ie 22 wth Nn hi tin te ett A adh hn aR A MMR te OT HD a An aah At nde lanl edhe ply tas Gelb en schen Na ce A A A reais Dnt Mette Ach Re Denk le IR. Gata hatha taste te Maan hw he Va Batiet, anshete neta Rgiheha elon tet
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othe Rant AE Shoat edits Sener ree ete PG LL on OP METS He RES CO tad Bt del, edict FIO ESL Mee cele Mat ete lg aed A! BRA ett RA AS ian ie Sn tionlin Yann th Spree She Ta ete re a BS «Neth tonal wth Few me te Sarthe lye) gnats tio “93 =)

et CO OF ad I a

i

AMERICAN JOURNAL

SCIENCE AND ARTS.

CONDUCTED BY

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M. D. LL. D.

Prof. Chem., Min., &c. in Yale Coll.; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man, and Com. ; and
For. Mem. Geol. Soc,, London; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., Dresden; Nat. Hist.
Soc., Halle; Imp. Agric. Soc., Moscow; Hon. Mem. Lin. Soc., Paris;

Nat, Hist. Soc. Belfast, Ire.; Phil. and Lit. Soc. Bristol, Eng. ;

Mem. of various Lit. and Scien. Soc. in America.

VOL. XXIII.—EsaebARYL 1833.

NEW HAVEN:

Published and Sold by HEZEKIAH HOW & Co. and A. H. MALTBY.
Baltimore, E. J. COALE & J. S. LITTELL.—Philadelphia, E. LITTELL and
CAREY & HART.—Wew York, G: & C. & H. CARVILL.—Boston, HIL-
LIARD, GRAY, LITTLE & WILKINS.

PRINTED BY HEZEKIAH HOWE & CO.

_owian STI 5 Y

/ eS
‘s$
;2
ee,

SS aTIONALY

hae

Art. I.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXIII.

NUMBER I.

P Page.
deteeeal and Mineralogical Account of the Mining Dis-
tricts in the State of Aoi eotens part of North
Carolina and of East a eueee cs with a map; by Hon.

Judge Jacop Prcx, - - - - - - 1

II. On the temperature and Saltness of the Waters of the
Ocean at different depths, - aie ees - - 10

Ill. Note on the Progressive Increase of Temperature be-
neath the surface of the Earth, - - - - 14

IV. Universal Terms—Disputes concerning them and their
Causes ; by Emma WiLLarp, - - - - - 18

V. On the action of the second surfaces of transparent plates
upon light; by Davip Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. - 28

VI. On Hail Storms; by A. Jones, M.D., of Augusta,
Georgia, - - - - - - - - 35
VII. Improvement in Field Surveying, - - - - 37

VIII. On the Origin, Extension and Gokennenee of Prairies ;
by Dr. Rusu Nurt, of Rodney, State of Mississippi, 40

IX. Observations on depriving Flowers of their Anthers, to
- produce Double Flowers; by E. T. Lerryer,. - 45

X. Miscellaneous Geological Topics relating to the lower

part of the vale of the Mississippi; by Dr. Rusu Nurv,
of Rodney, Mississippi, - - - - - 49

XI. Notice of an Ancient American Utensil; by Prof. Water
R. Jounson, - - - - - 65

XII. Remarks on the Seah of Cylindrical Steam Boilers ;
by Prof. Watrer R. Jonnson, - - - - 68

XII. A simplification of Dr. Wollaston’s Reflective Goniome-
ter; by R. Graves, Jr. Civil Engineer, - = - 5

XIV. List of the Plants of Chile; translated from the “ Mer-

curio Chileno,” by W. S. W. Ruscuenspercer, M. D.
U. S. Navy, Ee eae acuprvept cr oe kk 78

XV. Notice of a Fountain of Petroleum, called the Oil Spring.
—EpiTor, - - - - - - - - 97
XVI. Notice of Wood’s Inking Machine, - - - - 103

XVII.

Observations on Inclined Planes; by J. Tuomson, - 107

ley

iv CONTENTS.

XVIII. Notice of an improved instrument for Venous Injection,
-with a figure; by Dr. J. Mauran, of Providence, R. I.
XIX. Francis Huber.—Notice of his Life and Writings; by
A. P. De Canpottez, - - - - -
XX. On the Uses of Chlorides and hisses: s aby aA. Cuan
LIER, - - - - - - -
XXI. Action of Chloride of Lime on Alcohol; by M. E. Bee
BEIRAN, - - - - - -
XXII. Vegetable Physiology in relation to Rotation of Copp
by M. Macaire, - - - - - - -
XXIII. Facts in relation to several Remarkable Deaths attribu-
ted to.Hydrophobia, - - - - - -

MISCELLANIES—-FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC.

1. Museum of Gipron Mantetz, Esq. of Lewes, in Sussex, Eng.

2. British Association for the advancement of Science, -

3. Leipsic Fair, Autumn, 1831, - - - - -

CHEMISTRY. __

1. New Experiments in Caloric, performed by means of the
Thermo-multiplier, - = = aS :

2. New process for obtaining Morphine, - - -~ -

3. Action of Oils upon Oxygen gas, at the temperature of the
atmosphere, - > = - - - - -

4. On the injurious action of gases on Vegetation, - -

5. On the Distillation of Bread, - - fet -

6. Imitation Silver, - = < a eae = =

: GEOLQGY. :

Cuvier and Brongniart’s report on M. Deshayes’ ‘Tableau
comparatif des coquilles vivantes avec les fossiles des ter-
rains tertiaires de Europe,” - - - - -

NECROLOGY.

Batavia.——Count Charles Vidua le Gonzano, Ly gases

OTHER NOTICES.

1. Case of treatment by carded Cotton, - - - -

2, 3. Preservation against rust, dampness, &c.—Coating for the
preservation of Cordage, Leather and Wood, from the ef-
fects of moisture, - - = n= - - -

4. Economy of Sealing Wax, - - - - - -

5, 6,'7. Composition for mending crystals, glass, porcelain and
erockery—lIndelible Ink for marking Linen—How to boil
Potatoes, - - - - - - - -

‘Page.

114
117
129
134
13%
143
162

179
182

185
190

190
193
194
195

196

198

198

199
200

201

CONTENTS. Vv

Page.
8, 9, 10. How to boil Rice—Potatoe Cheese—Collecting swarms 3
of Bees, -- = - - - - - - 202
11. Trilobite, - . - - - 0 - - . - 203
DOMESTIC.
1. Fossil Shells of the Tertiary Formations of North America,
illustrated by figures drawn on stone, from nature, 204
2. Declination of the Magnetic Needle, - - - 205
3. Boring for Water, - - - - - - 206
4, 5. Alluvial deposits of the Mohawk—Detection of Cattle
Sublimate, - - - - - - - - 207
—@-—

NUMBER Il.

Arr. I. Experiments upon the Solidification of raw Gypsum; by
Joun P. Emner, Prof. of Chemistry in the Univ. of
Virginia, - - - - - - - 209

Il. The Practical Tourist, or sketches of the useful arts,
and of Society, Scenery, &c. &c. in Great Britain,
France and Holland. In two volumes; by Z. ALLEN,

Providence, R. I. 1832, — - - - - - ks
Ill. On the laws of the polarization of aoe by refraction ;

by Davin Brewster, LL. D. F.R.5. L. & E. - 225
IV. The Microscopic Compass; invented by Jonun Locke,

M. D., Principal of Cincinnati Female Academy, 237
V. Facts relating to Diluvial Action; by the Hon. Wm. A.

‘THOMPSON, - - - - - - - 243

VI. List of the Plants of Chile; translated from the ‘ Mer-
curio Chileno,” by W. 5S. W. Ruscuensercer, M. D.,

U.S. Navy, - - - - - - - 250
VII. On the Vitality of Toads enclose in Stone and Wood;
by the Rev. W. Bucxianp, F.R.S. F.L.S. F.G.S., and

Prof. of Geol. and Min. Univ. Oxford, - - 272

VIL. On the process of Memory; by Isaac Orr, - - 278
IX. Memoir on the Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere ;
_ by M. Brunner, Prof. of Chemistry at Berne. 'Trans-

lated for this Journal by Prof. Griscom, - - 280
X. Supplement to the “Synopsis of the Organic Remains
of the Ferruginous Sand Formation of the United
States,”’ contained in Vols. XVII and XVIII of this Jour-

nal; by S.G. Morron, M. D., &c. ~ - ~ 288
XI. Account of the Russian Vapor Bath ; by T. 5. Trait,
M. D. ne ag Mt So = eee 9295

Vi CONTENTS.

Page.

XII. Notice of a Cetaceous Animal supposed to be new to
the American coast; by Wixtiam Sampson, -
XII. Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier, -
XIV. Notices of American Steam Boats; by W. C. Repriexp,
of New York, - - - - - - -
XV. On the Economy of Fuel with reference to its domestic
applications; by Water R. Jonnson, Prof. of Mech.
and Nat. Phil., Franklin Institute, Philadelphia,
XVI. The Rattle Snake disarmed by the leaves of the White

Ash; by Judge Wooprvurr, - - 2 =
XVII. On some new Fossil and Recent Shells of the United
States; by 'T. A. Conran, - - 2 2

XVIII. Report on the Filter and Prepared Charcoal of M. Du-
mont; by Franxuiw R. Smiru, of Philadelphia, -

XIX. Notice of Prof. Olmsted’s Introduction to Natural Phi-
' Josophy, for the students in Yale College, -
XX. Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzueim, -- - -

MISCELLANIES.—FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC.

NECROLOGY.

1. Notice of the deaths of eminent men, - = s E
2. Sketches of the lives of Louis Simond and Charles-Victor
Bonstetten, - - - - : = 4

CHEMISTRY.

1. Combinations of carburetted hydrogen, - - -
2, 3. Separation of the protoxide from the oxide of iron—Nar-
ceine, a new substance discovered in opium, - -
4. Meconine, _ - - - - - - - -
5. Effects of the thermo-multiplicator, - - - -
6, 7. Oxygenated water—Two chlorides of sulphur, -
8, 9. Density of the vapor of sulphur and of phosphorus—Pres-
ervation of substances by means of alkalies, - -
10, 11. Crucible for fusion—Researches relative to the azote
formed in animal substances, - ~ - -
12. Process for silvering.copper so as to polish, - -
13, 14. Glass syphons for transferring corrosive fluids—Carbon-
ate of lime and its compounds, - - - -

GEOLOGY.

y New cave of bones, - - 2 = 2 s
. Notice of Prof. Hitchcock’s Report on the Geology of Massa-
chusetts, - - = 2 4 a ss f e

301
303

311

318

337

339

346

351
356

388

389

CONTENTS. Vil

ASTRONOMY AND MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Page.

1, 2. Biela’s comet—Observatory of Geneva, - - 390
3, 4, 5. Medal for discovery of Comets—Maximum density of
water—On the simultaneous motions of a pendulum and
the surrounding air, - - - - - - 391

AGRICULTURE AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY.

1. On the cultivation of beets and the manutactory of sugar, 392
2. Relative values of different kinds of food for sheep, - 393
DOMESTIC.

1. Professor Jacob Green’s Monograph of the Trilobites of

North America, with colored models of the species, 395
2. The Herbarium of the late Zaccheus Collins of Philadelphia, 398
3. The coal beds of Pennsylvania equivalent to the great secon-

dary coal measures of Europe, - - = - 399
4. Correction of an error in Prof. Green’s Monograph of North
American Trilobites; with additional explanations, 400
5. Caution addressed to manufacturers and venders of inflamma- |
ble substances, especially if volatile, - = - 401
6. The Cabinet of Natural History and American Rural Sports,
with illustrations, - - - 3 = - 402
7, 8. Manufacture of Telescopes, &c.—Phosphate of Lime in
Edenville, N. Y., - = Blea e st A403
9. Geological Map, Pista - - - - 404

10, 11, 12. Fossil Shells of the Tertiary Formations of the Uni-
ted States—Anthracite in Wrentham, Mass.—Comparison
of weights and measures of length and capacity, reported
to the Senate of the United States by the Treasury De-
partment in 1832, - - - - - - 405
13. Revised editions of Spurzheim’s Works, - - - 406

ERRATA.
Corrections and Alterations from copy.

