Sab EER ent tml Ma, CO ee St ee See et ee on Dee em, * * ee, Meh BAAR IRR DE RA en 5h BLA AW “~ rey bn 2 yo a, OF ad 2 CMD Re Sk or Ay ld id er ei ce) ae i THE AMERICAN AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, ETC. IN YALE COLLEGE; CORRES- PONDING MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES AND COM- MERCE OF LONDON, MEMBER OF THE ROYAL MINERALOGICAL SOCIETY OF DRESDEN, AND OF VARIOUS LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES IN AMERICA. VOL. I1.....Ne=—2=7.Novemper, 1820. -_-ENTIRE NUMBER, Vi. ¥ NEW-HAVEN: _ PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY ¢, CONVERSE, FOR THE EDITOR. % sa ed Sold by the Publisher and Howe & Spalding, New-Haven; Samuel G. Goodrich, Hartford; Cummings & Hilliard, Boston; Ezekiel Goodale, Hallowel, Maine ; A. T. Goodrich & Co. New-York ; ‘Littell and Henry, Philadelphia ; Caleb Atwater, Circleville, Ohio; Thomas I Ray, Augus- ta, Geo.; Henry Whipple, Salem, Mass. ; Edward J. Coale, Baltimore ; Timothy D. Porter, Columbia, S.C. ; John Mill, Charleston, 5. C.; Mil- an INST TUNES Yer & Hutchins, Froy idence, R. I. j PRE®ACE. AS two volumes of this work are now completed, the public are in a situation to judge how far the execution has corresponded with the original plan. Not a local, but ana- tional undertaking, its leading object is to advance the in- terests of this rising empire, by exciting and concentrating original American effort, both in the sciences, and in the arts, and it may with truth be said, that no Journal was ev- er more fully sustained by original communications. ‘They have been forwarded from our cities, towns and villages, from our academies and colleges, from the East and the West, the North and the South, and even occasionally from other countries, so that the Editor feels himself justified in believing, that this work is regarded as a national Journal. if therefore this view be one which patriotic and honoura- ble men can approve, and if the execution has in any good degree corresponded with the design, it is to be hoped that the American public will not permit the work te languish, for want of pecuniary patronage. This is the on- ly material difficulty which it has encountered, and this is far from being removed. A more extended patronage is in- dispensable to its permanent establishment, and, should it fail on this ground, who can wonder if our national charac- ter should be even more severely (perhaps even more de- servedly) reproached than ever. The Editor, although called upon to sustain the pecunia- ry, as well as the more appropriate responsibilities of the work, is determined not lightly to abandon the undertaking. He will persevere, until it is ascertained, whether the vast American Republic, with ten millions of inhabitants, with wealth scarcely surpassed by that of the most favoured na- tions, and with immensely diversified interests, growing out of those physical resources, which the bounty of God has given us, will permit this effort, devoted to the advancement of its wealth and its power, its honor and its dignity, to be- come abortive, with the gloomy presage that it may be very long before any similar enterprize can be successfully pros- ecuted. Yale College, November 1, 1820. 171109 ee is ye TABLE OF CONTENTS. eee eel Vol. 2.—No. I.—APRIL, 1820.—Enrtire No. V1. TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. Page Arr. I. Account of a journey to the summit of Mount Blanc ; by Dr. Jeremiah Van Renssellaer 1 iI. Account of the Kaatskill Mountains ; ; by a Hen- ry E. Dwight “ - ii WI. On the Prairies and Bamens of ihe West by: Mr. A. Bourne - - 30 FOSSIL ZOOLOGY. IV. Observations on some species of zoophytes, shells, &c. principally fossil, by Thomas Say, (concluded) 34 MEDICAL BOTANY. V.* On the Ergot of Rye, by Dr. William Tully 45. Z MATHEMATICS. VI. Mathematical Problems, with geometrical con- structions and demonstrations, by Professor Theo- dore Strong—(to be continued ) - - - . 54 HARMONICS. VII. On different modes of expressing the magnitudes and relations of Musical Intervals, with some re- * ERRATUM. — In the Text, the Roman Numeral was inadvertently omitted, before this article, and in consequence, the other articles are numbered, erroneously— i.e. Art. V.in the text, should be VI. and so on é CONTENTS. Page marks, in commendation of Professor Fisher’s proportionally tempered Douzeauve, by Mr. John Frarey, senior - - - = - 65 MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. VIII. Abstract and translation of Dr. F. Magendie’s late Publication on Prussic acid, by the Editor, with remarks = - - - - - 81 PHYSICS, MECHANICS, CHEMISTRY, anp Taz ARTS. 1X. Description of a Machine invented by David Bushnell for submarine navigation and for the de- struction of ships of war, with an account of the first attempt with it to destroy some of the British ships lying at New-York, by Charles Griswold, Esq. 94 X. Remarks on ‘the Revolving Steam Engis ab Mo- rey, by Mr. Isaac Doolittle - 101 XI, Mr. Sullivan on the Revolving Steam Engine, in reply to Mr. Doolittle - 106 XII. Observations on the Dry Rot, by Col. George Gibbs - 114 XI. On Heat and ae (first communication) by Mr. Samuel Morey - 118 XIV. On Heat and beh isegond communication) by the same 122 XV. On some curious ‘and ingulor appearances of snow and hail, by the Rev. D. A. Clark - 132 XVI. Remarks on Hans Bere Dust, in reply to Mr. Rafinesque 134 XVII. On the existence of Cau anidih in the Lytta Vittata or Potatoe Fly, by Dr. I. F. Dana 137 INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. 1. American Geological Society = - 139 2. Curious Geological Facts - - 144 3. Professor N. Stith on Fossil bones found in red sand stone - = - - 146 CONTENTS. ae Page 4. Professor Bigelow on the Sea Serpent > 147 5. Revue Encylopédique > = 165 6. Miscellaneous articles of Foreign Iniellivemesc com- municated by Dr. J. W. Webster = 166 7. Curious facts respecting animal poison = 165 8. Map of the heights of Mountains - ee BO. 9. Cabinet of Minerals, for sale = = 169 10. American Cinnabar and Native Lead - 170 11. Means of obtaining Light - rape ibs Ree. i! 12. Troy Lyceum ~ - - 173 13. Fibrous Sulphat of Bases - - 2b. 14. Red Sand Stone formation in North Carolina 175 15. Sidero-graphite - - - - 176 16. Fetid fluor Spar —- - - ab. 17. Effects of Cold on Lake Ci ga - 177 18. Stromnite, a new Mineral - - - ab. 19. German Correspondent - - = 178 20. Exploring Pepediion - - - ab. 21. Mermaid - - - ab. 22. Bubbles blown in ‘pelted Rosin - - 179 23. Effects of temperature on human feeling = - 180 Plates in this Number at the conclusion. 44. Figures to illustrate Strong’s Problems, / 2. Sullivan’s Steam Boat with Morey’s Revolving Engine, J 3. The same. TABLE OF CONTENTS. —— —— Vol. 2.—No. 11—_NOVEMBER, 1820.—Enrire No. VI. GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND TOPOGRAPHY. Page. Art. I. Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c. : of the secondary region of New-York and New-Jer- sey, &c. by James Pierce - - II. Account of a singular position of a Granite Rock, by the Rey. Elias Cornelius - - - 200 HII. Sketches of a tour in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield in Connecticut, with notices of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c. by the Editor - 201 TV. Localities of Minerals, by Professors Dewey, Eaton, Douglas, and Dana, and by the Rev. F.C. Schaeffer, 182 and Dr. I. W. Webster - - 236 V. Account of ancient bones and of some fossil shells found in Ohio, by Caleb Atwater, Esq. - - 242 VI. Geological section from Williamstown, Mass. to Troy, N. Y. on the Hudson, by Professor Dewey - 246 notice of a mineral supposed to be a variety of Wavellite, by the same - ; - 249 VII. Remarks on the environs of Carthage Bridge, near the mouth of the Genesee, by Dr. John I. Bigsby - 250 BOTANY. VIII. Floral Calendar for 1815, 16, 17, 18, and 19, kept at Deerfield, Mass. by Dr. Dennis Cooley - 254 TX. On the indications of a late or early autumn, given by late flowering indigenous plants, by Professor Dewey 255 X. On the manufacture of Sugar from the River Maple, by Dr. John Locke - - - - 258 XI. On the Oriental Chené and the oil which it affords 264 MATHEMATICS. XII. Mathematical Problems, with geometrical constructions and demonstrations, by Professor Theodore Strong 268 CONTENTS. CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS, AND THE ARTS. XIII. Strictures on Dr. E. D. Clark’s. book on the Gas Blow- pipe, by Professor Robert Hare, M. D. - Explanation of the plate - - XIV. Experimental inquiry into the Phenueal properties and economical and medicinal virtues of the common Hop, by Dr. A. W. Ives - - - XV. Account of new Eudiometers, &c. by Protector Robert Hare, M. D. - - - - Explanation of the plate - XVI. Analysis of the New-lersey Ores of Mine: ne M.P. Berthier, Engineer of the Royal Pons of ga (from the Ann. des “Mines) XVII. A new process for Nitrous aes ae ey! Hare XVII. Description of a differential Thermometer, by Pro- fessor W. Howard, M. D. - Heat in the rays of the Moon - XIX. Account of a new Infiammable Air ham, ke Profes- sor Jacob Green - XX. Account of an improvement in ne rie Lamp, by Dr. James Cutbush - XXI. Account of a Gelatinous Meteor, ive Rais Bike. Esq. XXII. On the crystallization of iia by Pipeeet Jacob Green - - - INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. Foreign Literature and Scuence. Page. 281 298 . 302 312 317 Number of books in the German and Prussian libraries—Py- © roligneous acid ; confirmation of its powers—Botanic gar- dens in Austria—Manuscripts of Herculaneum—A new plant with febrifuge powers - - New works, &c. at Leipsic—Artificial substitute ioe the Lithographic stone—New mode of killing animals—Acad- emy of Cadiz—Terrible effects of lightning—Hot water in the streets of Paris - - - - Reduction or enlargement of the size of engravings—Steam navigation—Facilities of conveyance to and from London —Early discovery of the pyroligneous acid - Ancient copy of Homer’s [liad—Heat of a vacuum—Educa- tion in Africa : - - - - 340 CONTENTS. : Page Edinburgh society of arts—Liberality of the king of Den- mark—The root of the Plants a fe palaee rare of the Low Countries 344 Death of Volney—New aikailes Bubb spirit of Cou Ro- manzow—New hydraulic machine—Egyptian society 345 Progress of lithography in Russia—Liberality of the Swedish iron masters—The ex-king of Norway—Lithography in Paris—lIron vessel on the Cly rde—Letters and Journals in Paris and London—Literature of ttaly - - 346 Artificial gum and sugar—Cashmeer goat—Drawing in per- spective—Fine arts in Paris—Canal of Alexandria—Steam boat on the Baltic—Population of Sweden - 347 Transparent pictures—Oil in grape seed—Instruction of Af rica—University of Corfu—Lithographic portraits of dis- tinguished French persons - - - 348 Metallic vegetation—Boracic acid, native - - 349, New method of preparing the purple of Cassius—Fulminating gold—new alkali—Compounds of mercury - - 350 Lignite near Paris—Dr. Donbonyis opinion on the district of Auvergne, &c. 351 Geology of Senitend= Death o M. F. St. Fond—New mineralogical dictionary -——- - - 352 Geological society of London—Origin of amber - 353 Geological Map and Atlas of feet, éc.—Conite—Eme- rald mines - - > 354 Obituary notice of Dr. ie - 355 Red snow of Baftin’s Bay—Breccia of ‘Mont Dor - 356 Poisons—New mode of grafting trees—Phosphoric acid in plants—Rectification of alcohol : - - 358 Hydrophobia—Thermometer—new geometrical work 359 Latent heat of vapours—Boiling point of liquids - 361 Chlorine theory—Specific gravity of the gases - 362 Tode in sponges—Aurum Millium, a new metal—Systema al- garum - - - - - - 363 Astronomical Society of London - - - 364 Gas lights and other improvements in Glasgow - 368 Columbian and other presses—Proceedings of the New-York Lyceum - - - - -- - 366 American Geological Society - - - 372 Pharmaceutical preparations—Sulphate of barytes - ° 373 Carbonat of barytes—Comet of 1819—Oxid of manganese ~ and chromat of iron - - - 3874 Cylinders of snow—Cleaveland’s Mineralocy—Sulphate of magnesia—Hudson association - : = 379 F luoric acid in mica—Remark ~ = - 376 ERRATA. Page 143 line 7 from top, for twenty read one hundred and {4 ce &e (19 ce twenty. 172 line 10 from top, for 4, read }. 264 “ 3 from bottom, for folius read foliis. 266 * 13 in demonstrations omit the final s. 282 “ 6 from bottom, for Dr. Pursh read Dr. Parish.. 338 “ 4 and 14 from top, for spiculz read spicula.* | N. B. The articles of intelligence at page 166 of this volume, were communicated merely as materials to be arranged and digest- ed by the Editor, and not to be published in that form. * 1t was spicula in the MS. +0 QO«-- DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER, Plates at the end. Plate I. Plate I. Plate If. on mathematics. Plate III. on mathematics. Fifth, Professor Hare’s plate on the Blowpipe, &: Sixth, the remaining plate on Eudiometers. cg x TRE AMERICAN | JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. \ —D +e Arr. I. Account of a journey to the summit of Mount Blanc; by Dy. Jenemian Van Rensseuarr, of New- York. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Geneva, July 19, 1819, Dear Sir, { TAKE the liberty to send you a hasty sketch of a short tour that I completed a few days ago, including the Vale of Chamouny—and an ascent to the top of Mount Blanc. As this latter is a journey not often made, and never before by an American traveller, I trust no apology will be thought necessary. As I have suffered much both from heat and cold, and am still labourmg under an affection of the eyes and face, you will excuse such errors as may occur in orthography, wc. As tothe statement, I copy it from notes made on the mount, and soon after my arrival in the Vale. With much respect, I have the honour to be, Yours truly, JEREMIAH VAN RENSSELAER. Returning from Italy by. the grand road of the Simplon, which, more than his victories or reverses, will contribute to the fame of Bonaparte, we enjoyed the scenery of the Vou. H.....No. 1. i 2 "i Account of a journey to the Vallais and the south side of the Lake before arriving at Geneva. We had scarcely finished with the curiosities of the place, when my friend and fellow-traveller, Mr. W. Howard, of Baltimore, proposed a visit to the Vale of Cha- mouny. This delightful valley, the most elevated in Europe, and almost separated from the world, lies 18 leagues S. E. of Geneva—it is 5 leagues long, and 1-2 a league broad, and is covered during the few months of summer, with the most luxuriant vegetation. To the North, rises the chain of Red Needles (Aiquilles Rouges ;) to the South the gigantic mass of Mount Blanc; to the N. E. isthe Col de Balme; and to the S. W. the mountains of Lacha and of Vaudagne. The river Arve, joined by Arvieron, that gushes impetuously from beneath the glacier des Bois, flows rapidly through the length ofthe vale; and receives the tributary streams of the glaciers that increase its size only to augment the volume of the Rhone, into which it pours its accumulated waters. The beauty of the vale, the fertility of its soil, the innocence and simplicity of its habitants, and the simgularity of the land- scape, in which mountains of ice alternate with fields of flowers, have long drawn the attention of Travellers. Each glacier, each needle, each mountain forms a distinet curi- osity, and a whole season might pass pleasantly enough m contemplating nature in her mildest and in her most chilling moods,—for she smiles and frowns alternately on the vale. The most interesting object that strikes the attention, where every thing is worthy of notice, is Mount Blanc. The frozen glaciers, that like feet seem to support its huge mass in the air, while its snow capped summit is Jost m the heavens, form a singular contrast to the green fields in which they rest. Having already visited some of the high- est points of the Appennines, in traversing the ridge as it ex- tends through the Tuscan, the Roman and the Neapolitan States into Sicily, I felt a desire to stand on the lofty mount before me, and mentioned it to my companion. The diffi- culty of the undertaking, the many failures, and the small number of those who have succeeded, seemed at first very discouraging—but we resolved upon the attempt and sent out for guides. These it was not difficult to procure; for _ as the inhabitants considered it a mark of courage and per- severance, it is ever thought an honour to have been on the Summit of Mount Blane. 3 summit, and is mentioned in praise of him who has happily attained the object. It was therefore difficult to choose— but we took, those who had before made the attempt. ‘The women too were to be consulted, for however anxious they might be that their sons should procure the honor, they were loth to let their husbands encounter so many perils. In vain did the guides represent to us the dangers and privations of the undertaking—in vain expatiate on the heat, the cold, the fatigue, and above all on the many failures. We conversed with Balmat and Paccard, the two first who ascended, and having previously agreed with a master guide, appointed the next day for the ascent. At 3 o’clock A. M. on the 11th inst. mass was said for a successful journey and a safe return, and at 5 we commen- ced our way—our guides preceded with the necessary arti- cles and we followed, confident of success. For a league our way laid through ‘fields of grain, and then commenced the woody region that extends double the distance up the mountain. Here we found ourselves at the edge of the Gla- cier Bossons (one of the grandest of the mount,) and for two leagues mounted near to its side. The way was painful and difficult, winding on the mountain side, and crossing streams that pour constantly from the higher regions. We had now ascended 5 leagues, and were about to quit the land; here commenced the region of eternal ice. Balmat, the veteran hero of the hoary mount, who first placed foot on its frozen summit, had thus far accompanied us: his age prevented him from ascending farther, and wishing us a safe return, he retraced our mountain path. Thus ae we had followed a kind of path, but once on the snow, a bleak region extended before us,—no footstep marked the white surface—no sign of life or animation arose to cheer us. Here too commenced the dangers of the way, and we were for-. ced to follow in regular succession :—first went a guide with two long poles to search for crevices, that we might avoid them—then followed a man with an axe to cut foot holes in the ice; then came two who changed with the above, and formed a relief: next followed a man with the ladder— at some little distance I followed tied by a rope round the waist to two guides, one of whom preceded, the other fol- lowed me—and lastly came Mr. H. tied in the same manner to two other guides. Each of the men carried a knapsack 4 ' Account of ajourney to the with provisions, blankets, sheets for a tent, cords, coals, a pan to melt snow in, a-chafingdish, bellows, &c. &c.; and each of us was armed with a pole about 9 feet long,-with a sharp iron spike in the end, to support ourselves and to prevent us from falling.—Our line of march seemed rather formida- ble as we ascended and descended the broken glaciers. We encountered many crevices, some of which were dis- tinctly seen ; others more than half hid by the snow. Oc- casionally masses of ice had sunk, and left the remaining wall rising 40 or 50 feet above us: in such cases it was ne- cessary to search the lowest end of the wall, and ascend by the ladder, or by cutting stepping holes in the side. This however could be attempted only where the wall was not more than 20 feet high, as our ladder was only of that length. Where besides the wall, there was a crevice at the bottom, the ascent was indeed dreadful ; for while crossing agulph that yawned 150 or 200 feet beneath us, we were climbing the ladder placed against the side of ice, where the least slip must have precipitated us to immediate death. Where the sides of the crevice were of equal height, the ladder was laid down, and we then crawled over on all fours. In a few cases it occurred that an arched bridge of snow connected the sides, and here it behoved us to tread lightly and with caution, lest breaking through, we should have sunk into a pit from which it would have been impossible to return. Often frustrated in our course by unforseen crevices and walls, we were forced to make a lengthened march; but at last clambered up a solitary rock that rises from the snow, 8 leagues from the village. It is called the Grand Mulet, and having served several travellers as a rest- ing place, was chosen by us as the only rock on which it was practicable to sleep. It is composed of quartz, and micaceous schist rising in perpendicular lamina 60 or 70 feet above the ice, and 7,800 feet above the level of the sea. A few pieces of schist arranged into a kind of platform af- ford a tolerable resting place for him who is not over fas- tidious on such a journey. On one side rises the sharp Aiguille de Midi, and on the other the Dome de Couté, that seems to soar far above Mt. Blanc. It was yet early in the afternoon, and the sun beat down so powerfully as to render the heat very mconvenient :—occasionally however a cloud of thick mist enveloped us-~it was then extremely chilling ‘Sumnut of Mount Blanc. 5 and uncomfortable. While on the grand Mulet we observ- ed a beautiful butterfly, of the most vivid and brillant col- ours, making its way towards the summit of the mountain. At 6 P.M. Reaumur’s Thermometer stood at 4°,(41° of Fah- renheit) above freezing. With the aid of a blanket, and a sheet placed so as to keep off the wind we formed a tolera- ble tent, and lay down to refresh ourselves. Night soon closed upon us, and rendered our situation still more appall- ing :—the dead silence of darkness was broken only by the groans of the weary, or by the loud thunder of a fallen ava- lanche that roused us from an imperfect sleep. ’ On the 12th at 2 A. M. the guides began to make prepa- rations, and at 3 we resumed our journey—A road had been cut for some distance the evening before, and the snow being hard, we advanced without great fatigue or danger, to the grand Plateau, a distance of 4 leagues : it isa plain, with a more gentle elevation extending about a league towards the summit. Here we rested some time, and one of the guides found himself unable to proceed. We however went on after taking some refreshment: the air was much rarefi- ed, and the sun exceedingly warm. At the end of the Pla- teau began the steepest ascent :—dreadful avalanches that seemed falling with their own weight hung over our way, while fearful chasms yawned beneath us. The elevation was too great to allow us to ascend in a straight line, our path therefore was in a zigzag course towards the top, every step being cut in the ice with a hatchet. The path was so diffieult and the rarefaction of the air so great, that even the stoutest guides could notadvance more than fifteen steps with- out stopping to rest—and Mr. H. found himself so much in- commoded, that we feared he would have to return. © His perseverance enabled him to proceed, and at 11 o’clock we arrived at the petit Mulet, a granitic rock that just shows itself above the snow; here some of the guides beg much fatigued we rested some time. From this rock the ascent is not steep, but very fatiguing, on account of the rarefac- tion of the air—we however reached the summit at half past 12—and stood upon the highest point in Europe. ‘The top is formed by a ridge running N. E. and S. W. about 12 feet above the little plain that lies to the south. As to the depth of snow upon it we are unable to form a conjecture. Bo- naparte, after many fruitless attempts, succeeded in having 6. Account of «journey to the placed here a pyramid 12 feet high. It was visible for three years, but has gradually disappeared, and has not been seen for some years. In the sun the Thermometer was at the freezing point; in the shade 3° of Reaumur below it; (25°, 25 of Fahrenheit.) A bright sun shone onus, through a vault of indigo blue, in which not a spot was obscured by a cloud. ‘To the North, at the distance of nearly 100 miles, rose the black ridge of Jura: farther east, lay the mountains of Underwalden and of Uri;—to the east St. Gothard and the Simplon; St. Bernard and Monte Resa seemed to stand at our side, and Piedmont to stretch at our feet.—A light floating vapour hid from us the vales of Lombardy and of France—On one side the happy valley of Chamouny lay beneath and the little village shone in the smiling plain, be- set with fields and weods ;—on the other the Vale d’Aoste, with her cheerful river, extended her green surface to re- lieve the eye. ‘The glaciers of Bossons, des Bois, d’Argen- tiere and of Tour seemed sliding into the meadows—while the frozen waves of the Mer de glace seemed hushed into a calm,—and the Montanvert, with the needles of Dru, Ge- ant, Charmoy, Midi, &c. showed their splintered pinnacles far below us. We remained an hour and a half on the small plain to the south of the crowning ridge, and here four of our guides laid themselves on the snow and slept for some minutes. We did not feel fatigued, but found our respira- tion much quickened and our pulse greatly accelerated ; this was particularly the case with Mr. Howard who is ofa fuller habit than myself. Though we had provisions, none of us felt an inclination to eat; but our thirst was great, and we found vinegar and water the most refreshing beverage. We fired a pistol three times nearly filled with powder, and well wadded; the report was that of a squib. At 2 we began our descent with an intention to examine the different rocks that broke through the snow. ‘The high- est is about 350 feet below the summit, formed of granitic tables, that lay loose on each other, and of which feldspar is ihe predominant ingredient. The petit Mulet is of the same formation—and I may here add, that, to be minute would only be to give you what has already been printed. The descent was perhaps more fatiguing than the ascent had been, and far more alarming, for we now saw the crev- ices that yawned beneath us; and the reflection ofa bright Summit of Mount Blanc. F sun from the glistening snowalmost prevented us from seeing our path, the least deviation from which would have been inevitable death. Part of one of the avalanches that threat- ened us in our ascent, had already fallen and lay scattered over our path and the part that yet hung suspended above us seemed ready to follow its fallen half. Dreadful indeed was the silence in which, with hurried step, we hastened down the sidehill—F earing to raise a look from the path- way, and scarcely daring to breathe, we arrived near the bottom. ‘The danger being now past, we turned to survey the hanging mass;—the eye was soon satisfied—and in speechless meditation we resumed our way. At the grand Plateau we found the guide who had re- turned—and it was here we discovered that our thermome- ter was broken. It was exceedingly hot, and we rested only a few minutes to gain breath, and refresh ourselves. - Thus far the ice and frozen snow had formed a good path—but the influence of a sun, now more powerful than I ever felt, had melted the snow; and after leaving the Plateau, we sunk every third step, nearly to the waist. It was of no use,to send the guides to break the way, nor to seek a new road—it was immaterial if we followed their track, or made one for ourselves—we still sunk. Our progress was further interrupted by some crevices that we had not seen in the morning—and being wide, with one side higher than the other, our ladder was of no use. At these places we sat on the snow, and slid down so fast as not to break the frail co- vering of the crevice. This was the most fatiguing part of the whole journey, and we were happy once more to climb the steep sides of the Grand Mulet. ‘The sun had set upon the valley, but its rays yet beamed upon our elevated rock —its effects had been severely feli—and though scorching during the day, it seemed in pity to lend its lingering light to shorten the dreariness of the night. Fatigue had nearly lulled us to sleep, when thinking on the last journey of the morrow, some of the guides turned to seethe path by which we had ascended the day before. While yet following its traces they saw part of it lost in an avalanche—a mass had fallen in, and our road was gone. Few and unrefreshing were the hours of our repose—the cold was excessive—and some coals in the chafingdish, kepi constantly enflamed by the bellows, served to keep us from 8 Account of ajourney to the freezing. Our faces pained us almost intolerably—our eyes were so inflamed that we could scarcely distinguish an ob- ject at the distance of a few feet—our fingers and toes were nearly benumbed—and the whole system disordered, not so much from fatigue as from a strange influence of tlieate mosphere. Early on the morning of the 13th we began the labor of ihe last day’s journey. Our path had been partly lost in an avalanche, and partly dissolved in the melting sun of yesterday—and we followed the track of the Chamois, that has never been known to err. With much difficulty could we discern our way, as we were nearly blind—the crape and gogeles we had worn the day before, were now of no avail. We happily quitted the ice soon after the sun shot its first rays on the mountain we had left—having been forty-five hours on the frozen surface. Happy were we all, when arriving again at the woody region, we heard the tinkling of the herd—we reposed a few minutes in the shepherd’s hut—and arrived at Chamouny at 10 o’clock. We went immediataly into a darkened room—and after washing in cream, went to bed, but not to rest. Our eye- lids were glued together, and our faces entirely blistered. When the sun was down, we rose for a few minutes—and again lay down. Our fatigue overcame our pain—and ex- hausted nature sunk to sleep :—we awoke in the morning much refreshed—so that on the 14th we came to Geneva in a darkened carriage. The skin has fallen from our faces, which are now, though raw, much better—the inflammation of the eyes is subsiding, but still troublesome and confines us to the house. The minute and accurate observations of Mons. de Saus- sure have left but little for future travellers. Huis genius for a time seemed to reside in the Alps, and it was his delight to stand in reality or in imagination on those elevated sum- mits from which the world seemed to lie below him. His daring spirit led him to climb the most difficult and danger- our points—and it was on one of these, the Col de Geant, that m 1788, he passed fifteen days in performing a series of physical and meteorological experiments of the most inter- esting nature—at the elevation of 10,578 feet above the sea. His researches on the different summits are of the same kind, and have been found accurate by the test of succeeding Summit of Mount Blanc. 9 observations. Our ascent to the summit of Mount Blanc, then, may be considered a journey of curiosity: but it was our wish to examine the temperature and rarefaction of the atmosphere, to obtain an exact knowledge of glaciers and of the frozen region, and to survey the rocks. Our thermom- eter was broken the second day, when after taking the tempera- ture at the top, we were about to notice it at stated distances on our descent. Our vessels of air from the summit were injured in sliding down the declivities or in wading through the snow.—As to the rocks little can be said of them: the nature of the mountain has long been well known, and it would be useless to enlarge upon the accounts already given. Thus our journey has been of no avail in adding to our knowledge of the rarefaction of air at the top, yet we are satisfied with having made the attempt. It may be ascer- tained by a barometer, which we had not, or by fillmg many vessels, so that some at least might be brought down safe.— This too would allow a portion for analysis—I know not that the attempt has been made. Mons. de Saussure found the absolute height of Mount Blanc to be 14,700 feet: Delue made it 14,346: Prof. Pictet says it is 14,556 : while M. Tralles, who has measur- ed it three times, with the same result makes it 14,793 feet : making its absolute height 5,355 feet less than that of Chim- borazo ; but its relative height is greater, as it rises 11,532 feet above the vale of Chamouny, while Chimborazo is ele- vated only 11,232 feet above the valley of 'Tapia—making a difference of 300 feet relative height. It was in 1760 that M. de Saussure seems first to have thought of measuring Mount Blanc, and offered a reward to the person who should discover a way to the summit. His offers were sufficient to induce many to make the attempt— and for twenty-five years, unsuccessfully. ‘The most impor- tant trials are recorded as follows. , The first attempt was made in 1762 by an inhabitant of Chamouny ; he failed as he only reached the glacier Bossons. In 1775 four men, following the same route, advanced to the mount de la Cole, running parallel to the glacier Bossons. In 1783 three others tried the same path, but were forced to return by a strong desire to sleep, which would have been fatal, if indulged. Vou. L.....Ne. 1. 2 10 Account of a journey, &e. In the same year, M. Bourrit of Geneva was driven back by a snow storm. The following year he was again frus- trated by the violence of cold and fatigue. In,1785 M. de Saussure and M. Bourrit made ible attempt with fifteen guides. They arrived the evening of the second day at the Needle de la Cote, at the elevation of 11,442 feet above the sea: the softness of the snow and their fa- tigue made them return. In 1786 six men made another trial ; but were forced to relinquish the enterprise. One of them, named J. Balmat, wandered from the rest, and passed the night alone on the glacier—in the morning he found himself near the top. He returned and suffered much from an affection of the face and eyes. He was attended by Dr. Paccard, and in grati- tude offered to conduct him to the summit—which he did a few weeks afterwards. They found it extremely cold— their provisions froze in their pockets, and the ink in their inkhorns—they remained only a few minutes, and descend- ed to the village ina shocking condition. Dr. P. had his hands and feet frozen—and Balmat’s face was disfigured for eight days. The same year de Saussure tried again without success. The year following he made another attempt with seventeen guides—and onthe third day of his journey reached the sum- mit. He passed there five hours in making those observa- tions and experiments that have gained him so much and so, deserved reputation. On the fifth day they returned to Chamouny. The next day M. Bourrit made his fourth attempt, but was forced to return. In 1788 he tried again with Mr. Woodley, an English- man, and M. Camper, a Hollander—a storm dispersed the party, but Mons. B. with three guides gained the summit. They descended immediately. Mr. Woodley had his hands and leet frozen—M. Bourrit was forced to use ice applications for thirteen days—the guides suffered from frozen fingers and toes. In 1790 Col. Beaufoy, an English Officer, gained the summit, and returned with the fear of losing his sight—he however recovered. In 1792 four Englishmen undertook the task—but were forced to return—all of them much hurt. One guide had nis leg broken, and another fractured his skull. Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. Li In 1802 Messrs. Forneret and d’Ostern with seven guides gained the top, and declared on their return that nothing could induce them to make another attempt. ; In 1816 Count du Lusy, a Russian, ascended a little above the petit Mulet, but was obliged to return—His feet were so frozen that the skin came off with his stockings ; and he was long forced to use crutches. Two of his guides were frozen nearly to the same degree. In 1817 Count Malazesky, a Pole, gained the top with eleven guides—his nose and ears were frozen. There have been various attempts made by persons who returned after the first or on the second day; such trials have not been recorded. Arr. I]. Account of the Kaatskill Mountains ; by Mr. Henry E. Dwient. TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. _ Dear Sir, THE following description of the Kaatskill Mountains, and of the country in the vicinity, has been delayed much longer than I intended, and is much less perfect than I could Wish. During the last summer I made an excursion to this chain, and examined the prospects and geology for several miles around the lakes. The scenery is in the highest degree beautiful and sublime, and well deserves the best efforts of © the muse and of the pencil. I have been particular in describing the variegated pros- pects which these mountains present, as little or nothing is known of the existence of such scenery, excepting in the immediate vicinity. Few even of those who live within a few hours ride, have curiosity enough to visit it. This scenery, including the numerous cascades, ravines, precipi- ces, and the prospect from the top of this chain, while it af- forded me much more pleasure than a view of the falls of Niagara, awakened emotions not less elevated. Ihave mentioned these mountains to more than fifty per- sons since I visited them, but I have not met with more than 12 Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. five or six who had ever heard of this sublime display of nature’s workmanship. f The cascades which | have described, 1 visited immedi- ately after the heaviest fall of rain that had occurred within the memory of the oldest inhabitant. Some idea can be formed of the quantity of water that fell, when it is known that one — mile north of the village of Kaatskill, a ravine was formed by the water directly through a wood, one hundred and ninety-five feet in breadth, by seventy-nine in depth, for the distance of nearly a furlong; when it united its waters with the Kaatskill creek. As 1 was on the mountain at the time, I took the opportunity to visit these cascades early the next morning, and have described them as they then appeared. Probably they will not appear to those who visit them in the summer season, to be adorned with all the lustre which | they exhibited at this tume, but if seen in the spring, or after a heavy shower, they, with the scenery around them, will produce an effect on the mind of the beholder, which will bid defiance to all description. i With much respect, I am, &c. } HENRY E. DWIGHT. New-Haven, Dee. 20, 1819. Geological and descriptive account of the Kaatskill Moun- tains and of the vicinity. The town of Kaatskill is situated on a creek bearing the same name, one mile from its confluence with the Hudson river. This river is remarkable for the high banks which bound it, exhibiting for 150 miles nothing like an interval. These banks vary in altitude from 20 to 400 feet, pre- senting every variety, from steep hills to perpendicular precipices. Most of this extent, with the exception of the Highlands, is of secondary formation. Between this town and the river, a hill rises to the height of 150 feet, forming the western bank of the stream at this place. The bank is washed by the Hudson during the freshets in the spring, presenting a view of the rocks which compose it. These rocks which are Wacke, vary in appearance, exhibiting a solid and compact mass; again they are stratified,’and often approximate to argillaceous slate. ‘The strata vary from Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. 13 an inclination of a few degrees, to a horizontal position, and have their fissures filled with veins of Carbonate of Lime, of a white colour, translucent, and presenting a fine crystal- ization. The Wacke varies in colour, from light to dark brown, frequently resembling indurated clay. Ascending the hill, veins of Flint, Hornstone and Pitchstone appear on the surface, or in veins in the Wacke. The Pitchstone is of a black and dark green colour, and more abundant than the Flint or Hornstone. \ Petrifactions. On the Kaatskill creek three miles above the town, isa easeade of about 20 feet in height. South of this fall, the rocks which form the bed of the stream, run parallel with the current and are composed of Carbonate of Lime. They are partially composed of petrifactions of the clam, entro- cite, &c. ‘The entrocites vary in length from one to six inches, though they sometimes exceed this. 1 saw imbed- ded in one of the rocks, one of fifteen inches in length. They he on the surface and in an oblique and right angled posi- tion. As these petrifactions are siliceous and the matrix limestone, they rise above the surface, owing to the greater -attrition of the rock. The entrocites commonly appear straight, and resemble vertebrae united to each other. Some- times they assume a twisted appearance, as if struggling to escape when first imbedded. I observed here several pie- ces of Madrepore adhering to the rock, or imbedded in it, weighing from ten to twenty pounds. In these rocks are veins of Flint, of several inches in width, partially covered with crystals of Quartz. ‘The rocks forming the bed of the stream appear to have been rent asunder, leaving cavities of several feet in breadth, and ten in depth, in which, when the stream is very low, most of the water runs. Diamond Hill. * At the termination of Main-Street, on the bank of the creek, is a small elevation called Diamond Hill, from the great number of Quartz crystals found in it. The rocks which compose this hill, bear a strong resemblance to those in the hill between the river and the village, only they are 14 Account of the Kaatskill Mountams. more stratified. In these rocks several feet below the sur- face, are many cavities partially filled with a black mud. In this mud, large quantities of these crystals are found, varying ‘m size froma pipe stem, to several inches in diameter. ‘These crystals are commonly imperfect, presenting a sur- face with several sides polished. ‘They usually have cavi- ties in them, partially filled with mud, probably owing to the particles when ina state of solution, not being near enough to attract each other. Several crystals containing water ina fluid state, have been found in this hill. This water appears in a cavity in the crystal, which is filled with this fluid and air. I have one found here, in which, by changing its position, the air will rise in the tube, causing the water to descend. In number IV. of the “ American Journal of Science” is a description of a crystal of this kind, found in this hill. Professor Dewey who describes it, sup- poses the liquid to be naptha, from the fact that the “ fluid did not freeze.” I have seen several crystals from this hill of this kind, and as far as I could form an opinion from the appearance of the fluid as seen through this transparent me- dium, I have supposed it to be water. As these crystals lie in a black mud several feet below the surface, it would seem improbable that Naptha should have been found mingled with it, particularly as the rocks around it bear a strong re- semblance to argillaceous slate. ‘This oil is rarely if ever found pure, and when pure is usually associated with Car- bonate of Lime. A specimen of this kind- belonging to a friend of mine, when exposed to an atmosphere 6° or 8° below zero of Fahrenheit, congealed. As the water filled most of the cavity, it expanded during congelation, so as to burst the crystal, and the liquid which had every appearance of water evaporated. ‘The fate of the crystal was not known until some time after the evaporation of this fluid. ‘The large crystals are seldom transparent, owing to the mud and riffs beneath the surface. ‘Those of a small size are gene- rally transparent and perfect. ‘The common form is a six- sided Prism, terminated at each end, by a six sided pyra- mid. ‘These crystals are frequently irised, presenting all the colours of the Iris, owing to the fissures under the sur- face. Ihave seen-several specimens of Twin crystals that were found in this hill, united to each other at one of their edges. Account of the Kaatskili Mountams. 15 Between the village and the mountain, the country is al- tered in its appearance. Near the western end of the bridge, which crosses the Kaatskill at the village, a hill rises to the height of 150 feet. The rocks which compose this hill are much more compact than those near the river. They have a dark blue colour and bear a much stronger resemblance totrap. Halfa mile west of this, a ridge of land rises to the height of fifty feet, when the country changes to Carbonate | of Lime. These rocks are compact, and filled with petri- factions of the clam, entrocite, &c. often in so great quanti- ties as to compose one sixth of the rock. On the surface of the Limestone tract, I observed several specimens of red Jasper. Sulphurous Spring. On the bank of the Kaaterskill (in the limestone region which is about four miles in breadth,) there is a sulphurous spring,* which is covered by the stream when the water is high. The water of this spring is so strongly impregnated with sulphur, as to alter the colour of the stream for some distance after its union with it. It has a strong sulphurous taste, several rods below the junction of these waters. Whea the stream is low the atmosphere around the spring is strongly impregnated with the odour of Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas. 1 have been informed that a large piece of native sulphur, was found near this spring a little below the surface. Slate and Sand Stone tract. Two miles from the base of the mountain, the Limestone region terminates. Sand Stone immediately appears. The earth here assumes a more reddish appearance, and cen- tinues of this colour to the mountain. The sand stone ter- minates at the base of the mountain. As you ascend the mountain, Slate begins to appear resting upon the sand stone below, varying in its strata from nearly horizontal to an angle of 30°. It contains too much argil to be useful in building, and after exposure to the air is easily broken. ‘The region * T learned the facts relative to this spring from a Gentleman who had ae visited it. The waters of the stream were so higli as fo prevent my xamining it when I last made an excursion to the Kaatskill Mor intains. He) Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. of Slate continues one third of the ascent, when Sand Stone again appears, resting upon it. The colour of these rocks is a dark varying toa light brown. They are darker and much more conmipact than those near the base. On the peaks of these mountains, are many specimens of Conglom- erate or pudding stone. TL observed a rock of this kind (on the peak north of Round Top,) of half a mile in length, and from eight to ten feet im height, forming an immense band to the mountain. ‘The pebbles imbedded were from the size of a bullet, to that of a six pound shot. There are no Limestone rocks on these mountains. The inhabi- tants have to bring all their lime from below. I saw a speci- men of carbonate of Lime, similar to that near the village, and _. partially filled with petrifactions, several miles west of the conglomerate rock. As it was lying loose in the road, and as the rocks around it were either quartz or sand stone, 1 presume it must have been carried up the mountain by seme of the inhabitants. The scenery of this mountain is probably not surpassed by any in the United States. The narrow glen, the deep. ravine, the lofty precipice and the glittering cascade, com- bining the sublime and beautiful, excite the highest interest in the mind of the spectator. There are two roads leading up the mountain, one through the Kaaterskill clove, the other is cut in a serpentine direction up the side of the mountain. The most interesting ascent is through the clove or cleft in the mountain, which appears to have been formed by some great convulsion of nature. Kaaterskill Clove. This Clove is formed so as to present a descending ra- vine, for five miles in length, in which the Kaaterskill pursues its way from near the top of one of the peaks to the base of the mountain. The road runs on the sides of these mountains, following for several miles the direction of the stream, above which it is elevated from twenty to several hundred feet. After run- ning on the north side of the Kaaterskill for about a mile, it crosses it and rises two hundred feet above the stream.— Standing at this place, as the spectator casts his eye beneath him, he beholds the water forcing its way over a bed of Aecount of the Kaatskill Mountains. Ve: rocks, or obstructed in its course by some rock precipitated from above, rushing around it with great impetuosity, now descending a rapid or precipice with a hoarse thunder, or stealing gently along with an uninterrupted current. On the opposite side of the stream, the rocks rise at an angle of 70° about five hundred feet in height, when they lift “their heads five hundred more, presenting a precipice of salient and reentering angles looking like the rude bastions of a natural fortification. ‘The road for about a mile runs on the south side of the stream, which it then again crosses and continues on or near it, until it reaches the top of the moun- tam. As you turn your eye towards: the east, you behold this ravine five miles in length, bounded by eminences of sev- eral thousand feet in altitude, forming a vista of mountains, peak after peak projecting into it, through which a part of the counties of Greene, Ulster, Dutchess and Columbia ap- pear variegated with hill and dale, their cultivated fields and dark forests adorning the back ground. Western fall of the Kaaterskill. At the termination of this ravine, a short distance from Parmaters, is a cascade of great beauty, formed by the wa- ters of the main branch of the Kaaterskill. ‘This stream is formed by the union of two branches, one rising in two lakes about one and a half miles east of this cascade, the other about half the distance in a ne eal direction. ‘The best view of this fall is from below, the foliage above being so thick asin a great measure to obscure it. Below the fall the banks of the stream, which are nearly three hundred feet in height, rise almost perpendicularly from the surface of the water. I visited it during the last summer, (1819) a few hours after a very heavy rain. In company ‘with ae friend E I descended the bank, which, owing to th shower, was very difficult. The rocks were either loose or Cad with moss, which, wet with the rain, prevented us from obtaining a firm foothold. In man y instances we were saved from a fall of rae feet, by grasping some neighbouring twig, which, if it was not pulled up by the ioe semved at least to stop us till we could discover G&rmer ground. We stationed ourselves near the foot of the fall, where the view amply compensated is for the difficulties Wont TE. Nott. 3 is Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. we had encountered. The stream, which was then fifty feet m breadth, descended in the form of a rapid for some dis- tance above the precipice, when, reaching it, it presented a perpendicular fall of 120 feet; then striking on a rock, which makes an angle of 40°, it rushes down this rock, en- veloping itin foam. The water fell im such a manner as not to strike the precipice, but formed a plane parallel to it. A number of shrubs rooted in the crevices of the rocks which form the precipice, appeared through the fissures of the stream, waving their green foliage with the wind, which was very great, owing to ; the suction through these parallel planes. The rocks on each side of the stream project so as par- tially to eclipse the sides of the fall. They have fallen from time to time, in such a manner as to form seventeen natural steps rising one above another. We stationed our- selves on these steps, to enjoy the scenery around us. Be- fore us the stream fell in a beautiful sheet, exhibiting its transparent waters, when, striking the mclined plane, it rushed down it with headlong fury, bearing on its surface a foam of silvery whiteness. On the right and left, the banks rose over our heads in silent grandeur, as if on the point of detaching their projecting masses into the ravme where we were standing ; while below us the water was visible for about thirty rods, descending in the form of a rapid, when _ bending around the point of ‘a projection of the mountain, it disappeared from our view. The spray was so thick as to make a dense cloud, on which the sun shining with great brilliancy, and being nearly vertical, imprinted a perfect rainbow. ‘This bow, which was not more than eight feet in diameter, formed a circle around us slightly eliptical, near the centre of which we stood. As we approached the fall, the spray thickened, the splendour of the colours increased, and the shrubs, the foo and the water, were tinged aah its choicest ee To complete the view, a nat rivulet, caused by the late rains, fell about two hundred feet, in the form of a cascade, down the precipice, on the southern bank of the stream, displaying its crystal waters through the green foliage which adorned it. We remained here enjoy- ing the prospect for some minutes, when, drenched with spray, we reluctantly bade it adieu, with all those emotions which the sublimity and beauty of such a scene would naturally awaken. Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. 19 Elevation of the Kaatskiull Mountains. These mountains vary in height from 2500 to 3800 feet, as ascertained by Capt. Partridge, who measured them by the barometer. Round Top, which is the highest of these peaks, can be seen much farther, and to the eye appears much higher than Saddle Mountain at Williamstown, which has been often measured, and found to be about 4000 feet im height. View from the Mountains. The view from Round Top, which rises south of the ravine, is superior to that from any part of this chain, com- prising a greater extent, particularly towards the west. f have never climbed this peak, but have often ascended that immediately north of it, and shall describe the prospect from this eminence as it appears in August. Before you, the counties of Greene, Columbia, and Dutchess, expand towards the east, presenting to your view a variegated car- pet, checquered with forests, groves, and orchards, and blooming with all the luxuriance of that season. Beyond them, the states of Massachusetts and Connecticut are spread towards the horizon, till they finally intersect it. Beneath are many undulations, where the vallies and hills, glowig with cultivation, exhibit all the varieties of green and yellow, which an approaching harvest presents to the eye. In the middle of this area, the majestic Hudson rolls its glittering tide for more than one hundred miles, orna- mented with towns, cities, and villas, along its banks, while its bosom is covered by many a vessel, spreading her canvass to the breeze. At the distance of forty miles, Mount Washington “swells from the vale” to the height of 2500 feet. On the south, the Highlands, at a greater distance, lift their peaks to nearly the same elevation above the Hud- son, which rolls between them ; while Saddle Mountain, at Williamstown, at the distance of sixty miles, looks down in proud magnificence upon the vale beneath it. North of this, the Green Mountain range extends for fifty miles, “ Alps rismg on Alps” till they melt away in the horizon, 20 ecount of the Kaatskill Mountams.: where the view is terminated. ‘The diameter from north to south is about 150 miles, embracing the most opulent part of the state. View in a fog. In the autumn, a dense fog commonly arises during the night, from the streams within the view, covering with its misty waves the whole area, excepting the tops of these lofty mountains. ‘The only land visible, is Saddle Moun- tain and the Highlands, each sixty miles, and the Taugh- connoc Mountain, at nearly the same distance. The fog rises about 1500 feet in height, and is gilded by the beams of the morning sun as it appears above the horizon. For an hour after sunrise, the mist is quiescent, exhibiting an almost shoreless ocean, with the tops of these peaks rising above it, like distant islands ina calm at sea. After the sun has risen a few degrees above the horizon, the fog begins to be agitated, and to move in vast undulations towards the heavens, shooting its needles into the atmos- phere, or Trolling its lengthening billows into a thousand figures, presenting a glowing picture of the general deluge. It remains agitated about an hour, when, unfolding its misty mantle, the earth below appears here and there illumined by the rays of the sun. When the fog is dispelled by its beams the landscape unfolds all its beauties, as if it had just sprung into existence at the command of the Creator. Lakes. One mile west of this peak are two lakes, uniting with each other by a small outlet, over which the road passes. These lakes are each of them about three-fourths of a mile in circumference, and are the source of one of the branches of the Kaaterskill. They are, as l have been informed, more than 100 feet deep in the centre, and abound with several kinds of fish. The outlet to these lakes is the commencement of the stream just mentioned, which forces a passage over the rocks. Here it arrives at a precipice about one mile from the south lake, over which with a rapid current it descends, making a beautiful fall of between two and three hundred feet. I have often seen this cascade ~ Account of the Kaatskili Mountains. 21 in the summer season, when the stream is much reduced. The best time to view it is in the spring, when the snows are dissolving, which swelling its size and increasing its current, add much to the beauty of this fall. Eastern fall of the Kaaterskill. I visited this cascade immediately after viewing the west- ern fall on the Kaaterskill, when the column of water was swollen to eight or ten times its common size, and _ shall describe it as it then appeared. ‘The rock over which the water descends, projects in such a manner that the cascade forms part of a parabolic curve. After striking a rock be- low, it runs down an inclined plane a few rods in length, when it rushes over another precipice of one hundred feet. The column of water remained entire for two-thirds the de- scent, and its surface was covered with arich sparkling foam, which, as it fell, presented to the eye a brilliant emanation. Here it was broken, and formed a continued succession of showers. Large globules of water, of a soft, pearly lustre, enriched with a prismatic reflection, shot off in tangents to the curve of the cascade, and being drawn by the attraction of gravitation, united again with the stream. The sun shining through a clear atmosphere, imprinted on it his — glittering rays, appearing like a moving column of transpar- ent snow. ‘The spray rising to the height of several hundred feet, was continually agitated by a strong wind, which gave birth to a number of rainbows. 'They were elevated one above the other, and increased im brilliancy towards the base of the cascade, where, as well as at the lower fall, an ivis spread its arch of glory, tinging the rocks and foliage with its brightest colours. The ground below these cascades continued descending ai an angle of 45°, forming a hollow like an inverted cone, of one thousand feet in depth. This was lined with lofty trees, whose verdant tops, varying from the dark hemlock to the light maple, were bending with the wind. ‘Through this waving forest the cascade appeared at various distances, sparkling with the rays of the sun, and forming a fine con- trast to the sombre rocks which surround it. From this eavity, at the distance of several miles, a peak rose to an elevation of two thousand feet, while the mountains on the 22, Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. right and left, impressed their bold outlmes on the sky be- yond them. The best view of this scene, is a few rods from the base of the lower fall. These cascades are both of them in a direct line, and by standing in this position can be united in one. By raising your eyes, a fall of four hundred feet ap- pears precipitated from the precipices above, apparently ready to overwhelm you, while the rocks above overhang the abyss in wild sublimity, threatening you with destruc- tion. A few years since, I visited this spot in company with a number of gentlemen, and lodged on the mountaim. Sev- eral of our company left us, early in the morning, to hunt the wild game ona neighbouring peak, and agreed to meet us at the fall. They arrived while we were at the foot of the lower cascade, and to apprise us of their approach, dis- charged one of their fowling pieces. ‘The cavity was im- mediately filled with the sound, which resembled the dis- charge of a small cannon. The report went from peak to peak, each one rolling back the thunder ere the last echo had died upon the ear, until having given from ten to twenty distinct reverberations, it passed away, leaving no sound but the roar of the cascade. Column of Ice. The appearance of the upper cascade in the middle of winter, is very interesting. ‘The rock over which the stream descends, projects in such a manner, that the icicles which form in that season, meet with no mterruption in their de- scent towards the base of the fall. ‘I'he water which strikes the rocks below, begins to congeal and rise (between the column of water and the rock,) towards the icicles above. These project towards the base, increasing in magnitude from day to day, while the column from below is ‘ereatly enlarged by the water and the spray, which immediately congealing, in a short time surrounds the stream. A column of ice, resembling a rude cone, of between two and three hundred feet, is thus formed, through the centre of which the stream pours its current, dwindled, by the congelation of its waters, to one-tenth its common size. When illu- mined by the rays of the sun, it presents a transparent /iccount of the Kaatskill Mountams. 23 column glowing with brilliancy, reflecting and refracting its rays in such a manner as to present all the colours of the prism. It remains some weeks, a striking example of the power of hoary frost, when, partly dissolved by the genial warmth of spring, it falls, scattering its thousand fragments on the rocks around it. Stony Clove. About six miles west of this fall is a gap in the mountam, ealled the Stony Clove. This cleft is formed by two moun- tains meeting at their base, and rising so as to form a very acute angle. ‘The passage through it is about one and a half miles in length ; the mountains on each side rising in rugged grandeur, to seven hundred feet. They have de- tached their huge masses into this angle, so as to fill it to the height of many feet. At the termination of this cavity the mountains recede from each other, forming a plane which is filled with water by the melting of the snow, and by the numerous springs which rising in these peaks, pour their waters into it. The Lake which is thus formed is of con- siderable depth, and about half as large as those before men- tioned. On the surface of this lake, a grass is growing with a great number of strong roots, which intersect each other. They are so twisted as to bear the weight of a man. It wanted only a slight display of art to give us a forcible idea of the floating gardens of Mexico. By jumpmg up and down several times upon this grass, it will commence an undulation around you, which motion being continued for a few minutes, will cause an extent of more than an acre to move, like the waves of the sea. Our guide informed us that he visited this lake a few months before with a compan- ion, who, in making this undulation, jumped so high that when he struck the grass, the roots below broke, and let him partly through ito the water. He saved himself by extend- ime hisarms. Hewas rescued by his companion from this situation, rendered peculiarly dangerous by the existence under the water, of a quick mud of great depth, which yields toa slight pressure. This anecdote together with the diffi- culty of reaching the grass, induced us to depart without trying the experiment. This gap in some seasons of the year, is much frequented by wolves and bears, which find 24 — Account of the Kaatskill Mountains, it a safe retreat in consequence of the difficulties of the pas- sage. ‘They have their dens in the caverns formed by the rocks which have been precipitated from the precipices. WVink Pot. On the east branch of the Schoharrie river which rises in these mountains, is arock with a large hole init. This cav- ity is shaped like.a pot, much larger a few inches below than at the rim. It is near the surface of the water, and is over- flowed by it during a freshet. I did not visit it during the few days I passed on the mountain, and shall therefore de- scribe it as I heard it from one who formerly resided on one of the peaks of this chain. It is called by the hunters, “the Mink Pot” from the following circumstance. In the spring the river is so much swollen by the rains, as to fill this cavity with water. The fish of the stream go into this cavity owing to the great depth of water, and when the stream subsides, those of them that happen to be in it are confined until the next freshet. ‘The Minks as soon as the waters have subsided, in order to indulge their appetites, leave their abode among the rocks and come to this pot. As soon as they have arrived, they jump in to prey upon the fish. If they remain after the waters have fallen a few inches below the rim, they are as effectually imprisoned as their prey. ‘The hunters often visit this place to take the minks. ‘This is done by striking them with a small club, as they come up to the surface of the water to breathe. Seve- ral of these animals have, in the course of a few —, been killed in this manner. T'rees. These mountains are covered with trees, which are of different kinds at the base from those on the top of the mountain. As you leave the Hudson, and proceed towards this chain of mountains, the trees which grow spontaneously are principally the black and white oak; the former used for timber, the latter for its bark. Hickory or walnut, ches- nut, butternut and several kinds of pine, are found inter- spersed among the oaks. ‘These seem mdigenous to the soil, but do not grow as abundantly as the oak. On the hills Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. 25 bordering the river, and for some distance back are many cedars of a small size, the soil being usually so thin, as te prevent their taking deep root. Elms, iron-wood, and white birch, and in the swamps a wood called swamp ash, are thinly scattered among the trees before mentioned. Maple, beech and hemlock, do not often grow below the mountain, but as scon as you ascend, these trees make their appear- ance. ‘The two first on the sides of the mountain are more abundant, but as soon as you cross the ridge in the serpen- tine path which leads to the lakes, the evergreens are very numerous. The hemlocks here, and still more on those peaks farther west, are very large, and rise to a great alti- tude. The ‘spruce and the white pime, are visible ina thicket soon after crossing the ridge just mentioned. Around the lakes, and for several miles west of them, a tree which is usually called the Silvery Fur, and sometimes the balsam, is very abundant. ‘This tree is much admired for its beauty, and often procured to adorn the grounds of the opulent. I have never observed any which had the rich silvery lustre, or grew to the same elevation, with those near these bodies of water. The soil appears peculiarly adapted to the growth of these trees, some of which are fifty feet in height. several miles west of the ridge, the evergreens are less frequent, and do not rise toas great an elevation, as those near the bodies of water just mentioned. Stll they appear intermixed with the maple, beech, birch and ash, which rise to a great elevation. Most of the vallies which he be- tween the ridges of these mountains, are covered with hem- lock, with birch, beecli and cherry trees scattered among them. For some distance up the sides of the ridges and peaks, the hemlock continues, but near the top the hard woods are the most numerous. Along the currents of water which are very abundant on these mountains, the hemlock is generally found, and if the peaks (which often rise almost perpendicularly from these streams) aré not very elevated, this tree usually continues to the top of the ascent. The tops of those ridges and peaks which are very elevated, are co- vered with moss and with many thickets of spruces, which are often so dense as to be almost inaccessible. Some large oaks ave found near the tops of the peaks, but at this alti- tude most of the trees are much diminished in their size. West Mors EL... Node 4 26 — Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. of the lakes the hickory, white oak and chesnut, which are abundant on the eastern side of the ridge, are seldom if ever found.* Shrubs. Below the mountain and east of the lakes, the whortle- berry grows in great abundance. West of them they are very rarely if ever found. I ascended the peak near which the lakes are situated, on the first of October, 1816, and found them just beginning to be ripe. ‘The laurel is very frequent on the eastern as well as the western side of the ridge. With this exception, the trees and shrubs which are numerous on the eastern side of thé mountain, are seldom if ever found west of the ridge, nature having drawn this ridge as a boundary or dividing lme between her productions. Strawberries ripen here, about one month later than at the base of the mountain. This fruit is succeeded by the black and red raspberry in great profusion. As soon as these disappear, the high blakberry succeeds them in great abundance. ‘These fruits are indigenous to the soil, always springing up after the woods have been cleared and the trees burned. They are of a fine flavour, having as much sacharine matter as those which grow several thousand feet below. The Juniper berry is in many parts of the moun- tain very abundant. Deer, in the winter season, when the vines and small shrubs are covered with snow, find this their only food. Streams. The principal streams which rise in these mountains, are ihe Kaaterskill and the Schohariekill, which are formed by numerous branches. The former, before it reaches the base of the mountain receiving additions from eight or ten tribu- taries, the latter from as many as twenty. These streams vise within a few miles of each other, the Kaaterskill descen- ding the mountain in an easterly direction and joining the _, For this deseription of the trees and shrubs, I am much indebted to my friend W. W. Edwards Esq. of Hunter, New-York. Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. a4 waters of the Hudson at the village before mentioned. The Schohariekill after descending from this eminence, runs in a northerly direction, and unites with the Mohawk about fifty miles from its confluence with the Hudson. Hence the waters of this stream, which originate within three or four miles of those of the Kaaterskill, run about one hundred and fifty miles before they unite with them in the Hudson. The water composing. these streams, as well as the numerous springs which rise in every part of these mountains, are re- markably pure and pellucid. ‘The sweetness and purity of these fountains cannot escape the observation of the specta- tor. ‘They have the same soft lustre and transparency, that are so strikingly displayed in the waters of Lake George ; and would, if covering as large an extent, present the same brilliant emanation, which the surface of that beautiful sheet of water always exhibits. These mountains, when sailing upon the Hudson, appear to rise in the form of a ridge, and then to descend with nearly as great a declivity. I was much struck the first time I made the ascent, to find that instead of descending im- mediately as I had supposed, they presented a level for some miles, somewhat undulating, with here and there a deep ravine, when a succession of peaks rose one above another, as far as the eye could reach. Along the banks of the Schoharie, are intervals of considerable width, when the hills ascend at an angle of from 3° to 8° for several miles. The low price of these lands, has induced many persons to remove to these mountains, and this level has been laid out into a town called Hunter, which at this time contains from six to seven hundred inhabitants. ‘This land is very luxuri- ant the first year or two after it is cleared, owing to the vegetable mould on the surface. The intervals on the Schoharie, produce good crops and if manured would be very productive. ‘The town which is about 2,060 feet in height, does not exhibit that thrift and improvement which might be expected, as most of the inhabitants spend much of their time in converting their trees into lumber. This is easily effected, as there are more than fifty mill seats in the town, which are supplied sufficiently with water, to run a saw mill most of the year. The peaks of these mountains are covered with snow about one month longer than the lowlands immediately be- 28 Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. neath. The summer is usually a little shorter, and vegeta- tion several weeks later ; but when spring commences, it is more rapid than near the Hudson. ‘The winters are so se- vere, and the frost so late, that peaches and several other fruits which grow luxuriantly near their base, will not ar- rive at perfection at the height of 2,000 feet. The fruits -which grow here, as well as the vegetables and grain, are from three to four weeks later, in coming to perfection, than near the village. The atmosphere of this mountain is very salubrious, as a current is blowing through some of the ravines, or from some of the peaks, ae most of the year. ‘This ventila- tion durmg the months of July and August, renders these mountains a fine retreat from the intense heat which is fre- quently experienced at their base. This salubrity is so great, notwithstanding the intense cold experienced during the winter season, that between J anuary ist, and the 28th of November, there had been but three deaths i in a population of one hundred families. Wild Beasts. These mountains abound with many wild beasts, some of which during the winter season, when they find it difficult to procure foe are dangerous. Bears* are often met with in the wild passes and cloves of the mountains. These an- imals are hunted down by the imhabitants of the town, and only when exasperated, or destitute of food, will they ven- ture to attack a man. Panthers are seldom seen at this time, though a few years since, they were numerous. They are very ferocious, and are not dispatched without great diffi- culty. The inhabitants relate to the stranger who: visits this mountain, such heroic achievements in ‘Panther hunting, as, if true, ought to entitle the victor to such a niche in the temple of fame, as General Putnam acquired by his contest with the wolf. Deer are found here in great numbers, and are hunted at-certain seasons of the year, but they are less aumerous than formerly. To prevent their extermination in this state, the Legislature have enacted. a law, making it a penalty to kill them during the summer months. * The guide who accompanied us to Stony Clove, has, since that time, as Ihave been informed, caught in a trap placed at the entrance of this elove, three bears and a wild eat. 3 Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. 29 Wolves a few years since were very abundant, destroying the sheep of the inhabitants. They are disappearing rapidly, as there is a reward of eighty dollars paid by the state and county for every one killed. Foxes are found here in great numbers, and often hunted with success. Wild cats are not unfrequent, and are often very furious. [na few in- stances the Hedge Hog has been caught, armed with quills of from three to five inches in length. Minks and the mar- tin are found in some parts of the mountain in considerable numbers. These are the principal beasts that are of any ize. Small animals which usually frequent our woods, are found here in abundance. The length of this chain from north to south, is twenty miles, when it turns towards the west, and extends in that direction still farther. As faras these mountains have been explored, they present a rugged surface, peaks msing on peaks in endless succession. Between these heights of land, is usually found a deep ravine, through which some stream fed by the numerous springs in this alevated region, pours its pellucid waters, exhibiting its brillant surface through the gloomy umbrage which surrounds it; or occasionally appearing to view, it gives life and motion to the wild sub- limity which is so strikingly visible in these mountains. The scenery which I have described, may be considered as a fair representation of those parts of this chain, where the foot of man never wandered, and where no eye ever rested, excepting His who “ hung the earth upon nothing,” and adorned it from the stores of his magnificence. The scenery on the Plaaterkill, and that through the clove bear- ing the same name, I have been informed is not inferior in sublimity to that I have described. Many parts of this chain which have been explored by the hunters, are de- scribed by them as exhibiting the bold bluff, the tremendous precipice, and the awful chasm which so strongly mark the sublime. The Botanist would find a rich repast in exploring these mountains, as they abound in medicinal plants and in wild flowers. With the hope that some individual conversant with this science, will ere long explore these os peaks, I will conclude the account of these mountains, already length- ened much beyond my original intention. TS 30 On the Prairies and Barrens of the West. Art. lil. On the Prawries and Barrens of the West ; by Mr. A. Bourne. TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, S&C: Cuitiicotue, (Ohio,) July 30, 1819. Sir, Havin G seen in the second number of the American Journal of Science, an essay on the Prairies and Barrens of the West, by Caleb Atwater Esq. wherein he attempts to prove that the Prairies and Barrens were wholly formed by the agency of water; and in the fourth number of the same Journal some remarks on the origin of Prairies by Mr. R. A. Wells, by which he attempts to prove that the Prairies and Barrens were wholly formed by the agency of fire; I was induced with a view of conciliating these contrary opin- ions, to make a few observations on the situation, varieties, and the probable causes of the formation of natural mead- ows. 1. The salt meadows or marshes, which skirt the tide- waters of the Atlantic Ocean, particularly in the eastern part of Massachusetts, have evidently been formed by the agency of water.—Because they are all nearly level, sloping a very little towards the water, from which their surfaces have but little elevation, wherever they are found. They are covered with a peculiar kind of grass, which is from six to twelve inches high, of a reddish colour and grows very thick; the roots of which, form a very compact turf or sward, and it requires a sharp instrument and considera- ble force to cut it. ‘They are covered by the salt water a few inches deep several times in a year by the spring tides, and this appears to be necessary to their existence, or pe- euliar character: for if the water is kept from them by dykes, the upland grasses take root, the turf moulders away, or loses its tenacity, and in a few years their appearance is completely changed. As the surface of these meadows lies a little above com- mon high-water mark, there is generally a slope of about six feet in two or three rods, to low-water mark; and this } On the Prairies and Barrens of the West. 31 slope is covered with a coarse tall grass called sedge, which requires a partial inundation every tide, or twice in twenty- four hours to bring it to maturity. 2. Adjoining the salt meadows, on the same level, and at the farthest extent which the salt water flows at spring tides, fresh meadows commence, by an almost imperceptible line of distinction; and they generally extend to the upland, but sometimes there is wet ground covered with bushes or a swamp between them and the upland.—These meadows are wet and soft, and few will bear a waggon.— They are some- times found several miles from any salt meadows. or salt water, and generally at the heads of rivers, where the face of the country is level. The general appearance of all these meadows is the same: being covered with wild grass of different kinds from twelve to thirty-six inches high, accor- ding to the quantity of water in the soil of the meadow ; and the more water there is, the coarser and taller the grass will be, until flags and rushes take its place. These meadows are much lower than the upland, and were evidently formed by the agency of water; which has deposited an alluvial soil, composed of the firmer particles’ from the upland, and decayed vegetable substances. If they are drained by a large ditch round them at the foot of the upland and one through the lowest part of them, so that the water from the upland may soon run off; then the same meadows become hard, will produce cultivated grass, and even trees; and will in a few years lose all their former features except their comparatively low and level situations. 3. The Prairies of the Western country seem to me to exhibit the same general appearance as the fresh meadows east of the Alleghany mountains, and evidently were formed in the same manner. The prairies are generally found in the level parts of the country, on the banks of small rivers and creeks, and fre- quently extend to their sources. ‘They are level, generally wet and soft, and are covered with a tall wild grass.—They are much lower than the upland; and when well drained by ‘ditching, they will produce cultivated grasses, grain, and trees; and exhibit every appearance of level upland, except their comparative depression and greater fertility.—The prai- ries of the west are much richer and more productive than 32. On the Prairies and Barrens of the West. the fresh meadows of the east; because the upland near them is richer, consequently the alluvion of the prairies will be deeper and finer ; and the climate is warmer, and more favourable to spontaneous productions. It is not impossible for prairies to be formed on the sides of mountains near their tops, like the glades on the Allegha- ny mountain; because there may be shallow hollows on the sides of mountains, lying nearly parallel to them, and so formed as to contain so much water from rain and the springs above them, that trees will not grow in them; and in pro- cess of time a quantity of alluvial soil from the higher parts of the mountain and from leaves and other vegetable sub- stances will be accumulated in them, so as to reach the sur- face of the water, then particular kinds of grass will grow, and the hollow will exhibit every appearance of a natural meadow. 4, The Barrens, so called from their sterile e appearance, are found on the high plains in the west parts of Ohio and Kentucky, in Indiana, Hlinois and Missouri—They have features in common with the prairies, but are essentially dif- ferent in many respects. They occupy the highest part of the country, and are generally level ; some of them are uneven, but I have seen aone hilly.—They are generally poorer than the timbered land in their vicinity, but some spots in them may be richer. They are spotted with innumerable groves or clusters of stmted oak and hickory trees, of about half the size which the same kind are on the timbered land. The soil is not a recent alluvion like the prairies; and if it isnot primitive, it is at least as old as any other parts of the great western valley. I think it must be evident to every one who will view the barrens attentively, that their present appearance was caused by fires, which have con- sumed the trees and the acorns from which they grow: be- cause many of the trees that are standing are partially burnt, and almost every one that is lying down has been burnt more or less. The surface bemg generally level, the rains make them wet or moist three fourths of the year, and the warm climate urges a spontaneous production of wild grass and weeds somewhat similar te that of the prairies. The fires in the barrens are generally kindled by the Indians for the convenience of travelling over the smooth surface, to enable On the Prairies and Barrens of the West. 33 them to approach game without noise, and also to insure a good crop of grass for the next summer. ‘Fires sometimes escape from the camps of travellers in the dry season, and burn until the r rain or some other cause puts them out. - When the white people settle on the barrens or near them, the Indians recede, fires are seldom seen, a young growth of trees, healthy and vigorous soon springs up, far superior to the stinted growth which the frequent fires have scorched, and the barren assumes the appearance of a tim- bered country.—That the barrens are frequently burned, and that when the burnings cease, a young, vigorous growth of trees soon springs up, are facts which can be attested by the most respectable people in this country. : ‘Small prairies are sometimes found in the barrens, and the prairies near the heads of creeks are so blended with the barrens in many places, that it is difficult to determine where the one ends or the other begins. 5. Whatever may be said by Mr. Atwater or Mr. Wells, to prove that prairies and barrens were formed by the same agent, I shall take the liberty of differing from them both ; for in my humble opinion, the difference in the situation, appearance, and structure of these natural meadows indi- cates in the strongest manner, that they were formed by dif- ferent agents. Mr. Wells says that, “‘where the grass has been prevented from burning by accidental causes, or the prairie has been depastured by large herds of domestic cattle, it will assume in a few years the appearance of a young forest.” If the low wet prairies are not burned, but pastured by cattle, will they become forests? If they are now too wet to produce trees, when were they dry enough to produce them? I say never; and that the same cause that made them prairies will keep them such: but if the water is effectu- ally drained from them, they may produce trees. Mr. Atwater’s views of the Geology of the Western coun- try, I think are hardly tenable ; for he says that the lakes Erie and Michigan once emptied themselves into the Ohio and Mississippi rivers through the Scioto, Miami and Illincis rivers ; that the barrens in Ohio are elevated from fifty to one hundred feet above the level of the Scioto river ; that the whole descent of the Scioto a) be one hundred feet ; Von. II.....No. 1. 5 34 Say on Shells, &e. that the Ohio river in a freshet is on a level with Lake Erie; and that the course of the outlet of the Lakes has been changed by the wearing down of the bed of the Niagara river several hundred feet: but the surface of the water just above the fall of Niagara, by the best modern measurments, is not yet fifty feet lower than the top of the slope near Queenstown, where it is generally supposed the wearing he- gan.—Our citizens express a great anxiety to become the founders of new systems and theories to account for the surprising phenomena which they discover in the structure of the western country. But perhaps it would advance the progress of science and general knowledge as much, to ex- amine facts carefully, and report them to posterity faithfully, without bending and twisting them to prop up imperfect theories. ft am, very respectfully, Asti Your humbe servant, A. BOURNE. FOSSIL ZOOLOGY. aD} Gr Arr. IV. Observations on some Species of Zoophytes, Shells, &¢. principally Fossil, by Tuomas Say, of Phila- delphaa. (Continued from Vol. I. p. 387.) Genus Catenpora, Lam. Coral lapideous, composed of parallel tubes joined to- pa ek te gether in vertical lamine; lamine anastomosing into a net- work. po Species. C. Escharoides, lamarck, millepora.. (Tubipora catenu- daria,) American Acad. vol. 1. p. Tubipora catenulata 9 p ’ Gmel, &e. (Cabinet Acad. Nat. Sciences ; and Peale’s Museum. ) Say on Shells, &c. 325) Fossil in different parts of the U. States, particularly at the falls of the Ohio river and in Ulster County, New-York. From this last locality, Mr. C. W. Peale obtained some fine specimens when digging for bones of the Mastodon.—Has not yet occurred in “the alluvial deposit of New-Jersey. Each tube is divided into numerous cells by transverse septe, precisely as in the Favosite. Mr. Parkinson, in his Organic Remains 2, p. 21. remarks, that minute openings are observable in the sides of the tubes; these are not dis- tinct in the specimen under examination, owing perhaps to its being entirely silecified, though an equivocal appearance justifies “the belief of their having existed ; and if so, the analogy is very strong with the Favosites. A species of Turbinolia is implanted in the specimen under examination. Pentacrinus caput—Meduse. Of this very remarkable and rare animal, a specimen oc- | curs in the collection of the Museum of South Carolina ; it was brought from the Island of Gaudaloupe by Mr. L’Her- menier. This is, 1 believe, the fourth recent specimen known, of this family of extinct animals: of the two other individuals one is in the French, and the others in British collections. The well known fossil amimal supposed to be of this fam- ily, so common near Huntsville and in some parts of Ken- tucky, and which has been figured and described by Par- kinson, cannot be properly arranged under either of the genera. ‘These vary in form and size. I have seen four very distinct varieties, but it is possible they may have be- longed to different paris of the same pedicel. Although this fossil is familiar to the observation of Natur- alists, yet it does not appear that any particular name has been appropriated to it, or that it has been assigned to any definitive place in the systems. From its peculiar appearance, persons who have not de- voted their attention, to the affinities of natural objects, have . regarded it as a petrified nut or Althea bud, and from the ambiguity of its characters, or the obliteration of its sculp- ture, naturalists have hesitated to indicate its family, or kin- dred generic group. Parkinson is the first author who has figured and descri- bed this animal remain. He refers it to the genus Ener- 36 7 Say on Shells, &c. nus under the name of Kentucky Asiterial fossil, but at the same time and subsequently, he expresses himself doubtful- ly, as to the propriety of that arrangement. His specimens were not so perfect as to exhibit the basal articulating radii, and the sutures and ossicule were perhaps obliterated, as they were unnoticed. The examination of numerous specimens, in the collee- tion of the Academy of Natural Sciences, collected by Mr. Samuel Hazard, near Huntsville, affords me an opportunity to corroborate the correctness of that arrangement. But I am induced to believe, notwithstanding the imper- fection of our knowledge of these animals, that the genus, as it now stands, needs the reforming hand of the system- atist, that it isin reality a natural family, including several perfectly distinct genera of many species, the individuals of some of which, as their remains testify, were immensely multiplied im the ancient world. Actuated by this conviction, | submit to the decision of Naturalists, thre propriety of separating the asterial fossil, from the genus De ne as the type of a distinet genus, tader the following name and characters. Genus Pentreimite. Body subglobular or oblong, elevated upon an articulated trunk ; pelvis (Parkinson) pentagonal, more or less abruptly attenuated to the base; ambulacra (Lam.) five, incomplete, radiating from the summit and terminating each side at the angles of the pentagon, each with numerous transverse strie, a longitudinal indented line, two sutures, and numerous transversed impressed lines, which alternate with a marginal series of oblique pores; interstitial spaces (included be- tween the ambulacra) triangular, e equal, with a longitudinal suture ; apex perforated by five rounded for amina, and an angulated central one 3 ossa innominata (Park.) large, rhom- bic. Trunx branched? cylindrical, articulated, elongated ; segments perforated, articulating surfaces with alternately elevated and depressed radii. A transient view of the superior portion of this reliquium, presents a considerable resemblance to the Echinun, by the apicial foramina, and oo the radiatmg ambulacra which are somewhat similar to a ntapetalous lower. But an atten- Say on Shells, &c. 237 tive examination of its characters, exhibits its inseparable connection with the family of Encrinites by the analogy of its mode of support, its rectilmear sutures, and the general form of its pelvis or basal portion. To the base is generally attached, the single superior joint of the trunk or vertebral column ; this joint is short, and is longitudinally divided by three sutures, which radiate from a central foramen; its inferior articulating surface is orbicular, with numerous marginal radi, and the centre ex- hibits the opening of the foramen; at its junction with the ossa innominata itis somewhat trilobate. ‘The ossa innomi- nata are of a rhomboidal form, sometimes pentagonal or subquadrate. ‘The pelvis has the same general form with that of the Encrinus liluformis, but the angles of the penta- gon are much more acute, and those parts which Parkinson denominates ribs, clavicles and seapule are not distinct. From the superior angle of each of the ossicule of the base, a suture ascends, bisecting each of the interstitial spa- ces, and is divaricated near the tip, so as to give to those triangular spaces, arhombric termination. Each of the five outer foramine, (of which one is mvariably much the lar- gest) is the common aperture of two tubes which penetrate to the tips of the ambulacra, immediately beneath the su- tures of those parts, and which are not visible but by dis- section ; the central foramen is stellate. The peculiar adaptation of these various parts to each other, may have permitted their independent movement, in order that the animal might assume some form of expan-. sion; but we are led to suppose that this motion could not have been very considerable, from the relative situation of the sutures. And I may further add, that, as we have no direct proof that this animal did possess the power of ex- panding, it may be, that the motion of its body was confined to the protrusion of tentacula through the foramina, and per- haps smaller ones through the pores of the Ambulacre. This question, however, must remain for the solution of future observers, who may have an opportunity to examine them in situ, and of comparing together their different frag- ments which may be discovered. All the specimens which I have seen, about sixty in number, are in a perfectly similar collapsed state. 38 Say on Shells, &c. The several different appearances exhibited by specimens of the Pentremite may be thus defined— . ist. Pelvis abrubtly attenuated, nearly horizontal— Length from seven tenths to’ more than half an ineh. Kentucky Asterial fossil, Park. Org. Rem. vol. 2, pl. 13. _ This is the most common. 2d. Body oblong ; pelvis gradually attenuated ; transverse elevated lines of the ambulacra, grooved— Length from three fourths to one inch and one fourth. 3d. Body subglobular ; pelvis hardly more attenuated than the superior portion— Length about one inch— Less common than the preceding ones. In Peale’s Museum a large specimen of the latter is pre- served, of which the sutures, have each a parallel impressed line on each side; this specimen was brought from England by Mr. Reubens Peale, he was informed that it was found in the vicinity of Bath, but the fact is very equivocal. A specimen of the second variety is in the collection of Mr. B. Say ; it was presented to him several years ago un- der the name of petrified althea bud, and was dug up ina garden in the borough of Reading, Pennsylvania. Mr. Z. Collins informed me that this fossil has been noticed and figured, by Dr. S. L. Mitchell, of New-York, as an Echinus “of the family (genus) Galerite, and also as an asterite. See his geological observations in the New-York edition of Cuvier’s theory as translated by Jameson p. 363, pl. 8. This figure mdicates the above first variety. Renilla Americana, Is very common on the coast of Georgia and E. Florida, cast a by the waves. Perna torte, This large species of fossil Perna has been discovered at Upper Marlborough, in the state of Maryland, by Mr. J. Gilliams of this city. The hinge portion is very entire, but the anterior part, is more or less broken off, as is the case with those found in Europe and like them the substance of the shell is in a tolerable state of preservation, not having Say on Shells, &c. 39 undergone much apparent change, excepting that the lamel- lary increments are readily popaante and very friable, the epidermis also is wanting. Ti is the same species of shell as that described and figur- ed by Collini in his Journal p. 10, pl. 6. fig. 1. under the name of Ostrewm polyleptoginglimum ; ; and also anonymous- ly, by Parkinson Organ. Rem. vol. 3, pl. The teeth of one specimen, in the possession of the Academy of Natural Sciences, are obsolete. Collini. says, it is often perforated by sea insects ; our specimens are also penetrated, but the cavities are formed by an ampullaceous Pholas, which in reality may be the same as those which that author alludes to, by the term sea insects ; it may be thus named and described. Pholas ovalis. Tube equal, entire and rounded at base, and gradually attenuated towards the anterior termination. Shell subo- vate, dehiscent ; valves with crowded, acute, elevated, trans- verse lines, somewhat decussate with longitudinal slightly indented ones, a more conspicuous, longitudinal, indented line before the middle, posterior basal margin smooth ; within equal, the posterior basal margin distinguished by a slight undulation. ‘This is not, strictly speaking, a Pholas, inasmuch as it is included in a tube; but in other respects it corresponds very well with the species of that genus, as far as I canjudge from incomplete specimens, not having seen the accessory valves. It will not agree with Teredina Lam. as its valves are concealed by the tube ; by which character it is assim- lated to Fistulana, but from this genus also, it is distinguish- able, by the form of its valves, and most probably, by being destitute of the anterior, crustaceous, branchial appendages or valvules, though it is proper to observe that the anterior extremities of the tubes (which contain these parts in fistu- lana, teredo, &c.) are deficient in my specimens of P. ovalis. In the somewhat compact earth which was included be- tween two fragments of the valves of the abovementioned Perna, were a Tew interesting shells, some of which are per- fectly firm and entire, others, although to all appearance similarly circumstanced, are extremely friable, and even 40 : Say on Shells, &c. fatiscent. Amongst these I recognized a Crepidula, which differs from any | have seen, but is too imperfect to be de- scribed. A portion of an cbtusely rugose incrassated, Ser- pula. A Pecten which does not appear to have attained to its complete growth. A small laminated Cytherea, Lam. a Fissurella allied to F. greca, but immature. A Turri- tella, and fragments of a Balanus of considerable size, seve- ral specimens of a Nucula and of a Calyptraca. ‘The two latter may be described as follows. Nueula obliqua, valves obliquely subtriangular, obsoletely striate transversely, one or two of the strie more conspicu- ous, numerous, har dly perceptible longitudinal strie ; ante- rior and posterior sides forming an acute angle ; wmbo ob- tuse 5 apex acute 5 teeth angulated, prominent, cavity at the apex of the hinge profound, rather long ; basal margin den- ticulatocrenate. Greatest length one fifth of an inch.— Very much resembles Arca nucleus Lin. but is a smaller species, and proportionally narrower towards the apex, the hinge teeth are also more prominent and the cavity at the apex of the hinge is proportionally larger. Calyptrea costata, oval, convex, with numerous slightly elevated, equal equidistant coste, and crowded obtuse, con- centric lines, which are regularly undulated by the coste ; apex mamillated inclining to one side; ner valve pate- liform, dilated, attached by one side to the side of the shell, acutely angulated at the anterior junction, and rounded at the posterior junction, and rapidly tapering to an acute tip, which corresponds with the inner apex of the shell. Length nearly one inch— Seems to approach, in its characters to the genus Infundib- ulum of Montf. but from the fatiscent state of the specimens, this cannot be acurately determined. No definite spiral su- ture is perceptible. Genus Baculites, Lam. Shells straight, cylindrical, compressed, slightly conic, divided within into transverse septa, which are sinuous or ramose on their margins’and pierced with a siphunculus ; siphunculus at one extremity of the longest transverse di- ameter. Say on Shells, &e. : 44 Species. 1. B, ovata, elongated ; transverse septa subovate, sixlo- bed and a smaller one behind ; lobes of the superior faces of the septa, three on each side, with a minute one between each, dentated at their edges, anterior lobe, (nearest the siphuncle) small not sinuous, second lobe with a single pro- jection each side and sinus at tip, third lobe dilated, with a small sinus each side and more obtuse and profound one at tip, posterior lobe hardly larger than the lateral intermedi- ate ones. Greatest diameter of the transverse section one inch and one fifth, smaller diameter seven tenths; length of the seg- ment about half an inch. The specimen is in the collection of Mr. Reuben Haines of this city, it was found on the Neversink hills, in Mon- mouth County, New-Jersey, it is a cast of three very entire segments, no vestige of the shell remaining. ‘The dimen- sions are taken from the largest segment. In point of form this species approaches B. nerhebini dig am. particularly in the curvature of the transverse section, but it is somewhat more obtuse behind ; another difference consists in the form of the lobes, which, in that species, as represented by Mr. Desmarest, are less symmetrical, des- titute of the lateral processes and of the profound terminal sinus ; that species also. is very diminutive. 2. B, compressa, elongated, much compressed ; transverse septa oblong-oval narrowed to each end; odes dilated, dentated on their edges, each with from three to five si- nuses each side and a very profound one at tip. This description is taken from two fragments in the col- lection of the Academy of Natural Sciences, which were brought from the Missouri, one by Messrs. Lewis and Clark and the other by Mr. Thomas Nuttall. As they exhibit the appearance of having been violently compressed by fortu- itous circumstances, I have not been able to obtain correct proportional dimensions of the species. But notwithstand- ing this distortion of form, I have much confidence in placing it next in specific affinity to B. Knorriana, Desm. as it has without doubt been naturally a much compressed shell, with the lateral edges not very unlike those of that large and re- Vor. Ii.....No. 1. 6 42 Say on Shells, &e. markable species; from which, however, it is sufficiently distinct by the much developed form of the lobes. In these specimens a considerable portion of the shel! remains exhibiting its beautiful iridescent colours. Mr. Nuttall gave me the followimg account of this species. It occurs in the ancient alluvium of the Missouri, or clay formation, reposing adventitiously on the chalk stratum of this region, and imbedded in the indurated shistose beds, amidst other shells, and in the beds which overlie more or less intimately the Xylanthrax or Surturbrand; they are gradually and regularly acuminated through a length of twelve or eighteen inches, being from three to four inches broad at the base and diminishing to less than half an inch, but a perfect apex or base has not yet been discovered.— They are of frequent occurrence, washed out on the banks of the river, from White river of the Missouri to the Man- dans, but at the same time, locally and not uniformly dis- tributed. Genus Ostrea. O. convera, Oval, inequivalve ; inferior valve remarkably convex, with a longitudial indented line on one side, slight . ly auriculated, or rather, angulated each side of the hinge, a longitudinal, transversely wrinkled depression, each side before the hinge ; ligament cavity oval, placed beneath the apex ; supertor valve suborbicular, flat or somewhat con- cave, radicated from the apex to the periphery, annual in- crements strongly marked; hinge each side before with transverse ruge. Length of the convex valve nearly three inches, breadth ‘wo and an half—depth about two inches. Cabinet of the Acad. Nat. Sciences. A perfect specimen was found by Mr. 8. Wetherill near Burlington, N. J. Thave since obtained a ferrugmated one at Mulliger Hill in the same state. Itis remarkable for the great convexity of one of its valves and by the angles each side of the hinge.—It closely approaches to the genus Gry- “phea ; the lower valve is even proportionably more convex than that of 4nomia gryphea, and is also furnished with the indented line or lateral lobe as in that shell, but the umbo 1s not prominent, the superior valve is as operculiform as that Say on Shells, &c. 43 of the shell abovementioned, and indeed, with the exception of the less elevated umbo, it is almost as closely related to Gryphea as the G. dilatata of Sowerby. Genus Exogyra. Shell inequivalve, equilateral ; cicatrix one, large, deep- ly impressed, subcentral ; inferior valve convex, attached, umbo spiral, spire lateral, prominent, hinge with two parallel, transverse grooves; superior valve discoidal operculiform, umbo not prominent, revolving spirally within the margin, hinge with a single groove on the edge. EE. costata, apex lateral, with about two volutions ; infe- suor valve convex, costate, transversely corrugated, coste of the disk somewhat dichotomous, sometimes fornicated ; within, a single profound cicatrix placed rather nearer to the inner side; hange with two nearly parallel, profoundly excavated grooves, of which the inner one is shortest, and corrugated ; superior valve flat, slightly concave, destitute of coste, outer half exhibiting the increments, outer edge ab- ruptly reflected from the imferior surface to the superior, but not elevated above it; hinge with a single groove on the edge ; cicatrix profound. Length four inches, breadth three and a half—Cabinet of the Acad. of Nat. Sciences.—Peale’s Museum. This interesting shell is the largest and most perfect of its class, which has yet been found in the Ancient Alluvial deposit of New-Jersey. It is not uncommon. I have seen many specimens. ‘They vary somewhat in the coste, being sometimes almost antiquated, sometimes nearly smooth. The aged shells became extremely thick and ponderous. It seems to differ from the genus Gryphea by having been attached, and by the lateral situation of the spire ; the hinge grooves also are parallel with the edge, so as to be transverse with respect to the shell, bearing some resem- blance to those of some species of Chama. Genus Terebratula. T. plicata, suborbicular, convex, ten or twelve profound, longitudinal plice, the two middle ones of the siphunculated valve, slightly more elevated, and the corresponding ones 44 Say on Shells, &c. of the opposite valve, slightly more depressed ; two or three more conspicuous incremental lines are continued so as to cross the projecting face of the siphunculated hinge margin, which is but slightly prominent. Cabinet of the Acad. Nat. Sciences. This handsome species was found in the New-Jersey Al- luvium by Mr. 8. Wetherill of Burlingion. ‘The folds are somewhat similar to those. of Plicatula plicata. It resem- bles the T’. crumena of Sowerby, in the form of its folds, and in their extending to the beak, but the middle of the front is very slightly elevated, with but two folds, mstead of three as in the crumena, the sides also have two or more folds, in- stead of four or more, and the beak is not very prominent. Belemnites. These are often found in the New-Jersey Alluvium, sometimes entirely changed into chrystalized blue iron earth, (Hydrate of iron, of Judge Cooper.) Ammonite. A species of this genus was found in the abovementioned locality by Mr. Wetherill. It approaches nearest to 7. ele- gans of Sowerby, but l have not seen a specimen sufficiently entire to determine its species with exactness. Dentalhium. A species has been found in New-Jersey, near Mulliger hill, by Mr. A. Jessup, which seems to approach nearest to D. sulcatus, but as it has only about sixteen equal coste it is more than probably a new species. Turritella. A species of this genus was found by the same gentleman with the preceding, in plenty. It approaches very closely to the 7’. conoidea of Sowerby and is most probaly the same species. ! I have seen several redintrigrate fossils from the New- Jersey Alluvium, amongst which I may mention a Cucullaea, Medical Botany. 45 Lam. which in general form resembles C. Glabra, length about one inch and three fourths, breadth rather more ; an Arca, about one inch wide; a Terebratula which seems te approach nearest to 7. ornithocephala, Sowerby ; a large species of T'erebratula resembling the F’. ovoides of the same author, excepting that it is very slightly truncated be- fore. 1 found at Mulliger hill a Watica much changed by the ferruginous matter so abundant in that region ; length nine tenths of an inch; and also a somewhat distorted im- pression of a Mytillus. Specimens of Turbinolia, Lam. often occur in different situations. MEDICAL BOTANY. —<+e=—. On the Ergot of Rye, by Dr. Wiuuiam Toy, 2 Jiddle- town, Connecticut. TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &e. Dear Sir, i SEND you the following Essay, for publication in your Journal, not so much from my own judgment, as at the suggestion of Professor Ives, to whom it was read a short time since. As the regular and scientific employment of the Clavus, in medicine, originated exclusively with American Practi- tioners, and has so nearly superseded the use of the Forceps and Vectis, in obstetrical practice, that they are not now necessary in one case out of a hundred, in which they were formerly employed ; and as most of the information, which has been laid before the public, respecting the article in question, is in disjointed fragments, and dispersed through various distinct works, it was thought, that a digested sum- mary of what appears to be well founded, with respect to one of the greatest medical discoveries of the age, could not but be acceptable to the public. As this sketch is not entirely medical, it seemed more proper, for a work devoted to science in general, than to 46 Medical Botany. one exclusively confined to Physic ; and as your Journal includes Materia-medica within its plan, and is, in all prob- ability, more extensively known in our own and foreign countries, than any other American periodical publication, I take the liberty of forwarding it to you. Yours Sir, very respectfully, &c. WILLIAM TULLY. SCLEROTIUM-CLAVUS. Decand. Clavus-Secalis-Cerealis, Clavus-Secalinus, Mater-Seca- lis, Secale-cornutum, Secale-corniculatum, Secale-luxurians. Horned-Rye, Spurred-Rye, Ergot of Rye, Mother of Rye. Ord. nat. Fungi Lin. Europe, United States. This article is parasitic within the glumes of some of the Granuna, most commonly of Secale-Cereale, but frequently of Triticum-satiwwum, Hordeum-vulgare, and Avena-Satwa. It is more rarely found upon Titicum-repens, Avena-elatior, Alopecurus-pratensis, Arundo-Cinnoides, Festuca-fiutans, Phalaris-Canariensis, Lolium-temulentum, Phleum-pra- tense, &c. There have been three distinct opinions, respecting the origin and nature of the Clavus. First. It is affirmed to be a morbid change, or modifica- tion of the seed of the plant, upon which it is found. This has been supported by the assertion of Teissier, that he found seeds, one half of which were sound rye, and the other half Clavus ; and by the assertion of others, that in Chemical composition, it approximates nearer to the seeds of the plants upon which it is found, than to any other vege- table substance. As to the statement of Teissier, it is to be remarked, that, as no one but himself has ever witnessed such a fact, it is highly probable, that he may have been incorrect in his ob- servations ; but admitting that he was not, the phenomenon in question, is nothing more than sometimes happens, with respect to some unequivocal examples of Fungi, that grow among seeds; as for example, the smut upon an ear of Zea-Mays. ‘The conclusion from analysis will be found to have but little more weight, when it is recollected, that the composition of the seeds of the different plants, upon which Medical Botany. A it is found, is considerably various, and especially, that its own proximate principles, differ from every thing hitherto obtamed from the vegetable kingdem. The second opinion is, that the Clavus is an excrescence produced by the sting, and deposition of the eggs of an insect. : As there is no analogy in any respect, between this arti- cle, and such excrescences as are demonstrably occasioned _ by insects, this opinion must have originated from the fact, that the Clavus is occasionally found to be eaten by minute worms, and that small Jarve of insects, have been detected in it, which on being preserved, afterwards hatched into moths, or butterflies. ‘These occurrences are however too rare to establish the hypothesis, to which they seem to have given rise, and our inevitable conclusion must be, that they are only accidental. The third, (and only opinion which appears to be well supported,) is that the Clavus is a parasitic Fungus, like the different sorts of blight, smut, &c. The correctness of this appears to me, to be fully estab- lished, by the following considerations. First. This article has, exactly, all the physical charac- ters, such as colours, form, taste, smell, &c. and even the casualties incident to Sclerotium, a genus of Fungi. This genus consists of small solid fungous bodies, of a rounded, oval, or elongated form, their interior substance hard, occa- sionally almost as much so, as wood, sometimes a litle fleshy, always white or inclining to white; the outer skin in an early stage, is smooth, in a more advanced one often a little wrinkled, usually black, sometimes of a dingy pur- ple, seldom yellow, or white, in several species, covered by a peculiar kind of dust, or efflorescence, of the same colour ~ as the surface. Second. It has, like the several species of Sclerotium, an appointed place of growth. Some of these, as we are in- formed, are subterraneous, on the roots of mosses, or in the mass of tan, in bark-beds, in close damp places screened from the light, as under moss heaps, or upon the surface of the ground under the droppings of cattle, on the nerves of cabbages stored under ground, upon the leaves and branches of plants that are beginning to decay, on the fading foliage of trees, on the rind of living fruits, on the receptacle of com- 48 JMedical Botany. pound flowers, on the interior of fistular twigs, on the living leaf growing from under the epidemis, and (if the Clavus be admitted to belong to the genus,) from within, or near to the germen in the Gramina, and developed in the place of thatorgan. Ail this diversity of situation is similar to that of many other Fungz. Third. It does not affect the general health of the plant upon which it grows, which is more remarkably the fact, with respect to the genus Sclerotium, than of any other pare- sites, as all the species, except S. Cyparissie, are developed, only after the plant has done flowering, or when it tends to decay. ; : Fourth. The Clavus, like other parasitic Mung, is strictly ' topical, as one or more seeds in the same ear, may be com- pletely destroyed by it, and the rest remain perfectly in their natural condition. Fifth. The progress of the growth, and the maturity of the Clavus, like other parasitic Fungz, has no correspon- dence with that of the plant, or any part of it, on which it is found. ’ Sixth. The Clavus is not peculiar to one plant, but is found on a considerable variety, that differ very widely from each other. This is true of other parasitic Fungi, and it completely overthrows the opinion, that itis merely a morbid change of the seed, as it would be incredible, nay indeed impossible, that individual seeds, so diverse as those of Se- cale, Alopecurus, Arundo, Festuca, Phalaris, Lolium, Phle- um, &c. should be converted into the same article. Seventh. Increased humidity favours the production of Clavus, as it is said to do, of all the species of Sclerotiwm ; but neither Clavus, nor any Sclerotium, can be produced, by any degree of artificial humidity. In addition Clavus, and al! the Sclerotewms, abound more in certain districts, than in others, though external circumstances are equally favourable for their production. Eighth. The Clavus, like other Fungi of a soft substance when young, whose seeds are commonly developed in a position, that does not admit of complete and free expan- sion, has the curious property of moulding itself in some measure, to the surface of the obstacle which presents itself. Ninth. The chemical composition of the Clavus, as far as the subject has been investigated, seems to correspond Medical Botany. 49 more nearly to that of the Fung, than to any other class of vegetables. Ht Re Tenth. The Clavus is said to be so like S. compactum- and S. stercorartum, that its analogy can hardly be denied, by any, who have seen them together. Eleventh. The Abbe Fontana is said to have planted in his garden, a number of grains of wheat and rye, and upon the top of each to have placed several grains of Clavus. The result was a crop, in which both the wheat and rye, were infested with Clavus. 'This has been considered an evidence of the contagious nature of Clavus ; but does it not rather prove propagation by seeds; for Decandolle in- forms us, that, contrary to the opinions of 'Tode and Per- soon, Sclerotium should be ranked between Elvella and Clavaria, as belonging to that group which have external organs of reproduction, and not internal ones, as in Truffle, to which it has been approximated. Indeed the difference of Sclerotium and Clavaria, are said to be so slight, as to occasion difficulty in characterizing them. The Clavus, as it commonly appears, is externally of a violet colour, and internally white. Its form is cylindrical, tapering at the two extremities, occasionally straight, but generally curved somewhat into the shape of a crescent, in most instances with a longitudinal groove both upen the con- vex and concave side, though sometimes destitute of it on one, or even both sides. Its dimensions are from four to twelve lines in length, and from two to three in diameter. Its flavour is, at first, imperceptible, but after some time, it is disagreeable, nauseous, and sub-acrid. If chewed for a considerable while, it produces a sense of fullaess in the throat. | A grain of it cut transversely and viewed through a micro- scope, is said to present an assemblage of small and brilliant grains like starch.. The external and coloured pellicle, seen under similar circumstances, appears as a mass of a violet colour, strewed with small whitish spots. When a grain is inflamed, by contact with a lighted can- dle, it burns with a white flame, distilling some drops of an oily liquid, emitting a dense black smoke, and smelling like burnt bread. Willdenow speaks of two varieties of Clavus, the first of which he denominates sumple, and describes as of a pale Vou. IT.....No. 1. 50 Medical Botany. violet upon the out side, and as whitish and mealy within, without any smell or taste. The second he calls malignant, and affirms, that it is externally dark violet, blue, or black- ish; and internally of a bluish grey colour, a fetid smell and a sharp pungent taste. He supposes the latter to be active upon the human sys- tem, and the former inert. From the best chemical analysis it appears that this arti- cle contains First. A pale or fawn yellow-colouring matter, soluble in alcohol, and tasting like fish-oil. Second. A white oily matter, of a sweetish taste, which is very abundant. Third. A violet colouring matter, of the same shade as orchil, but differing from it, by betag insoluble in alcohol, and easily applicable, to aluminated wool, and silk. Fourth. An acid, probably the Phosphoric. Fifth. A vegeto-animal matter, very abundant, and prone to putrefaction, yielding much thick oil, and ammonia, by distillation. Sixth. A small quantity of free ammonia, which can be obtained at the temperature of boiling water. This article, when taken in substance into the stomach, in moderately large doses, occasions nausea; and even a scruple, or a drachm, has produced vomiting, but without quickening the peristaltic motion of the alimentary canal. Very large quantities have Crean’ head-ache, and tem- porary febrile symptoms. Its most prominent effect tare is its direct action up- on the wterus, producing and increasing contractions, when there is a predisposition to action, in that organ, and re- storing the catamenial secretion, when obstructed. It must therefore be ranked in the Materia-medica as a Partus- accelerator, and as an Emmenagogue. The cases in which it is indicated as a Partus-accelerator, are— First. In the early stages of pregnancy, when abortion has become inevitable, uterine contractions are feeble, and heemorrhage considerable, so that it has become important to abridge ‘the sufferings, and lessen the danger of the pa- tient. Second. In cases of alarming hoemorrhage, near the close of the period of utero-gestation, not occasioned by attach- Medical Botany. | 51 ment of the placenta over the os-uteri, and not accompanied by efficient contractions. Third. In puerperal convulsions, in which action is mor- bid, and misplaced, and speedy delivery becomes neces- sary. Fourth. In lingering labour, connected either with the death of the child, or owing to a cessation of contraction, the os-utert being sufficiently dilated, and the other soft parts properly relaxed. This is its most important use, as it is here capable, in all cases, of superseding the employment both of the forceps and vectis, instruments, which, previous to the discovery of the powers of the Clavus, were not un- frequently necessary, but could seldom be used without some injury, either to the mother, or child, and usually to both. Fifth. In retention of the placenta, from deficency of con- traction, it is in general, if not always, capable of superse- ding the introduction of the hand. Sixth. In subjects liable to hoemorrhage after delivery, from laxity and-deficiency of contraction, this effect may be entirely prevented by the exhibition of a suitable quantity of the Clavus fifteen or thirty minutes previous to the time, when the labour would otherwise have terminated sponta- neously. Seventh. It may even be employed with advantage after delivery, to restrain the heemorrhage, and moderate the ex- cessive lochial eee which results from laxity, and de- bility. - In too early a stage of labour, before the os-uterz is suffi- ciently dilated, and when there is much rigidity of the other soft parts, or when there is any maleconformation, or a pre- sentation that requires changing, the Clavus seldom pro- duces any benefit, but in general, greatly increases the suf- ferings of the Tmober retards her ultimate recovery, and most commonly causes the death of the child. As a Partus-accelerator, the substance in powder, or bet- ter the infusion or decoction, in the quantity of ten grains, to an ounce of water, may be exhibited every ten minutes, till its effect is produced. It sometimes, though very rarely, proves inoperative, but not oftener than twenty-five grains of jalap fail of purging, or eight grains of Tartrate of Antimony fail of vomiting. 52, Medical Botany. Indeed, so certain is this article in its operation, that all or- dinary cathartics and emetics, in their customary doses, much more frequently prove inert. Its effect is generally speedy, sometimes taking place, in as short a time as ten minutes, and seldom later than thirty. The uterine con- tractions produced by it, are commonly powerful, and inces- sant, and almost convulsive, and by an experienced prac- titioner, may always be distinguished from such as are spon- taneous. In doses of two or three grains, combined with a little opium, it is said, that 1t may be so managed, as to pro- duce the interrupted pains of regular labour. If given after a full dose of opium, it is liable to fail of producing any ef- fect. As an Emmenagogue, the Clavus is not equally effica- cious, convenient, and unfailing. In reference to this ef- fect, the substance in powder, the infusion, decoction, and - tincture have all been recommended, but here likewise, in- fusion and decoction seem to claim the preference. The quantity of the Clavus necessary to be taken daily, in Ame- norrhea, varies from two drachms, to an ounce; and this often requires to be continued for some weeks. In these cases, it commonly produces some unpleasant effects upon the stomach, and occasionally head-ache, increased heat of the body, and pain in the hypogastric region. On the whole, I am inclined to think, it will not be likely to come imto repute, for this purpose. We are informed, that some instances of hysterra have very suddenly yielded to this article, but are ignorant of the circumstances of the cases, without a knowledge of which, no precept can be laid down. As relates to the medical history of this article, it appears, both from printed authority and traditional information, that some general and indefinite knowledge of the medicinal pro- perties of the Clavus, has been, from time immemorial, in the possession of a few old women, and empyrical practi- tioners, in England, some other parts of Europe, and even in the United States. In France, as early as 1774, it seems to have been used with considerable judgment; by some female practitioners, and probably as early as. 1747, by a regular Dutch Accou- cheur. ‘lhe subject however, was in all probability, man- aged with the customary mystery of the times, and when Medicai Botany. 5a brought to light, at a subsequent period, it seems to have been viewed, as a remnant of the credulity of an ignorant, and superstitious age. As it was reserved however, for the illustrious Jenner to investigate and promulgate to the world, the important discovery of Vaccination, so it has fallen to the lot of our countryman Dr. Stearns, first to search into, and ascertain by experiment: to reduce to scientific form, and make public the powers of the Clavus, and at the same time, to prescribe the true restrictions, and limitations, which should always regulate its use ;—a Spend which, next to Vaccination, may be regarded as the greatest of the present age, in the science ae Medicine. With respect to the poisonous qualities of the Clavus, and its power of producing malignant and epidemic diseases, there seems to be no foundation, for such opinions. The quantity taken with bread, must of necessity be so small, it must be diffused in such a quantity of flour, and so changed by the panary fermentation, as to become completely inert. Besides, it must have been eaten, from time immemorial, as well since, as before the occurrence of the diseases, that have been attributed to it, whilst their appearance has been so rare, as to cause them to be looked upon as phenomena. In this country, the Clavus seems always to have been abundant, and till of late, there has been no suspicion of its imparting deleterious qualities to bread. Even here, the diseases which have been ascribed to it, have occurred as frequently, prevailed as extensively, and proved as mortal, im parts, in which perhing:! but Maize and Wheat are used for bread. The fact that epidemic causes have never been satisfac- torily investigated, has left an unbounded field for conjec- ture and hypothesis ; and, unfortunately for the credit of the human understanding, the one in question, is not the most absurd. Vide New-York Medical Repository, 1807. Uhh s Dispensetory.— New-England Journal passim.—Prescott’s Dissertation.—Decandolle in Brande’s Journal of Science and the Arts.—Vauguelin in Do. es ak s Duncan’s Dispensatory. 54 Strong’s Problems. MATHEMATICS. == +o Art. V. Mathematical Problems, with Geometrical Con- structions and Demonstrations, by Professor THropore Strone, of Hamilton College. [For the figures, see the annexed Plate.] Prosiem I. "| HROUGH three given points which are not in thi same straight line, to describe a circle. Let A, B, C (fig. 1. pl. 1.) be the three given points which are not in the same straight line, it is required to de- scribe a circle the circumference of which shall pass through these points. Construction. Join AB, BC, and AC. Then ABC is a triangle. Describe a circle about this triangle. (Sim. Eucl. IV. 5.) Then will the circumference of this circle pass through the points A, B, C._—Q. E. I. Prosuem II. Let there be three straight lines, which are not all parallel to each other, and do not cut each other in the same point, given, it is required to describe a circle, such that it shall touch each of them. sae Let AC, BC, BH, (Lig. 2.) be three given straight lines which are not all parallel to each other, and which do not cut each other in the same point, it is required to describe a circle such that it shall touch each of them. Const. Let AC, BC, produced if necessary, meet in C; and also CBand BHin B. Bisect the angle ACB by the straight line CD, and also the angle CBH by the straight line BD. Let them meet in D. From the pomt D draw DG, at right angles to BC, DF at right angles to AC, and DE at right angles to BH. From D as a centre, with ra- dius DF, describe the circle EF'G, which shall be the circle - required. Strong’s Problems. : Demonstration. Because the angle FCD = angle GCD and the angle DF =angle DGC, and DC is common to both the triangles DFC, DGC, the straight line DF — straight line DG. In like manner it may be shewn that DG=DE. Therefore a circle described from D as cen- tre with DF as radius will pass through the three points 1, F, G. And it is manifest also that it touches the lines BH, AC, CB, in those points, since the radii DE, DG, DF are severally perpendicular to the lines BH, BC, CA.-Q. ELL. Prosuem IIf. Given two points and a straight line in position, the points not being on opposite sides of the line ; it is required to describe a circle the circumference of which shall pass through the two given points, and touch the given line. — Case I. When one of the given points is in the given straight line. / Const. Let AB (Fig. 3.) be the given straight line, C the given point in AB, and D the other given point.—Join DC, and through C draw CE at right angles to AB. At the point D in the line DC, make the angle CDE = the an- gle DCE. Then the side DE = side CE. Therefore a cir- cle described from E. as a centre with radius DE, will pass through C, and D. And it will likewise ‘touch the line AB, this line being perpendicular to the radius CE. Case II. When the straight line joining the two given points is parallel to the given straight line. Const. Let AB, (Fig. 4.) be the given straight line, and C, D, the two given points. Join CD; and bisect CD in F. From F draw FE, at right anglestoCD. Let FE ex- tended cut ABin E. Through C, D, E describe a circle, which shall be the circle required. Demonst. For Jom ED, and EC. Because the angles EFC, EFD are equal, and CF = FD and FE is common, the angle FCE — angle FDE. But the angle FCE — alternate angle CEA. Therefore CEA = CDE. Therefore AB touches the circle CDE in the point E. (Eucl. III. 22.) Case HI. When the straight line joining the two given points is oblique io the given line. Const. Jom CD (Mig. 5.) and let CD produced meet AB in B. Take BE = a mean proportional between BD and BC. 56 Strong’s IPPoblents. Through the points C, D, E, describe the circle CDE, which shall be the circle required. Demons. For since BE: = mean proportional between BD and BC, BE:-= BD. BC. Now since the circle passes through the points C, D, E,and BD. BC = BE”, the straight line BA touches the circle. (Euc. IT. 37.) Q. ELL. Cor. to Case I. Ifthe point D should fall in EC pro- duced, bisect the distance between the two points, and the proof is as before. Prosuem [V. Let two straight lines and a point which does not lie at the intersection of those lines, be given in position, it is re- quired to describe a circle through the given point to touch _ the two given straight lines. Case 1. + When the given point lies in one of the given straight lines. wi Construction. Let AB, AC be the given straight lines, and D the given point in one of the lines. Let the lines produced if necessa- ry meet at A. Bisect the angle BAC by the straight line AE.3 Through D draw DE at right an- gles to AC, cutting the bisecting line in E. From E as centre with ED as radius describe a circle: which shall be the circle required. —For draw EF at right angles to AB. Demons. The angle FAE = angle DAE and angle AFE = angle ADE and the side AE is common to both the triangles AFE, ADE. Therefore EF —ED. There- fore a circle described from E as centre with ED as radius, will pass through F. Now EF and ED are at right angles to AB and AC. ‘Therefore the circle touches AB and AC in F and D. And (by Const.) it passes through D.—Q. Deas & : Case I. When the point is upon neither of the lines. Const. Let AB, AC (Fig. 6.) be the given straight Imes, and D the given point. Let AB, AC, produced if necessary, meet in A. Bisect the angle BAC by the straight line AK. Strong’s Problems. 5% Through D draw DE at right angles to AE. Produce DE until EF = ED. Through the points D, F’, describe a cir- cle to touch the line AB.* And this shall be the circle re- quired. : Demons. For suppose the circle EGH to touch the le AB in the point G, '‘Yhrough G draw Gh at right angles to AB, and cutting the Ime AE in L. Because GL is drawn at right angles to the tangent AB, it passes through the cen- tre, and since AE bisects the chord I'D at right angles it likewise passes through the centre. 1, must therefore be the eentre. From L. draw LH perpendicular to AK. Now, since angle LAG — angle LAH, and the angle AGL = an- gle LHA, and Al is common to both triangles, LG = LH, The circle, therefore, passes through the point H. And since LH is at right angles io AC, the circle FGH touches the line AC. But (by Construction) it touches AB, and passes through the point D; FGH is therefore the circle required. Q@ EL. Prospiem V. Tt is required through two given points to describe a cir- cle which shall touch a circle, given in position and magni- tude. Case 1. When one of the given points is in the circum- ference of the given circle and the other either within or without the given circle. Const. Let AB (Fig.7.) be the given circle, B the point in the circumference, and C, (or C-) the point without (or within) the given circle.—It is required to describe a circle such, that it shall pass through the points B, C (B, C’) and touch the given circle. Jom BC. Bisect BC nn D. Take F, the centre of the circle AB. Join BF. Through D, draw DE at right angles to CB, meeting BF produced in E. Join CE, and with E as centre, and radius BE, describe the circle CB ; then will CB be the circle required. Demonstration. Because CD = DB, and the angle CDE ==angle BDE, and DE is common to both the triangles CDE, BDE, CE — BE. Therefore the circle described from E as centre, with radius BE. passes through C. Itis also manifest * Problem I. Vou. Il.....No. 1. g 58 _ Strong’s Problems, that it touches the given circle. For draw LX touching the given circle in the pomt B. Then FB will be at right angles to LX. Now LX being at right angles to BE at the pot B, which is in the circumference of the circle CBM, must touch this circle at that point. ‘Therefore since both circles, AB, CBM, touch LX at the same point B, they must touch each other at that point. In like manner by using the letters C:, D-, E:, &c. for C, D, E, &c., the demonstration will apply to the case, where the point is within the circle. Case II. When the two points are either without or with- in the given circle at unequal distances from the centre. Const. Let ABD (Fig. 8.) be the given circle, and C, E, the two poimts without the circle. It is required to describe a circle through those points which shall touch the given cir- cle—Take any point X within (or X- without) the given circle which is not in the same straight line with CE. And through the points C, E, X, describe a circle.-—(Prob. I.) - Let this circle cut the given circle in the points B, D. Join BD; and through the points C, E, draw CE meeting BD ex- tended in F. Through F, draw FA, touching ABD in A. (E. ILI. 17.) : Demonst. Because the straight line FD cuts the circle ABD, and the straight line F'A touches it, FD. FB=FA?. But FD. FB = FC. FE. Therefore FC. FE = FA?. Let therefore, a circle be described through (Prob. I.) C, E, A. —Now this circle meeting FA in A, and FC, FE equaling FA?; FA must bea tangent to CAE, at the point A. Since, ilrerefore, both the circles, ABD, CAE, touch the straight line F'A at the point A, they must touch each other at that ot. » In like manner, by using, C:, E:, &c. for C, E, &c. this demonstration is applicable to the case where the Lypigl are within the given circle. Case [11. When the two points are either within or without the given circle at equal distances from the centre. Construction. Let AB (Fig. 9.) be the given circle, and C, D, the given points without (or C-, D-, within) the given cirele at equal distances from the eeatve: Join CD, ORL HD. Bisect CD in E,and jom EH. Let EH cut the cir- cumference of the given circle in A. Through the points A, Strong’s Problems. 59 C, D, describe the circle ACD, which shall be the circle required. Through A draw FG perpendicular to EH. Demons. Because CE = ED, HC = HD and HE is common to the triangles HED, HEC, the angles CEH, DEH are equal, being opposite equal sides. Therefore HE is perpendicular to DC. Now because CD is a chord in the circle CAD and is bisected at right angles by AE, AE passes through the centre of the circle. But FG is at right angles to EA, and EA passes through the centre of the cir- cle CDA ; therefore FG touches the circle CDA in the point A. "But (by Const.) FG touches the circle AB in the point A. ‘Therefore the circles CDA, AB, touch each other at the point A.—Q. E. I. In like manner by using the letters C-, D-, &c. for C, D, &c. the above demonstration is applicable to the case where the points are within the circle at equal distances from the centre. Scholium. As CD, GF are both at right angles to EH they are parallel to each other. Therefore the construction in Case II, failing, Case III is necessary. Note I. When one of the points is within the circle and the other without, the problem becomes impossible ; for then the circle which passes through those points will cut the given circle, which is against the Hypothesis. Note II. All the cases of this problem (except the first) admit of two polanons> 3 as is manifest from the above con- struction. Prosiem VI.. It is required to describe a circle to touch two given straight lines and a given circle. Case I. When the two given straight lines are parallel and the given circle lies between them, or cuts one or both of them. Const. Let AB, CD (Fig. 10.) be the two given straight lines, and MI the given circle. Draw EF’ parallel to AB and distant from it, by a line = radius of the given circle. Draw also GH parallel to CD and ata like distance from CD. It is here to be noted that if EF fall between the given lines GH must likewise. Through Q the centre of the given circle describe the circle QNS touching EF, GH in N, 8, 60 - Strong’s Problems. respectively.—Jom ON. Let ON cut AB in L. Then with O as centre and OL as radius, describe a circle KLP ; which shall be the circle required. i Demons. For ON by the nature of the tangent is per- pendicular to EF, and therefore to AB, which is parallel to EF. Now since XPL passes through L, and ALO isa right angle, XPL must touch AB in the point L. In like manner it may be proved to touch CD in P. But it like- wise touches the given circle. For, join QO the centres of the two circles. Then OQ and ON being radii of the circle QNS are equal. Suppose the lme QO to meet the given circle in X. Then (by Const.) QX == NL. Therefore OL =OX. Hence the circle LP passes through X. And if at the point X a perpendicular were erected, it would be a tangent to both cireles at the same point X. The cireles therefore touch each other at the point X. Wherefore XP is the circle required. Case Il. When the two given straight lines mtersect ‘each other, and the cirele is given in any position. Construction. Let AB, CD (Fig. 11.) be the given straight lines and SN the given circle. It is required to describe a circle to touch AB, CD, and the given circle. Draw EO, OG, parallel to the two given lines and respectively distant from them by a line = radius of the given circle.—Let N be the centre of the given circle. Through N describe a circle NZ touching the lines EO, OG in the points F, F' ; of which circle let M be the centre. JomMF. Let MF eut AB in X. Then from M as centre with radius MX, describe a circle. And this shall be the circle required.— Join MN intersecting the circle SV in 8. Demonst. For NM, MF being radii of the same circle are equal. But NS = XF (by Const.) therefore SM = MX. Therefore the circle MW passes through the point S. Now MXF being perpendicular to KO, and EO being parallel to AB, it is likewise perpendicular to AB. There- fore AB isa tangent to the circle SXW.. In hke manner we may prove that CD touches SXW. Now, if from the point S a perpendicular be drawn to NM, it will be a tangent to both circles at the same point. Therefore the circles SXW, SV touch each other in S, whence SXW is the circle re- uired. ; By using NM-+NS for MN—SN and MX+XF for MX—XI", the above demonstration is applicable where Sirong’s Problems. 61 the required circle is to circumscribe the given circle. See Fig. 12. Note. In case I. where the given lines are parallel, if the given circle and one of the given lines be on opposite Sales of the other line, then the Prablem becomes impos- sible. Progiem VIL. To draw a straight line touching two circles given in mag- nitude and position. Case 1. When the touching line does not pass between their centres. Const. Let AF, BC (fig. 13.) be the two given circles, Join their centres. Take CE = AB—BD, if AC> BD, and with CE radius and € (the centre of the given circle AF) centre, describe the circle EX. From D. fine centre of the other circle, draw DE touching the circle EX in E. Join CE, and produce CE until it meet the circle AF in the point A. Atthe point A draw the tangent AB and pro- duce it to the circle BG. Then shall the line AB likewise touch the circle BG. Demonstration. For, ED being a tangent to the circle EX, the line CE drawn from the centre to the point of con- tact will be at right angles to ED.—F or the same reason | EC produced is at right angles to AB. Therefore ED, AB are parallel. BD, therefore, being drawn from the centre D perpendicular to AB; ABDE will be a parallelogram, and KA, BD will be equal. But EA = radius of the circle BG. Therefore BD equaling radius of circle BG, the point 5 falls in the circumference of BG. And AB is at right angles to BH the radius of the circle BC in B. AB must therefore! be a tangent to the circle BG in the point B. But AB is likewise a tangent to the circle AF in A, (by Const.) therefore AB is the tangent required. Case I. When the touching line passes between the centres of the two given circles. Const. Let the two circles (Figo. 14.) be AB, DE.— From O the centre of the circle DE, draw OF = radius - ercle AB-+ radius circle DE, and with OF as radius describe the circle GF. From € the centre of the circle AB draw CF touching FG in some point as F. Let the line joining 62 : Strong’s Problems. O, F cut the circle DE in D. From D draw DA parallel toFC. From C draw CA parallel to OF and let it cut DA produced in A. Then will DA be the tangent re- quired. Demonstration. For because CF touches the circle FG and from O the centre of FG, OF is drawn to the point of contact, the angle OFC is aright angle. But DA is paral- lel to FC and is therefore perpendicular to OF. Hence it touches DE. And AC being parallel to DF is at right an- gles to DA. : Moreover the figure ACF'D is a parallelogram, and there- fore AC=DF. But DF =radius of the circle AB.— Therefore A is in the circumference of AB. Now, the an- gle DAC has been proved a right angle. Wherefore DA touches the circle AB in the point A. But it likewise touches the circle ED. AD is therefore the tangent re- quired.— Q. E. I. Cor. to Case I. When the circles become equal, that is, when BD = AE, EC disappears. And BA is manifestly parallel to DC the line joining the centre of the two circles. Cor. to Case I]. When the circles become equal, that is, when OD = AC, OF — 20D, therefore OC = 20X, X being in the middle of the line OC. Note. That this problem is impossible in both Cases, when one circle lies wholly within the other; in Case IJ, when one circle cuts the other. Prosuem VIII. It is required to find a pomt, from which any straight lines being drawn, cutting two circles given in magnitude and position shall cut off similar segments. Case I. When the point does not fail between the twe circles. Const.