed with the mass of snow? That they should have been capable of enduring the temperature in which they were immersed was, certainly, not anomalous in the animal economy ; imstances innumerable have established, that the living animal is possessed of a peculiar power to generate heat and support its own temperature under astonishing circumstances; and as a well known physiologist has remarked, “ whether environed by Vou. XVITI.—No. 1. 8 58 Todide of Potassium, as a Test for Arsente. mountains of snow at the poles, or exposed to a vertical sun in the sultry regions of the torrid zone.” These little animals may class with the ampihibia, which have cold blood, and ere generally capable in a low temperature of a torpid state of existence; hence, their icy immersion did no violence to their constitution ; and the possibility of their revival, by heat, is well sus- tained by analogy: but their generation, their parentage, and their extraordinary transmigration are io me subjects of profound aston- ishment. . The dangerous and repulsive notion of “living monades” perva- ding the universe, and constituting integral parts of “all creation,” will, perhaps, be more forcibly resisted, by referring to a reasonable cause, those occasional phenomena, than by the ablest arguments, in the abstract, which can be framed to demonstrate the fallacy of the doctrine. Cambridge, 0,8. Maryland, Jan. 27, 1820. — Art. [X.— The fodide of Potassium, (Hydriodate of Potassa of the shops,) as a test for rsenic, with remarks upon the nature and properties of the compound formed ; by J. P. Emmet, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Virginia. Auruovues the detection of arsenic, even in minute quantities, is, at present, a problem of sufficient accuracy, the most perfect of the operations recommended for this purpose often require too much manipulation for inexperienced persons. On this account, as well as with the view of extending our means of research, it must always be desirable to increase the list of reagents even of a secondary charac- ter. Itis not pretended to assign to the process, about to be de- scribed, a more elevated position, in as much as it fails to exhibit the mineral poison in such minute quantities as can be effected by means of sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonio-nitrate of silver, &c. It has, however, peculiar advantages arising from the great facility of its ap- plication, and may. always be employed with benefit in connexion with those agents that indicate more minute quautities. The solution to be tested may contain either arsenious acid alone or combined with an alkali, as is recommended for other tests. Even uncombined iodine may be substituted for the hydriodate, in cases where the arsenic has been previously made to combine with an al- Iodide of Potassium, as a Test for Arsenic. 59 kali, but it will not answer for the simple solution of the arsenious acid. When these substances are added to each other, a very char- acteristic white precipitate appears, the properties of which will be noticed presently. Immediate precipitation takes place when lodide of potassium is added toa ¢ 2.8 per cent. arsenious acid, » solution containing ¢ 1.8 per cent. arsenite of potassa. Jodine alone is added to a solution 2 , : a ‘ 2.8 per cent. arsenite of potassa. contaming As in all these cases of immediate precipitation, a drop of the solu- tion upon a plate of glass will furnish enough of the precipitate to judge of its nature, we may consider that the quantity of arsenious acid exhibited does not exceed ;1,th of a grain; but much weaker solutions answer the purpose equally well, when the fluid is gradual- ly evaporated. Indeed, they have one important advantage arising from the great tenacity with which the white precipitate, when grad- ually formed, adheres to the glass plate—it may be repeatedly wash- ed and entirely separated from all excess of the precipitant. When thus purified, it possesses the followmg characteristic pro- perties :-— 1. Concentrated nitric acid immediately changes the white color to a dark brown, purple, or even black, according to the quantity, and starch added at the same time, assumes the deep blue tint, so distinctive of free iodine. 2. Strong sulphuric acid, with the assistance of heat, produces the same effects, but at the ordinary temperature, it merely changes the color into a bright yellow. 3. Strong muriatic acid also immediately imparts a bright yellow color. These simple experiments, with ordinary care, are quite sufficient for the purpose of testing, and will enable us to recognize the mineral acid even in very small quantities ; other properties will, however, be noticed subsequently in a more general manner. It will be seen that the foregoing characteristics are actually those of iodine and its compounds ; yet this very circumstance is consider- ed to enhance the value of the test ; since the powder admits, by re- peated washing, of being completely separated from all the hydrio- date not chemically combined. Metallic salts are indeed the only compounds which could well occasion confusion, when hydriodate of potassa is the precipitant, and even were such substances originally 60 Todide of Potassium, as a Test for Arsenic. in the\ suspected solution, they would be separated by the carbonated alkali employed to dissolve the arsenious acid. Neither does it ap- pear, from the experiments made, that coffee, tea, milk, and the other liquid articles of food have much effect in retarding the opera- tion. But we cannot, in all cases, trust to simple precipitation when iodine alone is employed. ‘This substance, for example, will produce the effect when added to a solution of coffee quite free from arsenic. It is not desired, however, to recommend even the iodide, for the detection of arsenic in complicated cases, and on this account, I shall refrain from offering any further remarks, but pass on to consider the white compound in a manner purely chemical. Properties.—In several respects it resembles arsenious acid, par- ticularly in its solubility and precipitation ; boiling water, for instance, dissolves about 5.3 per cent. and deposits nearly one half upon cool- ing. So also, when it is separated from weak solutions, it adheres with great tenacity to the vessels, resembling a white enamel in ap- pearance. But arsenic begins to sublime at a temperature a little above 300°, whereas this powder requires a heat equal to 550° F. - When exposed to a heat of about 600°, it undergoes decomposition, arsenical fumes being given off abundantly, and towards the end of the process, particularly when the temperature is more elevated, io- dine is liberated very freely. ‘The degree of its decomposition by heat alone is very variable, the minimum and maximum losses being 30 and 70 per cent. In close tubes there is no reduction; the pro- ducts being arsenious acid, iodine and a yellow matter which was con- sidered as the iodide of arsenic ; but as the substance bears a high temperature without decomposition, metallic arsenic may be collected even in small quantities, by rubbing up with it charcoal powder. Black flux is entirely unnecessary. Composition.—As this precipitate appeared at first to be a double salt, composed of iodide of potassium and arsenite of the alkah em- ployed, several attempts were made to determine its composition by using definite amounts of either of these salts, and adding the other as long as there was any precipitation. Analysis was also subse- quently performed upon the white matter precipitated ; but in all such cases the results were unsatisfactory, owing, as it subsequently appeared, to the variable amount of the arsenic in the different arsen- ites employed. Notwithstanding the want of uniformity, it appears advisable to indicate the method pursued, Iodide of Potassium, as a Test for Arsenic. 61 The process which was found best calculated to furnish the compo- sition, consists in decomposing the powder by a solution of the am- monio-nitrate of silver, cautiously added, until it ceases to occasion any precipitation. ‘There are thus formed an iodide and arsenite of silver nearly insoluble in water, while the solution contains, (in union with nitric acid,) all the alkali origmally present in the precipitate. The soluble and insoluble portions were separated by decantation. From the former, all excess of nitrate of silver was precipitated by a few drops of muriatic acid, and the solution then evaporated to dryness—lastly, the nitrate was converted into a sulphate, and all ex- cess of matter driven off by a red heat—from the sulphate, the alkali was determined both directly and by means of nitrate of baryta, From the latter, the arsenite of silver was removed by dilute nitric acid, and, after separation, converted into a chloride, by the addition of common salt. By sucli experiments, the iodide varied from 23 to 28 per cent., but the arsenious acid proved very indefinite, and always very far exceeded the amount necessary for combination with the alkali obtained, evento the exclusion of the iodine. The follow- ing experiments were made in order to determine how far the ar- senious acid contributes to this irregularity. An arsenite of potassa was prepared, according to the usual directions, by boiling carbonate of potassa with excess of arsenious acid. ‘The solution was allowed to cool, and then filtered. Still, upon concentration, arsenious acid was regularly deposited, thus indicating that the arsenite was not neu- tral, owing to the power which its solution had of dissolving the acid. Cold water was next added to dissolve the salt, the arsenious acid bemg almost insoluble at this temperature, and the solution was again con- centrated. Upon the addition of a drop of acetic acid, a white cloud, owing to the separation of the arsenic, appeared, but upon agitating the mixture, again immediately disappeared. ‘This precipitation and re-solution was repeatedly performed by successive drops of acetic acid, and ceased only when the latter had completely decomposed the arsenite; then the arsenious acid separated copiously and per- manently, adhering, with great firmness, to the glass vessel, and marking the course of the rod with white streaks. In these experi- ments we perceive clearly the facility with which this acid, notwith- standing its insolubility, may be retained in solution, and to this cir- cumstance may be attributed the variable quantity furnished by the precipitate with iodide of potassium. It is difficult moreover to evap- orate the solution of arsenite of potassa to perfect dryness without 62 lodide of Potassium, as a Test for Arsenic. converting some of it into arseniate, a change which is indicated by an odor of garlic and the dark color of the salt. The most uniform results were obtained by adding to a cold but concentrated solution of the arsenious acid alone, as much iodide as was necessary to effect complete precipitation. For this purpose, arsenious acid was boiled with water until the solution upon cooling, was found, by experiment, to contain 2.85 per cent. 100 grammes of this solution were decomposed by the cautious addition of iodide of potassium, well dried at about 600° Fahr. When 4.13 grammes of this substance had been added, precipitation entirely ceased, and the powder, upon being well dried, was found to weigh 7. grammes, making a difference of 2 centigrammes more than the sum of the bo- dies mixed. Alcohol, marking 34.5 on Cartier’s scale, was added in order to remove the excess of iodide, by which operation the powder was reduced to 4.5 grammes. Of this amount, it is known, from the first operation, that there must be 2.85, owing to the presence of ar- senious acid. Hence the composition is, Arsenious acid, Ans oe : i 63.3 lodide of potassium, 1.65, , a ee, The accuracy of this synthetical process was next tested analytic- ally, by determining the amount of the alkali, as follows :—1 gramme of the powder, resultmg from the last experiment, was exposed to a heat regulated by a mercurial thermometer. It withstood a temper- ature of 500° without suftermg any further change than a loss of $ per cent. in weight. By elevating the temperature, arsenic was driven off with free iodine, both making a loss of 31 percent. To the re- mainder sulphuric acid was added, which changed the color to deep brown, and liberated a great deal of iodine and iodide of arsenic. When all excess of sulphuric acid was removed by a red heat, the sulphate was decomposed by nitrate of baryta, and