Page 1,1.4 from top, for Wuaka, read Unaka, and so at the several places where
the word occurs.—p. 3, 1. 9 fr. top, for Waldeus, read Waldens ; 1. 15 fr. bottom, for
Withero, read Withero ; 1.10 fr. bottom, for strong, read stronger.—p. 4,1. 10 fr.
bottom, for view, read vein; 1. 5 fr. bottom, for Six, read Six’s.—p. 5, 1.7 fr. top, dele
and ; \. 27 fr. top, for this substance, read this latter substance.—p. 6,1. 11 fr. bot.
after smell, read of copperas ; 1. 8 fr. bot. for and thus, read had thus.—p. 7, 1. '7 fr.
bot. for is, read are ; 1. 5 fr. bot. insert a period after deep ; 1.3 fr. bot. erase the
period after Town, and insert it after Jaw ; 1. 2 fr. bot. erase the period after River,
and insert and.—p. 8,1. 11 fr. top, for veins are placed, read views are placid ; in
the note at bottom, for Cone, read Cane.—p. 10, 1.9 fr. top, for cave, read cove ; 1.
15 fr. top, for Chitteawee, read Chilhawee.—p. 177, 1.'7 fr. bot. for familiar, read
peculiar.—p. 191, 1. 13 fr. top, for observed, read absorbed.—p. 210, 1. 12 fr. top, af-
ter water, omit the , and.—p. 287, 1. 7 fr. top, after a, insert pocket.—p. 239, lines
2d and 5th fr. bot. for the degrees on the card, and the object, read the object and
the degrees on the card.—p. 240,1. 7 fr. top, for lens, read lines.—p. 241, 1. 13 fr.
bot. for several, read open.—p. 242, 1. 5 fr. top, for on, read one; |. 14 fr. top, after
described, read the reflector M should be one tenth of an inch wide ; 1. 17 fr. bot.
for screen, read screw; 1. 16 fr. bot. for PHP, read EP.—p. 244 1. I, for cellars, of,
read cellars, in.—p. 246, 1. 11 fr. top, for Hill, read Kill.—p. 248, 1. 7 fr. bot. for

Crawford, read Crawford's.

[c= The Editor was absent on a journey, when the abstract of the experiments,
p. 185 of this Vol., by MM. Nobili and Melloni, by the thermo-multiplier, was in-
serted; it was not observed, that a notice of these experiments had been already giv-

en in the preceding No., Vol. xxit, p. 370. :

' Vol. xx11, pp. 184 and 135. The expressions marked (8),- (9), (A), (B), (C),
should each be put = 0,

The following alteration, came to hand too late for insertion in the proper place.
This Vol. p. 397, 1.3 fr. top, and p. 398, 1. 1, for Myrmecoides, read Myrmecophorus.

THE

AMERICAN © ;
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

Arr. I.— Geological and Mineralogical Account of the Mining
Districts in the State of Georgia—western part of North Caro-
lina and of East Tennessee, with a map; by Hon. Judge Jacos
Prcx.

Tux most remarkable geological features presented in traversing
the country from Knoxville, on a line south-east through the mining
regions, are three principal ranges of mountains. ‘The first is the
Wuaka, more frequently called Smoky mountain. This eminence
is the line between North Carolina and Tennessee. The next is the
Coweta range ; and between thirty and forty miles in the same direc-
tion, the Blue ridge. ‘The first and second of these ranges are bro-
ken by the waters running into the Tennessee river, as they pass off
in a north and north-western direction. The Blue ridge divides the
waters emptying into the Ohio, and those passing directly south-east
into the Atlantic.

To these mountains there are subordinate hills and spurs of the
main ranges. Most of them have a general parallel direction con-
forming to the range of the main mountains.

It seems to me that nothing will strike the inquirer into the geolo-
gy of this section, as more impressive or worthy of remark, than this
general parallelism of the principal mountains, and of the strata which
accompany, and may be said to form them.

The range runs north-east and south-west, and although deviations
are observable ; still, in the main direction, the feature is distinct and
not to be overlooked.

The principal mountains are of considerable elevation. Some ad-
measurements have been made to ascertain the height of Smoky
mountain and the Blue ridge; but I am not apprised of any obser-

_ vations which may be relied upon as fixing the probable medium el-
Vol. XXIII.—No. 1. 1

2 Gold Region of Georgia,

evation. Professor Troost, who has explored part of Smoky or the
Wuaka range, comparing it with other mountains he has visited, the
altitude of which has been ascertained, believes this mountain may be
safely stated at four thousand feet above the level of the sea. The
Blue ridge is still more elevated ; though the approach to this eleva-
tion is so gradual at most of the places where the road passes, that
we might at first doubt of its having a superior elevation. ‘The very
great fall of the waters having their source in the Blue ridge to the
point where the Wuaka is broken down by their current, and also
views taken from midway elevations between those mountains are
satisfactory to prove the superior elevation of the range dividing the
waters. :

Smoky mountain separates the transition from the primitive for-
mation. This may however not be uniformly true; in Washing-
ton county, the primitive is found at one place on the north-west
side, and some of the graywackes may be found in places south-
east ; still without descending to minutie, the mountain, may well
serve for this boundary.

From the Chilhowee mountain, which ranges north-west of the
Wuaka, and about twelve miles from it, until one has passed over the
Blue Ridge in Georgia, there is presented a series of mountains.
The larger streams winding amongst them afford narrow bottoms,
and with the exception of three or four small vallies at the heads of
the large streams next the Blue ridge, the country may be said to
be almost uninhabitable ; each side of the Wuaka mountain presents
nature in her most romantic aspect—

s* Alps on Alps arise !—”

He who delights in the wild and picturesque will have. before him
an ample field. ‘To me it seemed strange that so little had been
known of this section, where each remove and change of position al-
ways presented something new and charming to the naturalist.
Streams, waterfalls, towering cliffs, peaks and hills of every degree
of acclivity, as we ascend the mountain; these features present a
pleasing and striking assemblage of the beautiful and sublime. ‘The
field for the painter is infinite. I might dwell upon trees, plants,
flowers, animals and reptiles, but my business is with the rocks.

The natural division of the country between Chilhowee and the
Yeona range gives three separate sections; one in Tennessee, one
in western North Carolina, and the other east of the Blue ridge in

North Carolina and Tennessee. 3

Georgia. A remarkable chain of mountains lies along the course of
the heads of Frenchbroad. Some of the highest peaks in this chain
have been described in the American Journal of Science. At the
other extremity of the bounds I have allotted myself, the parallel
position of mountain ranges is in some measure lost. The Blue
ridge and the Wuaka approach each other and form jointly the sep-
aration of the eastern from the western waters. As this new formed
range continues west, another range not less formidable. approaches
from the north, Waldeus ridge and Cumberland mountain; these
unite themselves with the former, and this union takes the name of
the Lookout mountain. At this point of intersection, where the un-
ion of immense mountains on either side once formed a barrier to
the streams which flowed from fifty thousand square miles of coun-
try ; the evidence at this place of the war of elements is the admira-
tion of all who pass the broken mountain, through the suck and boil-
ing chaldron, near the confines of the state of Tennessee. The pow-
er that gave such magic to the scene at Harper’s ferry, had operated
here also; and while the trident made in the one. place, a passage
for the slippery element to the east; another stroke at one thousand
miles distance, cleared a passage for the same element to the west,
equally romantic and not less sublime.

Leaving for the present further delineations in outline, let us turn
to the section in Georgia, east of the Blue ridge. ‘The discovery of
gold in Habersham county has been so recent, not more than two years
since, that but little has been done to develop the metals concealed
there. A gentleman of the name of Wilhero, made researches by
comparing the face of the country and appearance of the branches and
streams with the gold section in North Carolina, and found deposits of
gold through Habersham and Hall counties, and then discovery follow-
ed discovery. In the Cherokee nation which was separated by the
Chestetee river, the indications of gold were not strong, but research
caused it to be proclaimed richer than any part of the region hitherto
explored. The nation was intruded on asa common, and for a time,
not less than five thousand adventurers dug up the face of the coun-
try ; rich, as it certainly was, it is questionable whether the counties
spoken of were not equally so; the lands in the latter being private
property, were not overrun as was the nation ; and all the hands em-
ployed in collecting gold on the lands granted, amounted, it is be-
lieved, to not more than one thousand ; the owners of the land were
many of them poor and destitute of enterprise. With the exception

4 Gold Region of Georgia,

of a few deposits, the most valuable tracts were sold to speculating
adventurers ; many of these have frequently changed owners at en-
hanced prices; a few companies, not exceeding four, have eom-
menced regular operations with a view to gold.

In a few instances, in the vicinity of rich deposits, veins had been
discovered and opened, but more skill has pointed out other indica-
tions of gold veins; they are founded principally upon the fact that
every branch contains gold arising evidently from the disintegration
of veins. The veins in this country must be numerous; and it has
been remarked by mivers from Spanish America, that until they op-
erated in North Carolina and Georgia, they had not been enabled to
find veins at the surface; one cause of the hazard in mining for
gold in Mexico, is said to be the absence of the indications so abund-
ant here. While the Georgian finds the vein with the gold visible
at the surface, the Mexican miner at the base of a mountain searches
for a slate, (the talcose,) and when found, he drives in a tunnel with
the hope of striking a gold vein traversing its bed. Perhaps other
striking differences may have been produced by the volcanic action
in Mexico, breaking, distorting, or forever concealing the vein, while
in Georgia no such agent has operated. Here the veins have a reg-
ularity, a uniformity of position wholly inconsistent with the supposition
of fire having been the agent in giving laws to the veins and strata of
the country which I have examined. This I speak with due defer-
ence to the friends of the god of fire. ‘lo prove Vulcan the agent,
his advocates must draw distinctions between his manner of working
where his fires have been long extinct, and where at present he
heaves to the skies his confused masses; and to escape lashings for
my infidelity, I will not venture to give all the credit to Neptune, al-
though he has left more visible marks than any which may be placed
to the credit of the former. .

A view of hornblende slate, (diabase,) passing throughout the gold
region of Georgia, though it produces little or no elevation of the
surface is remarked by every gold hunter; it occupies a middle
space between the Yeona and Horse range mountains. It is used as
an index to the gold country, and has been traced from Alabama,
through the Cherokee country near the Six, passing Cane creek,
the corner of Hall county through Habersham and Rayburn, into
the Blue ridge, ina direction to reach the gold works in Burke coun-
ty, North Carolina. ‘The general course is between north 35° and
40° east. For miles on both sides of this vein has been found the

North Carolina and Tennessee. 5

greatest abundance of gold; most of the veins opened, are near and
lie parallel to it; thus have been discovered the finest deposits.

At some distance on either side, the granite rears its wedge like
top in lines generally parallel. This rock, by disintegration, is usual-
ly rounded off. Gneiss and mica slate are common ; these alternate
with diabase. Veins of talcose slate, hornblende, garnet, quartz,
euphotide, imperfect soapstone, and with veins and beds of kaolin.
Most, if not all these lie in parallels, (to use the workmen’s phrase,)
like the leaves of a book ; their relative position I was not enabled
satisfactorily to fix. The strata are generally vertical, though
when a dip is observed, it is to the north-west toward the base of the
Blue ridge.

When it is in veins, more gold has been found in quartz rock than
in any other substance. ‘The vein of quartz may be found at the
surface, usually running with the talcose slate, and sometimes with
that slate passing into mica slate. Very frequently it is associated
with hepatic pyrites, often greatly decomposed, (particularly at the
surface.) Such is the quantity of iron in some veins, that it would
seem to be the gangue ; but much as it may predominate, still a por-
tion of quartz is present ; and the same remark applies to the talcose
slate where it is found to contain gold; there is always a portion of
quartz associated with it; usually it is granular, and disseminated with
the gold; and with this rock there is less of the pyrites, and if any,
the cubes are small.

Gold is found in veins of quartz, running with greenstone, passing
into chlorite ; often the quartz is diffused and splintery, with a trace of
iron and kaolin; but in general this substance is in the wall of the
vein on one side. Some of the best deposits seem to have had their
supplies from such sources. Loud’s and Hughes’s deposits may be
placed to this latter class of veins. ‘They are rich; the gold is in
large and rough pieces, holding in its filaments and thin plates, por-
tions of finely granular quartz. I did not see any vein of this char-
acter so far opened as to develop a satisfactory view of its associa-
tion; one, in which the writer had an interest, contained much gold,
but it was hard to penetrate the gangue, and for the first ten or twelve
feet, was found in confusion : my opinion is, that should these veins
in the descent become ochery, they might be easily worked.