* Let BD and PE (fig. 15.) be the two circles. Draw BPA touching the circles in B and P (Prob. VII. Case I.) and produce this tangent, to meet FG (which joins the centres of the given circles) in some pointas A. From * Both the cases of this Problem admit ef avery simple construction, which is independent ofthe 7th. A line joining the extremities of any twe radii drawn parallel to each other, will intersect the line Joiming the centres (produced, in Case I.) in the point required. —Edit. Strong’s Problems. 63 A draw any line AC, cutting the circles in C, H, N, O. The segments CBH, NPO are similar, and likewise the remain- ing segments CDH, NEO. Demonst. For draw FB, GP to the points of contact of the tangent, and they will be perpendicular to it and conse- quently parallel to each other; draw also FC, FH, GN, GO. And suppose the line AC cuts BF, PG in Q, R. Now BF, PG being parallel, the triangles ABF, APG, as also the triangles AQF, ARG are similar. Whence— AQ:AK:: QF: RG, and AQ: AK: : QB: PR. There- fore QF: RG:: QB: PR; alternately QF :BQ:: RG: PR; by Comp. FB: QF: : PG: RG, that is, FH: QF:: GO: GR; (substituting for FB and PG ther equals FH and GO.) Now the angles FHQ, GOR are each of them less than aright angle (standing on arcs less than a semi- circle) wherefore (Eucl. VI. 7) the angles FQH and GRO being equal, the triangles FQH, GRO are similar, and the angles QFH, RGO are equal. In like manner it may be shown that the angles CFQ, RGN are equal. Whence the angle CKH = angle NGO. Therefore their halves CDH, NEO will likewise be equal. Therefore the segments CDH, NEO are similar, and likewise the segments CBH, NPO. (Euc. Def. B. 3.) Wherefore A is the point required. Case II. When the point falls within the two circles. Fig. 16. Const. Let AFN, HBK, be the two given cir- cles. Draw (Prob. 7. C. 2.) the tangent BA cutting the line DE (which join the centres of the given circles) mm ©. Then will C be the point required. Demonst. For through C, draw any line FCH, cutting the circlesin F, G, H, I. Joi EA, DB, which being per- pendicular to AB, are parallel to each other. ‘The angles LCE, DCM being vertical are equal. For the same reason ACL. = angle MCB. Therefore the triangles ACL, MCB, as also the triangles LCE, DCM are similar. Therefore Al,:MB::LC >CM and LE: MD::LC: MC, whence by equality, AL: MB::LE:MD; alternately, AL: MB:: LE:MD; by compos. EA or EG: LE: : DB or DI: DM. Now the angles LGE, DIM are each of them less than a tight angle; therefore (Euc. VI. 7.) the triangles LEG, DIM are similar, and the angle LEG — angle IDM. In like manner it may be shown that the angle FEL = angle MDH. Therefore the whole angle IDH — whole angle 64 Strong’s Problems, FEG. Wherefore their halves FNG, HKI are equal. Consequently NG, IK H are similar, and likewise the seg- ments FAG,IBH. Therefore a poimt C is found as re- quired.— @. E. I. Cor. {.. By a similar construction, similar segments aa be cut from spheres given in position and magniiude by a plane, as is manifest from the solution of this Problem. Cor. If. When in Case J. the circles approach to equality, the point A becomes infinitely distant, and the line AC be- comes parallel to Al, which passes through the centres of the circles. Cor.1tf. When in Case II. the circles hence equal, the peint C (as in Case II. Prob. VIL.) is equidistant from the centres of the circles. Cor. 1V. In Case I. the points C, I, M, O, are in the circumference of a circle. For 4FCI = ZGNL and Z4GNR = £§CH, therefore the whole angle ICH = whole angle -LNO. But ZLNO+ZOML—two right angles, therefore ZICH +ZOML = two right angles. Therefore the remain- ing an; Bes CIM, COM = two right angles. ‘Therefore the poiats ©, F, M, 0, are in the circumference of a circle.— In hike manner H, K, L, N are in the circumference of a circle. "Therefore the rectangle AM. AI = AC. AO, and also AK. ALL = AH. AN. Cor. V. Because (in Case I.) the segment yFAG is similar to the segment I[BHza, the angle [Hx = GF y and the angles at C being vertical are equal; therefore the tri angles CyF, CHa are similar. But the triangle CrI is sim- ilar to the triangle CHz. For the angles Irv+1Hax =two right angles; and Ivw+Irc = two right angles: taking from both, the common angle Irv, there remains Cr] — CHa, and the angle at'C being common to the two triangles they are similar. Hence CFy and CH being similar and like- wise CHa and Crl, CF y is similar to Crl. Therefore C1: Cn: Cy: CE. Therefore Cl, CF = Cr. Cy. There- fore the points I, r, F, y are in the circumference of a circle. fn like manner it may be shewn that the points G, 2, H, z are in the circumference of a circle. (To be continued.) Pa Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. 65 HARMONICS. ——= + * On different modes of expressing the magnitudes and rela- tions of Musical Intervals ; with some remarks, in com- mendation of Professor Fisuer’s Proportionally-tem- pered Douzeave, calculated in page 195. Vol. 1.—commu- nicated to the Editor by Mr. Joun Farey, Senr. Mineral Surveyor of Lonvon. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Sir, ‘Havin G perused the two first numbers of your Ameri- can Journal of Scrence, I have been gratified by observing the distinguished rank which two different subjects hold therein; one of which has, through a long period, been to me a favourite source of amusement, while relaxing from my professional studies and practice, under the other of these branches of knowledge. The Essay on Musical Temperament by Professor Fish- er, with which your work commences, has been to me, a rich treat, for which I beg to tender that Gentleman my best thanks, and to declare, that I have before met with nothing like it in point of utility, in an attentive perusal of nearly every thing which has been printed in the English language, on the subject of Musical Temperament, and as — to the correct and practically useful views, which are therein taken of the subject. It is with the hope of drawing a more * Remark.—The following communication was received ‘soon after the fourth and last number of this work was pub- lished: and it is regretted that no earlier opportunity has occurred, of giving it publicity. We give it entire in the present Number, that we may present in one view the opin- ion of Mr. Farey (one of the few competent judges) re- specting Prof. Fisher’s original speculations on this curious subject. : Vou Ut....Ne. 1: i) : 66 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. extended attention to what Professor Fisher has done, that {am principally induced to make the present communica- tion ; relying with full confidence, on the candour of Pro- - fessor F. and others of your Readers, who may interest themselves in this curious subject, for excusing the freedom of the remarks I may make. The practitioners of Music, both Professional and Ment ieur, almost universally, as also a great majority of the Teach- ers and Composers of Music, and even many of the Writers of “ Treatises” (as they are here technically called) on the theory and practice of Composition and on Tuning, are well known to have been so Very, generally unacquainted with, or so inattentive to, any of the correct methods of de- fining, measuring and calculating the musical Intervals which occupied their aitention, as to have in no ordinary degree excited the surprise of every one, who has compared these many able and ingenious ivdeciduaic! with the cultivators of nearly every other of the branches of Science and polite or useful Arts amongst us; into which happily correct notions and nomenclatures, and accurate notations and modes of calculating, every thing which comes within the definition of quantity, is either introduced and established, or is now in rapid progress towards this desirable end. 1 was first led to make the above remarks, om the occa- sion of the establishment of the Choral Fund in this Me- tropolis, almost thirty years ago, and while I acted as its first Serra Librarian, &c. which brought me into ac- quaintance with numbers of the most emment of the Charac- ters alluded to; with many of whom, and the successors, alas! of too many of them, I have continued to cultivate this acquaintance, and as often as opportunities offered, have conversed with them on the subjects, to which I am now alluding : from all which, and the concurrent experience of all such of my Acquaintances, as unite a knowledge of Mathematics with that of the principles of Music, [ have long been convinced, that the chief cause of the evil I am deploring, has arisen from the very unnatural manner, ex- cept to Mathematical adepts, in which the ratios ‘of the lengths of strings define musical Intervals, with a view to comparing or calculating the magnitude of such Intervals : and it is the same, with regard to the number of obrations or pulses, made in a given time, by the sonorous body, or Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. 67 excited in the air, for yielding different sounds 5 because it is the ratios, only, of these, that can be applied to the com- paring or calculating of musical Intervals; involving, in all such cases, the unnatural and laborious substitution of the multiplication of vulgar Fractions, in the place of simple addition, and the substitution of division of vulgar Fractions, in the place of simple subtraction, of the Inter- vals under consideration : a consequence of which is, that the smaller the Intervals are, the larger do the numbers ex- pressing them become, and the more difficult of couception and the more laborious, does the expressing or calculating of them become ; and hence it can excite no wonder, that nearly all who may not have been induced to cultivate some acquaintance with Mathematics, for its own sake, have, as Musicians or Tuners, been so bewildered and disgusted, at the very outset of their attempts to understand this im- portant and fundamental pari of their subject, as to have given up the pursuit; being content to remain ignorant of that which was presented to them by the professed Writers on the subject, in so unnatural and forbidding a form. It is observable, that the small Intervals above alluded to, as occasioning the chief stumbling block, are not merely such as curiosity only, and not utility, requires to be brought into review, but they concern each and every one of the Intervals which are considered, when we attempt to speak of the Temperaments of the Musical Seale : and hence, it has been next to impossible, that the mere Arithmetician, who proceeded to add and subtract Intervals according to the unnatural plan above mentioned,* could complete the calculation, or understand the true nature, of any one of the various modes in which the musical Scale may be attemper- ed, or even comprehend the untempered Scale itself, in so much of its generality as the same is now actually exhibit- ed, on the Euharmonic organs of Mr. Liston, and always has, although almost unperceived, been practiced, by the correct Singer, the Violinist, and a few other Practitioners * That most indefatigable Calculator, the late Mr. Marmaduke Overend, proceeded in this way, and brought his labours to no useful conclusions, ex- cept in the discovery of three smaller Intervals than any that had before been mentioned by Authors, and of some few other new Intervals, which are somewhat larger, as I have fully explained in Mr. Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, in Vol. 28. p. 140. 65 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, §c. on Instruments which are perfect, as to their capability of yielding any degree of sound whatever, which either theory or the judgment of the ear might require. Since the period of the sublime invention of Logarithms, and their general diffusion in Tables of the present form, such have opened new and great facilities to the mathemat- ical calculators, on the subject of the musical Scale and its Temperaments ; but it has been almost in vain, that appeals have been made to the mere Musician or Tuner, on the utility and the easy application of these measures of Ratios, because the original difficulty has as often recurred, viz. the want of apparent and natural connection, between ratios and musical Intervals. I have on various occasions* attempted to remove this difficulty, by shewing, that the reciprocal common Logarithm of any Interval, correctly expresses the decimal relation which that Interval bears, to the concord called the maior Twentyfourth, or XXIV (or 3VHI-+ HI) whose Ratio is ;',, and its reciprocal logarithm is 1°0000000 ; but the difficulties with this class of Persons have in no de- gree been removed, by endeavouring to explain to them, » that the reciprocal of a logarithm answers to the substitution . of division in the place of multiplication ; (or vice versa;) and im the present case, that the change of or —9, as the tabular imdex of the common logarithm of the fraction 3., to 1-, answers completely to the tuning or considering of aX X1Vth downwards, instead of upwards, between its terminating sounds. When all the decimal places of figures beyond the fifth, had been arbitrarily rejected, and the recip. log. so abridged, multiplied by 100000 (as was done first, I believe, by Dr. Robison) in order to obtain measures for ‘the various Inter- vals of the scale, and its Temperaments, I have not found these further deviations from any visible natural connection, between the arbitrary numbers so obtained, and the musical Intervals they are made to represent, to have the least ten- dency towards gaining the attention and assent of the Mu- sicians and ‘Tuners whom I have conversed with; but the reverse of it, in more than one instance ; in one of which cases it has been urged to me, thus: “ If the logarithmic * See the “ Edinburgh Eneyclopeedia,” edited by Dr. Brewster, vol. VI. p. 31, vol. XI. p. 598, and in several other parts of that traly valuable Work. \ Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, §e. 69 measures of ratios admit of being thus modelled at will, how are we any longer to place confidence in those Writings, which speak always of the Concords, and the other Inter- vals of the scale derived from them, as being rigidly measur- ed by ratios, in small whole numbers, involving no prime larger than 5°” ‘To this, it may not be unseasonable for me now to add, that in making the above mentioned re- jection of the sixth and following places of recip. logs., although so great an error as {,ths of the fifth unit figure is not necessarily committed, in any of the Concords within the Octave, (or in the major or minor Tones, or the major Semitone, which are usually termed their elements,) yet in the major Comma, the error is unavoidably ths, in the ex- ~ pression for the Interval, which so often happens to be the unit of the Temperaments: and although it may be said, that even this is but the ,,3,th part of a comma, yet this is sufficient to shew the want of a natural foundation for this mode of representing Intervals ; however useful to the Math- ematician, as approximations, the same may with truth be contended for, as has been done by Professor Fisher, in -your 17th page. Notwithstanding it is found thus difficult to define, or to assign intelligible measures to musical Intervals, owing to the remoteness of the analogy by which such are connected with the ratios of Numbers, the most evident analogies con- nect many of these Intervals with each other, and shew them to be quantities capable of addition and subtraction: thus, no one with the least ear for music, will dissent from the truth and conclusiveness of the experiment, performed on an Organ or Piano-forte in his presence, of twning, perfect (and without any beatings) Ist, a major Fifth upwards from a given note, (as C) to G, and then a minor Fourth upon this,-or Gc, that then the compound interval Cc, is a true Octave ; 2dly, if the IfId CE, and on it the 6th Ee, be tuned, he will agree, that the very same Note c has been arrived at, as before; and 3dly, when the 3d CED, and then the VIth Ed c are tuned, he will still agree, that the same note cis again arrived at; proving clearly, that either of these three pairs of Intervals, make up, together, the same sum of Intervals, viz. an Octave. So in like manner, if the perfect Octave Ce be first tuned upwards, and then either of the above six concords tuned 70 Air. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &. downwards from c, another one of these concords, which is called its complement, will in every case result or remain (true, and without any Beats, as all experiments prove) as the difference, between the lower Octave note C and the lowest note of such subtracted concord. It has been, therefore, with some propriety, that the ma- jority of the writers of ‘Treatises, have adopted, and adhered to the principle, of defining Intervals, as the sums or differ- ences of other Intervals, or of some of their multiples : and the very frequent use of the major 'Tone T (having the ratio 8), of the minor Tone t (,%;), and of the major Semitone S (22), as degrees or leaps in the Seale of melody, have led these Writers almost unanimously to adopt those three Inter- vals, as the terms of their Notation of Intervals, in general: in which manner, for example, the above seven Concords, beginning with the smallest, are expressed as follows, viz. T+S, T+t, T+t+S, 2T4+t+5, 2T4+t4+28,27T+2% +S, and 3T+ 2t+ 285 which answer to the Literals, Eo, E, F, G, A®, A and ¢, respectively. If now we omit A°, and supply the six remaining discords, and also the lower octave note, for completing, in this notation, the Douzeave which Mr. Liston calls the Original Scale, (p. 28 of his ‘ Essay on perfect Intonation,”) they are as follows, viz. C=o, C#=T-—S, D=T, Fx#=2 T+4+t, Gh=2 T+ 2+, Bo =2 T4+2t4+258, and B=3 T+21t+8. Those who may proceed no further than to the con- sideration of the scale of 12 notes, which is defined above, without proceeding to supply the other intermediate notes, which become necessary in extending the modulation, (as Mr. Liston has done,) may remain in a great degree igno- rant of the great defect of this particular mode of Notation: arising, not frem any defect in its principle, as has been ob- served above, but merely from the largeness of tis terms, T, t and $3 which occasion negative signs so frequently to occur, and connecting such varied multiples of these terms, as almost certainly to bewilder and disgust most of those who may attempt to follow Mr. Liston, through the large folding Tables inserted in his Essay. I have conversed with more than a score of Musicians, who had previously perused Mr. L.’s Essay, but not one of whom had got over the stumbling-block last mentioned.—One of these Gentle- men, having more perseverance than others, observed to me ir. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &. ra} nearly as follows :— If, said he, 1 want to know whether, in Mr. Liston’s Seale, cb is a higher or a lower note than his Btt; I find these Notes defined in his Tables, by 3'T +3t, and 2T+2 t+3 5, respectively : but my not being able to carry in my head the recollection of the exact com- parative magnitudes of 'T, t and S (whose relations in de- cimals of either of them, I understand to be interminate, as to places of figures, such never ending, or circulating) I am unable to perceive which of these quantities is the largest : if, continued he, | suppose the first to be the largest, and deduct the last from it, as algebraists do, 1 obtam T+t— 39: but here again, from not being able readily to per- ceve whether T+ is larger than 3.5, I am left in doubt, until after a calculation of some considerable labour, for deciding whether | have made a wrong or a right supposi- tion. Again, said he, if 1 want to know whether Mr. L.’s B’G, is higher or lower than his ¢; his exoressions for them, respectively, are, 4’T'+2 t, and 2 T+3t+2S3 but such are not fitted for conveying at sight the information wanted : —if I take their difference, as before, I find it to be 2 T—t —2 8, which leaves me under similar difficulties, as in the first case. Long before Mr. Liston published his Essay, or I had heard his name mentioned by any one, I had provided a remedy for the inconvenience above stated, in the Notation to which Professor Fisher has referred, in your 18th page : founded on the same principle as above, but using three very small Intervals, for the terms of my Notation, derived from the Manuscripts of Mr. Overend, already mentioned, and which had been marked by him =, f and m; but which Intervals, or any others, he had not adopted or used as a Notation ; they merely stood amongst a multitude of his isolated results. The largest of my Terms = (or the Schzsma), is the very same small Interval 2 T—t—2 5, which is mentioned above ; 3 it occurs also, between ten fofers of the adjacent notes in Mr. Liston’s Scale of 59 notes; and it is the small- est Interval which can ever occur, in the calculation of even far more extended Kuharmonic or untempered Scales, than those of Mr. Liston’s Essay, as I have since fully shewn, in the Phil. Mag. vol. 39, p. 419, and vol. i p- 362, Xe. : its ratio Is 275 — 38x 5s my second Term f (or the lesser 72 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, §c. Fraction) is of the diatonic value—9 T+7 t+5 5, and its ratio is 397+ 25452; and my third Term m (or the most Minute) is =—21'T+10t+422 8, and its ratio is 3°* x 5 12 — a 161 § y Complicated and appalling as these diatonic expressions and ratios may appear at first sight, to many, the Intervals z,fand mare, nevertheless, strictly founded in Nature, and will as truly and as correctly represent musical Intervals, in every possible case, as the Ratios composed of the prime integers 2, 3 and 5, or any notation by Intervals, can do: and with the important advantage, in no other way so well attainable, of an increasing series, throughout, in each of its terms, as the Intervals increase in magnitude, which are thereby expressed ; and yet, without negatiwe signs, in any case that can be of the least use. They have other material advantages over any other notation by means of Intervals that has been proposed: yet these I shall not here enlarge on, but proceed briefly to mention, as follows : The Octave, or 3, is in this notation, of the value 612: +12f+53m, the major Twelfth (or VITI+V) or 4, is= 970=-+4+19f4+84m, and the major Seventeenth (or 2VIII+ HIT) or}, is =14212428f4+123m: which three expres- sions, in terms of =, f and m, answer to the three prime integers 2, 3and 5, and will therefore serve for reducing any diatonic Interval whose Ratio is given, into this nota- tion, by merely adding either of these expressions, as often as its corresponding integer is multiplied into the denomz- nator of the Fraction (or largest number of the Ratio) and subtracting such expressions, as often as such integers, re- spectively, are found multiplied in the numerator of the fraction. The following examples will, | hope, make the application of this rule easy to any one. Ist. If the ratio given, be that of the major Fifth, or 3, we have only to take 9702+19f+84m, and deduct from it 61254+12f+53m, and the remainder, or 358 5+ 7f+ 31m, is the notation of V, as required. 2nd. If the major Third or 2X2 be given, we must take 142124 28f+-123m, and from it deduct the double of the first expression, or 122454.24f4103m, which leaves 1972+4f+17m, for the notation of Hf. 3rd. If the major Comma be given, its ratio is 24, or 24 x 5~34, and we must first take 4 times the second expression, or 3880=+76f+ 336m ; and next, Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. 1 4 times the first expression, or 2448 5+448f+212m, and add it to the third expfession, making 38692+ 76f+ 335m, and then deduct this last, from the multiple first found in this case, and the remainder is 11>+m, the notation of c. Further examples may appear unnecessary here ; yet it will be proper to add, that if the calculations by this rule are gone through, which are indicated above, by the ratios answering to =, to f, and to m, respectively, they only, will be found to result, respectively ; or, the truth of the whole may be demonstrated in various other ways, as is shewn in the “ Edinburgh Encyclopeedia,” vol. IX. p. 275. TABLE I. aS Ratios Stim. Numerals. | cece Logar. C 1+2 =i 612 12 12 12 53)VIIL, or 0 or Octave. | +3010299,96 B 8—15 | 555 11 48 Vil °2730012,72 Bo 9~16 | 508 10 44 *2498774,73 A o+5 |451 9 39 VI *2218487,50 GH] 16+25 | 394 8 34) Ext. gV | -1938200,26) G Sao Lave t al V °1760912,59 FH| 32+45 | 301 6 26 IV °1480625,35 F 374 ;254 5 22 4 *1249387,37 E | 4-5 |197 417 il -0969100,13 Eo! 5-6 |161 314 3 °0791812,46 D Seo tO 2) Or FE a T) L °0511525,22 CH#/128- 135} 47 1 "0231237 99 Ic I+! ; 0 0 0 i | -0000000,00; AO| 5+8 !415 8 36 6 -2041199,83 D\| 9+10} 93 2 8} I (ort) °0457574,91 Do | 15+16 | 57 1 5| 2 (orS) | -0280287,24 | 80+81 ) 11 0 1 c °0053950,32 39768-32805}, 1.0, 0 zs | -0004901,07 450283905 &e. “ | 450359062 &e. 1 0 i ‘0000733,50 | 292297733 &e. | | a 302300827 be, 0 1 m "0000038,53} rr ee Vou. 1. No. i. 10 74 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. Yn the work last quoted, vol. XIII, p. 41, the 59 notes of Mr. Liston’s Scale will be found expressed in the nota- tion that has now been described; from which I have ex- tracted, and placed in Table I. the 12 notes of his original Scale already mentioned herein. The seven last lines of the above ‘Table have been added, in order to include the concords of minor Sixth, the minor Tone, the major Semitone and the Comma; and the Sehis- ma, the lesser Fraction, and the most Minute. This Table can hardly need further explanation : 1 will therefore pro- ceed to some further remarks. The expressions in col. 3 of the above Table, accurately express the values of the Intervals in cols. 4 and 2: and such is the peculiar and natural connection, between the rates of increase upwards in the ‘Table, for each of the terms =, fand m, that whatever result or truth appears conjointly from the three terms, after any Pepe of adding or sub- tracting Intervals in any manner, has been performed, the same result or truth appears also, from each of ats terms separately : there being here, no carrying or borrowing (in whole numbers, at least) from one column to another, as in common Arithmetic. ‘Thus, independently of the other two columns = and m, the f column, in every result of ope- rations performed with these expressions, as giving a rough value in artificial Semitones, or 12th parts of the octave : every like result in the m column will give a considerably more accurate value, in the artificial Commas of Nicholas Mercator, or 53d parts of the octave, very nearly : and every result of like operations in the © column, will give rigidly accurate results, in all such Euharmonic or untem- pered calculations as are alluded to above, and will approx- imate to the truth, abundantly sufficient for nearly every practical purpose of Harmonics, being extremely near to the 612th parts of the octave, and to the 1ith parts of the major comma. When Tempered Systems are to be calculated, fractional parts of the major comma, expressed in Schismas, may be joimed with these artificial commas without at all disturbing the consistency of their results: thus, if the fLsotonie scale of equal Semiiones were required to be calculated, the flat ao of the Vth 1s known to be extremely near to =,th of a major comma, which is =, and the true Vth Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. 15 being 3585, 3572 is the Isotonic fifth; 120f which, or 4284=, prove to be just equal to 7x 6122, as should be the case. Vf all the three columns of my notation had been here used, a greater degree of exactness only equal to m, or the ;,4,th part of a comma, would have been gained thereby. Again, ifa JMean-Tone Douzeave were required to be calculated, where ic is the flat Temperament of the Vth; 358 — 23,3554 is its tempered fifth : which multiplied by 11, gives 390722, and this taken from 7VIII or 4284, leaves 37645, or V+ 1812, as the wolf fifth of this system (usually Geb) as is well known, although I now perceive that I have inadvertently called it 215, in the Phil. Mag. vol. 36, p. 45. I can now proceed to the main object of the present Let- ter, viz. to shew how the Notes of eee Fisher’s pro- portionally-tempered Douzeave, in your 195th page, may be expressed in these artificial commas (and decimals of them) with greater accuracy, than in the 5~place recip. logs. in which they are now expressed 3 and in which state, 1 have hopes of this new Scale of Intervals, deduced with sce much ingenuity and labour by Professor F’. attracting, in this country at least, a somewhat greater share of attention from the practical Musicians and Tuners, than, in its present logarithmic denomination, it seems to me likely to i for reasons which have already been given herein. By beginning at the bottom of the Table in page 194, and progressively adding together the numbers therein, the value of each Note of the Douzeave will be had in 5—place recip. logs. ; B for instance, being -27208 ; let this be sub- tracted from the value of B in the last column of my first Table, and the difference will be found =:0009212,72 ; and this difference we must convert into Schismas and decimals by dividing by the value of in the Table, or by 0004901-07; and thus we get 1°87975, as the flattening or deduction to be made from 555s, the artificial commas of B; which thereby becomes 553°12032, as in col. 2 of the Table HU. following. By proceeding in a similar manner, the ten other artificial commas and decimals in this Table may be cal- culated.* * Tt is a more ready and correct mode, than by common di- vision, to use Logometric Logarithms, (see Edin. Encyc. vol. XII, p. *72) or the logarithms of the recip. logs.: recollecting that 76 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. TABLE II. |Literals| Artificial ee ee | mas, or Ss || sD z=stt ; zsd c 612-0000) VIII || B 553°1203| VII 2-9lw 138] 3.0 BO | 5126776) 7 2:2) 1 -Alw 22-7 A 4541447) VI 2-8) 00-2 31 Gy | 397-9991/Ext.4V||wH7-9|w 17-0/ 5:9 G 355°2420| V 2-2} O-9] 3:6 : FH | 296-2000) IV || 3-3)w 19:5) 31 F 256-5327) 4 |i 2:5) O68 w 19°5 E 197-3246] III | 23 SI el Eo 151:8974| 3 H2°8) 6-3\w 16-7 D 99-0776] II 29} Ol) 36 | Cet 38-9328} I H1-1lw 20-0 2:6 | C 00000) 1 2:81 0-3} 91 el | | =23-8| + 84-2, —96.0 | | Are ee Lie ls | Ly Fee ea ey op ee The three first columns of the above Table can need ne further description; except mentioning, that in case the f’s * 3°6902910, is the constant log. log. for reducing 7—place recip. logs. to logs. of Schismas ; and such is likewise the constant addend for reducing Schismas to recip. common logs. In the above example the log. of 9212-72 is 3:9643878 ; from which take the constant log. log. 3-6902910 (or log. of 4901-07) and 0:2740968 remains, whose number is 1:87974> as above. In this manner also, may ratios involving other primes larger than 5, be reduced to my notation: if for example, the false minor Third £ mentioned in your 195th page, were given: the Tabular recip. log. of £ (or log. of 2) is-0669467,90, which falls short of ED in my ist Table, by -01224344,56; from whose log. take the con- stant log. log. of ©, and we find the number answering to the remain- der to be 24-96282; and therefore §=136:03722-+ 3f+ 14m ; where, for the purposes of Temperaments, the first of the two last terms, or the {’s, may always be neglected, as not affecting the re- sults, and so may the last term or the m’s, and the artificial commas only be used, unless sometimes, and where extreme accuracy is wanted, as will be further shewn. Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. 77 and m’s are wanted, they are the same as in Table I; and m order to obtain the numbers in the remaining columns, octaves must be stated above col. 2, for the Notes ct, d, eb, e, f and f#, by adding 6125 to each of the corresponding notes, from Cit to Fa. It must be recollected, (as is shewn in Table I.) that the three perfect concords whose Numerals stand at the heads of cols. 4, 5 and 6, are 358, 197 and 1612 respectively : and the mode of obtaining the numbers in these three last columns, will then be made evident, by two examples, viz. Ist, in order to calculate the Temperaments of the Vth above B; from the value of its upper note ff or 908-2000, take the value of B or 553°1203, and the remainder is 355°0797=, which being less than 3582, shews the T’em- perament to be flat, as is expressed at the top of the co- lumn, and the difference of ihe two last numbers is 2°92033, the Temperament required, but only the two first of these figures is entered in the able, for reasons which will ap- pear in the Note which is annexed.* * Rather more exact results than the Schismas and tenths which are set down in Table II, might be obtained, by multiplying Pro- fessor Fisher’s Temperaments, in his X1Ith Table, by 0°0204037 ; and this method may be used for checking my Table. The rea- sons why only the first plaee of decimals of 2s are set down in my Table are, because this isa sufficient degree of exactness for the ar- ranged Table of Temperaments and remarks thereon, which I in- tend further on; and because, when more places of decimals are re- quired to be érwe, some corrections must be made, for the m’s that are overlooked in the above calculations, by artificial commas. The f’s or second terms of my Notation, do not occasion errors in any of these calculations; nor do the m’s do so, in the Tempera- ments of 8 of the Vths viz. on C, E, F, Ftt, G, A, BO or B; or in 6 of the Ids, viz. on C, D, ED, E, F or G; or in 5 of the 3ds, viz.onC, KE, Gtt, A orB. The corrections of the Vth Tempera- ments are as follows, viz. those on CH, D, and Eb require to be altered m (or :007862) viz. the Temperaments that are ft, to be decreased, that which is b, increased: and the wolf on Gf re- quires to be increased 2m (or ‘O01 5724z.) The Wids Tempera- ments require correcting thus; viz. those on Cif, Fit, A and Bo, to be altered m: the ft Temperaments to be increased, and the b one decreased; and the Temperaments on Git and B, require to be increased 2m. And inthe 3ds column, the Temperamenis on 78 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &e. 2dly. We will suppose that I was at first at a loss to recol- lect, which is the note in the upper octave, that limits the major third above B; I have, for removing this difficulty, only to add 197 to 553, which gives 7502; and to observe that this is the nearest to eb, which 1s 763°8974= ; from this therefore, | must take B or 553°1203, and 210°7771 re- mains; which exceeds 197, by 13°77712, and shews this last to be the sharp Temperament of this major third wolf, Besides distinguishing those ‘Temperaments in col. 4, which differ from the title thereof, in being sharp, mstead of flat, I have added a w to distinguish the fifth wolf; the same remark applies to col. 5, as to the temperament of the IlId on A being fiat, and to the four major third wolves, and also to the three minor third wolves, in col. 6. JI have at the bottom of the columns, added up the sharp and flat tem- peraments, in order to shew that the Sum in col. 4 is —12°02; in col. 5, =+84-02; and in col. 6, =—96°0=; these Tt being general properties of all Douzeave systems : which, if my knowledge and memory correctly serve me, | was the first to publish, in the Phil. Mag. Vol. 28, plate 5, and to demonstrate in Vol. 36, p. 43. The order of the several Coukor ic. as to their degrees of harmoniousness, measured by ee Temperaments, to the nearest tenth of a Schisma, or ;}; of a comma, are as fol- lows : CH, D, Fe, G and Bb, require to be altered m, and those on Et and F, require correcting 2 m3; all of these, by increasing the Temperaments. One example must suffice; in the Text, the Temperament of the wolf Ilfd on B, has already been found 13°77712, which it now appears, is to be increased ‘0}57=, and made 13-7928z. This trouble might have been lessened, if the correction‘in Table X. had been calculated at first in Schismas and decimals. by applying the numbers in Table IX, to the numbers of an Isotonic Douzeave. composed of multiples “of 513. + When the corrections of the Temperaments, on accont of the m’s, are made, the casting will stand thus, viz. —23-7527 +11°7448, —12-00079= ; + 84:2669 —-2040, —84-06293; and —96-07 7083, which accord with my determinations in the Philo- sophical Magazine. Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. 79 TABLE IMI. “Tas on (and 6ths below) D 0-1, A 0-2, C 0.3, F 0°6,G 0-9, Bb 1-4, E 3-7, Eb 6-3; B 13:8, GH 17-0, FH 19°5; end CH 20-6. Vths on (and 4ths below) CH 1:1, Bb 2:2, G 2-2, E 2:2, 2:5, © 2-8, Eb 2°8, A 2:8, B29, D 2-9, FH3-3; and GH 7-9. 3ds on (and Viths below) CH 2°6, B 3:0, FA 3-1, E 3:1, A 31, D 36, G3°6, Git 5-9, C 9-1; Eb 16-7, F 19-5, anid Bb 99: , {t will be seen from Professor Fisher’s Table im p. 32, that a very decided majority of organ pieces, in the major mode, are setin Gand D: and ano less marked majority of those in the menor mode, in A and D; and it is on this account that 1 have drawn a black line, to separate’ the gainor thirds in the above Table: the Vths are placed in the middle line, for more ready comparison with the Ids above and the 3ds below ; and the wolves are separated by semicolons. I beg now to congratulate Professor Fisher on the happy result of his ingenuity and labour, in calculating this Dou- zeave: viz. as to the very near agreement exhibited above, with what I understand to be the present practice of all the best Tuners of organs; I mean, as to the exceedingly small ‘Temperaments of that very important concord the major Third, in the five most important Keys, viz, G, D, C, F and A; as to the very moderate temperament of this concord, in the Keys Bo and E; and as to the four Iild wolves, (which are, alas! inseparable from a Douzeave Seale,) falling in those Keys, where all judicious Tuners have been used to throw them; and the least of these wolves falls in the Key of B, which oftenest occurs. The only thing which strikes me as an unlooked-for anomaly as to the HIds, is, the ‘'emperament on Eb, being so consider- able, as more than half a comma. With regard to the fifths, considered with relation both to the major and minor modes, in the three important Keys G, F and &, the Temperaments are less than in the Mean-Tone system (or 2¢2,) now so generally used on the organ: in the three other important Keys D, C and Eb, the Temper a- 80 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &¢. ments are but a trifle greater than the ‘Temperaments in use ; and the Vth wolf falls in the same Key, and is con- siderably less than half of the usual quantity ; owing to two others of the fifths being in small degrees sharpened, which seems a great and important novelty. As to the minor Thirds, the two most important Keys, A and Ej, have Temperaments which but very little exceed those in use, and in neither of the three next most important Keys D, Gand B, does the Temperament one-third ex- ceed those of the Mean-Tone system; and lastly, the three 3d wolves fallin the three Keys, to which the practical ‘Tuner assigns them ; agreeably to what is stated in my Tem- perament Theorems, Phil. Mag. vol. 36, p. 42: the 11th Scholium to which defines the chief properties of the Equal-harmony Douzeave of Professor Fisher, in his 3d proposition. I ‘beg leave to remark, that I have long’ been impressed with the importance and desirableness of what Professor Fisher has now performed for the Musical world, as far at least as Organ Music is concerned, as will be seen by refer- ence to the work last quoted, vol. 26, p. 176; and vol. 27, p- 319 and 320. I am not aware that any one before me, had published the accurate and very simple mode of calculating Beats, which Professor Fisher has rather too briefly mentioned, at the bottom of page 181: many years ago, I deduced it asa corollary from the 202d proposition of Emerson’s Algebra, whose Theorem I have quoted in the Edink. Enc. Vol. (0, p. 369, and there first published my Theorem. In a future communication to you, [ wish much that Prof. Fisher would mention the Temperament, or else otherwise define the system; which he has entitled the French one, in page 198: and also say, whether at the top of p. 31, he does not mean Vth on C, and #VIth on F? Iregret exceedingly that the calculations for Table IV, in page 34, were abridged of their three last places of figures, particularly the two first of these, and earnestly re- quest, that Professor Fisher will yet supply these, through the medium of your pages, and he will still further oblige, Sir Your obedt. humble servt. JOHN FAREY Senr. Howland Street, London, 30. April, 1819. Medical Chemistry. 81 P.S. Lregret very much, to find the Geological Ob- servers in your vast and interesting country, so very com- monly to omit stating bearings and distances, from known Towns, aswell as nearest distances and bearings from known Streams, as the means of more pefectly fixing the localities of their particular observations, and conveying an idea of the same to Readers here and elsewhere, who-can have no other helps than Maps, and those perhaps, not on the larg- est scale, or latest construction. [tis an equal source of disappomtment and regret, that the direction and degree of Dip, is not invariably mentioned, wherever Rocks or Strata are observed. Incomparably the most simple and useful mode of denoting the latter, is, by the proportion of the measure of level, to one of perpendicular fall: as for in- stance, Dip NE 1 in5, or SW 1 in 2, &c.; and #5 ory,* may on Maps, denote the same things, as I have long prac- ticed. I hope Mr. Editor, that you will join me herein, and not fail to reiterate the request, that Observers of Stra- ta, of useful Minerals, in particular, like Coal, Limestone, Freestone, Ironstone, Gypsum, Clays &c. will always in- elude the above particulars, in their descriptions sent for your work. MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. a =} ee PRUSSIC ACID. Art. VII. Abstract and translation of Dr. F. Macenpre’s late publication on Prussic Acid—by the Eniror, with re- marks. "THE memoir of Dr. Magendie of Paris, presented to the academy of sciences of that city, Nov. 17, 1817, on the uses of the Prussic acid in certain diseases, particularly in Phthisis Pulmonalis, was published, soon after, in English, in the Journal of the Royal Institution of Tecnico aa is generally known in this country. 'The subject is one which * Mr. Farey’s marks in his MS. are arrow heads ; no characters of nearer resemblance were at hand. Von. If.....No.-1. 11 82 Medical Chemistry. could not fail deeply to interest society at large, as well as the faculty of medicine. As far as I am informed, these re- searches have not been so extensively prosecuted m the United States as could be desired,*—partly from the diffi- culty of obtaining the acid, which is no where sold in the shops, and which can be prepared only by a practical chem- ist; and partly, in all probability, from negligence and in- credulity. Having received from Paris, a recent publica- tion by Dr. Magendi ie, on this subject,f containing many additional facts, ence by himself, and by various other enlightened men, in different countries ; ; and, not having met with any translation of, or abstract ane it, I ree thought, that I could not do better, than to present the sub- stance of this new memoir to my readers, partly by trans- lation and partly by abstract, and analysis.—For obvious reasons, | have not drawn any thing from the first memoir of Dr. Magendie, which he has republished in due connex- ion with his present work; stil, it will be useful to remem- ber, that the conclusions which he drew at that time, from his experiments, on prussic acid were : 1. That pure prussic acid is eminently poisonous and altogether improper to be used in medicine. 2. That, diluted with, water, it can be advantageously used for the cure of nervous and chronic coughs. 3. That it may be useful in the palliatiwe treatment of phthasis, by diminishing the intensity and frequency of the cough—moderating the expectoration and favouring sleep, 4. That there is some reason to hope, that it may be- come useful in the curative treatment of phthisis pulmonalis, especially when it has not yet passed its first stage. * Some favourable results were obtained by my late lamented friend Dr. E. D. Smith, Professor of Chemistry &c. in the college of South Carolina; and, being published in the newspapers, deservedly excited a good deal of attention. A few partial trials in phthisis and asthma have been made by some of the eae in New-Haven and generally with favourable results: fam not informed how far the subject has been prosecuted in our larger cities. If may be respectfully suggested to the faculty that on account of the peculiarly volatile and decomposahie nature of prussic acid, particular atten- tion is necessary to ascertain, whether the acid used is of suficient strength: it should have very decidedly the odour ef peach blossoms, but more in- tense, so as to be rather oppressive, if much of the vapour gets into the nos- trils. + Recherches physiologiques et cliniques sur l'emploi de PAcide Prus- sigue ou Hydro—cyanique, dans le traitement des maladies de poitrine ef particuligrement dans celui de la Phthisie pulmonaire, &¢.—Paris, 1§19. Medical Chemistry. 83 This able and enlightened physician then goes on to ob- serve -— “In publishing these researches, almost three years ago, my principal object was to attract the attention of practi- tioners to a subject which appeared to me worthy of inter- esting them. ‘¢ My wish has been accomplished even beyond my hopes. “The medical faculty of Paris have placed the Prussic acid in the number of remedies recommended by the new Codex ; and many physicians, both French and foreign, have not only repeated but have greatly extended my ex- periments.” (Observations.) : “It is therefore with pleasure and gratitude that I pro- ceed to record the results obtained by my brethren. Dr. Fontanelles ina pamphlet published in 1817 at Mil- lan, expresses himself thus :’’— “‘] have obtained wonderful results from the prussic acid prepared according to the process of Scheele, upon four children of the same family affected by the whoopmg cough: I put three drops of the acid into an ounce of distilled water, and caused this mixture to be given every two hours by a spoonful at once ; the children themselves, frankly stated to me, that having commenced the use of this remedy in the morning, they did not experience at night, those paroxysms of coughing, which had threatened to suffocate them :—that they slept well, and that on the fourth day from their be- ginning the use of this liquid, the whooping cough disap- peared from two of them, and from the other two a few days after.” The experiments of Dr. Fontanelles were suggested by reading Dr. Magendie’s memoir. Dr. Manzoni at Padua in an augural thesis, states various interesting observations, derived chiefly from the practice of Dr. Brera. A woman, aged twenty-nine years, of a sanguine sthenic and irritable temperament, was brought to the clinical institution at Pa- dua, without having received any relief, although advanced to the seventh day of a very severe pleuro-peripneumony. Ten ounces of blood were drawn—and a little time after, eight more; thirty drops of prussie acid were given im an emulsion of gum arabic, during the day, and twelve more in the night; the following day, the urine became copious, and full of sediment; after this the expectoration diminished— 54 Medical Chemistry. the respiration became more easy—the cough less wearing —the pain in the side gradually ceased, and in a few days, by this mild and simple treatment, the patient became quite well. Dr. Manzoni, in the same thesis, assures us that the pro- fessor derived the most signal advantage from the use of the prussic acid in bronchial inflammation; in catarrhs, and in phthisis. A man, thirty-four years old, rapidly verging towards the tuberculous state of phthisis, by taking the prus- sic acid, in emulsion of gum arabic, had his purulent ex- pectoration both ameliorated and diminished, and his life, (before very wretched) prolonged. Two women with chronic catarrh, attended by copious and purulent expectoration, in a short time, by the use of the prussic acid, found the matter changed into simple mu- cus and left the clinical institution almost in perfect health. In professor Brera’s private practice many similar cases occurred. Among others, the following memorable instance is cited. A noble lady, affected by a commencing phthisis, was seized with such a copious bleeding at the lungs, (hé- moptysie) that in a short time she was at death’s door ; bloodletting had been resorted to in vain, when Dr. Brera prescribed under the form of pills, one hundred drops of the prussic acid, to be taken in the course of the night ; this, as he expresses it, miraculously arrested the bleeding. ‘The use of the prussic acid, in doses of from thirty to fifty drops, in twenty-four hours, continued for five days, restored this lady to perfect health without leaving the slightest trace of a pulmonary affection.* Dr. Brera, by the use of prussic acid, with the leaves of the atropa belladona, succeeded in curing perfectly a schir- rous affection of the womb, complicated with a syphilitic affection. In another case, a noble lady at Padua, aged twenty-sev- en years, of an irritable temperament, placed herself under the care of Dr. Brera. She had a chronic uterine affection, * Dr. Magendie very justly condemns the administration of the prussic acid in pills, because, from its excessive volatility,especially at an elevated tem- perature, much of it must be lost; this is the reason why this lady could take with impunity (or rather appear to take) one hundred drops, for had she really taken this quantity it might have been fatal. It is mach better to put the acid into some liquid vehicle, water--mucilage of gumarabic, or almostany simple fluid. Medical Chemistry. 85 marked by extreme pain and great heat; (‘au fond de I’ ute- rus et par un ecoulement mucoso—purulent par le vagin. L’ ouverture du col présentait au toucher une chaleur plus forte que la chaleur naturelle et un assez grand nombre d’ inégalitiés; les menstrues se montraient sans regularite,’’) with the fever, there was uterine colic, constipation, and he- morrhoidal tumours, which had been of considerable stand- ing. On the twelfth day of the disease, this lady was sei- zed with a violent (and with her) an unparalleled uterine hoemorrhage ; which proved uncontrollable by any of the common means. If the bleeding diminished in a degree, the pains of the uterus, and of the piles, became intolerable ; and on the contrary, if these pains were assuaged, there was great reason to fear that she would sink under the hoemorr- hage. In this trying crisis, Dr. Brera gave ten drops of prussic acid, inthe form of pills, every hour, and directed that they should be continued till they had produced a marked effect upon the vital powers. Scarcely had twenty drops of the acid been given, when irregular palpitations, great anxiety, and vertigo were experienced. ‘The acid was then discontinued, and a simple infusion of chamomile substituted. Soon after, the skin, which to that time had been dry and hot, became covered with an abundant per- spiration—the hoemorrhoidal and uterine pains ceased—the bleeding stopped—the bowels became free—the urine abun- dant and healthy, and all the other numerous and distressing affections disappeared; mild injections of the prussic acid were used towards the termination of the disease. It re- sults from the observations of Dr.’s Brera and Borda, who in 1810 made much use of this acid in sthenic diseases, that itis one of the best things to calm the movements of the heart—to diminish febrile irritation, and te encounter the most severe inflammations. Observations of this kind have been much multiplied in Italy. At Padua, most diseases are much complicated by worms, (vers lombricoides,) in the intestinal canal, which are very promptly expelled, and even while still alive, by the use of the prussic acid. The experience of Dr. Granville in England is cited by Dr. Magendie. Dr. Granville mentions cases of advanced consumptive patients, in whom the prussic acid produced sensible amelioration, but without effecting a cure. A young man and woman, however, who attended the gratuitous 86 Medical Chemistry. consultation of Dr. Scudamore, exhibited every: appearance of confirmed pthisis ; they had a worrying cough—emacia~ tion—frequent pulse—night sweats—debility—purulent ex- pectoration, and that particular form of the nails, which commonly accompanies these symptoms. The Dr. gave them both the prussic acid in the dose of ten drops a day, and soon had the pleasure of seeing them restored to per- fect health, im which condition, after the lapse of eight months, the young woman called to thank her physician. Several cases are cited of English patients, affected with hectic fever, and sympathetic cough, who were greatly re- lieved by the prussic acid, and some of them appear to have been cured. The cases, although interesting, are too long to be detailed in this abstract, and the symptoms arose from different causes. In one case, a hectic fever, with cough, &c. grew out of a long continued inflammation of the liver, attended with tubercles and adhesion; in another it arose from miscarriage and grief; in a third, from a schirrous af- fection of the ovarium ; in a fourth, from typhus fever, end- ing in delirium; and in a fifth, (a lad of ten years old,) it came on without any obvious cause. The two last cases — were of a very desperate character, and yielded to the use of prussic acid, when all other means had failed.* Asthma of six years standing, in a man of advanced age, was greatly aggravated by cold dampness or exercise, and was replaced by a constant dry cough whenever the asthma was assuaged; the disease was augmented by food and de- prived the patient of sleep, and was attended by a swelling of the limbs, and chills and fever at evening ; this formida- ble complaint, with all its concomitant maladies, was so much relieved by prussic acid, that the patient acquired a degree of comfort to which he had long been a stranger ; he could go up stairs without inconvenience, and constantly arrested the progress of his complaints by a recurrence to the prussic acid, whenever they menaced a return. In colds and catarrhs especially where, by neglect, alarm- ing or troublesome symptoms were supervening, the prussic acid appears to have been very useful and in most cases en- tirely effectual. In one case a woman, five months advanced in her eighth pregnancy, and during the five months affected with ¢ vio- *Vid Recherches, & par, Magendie Doctenr,‘&c. pp. 33 to 38 | Medical Chemistry. 87 lent convulsive cough, attended by extreme irritation, was entirely relieved by the prussic acid, without sustaining the slightest inconvenience from her peculiar situation. Dr. Granville’s own children, four in number and the, youngest an infant at the breast, were all attacked by the whooping-cough, which soon became very violent with the usual attendants of suffocation, vomiting, tears, extreme ten- sion of the blood vessels of the head, severe head ache, deprivation of sleep, &c. In one week they were all cured entirely by the exclusive use of the prussic acid. Dr. A. 'T. Thomson in a communication to Dr. Granville says: “‘ the diseases in which I have prescribed the prussic acid are catarrhal affections accompanied by cough, and in chronic coughs.”’—* I have used it with very great success in catarrhal affections which actually reign epidemically in the part of the country where I live. The disease begins by chills, which are soon followed by a febrile excitement, sneezing, hoarseness and thirst, and a hard cough which comes by paroxysms, is more frequent during the night and deprives the patients_of sleep; the tongue is furred, the _ howels costive and expectoration very difficult. Since | have used the prussic acid I have rarely had recourse to blood letting, although it has been indicated by the pulse, but [ have been on my guard knowing the action exerted by the prussic acid upon the circulation. I commonly be- gin by purging the patient, then I give the acid dissolved in distilled water, or in a simple almond emulsion; I take care to proportion the dose to the age and strength of the individ- uals, gradually increasing it till the cough has ceased. I begin with adults by giving them every two or three hours, two drops in a spoonful of the vehicle. For children be- tween four months and one year, I have prepared the fol- lowing formula. B. Prassic acid, - - - 2, drops. Distilled water, - - - © 9 fluid drachms. Syrup of tolu, - - - 1 fluid drachm. Mix them, and give two small tea spoonfuls every three hours. The strongest dose in which I have ever administered this acid, has been twenty-four drops (min) in a day for an adult, and six drops (min) for a child. The first and the most speedy benefit derived from the use of the prussic 88 Medical Chemistry. - acid in catarrhal affections, is to procure sleep, and to di- minish the frequency of the paroxysms of coughing. The next day, we find the pulse less quick and hard, and by de- grees the cough becomes less violent. 1 have not observed that it produces expectoration, but it certainly diminishes the cough, and renders it less laborious. The intestinal ca- nal is gently excited, so that | have rarely been compelled to give purgatives a second time. By the moderate use of certain stimulants, we easily obviate the languor which sometimes in feeble and aged subjects, follows the use of the prussic acid ; and when the cough is alleviated, we can . certainly remove the debility by the use of the ammmoniacal tincture of iron, dissolved in brandy and water. Among the particular cases mentioned by Dr. Thoméon, are some sufficiently remarkable.—A man of thirty-seven years of age, habitually very healthy, and of a plethoric habit, had been for several weeks tormented with a very - wearing cough, which almost deprived him of sleep; the paroxysms became constantly more and more frequent ; his throat was much aftected—he had a great hoarseness, . with a short and wheezing respiration; after a cathartic, he took the prussic acid every two hours—dose, two drops in iwelve drachms of water. Immediately he gained sleep— his cough abated—expectoration became easy—the pulse erew soft, and in three days all the sympioms of the disease were appeased. A lady, aged forty years, of a sanguine and irritable tem- perament, and naturally gay, had been for two years labour- ing under the pthisis trachealis. Having the first year de- rived no benefit from medicine, she neglected the com- plait the second year, and took medicines only when the symptoms were aggravated. The disease was marked by a laborious coush——a perception of dryness in the throat, with danger of immediate suffocation, and a general inflam” mation and swelling of the back part of the mouth. These symptoms, accompanied by fever, and great irritability, never entirely ceased; they diminished at intervals, espe- cially in summer, but returned with increased violence with every exposure to cold. She was advised to quit England for warmer climates, but this was not executed. She srew worse—her pulse was small, quick, irregular, and varying with the state of her mind. She had palpitations, and very Medical Chemistry. 89 little repose, and that much disturbed. Her physician hap- pened to come in (Jan. 26,) while she was in a violent par- oxysm of coughing, resembling croup, and with imminent danger of suffocation ; her pulse as before, the back part of the mouth very much inflamed, and furrowed, as it were, with large vessels, injected with blood. Having been purged, prussic acid was administered in the following prescription :-— R. Prussic acid, - = - - 12 drops. Rose water, ties - - half a fluid ounce. Syrup of popies, - - - 3 fluid drachms. Mix them, and take a large tea spoon full every two hours. The next day the patient was much better; had enjoy- ed a better night than for several months, without cough or | perception of heat or oppression in the breast, and the pulse were more regular, and more moderate and full. The - prussic acid was continued four days, each time augmenting the dose two drops. The fourth day nausea occurred, and the symptoms being much better, the remedy was discon- tmued. From that time she remained perfectly well, had. no relapse, and considered her restoration as almost a mir- racle, and believed herself perfectly cured. ‘The writer dates on the 26th of February, and says, that in his view she still needs much care, anda particular regimen, and that the disease, if not entirely removed, is arrested in its. progress. A military gentleman being affected every winter with a spasmodic cough, experienced effectual relief from the use of the prussic acid, and being called by the service to an- other country, took a phial of it with him, as his best re- source on a recurrence of the complaint. A gouty patient, troubled with a violent dyspepsia, was attacked by the epidemic catarrh, and was relieved by the prussic acid. Dr. Kerkaradec, of Paris, relates his experience in the use of the prussic acid. In one case of nervous cough, in a patient of forty years of age, it was ineffectual, probably because it was given in very trifling doses, and often omitted by the patient, but it does not appear that it did any harm. Vou. IL.....No. 1. 12 90 Medical Chemistry. In another patient, in the last stage of consumption, 1 was given in very small portions, but it appeared rather to aggravate the cough, and its use was abandoned; the pa- tient died soon after: it does not appear that in this case it accelerated the death, which seems to have occurred be- cause the disease had run its course. It does not seem to be useful in the last stage of consumption, but, perhaps it would be difficult to point out any thing else that is. Dr. Kerkaradec relates another case, of a child of seven years, which for five months was afflicted witha dry cough, constant and very wearing, attended by pain in the left side of the chest, by fever, &c. ‘The usual remedies were ap- plied for three months, without success, when the whoop- ing cough supervened in a violent degree, and after running on three months, was spontaneously cured. The dry cough then returned, and alter a month more, was found to be constant ; the pain in the side recurred, and the left side of the chest gave a bad sound; the tongue was white—the appetite gone—-the bowels were constipated—enlarged, and somewhat sensible to the touch; there was a constant quickness of pulse, considerable fever, a tendency to drow- siness, and a severe pain in the-head. ‘The usual remedies were applied with some mitigation of the symptoms, but the cough constantly preserved its peculiar character. The prussic acid was then administered, twelve drops in three days, taken by spoonfulls once in two hours. (“La dose fut d’une cuillerée @ café toutes les deux heures.” (At the end of three days, the cough began to dimimish, and three potions more, into which there entered fifteen drops of the medicine, completed the cure, and at ihe end of seven months there had been no return of the complaint. A little girl three and a half years old had a whooping cough of five months standing—the fits of coughing were very violent, and at least twelve ina day, producing mu- cous expectoration, with a great deal of blood ; the disease was assuaged by leeches applied to the left side of the chest, where they were indicated by the sound ; the blood ceased to appear, and the cough was less frequent, and less violent. The prussic acid, twelve or fifteen drops, administered in the usual manner,* in potions, removed the cough after twe potions, and in twelve days it wholly disappeared. = Viz. where twelve were employed before. Medical Chemistry. : 91 The little brother of this child, nine months old and at the breast, was immediately relieved from an incipient whooping cough by the same means. A child of Four and a half years was affected for five _months, by a whooping cough, for the cure of which all the common remedies and especially the syrup of ipecacuana had been applied in vain. Fifteen drops of the prussic acid were then administered in the course of three days; this remedy was then discontinued for four or five days, on ac- count of a febrile excitement which lasted that length of time; it was then resumed and the cough disappeared in five days more; it sometimes recurred at distant intervals, owing to wet —— but bathing caused it finally to dis- appear. A lady of twenty years of age, of a plethoric habit, but enjoying perfect health, and with regular habits in all re- spects, (“et la quantité, de sang évacué tous les mois était abondante”’) was, without any obvious cause seized with acute pains in the stomach, followed by a cough, which oc- curred in violent paroxysms but without any appearance of whooping cough. Being of a gouty family, and hav- ing in her childhood had some gouty affections, she was treated accordingly but without benefit; her sufferings, and her cough continued, and she lost her bloom and her flesh, and was very apprehensive of a consumption. She took twelve drops of prussie acid, a day, in solution of gum arabic and after a few days the cough diminished ; she then took twenty-one drops a day, for some time and was entirely relieved from her cough, and recovered very good health. - The pains in her stomach are of rare occurrence and not severe. In summing up this mass of evidence, Dr. Magendie ob- serves, that the remarkable accordance, between the obser- vations of distinguished men in various countries of Europe, appears to be an irresistible proof in favour of this new med- icine, and of its perfect innocence, even in large doses, ad- ministered with prudence but without unnecessary timidity. He remarks, that since the publication of his first me- moir, he has been much occupied in the administration of the prussic acid, especially in cases of pulmonary phthisis ; that he has neglected no epportunity to administer it in the first stages of this disease, but that he has given it to many 92 /Medical Chemistry. in various stages; that in some instances he has seen it in common with all other remedies, completely fail, and the unhappy patients pursue their downward progress to the grave: that on the contrary, in a great number of instances, he has seen a sensible amelioration in the most distressing symptoms ; the cough has become less frequent ; the ex- pectoration more free, and the sleep more prolonged. “It is (adds Dr. Magendie,) with satisfaction easily un- — derstood, that | have seen the symptoms of phthisis com- pletely cease in eight (seven ?) different circumstances ; in three children from four to six years, in a young woman of fifteen, in another of twenty, in a young man of twenty five, and in an old man of sixty-six ; and it is with the most anx- ious solicitude, that I have waited their state of health, for the purpose of learning, whether the evil is really arrested, or only suspended in its progress. 'Time only can decide; I can only say that the two ladies whose cases were reported in my first memoir, and whose cure is of four years stand- ing, continue to enjoy perfect health.” With respect to the dose, Dr. Magendie remarks, that as the effect of the prussic acid is very different in different in- dividuals, it is necessary to begin with a moderate dose; but there is no danger in encreasing it provided its effects are not manifested, and that he has, many times, gradually augmented the dose to half a drachm in twenty-four hours without producing the slightest inconvenience. As to the preparation of the acid, Dr. Magendie finding that the acid of Scheele is of variable strength, prefers that prepared by the process of Gay Lussac, which consists in decomposing the prussiate of mercury by muriatic acid and collecting the acid in a cold receiver. This acid is to be diluted with six times its volume or eight and a half times its weight of distilled water. Remark. As the preparation of the acid of Gay Lussae is not without danger to the operator, on account of its ter- rifie energy, even in vapour, it is presumed that having once ascertained how much of Gay Lussae’s acid, a given weight of Prussiate of Mercury will afford, it will be sufficient te place at once in the receiver, eight and a half parts. of water and thus obtaim a diluted and much less dangerous acid. I have found very unpleasant effects even from breathing the vapour of the prussic acid when I have prepared it after Medical Chemistry. 93 the process of Scheele and my assistants have been much incommoded with vertigo, nausea and even swooning.* Dr. Magendie gives the following formulas for the exhi- bition of the acid. Pectoral Mixture. R. Prussic acid medicinal, - - i drachm, Distilled Lieil - - - 1 pound, Pure sugar, 1 4 ounce, F.S.L. Take one alle Senntilal in the morning and: one in the evening when going to bed. Pectoral Potion. _R. Infusion of ground ivy, - - 1 drachm, Prussic acid, (medicinal) - - 15 drops, Syrup of marsh mallow, - - 1 ounce, F. 8S. L. Take a potion by spoonfulls, once in three hours. Sirup cyanque, or Prussic Syrup. R. Syrup of sugar, perfectly clarified, 1 pound, Prussic acid, (medicinal) - - 1 drachm, Mix them exactly. This syrup is used to add to the pectoral potions and as a substitute for the other syrups. f have procured for the use of medical friends, directly from Dr. Magendie several vials of Prussic acid, such as he * A bottle containing probably an ounce of the prussic acid of Scheele being accidentally knocked from the table, in my laboratory and broken, the vapour exhaled (although the liquid was instantly covered with ashes and swept into the fire) affected me powerfully, and particularly at night my muscular and intellectual powers seemed almost prostrated ; an assistant was ill in the evening and inasimilar manner: the next morning he swoon- ed on rising from bed and fell upon the floor—he remained very feeble al- though without pain for several days, but gradually recovered by using mild stim valants ; (aqua ammonie, wine, &c.) his pulse was very feeble and smiail, and his nervous and muscular powers very greatly enfeebled. As it appears to be one of the great prerogatives of the prussic acid to prostrate muscular and nervous energy, it may “be asked whether in case of hirnea and luxations it might not be useful in overcoming the muscular re- sistance which often opposes their reduction, and, w hether it may not un- lock the fatal rigors of spasm even in tetanus itself? 94. Griswold on Submarine Explosion. employs, and although this fluid is liable to decompose, and to become weak, especially by careless keeping, these vi- als appear to have arrived in good order ; the acid remains colourless, whereas it is coloured if decomposed. ‘It was made in Paris, PY M. Robiquet. Dr. Alfred 5. Monson, upon whose skill and care every degree of reliance may be placed, will supply practitioners with this acid, manufactured by him corner of York and Elm streets, New Haven. N. B. The vials should be kept close stopped and in a dark and cool place; they should be opened as little as possible, should be labelled poison, and the wndiluted liquid by no means tasted; they should be kept where none but discreet persons can have access to them. Gentlemen who use the prussic acid are invited to trans- mit their reports of its effects for publication in this Journal; they shall be published either in extenso, or by abstract, and analysis as may appear best. a PHYSICS, MECHANICS, CHEMISTRY, AND THE ARTS. _ 5 ———D +) = SUBMARINE NAVIGATION. Arr. VIII. Description of a Machine, invented and con- structed by Davin BusHne.u, a native of Saybrook, at the commencement of the American revolutionary war, for the purpose of submarine navigation, and for the destruc- tion of ships of war ; with an account of the first attempt with it, in August 1776, by Ezra Len, a sergeant in the American army, to destroy some of the British ships then lying at New-York. Communicated by Cuarius Gris- WoLp, Esq. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Lyme, Conn. Feb. 21st. 1820. Sir, : ir is to be presumed that every person who has paid any attention to the mechanical inventions of this country, or s - Griswold on Submarine Explosion. 