the amount of potassa determined from the insoluble sulphate, after repeated wash- ing in dilute muriatic acid and exposure toa red heat. ‘The sulphate of baryta weighed 0.267 millegrammes, equivalent to 34.7 per cent. iodide of potassium or to 36.6 per cent. of the hydriodate of potassa, supposing that this salt or the elements of water are present. Notwithstanding the novelty of such a compound, in which it is im- possible to tell whether the white arsenic acts the part of an acid or of a base, (although it is present nearly to the extent of five atoms,) and where, moreover, we do not perceive even any analogy to the composition of a double salt, it appears obvious, by the following ad- On the Dew Point. ' 63 ditional facts, that its existence must be inferred. Iodide of potas- sium, even when added in great excess, does not precipitate the whole of ‘the arsenite of potassa, nor is it capable of diminishing its alkaline reaction. On the contrary, when the arsenite of potassa is so far neutralized by free acetic or arsenious acid as to be incapable of giving a red stain to turmeric paper, this property is immediately restored upon the addition of the iodide of potassium ; apparently in consequence of an union between the latter substance and the ex- cess of arsenious acid, which, while dissolved, had the power of coun- teracting the alkaline effect. Iodine, alone, also occasions a precip- itate from the arsenical salt, when there is an excess of acid present ; and here, although we may suppose the conversion of iodine into hy- driodic acid, the presence of some free alkali seems necessary to the formation of a double salt. Other considerations lead us to the same, result. It is well known that the arsenites of soda and potassa have the power of discharging the blue color from a mixture of starch and iodine. This, indeed, isa part of the process proposed by Brugna- telli for the purpose of distinguishing between corrosive sublimate and arsenic. The effect, however, may be shown by experiment, to de- pend more upon the affinity which exists between arsenious acid and iodide of potassium than upon the facility with which iodine is acidi- fied by exposure to alkaline solutions. ‘Thus, for instance, carbonate of potassa may be mixed with this blue compound of iodine and starch for a long time, at the ordinary temperature, before there appears to be any diminution of color, and arsenious acid alone even heightens the tint, but upon adding the acid subsequently and some time after the potassa, the color at once flies. In this case, the presence of ar- senious acid leads to the rapid formation of hydriodate of potassa, at the expense of the iodine, upon which the color depended. If subsequent experiments should establish the existence of such a compound, it will be a solitary but strikmmg example of what may be considered as a chemical hybrid. Arr. X.—On the Dew Point; by A. A. Haves. To assist those who are not intimately acquainted with hygrome- try, the following illustrations of the facts, on which the experiments with the hygrometer are based,—with the tables, which for conven- 64 Y Orn the Dew Point. iencé are attached to the scale of the instrument I use,—are offered with the hope that they may induce many to make observations with that mstrument. When a smooth surface of any substance which possesses no at- traction for water, is exposed to an atmosphere in contact with wa- ter, if the temperature of the surface is considerably below that of ithe atmosphere, it soon becomes covered with moisture, which in- creases and assumes the form of dew. By observing the tempera- ture of this surface, we learn at what temperature the invisible vapor previously existing in the atmosphere, becomes tangible in the form of water; the temperature may be considered as the “ point of de- position,” and it bears no permanent relation to the temperature of the vapor, Aqueous vapor, while forming, is of the same temperature as the surface of the fluid from which it is produced; and if, after this experiment we allow the surface of the substance gradually to approach the temperature of the atmosphere, the moisture begins to disappear and the thermometer remains stationary, while any consid- erable portion of moisture is on the surface. ‘The temperature now ‘indicated by the thermometer, is that of the vapor, and for conven- ience is called the “dew point.” It is evident that the pomt of de- position bears the same relation to the dew point, as the “ freezing point” of water does to the “ fusing pot” of ice; it may be below, but can never be above it. By confounding these terms, some wri- ters have caused considerable ambiguity, and we are inclined to place tte confidence in the results of these experiments, when we are informed that “ the comparison of the temperature of the air, at the commencement of the experiment, with the mean of the indica- tions of the thermometer, at the appearance and evanescence of the dew, will give with relative accuracy the measure of the force of va- por in the atmosphere.” The dew point, ascertained by the aid of suitable instruments, enables us to solve several important problems, which could not be done, when hydroscopes of animal and vegeta- ble substances were employed; as these, besides being subject to many imperfections, indicate a state of “dryness” when the atmos- phere /is nearly saturated with moisture. I. Having ascertained the dew point, on referring to a table of the elasticity of steam, we learn the tenszon of the atmospheric vapor, expressed in inches and parts of the mercurial column. II. By dividing the numbers denoting the elasticity, by that of the mean barometric height, we ascertain the volume of vapor in one: hundyed cubic inches of the air surrounding the instrument. * On the Dew Point. 65 III. Multiplying this number, by the weight of one hundred cubic inches of steam, the weight of vapor in one hundred cubic inches is found. IV. Dividing the mean barometric height, by the numbers denot- ing the elasticity, the proportion of pressure due to the vapor is de- termined. | V. The numbers denoting the elasticity, multiplied by the specific gravity of mercury ; the numbers obtained on the inches, and parts in depth of water, which would result from a total condensation of the whole vapor. Other interesting results are readily obtained from these numbers. The following table exhibits the results, without the delay of arith- metical processes; the numbers expressing the elasticity of steam, are from the table by Mr. Dalton; his numbers being a mean be- tween those of Mr. Daniell and Dr. Ure. Dew |Elasti- | Vol- Dew |Elasti- | Vol- Point. | city. | ume. Weight. | Water! point. city. | ume. ete ater 471 [066 | .22 | .42 |.894 | 49 |.363 |1.21 | 2.30 |4.91 5 1.076 | .25 | .47 11.03 || 50 |.375 11.25 | 2.38 |5.08 10 |090 | ‘30 | .57 {1.21 | 51 |.388 {1.29 | 2.45 5.25 15 |.108 | 36 | .68 11.46 || 52 |.401 (1.33 | 2.53 |5.43 20 1.129 | .43 | .81 [1.74 || 53 |.415 11.38 | 2.61 15.61 95 1156 | 52 | .99 12.11 || 54 |.429 11.43 | 2.72 |5.79 30 |.186 | .62 | 1.18 12.42 || 55 |.443 |1.47 | 2.80 |6.00 35 |.221 | .74 | 1.41 |2.99 || 56 |.458 |1.52 | 2.89 |6.20 36 |.229 | .76 | 1.44 |3.10 || 57 |.474 11.58 | 3.00 |6.41 37 |.237 | .79 | 1.51 |3.21 || 58 |.490 11.63 | 3.10 [6.63 38 |.245 | .82 | 1:56 |3.32 | 59 |.507 |1.69 | 3.21 16.85 39 |.254 | .85 | 1.61 |3.44 || 60 |.524 11.75 | 3.33 17.10 40 |.263 | .88 | 1.67 |3.56 || 61 |.542 11.80 | 3.44 17.34 41 |.273 | .91 | 1.73 |3.69 || 62 1.560 11.87 | 3.56 17.58 42 }.283 | 94 | 1.79 |3.83 |) 63 ).578 [1.92 | 3.67 |7.83 43 \.294 | .98 | 1.86 |3.98 || 64 |.597 11.99 } 3.79 \8.08 44 |.305 11.02 | 1.94 4.13 || 65 1.616 [2.05 | 3.90 [8.35 45 |.316 |1.05 | 2.01 |4.28 | 66 |.635 |2.11 | 4.02 |8.60 46 |.398 |1.09 | 2.07 4.44 | 67 |.655 [9.18 | 4.15 |8.88 47 1.339 11.13 | 2.15 |4.59 || 68 |.676 |2.25 | 4.28 19.16 48 |.351 11.17 | 2.23 |4.75 || 69 |.698 [9.32 | 4.42 19.47 70 1.721 19.40 | 4.57 19.77 Vou. XVILL.—No. 1. 9 66 Peculiar Aspect of the Air, in the Indian Summer. Arr. XI.—On the cause of the peculiar aspect of the aur, in the Indian Summer. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. You requested in one of the numbers of your Journal, a long time ago, a communication on the Indian summer. You of course are acquainted with the explanation of the phenomenon, which refers it to the smoke, arising from the combustion of the dead vegetable substances, that are strewed over the surface of the earth in autumn. This account of the matter seems to have arisen from the fact, that there are frequently, from accident or design, during the the Indian Summer, great conflagrations in the prairies and mountains; but these appear rather to follow the season, as the effect, than to precede it as the cause. ‘The warm dry weather fits every thing, in the decay of vegetable life, for inflaming at the slightest touch of fire; and of this, numerous conflagrations are a natural consequence. Besides, smoke does cause a similar appearance in the atmosphere, but of a deeper shade; and although its peculiar sensation is not felt at the beginning of the Indian Summer, yet soon after the extensive fires have commenced, the darkness of the atmosphere is increased ; and the smoke becomes painful to the organs of vision. It is not strange therefore that the bluish atmospheric appearance should have been attributed to what usually accompanies it. Some imagine that the phenomenon, of which we are speaking, is connected with the decay of vegetation in itself gonedcred but how this is so, they have not been able to explain. If we inquire for the cause ef the bluish appearance in the air, we have no difficulty in perceiving, that it must be ascribed to the reflec- tion of the darker part of the scolar rays. ‘The reflecting power in the atmosphere therefore must be greatly increased during the In- dian Summer: since only the less reflexible portion of the rays of light is transmitted. ‘The whole inquiry then is resolved into this: Whence arises the increased reflecting, or (which is the same thing) the increased refracting power in the atmosphere ? It is evident at once that this must be owimg to foreign substances intermingled with the atmosphere, rather than to the latter itself. We have therefore further to examime what substances the change of sea- sons, from heat to cold, and the reverse, would be likely to produce; and which might be intermingled with the atmosphere. em Solution of a Problem in Fluxions. 67 The application of heat causes evaporation ; and the abstraction of heat is followed by the deposition of vapor. Now during autumn, the earth is becoming cooler in consequence of the loss of more cal- oric than it receives. ‘This change in the earth will produce a simi- lar change in the atmosphere. ‘The earth therefore by its contact with a warmer stratum of air, will reduce its temperature, and the conse- quence will be the deposition of vapor. ‘This first stratum of air will have the same effect upon a second; and this again upon a third; and so on ascending. It is obvious then that there must be a contin- ual deposition of vapor while the earth is cooling; and this will be gréater in proportion as the process, which causes it, goes on more rapidly. In the spring season the changes just described will take place in a reversed order. ‘The earth is becoming warmer; and the vapor which arises from it, held in perfect solution by caloric, comes in contact with the air, which is now colder than the earth; and thus has a portion of its heat- abstracted, and consequently is deposited. The refracting power of vapor - however is nearly equal to that of water; and consequently very much greater than that of air. Per- haps the high refracting power, in the atmosphere, during the autumn and spring season may be explained in this manner. I send you these suggestions respecting the Indian Summer, your request in relation to which has been recalled to my mind by the ex- istence of the peculiarity in the season here at present. They may - slightly interest you, if you have not yet received a satisfactory com- munication on the subject. ZL. Baltimore, Dec. 15, 1830. Arr. XII.— Solution of a Problem in Fluxions ; by Prof. Turo- _ DORE STRONG. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. New Brunswick, Feb. 12, 1830. Dear Sir—I send you the following method of extending (B) (given at page 333 of the last Journal,) to the motion of a system of bodies. Yours respectfully, T. Srrone. I wave heretofore (virtually) supposed the mass of the moving particle to be unity ; I will now suppose it to be m, or that it contains the unit of particles m times; the magnitude of m being supposed so 68 Solution of a Problem in Fluxions. small that all its parts may be considered as having the same motion. d?x0x+d?yvov+d? zz Hence (B) becomes m( === rants ae Man B02’ &c. ) =0, (B’), for the motion of m; for (B) is evidently to be taken as often as the unit of particles is contamed in m. Now supposing that the moving particles are m, m, ,m, &c.; I shall have for ,m, ,m, &c. equations of the same form as (B’). Thus, supposing that x ,x 2 are the rectangular co-ordinates of ,m, which are respectively parallel to x y z and have the same origin; and that the quantities cor- responding to Fur, For’, &c. are denoted by ,Fd,r, F471’, &c. 3 ft ; d? ,x0x--d? NOY+d? 20,2 | shall have for ,m the equation ee ay Femme ars LFS 7/+ &c.)=0, (B”). In like manner the formula fan ,m may be denoted by writing two marks below the letters, and so on for ,,,m, &c. Now since m, jm, ,,m, &c. move as a system, or in connexion; it is evident that the equations (B’), (B”), &c. must be added; hence supposing (for brevity) that S written before (B’) denotes the sum thus 2y 2474 2 formed, I have sn(“ ce ees 297 ip BG or/+.&c. er, (D); which is the general formula of dynamics. (See the Mee. Anal. of La Grange, Vol. 1, page 251.) (D) can be changed to 2x) es aie aa a DS Xig Voy Ze n\=0, (E); the large capitals X, Y, Z, denoting the same thmgs as in (C), (given at page 333 of the last Journal,) ,X,,Y,,Z, bemg the corresponding quanti- ties for jm, and so on for ,,m, ,,m, &c. (EH) agrees with (P), (given by La Place in Vol. I, p. 51 of the Mec. Cel.) By means of the equations of connexion between m, ,m, ,,m, &c. and of the lines, or surfaces, on which they are supposed to move; we are to eliminate from (E) so many of the variations ox, dy, 02, 0,x, ¢,¥, 0,2, 0,,x, &e. as there are equations; then sce the remaining variations are inde- pendent of each other, their co-efficients must each be put =0; and there will arise equations which together with the equations cf condi- tion will make as many equations as there are co-ordinates, x, vy, 2, X /¥, &c.3 by which each of the co-ordinates can be found at any given time, and hence the place of each of the particles m, ym, &ce. becomes known ai the same time. But the same thing can generally be more expeditiously effected by adding to (2) the variations of the equations of condition, each multiplied by a separate indeterminate ; then 6x, dy, 6z, &c. being considered as independent, their co-efli- . cients must each be put =0; which will give as many equations as Solution of a Problem in Fluxions. 69 there are co-ordinates; but the indeterminates are to be eliminated, which being done, the number of equations will be less than before by as many as there are indeterminates ; but the equations of condi- tion being the same in number as the indeterminates, there will be as many equations as there are co-ordinates, whence the place of each particle can be found as stated above. This process is virtually the same as to suppose that the effects of the connexions, &c. of m, jm, &c. in altermg their motions are included im (B’), (B”), &c. among the terms dr, F'’ér’, &c. and then to eliminate the indeter- ‘minate forces. Another method consists in expressing x, y, Z, ,X, &c. in terms of other variables, which either wholly or in part com- prehend the equations of condition; then by putting the co-efficients of the independent variations thus obtained, each =O, there will re- sult equations sufficient, with the equations of condition, to find the place of each particle m, ,m, &c. at any given time as before. In the case of the motion of a solid, m, ,m, ,,m, &c. are to be considered as elements of the body ; hence by supposing their sum, or the quan- tity of matter in the body to be M, m may be expressed by dM; then by expressing x, y, &c. in terms of other variables, which are the same for all the elements of the solid, integrate relatively to the mass of the body, considering the common variables as constant in the integration ; (the well known properties of the centre of gravity, and the principal axes of a solid, will serve much to facilitate this m- tegration ;) after the integration put the co-efficients of the variations which remain after having elimmated so many as there are equations of condition, each =0, and there will result equations sufficient, with the equations of condition, to find the place of any given particle of the solid at any given time. It may be observed that if the forces mF’, mE’, &c. ,m,F, mF’, &e. which act on m, ,m, &c. destroy each other’s effects, so that there is no motion in the system; then a oe We. are each =0; hence by putting (for brevity) mE =f, mF’=f', &c. mF=,f, ym,’ =f’, &c. and so on for ,m, ,,m, &c. (D) becomes S(for +f/r' + &c.)=0, (F); which is the well known formula of statics. (See Mec. Anal. Vol. I, p. 29, art.2.) But the formula of statics can be otherwise demonstrated by the aid of the principle of the composition and decomposition of forces. For imagine a particle of maiter, considered as unity, to be referred to three rectangular axes, L, Y, 2, Whose origin is at any point of the line 7, in which the force F that acts on the particle is exerted; then F decomposed in the di- 70 Capillary Attraction. Fa Fy Fz » —»-—>» for the force of F in those di- r ToT rections of x, y, z, gives : Fx _ Fy Fz rections ; put — =—X, 7 = —Y, Pinas hence Xx+Yy+Zz +Fr=0, (c); X,Y, Z, being fictitious forces, which are equal res- : Fe Fy Fz ; , , pectively to |? >? >? and acting directly opposite to them, so that the particle is kept at rest by these opposing forces; (c) is similar to ; 4 ed ee yea (c) given at page 332 of the last Journal; by changing Wie’ diz? di2e into X, Y, Z, respectively, that formula becomes (c) given as above. Yn ike manner for another force EF” acting on the particle, I have a similar formula, X’a/+ Y/y' + Z/2’ + F7’ =0, (e’); and so on for the forces F”, F’”, &c. to any number of forces whatever ; by accenting the letters once for F’, twice for F”, and so on; the co-ordinates @, y, 2, t’, y’, 2’, &c. being respectively parallel to each other. Now by adding (c), (c’), &c. and taking the variation, &c. as at pages 332, 333 of the last Journal, I have (X+ X/+ &c.)dv-+(Y-+Y’+ Wc.) oy +(Z+Z/+ &c.)dz+For+ For’ + &e. =0, (G); this is the equa- tion of comexion between the actual and fictitious forces in the case of the equilibrium of the particle. Hence supposing that the parti- cle is kept at rest by the actual forces alone, the fictitious forces must destroy each other; hence (G) becomes, by the omission of the fic- titious forces, Fdr+-F’dr’+ &c. =0, (H); which is the formula of statics in the case of the equilibrium of one particle of matter. (H) can be extended to the equilibrium of a system of particles in the same manner that (B) has been extended to the motion of a system of particles m, ,m, etc. Arr. XIII.—On capillary attraction; by Prof. THzopore Srrone. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. New Brunswick, Jan. 27, 1830. Dear Sir—Should you think the following method of considering the phenomena of capillary tubes of any importance to the cause of science, you will oblige me by giving it a place in the Journal. Yours respectfully, 8s I suppose the internal surfaces of the tubes to be either cylinders, or right prisms, made of the same kind of glass, and immersed in a given fluid of definite extent. J also suppose the internal surfaces Capillary Attraction. 71 of such tubes to be composed of an indefinite number of laminae, of uniform and equal width, which are parallel to the axes of the tubes. My object is to find the effect of one of these laminae, and to show, that it is always the same whatever the diameter of the tube may be. It has been proved abundantly by experiment, that the attraction between the fluid and tubes extends to imperceptible distances. I hence infer, that the diameter of any capillary tube may be regarded without sensible error as infinite in comparison with these distances; and that the internal curvature in cylindrical tubes, and the angles in those of a prismatic form do not sensibly affect the attraction between the fluid and tubes, nor the attraction of the par- ticles of the fluid to each other. From these principles it is evident that the effect of one of the lammae is the same as if it was detach-_ ed from the tube, and inserted by itself m the fluid, which effect is manifestly constant. Let a= the quantity of fluid raised in any ver- tical capillary tube; w= the weight of a portion of the fluid whose mass is denoted by unity; then aw= the weight of a; put m= the width of one of the laminae, and n= the number of them; p= the internal perimeter of the tube, then nm=p or nae Now aw= i aw 4 the effect of all the laminae ees aa the effect of one of them (since they evidently produce equal eftects;) hence by what has been shown aw awm aw : ee = const. or (since Cone a =const.=c. (1). Sup- 1b ip posing now that the axis of the tube is inclined to the horizon, at the angle, 6; and that a’= the quantity of fluid raised; w, when resolved in the direction of the axis of the tube (by the theory of the inclined ! sin da/w plane,) becomes sin 4w.*. as before =e (2). J Let the internal surface of the tube be cylindrical, D= the diam- eter, H= the mean height of the fluid; 3.14159 etc.=P; (the : * HP tube being supposed to be vertical) then a= pe EVE aw DHw Ac I by (Ups sain Gn oF DH=—, =const. (since ¢ and w are con- £ 1 WON stant) or H is as pit is evident by (1) and (2) that the vertical height of the fluid in the same tube is constantly the same, what- ever é, may be: this result, together with (1) and (2) have been obtamed by La Place in his theory of capillary attraction. 72 Particulars respecting an irised Aurora Borealis. Arr. XIV.—Particulars respecting an wised Aurora Borealis, com- municated by James Bowpoin, Esq. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Boston, Nov. 16, 1829. Dear Sir—On Saturday evening, Sept. 8, 1827, being at Augus- ta in Maine, I called the attention of Doct. E. S. Tappan, about half past 9 o’clock, to a bright and well defined arch, extending to- wards the East and West, whose crown was about 45° above the northern horizon. It almost instantly disappeared. How near the horizon, or how long the arch was visible, I had not an opportunity of knowing. It was even brighter, than that I had witnessed at Boston a fortnight before. My friend and fellow traveller, G. Ralston, Esq. of Philadelphia, with Dr. Tappan and myself then saw pencils, or rather columns perfectly irised ; very strongly resembling regular segments of a fine rainbow, in the disposition and arrangement of colors and in shape ; although, in some other particulars, having the appearance of clouds, so illuminated. Each of these pencils, or columns, the sides of which were parallel, and their ends regularly and smoothly truncated per- pendicularly to these sides, was somewhere about half a degree in width ; and in length about eight degrees, though varying in both par- ticulars. ‘They were not radu from the north, but parallel to each other, running from a little East of North: their lower extremities being about 20° from the horizon., You will of course note here, that the bearing of these columns differed much from that of the arch before mentioned. From parallels, these soon became “ merry dan- cers,” as they are elsewhere called, and bent rapidly, and continued nimbly playing into curves of small circles; some times looking as if gracefully folded and twisted, like the most delicate gauze. Of the disposition of the colors, whether in precisely the same or- der with those of the solar bow (if indeed any other could be form- ed,) my notes do not inform me; and taking for granted that though new to me, others had often seen the same thing, my memory does. not furnish me with the side or edge, (whether towards the West or East,) on which was the red tint; nor whether it was upon the same side of each of the columns. These appear to me important facts, and I greatly regret that they were not noted when fresh in my re- collection. Particulars respecting an irised Aurora Borealis. 