Humphrey’s vein on the Chatahoochy, was quartz, walled with
talcose slate. ‘The masses of quartz containing the gold were reni-
form ; it is rich ; it ‘had not been opened to the water. At the base

6 Gold Region of Georgia,

of the hill, where the stream had laid bare the formation, the horn-
blende slate crops out, affording evidence that the talcose slate rests
upon it. ‘This I have remarked in many places, as well where dig-
ging has made the disclosure, as where the streams have broken the
hills. A Mr. Lyon has opened at least two veins exemplifyiug this
position ; and Loud’s vein is another example. The end of the
Horse range mountain, broken down by Duke’s creek, gives still fur-
ther proof of the superposition of the talcose slate, upon the diabase,
the gneiss and mica slate.

While penetrating the talcose slate, the veins of quartz are seldom
found in situ; reaching the diabase in the descent, the vein is usual-
ly larger and richer in gold. This rock, the base of the talcose
slate being compact, holds the water above it; it doubtless rests up-
on gneiss or granite. If it be true, as some suppose, that the depth
of veins is somewhat proportionate to their length, we may in this
country anticipate very deep mining before veins are exhausted or
wedged out. -

Before I quit the subject of the gold veins of Habersham, I will
mention one differing in structure from those treated of ; it is on the
Tesantee ; the wall is talcose slate ; next the vein it is a protogene or
talcose slate, passing into mica slate with quartz. The center of the
vein contained quartzose blocks, or thin flag, lying parallel to the wall ;
the whole was very dark and ferruginous, and full of gold finely dif-
fused through it: the walland vein could be separated in thin pieces,
and was easily reduced, [broken ?]

The variety observable in the veins of Georgia, consisted. more in
the form in which the substances were associated, than in the sub-
stances themselves. ‘The black crust observable on the rock taken
out near the surface, could best be accounted for by examining one
of the veins opened below the water. At Loud’s, a strong smell was
given off as soon as the rock was exposed to the air ; this arose from
decomposing pyrites, the ore containing this substance in its own
gangue, and thus produced the black stain and apparent scorie, sup-
posed by the diggers to have some resemblance to lava or cinders ;
and it is attributable to this mineral that the stain on the boulders is
produced in branches, and the smaller pebbles are conglomerated to-
gether by this ferruginous matter.

Of the other metals, and of the crystals of this region, I can say
little : there is iron and oxide of titanium in great abundance ; also,
copper pyrites in Rayburn; of these the specimens shown me were

North Carolina and Tennessee. 7

beautiful ; its locality was kept a secret, but it was said to be abun-
‘dant. ‘There is lead on the head of Mill creek, Habersham. 'The
specimens of the ore furnished to me were in cubical crystals. ‘There
is a report of mercury taken out of deposits with gold at places where
mercury had not been used in the stream by the washers. I had no
ocular proof of the fact, but must rely upon the information of re-
spectable gentlemen, who affirmed their knowledge of its existence.
Silver is associated with the gold at New Potosi, on the Chistitee.
Garnet, tourmaline, small staurotides, prismatic quartz, zircon, &c.,
and varieties of pyrites, are also found.

I shall enter into no speculations on the probable results to the
community from the new pursuit of mining. So far as it may be seen.
in Georgia, I will not anticipate an unfavorable issue to adventurers,
or to the country; in a country where monopolies are unknown,
every new enterprise is likely to be carried by some beyond the point
of discretion; and where sobriety and education are both upon the
advance, I may hope that the profligacy which has been the bane of
society in other mining countries, will not find place, or at least take
deep root inthis. The section described is immensely rich in met-
als, and the wise will no doubt turn this gift of providence into a
blessing ; the country has as fine water and air as is drunk or breath-
ed in the world, and there is much good land.

I now pass from Georgia over the Blue ridge, into the western
parts of North Carolina. This mining section is mostly in the Cher-
okee country. 1 will not pretend to enumerate all the places where
gold has been found. Immediately bordering on the north-west side
of the Blue ridge, there are fine table lands; the country is high,
and a northern exposure renders it cold, and the season short for the
latitude. ‘Twelve miles out of the valley, in Habersham, over the
ridge to the head of the western waters, makes a change equal to
several degrees of latitude, arising from the eastern declivity meeting
the sun’s rays, and having the western winds broken off by the moun-
tain. ‘These lands are formed by the disintegration of hills of the
Blue ridge; the rocks and base of the formation is much covered
up; where the surface is so formed, it would be natural to suppose
that gold in deposit would lie deep in these western parts, situate
in Georgia, which includes the upper waters of *Highwassa and
Brass Town. The digging for gold is forbidden by law on the Nan-
tiale, Valley River. On the head waters of Little Tennessee and
the Tuckasage, all in North Carolina, gold has been found ; how far,

8 Gold Region of Georgia,

in general, it may be called a country rich in that metal, I will not
pretend to say. ‘The whole region is like Habersham, primitive,
and the rock and ferruginous hue of the soil are the same; being alike
in geology, and but little as yet developed, I would not pronounce it
less interesting ; in extent, it surpasses the region described in Geor-
gia.

Vatiry River, if viewed in any respect, is very interesting.
The scenery is picturesque beyond description. ‘The talcose slate
predominating in the hills, leaves them barren of timber, but clothed
with grass, rounded off and destitute of those bold cliffs, so com-
mon in the smoky mountain ranges; the veins are placed, with re-
mote mountains in the back ground, which ever way the view is
taken.

But to the rocks again. The formation in which the gold is found
differs from any thing I had before seen. It is a protogene mica slate,
passing into talcose slate, holding within its masses the largest stauro-
tides, many of these crystals are of the size of a man’s wrist,* most dis-
tinctly crossed and interwoven and of every size, from that of a straw
up to several inches in diameter. ‘The slate rock which I now men-
tion breaks up into rhomboidal portions. ‘The quartz isin great mass-
es, very compact and of a yellow hue, the gold is large and I con-
fess I could not fix its gangue; much deposit gold is found in the
bottom of the river. Every part of the valley did not present like ap-
pearances. ‘There were ferruginous spots of deposit, where the gold
was abundant and in fine particles, but the value of it was depressed
by an alledged alloy ; one of the localities where it was thus found
gave signs of much labor having been performed. An Indian oc-
cupied and claimed the spot.

In this vicinity are the remains of ancient works; many shafts have
been sunk, and (judging from the masses thrown up) to great depths ;
one of those was through quartz rock. About thirty feet of it in
depth lay open to the view ; there is also a deep and difficult cut cross-
ing a very bold vein of quartz, it is much filled up having been used
for an Indian burying place. Not far from this work of art where
nothing short of the steel pick, could have left the traces found, are
the remains of a small furnace; the walls had been of soapstone ;
outof the inner wall I broke off cinders. In connexion with these

* Staurotides are found with the gold, in Cone creek.

North Carolina and Tennessee. 9

remains of art found here, I will mention some relics discovered
in Habersham. From Richardson’s deposit, not far from Yeona
mountain, there were taken out of the washed mass hundreds of
Gun flints, perfect and beautifully fashioned ; they are very large,
and Dr. Troost says of French manufacture ; I presented him one for
his museum. — Lately out of another deposit a small vessel in form
of a skillet, was dug up at the depth of fifteen feet. It is a com-
pound of tin and copper with a trace of iron, and this it is said-by
the‘assayer Dr. ‘Troost, is an evidence of its antiquity. A stone
wall remains on the top of Yeona mountain ; it exhibits the angles
of a fortification, and guards the only accessible points of ascent
to the top. ‘Timbers in the Cherokee Country bearing marks of
the axe have been taken up at the depth of ten feet below the sur-
face. Indian tradition reaches none of these remains. I leave
them to the antiquarian.

In the order of my return to Smoky mountain from Valley River,
a passing notice of the prospect of mines on Nauteale and ‘Tennessee,
above the mountain must not be omitted. Both these streams and
their lower branches contain gold. At Wealch’s below the mouth of
the Tuchasage there is much deposit gold, of which I procured some
very fine specimens. ‘The rock formation in this section, is a fine
grained gneiss, mica slate and an indurated talcose slate mixed with
quartz and garnet, with small cubic iron.

Between the Smoky mountain and Blue ridge, and its transverse
from the upper waters of the French bread to the Lookout mountain,
containing five thousand square miles, there is a field presented to
the mineralogist not perhaps equalled for extent and interest in the
United States. The whole range of Smoky mountain is interesting ;
as before remarked it is the line between the primitive and transi-
tion, its acclivity is very steep, and its top extremely narrow. Quartz,
talcose slate and greywacke are the principal rocks. Gold has been
taken-out of all the streams descending from it, on either side. Dr,
Troost has explored a portion of it, thirty miles, and so far as he has
examined, pronounces ita gold region. ‘The formation on the 'Ten-
nessee side being different, [ cannot hazard an opinion whether it
will yield other valuable metals, besides gold. Iron ore in many of
its varieties, titanium and native silver with the gold washed out at
Coco creek, may be taken as favorable indications. ‘The rocks of

this mountain are unlike those of the Blue ridge. ‘That mountain
Vou. XXIII.—No. 1. 2

10 On the Temperature and Saltness of

is gneiss, with few veins of quartz, but Smoky mountain contains
immense masses of quartz rock, and where the quartz does not pre-
dominate, the graywacke takes its place. Where the spurs and
belts of this mountain have been broken away, veins of quartz run-
ning with the talcose slate are observable. Here, as in Georgia,
gold has been found in quartz rock out of place, but no vein has
been opened. Coco creek is a very rich deposit, but as yet few
deposits have been opened or washed. In Washington county near
this mountain, an interesting cave produces out of the same bank,
iron, lead, zinc and copper, but the mine has not been explored to
any considerable depth. ‘That science and enterprise should not
have been awakened, to explore this whole region, may well bea
matter of some surprise; mining however, is but just begun, and
countries thought to be richer, have called off adventurers.

Leaving the auriferous regions, we reach the Chitteawee range of
mountains ; here roofing slate of a superior quality may be - traced
for fifty miles. Marbles of many and very beautiful varieties are
traced parallel to the strata, which, as we observed through our ex-
cursions, have never lost their position. We have next the gray-
wacke slate, and with it the red sandstone formation ; lead, in a line
parallel with the range of mountains, may be traced from Washing-
ton county into the Highwassa district.

Conscious that my sketch must be imperfect, ! with diffidence,
resign it into the hands of more scientific observers, with the ear-
nest hope, that while it awakens curiosity, it may call into the field
those who have more time and superior means for investigation.

Arr. Il.—On the temperature and Saltness of the Waters of the
Ocean at different depths.

From the Edinburgh Journal of Science for April, 18382.

M. Lenz, naturalist to the expedition of Kotzebue, made a series
of well conducted experiments on the temperature and saltness of
the ocean in different latitudes and at various depths. ‘The instru-
ment he employed for ascertaining the temperatures was an improve-
ment upon that of Hales, being a large cylinder closed at both ends
by valves opening inwards, to one of which was attached a thermom-

the Ocean at Different Depths. 11

eter, and surrounded by a highly non-eonducting substance.—The
results are contained in the following table :-—

Ti of a PLACES. Depth i TEMPERATURE.
ime or opserva- ep LO aaa ao Tek ea
tion. Lenz. |Lat.w.| Lon. w.| toises.* me SES yi hese
hi lls gy lem lee ang ag TG Eat ue Py
1]1823.| Oct. 10, | Atlant. Oc.) 7°21!) 21° 59/ 539 25°,80C. 2°20
2)1824.) May 18, | South Sea. |21 14/196 1 140,7 26,40 16,36
3 “ce 6c 6c 6G cc 413,0 ce 3,18
4| « Malco ce “6 «6 665,1 3 2,92
5| «s ce cs ce “ce 914,9 ce 2,44
6|1825.' Feb. 8, s6 25 61155 58 167 21,50 14,00
Ices SANT OT res Ll, ‘ 32 6/136 48 89,8 21,45 13,35
g|. ss 6c 6c ec 6c 214,0 ‘6 6,51
g| <« 6c ce 6c “cc 450,2 ccs 3,75
10 ce 66 cc ce 6c 592.6 6c 2,21
11|1826.| Mar. 6, | Atlant. Oc. |32 20] 42 30] 1014.8 20,86 2,24
12|1825.| Aug. 24,| South Sea. |41 12/141 58 205,0 19,20 5,16
13] « ' 66 6c ce 6c 512,1 66 2,14
14|1826.| Mar. 24,| Atlant. Oc. |45 53] 15 17 197,7 14,64 10,36
115) «6 66 66 “ce ce 396,4 ce 9,95

From this table the following conclusions may be drawn :

1. Between the equator and 45° the temperature of the ocean
decreases regularly to the depth of a thousand fathoms,—beyond
this no experiments have been made.