95 has looked over the history of her revolutionary war, has heard of the machine invented by David Bushnell, for sub- marine navigation, and the destruction of hostile shipping. T have thought that a correct and full account of that novel and original invention, would not be unacceptable to the public, aud particularly to those devoted to the pursuit of science and the arts. If the idea of submarine warfare had ever occurred to any one, before the epoch of Bushnell’s mvention, yet it may be safely stated, that no ideas but his own ever came to any practical results. To him, I believe, the whole merit of this invention is unanimously agreed to belong. But such an account as I have mentioned, must derive an additional value, and an increased interest from the fact, that all the information contamed in the following pages, has been received from the only person in existence pos- sessed of that information, and who was the very same that first embarked in this novel and perilous navigation. Mr. Ezra Lee, first a sergeant and afterwards an ensign in the revolutionary army, a respectable, worthy, and elder- ly citizen of this town, is the person to whom I have allu- ded ; to him was committed the first essay for destroying a hostile ship by submarine explosion, and upon his state- ments an implicit reliance may be placed. Considering Bushnell’s machine as the first of its kind, Tthink it will be pronounced to be remarkably complete throughout in its construction, and that such an invention furnishes evidence of those resources and creative powers, which must rank him as a mechanical genius of the first order. [ shall first attend to a description of this machine, and afterwards to a relation of the enterprise in it by sergeant Lee; confining myself in each case, strictly to the facts with which he has supplied me. Yours, &c. CHARLES GRISWOLD. Bushneli’s machine was composed of several pieces of large oak timber, scooped out and fitted together, and its shape my informer compares to that of a round clam. It was bound around thoroughly with iron bands, the seams were corked, and the whole was smeared over with tar, so 96 Griswold on Submarme Explosion. as to prevent the possibility of the admission of water to the inside. It was of a capacity to contain one engineer, who might stand or sit, and enjoy sufficient elbow room for its proper management. The top or head was made of a metallic composition, exactly suited to its body, so as to be water-tight; this opened upon hinges, and formed the entrance to the ma- chine. Six smal! pieces of thick glass were inserted in this head, for the admission of light: in a clear day and clear sea-water, says my informer, he could see to read at the depth of three fathoms. 'To keep it upright and properly balanced, seven hundred pounds of lead were fastened to its bottom, two hundred pounds of which were so contrived as to be discharged at any moment, to increase the buoy- ancy of the machine. But to enable the navigator when under water, to rise or sink at pleasure, there were two forcing pumps, by which water could be pressed out at the bottom ; and also a spring, by applying the foot to which, a passage was formed for the admission of water. If the pumps should get de- ranged, then resort was had to letting off the lead ballast from the bottom. The navigator steered by a rudder, the tiller of which passed through the back of the machine at a water joint, and in one side was fixed a small pocket compass, with two pieces of shining wood, (sometimes called foxfire,) crossed upon its north point, and a single piece upon the last pomt. In the night, when no light entered through the head, this compass thus lighted, was all that served to guide the helmsman in his course. The ingenious inventor also provided a method for de- termining the depth of water at which the machine might at any time be. This was achieved by means of a glass tube, twelve inches in length, and about four in diameter, which was also attached to the side of the machine : this tube enclosed a piece of cork, that rose with the descent of the machine, and fell with its ascent, and one inch rise of the cork denoted a depth of about one fathom.’ "The principle upon which such a result was produced, and also the mechanical contrivance of this tube, entirely escaped Griswold on Submarine Explosion. 97 the observation of Mr. Lee, amidst the hurry and constant anxiety attendant upon such a perilous navigation. But not the least ingenious part of this curious machine, was that by which the horizontal motion was communicated to it. ‘This object was effected by means of two oars or paddles, formed precisely like the arms of a wind-mill, which revolved perpendicularly upon an axletree that pro- jected in front ; this axletree passed into the machine at a. water joint, and was furnished with a crank, by which it | was turned: the navigator being seated ede. with one. hand laboured at the crank, ane with the other steered by the tiller. The effect of. paddles so constructed, and turned in the manner stated, by propelling or rather drawing a body after _them under water, will readily occur to any one without explanation. These paddles were but twelve inches long, and about four wide. Two smaller paddles of the same description, also projected near the head, provided with a crank instde,_ by which the ascent of the machine could be assisted. By vigorous turning of the crank, says my informer, the machine could be propelled at the rate of about three miles an hour in still water. When beyond the reach of danger, or observation of an enemy, the machine was suffered to float with its head just rising from the water’s surface, and while in this situation, air was constantly admitted through three small orifices in the head, which were closed when a descent was commenced. The efficient part of this engine of devastation, its maga- zine, remains to be spoken of. ‘This was separate and dis- tinct from the machine. It was shaped like an egg, and like the machine itself, was composed of solid pieces of oak scooped out, and in the same manner fitted together, and secured by iron bands, &c. One hundred and _ thirty pounds of gun powder, a clock, and a gun lock, provided with a good flint that would not miss fire, were the apparatus which it enclosed. This magazine was attached to the back of the machine, a little above the rudder, by means of | a screw, one end of which passed quite into the magazine, and there operated as a stop upon the movements of the clock, whilst its other end entered the machine. This screw could be withdrawn from the magazine, by which Vou. Il.....No. 1. 13 98 Griswold on Submarine Explosion. the latter was immediately detached, and the clock com- menced going. ‘The clock was set for running twenty or thirty minutes, at the end of which time, the lock struck, and fired the powder, and in the mean time the adventurer effected his escape. But the most difficult point of all to be gained, was to fasten this magazine to the bottom of a ship. Here a difli- culty arose, which, and which alone, as will appear in the ensuing narrative, defeated the successful operations of this warlike apparatus. Mr. Bushnell’s contrivance was this—A very sharp iron screw was made to pass out from the top of the machine, communicating inside by a water joint; it was provided with a crank at its lower end, by which the engineer was to force it into the ship’s bottom: this screw was next to be disengaged from the machine, and left adhering to the | ship’s bottom. A line leading from this screw to the maga- zine, kept the latter m its destined position for blowing up the vessel. I shall now proceed to the account of the first attempt that was made to destroy a ship of war, all the facts of which, as already stated, I received from the bold adven- turer himself, It was in the month of August, 1776, when Admiral Howe lay with a formidable British fleet in New-York bay, a little above the Narrows, and a numerous British force upon Staten Island, commanded by General Howe, threat- ened annihilation to the troops under Washington, that Mr. Bushnell requested General Parsons of the American army, to furnish him with two or three men to learn the naviga- tion of his new machine, with a view of destroying some > of the enemy’s shipping. Gen. Parsons immediately sent for Lee, then a sergeant, and two others, who had offered their services to go on board of a fire ship ; and on Bushnell’s request being made known to them, they enlisted themselves under him for this novel piece of service. The party went up into Long island Sound with the machine, and made various experi- ments with it in the different harbors along shore, and after having become pretty thoroughly acquainted with the mode of navigating it, they returned through the Sound; but dur- Griswold on Submarine Explosion. 95 ing their absence, the enemy had got possession of Long- {sland and Governor’s-Island. ‘They therefore had the machine conveyed by land across from New-Rochelle to the Hudson river, and afterwards arrived with it at New- York. The British fleet now lay to the north of Staten-Island, with a large number of transports, and were the objects against which this new mode of warfare was destined to act; the first serene night was fixed upon for the execution of this perilous enterprise, and sergeant Lee was to be the engineer. After the lapse of a few days, a favorable night arrived, and at 11 o’clock, a party embarked in two or three whale boats, with Bushnell’s machine in tow. They rowed down as near the fleet as they dared, when sergeant Lee entered the machine, was cast off, and the boats returned. Lee now found the ebb tide rather too strong, and before he was aware, had drifted him down past the men of war; ; he however immediately got the machine about, and by hard labour at the crank for the space of five glasses by the ship’s bells, or two anda half hours, he arrived under the stern of one of the ships at about slack water. Day had now dawned, and by the light of the moon he could see the people on board, and heard their conversation. This was the moment for diving: he accordingly closed up overhead, let in water, and descended under the ship’s bot- tom. He now applied the screw, and did all in his power to make it enter, but owing probably in part to the ship’s cop- per, and the want of an adequate pressure, to enable the screw to get a hold upon the bottom, his attempts all failed; at each essay the machine rebounded from the ship’s bot- tom, not having sufficient power to resist the impulse thus given to it.* He next paddled along to a different part of her bottom, but in this manceuvre he made a deviation, and instantly arose to the water’s surface on the east side of the ship, exposed to the increasing light of the morning, and in im- *It yet remains a problem, whether the difficulty here spoken of will ever be fully obviated. Mr. Fulton’s torpedoes were never fairly brought to the test of experiment, though he and his friends entertained perfect confidence that they would not “he found defective in any of their pers tions 100 Griswold on Submarine Explosion. minent hazard of being discovered. He immediately made another descent, with a view of making one more trial, but the fast approach of day, which would expose him to the enemy’s boats, and render his escape difficult, if not impos- sible, deterred him; and he concluded that the best gene- ralship would be to commence an immediate retreat. He now had before him a distance of more than four miles to traverse, but the tide was favourable. At Gover- nor’s-Island great danger awaited him, for his compass having got out of order, “he was under the necessity of look- ing out “from the top of the machine very frequently to ascertain his course, and at best made a very irregular zig- zag track. The soldiers at Governor’s-Island espied the machine, and curiosity drew several hundreds upon the parapet to watch its motions. At last a party came down to the beach, shoved off a barge, and rowed towards it. At that moment sergeant Lee thought he saw his certain destruction, and as a last act of defence, let go the magazine, expecting that they would seize that likewise, and thus all would be blown to atoms together. Providence however otherwise directed it: the enemy, after approaching within fifty or sixty yards of the machine, and seemg the magazine detached, began to suspect a yankee trick, took alarm and returned to the island. Approaching the city, he soon made a signal, the boats came to him and brought him safe and sound to the shore. The magazine in the mean time had drifted past Gover- nor’s-Island into the East river, where it exploded with tremendous violence, throwing large columns of water and pieces of wood that composed it high into the air. Gen. Putnam, with many other officers, stood on the shore spec- tators of this explosion. In a few days the American army evacuated New-York, and the machine was taken up the North river. Another attempt was afterwards made by Lee upoma frigate that lay opposite Bloomingdale: his object now was to fasten the magazine to the stern of the ship, close at the water’s edge. But while attempting this, the watch discovered him, raised an alarm, and compelled him to abandon his enterprise. He then endeavoured to get under the frigate’s bottom, but in this he failed, having “descended too deep. This terminated his experiments. Doolittle on the Steam Engine. 101 Art. 1X. Remarks on the Revolving Steam Engine of Morey, by Mr. Isaac Doonitrie. TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &e. Paris, 26th March, 1819. Dear Sir, Puysics and mechanics, especially when relating to American inventions, being my favourite studies, I eagerly seized the new revolving steam engine, invented by Morey, as described in the second number of your Journal; and, although the drawings, and description of its movements are very imperfect, I believe I understand its principles. The idea is ingenious, but I fear it will prove less useful than brilliant, for reasons which I will endeavour to explain. And first it may be proper to state, that the intensity or elastic force of the steam is altogether unimportant in the point of view in which I shall consider it; it is indifferent whether it be fifteen pounds or five hundred to the inch area ; as I shall only examine what portion of the force ap- plied to give the alternating motion to the piston is actually employed in producing the rotary movement of the cylin- der, and what portion is lost to all useful purposes. The enclosed diagram, Fig. I.* is a vertical section of the machine, (as I understand it from the drawings) perpen- dicularly to the axes of rotation. The portion of the force which is employed in producing a rotary movement varies at every instant with the angle of its application, and consequently has a maxymum and a min- smum. Its effect also, constantly varies with a perpetually varying lever at the extremity of which it is applied, the effect has therefore also a maximum and aminimum. These last are the only points at which it would be necessary to examine the machine in order to appreciate its comparative merits; but the points of maximum, depending on the two above causes, are not easily determined without having re- * The figures referred to by Mr. Doolittle will be found on one of the plates illustrating Mr. Sullivan’s Steam Boat. 12 |. Doolitile on the Steam Engine. cource to fluxions, with which I must own I'am not sufii- ciently conversant, and if I were, I should perhaps prefer employing a mechanical or graphic solution, because I be- lieve a greater number of persons will be able to understand me. The method I employ, though not mathematically exact, is nevertheless sufficiently so for all practical purpo- ses. The cylinder in its revolutions describes a circle A. B. A’. B’. Fig. I. about the center c. through which center the piston rod must continually pass, whatever may be the position of the cylinder in the circle; and the point of junc- tion of the pitman with the cross piece of the piston rod, describes, in the same time, the circle x. r. x’. (whose ra- dius is equal to the length of the pitman) about the center o. the distance between the two centers is equal to half the length of the stroke of the piston. When the cylinder, in its revolution arrives in A. or in A’. the two centres are in a line with its axis, and the whole force employed either to raise or depress the piston, is en- tirely lost, no part of it bemg employed to turn the machine —these points, in the common engine, working with a crank and fly wheel, are called the dead points. ‘The actuating force is here=o. If, about the centre c., and with a radius equal to half the stroke of the piston, we describe a circle o. n. n’. (fig. 2 and 3.) and divide the circumference into any number of equal parts, and if we draw lines to represent the piston rod im its several positions, always passing through the centre of this circle, and the divisions of its circumference continuing them when necessary, until they strike the circumference of the circle r. d. f. described by the extremity of the pitman, that point will be the point of junction of the pitman with the piston rod; and a line drawn from the center of the latter circle to that point will represent the position of the pitman. One half of the circle, (taken in a line with the dead points) being an exact representation of the other half, it is unnecessary to occupy ourselves with a larger portion ; if, then we divide the semicircle o. n’. p. into eight equal parts, and find the quantity of force utilized at each of these points, we shall obtain a result sufficiently exact for our purpose. Doolittle on the Steam Engine. 103 If we suppose the cylinder arrived in E. (fig. 2.) or in E’. (fig. 3.) and if, from any scale of equal parts, we set off, from the point a., on the line representing the piston rod, a distance a. b. equal to two hundred, and consider this as the force constantly applied to drive the piston in the cylin- der, this force will resolve itself into two forces ; the one, a. e. parallel to the position of the pitman, which of course is entirely lost, being employed in fruitless endeavours to re- move the center piece, the other, a. m. in a line tangent to the circle r. d. f. at the point of contact, a.—by completing the parallelogram a. e. b. m. of which the primitive force a. ‘b. is the diagonal, we have the measure of the forces re- spectively. But the force a. m. is oblique to the direction of the movement of the machine, and is therefore again decom- posed, the two forces resulting from this second decompo- sition, act, the one a. t. ina line parallel to the piston rod, and the other a. s. in the direction of the tangent to a circle whose radius is equal to that portion of the piston rod, com- prised between its junction with the pitman and the center c. of rotation, and parting from the point of junction ;—By completing the parallelogram a. s. m. t. of which a. m. is the diagonal, the side a. t. parallel to the piston rod, is the meas- ure of the force lost in the second decomposition, and the side a. s. represents the force virtually employed in this point in turning the machine. This force measured by the same scale of equal parts gives sixty-two. But it will at once be seen that the lever c. a. in fig. 2. is much longer than the lever c. a. in fig. 3. therefore, if the forces were equal, the effects must be different, in inverse proportion to the length of the levers. And, to compare the effect of this machine to that of one working in the or- dinary way, we must reduce all the forces to a length of lever equal to that where they could be applied if the cylin- der stood still and turned the crank, instead of turning itself around it=this lever is represented by the distance between the centre c of rotation and the circumference of the circle n. 0. n’. To find the equivalent of the force a. s. if applied at the point h. of the lesser circle (fig. 2.) say—force applied at the extremity of long lever c. a. is to length of short lever c. _h. as length of long lever c. a. is to force at the extremity of short lever ¢. h.—in this construction. 104 Doolittle on the Steam Engine. 62:66::125:22225— 133... " figure 3. the force being applied at a lever much short- er than that to which it is to be reduced, its effect at the extremity of the longer lever must be found by inverse be portion—thus— 66:62:11: ag Oey Making similar constructions in the other points of divis- ion, and reducing the respective forces to AE same length © of lever, we have the following series.— | Forces at the points of application. | Forces reduced to an equal lever. = c = = 1 97 - - = - 157 124 - - = - 135 172 - - - - 52 G2 cela eae 11 Ope eioueniie 0 Dividing the sum by 8,the number of terms - 8 | 542 We have, for the mean force utilized - ~- 68 for 200 applied. In this calculation, as in all which precede, to avoid fractions, where there were any, I have uniformly added an unit in their stead, in order to give the machine “a fair chance.” The mean force 68 is applied tangentially to the reduced circle, whose semi circumference is=207—the force that have supposed applied is 200, and the stroke of the piston is 131. Therefore force applied is to force utilized ::200 X 131:68 x 207 or as 26:14, nearly; then say 26:14::100:44°—54 In the common crank the force applied is to the force utilized ::100:78, nearly. Therefore the effect of the new machine, is to the effect of the common crank, with the ap- plication of an equal force as 54:78 or ::9:13. We must observe also, that when the cylinder arrives in B or in B’ (fig. 1.) the piston has performed half its stroke. If, therefore, we consider the pressure of the steam as a weight, and multiply that weight by the distance gone through to find the quantity of force employed in giving Doolittle on the Steam Engine. 105 motion to the machine, we have force expended in describ- ing the are B‘AB=force employed in describing the arc B, A’, B’—Therefore, besides the continual variation in the intensity of the force utilized, we find that a much greater portion of the force required fora revolution is spent in de- scribing the semicircle f. A. g. than in describing the semi- circle g. A’. f—and we must not forget that this is the por- tion of the revolution where the effect is greatest in propor- tion to the force employed ; therefore if the motion of the piston in the cylinder be uniform, the motion of the cylin- der in its revolutions must be irregular and vice versa. Add to this, that with the velocity which Mr. Sullivan proposes giving to this machine, the influence of the centri- fugal force ought to be taken into consideration—this force also not only varies with the dimensions of the machine and the weight of the piston, but is different at every instant, in the same machine, increasing as the piston recedes from the centre, and diminishing as it approaches; augmenting the effect of the machine in the first instance and diminishing it in the latter ; more force is therefore developed in going from A through B to A’, than in going from A’ through B’ to A=another cause of irregularity in its movements, to coun- teract these effects the machine should be made very heavy, to serve as a fly wheel. Ihave hitherto considered this engine without reference to its friction; this, in certain points of its revolution, must be immensely greater than in the old engine, as will appear evident to the most superficial observer, on a simple inspec- tion of its construction. These are some of the imperfections which this engine possesses in addition to all-those of the common one, and 1 can discover nothing in its favour but novelty. There is no doubt but it will turn, if it be not too much loaded, and its movements will probably produce an agree- able effect, but I do not apprehend that Oliver Evans has any thing to fear from its rivality. You are at liberty to make what use you please of this communication. I am, sir, very respectfully, Your obedt. servt. 1. DOOLITTLE. Vou. .....No. 1. 14 106 Sullwan on the Revoluing Engine. Arr. X. Mr. Suurivan on the Revolving Engine ; in re- ply to Mr. DoouittLr.* TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Sir, { WAS so well aware of the adequacy of my descrip- tion of Morey’s Steam Engine in your second number, that i had already thought of offering a supplement, when you gave me an opportunity of reading the remarks of Mr. Doolittle, which | presume you will insert, preceding this further explanation. The invention was then quite in its infancy, and your American readers will require no apology for occupying a page of your Journal once more, with a subject perhaps in- teresting only as it relates to the developement of the re- sources of our country: this form of the engine being pe- culiarly adapted to canals and other inland navigation. .. _ Referring to the annexed plate and explanation, I will briefly attempt to answer the remarks of your correspon- dent. The objection that a part of the force is lost in producing a rotary motion, applies, I think with equal propriety to all engines communicating by the intervention of the crank —as in all of them it must be considered as a varying lever. By loss of force must be meant the difference between the effect it would produce were its action always at right an- gles to the crank, and its indirect action, as it revolves. Professor Playfair estimates this difference as 7 to 11— that is, a rotary motion is produced by the crank at the expense of ;‘,ths of the power which the engine would have, could it be exerted directly upon its object, or load. This estimate of loss relates to atmospheric engines. Notwithstanding this however, it was considered a great improvement when Mr. Watt introduced the crank. Jt gave the steam engine to many more useful purposes; though * Remark.—The temporary suspension of the Journal offered me an oppor- tunity of submitting Mr Doolittle’s remarks to Mr. Sullivan’s perusal, which gives these gentlemen the mutual advantage of having their pieces appear together, instead of coming out in different numbers.—Editor. Sulliwan on the Revolving Engine. 107 some part of the force, was undoubtedly lost at every stroke, in giving motion to the balance wheel necessary to equalize the movement. Whether the loss of force by a crank is actual or theoretical, may be a question. Itis not one how-- ever which applies.to this engine so much as to others, be- cause it is moved by very elastic steam always operating in one or both of the two cylinders which compose this en- gine. Your correspondent deems this unimportant to the ques- tion he raises,—which I may answer more satisfactorily to your readers, by a quotation in point, from Dr. Young’s Lec- tures. He is speaking of the use of the crank before men- tioned, as an improvement in the Steam Engine. “If the rotary motion of the Crank be equable, the pro- gressive motion of the rod will be gradually accelerated and retarded, and for a considerable space of the revolution the force exerted will be nearly unitorm ; but if we attempt to communicate at once to the rod its whole velocity in each direction, as has sometimes been done, the motion would become extremely irregular, and the machinery would be destroyed by the strain. “¢ On the other hand it must be observed, that force ap- plied to the machinery, may in general be divided into two forces; the one employed in opposing the force, so as to produce an equilibrium only, and the other in generating. momentum. a ‘With respect to the first portion, a single crank has the inconvenience of changing continually the mechanical ad- vantage of the machine; with respect to the second, its motion in the second quarter of its revolution is accelerated, instead of being retarded by the inertia, which this portion of the force is intended to overcome ; and from the combi- nation of these causes, the motion must necessarily be ren- dered very irregular. aa “¢ (>-This may however be completely removed by em- ploying always cranks in pairs, one of them being fixed so as to make aright angle with the other.” Here Dr. Young does not seem to think this supposable decision of force “ lost to all useful purposes,” but incident to the nature of machinery—or remediable on the same _prin- ciple by which steam, as a power, is applied by the double revolving engine. Whatever deduction is to be made then 108 Sullivan on the Revoloing Engine. from the original power, arises from the friction of the ma- chine only—which point we will consider after a moment’s attention to the nature of force. Force is known and measured only by its effects. If a machine is so constructed as to render gravitation, at- mospheric pressure, or the expansion of elastic fluids, ope- rative, continually ; then the machine will be more or less perfect, as it consumes on itself, the power from these sour- ces, in transmitting it to its object. But as in estimating these sources of power, time is a ne- cessary circumstance; the constant transmission of the power by the machine, will enter into the estimate of its quality. And if, as in the common steam engine, the atmospheric - pressure is not constant, or if being so, the manner of convey- ing it is not constantly the same, it may be said to be a loss of power only because it is a loss of teme, in which, were the machine otherwise constructed, the power might have been exerted. Your correspondent misleads the mind by the terms in which he states, that ‘‘ he proposes to examine what portion of the force applied to give the alternating motion of the- piston is actually employed in producing the rotary move- ment of the cylinder, and what portion zs lest to all useful purposes.” And he thinks, “‘ when the piston is in a line with the two centres,” (or is proped for the moment, by the fixed crank) “that the whole force employed to raise or depress the piston is entirely lost.” We have anticipated the first point by reference to Young; —and need only add, that it is unnecessary to investigate what is an already received and established rule, that the difference of advantage between a force acting constantly at tight angles with the crank—and obliquely ata ie be angle as “usual, is as 7 to 11. As to the second, it may be said there could be no power m question, but through the intervention of the machine, and if the operation of “the machine is suspended in the po- sition supposed, there can be no power to loose—but your correspondent carries his idea of the practical effect of the principle of resolution of forces to an extent, that militates with some received principles of mechanics. He assumes asa given quantity 200. ‘ This force will resolve itself Sullivan on the Revolving Engine. 109 (equally) into two forces; the one parallel to the position of the pitman, which of course is entirely lost, being em- ployed in fruitless endeavours to remove the centre piece.” When two forces meet at an angle, they produce a third, nearly equal to both in the diagonal of a parallelogram, pro- duced from the two lines of their direction—and yet scarcely any thing is lost. We know too from the highest authority, “ that if any body draws or presses another, it is itself as much drawn or pressed :”’ that “all forces act reciprocally,” that ‘ action and reaction are equal’’—but it is not thence concluded in theory—and surely it would be contrary to practice to say, that any of the force is lost. When a boat is moved by oars, the force exerted on the extremity of the oar, reacts-upon the boat.— When a lever is applied to raise a weight, the whole force reacts from the fulcrum.— When a gun is fired, the elastic air acts on the bottom and sides of the chamber, which do not consume the force, but react upon the ball. And in like manner the force derived from the steam (in this case) is returned from the fixed centre piece, as a basis, and through the intervention of the pitman gives revolution to the engine. An unqualified objection is made to this engine, on the score of friction. It is said, ‘the friction of this engine will appear evident to the most superficial observer, to be immensely greater than in the old engine.” This manner of expression and of judgment appears to be equally unphilosophical. It supposes the friction of a machine greater, as it may seem to such an observer com- plicate. It seems to leave out of the question the estab- lished law of mechanics, that “ friction is simply prepor- tional to the weight or pressure, that brings the substances concerned into contact, independently of the magnitude of ther forces,—and that friction is a uniformly retarding force.” On these principles an engine of equal power, that is not more than a third as heavy as others, must have the advan- tage of this difference in point of friction, the work and ad- justment being equally perfect. It cannot be denied that 2 good adaptation of parts, makes a great difference in ma- 110 Sullivan on the Revolving Engine. _ chines, and that oleaginous substances interposed lessen the friction essentially. All these things being equal, the law above stated applies, nor is there any particular portion in. which it is peculiarly great. The most disadvantageous moment is, when the piston has reached the end of the stroke, and starts in the other direction: but it starts gently, and when in the other cylinder, the power to help it, is ereatest—the substances in contact are a polished surface of iron and oiled hempen packing; there cannot be much at- trition between these; every other part of the engine is lubricated, and moves always the same way. The Rotary Valves seem the most subject to this objection at first view. Here are two surfaces moving up- on each other, one of iron the other of brass, both perfect- ly polished, and occasionally oiled; they are kept to- gether by springs, elastic enough to preserve the contact ; for the tendency is to separate; there is little or no weight or pressure to cause friction between them and it cannot possi- bly be great. You have witnessed the operation of a large engine of this kind ; and must recollect with how little force of steam it moved. ‘ I believe nothing in mechanics is more difficult to esti- mate than friction, what is ever incident to machinery ; but it should not be confounded with the obstacles to be over- come in the imperfections of work as well as of plan. Its unavoidable existence however, shews the expediency of reducing the steam engine to as light a construction as possible, as well as to get rid of those massive members which waste the original power on their own movements. Experience is our surest guide in mechanics, and perhaps the late Mr. Evans’ heirs may have nothing to fear from what Mr. Doolittle calls the rivality of Morey’s invention. But I can assure him of the fact, that the same boilers which once carried a twenty horse engine of Evans’ in my first steam tow-boat, that could not be made to tow more than one boat, now applied to a small single revolving engine, can tow four boats faster than that one was carried and con- sume not half so much fuel. Dr. Young justly observes that the beauty of a contrivance, and the skill of the contriver depend, principally, on the sim- plicity of the means, and the safety, and durability of the ma- Sullivan on the Revolving Engine. ‘Ail chine. Mr. Morey, who was one of the earliest experimen- talists of our country, in Steam Boats, deserves the praise this implies. I prefer his engine to carry on the inland navi- gation in which | am concerned. Should a better engine be devised it will become my interest to adoptit. At present I am perfectly satisfied. But it may be useful to shew what reason I have to be so, and why this engine is preferable in navigation. ~ It will be recollected that it has long been a desideratum to give the steam engine a rotary movement. I do not know that it has heretofore been done in a form or manner sufficiently free from objection. The combination however, of two cylinders at right an- gles, has the same effect. They produce a continuity of the power, whatever that is; and enable the engine to work with equable motion, without a balance wheel, objec- tionable in navigation on account of its weight, as well as cost. We are enabled by this form of the engine to give the power of steam to canal navigation, and shallow mland wa- ters; to apply the power directly to the axis of the water wheel of the boat which is thus made the connecting axis of the engine. No form of the Steam Boat can be more sim- le. The boats for this purpose have a peculiar form, which gives a recess or chamber at the stern, for the play of the wheel, or crank paddles of a peculiar construction, so that nothing encumbers the sides. The boilers when the boat is large, stand on or above the deck, covered from the air and weather. The whole body of the vessel being unincumbered and free for the use of loading or of passengers. An important saving of expense may be made_in conse- quence of the reduced size of the machine ; for its complete adaptation to the use of high steam admits of a great power, thus exerted in a small compass. Expense is also saved in the manner of attaching the engine to the boat or vessel, so as not to depend on the stiffness or firmness of the bottom ; the center of reaction being the centre of the engine. When this kind of engine shall be applied to steam bat- teries, it will be found capable of propelling them perhaps with more than usual velocity, and at much less expense : 112 Sullivan on the Revolving Engine. but its great utility will be found in facilitating water car- riage on those rivers, which are at times shallow, and those which are rendered more extensively navigable by canals around their falls. I am, very respectfully, yours, &c. J. L. SULLIVAN. Boston, October, 1819. P.S. Inthe Hartford Boat, we used the Tar or Gas fire with good effect : but I am not able to state yet, precise- ly the proportion of saving. The men about the engine however, thought it equal to as much again wood as they used. When I have made some decisive trials I shall communi- cate the result. Riemark. We understand that Mr. Sullivan and Mr. Mo- rey have in the investigation of the economy of the liquid fuel of steam engines, (or tar and steam fire,) made some discoveries and improvements which bid fair to be very use- ful and economical. ‘They are in practice ina steam en- gine which carries the recently invented self directing lathe, . which makes ships’-blocks, lasts and other irregularly form- ed articles. Haplangtien of the plates referred to in the preceding communi- cation. Index to the annexed plate of the Revolving Steam Engine. aaa Boilers, bb Cylinders, ec Counterpoise, (not absolutely necessary as the Seas counterpoise each other. ) dd _ Frames holding the cylinders, &c. ee Axes on which the frames rotate, *f Fixed cranks or centers, gg ‘The pitman or bar, hh Cross pieces, it The Piston rods, xk The Ribs which preserve the parallel movement of the rods, il The rotary valves, mim The fixed counterpart to the rotary valve, Sullivan on the Revolving Engine. 113 an The springs which keep the valves together, 90 The Throttle valve box and pipes leading steam to the cyl- inders, pp. Pipes leading from the cylinders, rr The intermediate shaft, s The clutch box, to connect the shaft and wheel, t The clutch box lever, uu Cog wheels communicating motion—the reverse of this proportion is found in experience preferable, ww The main shaft, xx The safety valves, zz The gear and crank for the supply pump. Wig. 2. ‘The inside or face of the valves shewing the grooves, The cross pipes and double passage cocks to produce the back motion, 4. Wheels with moveable floats, 5. ‘The gas fire apparatus aud pipes—not placed in this in- stance to the best advantage. The vessel should be placed on its head. 6. Profile of a Boat the boilers above deck, (see note b.) 7. The stern view of the revolving engine applied to the axis, cranks and stern propellers, 8. Outline of the apparatus attached to the stern, 10. Profile of the stern with paddles. Note a. By proportioning the revolutions of the engine to the motion of the paddles or wheels so that the engine will ordinarily move moderately and the wheels fast ; we are able when the vessel has speed, either from the wind or steam, to superadd the power of this engine to her acquired momentum, so that the maximum of effect may be attained. If the engine has power to go too fast for the paddles they may be made to take more hold of the water— and the reverse. Note 6. It being desirable that boilers should be placed as much a-part from the loading and passengers as possible, the recently invented fuel will permit of arrangements very favourable to the economy of room. Note c. The advantages of a double engine are perhaps very important in boats of the largest class, but a single engine applied to the stern propellers, is the most simple and lightest form of the engine; and is best adapted to those rivers of our country which flow tarough alluvial land, and consequently make their channels Vou. II.....No. 1. 15 114 Gibbs on Dry Rot. : alternately close in with one shore or the other, as their winding course directs the force of the current. A steam boat therefore which has no external wheels or apparatus, will be less exposed 10 accidents from the shore, the trees upon it, or from drift wood. FOR THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Art. XI. Observations on the Dry Rot, by Col. Groner GIBBs. "THE late extraordinary decay of Timber, by a disease, termed the dry rot, in the commercial and military marme in Europe, has excited much attention, and called forth ma- ny schemes for prevention or cure. But I have not been fortunate enough to meet with any account of its cause, or any proposal for a remedy, which could satisfy me, still less the Gentlemen skilled in naval affairs. It appears, that this disease affects wood, whether dry or moist, though more in the latter case: that it has become more common within thirty years, and since that time large ships have been discovered to be entirely rotten on the stocks, before the preparations were made for launching them. Steaming the ane! has been tried in America, and found injurious ; oil and paint are ruinous; and many oth- er operations have been recommended, some of which were found injurious, others ineffectual, ‘others too costly for tri- al. All the ingenuity of the English mechanics seems to have been employed in scheeming and failing; much mo- ney, and some lives, have been lost in these experiments. The Dry Rot has been ascribed to the use of green tim- ber, or wood not sufficiently seasoned or docked; but, though docking timber is, to a considerable extent, impor- tant, yet it is found that this remedy is by no means sure, as ships with which this precaution, as formerly, has been tried, have been found at times subject to the dry rot; so that in spite of every care, large vessels in Europe do not last half as long as formerly. In the tied States this diseased is by no means as com- mon, althous ch it gradually becomes more so. Our mer- Gibbs on Dry Rot. ae chant ships are at times troubled with it. Our ships of war being built of live oak, cedar, and locust, are less exposed to this evil. The live oak appears to be almost indistructi- ble, except perhaps by its contact with other species of wood, the juices of which, as in treenails,* may injure it.— But the time is not far distant, when we must bewail this ca- lamity, or discover some preventive. The same evil attends the construction of modern built houses.. The timbers of the roof of Westminster-Hall have been in place six hundred years, and I have examined in this country some which were placed one hundred and fifty years ago, and are seemingly uncorrupted and incorruptible. But no architect now would calculate on a durability of half the latter term. I have been informed that some of the floors in the new City-Hall, in New-York, though finished within only six years, have been removed on account of the dry rot. Considermg these and other facts before the public, I have been led to believe, that the dry rot is owing to the aature of the wood, rather than to the deficiency of ordina- ry preparation. The wood of a tree consists of the heart and the albur- ‘um, or sap wood which forms the external concentric Layers. This last is the vehicle of the sap. In young irees, it extends to the centre, but as the tree grows, the heart becomes firm, and ceases to circulate the sap, and this process continues during the life of the tree. In aged trees the sap wood forms only a small part of the timber, till at length a process similar to ossification in the old age of animals takes place, and the tree dies for want of nourish- ment. The durability of heart, and the pernicious effects of sap wood, are well known ; but as timber bears, a high price, workmen content themselves with taking off the coloured sap wood, without regarding the remaining part in the tm- ber. An oak tree, at the age of eighty years, is generally of a size fitted for timber for large vessels. But if we com- pare this tree to one of the same size, but two hundred years old, we shall find the real proportion of sap wood and heart very different in the two specimens. Now if we con- * Trunnels? so pronounced by the skip carpenters.— Editor. 116 Gibbs on Dry Rot. sider the enormous consumption of wood during the last century, in large and small vessels, in houses, and in all the objects which “add to the comforts of society, both in Eu-- rope and America, we may justly suppose that few old oaks can be supplied in Europe, and that the number in America is continually diminishing. We are therefore justified in believing, that the dry rot in vessels and houses, in its present extension, is owing to the use of young timber, to which architects have had re- cource, in consequence of the destruction of the old forests. It is perhaps impossible to prevent the danger, but it may be in ourspower to guard in a great measure against it.— And it is of so much importance, that I feel less reluctance in offering my opinion on the subject. The object of every process for the preservation of tim- ber, must be to extract the water of the sap, and to destroy the absorbent power of the wood, and chiefly of the sap vessels. The different uses for which the timber is intend- ed, will of course cause some difference in the mode of its treatment. For this purpose, I suggest with diffidence the following processes, some one of which may probably be used in every situation :-— The first method is suggested by a very common usage of charring posts which are to be placed in the ground.— This method is of very ancient date, it having been used both by the Grecians and the Romans; and the piles so used either for bridges or foundations of temples, are now frequently found.in a state of complete preservation, after a lapse of two thousand years. Bui the use of this method must necessarily be very limited. - Another method emay perhaps be tried with success, and without greater expense than many that have been resorted to without avail:-1 mean the use of smoke. This would evaporate the water of the sap, and carbonise im some measure the wood. A third method is the application of lime, either in solu- tion or as air slacked. The first would act like the muriate of soda in sea water, in the docking of timber, but from chemical affinity, much more powerfully. It might be ap- plied to timber in most situations. I understand that when the steam frigate was built in New-York, a quantity of pot- ash was poured into the centre of each timber. [Between Gibbs on Dry Rot. 117 contiguous timbers? Ed.] But it is the surface, and not the heart of the wood which first decays. This alkali, like hime, could not fail of being useful when properly applied. Air slacked lime, filled in between the timbers, would keep a continual action on the neighboring wood, until the sap was extracted, and the wood in all its parts completely pen- etrated by lime. ‘This, with the occasional use of a solu- tion of lime, would render the wood incorruptible, as well as incombustible, and the woody fibre, like the animal fibre m leather, being saturated, would increase in strength and durability. G. GIBBS. Sunswick, August, 1819. P. S.—Since the above was written, I have received from Col. Perkins, of Boston, some valuable information on the subject, which I will briefly state:—Several ships built at that port have been salted, or filled in between the tim- bers with salt whilst on the stocks, and after a lapse of ten or fifteen years the timbers have in every case, been found to be perfectly sound. A large ship belonging to him, which had been salted, (fourteen years old) required repairs, new decks, and new iron work. Considering the age of the ship, it was important to examine the frame in every part. The ceiling was therefore ripped up, and a complete examination took place. The result was, that the timber and plank were found completely sound in every part. I accompanied this gentleman on board ofa salted ship belonging to him, and now in this port. The timbers were not so close as usual in frames of vessels, and the salt was retained at different heights by wedges between the tim- bers, so that the salt in settling should not leave any con- siderable height vacant. It took five hundred bushels of salt for this ship, of five hundred tons ; and two years after beimg built, one hundred bushels were added to fill up the space of the salt dissolved. Another instance has been communicated to me by an intelligent officer of the Navy. The Argus U. S. brig was built at Boston in 1802, of green timber, was salted as above, repaired at the Navy-yard in New-York in 1814, and the timbers found to be perfectly sound. 118 Morey on Heat and Light. I see no ebjection to this treatment, except from the great weight above, say 2S tons in a ship of 300. The expense is not material, but the iron work I should think would re- quire renewing oftener than in the other modes. Whether a dampness would be created injurious to the health of the crew of a large ship of war, to its provisions and amunition, — orto the freight of valuable goods, requires further expe- rience. ; G. GIBBS. Arr. XII. On Heat and Light ; by Mr. Samue, Morey* of Orford, New-Hampshire. [First Communication. ] TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &ex Sor, tr in the following experiments on light and heat, with remarks on the economy of burning water as an object of fuel, any thing can be found worthy of a place in your val- uable Journal, it will be perhaps more than I could reason- ably expect. Yours respectfully, S. M. Water, it is well known, is composed of some of the best materials for producing light and heat; but when formed by combustion, something which those materials did contain appears to be parted with, or is neutralized, which must be ‘restored to render them again combustible. How shall that be effected, so as torender the process easy and useful ° * T presume that no apology will be necessary for giving Mr. Morey‘s valuable communications entire. They are the practical results of an m- genious practical man who as he ingenucusly states, ‘having no preten- sions to seience, no chemical or philosophical apparatus and little or no ac- cess to men of science, has spent much of his life in experiments.” Suck yesul{s are often very valuable, and perhaps, in some cases, not the less so, for having been sought without the direction of preconceived, theoretical yiews.—-Lditor. ; ; JMorey on Heat and Light. 119 Electricity will restore it—May not the same or other materials, which furnish that electricity, at so very lowa temperature, furnish it directly to the water, at a higher, “though convenient one ? If water, in considerable quantities is thrown on oil or tar in a state of inflammation, the fiame is greatly increased, which evidently arises from some effect which the oil has, in preparing the water for combustion. If oil will, at or near the temperature at which it boils or takes fire, produce the same effect, we have only to pass the steam of boiling water, through oil at that temperature, to furnish a regular supply of fuel from the water—and, if only the Hydrogen is in the first instance given out for use, the Oxygen by mixing or combining with the oil, will un- doubtedly render it a drying oil, and more combustible, and ultimately assist in making the combustion the more perfect. Many experiments seem to justify these conclusions, some of which will be mentioned. If ever so small a drop of water, fall into oil at a temper- ature near boiling, it evidently is decomposed, for the ex- plosive report is sharper than that of gun powder. If tar, containing a considerable proportion of water, is dropped on brick or metal; at a temperature which will rapidly evaporate them, the vapours burn with white shoot- ing streaks, much flame, and without smoke, while the wa- ter lasts. Infiamed drops of tar, burn, while falling, with a red flame and much smoke, but on reaching boiling water the smoke instantly disappears, and streaks of a white flame shoot up. If water m one cylinder be made to boil, and the steam be led to the bottom of another, containing rosin or tar, at a high temperature ; after passing up through it, the water to- gether with the vaporized portion of the rosin or tar, will, when the proportions are properly regulated, burn with an intense white flame and no smoke, much the greater part of which, appears (by alternately shutting the steam out, or letting it m,) to be derived from the water: So also if steam be led over ihe surface of tar ina cylin- der, and made to force out a small stream of it, through a pipe, into which a quantity of steam is also naenitbeds “andy made to mix intimately with it, they burn with a great body of flame and intense heat, and without smoke provided the - proportions are well regulated. 120 Morey on Heat and Light. - Again, if water in one cylinder be made to boil, and the steam be led to the bottom of another included cylinder, containing spirits of turpentine, the steam, when let out un- der a moderate pressure, carries off with it a sufficient quan- tity of the spirit to burn with a pleasant white flame, free from smoke ; by increasing the pressure, the flame will be- come in part or wholly blue. Here as in many other ex- periments, I have noticed, that different coloured flames may be produced from the same materials—are the products of the combustion different ? If the steam of water, containing a small proportion of the vapour of rosin be driven against iron, at or below a red heat, it burns with a pleasant blue flame, which will be ex- tended some way back into the column of the vapour, inter- mixed with innumerable sparks of very white flame, evi- dently particles of the rosin. If the vapours, when the proportion of rosin is very small, are made to pass between two plates of iron, at or near a red heat, they can be inflamed on the opposite sides of the plates, and will then, sometimes, burn with an entirely blue flame, although the vapour cannot be inflamed, with- out the intervention of the plates. If the steam of boiling water, be led to the bottom and passed up through tallow at a high temperature, and then through cold water to condense the vapour, the hardened tallow will float on the surface : and on applying a flame, it would sometimes, take fire, some distance before the flame reached it, at other times it would require, to be in contact a few seconds, always beginning to burn with a blue flame, and after the whole surface had been sometime enveloped in flame, and the heat was such, against one side of the top or rim of the vessel, as to cause the water below the oil on that side to boil, and pass up through the oil, the flame on this side would be chiefly blue. Does not this show that the steam was on this side decomposed in passing through the inflamed tallow, and from its sometimes taking fire on the approach ofa flame, it would appear clearly that there was an evaporation of hydrogen, from the tallow, and when burnt with the same sized wick, it appeared to me to give three or four times as much light as other tallow, which pointed out as I thought, that it was rendered in the process highly combustible. Morey on Heat and Light. 121 {fa given quantity of strongly compressed boiling water be suddenly discharged into about an equal quantity of oil or rosin, at or near the boiling point, they explode to every appearance as quickly and violently as gun powder, and would without doubt, be as fatal. In this case, an immense guantity of highly inflammable gas or vapor is formed in an instant, and apparently without any aid from caloriec.— [Except what is contained in the materials ?—£d.] When sulphuric acid is mixed with water, it is well known that much heat is given out. If after standing until the mixture becomes cold, iron filings are then added, much hydrogen gas will continue to be formed for a long time, and much sensible heat will be again given out. We must here look, certainly to some other cause, besides the caloric given out by the oxygen, in passing from a liquid to a sol- id state. If a small quantity of spirits of turpentine be add- ed, it burns with a very pleasant white flame, and without smoke. Here again it is very evident the greater part of the bulk of the flame is furnished from the water, which im this case, is again directly reprepared for combustion, without the least. expence of caloric. At present sir, I will not trouble you with an account of any more experiments in which I have thought that water was, and might be useful in producing light and heat; I will only add one or two more, in which it is not concerned. if to tallow or linseed oil a small quautity of salt-petre be added, and the temperature raised-to nearly that of the boil- ing point, the salt petre appears to be dissolved and held in solution by the oil; they will evaporate together, and the mixture, or the vapour, will burn, wholly excluded from the atmosphere. If science will. point out a mode of retaining the mixture when cold, I have thought perhaps it might be more extensively useful than the safety lamp. If the vapor of spirits of turpentine be made to pass through a tube, covered at the upper end with fine wire gauze, it burns with much smoke; if a quantity of atmos- pherie air be allowed to mix with it, the smoke ceases, but the fame continues white. If more still be added, the flame lessens and becomes partly blue. By adding still more and more, it will burn with a very small flame, entirely blue, and with a singular musical sound. If still more be added, the flame and every ray of light ceases, but that the gom- Vou. H.....No. 1. 16 122 Morey on Heat and Light. bustion still continues, is certain, from the explosive deto- gating noise or report, continuing to be distinctly heard. Orford, May 4th, 1819. Arr. XII. On Heat and Eight; by Mr. Samuet Morey. [Second Communication. ] TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Ss UW's As the use of a certain proportion of water for affording heat and light, has become more familiar, and some of the experiments being very simple, and such as may be easily repeated, I have thought I might be justified in submitting to your perusal some further remarks and experiments on that subject; hopmg you may there from select something which may find a place in the American Journal. I find, that, for common use, the most convenient mode is to evaporate the substance designed to afford light, or light and heat, provided it naturally contains a sufficiency of water to make the vapor burn with a white flame free from smoke ; or if not to furnish the supply by a small separate boiler :-— depending on the decomposition of the water in burning the vapor, to free it from smoke, as well as to increase the intensity of the light. This mode of furnishing light and heat for common uses, has many advantages, it appears to me, over that of forming and burning gas, some of which will be hereafter mentioned. If we observe mineral coal when the fire first reaches it, we shall perceive, that the vapor which first issues, burns with a white flame, free from smoke; owing undoubtedly to the great proportion of water. So also it is with pitch- pine wood, or the fat knots, if the heat be not too great. It is curious to observe the effect in burning any kind of pine wood, which contains more or less of these knots. The — streams of vapor are often pushed out to a considerable dis- tance, and burn with a very pleasant white flame. ‘These knots burn for a long time, and will sometimes retain water enough to burn the vapor without smoke, until the whole of Morey on Heat and Light. 123 the wood adjoining them has been converted into coal.— These streams of vapor appear to me to be very different from those of the Carburetted Hydrogen, which are often seen issuing from burning wood after it has become nearly coal. ‘These rarely, if ever, go out, and the flame follows them to the wood. Not so with those of the vapor: they are plainly to be seen issuing to some distance, and mixing generally with a proportion of air, before they will burn; and they are often extinguished by puffs of too great a pro- portion of steam. The colour of these vapors, their deto- nating noise, their variously coloured flames—(blue, blue and white, white and intense white) we can now perfectly imitate at our pleasure with the patent lamp stove, by burn- ing tar, pitch pine, or mineral coal and water. One of the greatest difficulties which I have met with, was from the inclination the tar or rosin manifests, to over- flow or run out, when heated to about the temperature of boiling water; this disposition arises undoubtedly from the - sudden conversion of the water, contained in every part of the tar, into steam. The best mode I have tried of obvi- ating the difficulty is, by filling the vessel only in part—say ene quarter with tar, and then filling it with small or fine coal.* ‘The effect appears to be, that the tar, as it becomes heated at the sides of the vessels, rises up and passes off laterally into the centre of the coal, in a geat measure out of the reach of the high temperature at the sides; when the bubbles are broken, the vapor passes up through the coal, and the tar settles down, to repeat the same operation. This experiment may in some measure be easily tried bya common skillet. Fill it about one quarter with tar; place live coals around it, and in a few minutes the tar will fow over: but, if previously fine coal be added so as nearly to fill the skil- let, it cannot be made to flow over with a common charcoal fire, unless urged by a strong blast. When the vapor rises pretty freely above the coal, and if a flame is applied, it takes fire and will continue to burn while the tar lasts.—If a piece of coal of some size be made a little concave and placed at the top in the centre, and a little water poured into it, it re- mains a considerable time, although enveloped in flame: and is evaporated without boiling. ‘The flame around this * We take it for granted that charcoal is intended.— Editor. 124 Jigorey on Heat and Laght. water, while evaporating, is whiter and freer from smoke. Ifa tunnel be inverted over the coal, the vapor as it issues from it may be inflamed. At first, in consequence undoubt- edly of the great proportion of water given off by the tar and coal, it burns without smoke. When the flame becomes reddish, and there is much smoke, pour a little water into the tunnel as it stands; it is received on the coal without driving out or exploding the tar, as it otherwise would. The vapor may again be inflamed, and again burns without smoke. Much in this way, may be had a useful he¢ht and fire for cooking especially at sea, and for a great aa other pur- poses. Ifthe tunnel be flatted, er rf the coal has been par- tially saturated with water, it burns with less smoke, and sand or ashes will prevent a loss by the side. Another great advantage derived from the coal, besides that of giving a more uniform steady fire, and preventing the tar’s running over, 1s the great quantity of water it absorbs, and that of the water’s adhering so obstinately to it, which in a great measure, answers every purpose of a constant supply of steam from a separate boiler. Newly made and red hot charcoal will take up about three times its weight of water, which it will in some measure retam until nearly consumed. Sand, ashes, or fine clay answers well for mixing with the tar &c. If the latter be made into a paste with equal parts of spirits of turpentine and water, and cold lumps of it of a conical form be placed on a table, and a flame applied, the vapors burn without smoke for a short time; if placed ona stove ata temperature something like that of boilmg water, the flame continues much longer. If enclosed in a tin cylin- der, and the vapor be made to issue through small holes at the top, placed as before stated, or on a plate over a chafing- dish of coals, it burns with a very white light, free from smoke. Ifthe cylinder be tight at the top, and the vapor be led froin the inside at the top, down and through the bottom and there be made to issue in an oblique direction, and from a number of small openings, it will burn with a beautiful fame, and supports and regulates, very accurately, its own evaporation. ‘The oblique direction carries the heat in part beyond the cylinder, when the evaporation is too reat. Every effect may be produced in consuming the smoke, and giving an intense white flame, by using a certain pro- Morey on Heat and Laght. 125 portion of water intimately blended or mixed with these vapors, that can be from an excess of oxygen furnished by ereating a very strong current of air, with a high flue. With water it is effected much more conveniently, and without carrying off any part of the heat from the room. Another advantage is, it carries along with it the whole of the iar and consumes it. For instance, if into a piece of a gunbarrel about six inches long, tar be made to flow regularly at one end, a quantity of steam let into the same end, and the iron kept at a temperature below or at a red heat, the vapors issuing through small holes at the other end, may be infla- med, ands if the proportions are right, wi il burn without ari oad for aught that appears, may he continued while the supply lasts. ‘But if the steam be shut eff, and the tar contains no water, the small apertures and the barrel itself will in a short time, become filled with a coaly residium. Another advantage in using a proportion of water is, thai tar or rosin is evaporated at a much lewer temperature, which must be increased as the proportion of water decreases, in order to furnish the same quantity of light. As f understand it, all the heat that is necessary to fur- nish the vapors of these substances, is a sufficiency to vola- tilize them: and this temperature must be nearly preserved, to prevent their condensing, until they issue through the apertures to be inflamed. its of New-York and New-Jersey, Yc. 195 waters contain carbonic acid, iron and muriate of soda. The Newark mountain terminates at Springfield—from this place where the continuity of the trap range is broken, the greenstone ridge takes a southwest direction for ten miles and then a west course ten more, from thence it bends to the northwest, terminating near Pluckamin—adjacent to this range a mountain is seen running a parallel course, corres- ponding to the second Newark mountain. Secondary green- stone is exclusively the rock in place of the summits and sides of both ranges ; it is frequently observed, but seldom in ledges of magnitude ; sandstone is quarried In various places between the hills and at their base ; it is observed in several instances under the greenstone in a nearly horizon- tal position with a small dip, sometimes alternating with se- condary compact limestone, that presents layers of from two inches to two feet in thickness. Prehnite is found in con- siderable quantities near the foot of the mountain inamygda- loid with a greenstone base, much of it partially decompo- sed ; it is sometimes seen imbedded in the rock in long par- allel columns of various dimensions, its fibres radiating from the centre. Zeolite, stilbite, crystals of quartz, and carbon- ate of lime were frequently seen in the valley between the mountains. North of Scotch plains I found sulphate of ba- rytes associated with carbonate of lime ; but a small portion of these ranges is cleared and cultivated. The seconda- ry mountain that takes a western course from Springfield, bordering the alluvial, has been called by some geologists the Granite-Ridge. Itis described as passing through New-Jer- sey, bordering the oceanic alluvial, whose highest point is seen near Hoboken, alluding doubtless to the height near Wehawk. The Gr eenstone-Ridge, would be a more ap- propriate name. Excepting the serpentine at Hoboken there are no primitive rocks in place between the Hudson and Highland chain—the summit rock of all the ranges is uni- formly secondary greenstone. ‘The secondary mountains of New-Jersey can, at a great distance, be distinguished from primitive by the regularity of their course and the as- pect of their summits. The Highland chain runs from northeast to southwest which is the general direction of the rimitive strata of mountains and vallies yet observed in the United States; none of the secondary ranges of New- Jersey pursue a course parallel with the primitive. The 196 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &e. secondary ranges of New-Jersey, in many places present for miles an even summit of table land; the Highland ridg- es display numerous sugar-loaf eminences, and a waving profile, characteristic of primitive. The extensive se- condary range commencing near Pompton and within half a mile of the Highlands and extending in a semi-circu- lar course, until it again approaches the Highlands, ex- hibits in its direction and the aspect of its summits a proof of the correctness of the above positions. The extensive valley situated between the greenstone semi-circle and the Highlands presents much fresh water alluvial—many of the . small hills of this tract have no rock in place—the alluvial plain bordering the Passaic is in general extensive; in some places four miles in width—peat is observed in several pla- ces between the source of that river and the little falls; a considerable quantity is cut in this valley adjacent to the Newark and Morriston turnpike ; the earth had been pene- trated six feet without finding the bottom of the strata. The level tract called Pompton plain near twenty miles in cir- cumference and environed by mountains presents a deci- ded fresh water alluvial—strata of gravel, sand, and clay, without rocks in place are uniformly found in this dis- trict wherever wells have been dug ; it was probably at a remote period the bed of a lake.—The waters of the riv- ers Pequanack, Long-pond, and Ramapaugh pass through this valley—the southern and much of the western part of Pompton plain is marshy and embraces about 1500 acres of peat ground ; the peat disclosed in digging a ditch of four miles. was-called very good. In the southern part of the plain good granular argillaceous oxide of iron or pea ore is raised from a space of about 200 acres. ‘The High- lands form the west and northwest boundary of this plain ; in other directions it is skirted by the Pacganack moun- tain—this range pursues a serpentine course from North Pompton to the vicinity of Morristown, separating in its route the extensive alluvial plains watered by the Pompton and Passaic. I ascended in many places and examined a considerable part of this range—the summit rock in place is uniformly a finegrained, dark secondary greenstone, often in a state of partial decomposition, exhibiting mural preci- pices of considerable height and extent ; sandstone in place was sometimes observed at the base and sides of the moun- of New-York and New-Jersey, &c. 197 tain—IJ found imbedded in the summit rock (generally in decaying greenstone,) prehnite, zeolite, analcime, chalcedo- ny, agate, amethyst, jasper, crystals of quartz, radiated and smoky quartz and narrow veins of satin spar in jasper 5 the part of this range adjacent to Pompton plains may, perhaps, from the abundance of these minerals be useful to the lapi- dary as well as the mineralogist—the agates are from the size of a pin’s head to three pounds weight, mostly chalcedo- ny—the eyed and fortification agate I observed in a few instances. I have a mineral specimen from this mountain, found and presented to me by Judge Kinsey of Patterson, that would probably weigh eight pounds (and is but half of the imbedded mass)composed of agate, amethyst, and white quartz, in which are observed numerous deep cuniform cavities of uniform shape but differing in size—they were probably occupied by some of the decaying zeolite 5 re- mains of lamine, probably of stilbite, are observed in some of them. I obtained chalcedony two inches in thick- ness—the amethysts of Paquanack and Patterson display the characteristic coloring, are limpid but seldom observed in well defined crystals—some of the agates display a rich variety of coloring. Another greenstone range of minor extent is situated in the great valley, the subject of examination ;—it rises near’ Chatham, extends ten miles, and is called Long-hill. The greenstone of this ridge is so subject to decay that rocks seldom appear in place ; prehnite was here noticed. The Passaic for several miles, near the base of the mountain, pursues a sportive course, and at times concealed in groves, then emerging, winds through extensive alluvial meadows. About the centre of the Long-hill | observed mural pre- elpices composed of what the farmers of New-Jersey call shell rock, resembling the stone on the banks of the Rar- iton. The secondary of New-Jersey accompanies the High- — lands tothe Delaware. -Near the village of Pluckemin and South of the Highlands, an elevated greenstone range is ob- served extending in a western course. Another range passes near Princeton towards the Delaware—the greenstone of this mountain that came under my observation is both coarse and fine, differing, little from that of the Bergen ridge. Vou. II.....No. 2. 