73 The iricolored appearance continued only afew minutes. The sky soon became quite pure, every thing resembling a cloud disap- pearing, and the long, bright streamers now shot up from the north, toward the zenith. Some of these continued near ahalf a minute, and were occasionally tinged with red, or with yellow :—two colors, I believe, not unfrequently seen: I saw them both a few days after, in another part of Maine. After these streamers had disappeared, we saw the light, quite fee- ble springing up from the North almost to the zenith, throughout the northern hemisphere ; and if the comparison may be permitted resem- bling extremely intermittent puffs of light colored or illuminated smoke sent forth from some huge bellows; so very rare and attenua- ted as not to have been observed without close attention. It was sof- ter and very much less bright than the light of the galaxy. Next followed what I shall call the common lights in the north; and in about fifteen or twenty minutes from our first observation, the whole spectacle ended, leaving a bright pure sky. You will not now doubt that this was to me an exceedingly interesting exhibition, although I had seen the lights an hundred times before. The moon, nearly full, having risen about 8 o’clock, shone during the whole time: But neither the position of the columns, nor any rain or remarkable humidity of the air; nor the appearance of the light and colors, allow me to attribute the phenomena to her bow : and besides, there were three or four of these columns equally bright. The air, towards evening, had become pretty rapidly cool; and during the day the atmosphere had been a little smoky, from the burn- ing wood.—I mention these facts, also, without ascribing to them any effect as regards the colors. As you may recollect, [am very short-sighted.* Now you know short-sighted people see with different eyes from others.—As regards the colors of clouds of different heights particularly, they do not always agree with their “ eagle eyed” friends, in the intenseness of color, nor sometimes in the color itself; a cloud being occasionally colorless to the eye of the one, whilst it is tinged to the eye of another :—Such at least is the result of my own experiments, made several years ago; * But my vision is distinct. I have read the newspaper by moonlight—have de- tected without any previous intimation of the fact, the initials under the bust of Geo. upon the sovereign, and read the Lord’s Prayer, &c. in the medallion specimens of Jacob ‘Perkins. Vou. XVITI.—No. 2. 10 74 Particulars respecting an irised Aurora Borealis. though as I have never happened to meet with a notice of the fact by others, farther examination may be required. I should deed have felt some doubts of my own accuracy in the above account of the Aurora Borealis, had I not at the time compared notes with the two gentlemen before mentioned. I have avoided inferences and deductions from the irised Aurora, and the theories connected with polar ice, &c. If the fact does not exhibit a new “ decus cceli,” it is probably rare in this region, and this notice of it may lead to a more vigilant observation, should there be a recurrence. In an examination of this sort, we have many known principles to guide us :—The laws of the spectrum, the general laws of reflection and refraction (which may give us the position of the reflection and re- fraction of the original illuminator) are known and within the obser- vation of every one, on the great scale, during the summer, and at our great falls during most of the year; while on the small scale, ev- ery house supplies the means of experiment. Should these notes (sent at your suggestion) lead only from a negative towards a positive, from shewing what is not the source of the Aurora Borealis, towards what is that source, they may not prove entirely without utility. Remarks. The colors usually mentioned as being exhibited by the northern lights are white and yellow, and as they grow more active they usually become red, increasing sometimes in intensity to blood red. Occa- sionally, other colors are mentioned, as green, blue and purple.* In an aurora which occurred Dec. 18th, 1736, at Oswer Zornea, Mau- pertius observed that an extensive region of the heavens towards the south appeared tinged of so lively a red that the whole constellation Orion seemed asif dyedin blood. This light was for sometime fix- ed, but soon became moveable: and after having successively assum- ed all the tints of violet and blue, it formed a dome, of which the sum- mit nearly approached the zenith in the south west. Its splendor was so great, as to be in no degree affected by the strong light of the moon. Maupertius adds that he observed only two of these red northern lights in Lapland, which are of very rare occurrence in that country, although the aurora there assumes a great variety of tints.” For * Musch. Institutes, quoted by Edin. Encye. Notice and description of a Marine Ventilator. 75 half a century, the existence of southern polar lights, has been fully established. Besides earlier notices in the Philos. Trans. Mr. Fors- ter who, as a naturalist, accompanied Captain Cook in his second voy- _ age of discoveries, states, that on the night of the 16th of Feb. 1773, in S. lat. 58°, a beautiful phenomenon was observed and was exhibited during several successive nights. ‘It consisted of long columns of a clear white light, shooting up from the horizon to the eastward, almost to the zenith and gradually spreading over the whole southern partof the sky. These columns were sometimes bent sideways at their upper extremities ; and though in some respects similar to the northern lights of our hemisphere, yet differed from them in being always of a whitish color; whereas ours assume various tints, espe- cially those of a fiery and purple hue.” As in the Aurora described by Mr. Bowdoin, and seen also by his observing friends, the columns were perfectly irised and very strong- ~ ly resembled the regular segments of a fine rainbow, both in form and in the disposition and arrangement of colors, it would seem that the appearance if it should not, on fuller examination, prove to be novel, is probably uncommon; and we are therefore much obliged by his communication. If similar facts gathered either from reading or ob- servation are within the knowledge of any person it is respectfully re- quested that an account of them may be communicated for this Journal. New-Haven, March 2, 1830. Art. XV.—WNotice and description of a Marine Ventilator ; by SamMuEL WHITING. THE marine ventilator consists of a box, or chest, of dimensions to adapt it to the vessel in which it is used, say from six to twelve feet long; from two to four feet in depth, and from three to six feet wide. ‘This box, or chest, is divided into four compartments, to wit, upper and lower, by a horizontal vibrating midriff, suspended upon an axis resting in the middle of the perpendicular sides of the box, and dividing the space into two equal portions. ‘The ends of the box form segments of the circle which would be described by a revolu- tion of the midriff upon its axis, so that in the vibrations of the mid- riff, as little air as possible may escape from one compartment to the other. ‘These upper and lower spaces, are subdivided by a middle perpendicular partition, above and below the axis, and so fitted to the 76 Notice and description of a Marine Ventilator. same, as to permit it to turn without suffering the air to escape from one to the other division; preserving as little communication of air between the compartments as possible. This midriff is to be opera- ted by pistons, or pitmans, attached to it in each of the upper com- partments, and passing through the top of the box, they are connected with a break, or lever, resting in a fulcrum in the centre of the top of the box, and for the convenience of working it, extending at each end beyond the end of the box. Through the perpendicular sides of the box, and as near the axis of the midriff as may be, without interfering with its motion, are four apertures on each side, to admit and discharge the air. ‘These apertures are governed by valves; one on each side of each of the upper and lower compartments, opening mward; and one in each, opening outward; and that transversely. Over each two of the valves, in the upper and lower compartments, respectively, is placed an air-tight cell, calculated to receive a general conductor of air, to or from the valves it covers. ‘Thus on the vibration of the midriff, at the descending end, the fresh air is drawn into the upper compart- ment through the inside valve, while the foul air is driven out of the lower compartment at the same end, through the outside valve; and vice Versa. From the cells which cover the valves, conductors extend respec- tively to the hold of the vessel, at different and remote parts of it, one to inhale at one part, the foul air, and another, at another part, to exhale the fresh air; while others extend abroad in different di- rections, one to inhale at one place the fresh air, and another at a re- mote part of the vessel, to exhale the foul air. ‘Thus a continual current of fresh and foul air, respectively, is passing through the ven- tilator: the fresh air through the upper compartments, and the foul, in an opposite direction, through the lower ; so that a fourfold opera- tion is performed by every stroke or movement of the lever which governs the midriff; to wit, inhaling fresh air at one valve, exhaling fresh air at another; inhaling foul air at one, and exhaling foul at an- other ; and this alternately. This machine is to be suspended under the deck of the vessel, through which the pistons, or pitmans, by which it is worked, pass ; and in the most convenient part: Or it may be in a detached and moveable form, and worked altogether above decks, or in the vessel’s hold. ‘The pipes, or conduits, to convey the air, may be either stout leathern hose, or wooden, or metallic tubes, passing to the different arts of the hold, under the deck. Notice and description of a Marine Ventilator. il By the use of this machine, vessels may be ventilated at sea, at any time, in any situation, and in any weather, and a current of pure air be made to pervade the interior of the vessel, while her hatches. are kept closed ; whereas in the ordinary method, it is only in situa- tions when the hatches can be open, and the vessel at anchor, or in smooth water that any thing of the kind is attempted, and even then with comparatively, but partial effect. Considering the very great importance to commerce and navigation, attached to the preservation of vessels and cargoes, which, especially in long voyages, and warm seasons and climates, depends in so great a measure upon the purity of the vessel’s hold; and also the very imperfect manner in which that object has heretofore been ordinarily attained ; it is presumed that essential benefit may be derived from this improvement to the community, in those branches of its interest. Redding, Conn. Dec. 29th, 1829. , Pistons, or pitmans. , G, Break, or lever. H, Fulcrum. Dotted lines exhibit the sweep of the midriff. Remarks.—The object of the above invention is important ; and as far as we can judge without having seen a working model; and with 73 Localities of Minerals. a limited acquaintance with nautical affairs, the machine is at once ingenious, cheap and simple, and likely to prove effectual. It is said that a machine for ventilating confined places was invent- ed in England by Dr. Hales ; its principles were stated to be similar, but its structure more complex, and not well adapted to marie use ; and it does not appear to have been so applied. We understand that Mr. Whiting intends that his machine should be used in prisons, hos- pitals and other situations, which it may not be convenient always to ventilate in the usual modes, and in every case of this kind, it is ob- viously susceptible of useful application. Even where chlorine and “its preparations have been used to destroy noxious effluvia, it may be, and generally would be necessary that the premises should be after- wards ventilated, and their situation might render it very desirable to use such a machine as the marine ventilator. It might be used, with much advantage, in removing the carbonic acid gas (the damp of the common people,) from wells, as bad air would be replaced by good, and if there were no source from which the noxious gas might flow in again, the cure might be permanent. Arr. XVI.—WNotice of some Localities of Minerals, in the coun- ties of Baltimore and Harford, Md.; by Puitie T. Tyson. With an Appendix, by C. U. SuEparp. 