2. The decrease of temperature is at first rapid, it gradually de-
creases, and becomes at last insensible.

3. The point where the decrease becomes insensible appears to
rise with the latitude. At 41° and 31° it is between two hundred
and three hundred fathoms, at 21° it is near four hundred. To this
remark there appears to be a slight exception at 45° 53’, when the
temperature at four hundred fathoms is still at 10° C. but perhaps
that observation is modified by the proximity of the land, since it
was made in the Atlantic Ocean only 15° W. from Greenwich, and
consequently near the coast of Europe, while the others were made
in the south sea far from any continent; but even in this case the
point where the decrease of temperature becomes insensible is still
evidently near two hundred fathoms.

4. The lowest temperature observed is2.2° C (36° F.) and it
is perhaps that of all the depths at which the decrease is insensible.
The locality of that temperature rises with the latitude ; and it would
be interesting to know at what latitude it reaches the surface.

The results of M. Lenz, in regard to the saltness of the sea, have
been deduced from its specific gravity. It had previously been

* A toise = 1.066 English fathoms.

12 On the Temperature and Saltness of

shown by M. Ermann that salt water having a specific gravity of 1.027,
the mean of that of the sea, diminishes in bulk gradually down to
25° F., and does not reach its maximum density before congelation.
M. Ermann’s experiments on this contraction extended from 59° F.
to 25°, M. Lenz extended them up to 86°, and thence deduced a
law for reducing the specific gravity at any one temperature to what
it would be at any other. The following table exhibits the specific
gravity corrected to the temperature of 63.5° F., distilled water at
that temperature being reckoned unity.

| Depth in] SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

toises. At surface.| Beneath. Difference.

No.| Lat. N. Lon. E.

1 | 7°20°| 21°59’! 539,0| 1,02574 | {,02645 | —0,00070
2|21 14 |196 1 | 665,1|1,02701 | 1,02666 | +0,00035
« «“ “é 929.4, « 1,02659 | +0,00042
3125 6 | 156 58 | 167,0|1,02706 | 1,02674 | +0,00032
4|41 12 | 141 58 | 205,0| 1,02562 | 1,02609 | —0,00047
a “6 512,1 « 1,02658 | —0,00096
5 | 32 6 | 136 48 | 214,0| 1,02678 | 1,02624 | +0,00054
“ « — &@ | 450,2 e 1,02651 | +0,00027
a « 592,.6| 1,02629 | +0,00049
6 | 32 20 | 42 30 | 1014,7! 1,02825 | 1,02714 | +0,00111
7|45 53 |15 17 | 396,4|1,02738 | 1,02732 | +0,00006

From this table we see that in the experiments No. 1 and 4 the
specific gravity of sea water towards the bottom is a little greater
than at the surface, but that the contrary holds in Nos. 2, 3, and 5.
In experiment 7 the specific gravity of the surface differs so little
from that of the bottom that we may consider them as equal. For
the first two cases we may suppose that a rapid evaporation had at
that time determined the slight increase of density at the surface, as
abundant rains may have diminished it in experiments 2, 3, and 5.
It is remarkable that inthe same place the spevific gravities are al-
most exactly the same for different depths, if we except that of the
surface. No. 6 alone offers a striking exception, giving at the depth
of a thousand fathoms a specific gravity much less than at the sur-
face. We cannot suppose this difference to be due to an error of
observation, the specific gravity at the bottom being the mean of
three observations agreeing with each other, and that of the surface
corresponding with the observations of the day before and the day
after. The irregularity may perhaps be due to a current of colder
and less salt water flowing at the bottom from the pole to the equa-
tor,—a point, however, which can be determined only by repeated

the Ocean at Different Depths. 13

observations. Leaving out this latter observation, we may conclude
that from the equator to 45° N. lat. the water of the sea to the depth
of one thousand fathoms possesses the same degree of saltness.

M. Lenz gives also two tables exhibiting the results of 258 ob-
servations made on the saltness of the sea at the surface, 105 of them
made in the Atlantic Ocean, between 56° 41’ S., and 50° 25/ N. lat.,
and 153 in the South Sea and Indian Ocean, between 57° 27’ S. and
56° 22’ N. Lat. From these tables he deduces the following re-
sults :—

1. The Atlantic Ocean is salter than the South Sea; and the In-
dian Ocean, being the transition from the one to the other, is salter
towards the Atlantic on the west than towards the South Sea on
the east.

2. Ineach of these great oceans there exists a maximum of saltness
towards the north, and another towards the south,—the first is far-
ther from the equator than the second. ‘The minimum between
these two points is a few degrees south of the equator in the Atlan-
tic Ocean, and probably also in the South Sea, though Mr. Lenz’s ob-
servations do not extend to latitudes sufficiently low in the South Sea.

3. In the Atlantic Ocean the western portion is more salt than
the eastern,—in the South Sea the saltness does not appear to differ
with the longitude.

4. The greatest specific gravity is found in the Atlantic at the
maximum point above alluded to, at 40° W. Long—1.02856.

In the South Sea at 11° 9/ = 1.028084.

This last is the only one in the South Sea giving a specific gravity
reaching 1.028.

5. In going north from the northern maximum, and south from
the southern maximum, the specific gravity diminishes constantly as
the latitude increases.

Whence then, says M. Lenz, come these maxima towards the
north and south, why is the maximum not rather at the equator? 'To
answer this question, we must inquire what cliefly determines the
saltness of the surface. Evaporation exercises the greatest influence,
and by this evaporation the occurrence of these maxima may be
explained. In fact, evaporation is influenced both by the heat of the
sun, and by the more or less rapid motion of the currents of air. The
solar heat is greatest on the equator, but there, on the other hand,
the motion of the air is least. It is remarkable that in the Atlantic
Ocean the minimum coincides precisely with the locality of almost con-

14 On the Progressive Increase of Temperature

stant calms. The vapors raised by the heat of the sun remain suspen-
ded above the surface of the water, and prevent farther evaporation.
The sea loses thus less of its aqueous particles, and it is consequently
less salt than at 12° N. and 18° S. Lat. In-these regions the trade
winds carry off immediately the vapors formed by the solar heat,
which is here little less than at the equator, and give place to other
vapors which rise immediately.. In this way evaporation proceeds,
and the saltness increases rapidly. ‘This consideration would explain
also the greater saltness of the western part of the Atlantic Ocean,
for we know that the more we approach the coasts of Africa, the
more frequent and more continued are the calms. In the South Sea,
great calms are not experienced towards the east, and hence the lon-
gitude has no influence on the saltness of its waters.

Arr. II1].—WNote on the Progressive Increase of Temperature as we
descend beneath the surface of the Earth.

From the Edinburgh Journal of Science for Apu: 1852.

Ir is long since the attention of scientific men was first directed
to the observation of the high temperatures of mines, and the natural
inference it appears to suggest. ‘The deeper the mine, the higher
in general is the temperature; and data have been carefully collect-
ed, and an expression deduced from them, of the rate at which the
temperature increases as we descend from the surface into the bowels
of the earth. ‘The mean rate of increase, calculated from experi-
ments made in six of the deepest coal mines in Durham and Northum-
berland, is 1° F. for a descent of forty four English feet. Cordier
found it in some French mines to increase more rapidly ; and the
latest and apparently most carefully deduced result, that of Kupffer,*
makes the temperature to increase 1° for every 36.81 English feet.

But objections of various kinds have been made to this result.
Some have even refused to believe that the high temperature of
mines indicates any increase of heat in the centre of the earth. ‘They
have affected to discover in the presence of many workmen,—in the
candles burned,—in the gunpowder frequently employed for blasting,
—and more lately} in the condensation of the air constantly rushing

* Pog. An. xv. p. 159. t Edin. Review, No. ciii.

beneath the surface of the Earth. 15

from the surface, sources of heat amply sufficient to raise the air and
water to the temperature they are found to possess at great depths.
These objections have been severally and satisfactorily answered, and
the last and most ingenious of them has been ably refuted by Mr.
Fox,* who has shown, that in the Cornish mines the ascending has
generally a higher temperature than the descending currents. 'The
difference varied from 9° to 17°, showing that, instead of imparting
heat, the currents of air actually carry off a large quantity of heat
from the interior of the mines.

It has been objected also to the doctrine of a central fire, that we
perceive no traces of increase of temperature in the ocean at great
depths. Now, in the consideration of this point, two principles are
involved, first, that to which Mr. Fox has adverted, that the strata at
the bottom of the ocean, were they composed of solid rock the most
favorable for transmitting heat, would yet propagate it much more
slowly than the water which covers it, and thus:all accumulation must
necessarily be prevented; second, the principle of the maximum
density of water.

All the observations hitherto made on masses of fresh water show,
that at great depthst the temperature differs only a very few degrees
from the point of maximum density. At greater depths it will prob-
ably be found to be very near that point. The latest experiments
make the maximum density of pure water at about 38.75°, while those
of Hallstrom make it, 39.38°. If the water be impure the point of
maximum density will fall more or less, according to the nature and
amount of the foreign bodies it may hold in solution. The experi-
ments of Ermann show that the point of greatest density sinks very
rapidly as we add any saline ingredient.

Now, as the heaviest parts of any fluid will always find their way
to the bottom, the deeper we descend in a mass of water, either salt
or fresh, we must find it the colder until we come to the limit of
greatest density. In fresh water lakes of great depth the tempera-
ture of the water will decrease as we descend till we reach the limit
of 39° Fah. when the temperature will undergo no farther change.
In salt water the point of maximum density increases with its saltness
towards the poles,t so that the depth at which the temperature be-

~* Phil. Mag. and An. Feb. 1830.
t At 1000 feet Saussure found the lake of Geneva to have a temperature of 42° F.
t See this Number, page 11.

?
16 On the Progressive Increase of Temperature

comes stationary at about 36° Fah. varies from two hundred to five
hundred fathoms. Below this there is probably no change of tempe-
rature.. M. Lenz found it to sink no lower as far down as one thou-
sand fathoms; but we can expect no increase of temperature without
a complete subversion of the law of nature, by which a maximum
of density is imparted to water.

It would appear, then, that the evidence at present is decidedly in
favor of a great central heat in the globe, even leaving out of consid-
eration the easy explanation it afiords of so many geological phenom-
ena. Buta new source of evidence has lately been opened, and one
much less liable to objections than the high temperature of mines,—
in the borings for water lately practised to such an extent in France
and Germany.

It was an important observation of Mr. Fox, that ih water which
gushed out from springs at the bottom of the Cornish mines had al-
ready the temperature of the air in the places where it appeared, and
was completely convincing as to the source of the heat so long observ-
ed. ‘The Artesian springs of the continent confirm his observation.
In general, the water which flows from them is of a higher tempera-
ture than the mean of the earth at the place, and is warmer as its
source is deeper. At Vienna forty or fifty have been formed, and
the water of all has a temperature varying from 52° to 58°, the
mean temperature, according to Humboldt, being 50.54° F. At
Heilbronn in Wurtemberg,. five borings sunk to supply a paper mill
to the depth of from sixty to one hundred and twelve feet, deliver
water having a temperature of about 55°; and the proprietor has
taken advantage of it to warm his works in the winter, and succeed-
ed in keeping the apartments at a temperature of 46° when that of
the air was 25° below zero of Fah.

There are, however, many exceptions and anomalies which are
not to be wondered at, when we consider, that, from the inclination
of the strata and other causes, the depth of the boring is no sure in-
dication of the true level from which the water comes. - It is only
when we are sure beforehand of the nature of the strata, that we can
come to correct conclusions in regard to the true temperature of the
earth at any given depth.