26 198 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &. Between the river Rariton and the Delaware, a rock dif- fering materially from the red sandstone of the Passaic, gen- erally underlies both mountain and valley ; after approach- ing the surface, it extends North to the primitive and passes a considerable distance into Pennsylvania ;—it forms the nu- cleus of hills of considerable elevation near the Delaware, sometimes presenting mural precipices ; the red soil proceed- ing from the decomposition of this rock is fertile and well adapted for gypsum ; the colour of the rock is red, much darkerthan the Newark stone ;—this mineral appears to be without grain, to the breath it yields a strong argillaceous | odour, and uniformly decomposes when long exposed to air and moisture.—I presume it is mostly composed of iron, alumine and silex with perhaps a little sulphur ; it may be called ferruginous shist—this rock is stratified, splitting readily into thin brittle lamine, and is said to rest in some places on good freestone. Copper is the only metal sought for in this rock ; excavations are now making near Brunswick for copper, and very recently new shafts have been sunk at an old copper mine near Pluckemin——no ves- tiges of copper remain upon the surface at the old mine of | Woodbridge. -Sandy-hill, an elevation situated between Brunswick and Princeton exhibits an alluvial composition, resembling that of the hills of Neversink; sand, white and colored clay em- bracing beds of ferruginous sand and pudding-stone are the minerals that compose the ridge. The alluvial borders the greenstone ridge from Bound- brook to Springfield, to the West, in general it approaches the Rariton within two miles and forms the bed of that river a little below Brunswick. Wherever excavations have been made in the alluvial tract South of the greenstone ridge, strata of sand, gravel and clay are disclosed, but no quar- ries or rocks in place. Ochres of good quality are observed in many parts of this district, and at Uniontown near Spring- - field, compact peat of a superior quality, resting on marl and supposed to extend through a morass of five hundred acres; bones of the mastodon were discovered a few years since in this swamp. I have noticed extensive beds of pipe clay in the alluvial tract situated between Woodbridge and Am- boy ; itis infusible and is principally alumine, having less than twenty per cent of silex in its composition ;—it is white of New-York and New-Jersey, &c. 193 and adhesive to the tongue. Peirifactions of marine shells were observed in various parts of the alluvial district adja- cent to the greenstone ridge, and detached pieces of bituminous coal. The alluvial North of the Rariton above described, is connected with an extensive alluvi- al plain five miles in length by twenty in breadth, formed by the deposits of the navigable rivers, Hackensac and Passaic, ‘situated between the secondary valley and the Bergen ridge ; the depth of the alluvial is from twelve to twenty feet—the basis is sand and shells like the shore of the sea— several insulated groves of lofty swamp cedars remain in the North part of the meadows. ‘The whole tract was for- merly covered with wood; the bodies of trees but little de- cayed are found at various depths. An attempt is now making to reclaim a part of these meadows——it will be the work of time to produce a compact soil by the decay of the turf and other vegetable matter.—The enterprising propri- etors, the Messrs. Swartouts, deserve success. A singular elevation called Snake-hill appears insulated in this verdant ocean. It is wood-clad, rocky and precipitous on the east- erm, southern andw estern sides, and declines gradually to the north where it is nearly free from stone and is cultivated—— the Hackensack approaches the southern and washes the western base. From this eminence the Hackensack and Passaic are seen for several miles slowly winding through the meadows and almost slumbering on the plain ; many villages, ranges of mountains, and the distant ocean are ob- served from this elevated ground. Greenstone, no way differing from the summit rock of the Palisadoes is exclusive- ly the rock of this mountain, presenting in several places mural precipices of considerable height ; cubic masses of this rock are piled up at the southern base. Serpents were formerly numerousat this place ; a few rattlesnakes and cop- . perheads remain in the southern ledges.. To the North of Snake-hill an insulated tract, three miles in length and one im breadth is observed gradually rising from the meadows—~ no rock im place appears on the surface, but good red and sray sandstone is quarried in several places. 1 found mica- ceous iron ore abundantly diffused through the gray sand- stone 5 pectinites and other marine petrifactions are seen resting on the most elevated parts of the tract. . 200 Singular position of a Granite Rock, &c. Anr. IL. Account of a singular position of a Granite Rock, by the Rev. Exias Corneivs, (with a print.) Salem, Mass. April, 1820. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. In communicating she following fact, it is not supposed that any new evidence will be furnished of a distinction which has long been made in the relative formation of dif- ferent rocks. It is offered merely as another example of a_ primitive limestone ; attended with such unequivocal indi- cations as to place its geological character beyond a doubt. In. the town of North-Salem, and state of New-York, there is a rock, which from the singularity of its position has long attracted the notice of those who live in its neighbor- hood, and from its vicinity to the public road, seldom es- capes the observation of the passing traveller. It has not, however, it is believed, ever been described. It is situated two miles East of the academy in North-Salem, within thir- ‘ty feet of the main road to Danbury in VUonnecticut, upon the sloping brow of a small hill or bank, whose height may be thirty feet. Although weighing many tons, its length being fifteen feet, breadth ten feet, and greatest circum- ference forty feet; it stands elevated in different parts of it from two to five feet above the earth, resting its whole weight upon the apices of seven small conical pillars ; six of " these with their bases either united or contiguous, spring up like an irregular group of teeth, and constitute the support _ of one end of the rock. The remaining pillar, much the largest of them all, stands at the lowest point of that part of the surface over which the rock is elevated, and supports its other end. Notwithstanding the form of the rock is very irregular, and its surface ccensiderably uneven, its whole weight is so nicely adjusted upon these seven small points, one of which is six feet from the others, that no external force yet applied has been sufficient to give it even a tremu- lous motion. But the singularity of its position is not the most interest- ing circumstance which meets the eye of the geological ob- server. Upon examination, he finds the rock and its pillars 1 es Geology, Mineralogy, ere &c. 201 somposed entirely of different substances. The rockts gran- ite; the pillars which support it are timestone.* The position also, is a natural one. ‘There is no mountain or other ele- vation near it from which the rock could have been thrown. The hill in which its pillars are fixed, is penetrated with limestone rocks, with here and there a specimen of granite intermingled ; so that their position has not been altered by any convulsion of nature. Here then, the Geologist finds a limestone of whose early foundation he can have no doubt. If granite be a primitive rock the strata on which it rests must at least be as early in the order of nature. From a specimen whose character is so indubitably fixed, we may proceed with safety not only to name, but to describe the species to which it belongs. Upon examination, the de- scription of the limestone in question will-not be found ma- terially different from that which is laid down in books. Its color is white ; grain, large ; highly crystalline ; present- ing a structure, very distinctly foliated--so much so that it can easily be chipped into little rhombs which are semi- translucent. There appear to be several ranges of it in this tewn——in most instances they take a course northeaster- ly and southwesterly, with very little if any inclination to the horizon—and they generally have the same external character. The country in which they lie is very obvious- ly a granite country, furnishing that rock in almost every va- riety. Arr. Il. Sketches of a tour in the counties of New-Haven and Litchfield in Connecticut, with notices of the Geology, Mineralogy and Scenery, Ge by the Enviror.—(From the papers of the American Geological ea) Tue following observations arose out of a journey wi- dertaken for other purposes and occupying only five days. The manner is more diffuse and popular than the sub- ‘ject might strictly demand, but this course was adopted with the hope of alluring some degree of attention to the * Specimens both of the Granite and the Limestone which have been mentioned have been forwarded for your examination. Annexed you have a representation of the rock and its pillars as they are seen from the roaé and river, sketehed with a pencil on the spet 202 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &e. subject of geology, on the part of readers who might be re- pelled by a severer method. August 26 1817.—On a very fine morning, with an ex- excellent travelling map of the State, and with the necessa- ry instruments, I commenced my tour in a gig. Upon the map (which was so folded as to lie constantly open at the desired place) I wrote down with a pencil, the “names of the strata at the moment of their occurrence, stop- ping frequently to break the rocks and to obtain specimens. West-Rock, Secondary Greenstone Ranges, &c. My course was nearly northwest on the great Litchfield road. From New-Haven to West-Rock, two miles, the country is alluvial, flat, sandy or gravelly. At West-Rock, which is a fine precipice of greenstone, reposing on sandstone, we enter a beautiful and very nar- row valley stretching to a great distance nearly North and — South. On the right are the bold ranges of secondary greenstone, about 400 feet high, with their rude perpendic- ular precipices, which (except at the South end of West- Rock where they terminate, and where the cliffs have been in some measure torn down and defaced to afford building stone for New-Haven,) present a time-worn aspect ;—and by the immense masses of broken rocks, which have accumu- lated at their feet, and slope half or two thirds of the way up their sides, evince that ages have passed since their cliffs were first exposed to the weather, and to the destroying in- fluences of time. As we go North, the cliffs become less dis- tinct, although probably not less elevated—but they are partially obscured by arable ground ; fields begin to slope up their sides, and cultivation appears, instead of the vene- rable ruins which abound farther South; still farther North, the cliffs appear only here and there, and finally at a dis- tance these hills assume a much more gentle outline, and appear in some measure to lose the peculiarities of aspect which characterise greenstone mountains. The valley at their feet is fertile, abounding with green meadows ; arivulet flows through its length and becomes the West-river, which empties into New-Haven harbour.— This valley is alluvial, although, in all probability, its foun- in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 208 dation at no great depth is rock, and the junction of primi- tive and secondary country evidently takes place in this val- ley. It has been supposed to contain cecal, and I know of no geological fact which contradicts this opinion, and there are some in favor of it. Primitive Slate Rocks. The hills which bound this valley on the left, are composed of magnificent ranges of slaty rock, which run parallel to the greenstone range. They rise in pretty abrupt hills of which the steepest sides are towards the greenstone : the road for some miles, runs in the valley, but eventually begins to rise sloping up the hills, and inclining a little West. Primitive -argillite, or slate, highly glistening, often tortuous, abounding with veins and distinct tuberculous masses of quartz occasionally of enormous size, is the pre- vailing rock on the left of the valley.* It sometimes becomes almost miga-slate, occasionally alternates with that rock, and at a junction which is distinctly visible about six miles from New-Haven, the two rocks are so much blended, that it is impossible, for some feet, to distinguish them apart, although at a small distance either way they are very distinct. Good slate for building is found in these hills and carried to New- Haven.} About eight miles from that town the road sudden- ly turns at right angles, to the left, and we now travel, not as before, in the direction of the strata, but acrossthem. Ar- gillite prevails about two miles, but manifests more and more a tendency to become mica-slate—it eventually under- goes this change very distinctly, and for six or seven miles, we cross immense strata of mica-slate, having the same direc- tion with the other slate; the strata of both are vertical or very highly inclined, and the mica-slate is frequently porphyritic, presenting distinct crystals of feldspar as large as a thumb. * Upon these hills there are numerous masses of white quartz, of the ap- pearance of rock salt, sometimes several yards in diameter, and quite un- connected with any rock. After seeing the slate of these hillsno one can doubt that the quartz has arisen from the decomposition of the shistose strata. + Some researches for coal have been made in these slate rocks, but, it is extremely evident that coal cannot be found in hills that are decidely prim- itive ; all such expectations concerning this region are baseless. 204 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &e. Beacon Mountain. Fourteen miles from New-Haven, we come to Beacon- mountain, a rude ridge of almost naked rock, stretching southwest. ‘The road, which is formed in the natural gap of the mountain, here winds through a bold gulf or defile, so narrow, that at one place only a single carriage can pass at once. On both sides the cliffs are lofty, particularly on the left; and on the right, at a little distance from the road, they overhang in a frightful manner. I climbed the hill at this place; the rocks on both sides are mica-slate with gar- nets and staurotide ; here they had fallen in large masses, and left the projecting strata impending ina vast natural shed, under which one might be protected effectually from the weather, but with the constant apprehension of being crush- ed by their fall. The ridges of the Beacon mountain present fine geo- logical and picturesque features, and are much more abrupt and grand than most of the mica-slate regions of Connecticut. Beyond this gap the road turns more to the left, running along a rivulet, and after three or four miles we rise some Hille and discover the Naugatuck a branch of the Housa- tonick passing along at the foot of other steep hills on the opposite side. It runs through a deep and narrow gulf and one looks down upon it from the high hills on which the road is laid. Gneiss, Granite, &c. The hills are composed of gneiss, running parallel with the ridges of mica-slate already mentioned. This is the first gneiss that occurs on the road from New-Haven at the _ distance of about sixteen miles. We now pass through the little village of Salem, consist- ing of a few houses on the bank of the river, and whose chure h situated on a high hill overlooking the river, forms a striking and pleasing object. From Salem, almost to Watertown, four miles, the rocks are gneiss—still preserving the same direction and parallel- ism. The county is hilly but very picturesque and beautiful. Near Watertown, granite begins to be abundant in loose masses, andin the town I found detached pieces with garnet and sappar. Watertown, on a commanding hill, with its two steeples and its pretty white houses formsan object such as is rarely seen in travelling in England. ‘Iwo miles be- in the Counties of IN: ew-Haven and Litchfield. 208 yond Watertown we come to ledges of granite constituting a considerable hill. Here I found much ‘of the graphic gra- nite and radiated or plumose mica, both very handsome in their kind. The feldspar of the granite was white with a high pearly lustre, and the grey quartz was delicately inter- spersed in graphic forms. ‘The specimens were of extreme “delicacy. Mica-Slate. As I proceeded, the granite soon changed again into mica~ slate, and this continued without exception, quite to Litch- field. It often contammed garnets and occasionally stauro- tide, and I saw loose masses of granite, with crystals of black tourmalin; while rising Litchfield-hill numerous loose blocks were to be seen of primitive limestone containing tremolite. In fact, the loose stones through the whole ride from Woodbridge hills were very numerous, but they were altogether fragments of primitive rocks—often granite, sometimes with the component parts very distinct. Frequently the loose rocks contained crystals of feld- spar as large asa thumb or finger,—so as to be quite por- phyritic—they were sometimes Branite and sometimes gneiss i Latchfield-Ehill. Litchfield-hill isa beautiful spot. One principal street. (intersected however by some crossiifreets) extends more than a mile in length,and contains a collection of very hand- some houses, with gardens and court-yards—the houses and appendages are generally painted white, and it is rare to see so considerable a number of houses in a country town where nearly all apparently belong to gentry. In England such a town would be a wonder, and here, connected as it is with the rich agricultural country which surrounds it,— swelled into beautiful hills, and scooped into luxuriant val- lies, every where covered with lively verdure and with cul- tivated fields—it presents a very interesting and gratilying spectacle. Litchfield-hill reposes on mica-slate, and this on the road to Goshen, continues to be the prevailing rock. ti often abounds with garnets and staurotide—some of the crystals of the last form the cross, and are occasionally large. Vou. IT.....No, 2. Og 206 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, Se. Granite and Gneiss. Nearer to Goshen than to Litchfield we cross a ledge of sranite—but itis immediately succeeded by gneiss. Goshen is a pretty village, with a neat church and a few houses in the centre, but it is principally in scattered farm- houses. In passing on from Goshen into the corner of Cornwall and to Canaan, the country becomes very hilly, and we cross great ledges of gneiss, often abounding with veins of quartz. On the road I saw two large loose masses of dolomite and quartz, with tremolite. When we are about leav- ing Goshen we enter a great defile in the mountain—vast ledges of gneiss are on both sides, forming entire mountains; it is in fact, a winding valley, and as far as the eye can stretch to the North, mountains rise behind mountains, “¢ Hills peep o’er hills and Alps on Alps arise,” tll they die away in the distant horizon. A valley among’ the mountains. f arrived, just at night fall, at Hunt’s tavern, a much fre- quented and very comfortable house, situated in a part of the same valley which I have already mentioned, on the banks of a rivulet, called the Hollenbeck. In this secluded spot, in the midst @# mountains, I tooked for an evening of complete retirement, and intended to proceed with Heh pic- furesque and ceological sketch of the country. But, I soon found myself surrounded by acquaintances, some of them old friends of my childhood ; some were trav- elling South and some North, and this focus brought us to- gether from remote and opposite quarters, to pass a social evening. So an from the ocean, and in the midst of Swiss land- scapes, who would have expected to hear the solemn still- ness of these vallies, disturbed by naval songs! A plain man, seated in the piazza of the house, with a a voice strong and deep-toned, but clear and melodious, beguiled his eve- ning hours, by singing the exploits of the American navy ;— the verse was more remarkable for minuteness of detail, than for beauty of versification ; but this performer attract- m the Countces of New-Haven and Litchfield. 207 ed a little audience into the piazza where, in a cool but pleasant evening, (August 27) the landlord was smoking his pipe. Manufactory of Anchors and formation of Bar-Iron. This naval taste was easily explained by the fact, that at this place there is a considerable establishment for the manufactory of anchors. It belongs to the Hunts—(four prothers,) and has supplied many anchors for the American ships of war. Very lately, they have sent off two for the ¥ranklin 74 gun ship—one weighed 8000 and the other 3000 pounds. I rose very early the next morning to visit the anchor manufactory. Every thing was very obligingly explained to me, and I saw enough of the operations to obtain a dis- tinct comprehension of them. The iron is, on the spot, reduced from the ore to the malleable state. ‘The ore is that of Salisbury—the - brown iron stone of Werner. Itis pulverized by a machine moved by water,—which is, in fact, nothing more than a large hammer moved by a long lever, and falling into a trough or rude kind of mortar, in which it plays up and down, and in- to which the ore is thrown. ‘This receptacie is shaped like a hopper, and the pulverised ore falls through as fast as it is pounded ; it is then taken up by shovels, and thrown up- | on a large forge-fire, where a heap of charcoal of some bushels, is kept in vivid ignition by two bellows of great ‘dimensions worked by water; as these rise and fall alter- nately, the blast is never intermitted, and the supply of ore and fuel being made, also alternately, the work goes on for many hours without interruption. No limestone or other flux is employed, and the consequence is that the operation although much more expeditious, is also much more wasteful than where the ore is first reduced in furnaces, and after- wards rendered malleable in the forge. Mr. Hunt inform- ed me, that in this way, the ore yields not more than half its weight of malleable iron, whereas in the other mode three fourths are obtained. Indeed the dross rejected ia this operation is obviously still rich in iron. I selected speci- mens that were brilliantly crystalized,—had the fine lustre of the Elba ores and a very considerable specific gravity. 1. 208 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, Se. was informed that they sometimes melt this dross over again to get more iron from it, but that in general it is neglected. In the course of some hours, the melted ore, in a good de- eree freed from its oxigen, collects into a coherent, but soft mass on the hearth of the forge; it is removed from the fire by very massy tongs, connected by an iron chain with a huge crane of wood by means of which it is swung off to the anvil, where it is subjected to the strokes of a hammer moved by water and weighing 600 pounds. The loup, as itis called is thus completed—the dross is pressed out of its cavities,—it is shaped into the form of a rude parallelopi- ped and indeed becomes, even by this first operation,-in a good degree malleable iron. It is now called a bloom ; it is returned to the fire and heated intensely again, and again it is hammered ; the dross may be seen exuding from its pores and dropping in a mel- ted state—the iron becoming more and more compact and _tough till it finally acquires all the properties of that most useful metal. The iron made from the Salisbury ore is considered as re- markably tough and strong, and it is obvious that such is the belief of our government and naval men or it would not be employed for anchors for ships of war. The blooms after: they are finished, are commonly from 150 to 300 pounds weight, and from them the anchors are forged, altogether by the use of the ponderous hammers which I have mentioned. In this shop, a few years since, a four pounder was forged from malleable iron, and shewn to the Connecticut legislature at New-Haven. There was no anchor in this shop at present over 1000 pounds weight.— — The price at the forge, is about eight dollars per hundred, or nine dollars delivered (at water carriage I presume.) Manufactory of Screws. The Messrs. Hunts have also at the same place, an es- tablishment for manufacturing screws of the largest kinds for powerful machinery ; such screws as are sometimes ma- ny feet in length and several inches in diameter. The pro- eess by which they are manufactured is sufficiently simple, considering the importance of the result. 'The piece of iron being duly prepared and brought as near as may be in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 209 to a cylindrical form, is placed horizontally, and connected with machinery moved by water; it is thus made to rotate rapidly, and at the same time a proper tool is so applied to it, as to cut the spiral groove, and of course to leave prominent a corresponding spiral thread. Geological and picturesque features of the country. A waterfall. August 28,1817 —Finding myself in the midst of a country, whose mineralogy and geology appeared very interesting, I took advantage of a bright morning, and was in my gig ata very early hour. - Lofty hills and mountains,—steep and abrupt vallies and lively water-courses surrounded me on every side. I proceed- ed between hills of gneiss on my way to the iron mines of Salisbury. Fragments of dolomite and other forms of white primitive limestone began to abound along the road, and many of them were full of crystals of tremolite (the grammatite of Haiiy ;) they afforded such beautiful speci- mens that I could not resist the temptation to descend very often with my hammer. It was impossible to doubt that a great change in the geological features of the country would soon be observed, and that primitive limestone must soon oc- cur an place. Accordingly, before I had gone over the four miles which brought me to the Housatonick river, ledges of white lime- stone began to make their appearance at some distance from the road on the right, but gneiss was the last rock which occurred before crossing the river. The scenery was altogether wild, and possessed of very considerable grandeur. A quarter of a mile above the bridge, the river, here of considerable width, falls over a ledge of limestone (as itappeared to me at the nearest point of approach) with clouds of spray, ina white and almost unbroken sheet of water, and with the thundering noise of a cataract. I believe the fall is about thirty feet, and being all at one leap, the effect is very fine. Al Furnace. Between the fall and the bridge, a furnace of very cen- siderable extent was in full operation, and its clouds of black 210 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c. smoke formed a striking contrast with the spray and fog of the cataract. It might have been twenty-five or thirty feet in height, and ten or twelve in diameter. Vast bellows, ri- sing and falling alternately by the action of water, threw in torrents of air; at the bottom, while at the top, the workmen were almost constantly occupied in putting m the ore, with charcoal and limestone in successive layers and in mixture. The ore is previously roasted in the open air; it is broken into pieces of a proper size, arranged in layers alteraately with chareoal, and when the heap is three or four feet high the fire is kindled and allowed to burn slowly for many hours. ‘The cohesion of the cre is in this manner impair- ed——sulphur, arsenic and other volatile things are expelled, and it is prepared for the fiercer heat to which it is subject- ed in the furnace. This last is shaped somewhat like an egg—a section being removed from each end and the smal- ler end beig uppermost. At the top it is only four or five feet in diameter, and there is little appearance of the vehe- ment heat which exists below. The ore, which is here melt- ed is principally from the Salisbury bed, but partly alse from the adjoining state of New-York. Both kinds are ox- ids, as indeed are all the iron ores which are profitably and usefully wrought; only they are more or less mixed or com- bined with sulphur and arsenic and with silex or flinty earth, argil or clayey earth, and other earthy matters and with for- elgn metals ; ehront titanium, manganese, &c. The princi- pal steps in fine operation are ‘therefore easily explained on principle. The roasting has been already explained. In the furnace the charcoal, aided by the fierce heat, detaches the oxigen and flies away with it in the form of carbonic acid gas ; the limestone although by itself infusible, by uni- ting with the earths and sulphur and other foreign bodies, removes them, at the same time promoting the melting of the entire mass, and thus in the language of the furna- ces it actsasa flux. The iron also to a considerable ex- tent, combines with the carbon and thus becomes very flu- id, and capable of being cast into any desired form. At the bottom of the furnace, the slag or dross floating at the top of the melted iron, is occasionally raked off, and the iron is ei- ther allowed to run out at a tap-hole, or is ladled out with large iron ladles managed by hand, and thus poured into the moulds into which it is to be cast. ‘The slag or dross which im the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 211 ig rejected, accumulates in the vicinity of a furnace and often to a great extent ; it consists of the lime which was added, as _a flux, combined with the foreign earthy matters, and with a proportion of oxid of iron and other metaliic oxids. It has often very gay and beautiful colours—it is inflated and twisted in various forms, or solid and firm like glass, and has in many instances, the strongest resemblance to the glasses and frits produced in volcanoes. Indeed it is impos- sible to contemplate the phenomena of one of these great furnaces, without finding much to gratify curiosity and much to inform the understanding. I observed the iron to be, in many instances crystalized, especially what remained in _the ladles after pouring ; it was in brilliant plates looking not unlike the specular ore or that variety called the mica- ceous iron. Primitive Limestone in Mica-slate. Proceeding West from the river, we cross a bed of primi- tive marble or limestone, and soon after we rise a some- what arduous ridge of mica-slate, stretching North and South, and forming the boldest feature of this part of the country; it is immediately succeeded by the primitive white marble having the same direction and inclination in its strata ; then again succeeds the mica-slate, and then the marble, and thus the geological traveller is gratified, in the course of five or six miles with as many alternations and suc- cessions of these two rocks, each perfectly distinct from the other, and totally different in their nature ; their junc- tions are in some places exactly defined, and such a number of alternations and successions in so small an extent of coun- try, and on such a scale of magnificence affords sufficient materials to occupy and to embarrass the reflections of the Geologist. These rocks are highly crystaline in their structure—they possess every mark of having been deposit- ed from a state of chemical solution ; yet what cause, ex- isting in the primitive chaotic ocean, could have determined at one time the deposition of a rock consisting of quartz and mica, and immediately after, and without intermixture or disturbance, one consisting of crystalized carbonate of lime ? 12. Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c. Other Furnaces. We soon arrive at the Wanscopommuck or Furnace lake, a happy natural reservoir, of a mile or two in diameter, which supplies an unfailing stream for some of the most conside- rable iron furnaces in this interesting district of country. By the politeness of one of the proprietors* every facility was afforded of access to the iron establishment and to the bed of ore. The establishment is more considerable than the one al- ready described, and I was particularly struck with the im- mense piles of slag and refuse, accumulated around the fur- naces. It also struck me forcibly at both places, that the twyers (tubes) of the bellows instead of being fixed, air tight, into the side of the furnace by which means, at first view, one would suppose that the greatest quantity of air would be thrown in, and the smallest wasted, were brought only within a few inches of the furnace, and discharged their blast into an orifice of much greater surface than that of the tubes ; experience, it seems, has shewn, that this is the best arrange- ment, and that more heat is thus excited than upon the other plan. May notthe effect be accounted for, froma powerful de- termination of the atmosphere (created by the heat of the fur- nace) to enter at the same place, which as there is no grate and no admission of air from below, could not happen pro- vided the twyer were fixed air-tight into the furnaee. Ai this establishment they have cast cannon forthe navy. They are cast solid and then bored out by a rotary movement produced by water. By particular management im the re- duction of the iron ore, they produce at pleasure either a harder or a softer metal; the hardest is so hard that it cannot be filed, bored, or in any way altered; this is the fact with most common articles of domestic hollow ware, but that cast for cannon and some other purposes is soft and is much tess brittle than the hardest kind. Salesbury iron ore bed. ‘The main iron ore bed is situated two miles West of these furnaces. This of course formed an object of atten- “John M, Holly Esq. en the Counties of New-Haven and Latchfield. 213 tion. Geologically speaking, the Salisbury iron ore as is obvious from the statements already given concerning the rock formations of this district, must be considered as belong- ing to a country highly primitive. It may be added that mi- ca slate, without marble, is observed between the furnaces and the ore bed; somewhat farther West upon the borders of the state of New-York, the marble again appears, but whether accompanied by mica-slate 1 am not informed, al- though it is most probable that it is. The Salisbury iron ore may, with propriety, be referred to the mica-slate as its proper accompanying rock, because it forms the -basis of the country, but the ore, as far asI could learn, is not imbedded in any rock. Its immediate bed is clay. It is about seventy years since this great bed was opened. It lies in the side of a hill of moderate elevation, and al- though numerous, large and deep excavations have been made, there is no indication that the ore is in danger of being exhausted. It is not worked by shafts and galleries (as I be- lieve iron ores generally are not) but like a quarry of stone, open to the sky, and such connexions are formed between the pits and the general surface of the country, that, to trans- port the ore, carts and waggons are driven freely in and out. The ore, as already remarked, is the brown iron stone of Werner—that is, the brown oxid of iron, more or less con- taminated with manganese and other metals, and with por- tions of earthy substances. All the varieties of this kind of ore may be found here im great perfection and beauty, and particularly very fine specimens of what is called the brown heematite. Many of these, in their delicate, fibrous and radiated structure, in the highly varnished gloss of the exterior, and in the elegant sta- lactical forms which they have assumed, cannot be surpassed by specimens in any collections.* Those large cavernous masses also which contain cavi- ties usually lined with the stalactical and other beautiful forms of iron, are here abundant, and an amateur of fine specimens may here be gratified at a cheap rate. *“TfT mistake not, the vertical position of the stalactites, in the ore bed, sufficiently indieates that their form is owing to gravity, while their fibrous and radiated structure, seems to depend on the laws of crystalization. On some of the Salisbury ores, there is a delicate. sooty coating which appears to be manganese, and probably affords no cround,(as some have imagined,) for inferring the agency of subterranean fire. Vou. ape No. 2. 28 4 ly Geolowy, Mineralogy, Scenery, fc. It has been already observed that the iron, ore at this place i is imbedded in clay, so that it is obtained with com- parative ease. The clay is often stained by the oxid of iron, so that it ex- hibits most of the varieties of colour belonging to the ochres, and would, without doubt, in various instances, afford good painting colours. It appears in some places saponaceous, and in some instances to approximate to the properties of fuller’s earth. ‘This clay deserves further attention, and a more attentive mineralogical examination than probaly it has hitherto received. There are other ore beds and establishments in this town for manufacturing both cast and bar iron, but my time did not admit of my visiting them. Ride to Kent. Having now reached the proposed extent of my journey West, I turned my face South, and crossed the Housatonick some miles below the falls. In pursuing this oblique course, I necessarily crossed the strata of marble and mica slate al- ready described. My next object was the bed of iron ore in Kent, and in going to it my journey lay immediately down the east- ern bank of the Housatonick. In driving about twen- ty miles, in the course of an afternoon, there was very little to detaim me. My journey was no longer across the natural ridges of the country, but parallel with and be- tween them, so that many miles presented less variety than was often seen in as many furlongs, in travelling at right an- gles with this direction. Ina word, my whole ride to Kent was through a vast natural defile formed by two parallel chains of mountains or high hills, so near each other that there was merely room for the Housatonick to flow along, which it often did with sullen murmurs, over a very rocky and broken bed, and for a narrow road, in most instan- ces passing directly along its banks, So abrupt were these chains of mountains, that on the western side, the river often washed their very feet, and their frowning cliffs, more or less veiled by thick forests, hung over the river. ‘Ihe road which f travelled, was bounded by hills almost equally ab~- rupt, rocky and rude in their aspect, and in most instances on either side, there seemed to be no passage through these apparently impenetrable barriers. in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 215 My journey was through the borders of Canaan, Corn- wall and Kent, and although, from the nature of the country, there could not be much arable land, and only a very spare population, the eye was constantly regaled with bold views of mountain and river scenery, and from the more elevated situations, the whole face of the country seemed a collection of rude hills and mountains, in most instances covered with very dense forest, the entire consumption of which would seem beyond the power of any population which is ay ever to accumulate in these regions. The failure of a wheel, aud the time consumed in secu- ring it temporarily with cordage, caused twilight to overtake me, and the mountains closing around on every side and frowning with their dark and woody sides and ridges, seem- ed to cut off not only all view of any other more fortunate _ region, but absolutely to swallow up the road and to bar all escape. At length, the little village of Kent made its appearance, seeming to-be dropped in among the mountains, and almost secluded from the rest of the world. The hills and mountains which occurred between Salisbury and this place, were, on the eastern side of the river, almost invariably gneiss ; those on the West appeared to be the same, and without doubt they were either gneiss or mica- slate, or possibly in different places both. The hills pre- sented the same features as those on the eastern side, and left no doubt of the general similarity of geological structure. During the last five or six miles before reaching Kent, ranges of white primitive limestone began to attend the gneiss, and ran parallel with it, but at a lower elevation. At the places where I had opportunity to examine, this limestone appeared in some measure mixed with the gneiss by which it isembosomed. It effervesced only par- tially with acids—its colour was foul and yeilowish, and it was mixed with much insoluble matter probably derived from the gneiss. August 29.—My wheel being effectually repaired by smiths whom in the evening | engaged to work with the first dawn, I set forward early for the bed of iron ore, which was at the distance of several miles. A circuitous road was said to be very good, but 1t would lead through the de- files, while one across the mountains was shorter but exceed- ~ 216 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &. ingly rough, steep and difficult, and rarely travelled by any vehicles except carts. Induced however by a wish to cross the ridges I prefer- red the latter road. Its difficulties were even greater than had been represented, owing I suppose to recent rains which had swept away the loose earth from the rocks and - stones, and worn deep gullies. if I was however gratified to find that my previous impres- sions were correct, and that the ranges by the side of which { yesterday travelled, and of which these were only a con- tinuation, were universally gneiss. fron ore bed of Kent. Arrived at the iron mine the observer is forcibly struck with the magnitude of the excavation. This ore bed, like that at Salisbury, is situated in the side of the hill, but this is ahigh and steep one, and the ore is explored under the open sky like a quarry, with the exception of a few places where gal- leries of some extent have been carried into the hill. Like the ore at Salisbury, this is imbedded inclay, which in most places 1s the substance with which the iron is in immediate contact. Unlike the excavations at Salisbury, which are numerous but of small magnitude, this is nearly all in one great basin which in some places appeared to be 150 feet deep, and several hundred feet wide. The magnitude of the excavation has been greatly increased, by an ingenious contrivance of the present very respectable proprietor, Mr. Adam. Hehas turn- ed a stream of water coming from the more elevated ground in the vicinity, through the mine, and when it is swelled by rains, It carries off prodigious quantities of clay, stones and other things, and leaves the ore which, on account of its greater gravity, remains in a great measure behind. In this “manner a vast amount of labour and expence in getting rid of troublesome incumbrances, is saved. Very striking proofs of the force of the water are exhibited in the low ground beneath the mine, where great quantities of stones, gravel and earth are spread over a very considerable surface. As regards the geological position of this ore it is a little different from that of Salisbury ; the latter, it will be re-— membered, is in mica-slate, whereas that of Kent is in gneiss. The section of the hill which has been made by the an the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 217 excavation, exposes to view a ledge of gneiss in the upper part of the mine; it was inaccessible, but from its appear- ance and from the fragments which had fallen below, no doubt could be entertained that it wae gneiss, especially as this rock constitutes all the neighboring couniry. The clay which forms the immediate enveloping matter of the ore is very interesting. It presents a great variety of colours ; of blue, green, red, yellow, &c.—which, with- out doubt, arise from the oxid of iron and other metallic ox- ids ; good colours for painting might be selected from them. Some parts of the clay appear very saponaceous, and the workmen assured me that a true fuller’s earth, answering all the purposes of that useful mineral, had been obtained here. A fuller’s earth is a clay usually soapy in its foel—very absorbent of grease and oily matters ; fine in its texture, so as to present no parts that shall be large and harsh enough to injure cloth or wool, mechanically, by rubbing ; it should fall to powder easily in water, so as to diffuse itself through that fluid, and easily mix with it and with the stuffs to which it 1s applied. The fuller’s earth of Hampshire, England, so much celebrated, is of a greenish yellow, tolerably firm, crumbles easily in water, receives a polish from the finger nail,and ts very powerfully detergent. This is, after all, the important criterion by which to distinguish fuller’s earth ; ifit removes grease with avidity, crumbles easily in wa- ter so as to diffuse itself readily,and yet is not so coarse as to wear the fibre, it is a fuller’s earth. The subject isof some practical importance to this country on account of its wool- fen manufactures, which, although checked for the present, must eventually rise and prevail. While they are of smal! extent it may be better to use soap, but in very large es- tablishments, fuller’s earth from its cheapness (provided it can be abundantly obtained) is very desirable. With respect to the existence of fuller’s earth in the clay of the Kent iron bed it appears very probable, and some of the specimens appear very like the Hampshire earth, but experiments alone can decide. This vast bed of clay, (for it occupies more or less tthe whole depth of the pit) is without any reasonable doubt, in- terposed between ledges of gneiss, which evidently form its roof, and appear to form its pavement. 218 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c. Both this ore and that at Salisbury form a striking m- stance of a great metallic deposit, not in veins, as most met- als occur, that 1s, filling fissures in rocks, which fissures are perpendicular to the horizon, or form an angle and usually a considerable one with it ; on the contrary, these ores are parallel or nearly so with the horizon—that is, taking the en- tire deposit into view—and form, what is technically as well as familiarly, called a bed of ore. With respect to the kind of ore at Kent, in a scientific ar- rangement it would be referred to the same species, as that at Salisbury—the brown iron stone of Werner or the brown hematite. Yet practical men assure us that the iron made from it is of a different, and as is asserted of an inferior quality, and that itis more difficult to be brought to the state of good iron.* It would require a careful chemical examination to de- cide in what the difference consists (and the subject is so important as well to merit this attention,) but if judging from appearances only, we were to hazard an opinion, it would be that the Kent ore containsa larger proportion of manganese. Most of these ores of iron contain some portion of manga- nese, and although a small proportion of that metal does not injure iron and (as some suppose,) even benefits it ; a large proportion renders it brittle. The impression that the Kent ore contains more manganese, is derived from the fact that the specimens have, generally, a darker colour than the Salisbury ore, and in their cavities there are appearances almost like those produced by pure oxid of manganese. .The Kent ore appears to be mid way between the brown and the black iron stone of Werner ;— the latter confessedly contains a great deal of manganese, and if we are not in an error, the Kent ore bed contains more of black ironstone—the Salisbury more of the brown. The Kent ore bed also abounds in fine specimens, the fibrous, stalactitical and mamillary varieties in particular, are uncommonly fine here, and a mineralogical traveller is strongly tempted to load his vehicle, more deeply than is convenient in so rough a country. On comparing the specimens both from Salisbury and Kent, with those of the same species in the splendid col- * A manufacturer of muskets assured me that he found it too brittle for gun barrels, while that of Salisbury is very tough. in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 219 lection of Col. Gibbs (most of which came from the mines in France) we can scarcely distinguish the one from the oth- er, whether we regard their characters, their beauty, or their richness. Ride to New-Preston. For a series of years a highly crystaline white marble has been brought to New-Haven from the towns of Wash- ington and New-Milford; it is in extensive use, for sepulchral monuments, as well as for purposes of architecture, although far the greater part of itis used for the former purposes. This marble, viewed even in the hands of the stone-cut- ters, could leave no doubt in the mind of the geologist, that it belonged to the highly primitive formations; its perfectly crystaline structure—its high translucence—its whiteness often very pure—its freedom from any impressions of or- ganized bodies, and its occasionally abounding with erystals of foreign substances, particularly tremolite, afford sufficient ground for this conclusion. 1 could have no doubt, accor- ding to the established laws of geology, that it must be found imbedded in gneiss or mica-slate, and most probably in the former. I now eagerly embraced the opportunity of examining it wm place, and for this purpose passed over east to the village of New-Preston, distant from the Kent ore bed seven or eight miles. Gneiss was still the rock which attended me ; it occasionally rose into abrupt and lofty hills, some- times composed of naked rock, with the edges of the strata projecting, and forming rude impending cliffs, threatening a fall into the vallies. The village of New-Preston is situated on one of those high ridges of gneiss, which pass nearly North and South, and form the boldest geological features of the country.— This ridge runs nearly parallel to those which I have al- ready described, as forming the barriers of the Housatonick as far as I pursued its course. Gneiss, from the fissile nature of the rock, splitting readi- ly through the layers of mica or isinglass, which forms a part of its structure, often affords an excellent building and _pa- ving stone. ‘The Haddam stone, so much valued in New- York asa flagging stone, that af New-Milford, of Derby, &c. is of this description. 220 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c. Stone houses—mode of building and of covering with cement. Uponthe top of New-Preston hill(on a spot which although rude, on account of the rocks and loose stones, with which it abounds, affords fine air and picturesque views remarkable both for extent, variety and beauty,) Ihad the pleasure to ob- serve two very good houses, constructed of the gneiss rock of the country. The public house is one of them and its owner assured me that it had literaily arisen out of its own cellar, which was wholly excavated from the gneiss rock on which the house is founded ; the fragments obtained in forming the cellar had proved more than sufficient to construct the walls of the house. This house was not covered external- ly, with any cement, although it had been left rough with that view. It seems, the proprietor had been deterred from applying it, by theill success of a neighbor, who having con- structed a similar house, and covered it with a cement, had the mortification to see it cleave off by the square yard at a time. But on inspecting this house, also a very good one, the cause of failure appeared extremely obvious. ‘The ce- ment had been very improperly applied. If a stone house is not to be covered with cement, it is necessary (as every one knows) to construct it with stones . which have the smoothest and handsomest faces—either nat- ural or cut by the chisel, according to the nature of the stone and the views of the proprietor, as to expence ; the joints are made as nice and smallas possible, and are careful- ly pointed, which gives this kind of building all the firmness and beauty of which it is susceptible, and it has the former in the highest, and the latter in a sufficient degree. But, if a stone house on the contrary, is to be covered with a cement, its walls should be lefton the outside as rough as possible—no smooth faces should be suffered to be on the outside—every such stone should have the smooth face turned inward, and no very large stones should be employ- ed, or if they are, their faces should be as rough as possible ; the stones should be thoroughly bedded mm, and the cavities between them filled with mortar, but the holes on the outside should not be stopped—no small stones or mortar should be put in between them—in a word the whole exterior should present as many rough angular points and as many df in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 221 arregular, deep and dove-tailed cavities between the siones as possible. The mortar should be made of the best lime, and if it is slacked with water already saturated with lime, so much the better; the sand should be very angular, sharp grained and purely siliceous, consisting of little else than fragments of quartz, (commonly called white flint,) it should be coarse, from the size of a pea to that of the head of a large pin, and mixed with the lime in about equal bulks, or as some say, six or seven parts of sand to one of lime, with the addition of a suitable quantity of hair. This mortar, inclear, and moderate- ly warm weather, is put on with the trowel, dashed in with force and care into all the cavities, and floated over to the re- quired thickness, all at one operation, and one day’s work must be put on so soon after another that the two edges may perfectly incorporate, which will not be the fact if the for- mer day’s work ts allowed to dry too much before that of the latter is put on. Only one coat should be applied—a second would not ad- here, if applied, and will come off with the frost. The work may be afterwards beautified by a lime wash made with milk instead of water, with certain additions* which the work- men pretend to keep secret, but which are very well known. A cement put on in this manner will stand ; and in say- ing this I speak from the experience of twelve years ; a ce- ment of this kind which under my observation, has been on that length of time, being as sound as the stone beneath. In the case of the house gn New-Preston hill, a thin coat was put on like a first coatof inside plastering ; thus the holes which should have held the plaster firm were filled up, at. the same time that the stones were scarcely covered, and when the second coat was applied, there was nothing to hold it, and of course, as might have been foreseen, it came off and left a ragged and mutilated exterior. I speak with pleasure of seeing houses built of stone be- cause it is high time that we should build more extensively with permanent materials, brick or stone. * These additions are probably of no importance—the milk and the lime, appear to be all that are essential; the caseous or cheesy part of the milk forms, along with the lime a kind of varnish, although without gloss; skim- med milk will answer, 2f not sour. It is indispensable, that during the appli- eation of the wash, it be constantly stirred by am assistant, that the lime smiay not subside. Vou. II.....No. 2. Ne NS) o 22.2, Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c. Stone houses properly constructed, the inside plastering not being laid upon the stone but on lath at a little distance, or, in the language of the workmen, the walls being furred, are much warmer in winter, and much cooler in summer, are in a great measure indestructible by fire, and by time, need little repair* and are never damp ; on the contrary, if furred, they are perfectly dry. If plastered upon the inside, directly upon the stone, they will be damp, not however from moisture passing through the walls, which is never the case in a well built house, but from condensation of the vapour of the atmosphere, the thick masses of stone not suddenly changing their tempera- ture, and stone being a pretty good conductor of heat, when the atmosphere becomes charged with vapour and warnr withal, the vapour appears on the wall in drops, as it does ona tankard or other vessel filled with cold water, and sud- denly brought into a warm and moist air. From this digression, which will perhaps be pardoned from the practical importance of the subject, we return to our geological investigation. Beds of primitive white Marble. The ridge of gneiss, on which New-Preston stands, stretch- es away South and somewhat Westto New-Milford. De- scending its eastern declivity | turned abruptly to the right, and followed the direction of the ridge of gneiss, travelling parallel to it. The beds of marble soon made their appear- ance in a valley through which runs the little river, the eas- tern Aspetuck, issuing from the Raumaug lake, in the north- ern part of Washington, and emptying into the Housaton- ick at New-Milford. Along this little stream, and at smail distances from it, are situated the principal marble quarries, and they are opened and wrought at short intervals through an extent of seven or eight miles, almost to the main street of New-Milford. ‘The marble, as it lies in ifs native beds, has a very beautiful appearance, being, as already observed, very white and looking almost like beds of snow. Some of it is large grained, composed of plates of perceptible * It is indispensable, that in houses covered with cement, the water should no where get into or beneath the cément, for, it will then cause it to cleave off with the frost. There is no danger of this, if the cornices and other sim. ilar parts are well secured. in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 223 magnitude ; in other places it is fine grained, looking al- most like lump or loaf sugar. Some of it is decidedly what mineralogists term dolomite, and all of it comes un+ der the denomination of granularly foliated. It is, accor- ding to scientific arrangements, of the same kind with the statuary marble, and yet, it may be questioned whether any of it would answer for statues. Those of the ancients were made principally from the Parian marble, so called from its coming from the island of Paros in the Grecian Archipelago, although it is well ascertained that several other islands, as Naxos, Tenos, &c. in that sea afford similar marble: I be- dieve all the statues of the moderns and some of those of the ancients are composed of the Carrara marble, thus denomi- nated from the place where it is found in Italy. To fit a marble for the use of the statuary, it shouid be highly crys- taline, and yet with a pretty fine grain; it should be per- fectly white, entirely free from flaws and from foreign mine- rals, and it should be very firm. ‘The finest pieces of Washington and New-Milford marble probably come as near this description as any marble as yet found in this country, but it is too often mixed with tremolite, often in- deed in such fine crystals and other forms* that it is very beautiful to the eye of a mineralogist, although it would be a blemish to the statuary. The most beautiful pieces of this marble are apt to be of the most tender consistence, and an artist after toiling with immense pains to finish a fine statue, would be very much chagrined to find a delicate prominent part, as a nose, an ear, or a lip, suddenly break off, or filled with crystals of tremolite. Statuary marble, although not-a remarkably hard stone is ‘one of the most durable. Hence, says Patrin, “ it is sought for, for the construction of the most sumptuous edifices, and of monuments which are intended to be at once magnifi- cent and durable. Marble is one of the least destructible materials ; of this we have proof in those precious statues which are an eternal monument of the genius of the artists of ancient Greece. They have supported the injuries of twenty centuries while the scythe of time has not been able to glance on the brilliant polish of their surfaces.” Mihese ranges of marble extend a great way North and South, and are quarried in many and distant places. In the * Scarcely inferior in beauty te the tremolite of fhe Alps. ? 224 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &e. present case the sawing is performed by the waters of the Eastern Aspetuck ; the quarrying is carried on in the usual manner. One circumstance however was novel to me.— The marble is easily divided by wedges in the direction of its stratification, but if they wish to produce a vertical crack, they can effect it, and at the same time produce a horizontal one in the following manner. An auger is provided which is exactly of the form of an equilateral triangle ;—with this, a triangular* hole is bored, in such a manner that the basis of the triangle is in the plane of the horizon, or of the stratifi- cation, and of course a line let fall from the vertex so as equally to bisect the base, would be perpendicular to the horizon, or to the stratification. When this hole is charged with gun powder and fired in the usual manner, two cracks are produced, one horizontal 6r in the dire cubk of the stra- tification, andson both sides of the hole, and the other per- pendicular to the first. I was gratified to find the geological associations of this marble very distinct and exactly such as I had been led to anticipate. This marble forms a perfectly distinct bed in gneiss, which is found on both sides of it,and of course both above and below it. As we travel on toward the centre of New- Milford, the gneiss makes its appearance in various places in the road, and is every where attended by the marble.— According to the systematic arrangement of Mr. Werner, this is therefore the oldest primitive limestone, forming dis- tinct beds in gneiss. I was very solicitous to observe the junctions of the marble and gneiss, and was gratified in va- rious places. The transition from the one rock to the other was, however, in general, not perfectly abrupt, and a sensi- ble intermixture of the two rocks could be perceived for some feet on both sides of the junction. The two rocks accompany each other quite into the main street of New-Milford, and cross the river Housaton- ick somé little way below, and without doubt proceed on to Danbury, Reading, &c, where primitive limestone is found. _. The geological relations of this marble appear then to be perfectly distinct.—I may say they are very grand in their extent, A give us new reason to admire, that wonderful order and harmony, little suspected by people in general, *Tt would not necessarily be triangular—if the auger should be suffered to revolve, inthe usual manner, the hole would of course be cireular. ” in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 225 which are found equally in the mineral kingdom, as in the animal and vegetable, and which afforded, on analogical grounds, the best reason to predict, that the geological asso- ciation of this marble would be found to be what it actually is. New-Milford. I had some hours at New-Milford before night, and they were busily occupied in packing my specimens, and in viewing the town and its vicinity. The peblic burying ground strikes a traveller forcibly, on account of the great number and crowded state of its mon- uments, and their being, almost without exception, construct- ed of the snow-white marble, so abundant in the vicinity. -New-Milford has had the reputation of not being a heal- thy town. Bills of mortality, averaged for a good number of years, afford the only adequate means of deciding a ques- tion often agitated between different towns. New-Milford has of late years, had some sickly seasons, and so have most towns in Connecticut, however healthy they may be reputed. It is true we must not infer from this that there is no difference in the health of different places. It is how- ever probable, that in New-Milford, the great show of mon- uments, (many of them very beautiful in their design and execution) arises from the facility, with which the material is obtained in the neighborhood. New-Milford lies in a valley on the banks of the Housa- tonick ; high hills cut off the view to the East, and indeed in almost every direction, and this low situation, with the ef- fects of evaporation from stagnant water, have, in popular opinion, given rise to its reputed unhealthiness. This town is situated principally upon one main street, with some windings and branches. In few towns in Con- necticut, is there so great an inequality in the appearance of the houses. Some are more than commonly mean and ru- ~ nous, while a considerable number are beautiful, and some evensplendid. One house, built of brick, is very expensively ornamented with the white marble, which, beside many other costly decorations, forms a superb arch over the door. - Our country isstill too recentto afford the traveller many of those biographical, and other interesting’ historical noti- ces which are socommonin Europe. It could not, howev- er, be uninteresting to know, that this town was the early 226 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, Xe. residence of the venerable senator, Roger Sherman: his house, a plain old building, is still pointed out, and his name will be remembered as long as talent, imtegrity, and patriot- ism shall command the respect of Americans. August 30th.—With the rising sun I left New-Milford, and bending my course East, passed a succession of rough and arduous ridges, to the Shepaug river. In the distance of five or six miles, the succession was gnelss—gneiss—gneiss —mica-slate—gneiss—gneiss,—which last terminates in an alluvial tract upon the banks ef the Shepaug, a river. which empties into the Housatonick. The rocks of mica-slate, abounded with garnets, and had time permitted, many fine specimens might have been obtained. Mine Hill—Quarry of Gneiss—Spathic Fron. At the Shepaug, I quitted my wheels, and, with a guide, proceeded, on horseback, two miles North, to the silver mine, as it has been called, siutated in a forest, upon the last ridge of gneiss which I had crossed. ‘The hill, from its steep- ness and roughness, and the thick forest by which it is al- most every where covered, is difficult to ascend.* This hill is called Mine-hill, from its having been ex- plored some years ago by mining operations. The ex- cavations were made at several places, but chiefly at one, where we soon arrived. I have been assured by a son of the person who carried on the work, that without any doubt, silver was obtained there in some quantity, but not enough to render it profitable, and the work after being car- ried on to.a-very considerable extent, a deep shaft having been excavated, and great quantities of different minerals thrown up, was abandoned. Of the silver, I could at present, discover no traces but, from some specimens, from this place, which I saw some years since, I am led to suspect that the ore was the sul- pburet or the vitreous silver ore of Werner. Every thing here, however, indicates a metallic vein, and the relics of the mine still remaining in great abundance,give suflicient indications as to the principal contents of the vein. * As a guide is indispensable to those who visit this interesting spot, it may not be amiss to mention for the benefit of future mineralogical travellers, that any information will be obligingly imparted, at the house of a respec table man, (Mr. Trowbridge,) who lives at the foot of the hill. in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 227 There were several metallic sulphurets, quartz in abun- dance, and often crystalized, and, more than all, and what had principally drawn me to the place, spathic iron. This remarkable mineral, which, in small quantities and much mixed with other minerals, is a very common companion of metals in their veins, is however, rarely found in great quan- tities in oneplace. France, and especially Germany, is re- markable for mines of spathic iron, and although we have _ some few American localities of it mentioned in professor Cleveland’s mineralogy, there is, so far as I am_ informed, no evidence that in this country it exists any where, in quantity, except at this mine. Tons of it lie here upon the ground, and no one in this vicinity appears to know what it is, nor does it appear ever to have entered into the views of the proprietor to turn it to account. It is very well characterized. Its structure is distinctly foliated, with a triple cleavage, producing rhombic frag- ments, the surfaces a little bent : the colours are from yel- lowish white, deepening through various shades of yellow and brown, to almost black ; the surfaces which have been acted on by the air, are the most deeply coloured and their interior, when a piece is broken, is much whiter : the spe- cific gravity is four, water being one. It is entirely indifferent to the magnet till it has been heat- ed red hot on charcoal, when it becomes very sensible and flies to the magnet almost with the avidity of iron filings. Ik does not often appear crystalized, but when it is, the crystals are very flat, thatis to say, very obtuse rhombs. Quartz is its immediate gangue, and many specimens are found, in whick it is beautifully interlaced with this mineral, and occasional- ly a fragment presents a ground of dark coloured spathic iron, with white crystals of quartz, perforating it in many places, and directons and thus presenting a kind of mosaic. In the above description, it is presumed every mineralo- gist will recognize the spathic iron. ‘This kind of iron ore is entirely different from that of Salisbury and Kent. . It ts essentially composed of oxid of iron, united to carbonic acid, and usually to lime ; it contains also variable proportions of manganese and sometimes magnesia. It appears to be es- sentially a carbonate of iron, but it is rare that lyme is not also present. 228 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c. Hence probably it is, that, ordinarily, in reducing it, it is aot necessary to put limestone into the furnace, as in case of other iron ores; the lime, or in other words, the flux, is present in the ore itself, and little or none need be added. But this is not its greatest excellence— It affords steel directly from the bar without the process of cementation. Hence, in Europe this ore is much valued, as the iron bar drawn out by the trip-hammer in the common process of blooming, is iron or steel at pleasure, according as the process is managed; this is not true of any other ore, and hence probably this has been called the steel ore. The steel made from it is not of the finest kind, it is used principally for agricultural and other coarser instruments. The gneiss rock in which this spathic iron lies, is within the limits of the town of New-Milford, and on account of the important use which is there made of this rock, it is worthy of a moment’s attention. “It is, as already remarked, gnevss, but singularly perfect in its characters, and it is questionable whether for purposes of architecture the world can produce its superior. Both its stratification and its schistose structure are so perfectly regular and continuous on one right line,that slabs. of it of any length which can be lifted, can be raised from the quarry so regular in all their dimensions, and so even in all their surfaces, that they are hardly, excelled by hewn stone. .The colour also is of alight, agreeable grey ; the finest houses in New-Milford have this stone for their door-steps and basement; and its natural surfaces, or those, which, at the ends and edges are but slightily modified by the hammer and chisel, are so perfect that nothing finer aeed be wished for the construction of the handsomest hous- es in cities. Could it be easily transported to New-York, this stone would be a more valuable possession to the pro- prietor, than the mine of silver or iron. 1 was informed that one stone was actually removed from the quarry, of the astonishing length of forty feet, with such a breadth and thickness, as corresponded to the pur- pose for which it was to be used. It is worth the trouble of a visit to New Milford, if it were for nothing else than to see this incomparable kind of building stone. In its native bed, it has the general stratification of the neighboring coun- ITY, both with respect to the direction and dip of the strata. in the Counties of New-Haven and Latehfield. 