1. Fine grained dolomite, (mag. carb. of lime,) embracing lamel- lar tale and crystallized and granular pyrites; fourteen miles from Baltimore, and one fourth of a mile west of York turnpike. Also ihe compact variety of mag. carb. of lime; one mile west of the 13 mile stone on York turnpike road. 2. Chalcedony, of a sky blue color, translucid and beautiful ; half a mile east of where the Western Run crosses the York turnpike. Agate and carnelian, in thin coatings upon chalcedony; near the Falls turnpike, four miles from Baltimore. Agate is found also thir- teen and a half miles from the city on the York turnpike. 3. Tourmaline, (cylindroide of Haiiy,) of a brownish green color ; occurs in quartz on the York turnpike, fourteen and a half miles from the city. Also (trédécumale of Haiy) in granular limestone, three fourths of a mile E. 5. EK. of where the York turnpike crosses the Western Run. Locahities of Minerals. 719 4. Precious garnets.—In granite, whose felspar is white and gran- ular, two miles and one fourth from the city, N. E. of Jones’ falls, there are cuneiform masses of mica, from three to seven inches broad, and some three inches thick at one edge, inclosing great quan- tities of beautiful garnets; most of them seem to uae been com- pressed between the plates of mica, into a tabular* form; some are not thicker than good writing paper; in color they vary from cherry red to brick red, with a vitreous lustre; their breadth seldom ex- ceeds twotenths of aninch. Such of them as are not so much compressed, as entirely to conceal the crystalline form, appear to be the trapezoidal of Haity. 5. Common garnets, (prumtif of Haiy,) are found in great abun- dance, the largest two inches in diameter and very perfect for large crystals, in a decomposed mica schist, three miles east of Jessop’s mill, on the Gunpowder river. Common garnets, (primitif alongeé of Haiiy,) in mica slate, nineteen miles from this city, on the York turnpike. 6. White augite, formerly noticed, in this vicinity. 7. Talc, similar to that beautiful green variety of Smithfield, R. I. occurs in serpentine, accompanied by chromiferous oxide of iron, steatite, &c. four miles east of the 24 mile stone on the York turn- pike. Talc, white, green, brownish red and reddish purple, occurs in small scales, at locality 3; its lustre is pearly. 8. Magnesian hydrate of silica.—This substance I met with near Cooptown, Harford county, Md. where it occurs in abundance, in serpentine ; and although it is said to exist in other places, yet, as I have never seen a description of it, I shall submit the following. The color, by reflected light, varies from dark chesnut brown to rather dark honey yellow, but a shade of red is given to it by transmitted light; the powder feels rather gritty and is yellowish white; this is also the color of the streak. It is translucid or semi-transparent, in very thin pieces; the surface has a smooth compact appearance, and * Ihave constructed two electric needles, and capped their centres with these garnets, instead of rock crystal, as recommended by Haitiy, and find they answer well. Their natural polish is so perfect and their forms so beautiful, that they would derive little embellishment from the jeweller. + I lately found a erystal, one mile west of the 13 mile stone on York turnpike road, five inches long and two and a half broad, (perihexaédre of Hatiy.) I have also found a erystal of the dark variety of augite, formerly noticed by Dr. Hayden as being within the range of the white variety. It is a hexahedral prism. 80 Localities of Minerals. the lustre is resinous. It may be scraped by the knife, although it scratches glass. It is very brittle, with an imperfectly conchoidal fracture, and exists in botryoidal concretions and amorphous masses, traversed by irregular fissures. Specific gravity from 2.19 to 2.21. Before the blowpipe it loses color, and the point of a slender frag- ment is fused with difficulty into a white enamel. With salt of phos- phorus or borax, a large proportion of the mineral fuses easily into a colorless transparent glass. Mr. Allen of this city analyzed it, and after having carefully verified his results, found it to consist of Silica, - - - - - 48. Magnesia, - - - - 30.5 Alumina, - - - - - 2) Water, - - - - - 24, Loss, - - - - - 52 100. ‘The magnesia does not seem to exist in a quantity equal to a definite proportion, but there appears just water enough to form with the silica a ‘“‘ hydrate” consisting of an atom of each. 9. Precious serpentine, of a lively green color is found at the same locality as the last. 10. Compact asbestus, of a dull green color and translucid, with fibres, as usual, rigid and sharp; same locality. 11. Fleaible asbestus, pure white, in very soft delicate fibres, ir- _ regularly disposed, (the var. cotonneux of Haity,) occurs in granular limestone, on the York turnpike, sixteen miles from Baltimore. 12. Graphite, lamellar, occurs in gneiss, three miles east of the 17 mile stone on the York turnpike, and also im limestone, fifteen miles from Baltimore, on the same road. 13. Pyritous copper, (a mineral which on account of its value to the arts is always worthy of being noticed,) occurs in small quantity seven miles from this city, on the Baltimore and Ohio rail road, in * a rock composed of quartz, imbedded in compact felspar, (porphy- ry?) ; the rock also embraces small grains of magnetic oxide of iron. Pyritous copper also exists in granite, m several places on the above rail road, from nine to fifteen miles from town, but no vein has yet been discovered. 14. Iron pyrites, in large crystals, (dodecaédre of Haity,) is found in limestone, twelve miles from the city, on the York turnpike. On the Deweylite. 81 15. Magnetic oxide of iron, massive and in crystals, (prematif of Haiiy,) occurs in abundance near locality 7, in tale chlorite.* Baltimore, Feb. 1830. On the Mineralogical and Chemical characters of the Deweyliie, and the probable indentity of the “* Magnesian hydrate of Silica” with this species; by Cuarues U. Sumparp. The preceding notice of the “ Magnesian hydrate of Silica,” by Mr. Tyson, agrees so well with what is known of a substance found in Middlefield, Mass., that for the purpose of rendering obvious the identity which I believe to exist between the two minerals, I take the liberty of annexing to his Memoir a more full account of its proper- ties than has been hitherto published. This mineral was discovered many years ago by Dr. E. Emmons ; and is described in his Manual of Mineralogy and Geology, (Albany 1826,) p. 133, under the name of “ Deweylite,” in honor of Prof. Dewey of Pittsfield, Mass. His description is as follows. “‘ Color white, yellowish white and sometimes greenish 5 translu- cent. Becomes slightly opaline on being immersed in water, and breaks into numerous rounded fragments or coarse grains : brittle : easily scraped and cut with a knife, the detached fragments being pro- jected with considerable force. It is more or less traversed in every direction, by cracks or seams, exhibiting a tendency to break into short columns: decrepitates strongly before the blowpipe : becomes snow white, and fuses with difficulty into an enamel, without effer- vescence: structure generally compact, but sometimes slightly slaty : often exhibits, in the interior, mammillary and short stalactical eoncre- tions, which appear to be covered with the points of exceedingly mi- nute crystals. It is composed principally of silex and magnesia, with about thirty per cent. of water. It is found in irregular seams or cavities in the brown serpentine of Middlefield, Mass. it has every appearance of having been formed by infiltration.” * Duplicate specimens of many of the foregoing minerals, as well as others here- tofore noticed in the American Journal, are in the possession of myself and some of my scientific friends in this city, which would be exchanged for those of other pla- ces. Iam happy to say, that a mineral supposed by some to be the chabasie, and by Dr. H. Hayden believed to be new, and which was mentioned in this Journal, has lately been found in abundance, in large and perfect crystals, and not decomposed like those formerly found. It is accompanied by beautiful pearly zeolite ; and some farther notice of it may be expected soon. Vol. XVIIL.—No. 1. if B2 On the Deweylite. About two years ago, and before having seen the description of Dr. Emmons, I made a mineralogical and chemical examination of the mineral under consideration; the account of which has lain by me unpublished until this moment, and which f here give entire, as it was then drawn up. In the spring of 1825 I visited the locality of this substance in company with Dr. Emmons. It was embraced in Serpentine, and occurred in veins from one quarter, to one and a half inches in thick- ness. ‘These vems were disposed, for the most part, horizontally; and were situated directly in the bed of a small stream, which at the time we visited the spot, was sufficiently low to admit of our obtaiming a tolerable supply of specimens ; although considerable masses of ser- pentine were often to be removed by the hammer and chisel, in fol- lowing the veins. Description. Massive. Fracture even: imperfectly conchoidal. Lustre vitreous inclining to resinous: in degree, varying from shin- ing to dull: color white, tinged in veins with yellow, green and red : translucent. Streak white. ‘The most translucent fragments, after immersion in water, afford by transmitted light, a bluish color. Brittle. Easily frangible, especially if thrown into water, when a large mass may be broken into fragments by the mere strength of the hands. Hardness intermediate between that of Calcareous spar and Fluor, and may be expressed by the scale of Mohs, as =3.3. Sp. gr. =2.246. ! Before the blowpipe it decrepitates violently: but when heated slowly, it loses its lustre, becomes opaque, and fuses with great diffi- culty upon the edges, into a white enamel. In the state of powder, with borax, it forms a colorless transparent glass. Analysis. 50 grains, in the state of an impalpable powder, heated for one hour in a platina crucible, lost 10 grains in weight, and presented no perceptible change in color. Mingled with three times its weight of potash, it was exposed to a dull red heat in a silver crucible during thirty minutes. The resulting mass presented the appearance of hav- ing undergone a perfect fusion, and when cold was free from metallic stains. It was separated from the crucible by the affusion of warm water, and treated with an excess of muriatic acid. The colorless On the Deweylite. 83 solution thus produced, was evaporated to dryness, redissolved in water, and the solution after having been rendered slightly acid by the farther addition of muriatic acid, was thrown upon the filter to separate the silica, which, after repeated washings and caleination, amounted to 20.4 grs. In order to learn whether alumine was present, the muriatic solu- tion, after a partial evaporation to reduce its bulk, was decomposed by carbonate of potash at a boiling heat. The precipitate was thor- oughly digested in a solution of potash, the alkaline liquor separated from the residue by the filter, and after a slight super-saturation with muriatic acid, again treated with carbonate of potash. No precipitate occurred. Having assured myself in this manner of the absence of alu- mine, I dissolved the residue, upon which the potash had been diges- ted, in dilute sulphuric acid. It was entirely soluble. _ Carbonate of potash added to the sulphuric solution, at a boiling heat, threw down a copious precipitate, which after separation and drying, was found to be a pure carbonate of magnesia. Having satisfied myself that the Deweylite consisted of silica, mag- nesia and water, I proceeded as follows. 25 grains were calcined during one hour, in which time they lost 5 grains in weight. ‘The calcined powder, fused with three times its weight of potash, and treated with muriatic acid as before, afforded 10 grains of silica. The muriatie solution was decomposed by carbonate of potash, and the precipitate after being dried and calcined for nearly an hour, weighed 10 grains. ‘Thus presenting us with the following result., Silica, 10. or per hundred 40, Magnesia, _ 10. So rs fe 40. Water, 5. Seared «6 20, 25 100 It is therefore a compound of 5 atoms silica, - - ¥ = 10. 4 atoms magnesia, - - - mhOs 4 atoms of water, - : 2 - 4.5. 