One of the most interesting of the exceptions we have met with,
and which illustrates best the nature of the anomalies we may expect
to meet with, is the case of a tube of three inches and a quarter in
diameter, sunk to the depth of three hundred and thirty five feet at

beneath the surface of the Earth. 17

the city of Tours in the basin of the Loire.* The spring ceasing
‘to flow so freely, it became necessary to draw out the tube to within
twelve feet of the surface. Immediately the water gushed out one
third more plentifully, and continued so for several hours, carrying
with it a large quantity of fine sand, and many remains of plants and
shells. Among these were twigs of several inches in length blacken-
ed by the action of the water; fresh stems and roots of marsh plants,
—of one species in particular so fresh, that they could not have lain
more than three or four months in the water ; seeds of five or six dif-
ferent species; and fresh water and land aie (Planorbis. margi-
natus, Helix rotundata and striata.) All these are such remains as
are found after a flood on the banks of small streams.

The water in this remarkable case, therefore, must proceed from
some subterranean stream, the source of which is to be sought for at
a distance among the higher grounds of Auvergne and Vivarais, and
from the temperature of such sources, it is evident we can infer
nothing regarding the interor temperature of the earth.

M. Magnus} has made some observations on the temperature of a
boring at Rudensdorf, about five German miles from Berlin, which
seem entitled to some confidence. It passes through limestone, gyp-
sum, and sandstone, alternating with clay-slate, to a depth of sixty five
English feet. ‘The mean temperature of the place on which no ex-
periments have been made is assumed to differ very little from that of
Berlin, 49.1° F., and the results are as follows :

Temper. i Diff. from mean. For 1° F.

At 675 feet 67.66 18.56 36.3 feet.
516 63.95 + 14.85 B47
392 62.82 13.72 MP ier

The first of these results is the only one to which we can look for
any approximation to the truth. And it comes very near 36.81, the
result of Kupffer. The other determinations, however, are not with-
out their value, they all indicate a more rapid increase of temperature
than the truth, as we should naturally expect. For though the water
‘as it gushes from the bottom of the tube must undergo considerable
cooling on its way to the surface, yet it must still retain a considerable
excess over the temperature of the strata through which it passes, and
thus indicate a less distance for each degree of the thermometer, as

* Poge. Ann. xxi. p. 353. | Pog. Ann. xxii. p. 146.
Vou. XXITI.—No. 1. 3

18 Universal Terms.

in the results above quoted. ‘The same fact is also evident from the
high temperature of many of these springs when they reach the surface.
M. Magnus has prefaced his paper with an account of a very inge-
nious maximum thermometer, with which it is highly desirable that
frequent observations should be made in favorable circumstances,
where borings to great depths are effected. J.

Art. 1V.—Universal Terms—Disputes cowcerning them and their
Causes; by Emma Wituarp.

A curious and knotty question in metaphysics is still pending,
which has been in discussion more than two thousand years. Among
its disputants were numbered. the master spirits of the ancient world,
Plato, Aristotle, and Zeno. The controversy slumbered during the
dark ages, but revived with the first dawn of light which broke their
gloom ; and not only mustered the philosophical talents of Roscel-
linus, Peter Abelard and William Occum, but the regal power of the
sovereigns of France and Germany; and blood was shed and accu-
sations bandied of the unpardonable sin against the Holy Ghost.

We are astonished that a simple question of fact concerning the
philosophy of the human mind should have been thus keenly dispu-
ted in former days; and still more so, when we find, that notwith-
standing all the light of modern philosophy, it is this very point which
is more warmly contested than any other, by the first metaphysicians
of our own times, Stewart and Brown. ° What then is this wonder-
ful question? Simply this. What is the object of our thoughts
when we employ general terms? Is it ideas or words? Is a por-
tion of the mental imagery called up by their use, or do we employ
ourselves merely with significant sounds?

The most celebrated pneumatologist of our times, Dugald Stewart,
maintains the doctrine of Rosceliinus and Abelard, said to have been
derived from Zéio, that, in the use of general terms, the object of
our thoughts is not ideas, but words or names. Hence this sect is
called Nominalists. A doctrine opposite to this was held by Plato,
Aristotle, and their followers, down to the time of the improvement
in the theory of perception, attributed by Mr. Stewart to Dr. Reid.
These philosophers supposed that the mental images derived from
external perception, (keeping in view the sense of sight,) were re-
ceived into the mind, as the furniture into a house, and were there real
existences, called ideas ;—existing ia the mind, but separate from it,

Universal Terms. 19

and constituting the objects of our thoughts: and they farther believed,
that some of these real existences corresponded to general terms.
Hence this sect were called Realists. When, in later times, it was
shown that the supposition of ideas or existences in the mind, distinct
from the mind itself, was gratuitous and unfounded, the doctrine of
the Realists concerning the nature of universals, was of course over-
turned. But still, as the mental eye turns inward, it sees a splendid
imagery, the transcripts of things beheld by the bodily organ of sight.
It is now the common belief that these are not in the mind, but that
they are mind itself{—mysterious mind! from its very nature in per-
petual action, and forever shifting the intellectual scene. But call
these pictures by what name we will, and be they in the mind or of
the mind, still they are there. The home of my childhood, the
flowers that I tended, the venerable forms of my father and mother,
I see them at this instant; and thus things that I have perceived,
become wrought into the very texture of my mind. My intellectual
eye sees them not always, but words have power to call them forth,
although I am, before their utterance, unconscious of their existence.
But have that class of words called universals, a power to call up
mental pictures, or have they not? This is still the question, al-
though we have introduced the new term conceptions as the techni-
cal word to express these internal and mental transcripts, of external
and material things. Here then our later philosophers take their
point of divergency. Mr. Stewart maintains that we have no con-
ceptions or ideas, (for the word is retained though the signification is
changed,) corresponding. to general terms; that the object of our
thoughts, when we speculate or reason concerning them, is not ideas
but words; consequently we can neither speculate nor reason con-
cerning universals but by means of words.

After Mr. Stewart had thus, as he supposed, settled this question,
having treated it at great length, Dr. Brown came before the public,
in his celebrated lectures, and with the air of aman who marches to
certain victory, attempted to establish the doctrine of general con-
ceptions, formerly maintained by Locke, Reid, and others. He
states the theory of the Nominalists, in the formation of universals,
to include merely the perception of the objects, and the invention of
a name by which to designate them asa class. He adds, to this
process of two steps, a third, which he supposes nature places be-
tween them—as thus. In the formation of classes, we first, says he,
perceive the objects; secondly, have a feeling of their resemblance ;

20 Universal Terms.

and thirdly, invent their common name. After the death of Dr.
Brown, Mr. Stewart published a continuation of his great work on
the philosophy of the human mind, on the very first page of which
we find that he is unconvinced by the arguments of Dr. Brown, and
still contends for his former mopinienes or rather takes for granted
that he has established them.*

Let a class of unbiassed young persons, who are sufficiently ile
vanced in the study of intellectual philosophy to understand its
terms, be asked, what occupies your mind when you use general
terms, is it ideas or mere words? All will be puzzled; and about
half will incline to one side of the argument, and half to the other.

This question, then, has bewildered both acute and ordinary
minds, for more than two thousand years. Is not this a proof that
there is some latent fallacy contained in the question itself? It is
the nature of trruth—of all which springs from truth—of all which
tends to truth, to enlighten—to clear from doubt; but this question
casts doubt and darkness. May we not, therefore, conclude that it
springs not from truth but from error? But where it its fallacy?
Suppose you are asked, are the human race white or black? and
required to answer directly in the words of the question. You can
not, without asserting a falsehood; because, in order to do so, you
must rank under one head objects which in the respects alluded to
are dissimilar. So, in this celebrated question, (are ideas or words
the object of our thoughts, when we employ general terms?) is there
not a similar error?. Are there not, plainly, two sorts of universal
terms—the one expressing natural classes, the other artificial classifi-
cations? We believe there are, and that with respect to the former,
the doctrine of the Conceptualists is true; with regard to the latter,
that of the Nominalists.

‘To explain the subject more fully ;—natural classes of objects are
those which, from a feeling of resemblance, arising as soon as they
are presented, every human mind from its imherent constitution ranks
together as things of the same sort. Such are sheep, trees, horses,
and men. Concerning these classes, we think it may clearly be
shown, that agreeably to the opinions of the Conceptualists, we have
general ideas or conceptions; and further, that respecting these, the

*<<It is,” says Mr. S. “to the use of artificial signs, (as was formerly shown,) that
we are indebted for all our general conclusions; and without it all our knowledge
would have been entirely limited to individuals.’—See Vol. INI, p 1.

Universal Terms. Q1

doctrine of the Nominalists, that we can neither speculate nor reason
concerning universals without words, is erroneous.

Artificial classifications are composed of objects which, not resem-
bling each other in appearance, are yet ranked together from some
principle of resemblance, or some resembling relation. Such words
as subjects, things, articles, agents, and generally the technical terms
of the sciences, express artificial classifications. In the use of these
words, we believe, with the Nominalists, that no image in the mind
corresponds to them, that when we reason or speculate by their aid
our attention is occupied with the words themselves, much in the
manner in which it is given to the signs and letters of an algebraical ”
process; and with regard to these, we also consider the theory of the
Nominalists concerning the formation of universals true; and that the
third step of the process introduced by Dr. Brown is here incorrect.
To invent, arrange and define, in this department, constitutes no
inconsiderable portion of the labors of science and philosophy, That
man is endowed with a capacity to go on forming classifications more
and more general, in one of the most wonderful and useful parts of
his nature, contributing perhaps more than any other faculty, as Mr.
Stewart has ably shown, to the continual advancement of the species.

Botany affords an excellent illustration of the different kinds of class-
es supposed; the system of Jussieu expressing the natural, that of
Linneus the artificial. How could Linneus have made his classifi-
cation, unless he had invented terms? Or who can say, that in refer-
ence to calling up ideas, it is the same thing whether we use the words
Monandria, Diandria, &c. or mention roses, grape-vines and oaks. —

We now bring forward what we consider incontesiible proof that
we have, with regard to natural classes, general conceptions. Con-
ception is, by definition, a transcript of perception, and we think it
can be shown that we have general perceptions. A hawthorn bush
is before me. Who will say that every one of its white blossoms
and green leaves is to me an individual subject of consideration? and
that the reason of their being ranked under the same head is because
that in the infancy of language some person, happening to become ac-
quainted with one hawthorn blossom or leaf gave it this name, and
afterwards finding others which agreed in appearance with it he call-
ed them by the same name?

On the contrary, nature presents these objects before us, not sin-
gle, but in groups, and we see them generally, as many objects of
the same kind, and as such afterwards conceive of them. ‘The same
thing occurs in numberless classes of objects, especially in things con-

99 Universal Terms.

siderably smaller than ourselves. Nor does it at all affect the nature
of the argument, if we find that individuals of a class sometimes, from
certain peculiarities, so strike the mind as to be recalled, as such,
among numbers,of undistinguishable similar things.

To illustrate farther the subject of general perceptions, and_ its
bearing on the question proposed: suppose you are seated in a con-
templative mood, at the hour when twilight is giving place to dark-
ness—a frightened child enters—you enquire the cause of his fears.
As I was coming, says he, a man suddenly started from behind a tree.
What man? Indeed, I do not know; it was so dark that I could not
distinguish whether he was white or black; all that I could see was
that it wasaman. But what tree was it? I cannot tell that either;
I merely remarked that it was a tree, but could not distinguish of what
kind; but I know that I saw a man and a tree; I have them now in
my mind. ‘The possibility of such an occurrence none will dispute.
The child then had actual perception of a tree and a man in general,
and of course its transcript conception; and he needed no name of
the thing or sort of thing conceived, to reason or speculate concern-
ing it, so far as regarded his own mind, though without words he
could not communicate his conceptions to others. That we do, even
in such cases, use words in our mental operations, there is no doubt,
but is it not owing chiefly to our social nature? We delight in fan-
cied conversations with those we love. We like to contend with
those who give us an opportunity to display our wit, in our own men-
tal eld, where we are sure of the victory; or if startled friendship
sees tokens of moral aberration, we plan the pathetic address which
shall recall the wanderer to virtue. Hence we perpetually use words
in our thoughts, not always because we cannot think without them,
but because we perpetually recur to the communication of our
thoughts to others.