229 Rattle Snakes—anecdote of one. I was informed by my guide that ratile snakes had for- merly been very numerous upon this hill, and were still found there in considerable numbers. He accorded with the general impression as to their torpidity, and the slowness of their motions, but stated the following fact, as of his own knowledge. One of his neighbors, a young man, meeting with a large and vigorous snake, of this spe~ cies, instead of despatching him at once with his long cart- whip, which he could easily have done without the slightest danger, (as it is well known that they are killed very easily) amused’! himself by provoking him, by gently playing his whip around his body. The irritated reptile made repeat- ed and vigorous leaps towards the young man, coming near- er to him ‘at every effort, and being teazed more and more by the whip, at last threw himself into the air with sich en- ergy, that when he descended, he seemed scarcely to touch. the ground,—but instantly rebounding, executed a succes- sion of leaps, so rapid, and so great, that there was not the slightest intermission, and he appeared to fly. The young man betook himself to a rapid flight, but his dreadful pur- suer gained rapidly upon him, till “approaching a fence he perceived that he could not pass it before the fangs of the snake would be hooked in his flesh ; as his only resource, he turned, and by a fortunate throw of his lash, by which he wound it completely around the serpent’s body, he ar~ rested his progress, and killed him. Few animals are furnished with more dreadful means of destruction. I had a living one nearly two months in my possession, and every day watched his manners. Birds, - and most small animals, when put into his cage, he immedi- ately killed, but did not eat them ; a toad he permitted to remain with him for weeks unmolested, and even seemed attached to him, as he would permit him to leap upon his body, and even to sit upon his head. He tooknothing except water, which he drank in large quantities, but rejected eve- ry thing else, although tempted with very many things ; he grew emaciated, and at the approach of cold weather died. But he was six weeks in full vigour. When he opened his mouth his fangs were not visible, unless he was provoked ; Vou. H..... No. 2: 30 2360 Geology, Jhineralogy, Scenery, &C. at- other times they were covered by a membrane like a scabbard, only they were drawn back, so that the sheathing membrane formed only a slight protuberance on each side of the upper jaw. If irritated, he flattened his head, threw it back, opened his mouth wide, and instantly the fatal fangs were shot out of their aaa like a spring dagger, and ‘he darted on his object. After his death I examined the fangs; they were shaped like a sickle—a duct led from the reservoir of poison at the bot- tom of the tooth, quite through its whole length and termi- nated just by the point, which was exceedingly sharp. Thus the fang is darted out at the will of the animal—it makes the puncture at the instant, and, simultaneously, the poison flows through the duct and is deposited in the very bottom of the wound. As this rarely fails to touch a blood vessel. the venom is thus instantly infused into the system, and without delay commences the march of death through ev- ery vein and artery. These facts, | am sensible, are not new, ‘but they are not often related by eye witnesses, and nothing regarding the He tory of this tremendous animal can fail to be interesting. How happy is it, that the poison of the rattle-snake, is not conjoined with ‘te size of the Boa-constrictor, and with the speed of the antelope ! Ride to Woodbury. From the } Mines hill, through Roxbury, to the vicinity of Woodbury, eight or nine miles, the sph Se was an uninter- rupted succession of high hills, and deep vallies—not moun- tainous, but forming vast curves, and causing the face of the ground to swell and sink so regularly, that the traveller is almost constantly either ascending or descending. ‘The hills were composed of gneiss, not naked as I have hereto- fore described, but covered with soil and cultivation, and following the general direction and stratification of the coun- try. Near Woodbury the rocks presented some tour- malins. | On reaching the top of a hig ae all of a sudden in a valley st tretching North and Sout for a mile or two, Wood- bury appears, w “ith a handsome, well built street,and furnish-, ed with three churches, with spires,—two of them new and handsome. For one of these churches, it seems the zn the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 231 tewn is indebted to a dissension as to the location of a house of worship, which, as usual in such cases, ended in the building of two new ones. Woodbury basin of secondary Greenstone, &c. 3 While descending the last hill, the geological traveller is forcibly struck with the new physiognomy of the valley in which Woodbury lies. Its features are totally different from those of the country on which he still is, and from those of the remoter regions all around. Abrupt fronts of dark coloured naked rock rise perpen- dicularly from flat, and apparently, alluvial plains.— ‘They have mural precipices and sharp ragged ridges, frin- ged with wood, and are marked by a great accumulation of ruins of the rock, sloping from the foot half or two thirds of the way up the rock ; on the opposite side of the hills the descent is gradual, without precipices, and comparatively easy. | No one who with habits of observation has travelled from New-Haven to Hartford, and so on to Northampton, and Deerfield,—no one, in short, who has ever been conversant with a trap country, can fail almost at first glance to refer this to that class of rocks. It is the whin stone of the Scotch—-the grunstein or greenstone of the Germans, and, in a popular way, may be referred to the same family of rocks as the Giant’s Causeway and the cave of Fingal. As the traveller descends into the valley, all his impres- ‘sions are fully confirmed by discovering red sandstone in the structure of the houses and by finding a quarry of it worked at the foot of one of the ridges of rock. In a word, this is a basin of secondary greenstone, or trap, reposing on the old red sandstone of Werner. After being so long oc- eupied in the regions of gneiss and other highly primitive rocks it is gratifying to find thus suddenly so new a feature in the geology of the country. On consulting Mr. Machue’s late geological map of the Dnited States, I find that this spot did not escape his sa- gacity ; he travelled over it, and has laid it down as secon- dary, and belonging to the old red sandstone formation. From our being now within twenty-four miles of New- Haven, it might be imagined that this tract is merely a 232 Geolosy, Mineralogy, Scenery, ¥e. branch of the great secondary trap formation which com- mences at that town ; but it will appear that it is not; on. the contrary, it is perfectly distinct—it is strictly a basin ; an island, (if I may say so,) of secondary trap, in the midst of an ocean of gneiss. We find accordingly, a total change in the minerals of the country. Very beautiful prehnite is found here abun- dantly, lying loose among the stones at the bottom of the precipices ; it isin mamillary and botryoidal masses, or in almost perfect spheres, and sometimes in veins, and the structure is in diverging fibres,—the colour a delicate green. I have seen it no where so fine or so abundant in this coun- try. Agates are also found here, and zeolites and some of them handsome. In other parts of the same tract, bitumin- ous stones are found. I havea piece of fibrous limestone, from this tract, which is so bituminous that it looks as if soaked in tar and will burn with flame. My time did not permit me to coast around this basin, and ascertain its extent and its relations with the precision which I could have wished. It evidently reached but a mile or two North of where I then was, and, returning to New-Haven, I rode through its length in that direction, and should place its entire length at seven or eight miles. Its breadth extended but a little way to the East of the North and south road which I was travelling, and judging from the contour of the hills to the West, I should imagine that it was succeeded by gneiss at the distance of two or three miles from the road. I know of nothing in this country similar to this basin, except the coal basin of Richmend, which, although small, is much larger than this. : | A friend,* to whom in a letter I described this basin, re- marks upon it :—‘'The county of Antrim, in the North of Ireland, presents numerous patches or districts of trap and basalt, in-such relative positions as to render it very evident that after a surface consisting partly of bare primitive, and partly of hard chalk with flmts had been formed, this was * The Rev. Henry Steinhauer, Principal of the Moravian Institution of Bethiem, Member of the Geological Society of London, and formerly a missionary among the Esquimaux of Lasrador. April 19, 1819.— Science, humanity,religion and friendship have now to'de plore the death of this excellent and able man, from whom, as Principal of the celebrated Moravian Seminary at Bethlem, inPean. and as an ardent cultivator of the natural science, this country had much to hope. uae in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 233 completely covered with a stratum of trap, which by some subsequent operation, was carved, united to its subjacent masses, into the present surface of the country, so as to be detached in some places, and to remain contiguous in oth- ers. Is there any reason (independent of the theory of universal formations, which I think must not be taken quite for granted, particularly in the late or upper forma- tions) for supposing that the trap of your neighbourhood, once was continuous over a much larger extent of coun- try ?” My present impression is that the trap of Connecticut and Massachusetts, has not extended over more country than it now occupies. But this subject may at a future time be resumed. In Southbury, numerous low, conical hills, of sand and gravel appeared, and formed the basis of the road. A Recurrence of primitive counerde=ahd ride to New-Haven. The gneiss again came in, in the southern part of South- bury, and northern part of Oxford, and its ledges continued for two or three miles east and South of Humphreysviile, where they form the bed and banks of the Naugatuck river, and contribute to diversify the scenery of that romantic spot. The rocks which intervene between this place and New- Haven, are the same ranges which, a few miles North, I pass- ed in the commencement of this tour. ‘They are, for two or three miles mica slate—then chlorite slate, much mixed with epidote and with spots of calcareous spar, and con- taining also beds of trap, which from its position must be primitive. At one place on the top of the high hill, from which we descend into New-Haven—the trap, perfectly distinct at the distance of a few feet from the chlorite slate, forms a,visible junction with it, and graduates into it so in- sensibly, that it is impossible to mark the line of distinction. Indeed, in its passage, it puts on very distinctly the appear- ance of greenstone slate. Upon these ranges of chlorite slate and clay slate, which succeed, lie vast isolated masses of trap, without any apparent connexion with other rocks; they seem to be of the same texture with the secondary greenstone or trap, and perhaps give some countenance to “Mr. Steinhauer’s suggestion. 234 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &e. Descending the hill, trap and argillite and chlorite slate, several times alternate, and form the cliffs through which the road has been wrought. Scenery. Now a combination of fine objects, breaks upon the view. On the left the magnificent ridges of secondary trap, (men- tioned in the commencement of the tour,) stretching away North, farther than the eye can distinguish, and forming the barrier of luxuriant vallies, whose fine verdure is admira- bly contrasted with their naked and lofty precipices; fur- ther East, other and still othe: ranges succeed, till their faint outline is blended with the distant sky ; immediately at our feet, is the great alluvial plain, from which rise the smoke and the spires of New-Haven, and further still its ex- fensive bay, surrounded by alluvial and secondary, but ter- minated at its mouth, by primitive country, closing in upon both sides; and much more remote, but distinguishable in the distant horizon, appear the shores and coast of Long-Isl- _ and, with the intervening sea and the craft and ships which it bears on its bosom. General Remarks and Conclusions. In Dr. Bruce’s Journal, Vol. 1. pa. 139, 1 have given some account of the secondary greenstone formation, on which New-Haven stands. Itis obvious, from the preceding state- ments, that immediately on leaving this plain, the rocks in the order in which they are described above, become prim- itive, and it is worthy of observation that, taking into view an extent of thirty miles, the structure of the country pre- sents, almost precisely the arrangement and succession of rock formations, which are laid down by Mr. Werner. 1. Clay slate, including beds of trap, and passing occa~ stonally into chlorite slate.* * Within a mile south of the road, on which my returning tour crossed these slaty rocks, commence beds of serpentine marble, which continue, eight or ten miles to the sea, and become the beautiful material, so nearly resembling Verde Antique, now largely quarried and wrought. This ex- traordinary bed of marble and serpentine, is well worthy of a more par tienlar account. in the Counties of NV ew-Haven and fatchfield. 235 2. Mica slate succeeds and occupies the country, for nany miles. 3. Gneiss succeeds to the mica slate, and occupies the country for many miles more. 4. Granite crowns the whole, although it occupies but a wet extent* compared with the gneiss and slaty rocks. . The relative elevation, is on the\whole in this order, a we find clay slate occupying the lowest and granite or gneiss the highest situation. 6. Near Watertown where the granite was observed, the next formation, is mica slate, which occupies about fifteen miles in breadth to Goshen, where granite again appears. 7. The north western corner of the State, where we have now arrived, presents immense ranges of gneiss and mice slate, with a new and very interesting feature. 8. This feature is the existence of vast beds of white erystalized primitive marble, and, including the formation further south, between New-Preston and New-Milford— these beds of marble, are included in strata of mica slate and gneiss—the whitest and most crystaline and purest marble being in the gneiss. 9. West Gibacnfeld: a few miles, (as lam informed from the best authority,) there are hills of primitive hornblende and sienite. — 10. A little West of New-Haven, as described in Bruce’s Journal, (Vol. I. pa. 139,) are beds of primitive trap. Thus it appears that in the district described in the tour are included very nearly all the important primitive rocks of Werner, and the secondary district, on which New-Ha- ven stands, includes a considerable portion of his seconda- ry formations. The direction of the ranges of primitive rocks, is general- ly North, a little inclining to East, and of course South, a little inclining to West; the secbeer de of the strata, is to the East, at an angle, varying very much in different pla- Ges ihe strata are in some places, nearly vertical and uw others, at angles of less than 45° with the horizon. * Possibly it is only in veins. 236 Localities of Minerals. Arr. 1V.—iLocauiries or Mineraus, Localities—communicated by Professor Dewxny-of Will- tams* College. Tue new locality of serpentine, was found in Middlefield, Hampshire County, by one of our graduates, E. Emmons of that town. It is connected with the beds of soapstone; indeed, the soapstone often passes into serpentine. It oc- curs, green of various shades, reddish brown, gray, yellow- ssh-white, and cream-coloured, with spots of a smoky hue, like smoky quartz in this respect, but certainly serpentine. Tt is sometimes associated with quartz, filling the cavities of strata of quartz, covered with minute crystals. Its hard- ness is very variable—some of it is disintegrating, some is ‘fibrous, and seems to be passing into salaece. “Much of this serpentine, especially the lighter coloured, is remarka- bly fine. The whitish decrepitates much, when high tem- perature is suddenly thrown upon it. Odour i is strongly mag- nesian, when the mineral is breathed on. In some speci- mens are yellowish and reddish brown portions of a crystaline structure, and in some, cavities are filled with these imper- fect crystals. They break into a rhomboidal form, and are sometimes very regular rhomboids. Some of them, are so closely serpentine, that they may be all the same mineral. They contain, like the rest of the serpentine, magnesia, ox- yd of iron, often so minute, that they are discoverable only under a magnifier, or by the magnet. Mr. Emmons has also found, beautiful masses of actyno- lite, often containing small tufts of the fibrous variety. White talc is often mixed with the actynolite. Bitter Spar, is found there also, in the soapstone, associ- ated with beautiful green talc. ‘The spar is laminated, white, and yellowish—but some specimens, when fractured, pre- sented numerous small rhombs. I have found in Sheffield, (Mass.) masses of Tremolite, with fibres two feet long. I never heard of such tremolite. * In Prof. Dewey’s piece, (Vol. I. pa. 337,) Williams College is errone: ously printed Williams’ College. _ Localities of Minerals. 237 Hexagonal crystals of mica.—They are in granite. As I did not notice them at first, I cannot tell where the granite was obtained, but believe it was from Chester or Westfield, on the granite ridge. Some of the crystals are small, not more than one tenth of an inch on a side and almost regular hexagons. Others are larger, and have unequal sides.— The real size of them is here given. NO GING. 22 Ay Thesidesare ¢o—& ee : generally very © é oO O Enlarge. nn perfect, and @ some of the crystals much -skeabie those you mentioned in the Journal from Perto Rico. It is probabie that other specimens of hexagonal crystals may be obtained on the granitic ridge in this State. An attempt to measure the angles of No. 1, gave angle == 1229, O=1269, c==1120, d==121°; e=108°, . and “nN==1320. The sum is 721°, and should be but 720°. The above angles may therefore be taken as very near the truth, In No. 3, the angles were as follows, a=116°, 6=124°, c==129°9, d=112°, e=1222°, and n—=117°; being only 7205°, and approximating nearly to the truth. I do not suppose the angles are very accurate, for f had no good means of measuring them. In some of the crystals, the sides are more unequal than in No. 3. In some rhombic spar, containing the new mineral, Bru- cite, from Sparta, N. J. I found several hexagonal crystals of mica. Crystals of Tremolite, in dolomite, from Great Barring- ton. ‘These crystals are much compressed, and the diedral summits rather rounded, so that they become bladed erys- tals. They are from one half inch to two inches, or more, in length, and some of them three fourths of an inch in breadth. They are found in hard rocks cf dolomite, above ground, and very abundantly, in the very friable dolomite, under the surface of the earth. The fibrous and acicular varieties of tremolite are abundant in the South part of this county. Brown Spar from Leicester, N. Y. on Genesee river.—— The crystals are rounded, or lenticular, and often so group- ed, as to have a scaly appearance—colour, dark brown. Mon 2. No: 2° 3] 238 Localities of Minerals. with a resinous lustre,—translucent,—becomes yellowisli before the blowpipe. The crystals appear to connect prismatic masses of limestone, or of limestone mixed with some alumine. The whole dissolves perfectly, with effer- vescence, in nitric acid. fron Sand.--From the shore of Lake Erie, near the viver Ashtabula.—It is found in considerable qnantity. : Pisolite—From Chicopee river, Springfield, Mass.—— These are globular concretions, from a very minute size to 3-8ths or 1-2 inch in diameter, often connected together in large quantities._-Ash-white on the outside; inside, dark grey ; pretty hard, opaque, concretive layers often scarcely discernible.——-I have never found any nucleus of any ex- traneous mineral —-Effervesces considerably in nitric. acid. Composed of very minute particles of carbonate of lime, silex, and alumine; the last appears to predominate.— Hence when breathed upon, they have an argillaceous smell.—I believe they are called clay-stones commonly, but 1 know not what mineral to refer them to, except prsolite.— They have somewhat the appearance of small concreted stalagmites ; but their location and composition do not well agree with this mineral. ‘This notice may lead to ex~ amination of them. Localities by Mr. Amos Earon—from the minutes of the Troy Lyceum. White Mugite—Sappar—Plumbago—Adularia.—In the granular limestone of Canaan, Washington, and Brookfield, in Connecticut, tremolite abounds, and in Brookfield, the white variety of augite is abundant. Near the sorih ae corner of Haddam, on the East side of the river, in the parish of Middle-Haddam, is a new lo- eality of sappar. It is on the farm of a Mr. Selden, from whom I received specimens, with fibres, from six to eight mches in length. Itis here found in mica-slate, as at Ches- terfield and Conw ay. Above-six miles in a southeast direction from Brimfield, and two miles Kast of Holland meeting-house, is an exten- sive bed of Plumbago. Several years ago, this mine was wrought, and many tons of plumbago were taken from it.—— ‘The beds of plumbago, lie between layers of gneiss, in Localities of Minerals. 239 connexion with hornblende, perfectly pure, except that it contains cobalt ore, like the hornblende 6f Monson and Chatham. In Brimfield, in Massachusetts, the stone wall, near the house of Dr. Lincoln, and of the widow of Gen. Eaton, abounds in adularia. The feldspar part of a large portion of the granite and gneiss of that vicinity, is supplied by the most beautiful adularia. The sulphuret of molybdena, also is there very common—t is found chiefly, in veins of granite which traverse gneiss. + ¥ ¥ % * * Localities of Minerals, observed principally in Haddam,* tn Connecticut, in Sept. 1819, by Dr. J. W. Wenster. Communicated in various letters to the a I have discovered a new locality for roumhalia of great beauty, and of remarkable regularity of form; it is about one mile beyond the rock which Col. Gibbs blasted, some years since, for small, short Tourmalin, which rock, is in the road, four miles from the inn, at Haddam. ‘The strata in this place, are, mica-slate and gneiss, frequently alterna- ting, and passing into each other, traversed by veins of gra- nite of various size ;—following the beds of these rocks, through a thick wood, | observed the tourmalin increase in quantity, and size, towards the more elevated part of the beds of mica-slate, a blast being made, the rock appeared wholly composed of a yellowish granular quartz, and black tourmalin, which were thrown out in profusion, being easily separated from the granular quartz. Every crystal was per- fect, having three lateral planes, and being terminated at each extremity with three; the terminal planes set upon the lateral. The diameter varies from 1-6 to 1-2 an inch, but I afterwards observed some with a diameter of two inches, less perfect however. In another letter, it is remarked, I have found a new locali-* ty of black tourmalins, all doubly ‘acuminated, and none less than an inch and a half in length, by one in diameter. * Haddam is about twenty miles from the mouth of Connecticut river; on its western bank, and abont 100 miles N. E. from New-York. 240 Locahties of Mineruais. About three miles West of the tavern in Haddam, in a cross road, Dr. Webster says, “1 discovered in a vein four inches wide and four feet long, in a decomposed mica slate, and in the sand proceding from its decomposition, the finest crystalized epidote, which I have seen from an American locality ; the specimens are, many of them, pre- cisely like those from the Oisans. We have here, in short, the pistacite, zoizite, and epidote arenace. [Mineralogists, are generally aware that the only known locality, of crysoberyl in place, is in Haddam.” Itis in a very beautiful granite, consisting principally of a white feldspar and a grey quartz, the parts very large, and it abounds with garnets, some of them of a great SIZE, with tourmalins and fine fibrous white tale. This rock is in the court-yard of a dwelling house, and passes under the house, into its cellar. Mineralogists have found it necessary, and just, to insure the proprietor of the house, against their gun- powder blasts, and to pay him liberally for the molestation of his peace.]|— Ed. Of this rock, Dr. Webster observes ; The rock containing chrysoberyl, is undoubtedly a vein, traversing gneiss, we believe. J obtained permission to blast, and diground forsome yards. The part which had been hitherto concealed by earth, is most abundant in garnet, and I obtained masses two feet in length, with perfect garnets, four, five and six inches in diameter, but all laminated. In one specimen, consisting chiefly of mica,are very perfect black tourmalins. In the mica slate of this vicinity, I found con- siderable actynolite. At about three miles beyond Jewitt’s city, on the left of the road to Norwich, is a magnificent example of a:con- centric globular concretion of gneiss, many yards in diame- ter, the only instance I know of in this part of the United States. At Bozra, I found tourmalins, and fine graphic granite ;—at Tolland, remarkably transparent eurnets): of a nearly rose red colour—also, good epidote of an olive green ;—At Tolland, graphite disseminated through rolled masses of granite and gneiss ;——at map bule es adularia® ;— at Charlton, radiated tourmalin. *Mr.T. D. Porter, has shewn us specimens of adularia from Haddam.[Fd.} Localities of Minerais. Q4y .Vew locality of erystalized sulphat of Barytes, &c.—-Com- mumcated in a letter by D. B. Douerass, assistant pro- fessor in the West Point Military Academy. During my excursion to the northwest, last summer, as astronomer to the Boundary Commissioner, I was enabled to make a considerable collection of mmerals ;~—-among the rest, a rich one of Niagara specimens; also some very fair specimens of organic remains from fort Erie—upon the islands at the West end of Lake Erie, I obtained sulphat of barytes, which is found both in crystals, and in mass, in great abundance, in the western islands above mentioned. The crystals are very flat hexagonal prisms, clustered to- gether rather confusedly, and adhering very slightly to each other ; they are generally very clear and pellucid, some- times tinged with blue. Localities of Minerals —— Communicated by Dr. I. F. Dana. Tremolite, (bladed,) abundant, and of a fine quality at Chester, N. H. Plumbago, in small rolled masses, and in small veins, in micaceous schistus, at Chester, N. H. Some specimens are very fine, and in laminz, as large as the hand and half an inch thick. Epidote.—Epidote, very beautiful, in radiating crystals, in Exeter, N. H. Localities of Minerals.—By the Rev. Mr. Schaeffer of New-York. Pistazite, (Epidote,) in beautiful crystals, occurred in a rock of singular constitution, composed of schorl, quartz, cubie, [cuboidal? as the cube is not among the forms of car- bonate of lime,—Ed.] crystals of carbonate of lime, indico- lite, &c. and an ore, the nature of which is not yet ascer- tained. It is probable, however, that it may contain nickel. Corlaer’s Hook, New-York, discovered nearly three years ago. Pistazite (epidote,) amorphous, or rather granular,—oc- cursina Cee green feldspar rock ; Rhinebeck, Dutch- ess County. N. ¥.—-observed last summer. 242 Ancient Bones. Arr. V.. On some ancient human bones &c. with « no- tice of the bones of the Mastodon or Mammoth, and of various shells found in Ohio and the west; by Cates Atwater, Esq. >» Circleville, May 22, 1820. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir, Ir has been said, that neither the bones of man, nor the remains of any of his works, have been found in any of the rock formations of our Globe. This may be true of all parts of the earth except Ohio. In this region however a number of skeletons have been found in two places at least, and the works of man have been discovered in many oth- ers. To what epoch or catastrophe of our globe, they are to be referred, I leave others to decide, while I proceed to relate the facts. Iam credibly informed, that in digging a well at Cincin- nati in this state, an arrow head was found more than nine- ty feet below the surface. The geology of that place has been well described by Dr. Drake, in his ‘Picture of Cin- cinnati.” It is avery ancient alluvion. Nine miles South of the present shore of lake Erie, at Ridgeville, Cayaho- ga county, several feet below the surface, in the ridge, which was once the southern shore of the lake, several bricks, and one or more human skeletons were found, which from every appearance were deposited there by no human hand.* They might have been thrown on the shore, with the cedars which surround these remains, before the lake receded to its present bed. Similar indications have been observed in Huron county immediately West of Ridge-. ville} We may account for those found in Huron, in the same manner as those discovered at Ridgeville. At Pickaway plains, about three miles South of this town, while several persons were digging a well, several years since, a human skeleton was found{ seventeen feet six inches * Fact derived frrom Moses Eldred, Esq. + Authority, Israel Harrington, Esq. of Lower Sandusky. +By Major John E. Morgan. Ancient Bones. 243 below the surface. This skeleton was seen‘by several per- sons ; and among others, by Dr. Daniel Turney, an emi- nent surgeon of this place ; they all concurred in the belief, that it belonged toa human being. Pickaway plains are, or rather were a large prairie, before the land was improved by its present inhabitants. This tract is alluvial to a great a depth ; greater, probably, than the earth has ever been perforated, certainly than it has been here by the hand of man. ‘The surface of the plain is at least one hundred feet above the highest freshet of the Scioto river, near which it lies. On the surface isa black vegetable mould, from three, to six, and nine feet in depth—then we find pebbles and shells imbedded among them: the pebbles are evidently rounded and smoothed by attrition in water, exactly such as we now see at the bottom of rivers, ponds and lakes. 1 have examined the spot where this skeleton was found, - and am persuaded that it was not deposited there by the hand of man, for there are no marks of any grave; or of any of the works of man, but the earth and pebbles appear to lie in the very position in which they were de- posited by the water. This skeleton is no more, but one skull found nearer still to this town, a drawing of which ac- companies thjs communication, I have been careful to pie serve fora similar plate. (See 2d plate.) On the North side of a small stream, called Hargus creek, which at this place empties into tne Scioto, in dig- ging through a hill composed of such pebbles as I have de- scribed in Pickaway plains, at least nine feet below the surface, several human skeletons were found, perfect in ev- ery limb. “The drawing* which I have annexed, is exactly one fourth part as large @ as one of these skulls which is in my possession. These skeletons, thus found, were promiscu- ously scattered about, and parts of skeletons were some- times found at different depths below the surface. This hill is at least 50 feet above the highest freshets in the Sci- oto, and is a very ancient alluvion, where every stratum of sand, of clay, and pebbles, has been deposited by the wa- ters of some stream. Near this hill isa large prairie, seve- ral miles in length, and nearly half a mile in width, which, from every appearance, has been the bed of the Sacte, * Although I profess no skillin drawing, 1 believe the drait is correct. 244 Ancient Bones and Shells. when it was probably a mighty stream, compared with which, it is now a mere brook. There are other skulls in this town taken out of the same hill, by the persons who, in order to make a road through it, were engaged in taking it away. These bones are very similar to those found in our mounds, and pr obably belonged to the same race of men. These people were short and thick, not exceeding gene- vally five feet in height, and very possibly they were not more than four fect. os inches. These skeletons, when first exposed to the atmosphere, are quite perfect, but after- -wards moulder and fall into pieces. Whether they were | overwhelmed by the deluge of Noah, or by some other, J know not, but one thing appears certain, namely,—that wa- ter has deposited them | here, together with the hill in which, for so many ages they have reposed. Indeed, this whole country appears to have been once, and for a considerable period, covered with water, which has made it onn VaAsT CEMETERY OF THE BEINGS OF FORMER AGES. Verebratula pennata, &§c. &c. Sept. 24th, 1819.—1 send you four drawings of articles found by myself, (see plate I.) No. 1, represents what is - to me an incognitum ; I do not find the like in Parkinson’s ** Organic Remains,” nor in Sowerby’s ‘ Mineral Con- chology.” The drawing represents it exactly. It is a carbonate of lime. You see but two sides, or the half of it, yet from them you may get a good idea of the whole. No. 2, 3, is a petrified shell, classed by Sowerby under the genus Terebratula, although this species is a non- descript. ‘ would propose for ithe name of “ terebratula pennata,” as the projections on its sides may well represent wings. I would thus describe it—rectangular, middle of the front, greatly depressed ; the depression striated crosswise ; the strie extending to the beak ; ten deep indentations on each side of the depression ; the lower valve greatly eleva- ted, corresponding with the upper valve. —The margin deep- fy and angularly serrated, with teeth corresponding with ihese in the other valve. A straight line from the hinge to the extremities of the wings. Beaks rather curved, with an Nn / Teeth and Bones of the Mammoth. 245 indentation, forming a semicircle in the centre of the beaks. This beautiful specimen is a light drab-coloured limestone. Fig. 3, shews the hinge of ‘“ terebratula pennata.” No. 4, is a very beautiful specimen, and belongs to a new species at least, if not a new genus. [t was found by my little daughter. It is not injured as most other specimens are, as its shell is almost perfect. The drawing shews its size. i Fig. 5, a detached vertebra of an encrinite, though lar- ger, than described by Parkinson. ‘This is composed of limestone, and the surface is beautifully and distinctly artic- ulated. I have many specimens of the encrinite ; some quite perfect. Notice respecting the teeth and bones of the Mammoth or Mastodon. Oct. 11, 1819.—The teeth of the mastodon in my pos- session, resemble those of carniverous animals more than any with which I am acquainted. Those found in this state, vary in size, and are always found in alluvial earth, or in the beds of creeks. One of mine, were it not broken off, would weigh nine or ten pounds ; the weight of the other is given, as well as its size. ‘The latter, was found by a child, at play in a small rivulet, near the Pickaway plains ; the former was found in the bed of salt creek, twenty-two feet nine inches below the surface, by Judge Givens, of Jackson county, Ohio, while engaged in digging for salt wa- ter. ‘Two or more ribs, several joints of the backbone, &e. were found with it. Near this place several teeth of the mammoth belonging to different individuals, have been found at different times, some of them lying on the surface of the earth, and a few relics below it; the former, I should rather sus- pect, were brought here, principally by the Indians, the latter lay in the place where the animals died. A large thigh bone was lately found near this town in digging a mill-race. Sev- eral téeth of the mastodon have been found along the Scio- to river, on the southern beach of Lake Erie, and at Day- ton on the Great Miami. Several bones belonging to this Wont Eh. Nows: a2 246 Dewey’s Geological Section. animal have been discovered near Cincinnati, and some in a good state of preservation in the counties of Athens and Meigs. References. [Print at the end.] No. 1,2, B. two views ofa mastodon’s tooth, found in the bed of a small river near Pickaway plains, Ohio. Weight, 5lbs. 6 1-2 inches from A. to r.—from 1. to 1. three inches. No. 1, 2, A. two views of a tooth found in alluvial earth, twenty- two feet nine inches, below the surface, in digging a salt well at the Scioto salt-works. These teeth are in the cabinet of Caleb Atwater, Circleville, Ohio. The latter tooth weighs nine pounds, though several fragments have been broken off. Its original weight was probably from 12 to 14 lbs. at least. Art. VI. Geological section from Taconick range, in Will- zamstown, to the city of Troy, on the Hudson, by Profes- sor DEwey. Williamstown, July 4th, 1820. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir, I rnrorMED you sometime ago, that I intended to contin- ue the Geological Section from the Taconick range, in this town, to the city of Troy, on the Hudson. I have before noticed the rocks on the roads from this place to Troy, North and South of the direct line, and I have lately passed on this line from Troy, through Brunswick, Grafton, and Petersburgh, over the Taconick range, to this town.— . Through these three towns to Troy, the distance from the West line of Massachusetts, is very nearly twenty miles in a straight line; and as the rocks are similar on the routes North and South of it, the geology will embrace a section several miles in width. It will be recollected, that the rocks of the Taconick range in this town, were stated to be argil- laceous-slate, chlorite-slate, and talcose-slate. The last pre- dominates, and abounds on the descent of the range into the valley of Petersburgh. This valley, of variable breadth, extends several miles North and South, and is travers- Dewey’s Geological Section. DAF ed by a stream which runs northward, into Hoosack River. In this valley is found abundantly the same mixture of chlo- rite and quartz, which is so common in Williamstown, though the two vallies are separated by the Taconick range, having an elevation from 1000 to 1400 feet. As this range ‘is broken through by the Hoosack, a few miles North, and as the same mixture may be traced, and often found abun- dantly along the Hoosack, to the stream which runs through Petersburgh, the chlorite and quartz, undoubtedly follow up this stream, through the valley. On the West side of this valley, and about seventeen miles East of Troy, lies Chlorite Slate, very distinctly characterized. Itis some- times narrow, and sometimes two or three miles in width, often rising into hills 200 or 300 feet high. As this rock is found on the Taconick range, and forms a part of it, espe- cially a few miles North of this place, it ought perhaps te be considered as-belonging to the range, and as the rock in- to which the talcose slate actually passes. Its strata extend into the next rock, or Graywacke. This rock begins to appear about sixteen miles East of Troy, covering the surface in rounded mass- es, of very various size, and forming also vast strata, rising into hills in Petersburgh, constituting the mountains of Grafton, and extending as the general rock through Bruns- wick, to Troy. ‘The mountains of it in Grafton are, as i judge, from 800 to 1200 feet in height. It is, like all the other strata from Hoosack mountain to the Hud- son, inclined to the Kast, at various angles, from 10° to 40°. Its general inclination may be 20° a 25°. It consists of quartz, cemented by a greenish argillaceous substance, which generally forms the principal part of the rock, and is evi- dently a mechanical deposit. The quartz is sometimes very fine, but generally is readily seen by the eye, and is occasionally so large and abundant, that it resembles breccia. The fracture often shews the quartz to have been rounded masses, and in these cases the stone does not appear por- phyritic. In other cases the stone is so very compact and close-grained, containing also feldspar, that it might have pas- sed for porphyry, had it not been connected with speci- mens which could not be mistaken. This rock, though quite tough in the cross fracture, readily breaks into pris- matic fragments, along its veins, which are usually filled 245 Dewey’s Geological Section. with quartz. By the action of the weather, large rocks are. divided into innumerable prismatic bodies. A small stream, which rises in the mountains in the East part of Grafton, and runs westward into the Hudson, below Troy, affords an excellent opportunity for examining the position of this rock in numerous places. Occasionally there appear in this rock, beds, or veins, of a reddish argillaceous slate, in Grafton and Brunswick. Near Troy, the graywacke has a much finer texture, and darker colour, and some of it takes a fine polish.* Where -the graywacke stops near Troy, there begins a bed or stra- - tum of Argilaceous Slate-—It extends to the bank of the Hud- son, and has a similar inclination to the East. It must doubtless be considered as the next rock in order, or as forming an extensive bed in the graywacke. Itis full of natural seams, which divide it into small plates, and easily disintegrates. A large quantity, thrown into a street im Troy, has by the action of the weather, and constant travel- ling upon it, become in one year, complete clay. Both the graywacke and argillite are evidently transition rocks.* ‘The slate 1s very different from that which occurs in Williams- town, and along this part of the T'aconick range, and which seems to me clearly primitive. It will doubtless be found by future observation, that the roof-slate of Hoosack, N. ¥. which appears to be a continuation of the Taconick range, is — separated from the argillaceous transition slate, which ex- tends for many miles along the Hudson, below and above Troy, by the same stratum of graywacke. I noticed no graywacke-slate on this section, but it is found very perfect in Chatham, a few miles southeast of Albany. Specimens of the above rocks will soon be forwarded to the Geological society. Should you think the above worthy of publication, I should be glad to see it because this section will be pretty complete from twenty miles Kast of Connecticut river to the Hudson. * See Haton’s Geology. | Dewey's Geological Section. 249 Wavellite? I have lately analysed a mineral, found by Mr. Emmons, in an iron mine in Richmond, in this county. It is new, or a new variety of Wavellite. Colour, greenish white ; scratches crystalized carbonate of lime, but is less hard than fluate of lime; infusible by the blowpipe ; and sp. gr. about 2. 4. It occurs in a sta- lactical form, or as an incrustation, presenting many small -mamillary concretions, which, as well as the stalactites, are composed of minute radiating crystals, or crystaline fibres. Its lustre is rather weak—vather tough to break, but is pul- verised without difficulty in a glass mortar. It contains a little less than seventy per. cent. of alumine, much water, and a little lime and silex. From an exammation of seve- ral specimens, the lime appears to be variable. ‘The above characters bring it so near wavellite, that | am inclined to think it only a varvety. When pulverised, it is nearly all dissolved in solution of pure potash by heat. If nitric acid be poured on the solution, very nearly the whole is dissolved asa nitrate. The re- mainder is clearly silex. If the nitrate be mixed with car- bonate of potash, and the precipitate be well washed, it is nearly all dissolved by pure potash. ‘The remainder is lime—is perfectly dissolved by nitric acid, or forms a mil- ky mixture with sulphuric acid, and the sulphate of lime is soon precipitated. When the alkaline solution is precipita- ted by an acid, and the precipitate well washed, and sul- phuric acid added, you have the full and distinct taste of alum. There can be no doubt of the general constituents. Several days after I had obtained these results, a letter from Dr. Torrey, of New-York, informed me that he had obtain- ed the same results,* except the lime. can, however,no more doubt about the lime, than about the alumine. Probably the lime is accidental, and his specimen contained none. * A letter from Dr. Torrey, to the Editor, dated Sept. 22d, confirms this statement, and promises a detailed analysis, which we should be glad to see, especially as it appears that the analysis of the Wavellite bas been re- cently repeated in Sweden, by Berzelius, with the following result ; Alu- mine, 35, 35: phosphoric acid, 33, 40; fluoric acid, 2, 06; lime 0,50 ; oxids of iron and manganese, 1, 28; water, 26, 80. . 250 Remarks on the environs of Carthage Bridge. Arr. VII. Remarks on the environs of Carthage Bridge, near the mouth of the Genesee River; by Dr. Joun I. Bies- By, of the medical Staff of the British army in Canada. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Sir, I wave the honor of addressing to you’ a few observa- tions, on the environs of the justly celebrated bridge at Car- thage, on the Genesee river, in the State of New-York. The Genesee river falls into lake Ontario, on its South coast, about ninety miles from Fort Niagara. At its mouth, on the left sloping grassy bank, stands the village of Char- lottestown, a small, and irregular cluster, of dwellings, stores and taverns. The river is here perhaps two hundred yards broad, but it varies much during its course. The banks soon rise to the height of from 80, to 140 feet, and continue to as- cend to the first falls, five miles from the lake, where they are 196 feet high. ‘They are always steep and covered with trees, especially cedar and hemlock, growing among ferru~ ginous brown sandstone in debris, and shivered horizontal layers. The Steam-boat Ontario, from Lewistown, stops at “ Han- ford’s Landing,” a mile below the first falls ; where two storage houses and a small wharf stand on a narrow slip of ground, under the high and woody steeps.-_-A. winding road leads up the precipice. On the summit of this road we are surprised to find our- selves at once, in a populous district, among cultivated grounds, and handsome stores and houses, distributed ac- cording to the interest of the proprietors. Advancing a mile, along the river, on the road to Roches- ter, through fields and woods, we arrive in view of Car- thage bridge. Itis first seen from a small elevation, to cross among lofty and dense foliage, a gulf 200 feet deep, and 340 wide, whose mural sides are curiously striped by white and red strata. At the near end, a tasteful lodge is erected for the accommodation of the toll-gatherer. It consists of a single arch, 342 feet in width, a segment of a circle, I believe. ‘The whole edifice is of wood, and is 740 fect long. Its breadth allows of neatly railed paths, Remarks on the environs of Carthage Bridge. 251 an each side, for foot passengers, and of ample space in the middle for carriages to pass each other. The approach at either extremity being a gentle descent, a slight concavity is therefore given to the road over it, to preserve its even- ness and continuity. It cost 16,000 dollars, and to the hon- or of the American name, is the work of the artizans of the neighbourhood.* ‘The toll is very unproductive ; but the lands in its vicinity have risen considerably in value. I need scarcely observe, that from the water, at the dis- tance of three hundred yards, it forms a grand and singu- lar spectacle. The glcom of the narrowed and sunken river, gives a glow and brightness to the objects above, and espe- cially to this graceful and Iris-like fabric, which is seen white, and high in the air, striding the precipice, and par- tially concealed in pines, oak and beeches. Looking on- ward, under the arch, the view is speedily terminated by a very picturesque cascade seventy feet high: the quantity of water is not great, but is most advantageously displayed, by dashing on two successive ledges, from which, arching beautifully, it loses itself in the wreathing spray, that ever plays around the foot of the bare red rock. It is surroun- ded in the back ground by finely disposed foliage of various kinds. On crossing the bridge, (still proceeding to Rechester,) we find a straggling assemblage of houses, called Carthage, all evidently of the most recent date, and of ordinary ap- pearance, except two exquisite specimens of domestic arch- itecture. ‘They are superbly furnished, and seem rather to be denizens of the most refined cities, than of this wilder- ness. ‘The town is principally occupied by husbandmen, and contains the common proportion of well frequented taverns, but no church. The land is undulating, and full of stumps, and blackened decaying trees. Passing to the right, on the high banks of the Genesee. and through mingled cleared grounds and woods, for three hundred yards or more, we meet with another fall of ninety feet in height, and apparently more plentifully supplied with water 5 which passes in an unbroken, and almost transparent curtain, over a gracefully curving line of rocks. It is alse embellished with trees and small heights. A mill is erect- * It was erected from scaffolding, on the bed of the river, which here contains very little water. 252 Remarks on the environs of Carthage Bridge. ing to take advantage of a part of its water ;—as has beex done at the five minor falls which pour over the adjacent West bank, at some distance from each other. ‘They are the outlets of channels which the level of the country, now | low and swampy, has permitted to form. The town of Rochester is half a mile higher up the river, a good road, through the woods and fields leading to it. In dupe. 1819, this settlement was four years old, and then con- tained about three hundred houses incom pact, regular streets. The inns are excellent; and the stores frequently with their gables to the street, are shewy and well stocked. The town possesses a printing office and newspaper. ‘The streets are scarce Cleared of the tree-stumps ; but they are lively and busy : commerce and manufactures are carried on with the facilities and steadiness of a Hanse town, whose organiza- tion possesses the experience of a thousand years. Almost all the town is on the West side of the river, but many good houses are on the other, and cominunicate by a common wooden bridge of three abutments. Looking up- wards from this bridge, you have rapids passing noisily over two ledges of rock which at the distance of fifty and a hun- dred yards cross the widened river. The left shore isa slo- ping meadow : the right is low, and intersected by numer- ous streamlets, each of which has its petty cascade, and its mill for oil, wood, and flour. Woods are close at hand in the rear. The view downwards is something similar. The West side is more covered with houses and opulent establish- ments, which, indeed, stretch a mile or mere. The stratification of the banks of the Genesee river, can be best observed about Carthage bridge. Here they are perpendicular, and dilate so as to give the horse-shoe form to the chasm included between the bridge and first fall— narrowing at the same time under the former. Large mas- ses of debris occupy the foot of these walls. The West side of the precipice above the bridge is imperfect ; a nar- row grassy ledge having formed at midheight, succeeded by a steep slope, which is loaded with trees. The higher por- tions 7m general, are often much comminuted and very earthy. The rocks on both sides of the river, at this point, and at different parts of the same side, correspond -m kind and situation. Remarks on the environs of ae Bridge. 253 The upper strata are limestone, and are here inaccessi- ble, but can be better investigated at the second falls. A brown, compact conchoidal ine is the first; the next is brown, rather crystaline, and fui! of shells ofa pearly lustre ; a third is bluish and contains fewer shells. Broader layers succeed, having black flint nodules imbedded. The order of the whole succession of strata is as follows : ——— Limestone and bluish Shale alternating in this stratum. —— = 3h i Ferruginous Sandstone. | Greyish blue Shale, as at the falls of Niagara—very dusky 4+ A white Clay—giving not the minutest clfervescence in acids. Dark red Sandstone ; highly ferrnginous—in many parts having globules of black metallic lustre. As No. 10, but of lighter colour. As No. 10. Do. but stratified thus i Bright red ferruginous Sandstone, with yellow spots, and | circlets on the fracture surfaces. It isa compact mass.— « Nos, 7, ahd 8, have each one line of division. The surface of some of the sandstones, as No. 10, is im- pressed with the figure of confused bunches of twigs or branches, having transverse ribs at regular distances, like the bamboo cane. No. 6, contains a few pebbles, and ma- ny elongated univalve shells. Among the debris of this chasin, a ferruginous puddingstone of quartz pebbles occurs, but I could not find it in position. The banks of this river are highest at Carthage bridge. From their gradual subsidence towards the lake; and from their higher parts being covered with soil, little limestone is seen below ; while above the first fall, (excepting the low- est stratum,) no other is met with—but the successive bluffs which it forms are so shivered and moulded that their strati- Worn. PE No. 2: 33 254 | ‘Botany. fication, colours, &c. are very indistinct. At the second fall, and near Rochester, this rock is less disintegrated. JOHN I. BIGSBY, M. D. Quebec, April, 1820. Assistant Staff Surgeon. ao BOTANY. -_-<—— Arr. VIII. Floral Calendar, for the years 1815, 16, 1%, 18, and 19 ; kept at Deerfield, Mass. North Lat. 42° 28’, West Long. 72° 39'—One hundred miles from the sea coast.— By. Dr. Dennis Coouey. In this calendar, a few of the most common plants are selected, because the change in these at the time of flow- ering is most striking, and because they are most widely disseminated through the country ; and are, therefore the best species for corresponding observations. The first col- umn marks the first clange in the foliation of a forest of oaks, chesnut, maple, and birch, perceptible at the dis- tance of half a mile. This change, it is well known, is generally very rapid and distinguishable ; and therefore, it was thought proper to be noticed. Forest rapidly Apple-tree in Common red garden changes. full flower. Cherry in full flower. Years. May 15 May 28 1815 8 27 May 11 1816 8 24 13 1817 24 30 22 1818 ff 24 22 1819 Red Currant Martins first Barn Swallows Harvest of English in full flower. appeared. first appeared. grain commenced, May 1i April 22 April 24 August 8 10 26 May 1 July 28 23 23) a cAprll 20 20 24 26 28 Remark.—Such concise results of extended observations. are desirable, but it may not always be convenient to insert very voluminous details of daily floral occurrences.—[ Ed. | Botany. 255 Art. IX. May not the state of those indigenous plants, which blossom late in the season, indicate a late or an ear- ly autumn 2 by eae Dewey. Tue flowering of plants early or late in the spring, and the maturity of fruits early or late in the summer, are ever considered proof of an early or late season. The following facts give some plausibility to the as that the state of the later plants may be some index also to the season of autumn. ‘They are the result of observations for the last four years. The plants which invariably flower compara- tively late in the season, at this place, are several species of aster, and solidago, ao gentiana, and hamamelis virginica. In all these plants, except hamamelis, whose fruit is ripened the succeeding spring and summer, the process of maturing their seed seems to proceed rapidly, and the cooler tempe- rature of Autumn to be favorable to this process. The sum- mers of 1816 and 1817 were considerably colder than those of 1818 and 1819. ‘The mean temperature of the three summer months was as follows—for 1816, 63° 46 ; 1817, 64° 41 ; 1818, 68° 57; 1819, 68° 84. The season of 1816 will long be remembered for its cold. In this year, however, hamamelis and some species of solidago, which were all I then noticed, blossomed earlier than in either of the last two years. And in 1817, several species of the above genera flowered from ten to fourteen days earlier than in the two following years. But in 1816 and 1817 the au- tumn was much earlier, or vegetation was stopped by the cold much earlier than in 1518 and 1819. In 1816 the _ first severe frost was August 29th, and after September 20th. severe frosts were frequent. In 1817 the first severe frost was October Ist, and they occurred often after the middle of the month. In 1818, except on September 27th, there were no frosts of consequence till November. The first hard frost was October 6th, in 1819; and again towards the end of the month. ‘The above mentioned plants are uninjured by frosts which will kill our exotics. They can- not, however, endure repeated and severe frosts. So much later did these plants blossom in 1818, than in 1817, that 1 seemed impossible for their seed to be matured, unless the severe frosts should be later than in 1817, and I was thence 2.56 Botany. led to remark to several persons the probability that the ai tumn would be later. For the same reason I made the same remark last autumn. In both cases the remark was verified by fact. ‘The promise of God, “ that seed-time and harvest shall not cease,” and the douse “let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind,” while they are not inconsistent with the failure of harvest and fruit in a partic~ ular place, or with the extinction of some species of vegeta- bles, seem to authorize the general expectation that the fruits will be matured, and that when the time of flowering is later, the season will be adapted to the state of the race As we have earlier and later antumns, it is at least worthy of observation, whether the time of flowering of the later plants does not correspond to them. Botany might, per- haps, be then applied to another practical advantage. ‘The plants would be very easily known from their being late im flowering. If it be truc that the cooler part of the season is more fa- vorable to the vegetation of the above plants, as the differ- ence in the time of their flowering seems to indicate, there is an obvious reason why their flowering should take place earlier in a cooler, than in a warmer summer. A similar reason will doubtless account in part for the well known fact, that if the flowers of the annual plants be cut off, new shoots set for flowers, and acinally blossom also ia much less time. The difference in the temperature, from that naturally adapted to them, appears to change their course of growth and to bring their seed in less time to maturity 5 so that the plants appear to adapt themselves to their situa- tion, and the season, in order to perfect their seed. The preceding facts may seem to throw some uncertain- ty upon the results of observations made for the purpose of ascertaining the climate of different piaces from the time of the flowering of plants. In places not very remote, how- ever, the results would not be affected in a given year. Ob- servations for one year, would not evidently be sufficient, if the places were distant. A series of observations for as ma- ny years as would be required to effect the same object by the thermometer would be necessary. -In addition to this there inust be more uncertainty in the results, if the places be not remote, when the sn aller and annual plants are se- Botany. 257 lected for observation, rather than the larger plants, and es- pecially trees. That such observations may be relied upon, the same plants should be observed, and the circumstances of place, soil, aspect, exposure to winds, &e. should be similar. All these aftect the ‘plant, and alter the time of flowering.—~ 1 have known the common dandelion in blossom here on the 18th of March, though it does not usually flower till about five or six weeks later. Claytonia spatulata flowers some weeks earlier on a southern aspect, and where it is al- so protected from winds, than on a northern aspect, only a few rods from the former. The same is true of epigaea repens. 'Tussilago farfara blossoms some days earlier on the wild bank of a brook, than in the warm and rich soil of a garden. Chrysosplenium oppositifolium, shews its flow- ers ten days sooner in still waters, than beside brooks, where it is much less exposed to the sun. Also viola rotun- difolia. The above circumstances are so liable to be dif- ferent in different places, that the results cannot be very sat- isfactory when the smaller and annual plants are observed. There is another circumstance also, which increases this un- certainty, if the places be considerably remote. ‘There may be several days in the beginning of April, for stance, warm- er at one place than at another. As this would there bring forward the earliest plants sooner, a warmer climate would be indicated. But, should a few cooler days succeed, as Is usually the case, vegetation might be no earlier on the whole after a fortnight, than in those years in which the same plants first showed their blossoms several days. later. I have occasionally found a plant in biosscm | ~ about a month preceding the time given by Muhlenberg for its flawering in Pennsylvania. These facts prove, not that the flowering of plants does not indicate difference of climate, but that much accuracy of observation, for a series of years, is necessary, if those plants be selected for cbservation, which are easily affected by changes of temperature, as- pect, &c. in order to ascertain the climate or comparative mean temperature of different places. In respect to trees, the case is somewhat different. They are not so readily affected by changes of temperature. But the above mentioned circumstances of situation are seen ev- ery year to have considerable influence upon their time of flowering. The result of observations on trees will, how- 258 Botany. ever, be most entitled to confidence. Dr. Bigelow, in his paper on this subject, an abstract of which was given in the ist No. of this Journal, selected the Peach-tree, from the numerous plants whose time of flowering had been obser- ved. This was a very judicious selection. It seems de- sirable to prosecute the subject, and that several trees should be observed at each place, and at the same stage of flowering. ‘The last particular appears very important. For from the conclusion of Dr. Bigelow, it will be seen, that a difference of about four days, corresponds to a difference of one degree of latitude. Observers may be expected to differ at least two days in the tme that a tree may be thought to be fully in bloom. I have made these obvious remarks, because’ they pre- sent some of the difficulties in obtaining very definite and conclusive results upon climate from the > flowering of plants, unless there be very accurate and continued observations ; and, I have made them in this place, because they were con- nected with the immediate object. Whether these difficul- ties be considered as great as they appear to me, the con- clusion to be drawn from the observations upon the last four years in relation to a late or an early autumn, will not be es- sentially affected. Williams College, April, 1820. FOR THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Art. X. On the manufacture of Sugar from the River Ma- ple, (Acer ertocarpum, of Lanneus 3) by Dr. Joux Locke. Ir seems not to be generally known, that sugar is afford- ed in any considerable quenity, by any other species than the sugar maple, (2cer saceharinum ;) but T have found that in some parts of New-England, more sugar is made from the river, than from the sugar maple. The facts I have ascertained, with regard to the ma- king of sugar from the river maple, I collected in Fryeburg, (Me.) on the Saco river, where large quantities are annually made; but before I state them, I will give some account of the two species, the sugar and river maple. F Botany. 259 The family of maples is distinguished from other plants, by the fruit, which consists of two peculiar seed-vessels, united at their base, each dilated into a membranous wing above, which serves to suspend it awhile in the air as it falls. 1. The Suear Marte, (Acer saccharinum, Linn.) called also rock maple, has leaves five-parted, and yellowish green flowers on flower-stalks. It is one of the largest and lofti- est trees in our forests. Its trunk is usually straight and en- tire to the height of from 40 to 80 feet, where it suddenly unfolds into a dense top, crowded with rich foliage. The bark of the older trees is of a grey colour, and marked with numerous deep clefts. The wood is firm and heavy, though not durable. It is used for various work by carpenters and cabinet makers. Micheaux says, that it grows in its greatest perfection, between the 43d and 46th degrees of North lat- itude, and of course, in the northern part of our States, and in Canada. The River Marie (Acer eriocarpum of Linneus,) called also White maple,* and by Eaton Silver maple, is distin- guished by having its leaves five-parted, and white beneath; its flowers reddish yellow, without flower-stalks, and with woolly germe. ‘The trunk frequently divides near the ground, so as to appear like several trunks close together. These divisions diverge a little as they rise, and often at the height of from eight to twenty feet the top commences. It is generally larger in proportion to the trunk, than the top of any other tree. The bark has its clefts more distant than in the sugar maple, and is more inclined to*scale off. It blossoms earlier than the sugar maple. ‘The fruit is larger than that of other species, it advances with great rapidi- ty towards perfection, ripens and falls in June, and produces a plantule the same season, sufficiently hardy to withstand tne succeeding winter. ‘The fruit of the sugar maple docs not ripen until October. The river maple is principally found on the banks of rivers, and on the banks of such only as have a clean gravelly bottom, and clear water. It is most luxuriant, on such flats as are subject to annual! inundations, and is usually the first settler on such flats as are making in- * Micheaux says, that in the Atlantic States, this species is confounded with the common red maple, but in the Western States, i¢ is generally dis finguished and known by the name of White Maple. 260. Botany. to the bends of streams by alluvial deposits, the opposite bank being at the same time worn away. ‘ The banks of the Sandy river, in Maine” says Micheaux, ‘‘ and those of the Connecticut in Windsor, (Vt.) are the most northerly points at which I have seen the white maple. It is found more or less on all the rivers in the United States, flowing from the mountains to the Atlantic, but becomes scarce in South-Car- olina and Georgia. In no part of the United States is it more multiplied than in the western country, and no where is its vegetation more luxuriant than on the banks of the Ohio, and of the great rivers that empty into it. ‘There, sometimes alone, and sometimes mingled with the willow, which is found all along these waters, it contributes singular- ly by its magnificent foliage to the embellishment of the scene. The brilliant white of the leaves beneath, forms a striking contrast with the bright green above, and the alter- nate reflection of these two surfaces in the water, heightens the beauty of this wonderful moving mirror, and aids in forming an enchanting picture, which during my long ex- cursions in a canoe, in these regions of solitude and silence, I contemplated with unwearied admiration.” I have seen itin Maine, on the banks and islands of the Androscoggin, on the Sunday river, a tributary of the Androscoggin, with remarkable crystaline water, and on the Saco where it is abundant, and attains a large size, especially in and about Fryeburg, where I found several trees measuring between fif- teen and eighteen feet in circumference. I have seen it in various places on the Connecticut, particularly at Hanover and Windsor, and also on the Ashuelot in Keene. In seve- ral of these places, particularly on the Saco and Androscog- gin, it grows in great luxuriance, and occupies considerable tacts, nearly to the exclusion of all other trees. I never contemplated a picture in landscape with more delight, than t have the banks of some of these streams, when viewed irom the opposite shore. The tops of the trees present one continued range of foliage, which rises like a fleecy cloud, changing beautifully in the wind, as the upper green or the under white surface is presented to view. This cloud of leaves, is supported by the clusters of trunks, like so many gothic pillars, forming a variety of deep shaded arches and avenues beneath. I mention its beauty, because I think it deserves attention as an ornamental tree. In a poem writ- Botany. 261 ten in Fryeburg called “ The Village,” the following lines are bestowed upon it. “¢ More sacred than the thunder chosen oak, «* Let not the maple feel the woodman’s stroke. « Fair maple! honours purer far are thine “Than Venus’s myrtle yields, or Bacchus’s vine ; ‘* Minerva’s olive, consecrated tree, ** Deserves not half the homage due to thee. “ The queen of trees, thou proudly tower’st on high, “ Yet wave thy limbs in graceful pliancy.”’ The wood of this tree is light and soft. The sap-wood is very white and has been used by cabinet makers to inlay their work. The heart-wood is a light mahogany colour generally variegated with dark streaks. ‘The wood, and es- pecially the bark gives a black colour with the salts of iron. In many places thread and other stuffs are coloured black with a decoction of the bark of this as well as that of the red maple, and ink is made of it. In the first volume of Tilloch’s magazine is an account of the manufacture of sugar from the sugar maple in the mid- dle states by the late Dr. Rush of Philadelphia, from which the following particulars are abstracted. 1. One tree yields from twenty to thirty gallons of sap in a season, which will make from five to six pounds of sugar, and in a single instance twenty pounds were made from one tree 1n a season. 2. One man made six hundred and forty pounds in four weeks. 3. A man and his two sons made eighteen hundred pounds in a season. 4, That the tree improves by tapping, affording more and better sap.* 5. The sugar is of a better quality than West-India sugar. 6. A farmer in North-Hampton county (Penn.) improv- ed the quality of the maple sap by culture, so that he ob- * According to my observations the sap improves in quality but is much diminished in quantity. L. Vou. ..;..No. 2. 34 262 Botany. tained one pound of sugar from three gallons, while it re- quired five or six gallons from a tree in its wild state. 7. That a few acres of land planted with maples and im- proved as a sugar orchard, would probably be more proiit- able than the same ground devoted to fruit trees. 8. That the buds and twigs of the sugar maple are used for food for cattle in the winter and spring. I had for several years known that Fryeburg was celebra- ted in the adjoining country for manufacturmg sugar. A few months ago [ had occasion to visit the pleasant village in that town. On enquiring into the subject I learned the following particulars : Ay The sugar in Fryeburg is net made from the sugar ma- ple but from the river maple, (cer ertocarpum) which abounds there on the banks of the Saco. 2. About four gallons of sap afford one pound of sugar. 3. Two men in 1819 made twelve hundred pounds from two hundred and twenty-five trees, with two taps to a tree, equal to five and one third pounds to a tree. 4, The sap was generally said to be sweeter than that of the sugar maple. 5. A particular cluster of trunks springing apparently from the same root, tapped in several places afforded twen- ty gallons of sap in one day ! 6. Those who make sugar from the sugar and river ma- ples growing together, give the preference to the river maple. | 7. The sugar is whiter and of a better quality than that of the sugar maple.