84 On the Crystalline Form of Todine. Whether the Deweylite be a true chemical compound, or a mechan- ical mixture of the hydrate of magnesia with silica, I will not pre- tend to decide. The only difference between it and the precious serpentine in chemical constitution, is, that it contains one proportional more of water, and is free from the accidental ingredients of lime, alumine and manganese, so common in serpentine. On a comparison of the mineral described by Mr. Tyson, with the Deweylite, the only want of coincidence is seen to lie im the property of hardness and in the composition. His mineral is possessed of an hardness shghtly superior to ours, and contains rather more silica and water. ‘The difference however in our results, is not greater than what is found in the analysis of specimens of Serpentine from differ- ent localities. Arr. XVIL—On the Crystalline Form of Fodine ; by Lieut. W. W. Marner, Assistant Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy at the U.S. Military Academy. fodine has been observed crystallized in rhomboids, rhomboidal tables, and elongated octahedrons, by Sir Humphry Davy, Gay- Lussac, M. A. Plisson, and others; but we have never seen any account of the angles at which the faces of the crystals incline to each other.* Before seeing M. A. Plisson’s notice that iodine could be obtained crystallized, by “ exposing ioduretted hydriodic acid,” Lieut. Hopkins and myself had observed it in the chemical labora- tory at West Point, in a bottle of hydriodic acid, that had been for one or two years exposed to a limited access of air, by the stopper not fitting very closely. Some of the crystals were 52, of an inch in length, having the lustre of the specular oxide of iron from Elba. The form was generally that of an octahedron with a rhombic base, having the acute lateral solid angles replaced by tangent planes. The * Dr. Wollaston, in the Annals of Philosophy, Vol. V, p. 237, describes iodine as forming octahedral crystals, whose axes are to each other in the proportion of the numbers 2, 8, and 4: also in rhombic plates, bevelled at their edges by two narrow planes, inclined to each other under an angle of 120° 30/, from the frequent occur- rence of which he remarks, that some crystallographers may be disposed to regard this rhombic plate (of which the acute angle is about 53°) as a, modification of a rhombie prism, whose diagonals are 2 and 4, and its height 3:—the modification of the octahedron being derivable from either with equal facility.—Ed. On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. 85 inclination of one of these secondary, with one of the adjacent planes, was determined by the reflective goniometer; but no more of the angles could be measured by this instrument, on account of the va- por from the crystal affecting the eyes. P on n 120° reflective goni- [ometer. P on P’ 120° common “ P” on n 120° GSS Planeangleata 44°“ “ 66 66 “61360 From these, the plane -an- Z gles, and the inclination of theh& planes to each other, were ealculated. Pron P! 142° 08/ 20” P on p’ TONE ON Plane angles at A 38° 56’ 6 66 66 BE 62° 99/ Sere ge ongn! ' The axis is to the greater diagonal of the base, :: 3:2, and to the shorter diagonal, ::3:13 or more accurately, AA’: EE’: IV ::1:.497:.355. These measurements must not be considered as perfectly accurate; but rather as approximations. Arr. XVIEL—On the Transition Roeks of the Cataraqui ; by Capt. R. H. Bonnycastur, R. E. Canada. (Communicated for this Journal.) TO THE EDITOR. Sir—Conceiving that any circumstances tending to throw light on the ages of rocks, must prove interesting in the present state of geo- logical science, and also apprehending that there are few which pre- sent more singular appearances than those I am about to undertake a feeble examination of, I have ventured to address you. 86 On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. It is well known that transition granites are found superincumbent upon beds of talcose limestone, and that masses or nodules of lime- stone, as well as of other rocks, have been observed imbedded in such substances, but I do not remember ever to have heard that granite covered by, or in connection with, transition limestone, inter- mingled and interlaced itself and its constituent particles, with that formation.* Along the north eastern edge of the great basin of North America, the ridge of granites which marks the division between the primary, or the transition, and the secondary countries, is denuded to a consider- able extent, until it approaches the St. Lawrence and crosses that river by the vast chain of amphibolic rocks which divide the beautiful, the extraordinary, and the innumerable channels in which that great stream is forced to wind its way, amidst the lovely scenery of the Thousand Islands. Kineston, or Cataragui, at the outlet of Lake Ontario, is the point where, to the eye of a casual observer, this granitic ridge seems to terminate its course ; for at this point, the western extremity of the Thousand Isles, the ridge is almost lost, and the character of the rock itself appears wholly changed, as it intermingled with syenites and serpentinite at Cedar Island, or becomes wholly syenitic, as at the northern extremity of Hamilton cove, or resolves itself altogether into a singularly hard compound, intimately mixed in minute grains of felspar, quartz and carbonate of lime, with hornblende and mica- ceous iron at Point Henry. Numerous varieties of syenite exist, in a very limited space, on Cedar Island, and appear to pass into each other, by rapid alterna- tions, in a small compass, whilst the specimens of serpentinite aggre- gate with them, and but for the little carbonate of lime they contain, would appear, in many instances, more like real greenstone than euphotide.+ The granitic associations are again lost and vast tables of transition limestone, with few or scarcely any organic remains, entirely cover them, for the space of above four miles to the north east of Point Henry, when the granite, a kind of very hard, dark whinstone, again * In the Pyrenees, vertical beds of granular primitive limestone, intermix with granite and trap. + Besides this serpentinite, there are also specimens in which fibrous lamellar tremolite, epidote and felspar, assume the exact appearance of verde antico. On the Transiiion Rocks of the Cataraqui. 87 breaks forth, assuming the character of a mural precipice and aftord- ing a narrow passage for the waters of the Cataraqui; but it retains this character only for a short distance, when it once more changes into the rounded, and wave like pale flesh colored syenite of Hamil- ton cove, remarkable for a coating of schorlaceous threads, and for the metallic crust vesting the interior surfaces of those portions which by the action of the weather, have fallen from the mass, in cubic blocks. Adularia, of a light cloudy blue, is also observed in this sye- nite, which is extremely hard to work, takes scarcely any polish, and has a slightly unctuous feel. It contains but little hornblende, and less tale, and is composed almost wholly of felspar, in small grains, with white and bluish quartz, the felspar greatly predominating. One singular vestige of the ancient flood still marks this rock, and indeed all those of the Cataraqui. Channels, deeply worn and per- fectly smooth, pervade its surface, in lines running north east’ and south west, which, indeed is the general tendency of the ridges them- selves.* This syenite sinks immediately beyond Kingston Mills and is cov- ered by the alluvions of the Cataraqui. Where it again rises I do not know, as the adjacent country to the northward is interminable forest, but from the statements of several scientific officers, who have recent- ly explored the interior in much higher latitudes, there is every rea- son to believe, that it connects itself with the height of land by which the waters of the Ottawa or Grand River are divided from those which, flowing from the Rocky Mountains, pervade the territory of Hudson’s Ba Primitive granite, or the true granite of the oldest rocks, does not, perhaps, exist in the neighborhood of Lake Ontario;+ whilst we know, from the statements of the travellers above mentioned, that it is equally deficient as far north as Lake Temiscaming, or nearly to the height of land, and Franklin’s journey shews that it is by no means common, even until we almost reach the shores of the Arctic Ocean. It will, therefore, by many persons, be deemed very improper to style the aggregate we are about to treat of, by the designation gran- * T observe that a writer in the last number of the Journal states, that similar appearances, on the opposite shores of Lake Ontario, are numerous. t * Dans le voisinage d’un district connu sous le nom des Milles Isles, on trouve une chaine des granites. Tous ces isles semblent tre composeés d’un granit con- geatre, bien crystallize dont Je feldspath est Vingredient le plus considerable.” — Guillemard. 38 On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqua. ite, as the micaceous ingredient is almost, or perhaps entirely, want- ing in the transition rocks of the Cataraqui. But although there is every reason to be adduced in favor of other terms, inasmuch, par- ticularly, as most other mineral compounds have received. distinct names, yet the relative ages of the granitic rocks are still so little un- derstood, that we shall, in obedience to the all powerful sway of cus- tom, continue thus to style them. In the neighborhood of Kingston, certainly, the micaceous ingre- dient of a-true granite disappears in the various aggregates of which the more ancient rocks consist, but still the positions assumed by modern geologists concerning primary and subsequent formations of granites, is strikingly exemplified im the very smgular distribution which nature has here made of her mineral resources. It is asserted that the presence of tin, magnetic iron, hornblende, garnet, tale and chlorite, replacing mica, as well as a tendency to pass to pegmatite, characterise the newer formations of that substance, which had heretofore been considered as the oldest of all known mineral matter, and that primitive euphotide,* posterior to clay slate, is placed at the limit of primitive and transition formations, a com- pact grayish limestone passing to fine grained, connecting the eupho- tide of Scandinavia, according to Humboldt the last member of the primitive family, with very ancient intermediary rocks. ‘The same indefatigable geognost candidly observes, however, that it is as diffi- cult to fix the ages of euphotides as it is those of granites, and that those which he saw at Guanaxuato, Cuba, and Mexico, and at the en- trance of the Llanos de Venezuela, connected with syenite or black limestone, appeared to him to be as decidedly transition as those of the Bochetta of Genoa, stratified and imbedded im the transition clay slate which alternates with black limestone.- Antltracite is also said to bear the same relation to the transition as graphite does to the primitive and coal to the secondary formations, whilst the frequent presence of hornblende and the comparative absence of quartz, are also distinguishing marks between the first and the intermediary classes. According to Jammson, schorl is rarely associated with hornblende, and from the testimony of CLeaveLanp we learn that * A mixture of diallage, jade and Jamellar felspar, of which serpentinite is a va- riety, with small grains of an homogeneous aspect. | Dz Bucs and BrocHanr considered the euphotides of Spezzia, Prato and the whole of the Siennese, as primitive, whilst Bronewiar? asserts that they are sec- ondary, or of a very recent transition class. — On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. 