The perception of things according to hein general characteristic
marks, is what always occurs when objects are seen at certain dis-
tances, or by dim lights. When we look up a long street or avenue,
we may see hundreds of human beings whom we know to be men,
women and children, merely by means of general characters. The
size of the objects is to be regarded, when we treat of the distances
at which we cease to distinguish by particular marks. But how
should we ever recognise new objects, as belonging to certain class-
es, but by their correspondence to our general ideas. Can it be
doubted that the deaf and dumb as perfectly conceive of men, horses,
trees, &c. as classes of objects, as those who know their names in va-

Liat Terms. 93

rious languages? and could they be taught a visible sign by which to
express these classes, unless they had such conceptions previously in
their minds? Mr. Stewart informs us that James Mitchel, the poor
boy who was from his birth destitute of the senses of sight and hear-
ing, was fond of horses. He knew them by the perceptions of his
other senses; and their consequent conceptions. Even the brutes
have knowledge (or instinct, it here matters not which) of natural class-
es and their general properties. A dog will avoid the horns of the ox
and the heels of the horse, and he resigns himself with affection and
trust, to no animal but that erect and lordly being, to whom alone of
his lower works, the Creator has imparted conscience and reason.
Yet hear the language of Mr. Stewart :— Whether it might not
have been possible for the Deity to have so formed us, that we might
have been capable of reasoning, concerning classes of objects, with-
out the use of signs, (i.e. general terms,) I shall not take upon me
to determine. But this we may venture to affirm, with confidence,
that man is not such a being.” ‘It has been already shown, that
without the use of signs, all our knowledge must necessarily have been
limited to individuals, and that we should have been perfectly inca-
pable both of classification and general reasoning.” ‘Some authors
have maintained that without the power of generalization,) which I
have endeavored to show means nothing more than the capacity of
employing general terms,) it would have been impossible for us to
have carried on any species of reasoning whatever.”

Profoundly as we venerate the name and genius of Dugald Stew- -
art, we cannot but feel that here he lends them to perpetuate ab-
surdities. From hence we may derive two lessons—the first, to
search the nature of things, rather than to look for authorities; the
second, to be humble respecting what we may fancy to be our own
discoveries, since we find that even minds like his may sometimes
be mistaken, and there too, where they are most confident. _

As an additional proof that some-such distinction of universals as
we have made is correct, we adduce the very fact of the dispute so
long and warmly kept up. Error, as Mr. Stewart justly observes,
does not take a permanent hold of the mind, except by being associ-
ated and blended with truth. The mind being fully persuaded of
the truth, receives without examination, whatever is conceived to be
its necessary concomitants. So in the case under discussion, to re-
cur toa former example, let it be supposed proper to demand a di-
rect answer to the question, whether the human race be white or

24 Universal Terms.

black. If this question should be put to an Icelander, he would say
they were white, to an African, he would declare them to be black.
Those who had seen both would answer the question generally as their
attention has been most drawn to examples of the one class or the
other. So when the inquirer into the intellectual philosophy has
searched his own mind to find whether general terms call up images,
or whether his attention has been given to words as to algebraic
signs, he has been led either to the doctrine of the conceptualists or to
that of the nominalists as he has stated to himself examples of natu-
ral classes or artificial classifications. Let him propose to himself
such examples as men, horses, apples, roses, and he will be a con-
ceptualist ; but let him consider such words as things, subjects, facts,
&c. and he will be a nominalist. .

That some distinction of the subject ought therefore to be made,
appears clear: the absolute terminations to be given to the distinc-
tions made, are not equally so. In the question concerning the color
of our race, none would say we should not make any distinction
of color, because there are some of an intermediate hue partaking
of both black and white, so in this question, examples may be given
of classes of which it is difficult to say whether they should be call-
ed natural or artificial, because they partake of the nature of both.
And where do we undertake to divide and distinguish even in the
natural world, without meeting similar difficulties ; much more must
we expect them in the finer and more subtle fields of intellect.

It would not injure the argument, if it should be found that in the
series commencing with the plainest natural classes, and going on to
the most abstruse artificial classifications, there were reasons for di-
viding general terms, into more than two sorts. No other division is
needed for the solution of the problem* we have been discussing, al-
though for other purposes, it may be proper to take notice of other

* Since this article was put in type, the writer has had the satisfaction to find the
following passage in Sir James Mackintosh’s history of Ethics, p. 45.‘ The contro-
versy between the Nominalists and Realists, treated by some modern writers as an
example of barbarous wrangling, was in truth an anticipation of that modern dispute
which still divides metaphysicians, whether the human mind can form general ideas,
and whether the words which are supposed to convey such ideas, be not general
terms, representing only a number of particular perceptions? questions so far from
frivolous, that they deeply concern both the nature of reasoning and the structure
of language.”? From this passage, I find that my opinion is sustained, in three points,
by that of this celebrated writer; first, that this controversy remains now where it

did centuries aga; secondly, as toits importance, and thirdly, as to the reasons of its
importance.

Unwersal Terms. 95

differences in classes of objects, such as their size and position, rela-
tive to man, the observer.

This question arises in the conjectural history of language; were,
or were’ not, particular terms invented before general? Adam Smith
has asserted that they were. Mr. Stewart, Professor Hedge and
others have followed him, adopting his sentiments as expressed in
the following quotation.

“The assignation of particular names to denote particular objects’;
that is the institution of nouns substantive, would probably be one
of the first steps towards the formation of language. The par-
_ ticular cave whose covering sheltered-the savage from the weather ;
the particular tree whose fruit relieved his hunger; the particular
fountain whose water allayed his thirst; would first be denominated
by the words, cave, tree, fountain; or by whatever other appellations
he might think proper, in that primitive jargon, to’ mark them. Af-
terwards, when the more enlarged experience of this-savage, had led
him to observe, and his necessary occasions obliged him to make .
mention of other caves, and other trees, and other fountains; he
would naturally bestow on each of those-new subjects, the same name
by which he had been accustomed to express the similar objects he was
first acquainted with. And thus, those words, which were original-
“ly the proper names of individuals, would each of them insensibly
become the common name of a multitude.”

Remark here the examples given by Mr. Smith; a cave, a tree,
a fountain. Caves and fountains are objects of unfrequent recur-
rence. Seldom are two of them seen together. It is doubtful
whether they should be considered among natural or artificial class-
es. The one is a cavity from which water flows; the other (more
clearly a nonentity) a fissure in the rock or an irregular subterra-
nean chasm; and though, from these resembling features, they are
ranked under the same name, yet they have so many points of dissimil-
itude, that the savage inventor of language might-well give names
to each cave, or fountain asa particular object; and if he generalized
them at all, the process would probably proceed. as stated by Mr.
Smith. A tree is an object usually much larger than a man, and
may be conceived as standing by itself, and if so, this example would
not contradict the theory. But let us state other examples. A blade
of grass, a peach, an ear of corn; all these are individuals as much as
a cave, a fountain, or a tree. Let us substitute them for these ex-
amples, and see how Mr. Smith’s theory will then appear.

Vou. XXII1.—No. 1. 4

26 Universal Terms.

The intellect of man is accommodated to the world around him.
It is the external world which, by means of his senses, particularly
the sight, comes to be transferred, as it were, within, and to have
there an immaterial being ; and it is, that we may read out, to our
fellow men what we thus perceive, mysteriously existing within, that
we have invented language. If things exist in the mind single, man
invents words to express them as such; if they are perceived togeth-
er as constituting a sort or kind, then he imvents a word expressive

‘of a class..

Mark on this subject the words of. the inspired historian, who in
nothing is more particular in the history of creation, than in the staté-
ment of the fact that God expressly intended the things which he
made should be in sorts or kinds. ‘And God said, Let the earth’
bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding
fruit after his kmd, whose seed is in itself upon the earth. And the
earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and
. the tree yielding fruit whose seed was in itself, after his kind. And
God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth,
which the waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and ev-
-ery winged fowl after his kind. And God said, let the earth bring
forth the living creature after his kind, cattle and creeping thing and
beast of the earth after his kind.”

Man, in his works, has imitated his Maker, and his creations no
less are made each after its kind. ‘They are inventions to supply
his necessities or minister to his pleasures, and being addressed to
a common nature, are ordinarily many of a sort. Such are the im-
plements of husbandry, of navigation, and of rural economy.

The names, then, that men have invented to express the general
conceptions of the mind, answering to the things which the Creator
(and man in his puny works) sees good to make every one after his
kind, are no less early invented than those which express _particu-
jars. This abundantly appears from the fact, that little children in
the case of familiar natural* classes of objects so small that the eye
takes in a number-at once, learn the general before the particular ap-
pellation. Observe two children at a window, one of two years old,
the other of four; you will hear the younger exclaim, as these ob-

* Observe that the word natural, as here used, refers not to the object, but to the
mind. Hencé I would call chairs, tables, guns, ships, natural classes, although
they are not natural objects. Nature did not make them, but nature makes every
human mind recognize them as things of the same sort.

Universal Terms. Qa

jects severally pass—man, dog, horse ; while his brother of four will
repeat the proper names—there is Mr. Smith, see Jowler, look at
father’s horse ; and their progress as they go through life, will be to
acquire more and more the discernment to distinguish the individuals
of these natural classes ; but nothing is ever added by reflection to
connect more closely in one class these objects, which, before the
dawn of reason, they felt and knew to be things of the same sort. In
fact, do we not all feel, even in our maturity, that we know many ob-
jects as classes before we know them individually? Look at a flock
of sheep; you do not know their particular marks, yet the farmer
who owns them knows every one; from the grave: patriarch of the
flock, to the least lamb which bounds from the hillock.

In this question then, whether terms expressing individuals or gen-
erals were first invented, we think the probability clearly is, that in
instances of such natural classes, as from their size and position the
savage had seen together, and instantly recognized as of the same
sort, he would first nvent a name representing the class, and particu-
lar appellations afterwards; but, in cases of such objects as are very
large, and not to be seen together, he would follow out the process
described by Mr. Smith.

Finally, then, recurring to the point from which we took our
departure, the doctrme which we have mainly sought to establish is,
that ideas or images are commonly the subject of our thoughts, when,
in the case of natural classes, we employ general terms, in that of
artificial classes, rather words, claiming our attention something in
the manner of algebraic characters, or arithmetical figures.

Names of artificial classes do however sometimes call up ideas or
images ; but when this is the case it is from a different principle of
our nature than that of a felt resemblance among the objects; ordinari-
ly, from the associating principle of contiguity in time and place. The
boianist tells us that m one respect the currant and the pumpkin are
to be classed together. ‘The word by which he designates them
may bring them both to my mental view, but it is only as the- name of
a friend’s parlor recals the chairs, the pictures and the sofa. Take
this sentence—“ the stars of the sky and the flowers of the field are
alike the subjects of God’s creating power.” Here the term subjects,
evidently expressing an artificial classification, comprehends two nat-
ural classes, stars and flowers. ‘The word subjects seen in another
situation, might then suggest them, from my having seen it in this
connexion ; but the mind does not therefore recognise stars and

28 On the Action of the Second Surfaces of

flowers as things of the same sort, because the same word recals
them ; nor is it essential that any image should be recalled to the
mind i the word subjects, to make it convey truths to our under-
standing ; as if we say, “all the gos of God’s creating power de-
pend om him for continued existence :’—and the figure 2 might call
up mental pictures of stars and flowers; even though the eye cursorily
caught it in the date of the present year, 1832. As thus—Ireadin
a book, “ Pictures of 2 sorts of things, stars and flowers.” Here
the uncommon use of the figure 2 might have so struck me as to re-
mind me, the next time I saw it, of the sentence in which it was thus
used, and the mental pictures of these objects thus be brought to my
mind ; and if so, is it not the same process by which the word sub-
jects might suggest them ; and when they are suggested, does not the
mind, in both cases, take cognizance of them as of two sorts of things,
so unlike that no common name or common relation can make us
conceive of them as of one kind. Yet by means of a name express-
ing a common relation, we can reason and speculate about them in
connexion, though we cannot conceive of them as of the same sort.
If these facts are admitted, we think it must follow, that the doctrine
of the nominalists is no less true with regard to terms expressing ar-
tificial classification, than is that of the conceptualists, with regard to
those expressing natural classes,

Arr. V.—On the action of the second surfaces of transparent plates
uponhght; by Davip Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. Lond. & Edin.