* 8. A peculiar method of tapping is practised in Fryeburg. . The incision from which the sap issues is made by driving a gouge a little obliquely upward, an inch or more into the wood. A spout or tap about a foot long, to conduct off the sap, is inserted about two inches below this incision with. the same gouge. ‘Fhe two incisions are situated thus : 07 One principal advantage ot this method is, that the wound In the free is so small that it is perfectly healed or grown over’ in two years, the tree sustaining little or no injury. 7 The other common methods of tapping are two, 1. With * Micheaux says, that the sugar made from the river maple on the Ohid, is whiter and more agreeable to the taste than that from the sugar maple. Botany. 263 an axe. An oblique mcision three or four inches long, is made in such a manner that all the sap will be conducted to the lower corner, where it passes into a peu inserted with a gouge as above: , Disadva antages of this method. The surface being much exposed to the air and sun, is pres- ently dried, so as to diminish very much the quantity of sap. ‘The wound in the tree is extensive and a ruinous de- cay is often the consequence, the tree becoming rotten- hearted. 2. With anauger. The tree is peforated an inch or more with an auger three fourths of an inch diameter, and a tube made of elder or sumach is inserted to conduct off the sap. ‘The end of the tube is made tapering so as to bear only at the outer edge of the tube. Disadvantage. The tap presses upon the external grains so as to obstruct the flow of sap from them; and it is from these external grains that most of the sap is obtained. ‘The method of tapping with the gouge is undoubtedly superior to either of the others, but im a sugar maple there might be difficulty m Inserting the gouge to a sufficient depth on account of its Luana hardness. . The river maple grows about an inch in diameter in a se This I ascertained by measuring the thickness of the concentric grains. There are several sugar orchards in Fryeburg which have grown up within twenty-five years to trees about five feet circumference, and from fifty to seven- ty feet high. ‘The seeds are so abundantly distributed there by means of their peculiar wings that they spring up in the ploughed fields, on the sand flats, in the road, and in every place where they can take root. It will be seen that in my account of the quantity of su- gar made from a tree, &c. there is a singular coincidence with Dr. Rush’s statements. This is altogether accidental for the quantity varies greatly in all trees according to their situation, age, the season and other circumstances. In some seasons only about a pound to a tree is obtained. ft seems that the superiority of the river over the sugar maple as a sugar tree is not universal; for Micheaux says, that on the Ohio only one half the quantity is obtained from the river, that is afforded by the sugar maple. I have communicated this paper : principally for the pur- pose of recommending the cultivation of the river maple as an ornamental tree, instead of others Jess heautiful and less 2657 , Botany. useiul. It seems to be adapted to this purpose, on account of its beauty, the rapidity of its srowth and the fine sugar it affords. Although the idea of Dr. Rush, that the United States might be more than supplied with sugar from the maple, and the quantity of human suffering consequently diminished, by rendering the employment of slaves in the West-Indies unnecessary, seems not likely to be realized, yet I think the cultivation of the maple ought not to be overlooked, es- pecially as it might afford some supply in case the importa-— tion of sugar should, at any time, be interrupted by political disturbances. The river maple would thrive best no doubt in a situation similar to that which it occupies in its native state, i. e. on the flats of clear streams. That it will grow however in other situations seems to be confirmed by the following facts. Micheaux states that ‘in Europe it is multiplied in nurseries and gardens. Its rapid growth affords hopes of cultivating it with profit in this quarter of the world.” Mr. Cook, Preceptor of Fryeburg Academy, informed me that he planted some of the seeds in his garden, which is on a dry elevated sandy plain, and raised trees from them, which grew so rapidly, and monopolized so much ground, that he found it necessary in a few years, to extirpate 5 them. Boston, April 20, 1820. Art. XI. On the Oriental Chené, and the Oil which it t af fords. Rocxy-Brook, 9th mo. 13th, 1820. TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &e. T am induced to enquire of readers, and correspondents, to thy valuable miscellany, whether the Oriental Chene might not be more extensively cultivated in the United States for the purpose of extracting its invaluable oil? It is a species of sesamum, (class dydinamia, order angiosper- mia of Linneus, Sesamum folius ovato oblongis integris of Miller—Digitalis orientalis, sesamum dicta—'Tournefort,} and is thus described by Miller :—“ This plant was intro- Botany. 268 duced into Carolina by the African negroes, where it suc- ceeds extremely well. The inhabitants of that country make an oil from the seed, which will keep many years, and not take any rancid smell or taste ; but in two years becomes quite mild, so that when the warm taste of the seed which was in the oil when first drawn, is worn off, hea) use it as a sallad oil, and for all the purposes of sweet oil. A late writer, (Darby,) speaking of Louisiana, says it “might indeed be made an universal object of culture. The seed vessel isa many seeded capsula, containing round oily ~ seeds, which are used in various ways by the negroes, who cook it asa pulse. It has been long known to produce an oil, containing all the valuable qualities of olive oil, without the same liability of becoming rancid by age. ‘The Chené is certainly one of the most productive vegetables that was ever cultivated by man. It is known in Louisiana, but much neglected. Being brought from the western coast of Africa, from the banks of alluvial rivers, its growth is luxuri- ant on the fertile borders of the Mississippi and Teche : it will also vegetate extremely well on a high dry soil.” I have been led to the foregoing enquiry from the suppo- sition that such an oil would be a great acquisition on many accounts, and a knowledge that it may be applied to many useful purposes in mechanics. It is well known that a thin fat oil, which will bear exposure to heat, and air, without becoming rancid, fora great length of time, is the erand de- sideratum in Horology. Provided it is not glutinous, or too volatile, the spirit obtained by freezing and pouring off the thinner part that it may not be affected by cold, would have many advantages over the different kinds now in use. all of which are faite to become rancid, and of course, un- suitable for such purposes. ‘The spirit of common olive oii is mostly used, but soon becomes unfit; and the objection is equally applicable to that obtained from spermaceti.— There have been several methods proposed for remedying this defect in oils, such as shaking them with pearlash wa- ter, or pouring melted led into them, etcetera ; all of which, on experiment, have been found objectionable; the first ev- idently extracts the thinnest, eonsequently richest and most valuable part, the last wonders itacrid and empyreumatic. W. 266 Strong’s Problems. MATHEMATICS. —~<- Ant. XI. Mathematical Problems, with Geometrical Con- structions and Demonstrations, by Professor 'THroporr STRONG. [Continued from page 64 of this Volume.} Propiem IX. Ir is required through a given point to describe a circle which shall touch two circles given in position and magni- tude. Case I. When the two circles are unequal, and the cir- cle which touches them does not circumscribe them. Const. Let L (Fig. 1. pl. 2.) be the given point, and HBe, HG, E the given circles. It is required to describe through L, a circle which shall touch the two given circles. Join the centres x, y, of the circles HBC, DGE by cy, and extend xy till it meets FG, (FG being drawn, (Prob. vu. Case i.) touching the two circles,) in A. Let vy extended, cut the given circles in B, C, D, E. Through L the given point, and C, D, the two adjacent points, in which AK cuts the given circles, describe (Prob. i.) the circle LCD. Join LA, and suppose LA produced cuts LCD in Kk. Through the points L, K, describe (by Problem v.) a circle touching HBC in H. And this shall be the circle required. Demonstrations. For join AH, and extend it till it meets the circle DG in I. It will meet this circle, because it cuts off similar segments from the two given circles, (Prob. viii.) And let AH meet the circle HLK in I’. Now by the prop- erty of the circle AL, KA=AC, AD. But AC, AD=A H, Al, (Prob. viii. Cor. 4.). Therefore AH, AI—=AL, LK. But AL, AK—=AH, Al’. Therefore AH, AIl/=AH, AJ. Hence (striking out AH) AI==AI’. Wherefore the points I’, I coincide. Therefore the circle LKH, meets . the circle DG, E in [. It also touches it in this point; for if the line MO be drawn touching KLH, BRH in H, and the line No. 2 touch- ing the circle LHI in I, then the angle RHM-—=angle in the Strong’s Problems. 267 segment RBH, and the angle IHO=RHM=anele in the segment HLKI. But the angle in the segment RBH= eae in the een IDEP. ‘Therefore the angle in the or NIP. ae the angle in the segment (DEP—NIP; wherefore NQ touches DEPI in the point I. Consé- quently, HLKI touches IDEP in I. Now (by Const.) HILKI touches RBH, and passes through L. Wherefore it is the cirele required. | Case If. When the two circles are unequal, and the cir- éle which passes through the given you circumscribes them. Const. Let (Fig. 2. pl. 2.) as in Case i. the point be Li, and the circles HBC, DGE. Draw the tangent FG, and extend it till it meet cy, produced in A. Let xy pro- duced cut the given circles in C, B, E, D. Through L, and C, D, the remote points in which avy cuts the given cir- cles, describe (Prob. i.) the circle LOD. Suppose AL produced to meet the circumference of this circle in K. Through the points, K, L, describe (Prob. v.) a circle touching HBC, in H. Then shall this be the circle re- quired. The points AI’, AT being joined as in case I. and the tan- gents MO, NQ being diawn, the demonstration employed in case It, is applicable to this. Case If. When the touching circle circumscribes one of the given circles, and touches the other externally. Const. Let (Fig. 3. pl. 2.) HBC, and HGE be the given circles, and Li the given point. Join xy, the centres of the circles, and extend this line till it cut the circumfer- ences of the circles in B,C, D, E. Draw FG, a tangent to the circles in the points F, G. Let this cut the line, CE in A. Join AL. Through L, ©, D, describe the circle L CD. Suppose AL extended cuts this circle in K. Through L, K, describe the circle LKH touching BHC in H. Join AH, and let A H produced cut DGE in L, and HKL in I’, Draw, as in cases I and IT, MHO touching the circles AKL, BHC, in H, and NQ touching HKI’L in V. Now by applying the Demonstration in case I, the circle HKI'L, as in former cases will be found to answer the con- ditions of the problem. a\ 268 Strong’s Problems. Case IV. When the two circles are equal, and the touching circle circumscribes both or neither of them. Const. Let (Fig. 4. pl. 2.) CKL, BMN be the given circles, and A the given point. From A as centre with ra- dius—radius of the given circles, describe IQ. Then through az, y, the centres of the given circles describe the circle I+ y touching IQ in the point 1. Let O be the cen- tre of this circle. From O as centre, and (in Fig. 1.) O I+1IA as radius describe the circle CAB, which shall be the circle required. Dem. For join OyB=OI+I1A. Therefore the circle ABC weets the circle MN, in the point B.. But it likewise touches this circle in the point B. For at B draw FG at right angles to OyB. Because this line is at right angles to the diameter of ABC in the point B, it touches this circle in the pomt B. For the same reason, it touches MN in B. Therefore the circle ABC touches the circle MN in the point B. In like manner it may be shown, that ABC touches KLC in the point C, and it passes (by Const.) through A. ABC is therefore the eirele required. Now (Fig. 5. pl. 2.) by using OI—1A for OJ+IA, the construction and demonstration employed in Fig. 4, are ap- plicable to Fig. 5, in which the given circles are neither of them cir cumscribed by the touching circle. Cor. 1. In Case I, when the given circles touch, that is, when C, D ede the circle LCD must be described touching AE in the point of coincidence of C, D, after which, the construction and proof are as before. Cor. 2. In Cases I, I, if the two circles cut each other, the solution remains the same ; for it is independent of the distance of their centres. But in Case IL]. when the cir- cles cut each other, the problem becomes impossible. When they touch, the circle touching them must pass through the point of contact of the two circles. Cor. 3. Case IV, may be considered as falling under Cases I, II, when the point A (See Fig. Cases J, IT.) be- comes infinitely distant. But in Case III, the construction remains the same, whatever be the magnitude of the circles. For there the point A is confined between the centres of the circles. Cor. 4. In Case I, if the given point fall in the line AE between the points C, D, as in r, make the rectangle Ar. Strong’s Problems. 268 Az=AC. AD. ThenAD: Az:: Ar: Ac. But Ar > AC therefore AD~Az, therefore the problem is possible, for the point z always falls between C and D. Having deter- mined the points 7, z, use them in the same manner as the points C, D were used, and the solution is the same as be- fore. Cor. 6. In Case III. when the point is between B and D as r, then making the rectangle Ar. Az=AD AC, the point 2 will fall beyond C; and therefore the problem is possible. Using then the points 7, z for C, D, the solution remains the same. On the contrary when the given point is beyond C, r willbe between D, and B. Then proceed as before. Note.—When the circles do not cut, and one does not fall entirely within the other, the point cannot be given within one of the circles, but must be without the circle, or in the circumference of one of them; and then the solu- tion will fall under one of the above cases ; when the circles cut each other, the point may be given any where, except at the points of intersection of the circles ; when one of the circles falls wholly within the other, the point must be given between the circumferences of the two circles; im all which cases, the construction may be referred to one of the above ~ methods. Propurem X. To describe a circle to touch three circles given in posi- tion and magnitude. Case I. When the three given circles are equal, and the touching circle comprehends them all, or none of them. Const. Let (fig. 6. pl. 2.) DD’, EE’, FF’, be the three ziven circles, it is required, to describe a circle which shall touch all of them. Let A, B, C be the centres of the given - eircles respectively. ‘Through A, B, C, describe the circle ABC, (Prob. 1.) of which let O be the centre. From O as beniney with OA+ AD as radius describe the circle DEF, which shall be the circle required. Demonstration. For, jon OAD. Now OAD=OA+ AD. Therefore the point D is in the circumference of the circle DEF. In like manner the points E, F, are in the Von. fT Vo. 2. 35 270 Strong’s Problens. circumference of the same circle. But the circle DEE likewise touches the three given circles. For at the point F, draw G, H at right angles to OF, and it will be a tangent to the circles DEF, F, F’ at the point F. Therefore the circles touching the line GH at the same point F, touch each other at that point. In like manner it may be proved, that the circle DEF touches the other two circles at KE, D, respectively. Now by using OA—AD for OA+AD, &c. and D’, EK’, FE’, &c. for D, E, F, &c. this construction and demonstra- tion are applicable to the case in which none of the given circles are comprehended by the touching circle. Case If. When the circles are equal, and the touching cirele circumscribes one, and touches two, or circumscribes two and touches the other. Const. Let (Mg. 7. pl. 2.) Ey, Dx, Fz be the given circles of which A, B, O are the centres. From O, the centre of the circle Ez, describe the circle GLM, witls ra- dius=Q radius of the given circles. Through the points A, B, describe the circle ABG touching GLM (Prop. v.) in the point G. Let C be the centre of ABG. Then from C as centre, and CG—FO as radius, describe the circle D EF, which shall be the circle required. Demonstration. For join C, O the centres of the circles ABG, GLM. Extend co, and it will pass through the point of contact of these circles. Joinalso CEA, CDB. Now because CEH =CA—AE the radius of the given circles, E is in the circumferences of the circles Ey, DEF, and if at the point & a line be drawn at right angles to CA, it will be a tangent to the circles Ey, DIcF at the same point E. Therefore these circles touch each other at the point E. Tn like manner it may be proved that the circles Dr, DEF touch each other in the point D, and that Fz, DEF touch each other in the pomt EF’. ‘Therefore DEF is the circle required. By using CA4- AE, &c. for CA—EA, &c. This demon- stration is applicable to the Fig. in which the touching circle comprehends two of the given circles, and touches the other. Case If. When two of the circles are equal. 1. When all the circles or none of them are compre- rended. Strong’s Problems. 271 ‘Const. Let (Mig. 9. pl. 2.) ALA’, BMB’, CNC’, be ihe given. circles, of which ALA’, BM’, are equal, and CNC’ is less than the othertwo. Let G, H be the centres of ALA’, BMB’, From G, H, as centres, with radius =ra- dius of ALA~radius CNC, describe the circles DD’, EE’. Through F the centre of the circle CNC’, describe the ecir- cle FDE, (Prob. TX.) touchng DD’, EE’ in D, E, of which circle, let O be the centre. Join CD, and it will pass through G. ‘Then from O as centre, with radius =OD+ CF (=radius of the circle CNC’) describe the circle ABC, which shall be the circle required. Demonstration. Fer join ODA. Now becaiee ODA= radius of the circle ABC’ (=OD+DA, or FC) of which O is the centre, A is in the circumference of ABC. And because ODA passes through G, and GD+DA=radius of the circle ALA’, A is in the circumference of ALA’. Hence ALA’, ABC meet in A. And they likewise touch in A. For if Av be drawn at right angles to ADO, A will be a tangent to both circles in the same point A. Whence the circles must likewise touch in that point. In like manner it may be proved that ABC, BMB’, ABC, CNC’, touch each other respectively at the points B,C. ABC is there- fore the circle required. Now by using OD’/— AD’ for OD+ AD, and A’, BY, &c. for A, B, &c. the demonstration is the same when none of ihe given circles is comprehended. 2. When the touching circle comprehends both the equal circles, and touches the ‘smaller one externally 3 or compre- hends the smaller circle, and eae the equal circles ex- ternally. Construction. Let (fg. 10. pl. 2.) Gy, Fa, Tz, be the given circles of which Gy=Fr. Let A, B, C be the cen- tres of these circles respectively. From A, B, as centres with radius—radius of the circle Gy-+- radius of the circle {z describe the circles De, Fn. And through C, the cen- tre of the smaller circle, describe a circle CDE touching the circles Dg, F'n, inthe pomts D, E, of which cirele let O bethe centre. From O with radius—radius of the cir- cle CDE —radius of the circle Iz, (i. e. OD—GD, or CI,) ' describe the circle GIF, which shall be the circle required. Demonstration. Yor join OD, OE, which will pass through ¢ centres A,B. Now (by Const.) D is in the D4 2: Strong’s Problems. circumferences DCE, gD. Therefore since OG—=OD— GD, or OD—CI, and AG=AD—CI, G is in the circum- ferences of GIE, Gy; and if at Ga line be drawn at right an- gles to OG, it will touch both circles at the same point G. ‘Therefore they touch each other at the point G. In like manner Iz, GIE ; Ev, GIE touch respectively in I and E. Wherefore GIE is the circle required. Now by using OD+GD for OD—GD, the demonstration is the same in Fig. 11. 5. When the touching circle circumscribes one of the equal circles alone, or one of them together with the small- er one. Construction. Let (Fig. 12. pl. 2.) Eg, Hz, Ba, be the given circles, of which A, F, C, are the centres. From F as centre with radius—radius circle Hz—radius of the cir- cle Bx (i. e. FH—BA) describe the circle Gy. And from C as centre with radius—radius of the circle Hz or Eg+ vadius of the circle Bx describe the circle Dn. Then de- scribe through A the centre of the circle Bz, the circle AG D, (Prob. V.) touching (Fig. 13. pl. 2.) Dn, Gy in D, G; of which circle let O be the centre. From O with radius = radius of the circle AGD—radius of the circle Br de- scribe the circle HEB, which shall be the circle required. Demonstration. For jon CHG, OCED, OBA. The line OHE will pass through G, the point of contact of the circles Gy, GAD. Now because GH=BA and OG—B A==OH, the point H is in the circumferences of the cir- cles Hz, HEB. And if a line be drawn at right angles to OG atthe point H, the circles Hz, EHB will touch it at the same point H. Therefore they touch each other at that — point. In lke manner it may be shown that the circles Ba, BHE, Eg, EHB touch each other respectively at the points B, E. Therefore EHB is the circle required. If instead of OG—BA, OG+BA be used, this demon- stration is applicable to Fig. 13, in which one of the equal circles, and the smaller one are comprehended by the touching circle. 4. When the two equal circles are less than the other, and when the touching circle comprehends all or none of the given circles. Construction. Let (Fig. 14. pi. 2.) DND’, EME be the two equal circles, of which 2, y, are the centres, and A Strong’s Problems. 273 . LA’ the other whose centre is G. From G as centre with radius = radius of the circle ALA’—radius of the circle EME, describe the circle BB’g. ‘Then through the points x, y, describe the circle cBy touching BB’g in B, (Prob. M11.) of which circle let O be the centre ; increasing the ra- dius by a line —radius of the circle EME, describe the circle ADE, which shall be the circle required. Demonstration. For join OBA which will pass through G the centre of the circle BB’g. Now because OA=O B+BA and GA=GB-+BA, A is in the circumferences ALA’, ADE. Hence if a line be drawn at right angles to ~ OA at the point A it will be a tangent to both circles at the same point A. Hence the cicles ALA’, ADE touch each other at the point A. In like manner it may be proved, that the circles DND’, ADE’, EME’, EAD, touch respec- tively at D, E. By joining O’A’B’, and using A’B’, &c. for A, B, &c. and O'B’—O’'A’ for OB+ AO the demonstration is the same when the circles are none of them comprehended. 5. When the touching circle comprehends both of the equal circles; and touches the other externally, or com- prehends the larger and touches the other externally. Const. Let (Fig. 15. pl. 2.) ML, xl, Hy be the given circles of which Hy=Iv. Let A, B,C be the centres of these circles. From the centres C,B with radius=radius of the circle Hy+-radius of the circle ML describe the cir- cles EN, DP. Then through A describe the* circle AED touching EN, DP in E, D, of which let O be the centre. From (Fig. 16. pl. 2.) Q as centre with radius=radius of the circle AED—radius of the circle Hy describe the circle LHFI, which shall be the circle required. Demonstration. For join OCE which as _ before shall pass through the centre C. Let it cut the circle Hy in H. Then because OH=OE—HE or the radius of the circle LL.MH is in the circumference of the circle HFJ. There- fore if a line be drawn perpendicular to OC at the point it will be a tangent to both circles Hy, HIF at the point H. The circles therefore touch at the point H. In like manner it may be shown that the circles Iv, HFI; ML, HFL touch respectively at the points I, LL. HEI is therefore the circle required. By using EQ+EH for OEF—EH. this O74 - Strong’s Problems. demonstration answers for Figure 16, in which the larger cir- - cle is alone comprehended. 6. When the touching circle comprehends one of the equal circles, together with the larger, or one of the equal circles alone. i Const. Let (fg. 1. pl. 3.) HPN, MGQ, DER be the given circles of which DER=MGQ. Let A, B, C, be the centres of these circles respectively : From A with radius =radius of the circle HPN-+ radius ofthe circle DER de- scribe the circle IK: and from B with radius=two radii of the circle MGQ describe the circle FL. Through C de- . seribe the circle CFI touching IK, FL in the poits I, F ; of which circle let O be the centre. Decreasing the radius by a line=radius of the circle DER describe the circle HE G which shall be the circle required. Demonstrations. For join OC. Let OC cut the eircle DER in the point E. Now because OE—OC—CE, E is m the circumference of the circle HEG. If therefore (Fig. 2. pl. 3.) as in former cases, a perpendicular be erected at E, it will touch both circles at that point. Therefore the circles DER, HEG touch each other in the pomt E. In like manner it may be shown that the circles HPN, HEG; GQM, HEG respectively touch at the points H, G. There- fore HEG is the circle required. By usng OC+CE for OC—CE this demonstration is applicable to Fig. 2, in which the touching circle compre- hends one of the smaller circles and touches the other, to- gether with the larger circle externally. Case IIi. When all the circles are unequal, 1. When the touching circle comprehends all or none of the given circles. Cons. Let (Fug. 3. pl. 3.) AL, HN, MF be the given circles of which FM isthe least. Let B,K, E, be three cen- tres. From-B describe the circle DG whose radius=radius of the circle AL—radius of the circle FM. From K de- scribe the circle IP, whose radius=radius of the circle NH —radius of the circle FM. Through E describe the circle EDI touching DG, PI in D,J. (Prob. V.) Let O be the centre of this circle. From O, with radius=radius of the circle DEI+ radius of the circle FM, describe the circle AFH, which shall be the circle required. = Strong’s Problems. O05 to Demonstration. For jom ODA which will pass through the centre B. Now because O0A=OD+EM and BA—=D B+EM, (if M be the point in which a line joining O, E, cuts the circle F'M) A is in the circumferences of AL, AFH. And if at A a perpendicular be erected both circles will touch it at the same point A. Therefore they touch each _ other at that point. In like manner it may be shown that NH, AFH, MF, AHF respectively touch at the points H, E. Therefore AFH is the circle required. By using OD—EM for OD+EM this demonstration is applicable to fig. 4, in which none of the circles are compre- hended by the given circle. 2. When the touching circle comprehends avd touches one externally or comprehends one and touches two exter- nally. Cons. Let (Fig. 5. pl. 3.) HK, GM, LE, be the giv- en circles whose centres are A, B, C. Let EL be the cir- cle which is not to be circumscribed alone. From A with radius=radius of HK-+radius of LE describe the circle D I. And from B with radius of MG,+radius of LE, de- scribe the circle FN. Through C describe the circle DCF touching DI, FN in D, F,—of which circle let O be the centre. Decreasing the radius of this circle by a line=ra- dius of the circle LE (or in Fig. 6_ increasing it by the same line) describe the circle HEG, which shall be the circle re- quired. Demonstration. For join OC and it will cut the circle LE _ inthe pomt E. Because OR—OC—CE, E is in the cir- cumference of HEG. Therefore if from E a perpendicu- lar be erected, it will touch both circles in the same point E. Therefore they touch each other in that point. In like manner the circles G, M, HEG; HK, HEG, touch re- spectively at H, G. Now by using OC +CE for OC—CE this demonstration applicable to Fig. 6. pl. 3. in which one circle is compre- hended and the other two touched externally. Proziem XI. [t is required to draw a circle through a given point, to touch a straight line given in position and a circle given in magnitude and position. 376 Strong’s Problems. Case 1. When the given circle is not comprehended. Const. Let (Mg. 7 pl. 3.) AB be the given straight line, H the given point and DIKE the given circle. It is required to describe through H, a circle to touch the given line and circle. Let C be the centre of DIKE. From C draw CF at right angles to AB, cutting the circumference of DIKE in E, D. Through F, E, H describe the circle FEH (Prob. I.) jon DH. Suppose DH produced to cut the circle FEH in G. Through GH describe the circle HGL to touch AB in L (Prob. LHI.) and this will be the circle required. Demonstration. For join OL. Let OL cut the circle LGH in K and DIK’E in K’. Now DE, DF=DH, DG =DK, DL. Hf EK’ be joined, (Plaf. Euc. 6. prop. L,) B E, DF—DL, DK’; but BE, DF—DL, DK therefore DL. DK—DL, DK’. Hence KD=DK’. Therefore the cir- cles DIKE LKG meet in E. But they likewise touch in that point. Forif they do not they must meet.in some oth- er point. Let them meet ina. Join Dx and extend it to cut L.HG in y, and AB in z. Then as before, (Kuclid. 6. p. 1,) Dx, Dz =DE, DF =DL, DK=Dz, Dy. Therefore since De, Dz=Dza, Dy, Dz=Dy, the less to the greater which is absurd. Therefore the circles do not meet in any point but K. Wherefore they touch in that point. But (by Const.) GKL touches AB and passes through H. G KL is therefore the circle required. Case If. When the given circle is circumscribed. Const. Let (Fig. 8. pl. 3.) AB be the given line, DIEK the given circle and H the given point. From C the cen- tre of DIEK draw CF perpendicular to AB, cutting the given circle in D, E of which E is not adjacent to the straight line. Through F, E, H describe the circle FEH. Jom HD. Let HD extended cut FEH in G. Thr ough G, H describe a circle touching AB in the point L. and this will be the circle required. Demonstration. For join LD extended let this line cut LGH in the point K and EDI in the point K’.. Now FD, DE=LD, DK. But if KE be joined the angle DKE is a right angle, and the angles KDE and FDL are equal. Therefore FD: LD::K’D: : DE, whence FD, DE=L D, DK’ which therefore “is equal to LD, DK. Hence D K'=DK and the points K’, K, coincide. Therefore the cir- : Strong’s Problems. 20% cles HGL, DIE meetin K. They also touch in that point. For if they do not they must meet in some other point; let’ them meet ine. Join Dx. Let Dx produced cut HGL in” yand ABiny. Then Dy, De=LD, DK. But DzE be-. - ing aright angle as before, Dry, Dz =FD, DE=LD, DK. — Therefore Dx, Dy =D, Dz and Dy=Dz which is’ Hien Therefore the circles do not meet inv. Now « being any point they meet in no point but K. They therefore fouch in K. Wherfore LGKH is the circle required. Case IIL. When the given circle cuts the given straight line. Const. Let (fg. 9. pl. 3.) AB, be the given straight line, H the given point, and FD’E the given circle. Let the circle FD’/E cut AB in L, M. Through C the centre of the given circle draw Cl at right anglestoABin I. Let this line produced cut the circle FD’'E in E, F. Through H, 1, E deseribe the circle HIF. Join EH. Let this pro- duced cut G, HIF inG. Through H, G describe the circle GHOD touching AB in O. And this will be the circle re- quired. Demonstration. For jom OE, let EO extended cut E DF in D’ and GHOD in D. Then (E. 6. p. I.) EO, E D’=El, FE=EH, EG=EO, ED. Therefore since EO, ED= EO, ED’, ED= ED’, and the circles FD’ E, GHOD meet in D. But they also touch in this point. For if not, Jet them as before meet in z. Join Ex cutting AB in y, and GHOD in z. Then joining Fa, the angle EF is a right angle. Therefore EI: Ez: : Ex: EF wherefore E - 1, BE =fz, Ex. But == EF= EO, ED=EH, EG=Ey, Ee. Therefore Ex, Ez=Ex, Ey, and Ez —Ey which is absurd. Therefore tie Sand FDE, GHOD do not meet inw. Now a being any point but the point D, they meet in no point but D. They therefore touch in D. Therefore GHOD is the circle required. | Note-—Whien the circle does net cut the line, the point must be given without the circle and on the same side of the line with the circle. When the circle cuts the line the point may be given any where except at the point of inter- section of the line and circle. If the circle to be described ‘is to touch the given circle externally, the point may be giv- en any where without the circle or in the circumference, — except in the points EH, F, (see Fig. Case Ill.) which are Vor. Wl No. 2, 36 378 Strong’s Problems. respectively equi-distant from the points of intérsection of the given circle and line. Proguirm XU. It is required to describe a circle to touch a straight line given in position, and two circles given in position and magnitude. Case I. When the touching circle circumseribes both the given circle and touches the straight line, or circum- scribes neither of the given circles and touches the given straight line. Const. Let (Fig. 10, pl. 3.) AB be the given straight line, GQS, MPO, the given circles, it is required to de- scribe a circle to touch at B and likewise touch the circles ~GQS, MPO. Let I and N be the centre of the given cir- cles. From [, with radius=radius of RGS= rable of M PO (if G@S > MPO) deseribe the circle HRK. Draw also the line CD parallel to AB, and distant from i by a line=radius of the circle MPO. ‘Then through N describe the circle NHF touching HRK in H and CD io F.. Let 1, be the centre of this circle. From L with radius=radius of the circle HE N-tradius of the circle MPO describe the circle EGO, which will be the circle required. — Demonstration. For jom LAG which will pass through I. Now because LG= LH + radius of the circle MPO and IG=HI-+ radius of the circle MPO, G is in the circumfer- ences of EGO, SGQ. And if at G a perpendicular be erected, it will touch both circles EGO, 5G@Q at the point G. Therefore these circles touch each other at the point G. In like manner it may be shown that the circles EGO, MPO touch at the point O. But EGO likewise touches the straight line AB. For join LFE. Let this line cut the circle EGO in E. New because LE=LE + radius of the circle MPO, the point E falis in the line AB. And be- eause AB and CD are parallel (LEA=/LFC. But 4L ’ FC isa right angle—(F being the point of contact of the eircle FHN and line ED) Therefore LEA is a right an- gle, and consequently AES touches EGO in E, wherefore EGO is the circle required. By using LE +radius of MPO for LE—radius of MPO, this demonstration is applicable to Fig. 11, when neither of the circles is comprehended. _Strong’s Problems. BIG Case 1]. When the touching circle comprehends one of the given circles. Const. Let (Fig. 12. pl. 3.) AB be the given straight line and QHP, LRS the given circles, of which LRS is to be comprehended by the touching circles. Let G, K be the eentres of the given circles respectively. From G with ra- dius equal to the radius of HPQ+radius of LIS describe the circle NM{. Draw also CD parallel to AB and distant from it by a line==radius of the circle LRS. Through K describe the circle KFI touching NIM inland CD in F, of which circles let O be the centre. Increasing the radius by a line=radius of the circle LRS describe the circle LE H, which will be the circle required. Demonstration. For join OIH, OKL, OFE : let OLH cut QPH in the point H. Now because GH =OI + radius of the circle LRS, H is the circle LHE; and if at the point H aline be drawn perpendicular to OH it touches the circle LHE at the point H, it will likewise touch QHP in H. For if the line OH be extended it will pass through G the centre of QHP. Therefore QHP, LEH itouch each other at H. In like manner LRS, EH touch each other at L. But the circle LEH touches AB. For let CFE cut EHL. in E. Now the angle OFC being right OF will cut AB at right angles. And because OK=OF-+ radius of LRS, E falls in the straight line AB. But it has been proved that OFE cuts AB at right angles. Therefore AB touches EH LatE. Wherefore EHL is the circle required. _ Note.—The circles must always be on the same side of the line ; when they cut the line the touching circle cannot eircumscribe them. When one of them lies wholly within the other the given line must cut one or both of them: oth- erwise the problem is impossible. Prosxiem XIII. There are two points and a straight line given in position, it is required to draw from the points to a point in the straight line, two lines whose differences shall be equal to a given line. Const. Let (Fig. 13. and 14. pl. 3.) AB be the given line, C, D the given points and X the given difference. From C as centre with radius=X describe the circle LIO. 250 Strong’s Problems. Through D draw DE perpendicular to AB, and extend it iil EG=DE. Through D, G describe a circle IDG touching LIO in I. The centre of this circle is in the line AB, for the chord DG is bisected at right angles by AB. Let F be the centre. Then F is the point to be found. Demonstration. For join FD, FC. Now the line FC will pass through I the point of contact of the circles LIO, (GD. Then, FC=FI+IC, and FC—ED=CI. But Cl=zr and FI=FD; therefore FC—FD=a, as was re- quired. Prosiem XIV. There are two points and a straight line given in position, it is required to find a point in the straight line, such that the sums of the lines drawn from given points to this point _ shall be equal to a given line, this lme never being less than the line joining the two points. : Const. Let (Fig. 15. and 16. pl.3.) AB be the given line and C, D the given points it is required to find a point in the given line such that the lines drawn from the given points to that point shall together be equal to a given line. Draw DH at right angles to AB and extend it, till HE =DH. From C with radius=the given sum describe the circle EB {. Through (P. III) D, E describe the circle DEF touch- ing EBI in E.. Now because DF is bisected at right an- gles by AB, the centre of DEF falls in BA. Let G be the centre then G is the point required. $e, Demonstration. For join CG which extended will pass through the point of contact of the circles DEF, BEL. Join also GD. Now CE=CE+GE=CG+GD. But CE=the given line. Therefore CG4+ GD==the given line as was required. Hare’s Blowpipe. 281 CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS AND THE ARTS. -_-~Zdilor. Hare’s Blowpipe. 301 gp, a conical brass screw plug, inserted into a hole in the cask, to be removed or reinserted, as may be convenient. Ea plog of wood for closing the pipe B. F a cock for regulating the escape of gas. The plug D being removed, and zinc in pieces introduced by the hole so as to cover the false bottom, diluted acid is to be poured into the cask, till the lower apartment becomes full. The cock F being closed, the hydrogen produced by the chemical action soon expels so much of the acid from the lower compartment of the cask, as to depress it below the zinc, when the action stops, till the expenditure of the gas allows the acid again to reach the metal. ‘The plug § is of use to prevent the acid from pressing on the gas below, when pressure is not want- ed. He. 7 may be understood by its analogy with Fig 6, (Fig. 8° Ed.) being merely another mode of putting the oe principle into operation. Casks of the form of Fig. 6, (Fig. 8? Ed.) may be used as oxygen gas holders. The lower apartment is to be filled with water, the cock closed, and the plugs EK, D eM into their places so as to be quite tight. The pipe G only is to be open, and through this, the end of a tube is to be introduced, proceeding from a vessel in which oxygen may be generated. ‘The gas displaces the water, which, as it flows out is to be caught and poured in- to the upper apartment of the cask. When the lower apart- ment becomes full Gis to be closed. It is then only neces- sary to remove the plug EH, in orde to allow the water to press upon the gas, and propel it, when requisite, through a tube to the blowpipe. Fig. 11 represents a contrivance, by which any vessel, with “but one orifice, as a bottle, a demijohn, or carboy, may be made to act as an air holder; so that a number may be filled with oxygen gas over a preunatic cistern, may be laid by, and then used as wanted. ‘The cylinder A is to be inserted in the place of the cork or stopple. This cylin- der has two perforations nearly collateral, one not more than one quarter of the diameter of the other. ‘The smaller one, B, communicates with a small tube, furnished with a eock and coupling screw, for attaching a longer tube, com- municating with the ona blowpipe: ‘The larger per- foration at © opens into a wide cylinder ‘of sheet metal.— ae this cylinder another vesscl, with a long neck, is in- verted, after being filled with water. This fluid will of Vora No 2) a 302 Chemical examination of the Hop. course run into the bottle, until the gas within is so muck | condensed, as to resist the pressure of a column of it suffi- ciently high to reach the orifice of the inserted vessel. When this takes place, no more will descend, until by opening the cock, a portion of gas escapes: but as long as it is escaping, a proportionable quantity of water will come down, so as to keep the gas under an equable pressure, and of course an even flow towards the blowpipe. Fig. 10, represents Lavoisier’s apparatus for the recom- position of water, which Dr. Clark so uncandidly insinuates as suggesting the contrivance of the hydro oxygen blow- pipe. Ata, is a tube, by which, to exhaust the vessel A of air. Atb, is another tube for supplying oxygen. At ce, a third tube for supplying hydrogen, to be ignited by a spark from the knob of the bent wire below it. Art. XIV.—An Experimental Inquiry into the chemical properties and economical and medicinal virtues of the Humulus Lupulus, or Common Hop, by Anse W. Ives, M. D. of New-York. THe hop is a hardy perennial plant, which grows spon- taneously in the northern parts of Europe and America.* It belongs to the class Diecia, and order Pentandria, of Linnevs. The plant which bears the male flowers is not cultivated, and is called the wild hop.t The common do- mestic hop, which is the female plant, is now to be the sub- ject of investigation. _ Its general character is too well and too universally known to need description. The hopf has been regarded from time immemorial as an indispensable ingredient in malt liquors. It was introduced and cultiva- ted for that purpose in England about the year 1549, and has smce been used so extensively in that country and in many others, as to have become an important article of com- * ‘Phat the Humulus is a native of America, has. been confirmed by the - observation of Micheaux, Nuttall, Eaton, Torrey, and others. _ + Avery accurate drawing and minute dissection of the male and female hop-plant, may be found in “ Lamarch’s Encyclopedia,” part 22d, plate $15. { Writers have generally used the term hop-plant to distinguish the whole vegetable, and the hop to designate that part of it used in brewing. Chemical examination of the Hop. 303 -merce. It has long been known, also, to possess some vir- tue as a medicine, and a general description of its character and properties is recorded in most Pharmacopeeias. Not having seen any accurate analysis of this article, and considering it important that the physician should know in what part of the plant its medicinal virtue resides, I com- menced some experiments with a view to ascertain this object. The facts which were developed in the progress of the investigation, were, to me, novel and unexpected ; and the results to which they obviously led, altogether dif- _ ferent from what I had anticipated. ‘The medicinal char- acter of the hop was, therefore, now regarded as a subject of minor importance ; for however desirable might be the merit of introducing to general use, a new and eligible form _of medicine, that consideration would excite, comparatively, but little solicitude, while there existed a hope of effecting an improvement in domestic economy, which would be materially interesting to a great portion of the civilized world. A quantity of hops was precured, which had been kept for domestic purposes, in a small bag, for three years. When they were taken from the bag, there remained about two ounces of an impalpable yellow powder, which, by sifting, was rendered perfectly pure. ‘This substance has probably been observed by most persons acquainted with the hop, and I ae has generally been mistaken for pollen, but it is peculiar to the female plant, and is proba- bly secreted by the nectaria. It seems to have been more correctly appreciated by those accustomed to the domestic use of hops, than by many others professing a more scien- tific knowledge of their culture, properties, and use. [have not been able to find any notice of this powder in books, and know not that it has been designated by any appropri- ate term. In the following inquiry, therefore, it will be _ealled Lupulin. Exp. 1.—One drachm of lupulin was boiled with two ounces of water, in a small retort, till a third part of the water had passed over into areceiver. ‘The fluid that came over indicated slightly the peculiar aromatic flavour of the hop 3 it was perfectly transparent, very little discoloured, and exhibited no appearance of a volatile oil. ‘The water remaining in the retort was aromatic and bitter. When é 304 Chenueal exumination of the Hop. filtered and evaporated, it yiclded ten grains of a pale yel- low extract, intensely bitter, and possessing ia a high de- gree the peculiar aromatic taste of the hop. Exp. 2.—Two ounces of the best merchantable hops were distilled in a retort, with six ounces of water, till half of the fluid had passed over into a receiver of water.’ The water in the receiver was slightly impregnated with the odour of the hop, but there was no appearances of volatile oil. Exp. 3.—Two drachms of lupulin were boiled in a re- tort with three ounces of alcohol. ' The alcohol came over strongly impregnated with the aroma of the lupulin; but there was no visible indication of an essential oil. The re- maining alcohol had assumed a brillant yellow colour, and a pleasant but intensely bitter taste 5 when filtered and evaporated, it yielded one drachm of extract of the consis- tance of soft wax.* Exp. 4.—A saturated decoction of the lupulin was pre- pared with pure water. It was opaque and of a pale yel- low colour. By adding to a portion of it a solution of the sulphate of iron, the colour was changed to a deep purple, approaching to dele a solution of anata gelatine, threw down a copious ash- coloured precipitate, which left the su- pernatant liquor transparent and clear. ‘This liquor was now decanted; by adding to it a solution of iron, it was changed to a pale blue ; the acetate and subacetate of lead, caused a copious curdy yellow precipitate; the nitrate of silver, a greenish flocculent precipitate; muriate of tin, when first added, produced no change, but after standing a short time, a brown precipitate ; a Solution of sulphate of alu- mine caused no immediate change, but by boilmg with the decoction, it separated a dense precipitate. Silicated pot- - ash, alcohol, and vegetable blue, induced no change. Exp. 5.—Two drachms of lupulin in four ounces of wa- ter, were digested six hours in a sand bath. ‘The infusion | yielded by evaporation six grains of aromatic and_ bitter * These experiments, with some variation, were fre quently repeated, with the view to detect, if nracticabie, the volatile oil which is so frequent- ly mentioned by authors as essential fo the flavour of beer. The result was uniformly t he same. The pee lia aroma of the hop was always obvions to the smell and taste, but Fives never able to separate it im the form af aa essential oil. ; Chemical examination of the Hop. 308 extract. Two ounces of proof spirit were added to the same lupulin, and subjected to a moderate heat twelve hours; when filtered and evaporated, there remained six grains of a resinous extract. ‘The same lupulin was digest- ed thirty minutes in boiling alcohol, from which was ob- tained by evaporation sixty-two grains of extract. The extract obtained by the second process was soluble in pure alcohol, and when water was added to the solution, it be- came turbid and milky. Exp. 6.—The lupulin used in the last experiment, was boiled j in strong caustic ammonia. When filtered and su- persaturated with distilled vinegar, a copious precipitate ensued, which was insoluble in alcohol, and possessed the sensible properties of an impure wax. ‘The three last ex- periments show pretty satisfactorily, that the most impor- tant proximate principles of the lupulin are resin, wax, tannin, gallic acid, a bitter principle, and an extractive mat- ter. | ‘The following experiments were instituted for the purpose of ascertaining more accurately their respective proportions, as well as the aggregate amount of soluble matter in a given quantity of lupulin. Exp. 7th—Two drachms of lupulin were infused five hours in boiling water. To the filtrated infusion, were ad- ded at intervals, five grains.of animal gelatin in solution; when it ceased to produce any precipitate, and the super- natant liquor became transparent andclear. ‘The sediment, when dry, weighed ten grains. An ounce of alcohol was added to the filtered solution, but it caused no change 3 by ~ evaporation, it yielded fifteen grains of a very bitter extract. The same lupulin was digested again in boiling water—an- imal gelatin added to the filtered solution, induced no pre- cipitate ; ; by evaporation, an additional quantity of six grains of the watery extract was obtained. Exp. 8th.—The extract obtained in the last experiment, was put into pure alcohol, and frequently agitated. After twenty-four hours it was filtered : ten grains had been re- dissolved by the alcohol, and an insoluble mass 3, Weighing eleven grains, was left upon the filter. Exp. 9th.—The same lupulin which was used in the seventh experiment, was now digested in alcohol. The in- fusion was highly bitter, and ofa fine yellow colour ; it gave by evaporation twenty-four grains of resin. By digesting 306 Chemical examination of the Hop. in a second portion of alcohol, twelve grains more of resin were obtained, less bitter, but ‘otherwise like the laste:i pigs Exp. 10th.—The lupulin which was the subject of the last experiment, after having been thus boiled in water, and digested in alcohol, was put into a small retort, and boiled in two ounces of ether. While boiling, it was filtered into a vessel contaiming cold water, by which means twelve grains of wax were obtained.* Exp. 11th.—Half an ounce of lupulin was boiled suc- cessively in water, alcohol and ether. On weighing the in- soluble residuum, it was found that five eighths of the whole had been taken up by the solvents. From the foregoing experiments, all of which were, with some variation, frequently repeated, I infer, that the lupu- lin contains a very subtle aroma, which is yielded to water and to alcohol, and which is rapidly dissipated by a high heat; that no essential oil ean be detected by distillation in any portion of the hop; that the lupulin contains an ex- tractive matter, which is soluble only in water ; that it con- tains tannin, gallic acid, and a bitter principle, which are soluble in water, and in alcohol; that it contains resin, which is dissolved by alcohol and by ether, and wax, which is soluble only in alkalies and in boiling ether; that it con- tains neither mucilage, gum, nor gum- resin ; that the aro- matic and bitter properties of the lupulin are more readily and completely imbibed by alcohol than by water, and much sooner by both when they are hot than when they are cold; that about five-eighths of the whole substance is soluble in water, alcohol and ether, there being about three-eighths of it vegetable fibrous matter. These proximate principles exist in very nearly the following proportions :——In two drachms (or one hundred and twenty grains) of lupulin, there is, * The usual method of separating wax from vegetables, by boiling them in caustic Ammonia, and then suscr-saturating the alkali with vinegar, or with dilated sutpburic acid, is tedious, and the results Myst icici The following is a much more easy and beautiful pee? ss. After digesting the substance in boiling water and cold alkohol, let-it be boiled in ether, and the solution strained, while SMS info cold water. The wax, which is beld in solution by boiling ether, is thrown down as soon as the ether is cooled by the water, and. its specific gravity being greater than that of ether, and less than that of water, it forms a beautiful partifion between them. If the ether be suilered to evaporate, the wax may be taken irom the wateréntire. Chemical examination of the Hop. 307 pa mine ea NS eS) ORES ort Extractive matter, cate ee et LS os AO ter principle, Vole ie. LO LL PUN eh PRI Yee RMR NRO Gu EIN eee esis he ES SA re er eee i EEG A woody fibrous substance, or Lignin, .... 46 Exp. 12.—Two drachms of the leaves,* from which all the lupulin had been separated, were digested twelve hours in six ounces of boiling water. ‘The infusion was bitter, and exceedingly unpleasant to the taste ; it possessed none of the aromatic flavour and peculiar bitter of the lupulin. When filtered and evaporated, it yielded five grains of nau- seous extract. The same leaves were again digested in six ounces of proof spirit: after twelve hours, the infusion was filtrated, and, by evaporation, yielded five grains of extract, similar to the last. ‘The same leaves were digested twenty- four hours in alcohol; the infusions manifested none of the sensible properties of the hop; it gave by evaporation four grains of extract. ‘The taste of none of the extractive mat- ier obtained from the leaves was sufficiently characteristic of the hop to designate that it was obtained from that article.t From this, and other similar experiments, leading to the same results, I think it is conclusively proved, that the vir- tue of the hop resides exclusively in the lupulin; that the leaves contain a nauseous extractive matter, which is im- parted to water and to alcohol, and which, instead of adding to the bitter and aromatic flavor of the lupulin, partially neutralizes or destroys it. The obvious inference from these results was, that the lupulin was the only part of the hop essential to economi- cal purposes; an inference so little anticipated, that it be- came an important subject of enquiry, whether that part of the plant was duly estimated by practical brewers—wheth- er it had been regarded by authors as preferable to the leaves, and if so, what impediment or what consideration prevented its being separated from the chaff. *Tt will be understood that by the leaves are meant the calices which form the flower, or that part of the hop commonly used in brewing. t It is necessary to remark that great care was taken to procure the leaves for this experiment perfectly free from the lupulin, which is ordinarily at- tached to them in great abundance. This cannot be done by threshing fnem. 308 Chemical examination of the Hop. On making enquiry of a number of brewers in this city, it was ascertained that there was about one in three whe considered this powder useful, in common with other parts of the plant. {t was known to all that hops were used prinei- pally for their antiseptic’ powers, or to preserve the beer from acetous fermentation ; but neither practical brewers, nor scientific writers on brewing, appear to have noticed this substance particularly. By some of the former, it 1s re- garded as useless. When at one brewery I asked for some of the yellow powder that was found at the bottom of the hop bags; I was told that I could find but little there, as but a few days ago they had swept half a bushel of it from the store. I was now resolved to ascertain, if possible, the propor- tion of lupulin in the merchantable hop, and also whether it could be completely and readily separated from the leaves. Accordingly, six pounds of pressed hops were taken from the centre of a bag, containing some hundred pounds, and ex- posed to heat till perfectly dry. They were then put intoa light bag and by threshing, rubbing and _ sifting, fourteen ounces of the pure powder was separated ina short time and with very little labour. Though the quantity thus obtained was surprisingly great, there was obviously a considerable proportion remaining which could not easily be separated from the chaff. If therefore the hops were gathered when the lupulin existed in the greatest abundance, and, instead of being pressed and packed, were exposed to the sun till perfectly dry, there is little doubt but six pounds would yield a pound of the pow- der in question.* The foregoing experiments were not completed till late in the spring, when the best season for brewing was passed, but with the advice, and by the direction of Robert Barnes, Esq. (an experienced and scientific brewer, zealous for the improvement of his art) two barrels of beer were made in which nine ounces of the lupulin were substituted for five pounds (the ordinary quantity) of hops. The: result con- firmed the most sanguine expectation. Though the quanti- * Nothing conjectural would here bave been introduced, but with a view to show, as accurately as possible, the proportion of lupulin, that the requi- site quantity may be known in case it should be substituted for the leaves of hops in brewing. Chemical examination of the Hop. 309 ty of lupulin was less than what (according to the foregoing statement) usually enters into the same quantity of wort, and though the weather during the month of June was un- ' usually warm and therefore unfavourable to its preservation, still the beer, which is now five weeks old, is very fine. It is pleasantly aromatic and bitter, and in a perfect state of preservation. To ascertain the preservative property of the lupulin by a more direct experiment, equal quantities of the beer were put into separate vials and exposed, unstopped to the sun. To the beer in one vial was added a scruple of lupulin.. The beer to which none was added, became mouldy and sour in ten days, the other was unchanged at the expiration of fifteen days. Having, as 1 conceive, demonstrated that the lupulin, alone, contains the bitter principle and the aromatic flavour of the hop, which are essential to the excellence and preserv- ation of malt liquor, and having shown also the feasibility of separating it from the leaves to which it is attached ; I shall proceed to enumerate some of the most obvious benefits which would result from these facts, should they be found applicable to practical use. 1. It would diminish the expenses of transportation.—In this the saving would be enormous. ‘The hops which are now brought to this city are cultivated in the eastern states, and in the western parts of this state, and the expense of transportation is from one to two cents a pound. This is on account of their bulk, rather than their weight. Were the lupulin separated from the leaves, it being but about the sixth part in weight, and not one twentieth in bulk, it might _be compressed into casks, and thus transported with con- venience and at a small expense. In short the difference would not be less than that of sending wheat to market be- fore and after threshing. Might it not also, for the same reason, become a profitable article of export? 2. It would lessen the difficulty and expense of storage. Notwithstanding the present mode of pressing hops into bags (which is done not less to diminish their bulk than to preserve their virtue) their storage is, as it ever has been, an important item of expense, as well as a very great burden to the brewer. Vou, £L....No: 2. 40 310 Chemical examination of the Hop. 3. One object in pressing the hop into bags is, to preserve it from the injury of the air; along exposure to which, it is said partially destroys its virtue. Whatever may be the cause, it is well known that the value of hops is diminished by age. This could not result to the lupulin any more than to our imported teas, were it packed in casks which would secure it perfectly from the air. 4. The brewer would evade an enormous loss, which he now sustains in the wort absorbed by the hops. Dr. Shan- non, who has perhaps devoted more time and talent to the subject of brewing than any other English author, has de- monstrated by a series of experiments, that one barrel of wort is absorbed by every sixty pounds of hops in the or- dinary process of brewing.* The quantity of beer manu- factured annually in London is upwards of one million five hundred thousand barrels, and the least quantity of hops used in making it is two and a half pounds to the barrel, or three millions seven hundred and fifty thousand pounds; now asa barrel of wort contaims not less than three bush- els of malt, it follows, that the quantity of malt thus annual- ly lost by absorption, is one hundred and eighty seven thou- sand five hundred bushels—the price of which may be fair- ly ae at as many dollars. . It will lessen the temptation to the fraudulent practice whieh now prevails, of adulterating beer with other vegeta- ble bitters. Notwithstanding the prohibitions of parhament there is no article which is the subject of such varied and extensive fraud in England at the present day as that of beer. Asa substitute for the hop,{ the coculus indicus, quassia and wormwood have all in turn been used ; but all. of them are so far inferior, both in their flavour and in their antiseptic or preservative properties, that the use of all veg- etables in the manufacturing of beer, excepting malt and hops, is by law forbidden. By the improvement which is now proposed, so great would be the diminution in the price of the hop, from its being made an article of easy and * Vide, Dr. Shannon's Treatise on Brewing. } Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Vol. 2 } Accum’s Treatise on the adulteration of food. Also, Edinburgh Re- view, No. 63. Chemical examination of the Hop. 311 cheap transportation, that there would be little inducement for using any other article in its stead. 6. The lupulin is exceedingly bitter but not unpleasant, whereas the nauseous extractive matter of the leaves, which by boiling, is imparted to the beer, is unpleasant to the taste, and, when highly concentrated is frequently ungrateful to the stomach. It is believed that few persons ever relished the peculiar bitter of the strong beer, until, by drinking it habitually their taste becomes vitiated as is the case in the use of opium and tobacco. Soon after hops were intro- duced into use in brewing in England, the citizens of Lon- don petitioned parliament to forbid their use in the king- dom, as they were a nuisance, “‘ and spoiled the taste of their drink.” ‘The leaves then are not only useless, but- prejudicial to the flavour of beer. On the virtues of this substance as a medicine, I shall at present be very brief, as it will probably be made a subject for future consideration. It has already been observed that the hop has long been regarded as a medicine of some value. In France it has been used as a tonic and preserib- ed in dyspepsia and scrofula. In this country it has been most valued for its narcotic powers, and used in cases when opium was inadmissible. ‘The most common preparation is a saturated tincture of the leaves. ‘To this there are two important objections. 1. To give enough of the tincture of the leaves to induce sleep, the quantity of alcohol is ne- cessarily so great as sometimes to do injury to the patient. 2. When given in large doses, it frequently produces nau- sea and sometimes vomiting. The first of these objections requires no proof, the second is confirmed by my own ob- servation and by the experiments of Dr. Bryorley in his in- augural dissertation onthe hop. ‘This last effect is proba- bly owing to the extractive matter in the leaves, for I have never seen it produced by the lupulin. I have prescribed the powder in substance, the infusion, decoction, alcoholic tincture and the extract. As its aromatic and bitter proper- ties are imparted to water, the infusion is an eligible prepa- ration as a tonic and stomachic ; but if given with a desire to produce sleep, the tincture is the best preparation. As it has been demonstrated, both by positive and negative tes- timony that the narcotic principle exists in the resin only, the tincture should always be made with alcoho! and not 312 Hlare’s Eudiometers, &c. with proof spirit. Itis more difficult and expensive to pre- pare the extract than the tincture, and the latter in most in- stances is the most eligible preparation. Its virtues are aromatic, tonic and narcotic; and it is, # believe the only article in which these properties are com- bined. Our country abounds with vegetable bitters and tonics, many of which are more powerful than the hop, but there is perhaps none which can so-properly be denomina- ted a stomachic. That family of symptomaiic diseases which are the consequence of exhausted excitability, or more directly of an enfeebled and deranged state of the stomach and bowels, are certainly much relieved by this medicine. [t frequently induces sleep and quiets great nervous writation, without causing costiveness or, impairing hike opium the tone of the stomach, and thereby increasing the primary disease, As an anodyne it will be found ineffi- cient compared with opium. ‘The saturated alccholic tine- ture, in doses of from forty to eighty drops, will induce sleep with as much certainty as opium in cases of long watching from nervous irritability ; but the same cannot be said of its efficacy in relieving pain. ‘This substance then, is not com- mended as a medicine which ought to supersede the use of others of acknowledged virtue, but as a useful auxiliary, which undoubtedly possesses properties in some respect peculiar to itself, and as the part of the hop altogether pre- ferable to any other, or to the whole as it is ordinarily used in tincture. Art. XV. Account of new Eudiometers, &c. invented by Rospert Hare, M. D. Professor of Chemistry, &¢. i the Medical department of the Unwersity of Pennsylva- Nid. Amone the operations of chemistry, none probably are more difficult than those called Eudiometrical, in which ae- riform substances are analyzed. Elastic fluids are so liable to contract or expand with the slightest change of temperature or pressure, that it is requi- site to have the surface of the portion under admeasurement exactly in the same level with that of the water or mercury Hare’s Eudiometers, &c. 313 employed to confine it, and the heat of the hand may ren- der the result inaccurate. There is no simple mode of causing the surface of the gas in a measure glass to form a plane corresponding with the brim of the measure glass containing it. The transfer of small portions of gas without loss, especially from large bells into small tubes is very diffi- cult. Hence there is trouble, delay and waste. I shall proceed to describe some instruments which I have lately invented, and which appear to be free from the: dis- advantages above described. ‘They are all essentially de- pendent on one principle for their superiority.* A recurved glass tube is furnished with a sliding wire of iron or copper, graduated into two hundred parts. The process of making wire by drawing it through a hole, ren- ders its circumferences of necessity every where equal and homologous. Consequently equal lengths will contain equal bulks. The wire slides through a cork soaked in bees-wax and oil, and compressed by a screw, so that neither air nor water can pass by it. The length of the longer leg is fifteen inches, that of the shorter one six inches. The bore of the tube is from ;4 to -£, an inch in diameter, but converges towards the termina- tion of the shorter leg to an orifice about large enough to ad- mit a brass pin. Over this a screw is sometimes affixed, so as to close it when necessary. The tube being filled with water or mercury, and the wire pushed into it as far as it can go, on drawing this out again any desired distance, an equivalent bulk of air must enter the capillary orifice if open. By forcing the rod back again into the tube, the air must be proportionably excluded. Thus the movements of the sliding wire are accompanied by a corresponding ingress or egress of air, and to know how many divisions of the former have been pushed into the tube, or withdrawn from it, is the same as to know how much air has been drawn in or expelled. If, instead of allowing the orifice to be in the open air, it be introduced within a bell glass, holding gas over the pneu- matic apparatus, on pulling out the wire, there will bea corresponding entrance of gas into the instrument; and it » must be evident that if the point of the gas. measures be * See the plate at the end of the velume. p 314 Hare’s Eudiometers, &c. transferred to the interior of any other recipient, the gas which had entered, or any part of it, may be made to go in- to any such recipient by reversing the motion of the wire. As the hands are, during this operation, remote from the part of the tube which contains the aeriform matter, no ex- pansion can arise from this source, and the operation is so. much expedited, that there is much less chance of variation from any other cause. By taking care to have the surface of the gas in the bell glasses below that of the fluid in the cistern, the density of the former will be somewhat too great, but on bringing the orifice of the gas measurer on a level, with the surtace of the fluid in the cistern, the gas, no longer subject to any extra pressure, will assutne its proper volume, the excess being seen to escape in bubbles. Should the tube in lieu of water, be filled with any solution, calcu- lated to absorb any gas, of which the proportion, in any mixture, is to be ascertained, and if the quantity of absorp- tion which can take place while the wire is drawing out, is deemed unworthy of attention, we have only to introduce the shorter leg of the tube into the containing vessel, as above described, and draw out the wire to two hundred on its scale, then depressing the point below the surface of the fluid in the pneumatic cistern in the usual time with due ag- itation, all the gas which the fluid can take up, will disap- -pear. The quantity will be represented by the number of divisions which remain without the tube, after pushing in the wire just so far, as to exclude the residual gas. Should it be deemed an object to avoid the possibility of any absorption during the time occupied in the retraction of the sliding wire, or should it be desired to expose the gas to a larger quantity of the absorbing fluid, an additional vessel is used, which is of an oblate spheroidal form, with a large neck, ground to fit on the shorter leg of a gas measurer, and furnished at the opposite apex with a tube, of which the bore converges to a capillary opening, surmounted by a screw, as already described, on the point of the gas measurer simply. This vessel (in shape not unlike a turnip) is filled with the absorbing fluid, and the gas measurer being duly charged with gas as above described, inserted into it. By the action of the sliding wire, the gas is propelled into the spheroid, where, by agitation and time the absorption is eompleted. Meanwhile the orifice of the spheroid should Hare’s Eudiometers, &c. 315 be kept open, and under water, so as to permit the latter to take place of that portion of the gas which disappears.