89 schorl has hitherto been found only in primitive rocks, particularly in eranite* and in gneiss, or in veins which traverse those rocks, whilst it may, occasionally, be observed in mica slate or argillite. These different opinions of eminent men would, if always correct, afford excellent data to reason upon in affixing eras to families of mimeral masses, but unfortunately, although they may generally be true on an extended scale in particular localities, they are frequently found to be at variance with existing facts in others. If such able geologists are at a loss on the absorbing question of the ages of rocks, it may seem presumptuous for us to offer any asser- tions on a subject so intensely interesting, at a time when geology is still so far from having received more than a glimmering of the true light. Whatever, therefore, may be our preconceived ideas, or how- ever we may have been led to form opinions, either from appear- ances or from reflection, we must hesitate to announce them, and confine ourselves to simple statements of facts; trusting that when other laborers in the cause shall have outstripped the endeavors of the great modern geologists, and when similar statements from various countries shall have been combined, a Newton may arise, who shall render geology what mathematics is at the present age, a science of reason and of truth. Werner and his school, define transition rocks to be those which have a great analogy to the primitive class, but which alternate with the brecciated or arenaceous kinds, whilst they contain, in their upper genera, some few remains of organized bodies, the animal fossils be- ing chiefly confined to the tribes of madrepores, pentacrinites, ortho- ceratites, trilobites, &c. and the vegetable relics to impressions of reeds, palms and gigantic ferns, which are all exhibited, chiefly, in those species of rocks not containing felspar and which are not of a very crystalline aspect. As a broad foundation to work upon in the present state of the science, these data are doubtless very well adapt- ed to the exigencies of the case, although we fear that they will be found at some future period, to be in the same predicament with all other positive assertions regarding the ages of rocks, as we shall presently shew, that testaceous organic relics may be expected to ex- hibit themselves in transition formations, where felspar holds the most * It exists however in considerable quantities in the transition rocks of the St. Lawrence and the Cataraqui. Vou. XVIII.—No. 1. 12 90 On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. conspicuous place, and we already know that terebratule have been discovered in greenstones, associated with carbonate of lime,* which, however, according to ConyBEARE, is not very important, as he as- serts that shells have been found in recent and decided lavas, at the points where they have flowed into the ocean.t Trunks, branches and twigs, silicified, or penetrated with wood stone, itis well known, occur in a rock called secondary porphyry, but to which some geologists assign an older date, and there is some reason to believe, that even in transition granitic masses, the organic remains of a former world are yet to be seen.{ But as the object of the prolegomena of the present essay is to analyze remarkable facts concerning these granitic aggregates and other rocks of the transition class, we shall go on to develop the re- ceived opinions of the most eminent writers, regarding associations, which the philosophers of the present day consider as decidedly newer than those first created. It may, however, be necessary, before we proceed further on so inter- esting a research, to explain our own views on the nature of the term transition ; a term, we are well aware, highly objected to by many very learned men. But unless either that word, or some other near- ly equivalent is employed, how is it possible to detail ideas concern- ing those extensive formations which so evidently occurred when the planet we inhabit was undergoing, as it were, a new birth, and its oceans were beginning to teem with animate beings. ‘The term itself may be objectionable in a philological, as well as in a geogonic point of view, but it is preferable, in our opinion to any other, hitherto offered ; and although it does not fully imply the notions which it is intended to convey, of the vast changes gradually occurring, during an indefinite period on the surface of the globe, yet it is sufficiently ex- planatory, at least, of the difference which certainly exists between the newest of the ancient, and the oldest of the more recent fami- lies of rocks, and as such, we adopt it. * By M. Weaver, in Ireland, in a trappose rock. | It will be recollected that the Huttonians always ascribe the origin of these rocks to submarine volcanos, acting when the ocean still covered the surface of the districts in which they are found. { Jamuson says that petrified shells have been found in secondary trap rocks, as secondary greenstones and also in the slaty rock, (slaty compact felspar,) frequently associated with it. On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. 91 In following the rules laid down by the geologists we have alluded to, as well as in tracing carefully the natural appearances, we must ad- mit cautiously, however, that there are several distinct known species of transition formations, and amongst these the most conspicuous and easily recognizable are the schistose; the felspathose, porphyries, sienites and greenstones; the granular and compact limestones, with gypsum and rock. salt; euphotides and the aggregated rocks (gray- wackes and calcareous breccias.) ‘These are variously arranged and described by different authors, and amongst them granite and gneiss, mica slate and quartz rock are frequently enumerated. ‘The latter are, however, types as comparatively rare as the greywacke schist and transition clay slate are characteristic ones. ‘These rocks asso- ciate according to some particular laws which have not been yet made manifest, although there has been proof enough afforded to state, that “transition clay slate* and black limestone, clay slate and por- phyry, clay slate and greywacke, porphyry and sienite, granular limestone and anthracitous mica slate, form geognostic associations in all parts of the world.”+ But notwithstanding the geologist is fully aware of these circumstances, they are so exceedingly com- plicated in their alternations, that he can with the utmost difficulty satisfy himself concerning the relative ages of even a few of these rocky masses, as some of those which appear by their associations to be decidedly transition, in their peculiar characteristics are not separable from the primitive family, whilst others are as difficult to discriminate from those masses of igneous origin with which they ap- pear so suitably allied. Many learned men, and amongst others HumBoxpr, have endeav- ored to classify the genera of transition rocks, and to divide them into groups, but there appears, at present, so much difficulty in the undertaking, and so many contradictory results occur, that it becomes impossible to follow them through their chains, or rather, labyrinths of reasoning, although the exposition of the six great groups given by the abovementioned geognost, in his essay on the superposition of rocks, is eminently worthy of its author, and abounds in facts, which will, hereafter, greatly assist towards reducing the matter to the laws of truth. * Greywacke schist. — | Humsounpr on the superposition of rocks. 92 On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. He asserts, and with a great shew of reason on his side, that the talcose and granular limestones give a peculiar aspect to a great for- mation composed of steatitic, granular limestones, transition mica slate and greywacke, with primitive fragments; that porphyries abound- ing in hornblende, but without metals and almost destitute of quartz, characterize another which is anterior to calcareous matter with or- thoceratites ; that greywacke eminently distinguishes a third group in which we find clay slate, limestone, porphyry and greenstone, and that metalliferous porphyries, and sienites with zircon granites, are the types of a fourth assemblage, which is posterior to transition clay slate, and sometimes to limestone with orthoceratites, whilst there is a fifth composed of transition euphotide with jasper and serpentine. Some of these groups, such as the porphyries and sienites, he also says, appear to have an intimate relation to the trachytes, the most ancient of volcanic rocks; and others, the greywackes and porphy- ries, as weil as by the great accumulations of carbon, are also so strongly connected with the secondary porphyries and deposites of coal, that it is often exceedingly difficult to separate porphyries, amygdaloids and pyroxenic rocks from the red sandstone, with in- terposed beds of greenstone and porphyry. Jamrson, on the other hand, places a red sandstone im the catalogue of the transition fami- lies of rocks. It is a very favorite mode of getting over all these difficulties to seek at once for the assistance of volcanic agency, and to make every doubtful case, an igneous one. We shall, however, presently see, that by mere accident, the strongest and the most difficult evi-_ dence to overturn, has been produced on the shores of Lake Onta- rio, which may shake opinions so hastily formed. In a_ position where the positive nature of the igneous origin, or at least, the con- version of rocky masses by volcanic agency or subterrene heat ap- peared evident, even to the most inattentive observer, a momentary mspection dissipated the illusion, and proved that, however plausible a theory may appear, and however well it may be supported, it is sull possible for very simple and unexpected matter of fact entirely to disperse it.* * After a careful examination of the transition recks of the Cataraqui, at least of the granitic varieties, many intelligent travellers and geologists have pronounced them to be as clearly trap rocks (in the volcanic sense) as those of Montreal, two hundred miles to the eastward. If the facts, we shall state donot overset these as- sertions, we shall still have another cause for repeating, how imperfect are all the data on which the modern systems of the structure of the earth ave founded. On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. 93 It is the general appearance of some of the porphyroid and syenitic groups which most tends to mislead an enquirer who has a natural bias towards the vulcanian theory and doubtless there are many cases, in which even the most impartial geognost would not only be in extreme doubt, but would at last, probably give up the examina- tion in despair, especially in some of the syenites which bear strong marks of fusible conversion. At Kingston, the syenite range, we have mentioned, is of very little, or scarcely any comparative elevation, above the surrounding strata of calcareous matter, and excepting where sharp vallies have been worn or disrupted for the passage of waters, has every where, a low wave like outline and surface. Its denudation moreover, is extremely limited and it is usually bounded by a vast accumulation of superjacent and decidedly trarsition limestone, the strata of which, from the level of the lake to about the altitude of one hun- dred and twenty feet, vary, in a generally decreasing ratio, from six feet in thickness, to about eight or ten inches, their upper beds, in many instances, being covered, by a fissile shale, very calcareous, but which is converted into a muddy clay by the action of the weather, whilst several of the superior and some of the inferior layers have very thin seams of clay interposed, and a great proportion of all the beds are separated by an extremely fine, black, bituminous looking substance, which is also of the shale kind, and the whole are marked by minute veins of calcareous spar, which often traverse their lon- gitudinal direction, and cause them to assume the aspect of a lami- nar rock. It has been argued, as we have already: noticed, that the transition granitic rocks of the Cataraqui (which are almost every where coy- ered by this hmestone, but whose basis has never yet been seen) from their wave like and rounded surface, from the singular intermin- glement and conjunction which takes place between them and large portions of the limestone strata, and from the particular circumstance of a part of these calcareous beds, dipping from its sides at high angles, was formed by igneous agency under the enormous pressure of the great ocean which, doubtless, once rested over this division of the new world. Avery attentive and zealous observer who has recent- ly made these rocks a favorite study, in conjunction with the writer ‘ of this essay, is so much impressed with this idea, that it would be very difficult to convince him that it may not be the case, notwithstanding the circumstance that the calcareous mass for miles around, and indeed 94 On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqu. almost in every case where it can be observed, excepting in some few instances where it immediately joins the granites, is nearly horizontal- ly stratified, the dip being very small and following the usual direc- tions of similar rocks in the great North American basin.