Read before the Royal Society, February 25, 1830.

In a paper on the Polarization of Light by Reflexion, published in
the Philosophical Transactions for 1815, I showed that the Law of
the Tangents was rigorously true for the second surfaces of transpa-
rent bodies, provided that the sine of the angle of incidence was less
than the reciprocal of the index of refraction. The action of the
second surfaces of plates at angles of incidence different from the
maximum polarizing angle, was studied by M. Arago, who conduct-
ed his experiments in thé following manner.

“With respect to this phenomenon,” says M. Arago, “a remarka-
ble result of experiment may here be noticed; that is, that in every
possible inclination A= =A sa

” A is the light polarized by reflexion, and A’ that polarized by refraction.

Transparent Plates upon Light. 29

Fig. 1.

“Let us suppose that a plate of
glass ED (Fig. 1.) is placed in the
position that the figure represents
before a medium AB of a uniform
tint; for instance, a sheet of fine
white paper. ‘The eye placed at.O,
will receive simultaneously the ray
IO reflected at I, and the ray BIO
transmitted at the same point. Place at mn an opaque diaphragm
blackened, and perforated by a small hole at S. Lastly, let the eye
be furnished with a doubly refracting crystal C, which affords two
images of the aperture.

“If now, by means of a little black screen placed between B and.
I, we stop the ray BI which would have been transmitted, the crys-
tal properly placed will give an ordinary image =A-+3B, and an
extraordinary image =4B. But if the screen were placed between
A and I, and the ray AI were intercepted, we should still have two
images of the hole, and their intensities would be $B/ and A’+4B’
respectively. Consequently, without any screen, if the whole of the
reflected light AIO, and the transmitted BIO, are allowed to arrive
at the eye, we shall have for the ordinary image A+4B+43B/, and
for the extraordinary image 4B+A’+ 3B’.

*¢ Now it appears,. from actually making the experiment, that the
two images are perfectly equal, whatever may be the angle formed by
the ray Al with the plate of glass, which can only be because A is
always equal to A’. Consequently,

“The quantity of polarized light contained in the pencil transmit-
ted by a transparent plate, is exactly equal to the quantity of light
polarized at right angles, which is found in the pencil reflected by
the same plate.”

We have no doubt that M. Arago obtained these results, particu-
larly near the polarizing angle, at which limit they are rigorously
true; but at all other angles of incidence they are wholly incorrect.
When we consider, indeed, the nature of the experiment which has
been lauded for its elegance and ingenuity, we shall see reason to
pronounce its results as nothing more than coarse estimates, in which
the apparent equality of the two images is the effect either of im-
perfect observation or of some unrecognized compensation.

30 On the Action of the Second Surfaces of

If we make the experiment in Fig. 2.
the manner shown in Fig. 2.
with a colorless and well anneal-
ed prism of glass EFD, in place -
of a plate of glass; and make the
ray BI enter the surface FD per-_
pendicularly at I, we get rid of all
sources of error, and we obtain,
what is really wanted, the result
for a single surface. In this case
the experiment is not disturbed
by the light reflected from the
inner surfaces of the prism, which a B

is all thrown off from the pencil which enters the eye.

_ In M. Arago’s form of the experiment, part of the ray BI (Fig. 1.)
undergoes reflexions within the plate, and there comes along with it
to the eye, at O, a portion of light polarized in the plane of reflexion:
in like manner the part of the pencil AI that enters the plate, under-
goes partial reflexions, and the part reflected from the first surface
carries along with it another portion of light polarized in the plane of
reflexion, so that four portions of light polarized in the plane of re-
flexion reach the eye, while only two portions reach it polarized at
right angles to the plane of reflexion, viz. those which are polarized
by the refraction of each of the surfaces of the plate. Now the part
of the pencil AI which suffers a first reflexion from each of the sur-
faces of the plate, is, as we shall presently show, defective in polar-
ized light compared with that which has experienced two refractions,
so that it requires the above additional quantities to produce a com-
pensation with the transmitted pencil BO. -If this is not the true
cause of the apparent compensation, that is, if M. Arago took means
to exclude the reflected pencils which seem to have produced the
compensation, we must then ascribe the ean of the two images
to inaccuracy of observation.

But even if we admit that M. Araco’s experimental results are
correct with regard to plates, it necessarily follows that they cannot
be true with regard to surfaces; for it is obvious from the slightest
consideration of the subject, that the phenomena of the one can
never be interchangeable with those of the other.

Transparent Plates upon Light. 31

Fig. 3.

In order to demonstrate these views by an analysis of the changes
which the intromitted light experiences from the two refractions -and
the intermediate reflexion of a transparent plate, I took a plate of
glass of the shape MN (Fig. 3.) having an oblique face Md cut upon
one of its ends. . A ray of light R A, polarized + 45° and — 45°,
was made to fall upon it at A, at an angle of incidence of nearly 83°,
so that the inclination of the planes of polarization of the reflected
ray A P was about 364°. Now the ray AC after reflexion in the
direction CS, without any refraction at B, where it emerges perpen-
dicularly to. Md, would also have had the inclination of its planes of
polarization equal to 364° if there had. been no. intermediate refrac-
tion at A; but this refraction alone being capable of producing an
ncimetien of 53° or a rotation of 53°—45°=8°, and this rotation
being in an opposite direction from that produced by the second re-
flexion at C, the inclination of the planes of polarization for the ray
CS is nearly 444°, the reflexion at C having brought back the ray
A C almost exactly into the state of natural light.

Without changing either the light or the angle, I cemented a prism.
Med onthe face Md, so that cd was parallel to dN, and I found
that the second refraction at 6, equal to that at A, changed the incli-
nation of the planes of polarization to 53°; that is, the two refrac-
tive actions at A and 6 had overcome the action of reflexion at C,
and the pencil 6s actually contained ise polarized perpendicular to
the plane of reflexion.

In order to to put this result to another test, I took a plateMcNQ
(Fig. 3.) of the same glass, which separated the pencil 6 s reflected
at the second surface, from the parallel pencil A P reflected from the
first surface, and I found that at an angle of 83° the value of the
inclination I or g for the ray was about 373°, while the value of I for.
the ray bs was nearly 55°, an effect almost equal to the refractive
action of a plate at 83° of incidence.

32 On the Action of the Second Surfaces of

When the pencil R A is incident on the first surface at the polari-
zing angle or 56° 45’, the rotation produced by refraction at A is
about 2°, or the inclination [=45°+4 2°=47°; but the maximum ac-
tion of the polarizing force at C is sufficient to make I=0° whether
x is 45° or 47°. Hence C Bis completely polarized in the plane
of reflexion, and the refractive action at 6 is incapable of changing
- the polarization when I=0°: the reason is therefore obvious why
the two rotations at A and 6, of 2° each, produce no effect at the
maximum polarizing angle.

_ If we now call
o =Inclination to the plane of reflexion produced by the Ist re-
fraction at A, .
o’ =Inclination produced by the reflexion at C,
yo” =Inclination produced by the 2nd refraction at 6,

We shall have.

‘ 1

cos(t+2) cos (2-17)

€os (t—2’) (cos (¢—7) )?

(cos (1—2/) )3—
cos (t+2/)

These formule are suited to common light where x=45°, but when
x varies they become

Cot e=cot x (cos 7) )
cos(t+1/)

Cot p=cos (¢—2’); or tan o=

Tan o/=tan of

Cot 9’ =cot x (cos (1—7’) )=

" ' Tan o/ =tan « eae =
i (cos («=—1) )*
Cot o”=(cotx “cos (G-L¥)

(cos (i —7/))
“Cos (t+0) ’
it is obvious that when (cos (1—2’))*=cos (1+7’), cot o’”=1,
and go’ =45°; that is, the light is restored to common light.

In glass where m=1.525 this effect takes place at 78° 7’; a little
below 78° in diamond ; and a little above 80° in water.

At an angle below this, » becomes less than 45°, and ‘the pencil
contains light polarized in the plane of reflexion ; while at all great-
er angles o is above 45, and the pencil contains light polarized per-
pendicular to the plane of reflexion. Hence we obtain the follow-
ing curious law.

Resuming the formula for common light, viz. cot 9” =

Transparent Plates upon light. 33

_ "A pencil of light reflected from the second surfaces of trans-
parent plates, and reaching the eye after two refractions and an in-
termediate reflexion, contains at all angles of incidence from 0° to
the maximum polarizing angle, a portion of light polarized in the
plane of reflexion. Above the polarizing angle the part of the pen-
cil polarized in the. plane of reflexion diminishes till cos (¢-+7’)=
(cos (2—2’) )?, when it disappears, and the whole pencil has the char-
acter of common light. Above this last angle the pencil contains a
quantity of light polarized perpendicularly to the plane of reflexion,
which increases to a maximum and then diminishes to zero at 90°.

Let us now examine the state of the pencil C S/ that has suffered
only one refraction and one reflexion. Resuming the formula

Re. ,
tan o/= = (eos AP ye it is evident that when (cos (1—2') )?=cos
(+7), 0 =45°, and consequently the light is restored to common
light. ‘This takes place in glass at an angle of 82° 44’. At all an-
gles beneath this the pencil contains light polarized in the plane of
reflexion; but at all angles above it, the pencil contains light polari-
zed perpendicular to the plane of reflexion, the quantity increasing
from 82° 44/ to its maximum, and returning to its minimnm at 90°. ~

By comparing these deductions with the formula and table for
reflected light given in my paper On the Laws of the Polarization
of Light iy Refraction, the following approximate law will be ob-
served. When

Cos (i—7’) =cos (i+7/) All the incident lightis reflected.
(Cos (t—2’))? =cos (t-+7/) Half the incident light is reflected.
(Cos (t —7’))*=cos (t-++2’) A third of the incident light is reflected.
(Cos (¢ — 2’))"==cos (t+2/) An nth part of the incident light nea
is reflected.

This law deviates from the truth by a regular progression as n
increases and always gives the value of the reflected light in de-
fect... Thus

Angles of Incidence. Values of 7. Differences.
B20 NS MN a RM eae:
SWE NSP pam ts er PI 3 Bim Geis aro. ware be
ROSS ete ore Ne Mee Ae es: Pee Man oy) aL
Gor sOy Ae cise he EMT Ey Bs Wa Meee
Gomes aeY ay aie) We es

G1 I BBO) oc) ssp Weed er as oN
Vou. XXII.—No. 1. Ble

34 On the Action of the Second Surfaces, &c.

Let us now apply the results of the preceding analysis to M.
ARaGo’s experiment shown. in Fig. 1. Suppose the angle of inci-
dence to be 78° 7’, and let the light polarized by reflexion at A (Fig.
3.) be=m,-and that polarized by one refraction alsco=m. ‘Then
smce the pencil 6s is common light, the polarized light in the whole
reflected pencil A P, 6s is=m, whereas the light polarized by the
two refractions is=2m; so that M. Arago’s experiment makes two
quantities appear equal when the one is double that of the other.
If the angle exceeds 78° 7’, the oppositely polarized light in the pen-
cil 6s will neutralize a portion of the polarized light in the pencil
AP, and the ratio of the oppositely polarized rays which seem to be
compensated in the experiment, may be that of 3m or even 4m to 1.

Having thus determined the changes. which light undergoes by
reflexion from plates, it is easy to obtain formule for computing the
exact quantities of polarized light at any angle of incidence, either
in the pencil CB Sor 6s.

The primitive ray RA being common light, AC will not be in that
state, but will have its planes of polarization turned round a quantity
x by the refraction at A; so that cotw=cos(i—z’). Hence we must
adopt for the measure of the light reflected at C the formula of Fres-
nel for polarized light whose sigue of incidence forms an angle « with
the plane of reflexion. The intensity of AC being known from the for-
mula for common light, we shall call it unity, then the intensity I of the
two pencils polarized — x and + to the plane of reflexion will be

sin?(¢—2/) tan?(¢— 7)
=sin®(if0) o>? tan? Ge)
cos(t+2’) ) 2
a=ifi-2 (Sel aa :)
( a 2
ane (cos(z— #’) )?/°
In like manner if we call the intensity of CB=1, we shall have
cos(2-+2’).
Pe (cone ie
and the intensity I of the transmitied pencil 6s
sin? rah a tan? (t—2) ,
Bisin2 (itv) Cee ane eee. eels
Soe i
cos(t--2’)
Q=(11-2 ce :)
1 (CED

cos(? +2’)

sin?zv and

Hail Storms. 35

I shall now conclude this paper with the following table, computed
- from the formule on page 32, and showing the state of the planes of
polarization of the three rays AC, GS, and Os.