— _ Whatever remains unabsorbed, is expelled from the glass spheroid, as in the case of the tube when used alone; and the divisions on the rod remaining without, will shew how much the fluid has taken up. When atmospheric air, or oxygen gas is to be analyzed by nitrous gas, the glass spheroid is filled with water, and in- verted with its orifice closed over the well of the pneumatic cistern. It should be supported by a wire stand, so as to leave the neck unobstructed. Any number of measures of nitrous gas, and of oxygen gas, or atmospheric air, may then be drawn into the measurer, and expelled into the spheroid successively, and the absorption estimated as al- ready explained. When the residuum is too great to be ex- pelled by returning the whole of the rod into the tube, by depressing the orifice of the spheroid just under the surface of water, the wire may be again gently retracted, water taking its place; and the movement may thus be alter- nated, till the whole of the remaining gas is excluded. In order to apply this principle to Volta’s process of as- certaining by explosion the quantity of hydrogen or oxy- gen gas present, in a mixture, the gas measurer is made as much stronger, as eudiometers are usually, when intended to be so used. It isin like manner drilled so as to receive wires for passing the electric spark. The instrument being charged with the gases successively in any required propor- tion, closed by the screw, and an explosion accomplished ; ta fill any consequent vacuity, the orifice is to be opened just be- low the surface of water or mercury. The quantity destroy- ed by the combustion is then ascertained by the sliding wire. This experiment is more accurately performed by means of mercury than water. From this fluid, concussion, or even the partial vacuum produced by the gaseous matter, may extricate air, and thus vitiate results. There ought always to be a considerable excess of gas not liable to be acted on. ‘The activity of the inflammation is lessened, and the unconsumed air breaks the shock. T have found the galvanic ignition produced by a small calorimotor preferable to the electric spark. Suppose a piece of iron wire to be filed down in the middle for about one half of an inch to about one third of the original diam- 316 Hare’s Eudiometers and Calorimotor. \" eter. The whole is cemented into the perforation drilled in the tube, so as that the smallest part may extend across the bore. The wire should then be cut off at about one third of an inch from the tube, so as to stand out from it on each side about that distance. If these protruding wires be severally placed in the forceps of a calorimotor and the plates subjected to an acid, the small part of the wire within the tube is vividly ignited, and any gas in contact with it must explode. ‘The interior wire is best made of plaiina, and may in that case be screwed into two larger pieces of a baser metal ; or a baser metal may be fastened on it, by drawing through a wire plate, and the platina duly denuded by a file where it crosses the bore. The calorimotor which I have used for this purpose, con- sists of eleven plates of copper, and a like number of zinc, placed alternately within one-fourth of an inch of each ether ; those of the same kind of metal being all associated by means of a metallic stratum of tin cast over them. The two heterogeneous galvanic surfaces thus formed, have each soldered to them a wire in a vertical position, and slit, so as to present a fork or snake’s mouth. The wires are just so far apart as to admit the gas measurer between them, so that the wires of the latter may easily be pressed into the snake mouths. It is better that the wires of the gas meas- urer should be flattened in such manner as to present a larger surface for contact. There must also be an oblong square box or hollow parallelopipedon of such a width as just to admit the calorimotor, and more than double its length and depth. The calorimotor is placed within this box, at one end of it, about an inch below the brim. Dilut- ed acid is poured in so as to occupy the lower half of the vessel, until it nearly reaches the plates. A plunger, con- sisting of a water tight box, or solid block of wood, is then made to occupy the other side of the little cistern. The depression of this causes the rise of the acid among the plates in the calorimotor, and consequently the ignition of a wire forming a communication between the surfaces. This apparatus may be constructed in the circular form, by so placing two concentric coils, or several concentric hollow cylinders of copper and zinc, alternately within the upper half of a glass jar as to admit of a plunger in the mid- dle, which in this case may be of an apothecaries stopper | Hare’s Eudiometers, &c. ae round or bottle. The acid solution must occupy the lower half of the vessel, unless when the plunger raises it. I am under the impression that there is no form in which a pair of galvanic surfaces can be made so powerful in pro- portion to their extent, as in that above mentioned. The zinc is every where opposed by two copper surfaces by having this metal only a small fraction in excess. Explanation of the Plate. (See the end of the volume.) _ Fig. 1. Sliding rod eudiometer or gas measure, sur- mounted by its spheroidal recipient. rr, sliding rod gradu- ated into twenty divisions, each subdivided into ten, so as to make two hundred parts. Atmf, are male and female screws, (forming what mechanics call a stuffing box,) by means of which a cork soaked in beeswax and oil is com- pressed about the rod. Aton, is the neck of the recipient, ground to fit the recurved tube which enters it. AtS, is a screw, by which to close the capillary orifice of the recip- ient. Fig. 2. Eudiometer upon the same principle, but made stouter, in order to resist the explosion of inflammable mix- tures. W W, wire to be ignited. Fig. 3. Displays a construction of the sliding rod, by which, when desirable, greater accuracy may be attained in the measurement of gas. A smaller rod or wire is made to slide within the larger. Whatever may be the ratio (in bulk) of the rods to each other, the lesser may be graduated to give thousanths, by ascertaining how far it must be mov- ed to produce the effect of a movement of one division on the larger rod, and dividing the observed distance into ten parts. Fig. 4. Represents an apparatus adapted to explode an inflammable mixture, as mentioned in the preceding article, and so contrived to be a substitute for the well known ap- paratus in which an electrophorus is employed to ignite hy- drogen gas. Moisture in the air suspends the action of that apparatus, but does not interfere with the one here repre- sented. Vous LU. ..No: 2: 41 318 Hare’s Eudiometers, &¢. A A, acistern divided by a water tight partition, which separates the air holder G, from a calorimotor situated un- der C, and a plunger P, contained in the other part of it. W W, wires severally s soldered to the different galvanic sur- faces, and forked or slit at their ends, so as to embrace the wire of an eudiometer for the explosion of inflammable mixtures, as mentioned in the preceding article. At ff, are forceps (severally soldered in the same way) for holding a wire to be ignited by the galvanic influence. These wires and the plates with which they are connect- ed may be seen at fig. 5, where there is an enlarged drawing of the calorimotor and its wires. It is supposed to be situated below the edge of the cis- tern, which is supplied with diluted acid reaching within a little distance of the plates. c, a cock soldered toa pipe communicating with the in- side of the gasometer. hh.a gallows and guide wire, for regulating the rise of the gasometer. The construction of this will be better comprehended from fig. 6, where t represents the tray for holding the zinc, by means of which hydrogen is to be evolved. ‘The tray 1s supported on the pipe in the axis of the vessel by a sliding band and screw, so that it may be raised or depressed at pleasure. When this tray is covered with granulated zine, and the lower vessel is filled with acid so as to cover it, ’ hydrogen must be generated until it occupies so much of the air holder, as to depress the acid from off the zinc. Supposing the apparatus thus prepared, on depressing the plunger at P, fig. 4, the acid in the cistern A A, will be forced up among the galvanic surfaces, and cause the wire | at ff to be ignited. ‘Turning the cock while the wire is ved hot the hydrogen will be emitted and inflamed. Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zine. ~319 Arr. XVI. Analysis of two Zine Ores from the United States of America; by M. P. Berruter, Engineer in the royal Corps of Mines, (translated by the Editor from the Annales des Mines 3d Livraison Ann. 1819.*) Turse two minerals occur together and are very abun- dant. They compose the principal part of a very thick and extensive metalliferous bed contained in a grauwacke formation in New-Jersey. They occur principally in Franklin, Sparta, Stirling, Rutgers, in the county of Sus- sex : they are accompanied by white laminated carbonate of lime, quartz, a peculiar greenish yellow garnet, and some other substances. One of these minerals (the zinc ores) is orange red, the other is of a metallic black. We wil! examine them successively. 1. The Manganesian Oxid of Zine. It is to Bruce that we owe the knowledge of the red mineral.t In 1814, he published a description and analy- sis of it in the American Journal, (vol. 1, page 96:) he found it composed of : | Oxid of zinc, - - - - - = 0.92 Oxid of manganese and iron, - 0.08 It was named from its composition manganesian oxid of zinc. I have subjected this ore to many trials, and have repeated the analysis in many forms; like Bruce, I have found only oxid of zinc and oxid of manganese, but in pro- portions a little different from his, as will appear below. The manganesian oxid of zine is of an orange red, ap- proaching blood red. It is in amorphous grains irregularly disseminated in the mass of the mineral: the fracture is * The importance of these two ores, and respect to the memory of the late Dr. Bruce, who first made these ores known, have induced me to give the memotr entire.—-Editor. + Mr. Maclure had already, in 1811, transmitted the New-Jersey mineral to M. Vauquelin, who extracted from it Protoxid ofiron, - - - - - - - 045 Oxid of zinc, about - - - - - - 0.50 And protoxid of manganese, - - - 0.05 but it appears that this analysis was the resnit ef a simple trial made upon the mixed minerat. 320 Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zine. brilliant, lamellar in one direction and slightly conchoidai in the other; the thin slivers are transparent ; it is fragile, easily scratched by steel; easily pulverized ; the powder is of a beautiful orange red. After long exposure to the air it becomes covered with a white pearly coating, which ap- pears to be composed of the carbonates of zinc and man- ganese. Its specific gravity, according to Bruce, is 6.22. With the common blowpipe it is infusible without addi- _ tion; with borax it gives a yellowish translucent glass. Under the flame of the blowpipe fed by oxigen and hydro- | gen it is volatilized, diffusing at the same time a brilliant white light. It loses nothing by calcination; while it is hot it appears brown, but as it cools it gradually resumes its pristine colour. It easily dissolves in the cold in the mineral acids, and even in the acetic acid. During the solution heat is evoly- ed, but without effervescence, and the liquor remains col- ourless. Still, with the muriatic acid it produces a solu- tion of a brownish red, which, without the disengagement of any gas, gradually loses its colour: it is probable that a little chlorine is really but very gradually disengaged.* The oxids of zinc and manganese appear to have a great disposition to unite, and their complete separation is very difficult. ‘T’o accomplish this object, I have employed six processes, of which I proceed to announce the results. 1. I have repeated the process of Bruce, which consists in pouring into a nitric solution of the two oxids the oxalic acid, as long as there is any precipitate, and then in wash- ing and calcining the residuum. Bruce regarded the cal- cined precipitate as pure oxid of zinc; but ‘Thave remark- ed, that it always retains a very notable quantity of manga- nese, and that this is the reason why it always retains a foul yellow colour, more or less deep—a fact which Bruce ob- served without searching for the cause. ‘The oxid of man- ganese is almost perfectly pure, and contains only that por- tion of iron, which, when the solution has not been made with the greatest caution, is accidentally present. Bruce, then, was able to obtain by this process, only an inferior quantity of manganese, to what really exists in the manga- nesian oxid of zine. * We are not told whether the odour of chlorine is perceptible.—Ldator. Analysis of the Wew-Jersey Ores of Zine. 321 2. I precipitated the two oxids from their solution, by means of an alkaline sub-carbonate, having taken the pre- caution to boil the liquor, that it might not retain any por- tion: I calcined the precipitate with the contact of air, till the manganese was oxidized to a maximum, and afterwards, in one trial, I treated it with nitric, and in another with acetic acid—I evaporated it gently to dryness, and treated it again with water. Oxid of manganese remained perfect- ly pure, but the solution which contained the zinc, retained also a notable quantity of manganese ; and when this solu- tion was precipitated by an alkaline carbonat, the calcined precipitate was of a dirty yellow, more or less deep. By treating this precipitate anew, by means of acetic acid, a little oxid of manganese is separated, but much the greater part always remains with the oxid of zinc. 3. I precipitated the two oxids by caustic potash in ex- cess, and allowed it to digest for some time—it was then filtered. ‘The liquor contained nothing but oxid of zinc ; but the residuum contained still a large quantity of this oxid, and it was necessary to redissolve, to precipitate anew by potash, and to repeat this operation many times, in order te complete the separation. 4. I precipitated the solution of the mineral by an alka- line carbonate, and through this solution diluted with water, I passed a stream of chlorine in excess—I obtained a violet coloured liquor and a black residuum. The liquor being evaporated in the air, became colourless, and deposited pure oxid of manganese. ‘The black residuum having been. treated by acetic acid, now contained nothing but oxid of manganese. ‘I'he two liquors containing the zinc, were precipitated by a sub-carbonat. The calcined precipitate had a light yellow colour, and it was found to contain about gua part of its weight of oxid of manganese. It is proba- ble, that by washing very carefully with abundance of wa- ter, the precipitate of zinc and manganese, and by agitating it for a long time with chlorine, no particle of the carbonate of manganese would escape the action of this agent, and that the two metals would be perfectly separated. 5. M. Berzelius has had the kindness to. communicate to me the following method which has perfectly succeeded. I precipitated by an alkaline carbonate, washed the precipi- tate by decantation, digested it for sometime while still 322 = Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zint.- moist, in ammonia ; it became immediately brown, and the filtred liquor gave by ebullition a white deposit, which, by calcination, became perfectly white; it was the pure oxid of zine: but I remarked that the deposit that was insoluble in ammonia, almost invariably contained oxid of zinc, some- times in considerable quantity. 'To remove it entirely we may redissolve and reiterate the same operation; but it is better to calcine it, and to heat it with the acetic acid, which removes from it the greater part of the manganese, and to submit to the action of the ammonia only the deposit formed in the acetous fluid, by means of the alkaline car- bonate. In this manner we separate the two oxids perfect- ly, and with the greatest precision. 6. Indeed, I have thought, that the zine being very vola- tile, and its oxid easily reducible, we may readily separate it, m the dry way, from the oxid of manganese. This was practically verified. The oxids were mixed with a deter- minate weight of powdered charcoal, and the mixture pla- ced dans un tét étrovt, slightly hollowed, which was covered by a larger head, perforated in the upper part with little holes, a white heat was applied and a very abundant white vapour was disengaged. As.soon as it was certain that this disengagement had ceased, the head was uncovered, and the matter which it contained was roasted in order to burn out the remaining charcoal ; the residuum, which was brown, was weighed, and to obtain the exact proportion of the manganese, the weight of the ashes which the charcoal would leave was subtracted, a weight which had been previously determined by experiment. The oxide of manganese proved on ex- amination not to contain the smallest quantity of zinc. All these trials almost exactly agree in giving for the re- sult of the analysis of the manganesian oxid of zinc : Oxid of zinc, - - - - 0,88 Red oxid of manganese, - 0,12 1,00 It is difficult to say in what degree of oxidizement the manganese exists in this mineral. Its colour, and the ap- pearances which it presents with the muriatic acid, render it probable that it is, at least, in the state of deutoxid. In order to be certain that the union so difficult to be over- Anulysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Line. 323 come, between the oxid of zinc and the oxid of manganese, did not depend upon the intervention of any undiscover- ed substances, I dissolved pure oxid of zinc with the tenth part of its weight of oxid of manganese, equally pure, and heated the solution by the process described under No. 2. I obtained, as in the case of the American mineral, an ace- tous solution, with which the alkaline carbonates formed a precipitate, that became, in consequence of calcination, of a dirty yellow, and contained manganese. Hl. The black zinciferous mineral, the Franklinite. ‘This mineral is composed of the oxid of iron, the oxid of manganese and the oxid of zinc. The association of these three oxids has never been before observed, and there is every reason to suppose that it constitutes a true species ; but although it shall be discovered hereafter that these ox- ids are merely mixed, which appears very improbable, this mixture wil appear too remarkable not to be denoted always by a name. As the chemical nomenclature cannot in every instance furnish a name, I propose to give it that of the Franklinite, derived from Franklin, in order to re- mind us that it was found, for the first time, in a place to which the Americans have given the name of a great man, whose memory is venerated equally in Europe as in the new world by all the friends of science and humanity. The appearance of this mineral is much like that of the fer oxidule (magnetic iron.) It is of a metallic black, is magnetic but without magnetic polarity ; it occurs in grains, or in amorphous masses which sometimes. present crystal- line faces, but they are small and of rare occurrence, and do not enable us to determine the geometrical forms to which they belong ; the fracture is either uneven or conchoidal, or imperfectly lamellar; it is not very hard; the powder is of a deep red brown, which distinguishes it from the magnetic iron whose powder is black. The specific gravity is 4,87. It is scarcely affected by the muriatic acid in the cold; but, by means of this acid, we can separate the carbonate of lime and the manganesian oxid of zine, with which it is al- most always mixed, and thus we can obtain it perfectly pure. It dissolves very easily in hot muriatic acid, without effer- vescence but with a slight smell of chlorine. The analysis 324 = Analysts of the New-Jersey Ores of Zinc. is effected by dissolving it in muriatic acid, precipitating the solution by an alkaline carbonat, treating the wet precipitate by acetic acid to excess, evaporating to dryness by a gentle heat and removing the acetats of zinc and manganese by water; the calcined residuum is found to be the pure tri- toxid of iron. As to the zinc and manganese, they are sep- arated by the processes pointed out above. Ina specimen from Franklin there were found : Perexid of iron, - - - - 0,66 Red oxid of manganese, - 0,16 Oxid of zine, =) Oe 99 As the Franklinite acts upon the magnetic needle, the iron cannot be in the state of per-oxid, but is probably oxidized in the second degree. It is evident that the man- ganese is at least, in the state of deutoxid, because the min- eral has a brown powder, gives with muriatic acid the odour of chlorine, and its muriatic solution contains the iron entirely in the maximum state of oxidizement. It is obvi- ous that during the solution the two oxids react upon one another, and that the oxid of iron passes to the maximum by taking away the oxigen from the oxid of manganese, which is, on the contrary, reduced to a minimum. For the purpose of verifying the result of the humid anal- ysis, I made the following trials :—10 er. of the franklinite were heated in a crucible brasqué without addition at the temperature proper for the assay of iron. A metallic but- ton was obtained, to which adhered a very light greenish scoria; the whole weighed 5 gr. 65; the button was of an iron grey, hard, but impressible by the file, and capable of assuming a beautiful polish ; it flattened under the ham- mer, and was broken with difficulty 5 its fracture was grey and granular, the grains being crystalline; it was analysed, and found to be an alloy of iron and manganese, without a particle of zinc ; the loss in the experiment then represents the oxid of zinc, and the oxigen combined in the mineral with the tron and manganese. Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zine. 325 _ There were heated at the same temperature, in a cruci- ble “ brasqué,”’ franklinite, - - - - 10 gr. silex, - - - - - - 4 alumine, - - - - - 1.50 lime, - - - = - - 1.40 BISGit.al vps Siveessiyiso Crane ois ieee wal GLOO There was obtained a button, weighing 12.77 Loss, - - - - - - - - + 4.13 which was owing to the volatilized zinc, the oxigen of the iron, &c. The fusion was perfect; the metallic button weighed g4. 63; it flattened under the hammer, and the fracture was granular, and of various shades. ‘The scoria was compact, vitreous, transparent and green; it weighed 8.17 Substract from it - - - - - - 6.90 There remains - - - - - - - 1.27 which represents the oxid of manganese that it contains. The ¢4. 6 of the “ fonte” correspond almost exactly with the 0.66 of the peroxid of iron discovered by analysis ; the metallic button ought to contain a little manganese, in the state of an alloy. The alloy obtained in the first trial, ought then to be com- posed nearly of Iron, - - - - 4.60 at most, - - - 0.814 _ Manganese, - - 1.05 at least, - - - 0.186 5.65 1.000 Lastly, on melting in a crucible ‘‘ brasqué” a mixture of peroxid of iron, red oxid of manganese, and oxid of zinc in the same proportions as in the franklinite, a button was ob- tained, precisely similar to that of the first trial. It is obvi- ous then that the analysis of the franklinite can be per- formed both in the dry and humid way. The results by the dry way favour the opinion that in the analysis in the humid way, there is a loss of some portion of the zinc. The minerals of New-Jersey may be advantageously turned to account in various ways. By assorting into one collection, the pieces in which the red mineral prevails, ané ~ Vou. I.....No. 2. 42 326: _ A new process for mitreus Ether. into another those in which the franklinite is the prevailing: part—the first can be employed as ores of zinc, to afford that metal by distillation, with charcoal, or to afford brass by fusion with copper and charcoal. If we stop at the ex- traction of the zinc, the residuum can be advantageously melted in the high furnace to obtain the “‘ fonte,” or at least it can be mixed for the same purpose, with the ores that are rich in franklinite. As these minerals contain a considerable quantity of man- © ganese, and their principal gangue is carbonat of lime and garnet, it is probable that they can be treated in the high furnace, without addition, and that they will prove very fu- sible. A “ fonte” of excellent quality may be obtained from them, and in all probability eminently adapted for the production of the natural steel, like that which comes from ‘the ores of spathic iron. ‘There would be deposited in the chimnies of the high furnaces, a considerable quantity of the oxid of zine, as is the fact in Belgium, where this sub- stance is known under the name of cadmie des fourneaux ou Keiss; it is the richest and best material which can be used for the preparation of zinc and brass. It is possible that the abundance of the Keiss may somewhat impede the operation of the high furnaces, and necessitate the adop- tion of some par ticular. arrangements, to extract it with fa= cility; but the value of this substance would pay for the trouble it might occasion. Finally, with the pure franklinite, which it will be very practicable to obtain, either by picking or washing, the trial can be made of preparing in the large way, the same alloy of iron and manganese, which I have obtained in the small way, and it can be seen whether it will not be better adapt~ ed than the common “ fonte,” for various uses. Arr. XVIE. 4 new process for Nitrous Ether, by Profes- sor Ropert Hare, M. D. The making of nitrous ether is a critical process. The action of the materials will often spontaneously increase se as to produce explosion. It may be conducted with ease and oe) by means of a three necked bottle represented by Fig. 7, (in the plate which exhibits the eudiometers.) Description of a differential Thermometer. ‘927 The two outermost necks are furnished with funnels, and the central one with a tube bent a little more than at right angles, and passing through ice to the bottom of a bottle surrounded by the same. The acid and alcohol ought to be very strong. Let a gill of the latter be poured into the bottle, and then add as much acid as will make it boil brisk- ly. When the effervescence relaxes, add more acid until the addition of this produces no great effect. Then add more alcchol, and again more acid, till the bottle becomes about one third full. The ether will be rapidly formed and collected in the bottle into which the recurved tube leads. This tube is represented in the plate of about one third of the proper length. There should be a triangular wooden trough adapted to it for holding ice or snow. It might be an improvement if another neck were added — through which the residual liquor might be drawn out. With this addition, the distillation of ether might be con- ducted in a way analogous to that of the distillation of whis- key by the celebrated Scotch still. Art. XVIII. Description of a differential Thermometer, by W. Howarpn, M. D. Adjunct Professor of Anatomy in the University of Maryland.* THis instrument is in imitation of Mr. Leslie’s differen- tial thermometer, but is on a different principle. In his, the degree of heat is measured by the expansion of air, but in the present one by the increase of expansive force of the vapour of ether or spirit of wine in vacuo, which affords a test of great delicacy, and is easily constructed. + A tube (A) being first made with a ball at each extremi- ty, in one of which is left a small orifice, a portion of ether er spirit of wine is then introduced, and heat being applied, is brought to a state of active ebullition. At this moment the orifice is closed with a piece of wax, and finally hermet- ically sealed by the biowpipe. ‘The tube may then be care- *¥rom the London Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature and the Arts. 1 See the figure at the end of the volume. 328 Description of a differential Thermometer. fully bent in the form of a hook,* and the scale and foot being adapted, the instrument is finished. (B.) This thermometer is intended to be used in the same cases as that of Mr. Leslie, but I conceive it to possess some advantages. Itis more delicate. When a heated body, as the hand, is approached to one of the balls, the liquid sensi- bly ascends or descends, and as soon as this cause is re- moved, begins instantly to return to its former level. Whereas in the air thermometer, the impulsion to the liquid is not instantaneous, and it continues to move in the same direction a moment after the heating cause is removed. If the two balls were freed entirely from air, the liquid would always remain at the same level in each branch of the tube, except a trifling difference caused by capillary at- traction. This perfection cannot be obtained by the most skilful artist; there always remains behind, notwithstanding all care to prevent it, a small residuum of air, which is suffi- cient to make a difference in the height of the two columns. To obviate this inconvenience, before the scale is adapted, the liquid is all to be brought into one ball, and the instru- ment is then reversed and left for a considerable time in that position, that both balls may acquire an equal tempera- ture, and the small portion of air may be equally diffused through them. It is then to be restored to its proper posi- tion, and the point at which the liquid finally settles, is to be marked as the commencement of the scale. The same op- eration is to be repeated whenever the instrument has been deranged by transportation or other causes. If it were possible to employ constantly ether or spirit of wine of exactly the same degree of strength, itis plain from the laws investigated by Mr. Dalton, that the scale would be constantly uniform; but as this is not easily obtained it is arbitrary. I have hitherto used the division of the mil- limetre of France. Note.—This thermometer is made by Pixii Dumotiez, Rue du jardinet. Paris, and by Mr. Newman, Lyle-street, London. * The upper ball being slightly bent over to contain a small portion of liquid. + The best mode of constructing the above instrument, isto bend the tube previous to the introduction of the ether, a considereble portion of which should be boiled out of the tube, in order to ensure the expulsion of Description of a differential Thermometer. 329 x * * ¥ * x Heat in the rays of the Moon. Extract of a letter from Dr. Howard, dated August 29, 1820, to the Editor of the American Journal of Science, sc. ‘¢ All attempts, as far as I am aware, to discover any heating power in the lunar rays, by means of a common thermometer, have been unsuccessful. Indeed this instru- ment, however skilfully constructed, is not sufficiently deli- cate to be affected by the heat of the rays of the moon, which, if it bears any proportion to the light of the same rays, must be extremely small; as Dr. Smith concludes (Optics, Vol. I.) that the light of the full moon is to that of our day only as 1 to 90.000. Having blackened the upper ball of my differential ther- mometer, I placed it in the focus of a thirteen inch reflect- ing mirror, which was opposed to the light of a bright full moon. ‘The liquid began immediately to sink, and in half a minute was depressed 8°, where it became stationary. On placing a skreen between the mirror and the moon, it rose again to the first level, and was again depressed on re- moving this obstacle. I repeated this experiment several times to satisfy myself and some of my friends who happen- ed to be present, that there was no fallacy in the conclusion of its being a positive proof of the calorific power of the lu- nar rays, and at the same time affording an evidence of the great delicacy of the instrument.” atmospheric air ; it is also convenient to tinge the ether ofa red colour, by the addition of a drop of tincture of cochineal. I have constructed upon the same principle a photometer, and an ethrio- scope, both of which, though liable to some objections, are most curiously sensible to the impression of light, and to the frigorific emanations of the heavens. I have also employed a modification of the same instrument as photometric thermometer, which I have found useful in comparative experi- ments upon the light of different flames. For this purpose, the instrument is constructed as shewn in the engraving, by Dr. Howard ; the upper ball is then covered by a thin coating of Indian ink, and the other with gold leat, applied by a dilute spirit-varnish ; it is then covered by athin glass shade. Upon bringing a candle near the black, or sentient ball, that is within the, distance of fourteen inches, or one foot, it produces an instantaneous de- pression of the column of liquid. Placing this instrument at the distance of sixteen inches from the flame of a wax candle, it fell 1° in 1’. A gas flame which { had previously ascertained, by a comparison of shadows, te give the light of eight wax candles, caused a depression of 10° in 1’, when placed at the same distance from the instrument. We oy 330 = Account of a new inflammable Air Lamp. ° Art. XIX. Account of a new inflammable Air Lamp, by Professor Jacop Green, of Nassau Hall. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Princeton, Feb. 11th, 1820. Dear Sir, The great facility with which hydrogen gas may be in- flamed by even a moderate electric spark, suggested to Volta his inflammable air lamp. This, with a slight altera- iion, was patented, as a source of instantaneous light; and ts usually found among the electrical apparatus of every person who has a taste for philosophical experiments.— One inconvenience attending the use of this ingenious con- trivance, was, that the reservoir containing the hydrogen gas soon became expended, and could not, without some trouble, be replenished. Gay Lussac, however, not very long ago, removed this defect by suspending a bar of zinc in the apparatus, so as to produce by a sort of self-actron, as much gas as was exhausted. ‘There is another fault which has not,been so happily removed; the electrophorus which is connected with this instrument, is, like all other electrical machines, so influenced in its action by the state of the weather, that there are some seasons when the smallest spark cannot be obtained. It has been my object in the little contrivance described in this communication, to point out a way in which electrical fire may be obtained, inde- pendent of the state of the atmosphere. Description. (See the plate at the end of the volume.) A. B. C. D. is a square box, of mahogany, made per- fectly air tight. At A. and C. small brass cocks are serew- ed into it, so as to form a communication with the inside. E. is a glass tube, open at both ends, passing through the top of the box, and extending within a short distance of the bottom. K. L. isa glass jar, with an open mouth P. such as ig commonly used for collecting gases. R.S. isa piece @ Account of a new inflammable Air Lamp. 331 of wood, two inches thick, with a groove turned in its top, in eel the jar K. L. is fitted. There is also a hole, through which the tube E. passes, and terminates. _F’. is a small calorimoter, which is surrounded by the jar K. L. _ From the bottom of the calorimoter, proceed the two wires N. O. (which connect the poles of the instrument) through R.S. M. isa small blowpipe, with stop cocks, which com- municates by means of a glass tube, with the interior of the jar K. L. 5 this tube must reach a little above the calorimo- ter, on the inside of the jar. G.isa glass vessel, placed in ’ the jar above the calorimoter, the contents of which must be about one third more than that part of the jar which contains the calorimoter. H. isa vessel of like capacity with G. having an open mouth I, anda glass tube G. H. open at both ends, passing from the bottom, through P. and terminating at the bottom, within the glass vessels G. It Is scarcely. necessary to add, that all the joining of this in- strument must be perfectly air ele To use the instrument. Remove vessel H. and drop a few small pieces of zinc mto G. through P. ; then fill G. with a weak solution of sul- phuric acid and water ; pour it also into the box A.B. C. D.; through this stop cock A. till on a level with Y. Ling then by blowing with the mouth into the box at A. the aie above the fluid being compressed, will be forced up into the jar K. L through this glass tube E.; and when the jar is completely full, turn the cock at A. and adjust the vessel H. im its place. Hydrogen gas will quickly be formed; the acidulous water in G. will be forced up into H; then by turning the cock A. the remaining water in K. L. will de- scend through E into the box below, and leave the jar filled with the gas; the fluid at the same time descending from H. into G. Now, if you wish to set fire to the hydrogen, place a small iron or platiita wire from N. to O. blow up the acidulous fluid into the calorimoter by the stop cock A; the wire will be instantly heated, and by turning the stop cock of the blowpipe M. so that the gas may strike the heated wire, it will be inflamed, and a taper may be light- ed. ‘The action of the acidulous fluid on the zinc of the ealorimoter, will furnish as much gas as will be consumed $ 332 Cutbush on the Voltace Lamp. but, should there be an unusual consumption of gas, it may be supplied by suspending a bar of zinc in the vessel G. the lower end of which should reach only one third below the brim of the vessel ; the reason for which will be obvious to those who understand the structure of the instrument. The stop cock at C. is for drawing off the acidulated water, when it becomes saturated with the zine. The calorimoter which I use differs a litile in construe- tion from those commonly made, and perhaps has some ad- vantages. The following is a description of it: Take a sheet of copper, say four inches wide, and eighteen or twen- ty inches long; bend it in the form represented in Fig. 2. (see the plate at the end of the volume,) which is preserved in the required shape by a band of the same metal sur- rounding it; the intervals between each fold should be about an inch; then cast in proper moulds plates of zine, of different sizes, so as to slide between these interstices, reaching from the bottom to the top, the edges of which should be grooved into little strips of wood, in order to pre- vent contact with the copper ; all these plates of zinc should be connected together by a strip of copper along their up- _ per edges. By this construction these plates can be easily removed, and cleaned whenever required. With an in- strument of the above dimensions, I have melted off fine iron wire. Arr. XX. Account of an improvement in the Electrical Lamp, by Dr. James Cursusn, of Philadelphia, in a letter to the Editor. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Puintapetruia, March 15, 1820. Sir, Some years ago, I purchased an inflammable air lamp, commonly called the Voltaic Lamp, made on the original eonstruction, which I laid by, as not only troublesome to use, but very uncertain in its operation. A description of the apparatus with its appendages, may be seen in Adams’ “Cutbush on the Voltaic Lamp. 9S Philosophy, vol. 2, page 93, American edition. Since the original was contrived by Mr. Volta, aided by Dr. Ingen- houz, several very important improvements have been made—more especially that arrangement by which gas is formed in the bottle extemporaneously, and of course with- out the use of an additional bottle and syphon, or the pre- vious filling of bladders with hydrogen gas, a mode hereto- fore adopted both by Volta and Ingenhouz. In the appa- ratus which I procured, before it was altered 1 was obliged to fill the bottle with water, remove the stop cock and its connexion with the string from the electrophorus, and adapt asyphon coming from a bottle or flask containing dilute sulphuric acid and iron or zinc filmgs; and when filled with gas, to pour water into the upper vessel, in order to force it out when the cock was turaed, which causes by its connexion with the plate of the electrophorus the transmis- sion of the electric fluid, and of course its passage between the two conducting points. Filling the gas bottle in this way with gas, is at all times attended with trouble. Not possessing one of the improved kind, which obviates this inconvenience, I thought of having mine altered, which I had done, and found it to answer the purpose. The alter- ation consisted in removing a brass tube, which went from the lower to the upper vessel, and substituting in its place a glass one, which was attached and cemented to the upper vessel, so that when it was inserted in the bottle, and the upper screwed, to the lower vessel, it would occupy such a distance as to be equivalent to the capacity of the water holder, a circumstance necessary to be attended to, in order to prevent the fluid when the gas is generated in the bottle from running over. It is obvious, therefore, that according to this improvement, all that is necessary is to fill the bottle with a mixture of sulphuric acid and water, in the proportion of about one of the former to eight of the. latter, and throw in as occasion requires through the tube, when the upper is screwed to the lower vessel, either zinc or iron filings. The gas, as it is generated, will cause the fluid to rise in the tube into the upper vessel, which is al- ways ready by its pressure, when the cock is turned, to force it through the aperture so as to come in contact with the spark. The bottle containing the diluted acid will last many months without being renewed, and when the satura- Vou. IT.....No. 2. 43 334 Cutbush on the Voltaic Lamp. tion has been completed, and sulphate of iron or of zine. formed, as the case may be, the quantity of water will al- Ways prevent its crystallization. Hence it is a matter of some moment to have the acid sufficiently diluted. In consequence of some defect or imperfection in the electrophorus cake, or of its splitting, which sometimes happens, I have found it necessary to remelt it, or to make a new one, by melting the best yellow rosin, and adding a small quantity of Spanish brown. Having melted the rosin, it was poured into a shallow dish made of tin plate, and left to cool undisturbed, not permitting however any bubbles to appear on its surface. The electrophorus belonging to my apparatus, when ex- cited will retain its effect for many months. I excited it in the usual manner, by gently warming it, and rubbing it with a foxtail, catskin, or silk handkerchief ; ‘the former of which T found preferable. When thus excited, I have been suc- cessful in producing a spark even in the dampest weather. Tt requires, however, that the box, which contains the elee- trophorus, should be kept as tight as possible. There is one defect which in fact is inseparable from the construction of the cock; namely, that however perfectly tight it may be, by frequent use it becomes loose, and suf- fers the gas to escape gradually. To prevent this, and te make the cock as tight as possible, I have used various ex- pedients, but the following I find preferable : mix a portion of tallow with finely pulverized plumbago, so as to render the whole as stiff as possible; then apply it to the-cock. From observation I have found, that hydrogen gas pre- pared by using zinc, makes its escape more readily than that prepared ‘with iron filings; for, under the same cir- cumstances, the former I have discovered to disappear sometimes in twenty-four hours, while the latter has re- mained more than a week. In consequence of this cir- eumstance, I employ iron filings in preference to those of zinc, although we know that the gas from the latter is much purer and consequently lighter, whereas that procur- ed by using iron filings contains more or less carbon, and is consequently impure. The lamp answers every purpose, and I find it more cer- for lighting a candle than any other contrivance, and herefore preferable to any which I have tried ; having used Graves’ JMeteor, 338 at different times the phosphoric match bottle, the pocket lights, the condensing syringe, flint and steel, &c. IT am aware, however, that the Voltaic lamp is not much used, and has been even laid aside, in consequence of the uncer-~ tainty of its operation. But from experience I can say, that since I have had the alteration made, I have seldom been disappointed in producing flame, and the apparatus is now always in order. ‘The only thing to be attended to is, to throw in as occasion requires, some iron filings ; the quan- tity of which at a time will be readily known. "One cubic inch of gas will light the taper at least ten times, if the cock is quickly turned. Therefore, from the quantity of gas, we may calculate the number of times we may light a candle. Ly Art. XXI. Account of a gelatinous Meteor, by Rurvus Graves, Esq. formerly Lecturer on Chemistry at Dart- mouth College, (communicated by Professor Dewey.) On the evening of the thirteenth day of August, 1819, between the hours of eight and nine o’clock, was seen in the atmosphere, at Amherst, Massachusetts, a falling meteor or fire ball, of the size, as represented by an intelligent spectator, fof a man’s hat, ora large blown bladder, of a brilliant white light resembling burnished silver. The position of this spectator being in a direct line of the street where the luminous ball appeared, and“at the distance of not more than five hundred yards, with the sight bounded by the buildings, there could be no decep- tion relative to the direction that it took. Its altitude, at its first discovery, was two or three times the height of the houses ; it fell slowly in a perpendicular direction, emitting great light, till it appeared to strike the earth in front of the buildings, and was instantly extinguished, with a heavy explosion. At the same instant, as appeared from the re- port, and from the ringing of the church bell, an unusually white light was seen a few minutes afterwards, by two la- dies in a chamber of Mr. Erastus Dewey. While they were sitting with two candles burning in the room, a bright luminous circular spot suddenly appeared on the side wall of the chamber near the upper floor in front of them, of the size of a two feet stand-table leaf This spectrum de- ‘536 Graves’ Meteor. scended slowly with a tremulous motion nearly to the low- er floor and disappeared. In critically examining the chamber where the foregoing phenomenon was observed, it appeared that the light must have entered through the east front window in a diagonal direction, and impinged on the north wall of the chamber back of the ladies, and thence reflected to the south wall in front of them, forming the circular spectrum, with the cor- vesponding tremulous motion of the meteor, and deseend- ing with it in the same direction, according to the fixed | laws of incidence and reflection. Early on the ensuing morning, was discovered in the door yard of the above mentioned Erastus Dewey, at about twenty feet from the front of the house, a substance unlike any thing before observed by any one who saw it. The situation in which it was found, being exactly in the direc- tion in which the luminous body was first seen, and in the only position to have thrown its light into the chamber, (as before remarked,) leaves no reasonable doubt that the sub- stance found was the residuum of the meteoric body. This substance when first seen by the writer was entire, no part of it having been removed. It was in a circular form, resembling a sauce or sallad dish bottom upwards, about eight inches in diameter, and something more than one in thickness, of a bright buff colour, with a fine nap upon it similar to that on milled cloth, which seemed to defend it from the action of the air. On removing the villous coat, a buff coloured pulpy substance of the consis- tence of geod soft soap, of an offensive, suffocating smell appeared; and on a near approach to it, or when immedi- ately over it, the smell became almost insupportable, pro- ducing nausea and dizziness. A few minutes exposure to the atmosphere changed the buff into a livid colour resem- bling venous blood. It was observed to attract moisture very readily from the air. A half-pint tumbler was nearly half filled with the substance. It soon began to liquify and form a mucilaginous substance of the consistence, colour, and feeling of starch when prepared for domestic use. The tumbler was then set in a safe place, where it remained undisturbed for two or three days; and when examined afterwards, the substance was found to have all evaporated, except a small dark coloured residuum, adhering to the Crystallization of Snow. 337 bottom and sides of the glass, which, when rubbed between the fingers, produced a fine ash-coloured powder without taste or smell; the whole of which might have been inclu- ded in a lady’ ‘ thimble. The place where the substance was first found was exam- ined, and nothing was to be seen but a thin membranous substance adhering to the ground similar to that found on the glass. This singular niberanes was submitted to the action of acids. With the muriatic and nitric acids, both concen- trated and diluted, no chemical action was observed, and the matter remained unchanged. With the concentrated sulphuric acid a violent effervescence ensued, a gaseous body was evolved, and nearly the whole substance dissolv- ed. There being no chemical apparatus at hand, the evolving gas was not preserved, or its properties examined. Arr. XX. On the crystallization of Snow, by Professor Jacos Green, of Nassau Hall, Princeton. Tue crystallization of snow has for a long time excited the attention of the curious; few accurate observations however have been made upon it. Like the other phenom- ena of crystallization, this process is involved in much ob- seurity. Beccaria supposed that the regularity often no- ticed in these crystals was owing to electricity, and this will probably be found the true cause, not only in regard to snow but in every other instance of crystallization. We know that certain changes in the forms of substances are al- ways connected with electrical effects, as for instance when vapour is formed or condensed, the bodies in contact with the vapours become electrical. Haty has rendered it extreme- ly probable that the integrant particles of matter always combine in the same body in the same manner, and that the combination is occasioned by cohesive attraction. May . we not rationally suppose that what is called electrical po- larity would induce them to cohere, not promiscuously, but dn certain determinate forms. I need not here repeat the experiments which prove that the phenomena of electrical polarity are precisely analogous to those of magnetism, or that magnets will produce asteroidal figures with steel filings. With these hints f leave the theoretical part of the subject. 338 Crystallization of Snow. * On the 16th of March, (1819) at 5 o’clock P. M. 1 had the pleasure of observing the beautiful asteroidal figures sometimes assumed by flakes of snow. On examination each appeared to be composed of six thin spicule, diverging like rays from a centre. There was but little or no wind, and Farenheit’s thermometer stood at 33°. The figures which [ observed are exhibited in the plate at the end of the volume, and the numbers annexed to them corrrespond with those in the following description. No. 1. This is a simple hexagonal star, the radii were of equal lengths and the angles of convergence being equal, each angle was of course 60°. No. 2. This crystal differs from No. 1, only in the length and breadth of the spicule, they were shorter and broader. No. 3. A simple star, except that the radii pioeted from a central knob. No. 4. The same as the last, differing from it only in having the radu bifurcated at the end. No. 5. Differing from No. 4 in having three prongs at the extremity of the radii. No. 6. The radii pinnated near the centre, giving the ap- pearance of regular hexagonal figures one within the other, about half the distance between the pinnee and the ex- it age of each radius there was a knob. No. 7. Pinnated as No. 6, but without the knob, and having eh radius trifurcated at the end. When the snow commenced falling, the above figures were more distinct and durable, but they could occasionally be discovered foraboutan hour amid the amorphous flocculi. Just as the crystals No. 6 and 7 began to melt, their pinna- ted radii were most brilliant, assuming somewhat the ap- pearance of prismatic drops of dew. The figures were not all of the same dimensions ; their principal difference was similar to that stated in Nos. 1 and 2. These figures were examined both with the single microscope «and the naked eye ; when not pinnated they were yiewed with the most satisfaction without using a glass. M. De Rattee, who has published an interesting article on this subject in the French Encyclopeedia, states, that regu- lar crystals of snow do not often occur, but that the flakes are commonly of an regular and unequal figure. He also Crystalhzation of Snow. 339 remarks it is worthy of observation that the different sorts of erystals are scarcely ever seen during the same fall of snow, the varieties appearing at different hours of the day or on different days. [am of opinion they occur more fre- quently than is here supposed, and that different crystals are seen during the same fall of snow. We have besides the instance now noticed, the authority of Dr. John Netts, who has published a paper in the 49th Vol. (1756) of the Philosophical Transactions, entitled “ an account of a meth- od of, observing the wonderful configurations of the smallest shinng particles of snow.” In one day and night (he ob- serves) | found fifteen, twenty or more particles of snow dii- ferently formed, such as Olaus Magnus mentions, and in the year 1740, on the 11th, 12th, 13th, 21st and 23d of January, and also on the 6th, 23d and 24th of February, I had an op- portunity of delineating eighty different admirable figures of snow, and of observing their numberless varieties. Accompanying this | paper there are figures of ninety-one of these beautiful configurations ; the size of them is much - less than those observed by me on the 16th of March, and as they were examined with a double microscope, greater complexity was noticed. Most of Dr. Netts’ figures are hexagonal, but some of the stars exhibited twelve radii. In April 1817, Dr. P. S. Townsend read before the Ly- ceum of Natural History of New-York, a very interesting memoir on the crystallization of snow. In this paper the Doctor has collected most of the facts known respecting this subject, and has referred to the writers who have considered. it. His communication was published in the American Monthly Magazine for May, 1818. Sometime since an account of stellar snow was forwarded tous by Dr. Jacob Porter of Plainfield ; it was described as being “in the most regular and beautiful crystals, each crystal consisting of six rays diverging from a common cen- tre, and each ray of a number of inferior rays proceeding from it ina pinnate form.” ‘The forms observed by Dr. Porter will be found among those delineated by Professor Green.—[ Ep. | 340 Foreign Interature and Science. INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. —~o— Foreign Literature and Science. (Communicated by Professor Griscom, of New-York.) The number of books in all the public libraries of Ger- many, (including Austria and Prussia,) amounts at least to four millions, without reckoning memoirs, pamphlets, peri- odical publications, dissertations, and manuscripts. Professor Goerg, of Leipsick, has proved, it is said, very satisfactorily, that the vinegar of wood (pyrolignous acid,) possesses all the antiseptic powers that have been ascribed to it. Anatomical preparations, and other animal substan- ces, in which putrefaction had commenced, were complete- ly restored by contact with this acid. An animal body in the opinion of this professor, may be readily converted into a mummy by this substance. The discovery of this acid is likely to become important to anatomy, domestic economy, and medicine. In the empire of Austria, there are no less than twenty- three botanic gardens. The unfolding of the manuscripts of Herculaneum, is car- ried on with very considerable success by a chemical pro- cess, under the direction of Sir H. Davy. Of one thousand six hundred and ninety-six pieces which have been found, eighty-eight have been happily unrolled, and the writing is very legible ; three hundred and nineteen are not legible, and twenty-four have been given as presents to foreign princes. There remain one thousand two hundred and sixty-five, of which one hundred, or one hundred and twen- ty will, it is hoped, be saved from oblivion. A plant, called Chinininha by the natives of Peru, has been analyzed at Madrid. It proves to be an excellent febrifuge. Foreign Literature and Sciense. 341, The number of new works and new impressions offered for sale at the fair of Leipsic last year, by three hundred and thirty-six booksellers, amounted to three thousand one hundred and ninety-four. Senifelden, the original inventor of the Lithographic art, (printing on stone,) has contrived a substitute for the carbo- nate of lime, used for that purpose, which has hitherto been found in perfection only in Bavaria. He forms an artificial plate, of stony substances, attached to paper, which he calls Papyrographic. It is said to possess great advantages. ‘The machines are offered for sale at Pie at from twenty to thirty dollars each. A new method of taking the lives of animals destined for the market, which greatly diminishes their sufferings, is now employed in London. Itis effected by means of azot- ic gas. The meat, it is said, retains its freshness better, has a more agreeable taste, and is more easily preserved. The greater number of the butchers are in the use of this method. Rev. Ency. de Paris, Jan. 1820. An Academy of Natural Sciences has been formed at Cadiz, which holds its sittings in one of the halls of the medical and surgical college. At the village of Chatiauneuf, . the department of the lower Alps, in France, a church was struck by three suc- cessive thunder bolts, on the Lith of July, 1819, about 11, A.M. during the installation of a new Rector. The com- pany were nearly all thrown down, many of them were driv- en out of the door, eighty-two were wounded, and nine kill- ed. The priest who was celebrating mass, was not affected, on account, itis believed, of his silken dress. All the dogs in the church were killed. The house was filled with black smoke. Hot water is now carried through the streets of Paris for the purpose of supplying baths in private houses. It is transported in large casks, in which are stoves, so construct- ed, that the heat is spent almost entirely in raising the tem- perature of the water. It-is forced from the casks through Vou. I.....No. 2. 44 942 Foreign Literature and Scrence. pipes, into the apartment required, and afforded at a very moderate price. M. Gonord, of Paris, has discovered the art of enlarging or diminishing the scale or size of an engraving on copper, without changing the plate ; in other words, if an engraved plate of copper be given to him, he can make use of it in such a manner as to obtain impressions of any size he pleas- es, either greater or less than those of the plate. From the plates of a folio atlas, for example, he can produce an atlas in octavo, and without changing the plates. He is able, also, by the methods he adopts, to make impressions upon various materials, as paper, metal, porcelain, marble, &e. An. de Chimie, Jan. 1820. Steam Navigation is now making a rapid progress in Great Britain. ‘There are on the river Clyde, twenty-five steam boats, the largest of which has a burden of ninety-one tons, and the least of thirty-five. Twelve of these boats pass between Glasgow and Greenock. There are four steam boats on the Frith of Forth, which are said to carry during the summer five hundred passengers daily. Steam boats also ply on the Fay, the Humber, the Trent, the Thames, the Dee and the Mersey. Passengers are now conveyed by steam from Liverpool to Belfast and Glasgow, and from Dublin to Holyhead. The Scotch are very locomotive. The number of pas- sengers who were conveyed along the Forth and Clyde canal, between Glasgow and Edinburgh, amounted in 1818 to ninety-four thousand two hundred and fifty ; between Glasgow and Paisley on the Ardrossan canal, fifty-one thou- sand seven hundred; and from Glasgow along the Monk- land canal, eighteen thousand. It is calculated that a person has fifteen hundred opportu- nities of leaving London in the course of twenty-four hours - by stage coaches, including the repeated trips of the coaches which run short distances. It is understood that three hun- dred stage coaches pass through Hydg Park corner daily. It appears by a note in the 16th number of the Journal of the Royal! Institution of Loadon, that the pyrolignous acid Foreign Literature and Science. 343 was known as early as 1661, and its property of converting minium into sugar of lead. Homer’s Iiad—A copy of Homer’s Iliad has been dis- covered inthe Ambrosian library of Milan which appears to be of the fourth century, nearly six ages older than that on which the editions of Homer are founded. It contains six- ty pictures equally ancient. They are on vellum. The characters of the manuscript are square capitals, according to the usage of the best ages, without distinction of words, without accents, or the aspirates; that 1s to say without any sign of the modern Greek orthography. Heat of a Vacuwm.—Gay Lussac has shown by experi- ment that when a delicate air thermometer is enclosed ina vacuum, and that vacuum is suddenly either enlarged or di- minished no change whatever takes place in the thermome- ter. But if the smallest quantity of air be admitted, the compression, or more properly the diminution of the space occasions an elevation of temperature, and the enlargement occasions cold. ‘This result he seems to consider as strengthening the hypothesis that caloric is not matter, or that it does not exist independent of matter—An. de Chimie, Mar. 1820. Education in Africa.—At the French settlements of St. Louis in Senegal, a school has been opened on the system of mutual instruction. It is attended by one hundred and fifty children. The kings of Galam and of Bambouk, more than -two hundred leagues in the interior, have sent their children to this school. Lessons have been prepared both in the French and Yolof languages. Mr. Dard, the director of the school, has prepared a grammar and a dictionary of the Yolof (or Wolof.) He has also translated into that language the Old and New Testament. A school of fifty girls is also taught there by French nuns. Several African princes have visited the schools, and measures have been taken te establish others in the interior. The Senegal children pos- sess great aptitude for instruction. ‘They read, write and calculate with facility. Several.of the monitors have be- come qualified to conduct other schools. The teacher 344 Foreign Literature and Scvence. (Dard) appears to be a man of great mind. ‘The establish- ment at St. Louis is under the direction of the Education Society in Paris. A society is to be established in Edmburgh for the pro- motion of arts, similar to that in London, and connected with a repository of models on the plan of that at the Adel- phi. The king of Denmark has granted a pension of two hun- dred crowns during two years, to four persons distinguished for their knowledge, to encourage them to travel in foreign _ countries. Dr. Perret, of Switzerland, has found that the roots of the Plantain, (Plantago major, minor, et latifolia,) is an excellent febrifuge. Laterature of the Low Countries—During the first quar- ter of the present year there have appeared in the low countries (kingdom of Hoiland) three hundred and eighty- six new publications, of which eighty-eight are original ; of these sixty are in Dutch, nine in French, four in Flem- ish, four in Latin, and eleven in other languages. Bohea tea has been successfully cultivated in the depart- ment of Arriege in France. Necrology.—Sir Charles Blagden, the celebrated’ Eng- lish Philosopher, died at the house of Count Berthollet, Arceuil, near Paris, on the 26th of March last. He was eighty years of age, and retained to the last the sprightlhi- ness and vivacity of middle age. He spent much of his time m France, and was a diligent frequenter of the Insti- tute, where he held an honourable seat. He was noted for pursuing the most exact plan in the distribution of his time, in his meals, his visits, &c. He kept a journal of passing - events, in which were found the occurrences of the morn- ing preceding his death. He kept up a regular correspon- dence with his friend, Sir Joseph Banks. He left a con- siderable fortune, and was very liberal towards the poor. ~ foreign Literature and Science. 345 Volney, the French traveller and philosopher, died on the 22d of April last, aged sixty-three. New Alkalies—Two new vegetable Alkalies have been discovered by French Chemists, which they have named Brucine and Delphine. The first is found in what the discoverers (Pelletin and Coventon) call false Angustura bark, (Brucca Anti-dysenterica.) It crystallizes in oblique quadrangular prisms, colourless and transparent. It dis- solves in five hundred parts of boiling water, and in eight hundred and fifty of cold water. Its taste is exceedingly acrid and bitter. Administered in doses of a few grains it is poisonous. It forms neutral salts and bisalts, which crystallize with facility. Delphine was obtained by Lassaigne and Fenculle in the seeds of Staves Acre, (Delphinum Staphysagria.) It is crystalline when wet, but becomes opaque as it dries. Its taste is acrid and bitter. It melts by heat, and becomes hard and resinous. Itis not very soluble in water. It forms neutral salts with the acids. Count de Romanzow is fitting out at his Own expense an expedition which is to pass over the ice from Asia to America, to the north of Behring’s Straits ; and to ascend one of the rivers which disembogue on the western coast, in Russian America, in order to penetrate into the unknown tracts that lie between Icy Cape and the river Mackenzie. New Hydraulic Machine-—Mr. Clymer has mvented in London a pump ofa simple construction but powerful in its effects. It raises and discharges two hundred and fifty or three hundred gallons in a minute, not only of water but of stones and cther hard substances which are not too heavy. It is of easy transportation, and appears particu- larly well adapted to ships, cn account of its not being easily choked by sand, coffee, sugar, and other impediments. An Egyptian Society has been formed in London for the purpose of publishing Lithographic prints of all the Egyptian monuments of architecture and sculpture as well as of mummies and hieroglyphic inscriptions, in order, if possible, by a comparison of signs, to discover their mean- Ing. 346 Foreign Literature and Science. Lithographic printing has made a rapid progress in Rus- sia. ‘The plates illustrative of the journey of Col. Drou- ville in Persia, are of the finest execution. The designs are from the hand of M. Orlowsky, a distinguished artist of Petersburg. _ The Iron Masters of Sweden have granted to Professor Berzelius an annuity of five hundred crowns, for the servi- ces which he has rendered to the chemical arts. The ex-king of Norway, Prince Christian Frederick, of Denmark, is leading a literary life in Italy. He lately read a dissertation on Mount Vesuvius at a meeting of the Acad- emy of Sciences at Naples. Count Lasterjoie is publishing at his Lithographic press in Paris, a series of plates to illustrate the machines, instru- ments, utensils, constructions, apparatus, &c. employed in rural and domestic economy, according to designs from va- rious parts of Europe. A vessel has been constructed for the navigation of the Forth and Clyde canal in Scotland entirely of forged iron, the sheets being pieced and riveted nearly as in a common boiler. Itis larger, and at the same time lighter, and sails better than any of those employed. It will of course be more durable. It will contain two hundred passengers.— Rev. Enc. Mai 1820.* The number of letters daily distributed by the Post-Office at Paris is nearly thirty-two thousand, and of Journals eigh- teen hundred. Whilst in London the amount of letters is one hundred and thirty-three thousand, and of Journals twenty-six thousand. ‘This, according to the respective population of the two places, is, in Paris one letter for sixty- ty-two persons, and one Journal for three hundred and eighty readers ; but in London, one letter for nine persons, and a Journal for forty-three readers.—Idem. The literature of Italy is rapidly increasing. The “ Bib- hiotheca Italiana,” edited by cerbi, the author of travels to the north Cape, announces that seven hundred cases of * And a private letter from Glasgow fo the Editor. o Foreign Literature and Science. 347 books of one hundred and fifty killogramms each, are annu- ally imported into Milan from France, Switzerland and England; and without including the books which come from Germany, and especially from the Austrian states, and this commerce is principally in the way of exchange. The number of books published in Lombardy alone in the year 1819, ainounted in value to more than one million and forty thousand dollars.—Idem. — B. Braconnot has succeeded in convertgng by means of sulphuric acid, various ligneous sabstaibe, such as saw dust, linen rags, hempen tow, &c. into gum and sugar. The gum perfectly resembles that of the mmosa nilotica. The sugar is much like that which is extracted from grapes. —Idem. The Cashmeer goat has been introduced into the prov- ince of Rousillon in France with encouraging success. One hundred and twenty kids have been produced, and already bear the valuable down which characterises that species.—Idem. Drawing in perspective has been introduced into some of the elementary (Lancasterian) schools of France. A work on this subject, adapted to mutual instruction, has been pre- pared by Francceur, professor in Paris. The foundation of a new school for the fine arts has been laid in Paris, in the place where the museum of French monuments has been kept. The canal of Alexandria in Egypt is prosecuted with vig- our. Mines of lead. and iron have been lately discovered in upper Egypt. A steam boat has been constructed to run between Stock- holm and St. Petersburg. ‘The passage, which has hereto- fore been tedious and uncertain, can now be effected in sixty hours. The population of Sweden has increased in three years, viz. 1816, 17 and 18, by seventy-two thousand three hun- 348 Foreign Literature and Science. dred and forty-six individuals. In the capital there has been a slight diminution, owing to the tendency of rich proprietors to engage more extensively in iron works and ag- ricultural employments. The whole population in 1818, was two millions five hundred and forty-three thousand four hundred and twelve. M. Keenig, a painter of Bern, in Switzerland, has invent- eda method of producing transparent pictures so as to ex- hibit the effect of the sun, moon and fire in the greatest per- fection. His lamtlscapes of Switzerland are said to be much more perfect representations of the sublime scenery of the Alpine regions than any thing hitherto produced. Oil has been extracted in Italy from the grape seed. It affords a light equal to that of nut oil: the smoke and odour are scarcely perceptible. Preparations are making in Malta to introduce the system of mutual instruction on the coast of Africa, through the me- dium of the Arabic. A small book has been printed i in that language explanatory of the system. The Greeks of the Tonian Islands are about to witness the realization of their fondest hopes—the establishment of a University in Corfu. Lord Guilford has received from the English government the necessary instructions for car- rying the project into execution. The Count Capo D’Is- tria, a native of Corfu, has contributed by various dona- tions to the endewment of this University. He has furnish- ed M. Politi, professor of chemistry in the new University, with the means of establishing a complete chemical labora- tory: A society of artists and men of letters in Paris, have en- gaged to publish a collection of lithographical portraits of celebrated men and women of that country, with a short bi- ographical memoir of each person, and a fac simile of their writing as far as it can be obtained. Two numbers, con- taining each four portraits with their notices, &c. are pub- lished. monthly at seven francs per number.—Idem. Foreign Literature and Science. 349 ‘The following method of producing pictures of metallic ve- getation, by M. Goldsmith, has been read before the French Institute. Place a few grains of iron and copper filings on a glass plate at a certain distance from each other. Add to each parcel a few drops of nitrate of silver ; the silver is soon precipitated ina metallic state, while the copper and the iron are oxidated and coloured. ‘Then with a small stick ar- range the ramifications of the silver, while the flame of a taper placed under the glass, promotes the evaporation of the flu- id, facilitates the reaction of the materials, blackens the plate, and ‘thus forms the ground of the picture—An. de Chimie, Mai 1820. Thenard has succeeded in causing pure water to absorb oxygen to the enormous extent of six hundred and fifty times its volume. The process is complicated. The prin- cipal agents he employs are barytes, and muriatic and sulphu- rie acid. ‘The oxygenated water has a taste slightly astrin- gent and bitter. It whitens the epidermis and occasions very pungent sensations. A great number of the metallic oxids act upon it with such energy as to produce explosions. /in. de Chimie. { Notices communicated by a Correspondent.} Boracic Acid. About two pr. ct. of Boracic Acid has been obtained by evaporating the waters of the lakes in Cherchaio, and it has been proposed to deliver this acid in Paris, in any quantity, at three francs the kilogram. ‘The acid is in small greyish scales, taste slightly bitter, aqueous solution reddens, litmus, &c. Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. Dec. 1819. «. ~\ . 7 7 Se a Waves are reg, ge wits eee aoe a OI on ate abe yaa stvenia SRY ce ize S> Y a nt SSS SSS SSSI NS les} SN dese GL B Bs AAA SSS SS ee ao ~~ 5 : ee | j ZN ALLE LLLP Za Rea MUP 3 9088 01298