* It ap- pears to me very clear, that if the granites of the Cataraqui were tra- chytic a vast extent of the immense limestone plateaux would have been disturbed by their upheaving, as these granites show themselves very frequently on the eastern shore of the river, in distinct hillocks amongst the calcareous beds. Is it not, therefore, probable, that some of those partial cataclysms and earthquakes which have evi- dently shaken Canada in other localities, may have caused the dis- placement of those limited portions of the transition limestones of Kingston which seem not to follow the general laws: indeed, this ap- peared most likely, when, in opening several extensive quarries, the beds were sometimes found go contorted that it was impossible to ob- serve their original connection with the main body, and this although there was no appearance of any extraordinary upheaving of the sub- jacent rocks. So far, indeed, am I from yet believing that these assertions con- cerning the porphyries and syenites of the Cataraqui are correct, that I feel assured, proofs will be adduced to show that they are contem- porary formations with the black transition limestone, approaching to lucullite, with few visible organic remains, but containing much car- bon and some oxydulous iron; nay, | am even inclined to think, that almost all the granitic aggregates of the country, adjacent to the St. Lawrence, are very highly impregnated with lime, so characteristic with magnesia and titaneous iron, of the transition class. Brupant has made the important observation, that the syenite and porphyry of Schemnitz, Plauen and Guanaxuato effervesce with acids, whilst the really trachytic porphyries of Hungary do not pre- sent the same phenomenon.t It is also now, a well known fact that the presence of felspar in compact limestone is indicative of the rocks of the intermediary for- mation, and this type is no where more easy of access than in the neighborhood of the Cataraqui, whilst in the same locality, horn- * Tam not at all well satisfied that the granites themselves are not stratified, the small uncovered portions recently quarried appear to me to be decidedly so, and it is the opinion of the workmen, that they are. { SausstrE and BrocHanr found mica slate of transition effervesce, and even also a compact quartz, in the Tarentaise. On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. 95 blende, another strong evidence of the age of rocks, appears to have asserted a complete mastery over the micaceous proportion of the more ancient classes, and here may be studied, with considerable precision, the singular struggle that takes place between felspar and amphib- ole in the change of proportions in the elements of the erystallme substances of transition greenstones and sienites. One of the greenstones of the Cataraqui, that hard and unman- ageable rock in which the wells of Pomt Henry have been, with in- finite labor sunk, and which will be hereafter more particularly describ- ed, is, in fact, a rock wherein hornblende, felspar and lime appear to have had a chemical conflict, nor is it yet very clear which of these compounds has at length obtained the victory, as notwithstanding the dark color and amazing hardness of the mass, the slightest blow leaves a very white surface and the whole effervesces almost as high- ly as a compact limestone. The euphotide of Cedar Island, another evidence of the struggle between amphibole and felspar, also yields to the action of an acid.* It yields, however, only slightly, as do all the other varieties of grani- tic aggregates on the same Island. A writer of the Encyclopoedia Metropolitana asserts that the Swed- ish traveller Kaum, found a granite on the banks of the St. Lawrence in which lime occupied a most conspicuous position. Could he have seen the rock of Point Henry, he would indeed have thought so, but it was not then uncovered. The vast deposit of regularly stratified calcareous matter which we have called the limestone of the Cataraqui in connection with granitic aggregates, into which that substance has intruded itself, will offer a field of speculation that may tend to throw new lights on the geological sciences, and when we find that animal remains exist in very close connection with the felspathose portions we have again still further cause to say, that the relative ages of rocks are very far from: being yet well understood. It may be necessary in order to satisfy doubts, before we proceed farther in this interesting subject, which we most sincerely wish may soon be treated by some abler hand, to afford positive data, for the assertion we have made, “that the limestone of the Cataraqui is de- * This serpentinite does not appear to affect the character of serpentine, by the presence of calcareous veins or threads pervading it, no such signs having yet been discovered. 96 On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. cidedly a transition formation,” the more particularly as our chief aim and object is not to found new and presumptuous theories, but to de- velope facts in accordance with the received notions of the geologists of the present day. The inference we have drawn, that this limestone is decidedly a transition rock, of the elder class, is formed on the following circum- stances, which have been collected not hastily, but as the results of long and mature reflection and observations made under favorable op- portunities. In addition to what we have already stated concerning this lime- stone, itis subcrystalline, the nature of this property being rendered discernible chiefly by the glimmering lustre of the points and facets of calcareous spar reflecting light, and it is traversed by small contem- poraneous veins of that mineral. Its grain is exceedingly fine, and the structure compact, the fracture being at the same time splintery and conchoidal. It is translucent at its fine edges and previous to ex- posure to the atmospheric action its color is generally blackish blue, passing, when highly polished, into a deep and beautiful black. Lime, silex, and alumine are its chief component parts, the latter being in such quantity that its upper beds, whenever they are laid bare, turn of a whitish hue, and rapidly change into a tenacious marle. The specific gravity is very low, (2.5) and it is, as already stated, saturated with carbon, and deeply impregnated by oxidulous iron. These types, with its magnetic pyritous iron, in which the arse- nical variety is mingled, and the presence of sulphuret of zinc, par- ticularly of yellow blende,* associated with magnesian calc spar, and magnificent specimens of sulphate of strontian and barytes,} together with the comparative absence of all organic relics, those which are found, being of the oldest genera, and its extraordinary relations to the newer granitic aggregates, and the smallness of its dip, assuredly complete its claim to the character of a limestone, of the elder tran- sition family. * Which has been recently discovered in it by Mr. Baddely, and which is indica- tive of the oldest formation of zine. t By a singular mistake, these beautiful specimens, which are very numerous, have always been called tremolite here, owing to the hasty dictum of a traveller, who should have known better. Their weight caused me to doubt, when I was first shewn them, and analysis soon rectified the error. Tremolite is very rare here. On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. 97 So rare are the vestiges of animated nature, in this vast deposit of calcareous matter, that during a series of three years of constant labor in opening large quarries, but one solitary, although very perfect tri- lobite was discovered, and that in the uppermost bed; whilst all other fossils were nearly as uncommon, terebratule being the only other relics of former ages that were found, and those are generally very scarce, and very minute. Orthoceratites have, indeed, been occasionally observed, but not in the quarries, and it is, as yet, questionable, whether those we have already mentioned in the commencement of this essay, were really in situ, or belonging to transported masses.* One caste of a large shell, so much altered, as not to be recogni- zable, as of any known genus, has lately been obtained, the original matrix, having been filled with lydian stone, or basanite, which is also frequently met with in the shape of little round protuberances. Nearly forty beds of this stone have been laid bare, either in the course of quarrying, or in sinking wells; and it is probable, from observations of denuded bassets, on the slope towards the Lake, that there are upwards of sixty seven more, in a total altitude of one hun- dred and twenty feet above Lake Ontario, some of these layers reaching to the enormous thickness of six feet. It is remarkable that those beds which approach the level of the Lake, or in other words, are the lowest, have the same tendency to a whiter color, and a more argillo-silicious aspect, as those which are near the surface, and which indeed are nearly true shales, so very schistose as to be almost lamellar, and breaking up for pave- ment slabs into fragments of large size, usually of a subpentagonal, or rhomboidal form. This transition limestone we have minutely examined, as far as it is visible, na space contained between the two rivers or streams, * Whilst mentioning trilobites, it may be proper to say, that I have just seen some specimens from Coburgh, a small town between York and Kingston, which were lately found there in quarrying, in a transition limestone, darker, and of a more mar- ble hue than that of Cataraqui. These singular fossils are said to exist there in great abundance, and from those I saw in the hands of an ignorant quarryman, who had injured them very much by careless transport, they will certainly throw new light on that family. Some were extended or flattened, as if crawling, and were furnished with head and eyes, their appearance strongly resembling that of a toad, oth- ers were gibbous; others were actually doubled up, so that the extremities met; and, in short, every variety of position which a soft flexible insect or animal could assume, was exhibited. The eyes were remarkably protuberant. I would have drawn them, mutilated as they were, but the man would not part with them. Vol. XVIII.—No. 1. 13 98 On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. called the greater and the lesser Cataraqut, an area of above four miles in breadth, by the same depth; and it may be said to be per- fectly stratified, with a trifling dip, its layers directing themselves generally, from N. E. to S. W., at a very low angle, perhaps about 25°, and passing directly below the waters of the great Lake, which when it first narrows by the two channels of Long Island, to form the river St. Lawrence, appears as though it had forced its devious course towards the ocean by a general dissolution or disruption of this vast calcareous deposit ; the left bank from Kingston, in descend- ing a few miles, bemg composed chiefly cf denuded granitic aggre- gates, to which broken strata of the limestone are here and there at- tached ; whilst the right bank is composed of the calcareous vestiges themselves, which, as they are on a higher level than those of the other shore, contain more numerous organic remains, particularly large terebratule of a more recent family than those we have men- tioned 5 also erthoceratites, favosites, and the cornua ammonis, some- times very large. In fact, the transition limestones of the Cataraqui, in its upper beds, passes, by slow degrees into a more recent rock.* ‘On the left bank, in the situation already named, and in the im- mediate vicinity of the Town, before the granite first rises to view, the set of the lake has formed some large openings, or bays, and in two of these, the streams called Cataraqui empty themselves. On the shores of the lesser river, a considerable alluvion and diluvium are seated, whilst the lake, from the prevalence of strong south-western gales, constantly brings in large deposits of sand, m which very little, or perhaps no mica is present. At certain seasons of the year, when heavy storms visit the shore, the sand appears finer than usual, and there is an absence of the small rolled pebbles of felspar and quartz, which otherwise generally appear, whilst vast numbers of small spiral and discoidal shells, with those of the large fresh water muscle, are thrown up, together with occasional washings, in particular localities only, of magnetic iron sand, of a deep black color.t —— *