Angle of Refrac-{ Inclination of.| Inclination of ) Inclination of
Angle of Inci-| tion at firstsur-| | plane ef po- | plane of po- | plane of po-
dence on the} face, snd angle| larization of | Jarization of | larization of
first surface. | of incidence on| A C Fig. 3. CS Fig. 3. bs Fig. 3.
second surface.|

ee ee | |

a ery es 0 0 45 0 45 0 45 0
32 0 20 33 45 34 32-20 32 51
-40 0 25 10 45 58 24 12 24 56
45 0. 27 55 46 17 ' 17 49 18 38
56 30 33 30 AT 22 0 0 0 0
67 O 37 34 48 57 18 20 20 50
70 0 38 30 49 33 23 34 27 6
75 0 39 46 50 45 32 22 37 48
78 37 40 29 51 49 38 10 44 59
129,'0 40 33 51 56 38 49 45 46
80 0 40 42 52 16 40 27 47 46
83 0 4i 5 53 21 44 39 53 40
86 30 Al 23 54 47 50 58 60 13
90 0 41 58 56 29 56 29 66 19

Allerly, December 31, 1829.

Art. VI.—On Hail Storms; by A. Tonnes M. D. of Augusta,
Georgia.

‘Fuese storms very. often occur in the Southern States during the
-spring, or the first months of summer. ‘They are most frequent
when the thermometer ranges between 70° and 80°. Lightning is
also more frequent and terrible in the south when the thermometer
occupies the above range.

Ir hail storms I suppose it highly probable, that at first, large drops
of rain descend, till they come in contact in their passage, with a
much colder current of air, when they suddenly freeze, in the act
of doing which they expand, producing a hollow globular hailstone,
which enlarges as it falls, by the aggregation’and freezing of other
drops of water, which seem to be drawn to it by some kind of at-
traction. They in this way enlarge, until before they reach the earth,
they often attain a most astonishing size. ‘They have been seen to
fallin some places, of the size of hens’ eggs, and of still larger

36 - Hail Storms.

dimensions. It no doubt has appeared to many a strange circum-
stance, that when falling of such large size, they have not been more .
fatal to animals. For if a pebble, or any other solid body of equal
bulk, was to fall from the same height, we must suppose that its
velocity, from its specific gravity, would be such as to render its
effects terrible and destructive. We can only imagine the large hail-
stones that often fall, to have in some way, their specific gravity so
much lessened as to render the largest of them, comparatively light and —
inoffensive in their fall. This is done, by their expansion in the act
of freezing, by which means a hollow cavity is produced, filled with
air. This air cell, with others attached as they enlarge, greatly les-
sens their specific gravity. It acts like the air-bladder of a fish,
which enables him to rise to the surface in deep water, or the air
cells in the bones of birds which lessen their specific gravity, so
much as to.assist their flying. ROTA.

I first observed this peculiar structure of hail-stones, during a
short residence in Athens, Ga. in the spring and summer of 1831.
In May of this year a cloud come over fromS S E. It presented
the peculiar sea green appearance of hail clouds, and portions of it
seemed to move in irregular directions, as if acted on by contrary
currents of wind. It also was accompanied by a considerable wind
and vivid flashes of lightning. After the rain had commenced fallmng,
the wind was to a degree lulled, and large pieces of hail commenced
falling, and continued to fall till the ground was covered. After the
storm had passed, I walked into the yard and examined many of the
stones of the largest size. I was surprised to find in the center of
each a circular air cell. The annexed figures in the plate represent
their most common appearance. The largest were a half, or three

Improvement in Field Surveying. 37

fourths of an mch in diameter, and from one anda half to two inch-
es in circumference, and from this size down to that of a small bul-
let. Some were united by a narrow neck, as shown by Fig. 1.
Some were irregular and ragged on their edges, and crossed by
irregular fractures, as is seen in Fig. 2. Others again, were dotted,
with several air cells around the center one, as exhibited in Fig. 3.
The center of each represents the air cells. )

These hail storms are sometimes accompanied by violent winds.
They make their approach from every point of the compass save
directly from the east, and they come most frequently from the south-
west ornorth west. A person who has once closely: observed them,
can generally foretell their approach, from the appearance of the
rising cloud. It uniformly exhibits a sea green color, and often seems
much agitated, and small fragments of clouds often linger beneath
the main body, or seem to be.suddenly formed and to fly in pursuit of
it. ‘They occur when currents of air in the heavens, retain their winter
coldness, and intercept the drops of rain and convert them into hail-
stones. ‘This operation is not a little aided also, by the sudden dis-
charges of the electric fluid of the clouds. In the south of France,
they are very frequent and often destroy extensive vineyards. ‘The
people believe so fully in the idea that the discharges of electricity
influence their production, that they erect lightning rods by means
of poles in their fields to lessen their occurrence and effects. In
this case, the discharge of the fluid is gradual, and unattended by
hail; at least in proportion to what would be the case, if let off in
heavy discharges.

Augusta, Geo. June 18th,-1832.

Art. VII.—Improvement in Field Surveying.

Tue general principle or method of computing the areas of irreg-
ular plane figures, as described in Art. III, No. 45 of the Journal of
Science, was introduced by-K. F. Johnson, Esq. into the course of
instruction in the practical mathematics, in the institution of Capt.
Partridge, in-the year 1824, and the method is now extensively prac-
ticed ie many of the young men graduates of that institution, in
various parts of the country.

38 Improvement in Field Surveying.

z

The same principles were likewise applied by Mr. Johnson to
other branches of mensuration, and the whole, as I am informed, in-
Lobe in a work, which is soon to be presented to the public.

The following are the general directions as given by. Mr. J. for
calculating areas by the algebraic process.

1st. Place in one column the courses and distances of the outlines
of the field whose area is to be calculated, in the order in which they
occur in traversing around it.

2d. Put the differences of latitude and the departures of each line
opposite the course and distance of the same line,—the differences
of latitude in one column and the departures in another.

3d. Distinguish the northings and the southings of the several dif-
ferences of latitude by the signs plus and minus, and do the same
‘with the eastings and westings of the departures; or otherwise, call
the first difference of latitude, and all of the same name with it, af-
firmative, and all of a contrary name, negative, and do the same with
the departures.

4th. Take the first debe and place it opposite, as the first
quantity in a column of multipliers. For the-second multiplier, add
together the first multiplier, the first departure, and the second de-
parture ; and universally, to find any multiplier add together these
three quantities, viz. the last preceding multiplier, the departure be-
longing to it, and the next succeeding departure ; the number of mul-
tipliers to be the same with the outlines of the field, a mraliplipe to
each outline.

5th. Involve each multiplier into the difference of latitude standing
against it, and the half sum of the several products thus obtained, will
be the area of the field in square measures s of the same denomination
in which its sides are measured. ! ‘

The operations of adding and multiplying, are in every case to be
performed algebraically. If the additions for the multipliers are
made correctly, the last multiplier will be equal to the ee departure
with its sign changed.

Improvement in Field Surveying. 39

Illustration.
Pea : Factors or |Products or
No.| Courses. Dist.| Dif. lat.|. Dep. |multipliers. areas.
1./S. EAB.E.|AB| AE} EB EB) 2AEB
21S. FEB.W.'BC! FC!—BF'IEB+KC! 2BEKC

| 3IN.GeD.w. CD _cG|_ep| —HL*| 2KHL
4.\N.HAD.E.|DA!—-HAl HD! —HD| 2DHA

2i2ABCKLD
ABCKLD=ABCD
the triangles DLM and MKC being equal.*

The first meridian NS
passes through the first sta-
tion A. EB, DGand KC
are drawn perpendicular
to, and FC parallel with
NS.

Calculation.
Dist. i Factors or|]Products or
No. Courses. chs. | Dif. lat.] Dep. multipls. areas.
1.|S. 60° E.| 9.00) 4.50; 7.79| 7-79] 35.0550
eles Bae. W.! 8.00! 6.55'— 4.59! 10.99

| 3.\N. FO° W.|14.00]—4.79

71.9845
4.1N.57° 51’ E.|11.76|— 6.26 |

= Tet) 6.76| 32.3804
-9.96|—. 9.96] 62.3496

2)201.7695

~ 10.088475 aers.

It is stated in the article alluded to, that ‘in the common method

of computing the area of a field, a meridian line is supposed to be

drawn. at some assumed distance from the commencing corner.”

This it is imagined is incorrect. ‘The most “common mode,” is.to

select for the point of commencement, the extreme East or West

station of the field. ‘Through this station, the first meridian is made
to pass, and the necessity of an ‘assumed distance” is thereby avoid- °

* DL=KC by construction.

40 Origin, Extension and Continuance of Prairies.

ed. The advantage of the algebraic process, consists in its simpli-
city and in the universality of its application. This results from the
circumstance that the meridian line not being limited in its position,
may be made to pass through any station of the field, wherever
it may be convenient to commence either the measurement or the
calculation. If its position is such as to divide the field into equal or
nearly equal parts, the multipliers or factors are lessened in quantity,
and considerable labor is saved in the calculation, and the liability to
error in the several computations in a corresponding degree dimm-
ished. Bb.

Arr. Ville On the Origin, Extension and Continuance of Prairies ; ;
extracted and abridged from unpublished MSS. on a theory of the
Earth; by Dr. Rusu Nutt, of Rodney, State of Mississippi.

‘We can conceive that a prairie may proceed from the joint action of
twocauses. First, from the influence of a cane-brake ; and secondly,
from wind and fire. It has been shown that cane exerts a considerable
influence on a forest of timber; that it can completely obscure the rays
of the sun, as well as form by its roots an astonishing mat-work over
the face of the earth, so dense that it is utterly impossible for any
seed to vegetate and for the earth to bring forward a single tree.
Our knowledge of the natural history of the cane, does not enable
us to know the length of time it is in seeding. More than half of
the cane of Mississippi and Louisiana went to seed in the year 1830.
It had not seeded to such an extent, during the fifty preceding years.
A few stalks or a few square yards of the cane, seed and die every
year, but when stalks seed again from the same root, we do not know
whether so general a seeding as that just mentioned proceeded from
natural or from accidental causes; such as long feeding up, with the -
unusual vicissitudes of the weather of a few preceding years. ‘The
stalk and root die with the ripening of the seed, which will vegetate
and come forward the following year, unless prevented by such a
drowth as followed the period alluded to. However, our want of a
full knowledge of the natural history of the cane, is not very important
in the case before us, as we can readily conceive of a cane-brake
contending with, and finally overcoming, extensive regions of forest
trees. If the cane keeps possession of the same land for five hun-
dred or a thousand years, (as we think it does,) it will of course wear

Origin, Extension and Continuance of Prairies. 41

out almost any family of trees. When the cane has driven out every
tree and has acquired exclusive possession, it then begins to experi-
ence the consequences of exposure, without the shelter from the
sun’s rays which is afforded by the trees. ‘The influence of the sun
upon a cane-brake, unprotected by the trees, will in time produce
the destruction of both stalk and root, by which means the land will
fail to be occupied again by cane, until it has been covered anew
with trees. Under favorable circumstances, the seeds of grass are
always at hand, as well as those of trees; but the grass is quickest
-to shoot and grow, and will soon afford a dry carpet, which, if set on
fire at the proper time, will readily burn and destroy any young trees
that had sprung up; the grass will now continue to increase in quan-
tity and to improve in quality as the cane-roots are decomposed and
the annual fire is continued. But, on the other hand, if the firing is
not carried on, the trees will, in a very few years, by their shade,
exclude the grass; and should the land be adapted to the kind of
trees that spontaneously appear, they may become so thickly set, as
to form such a complete barrier to the sun and light, that even the
cane will be kept from returning, and can regain its former residence
only by taking hold at the time the trees are exchanging places; as, .
for instance, when one family, composed of such trees as usually
accompany each other, are becoming thinned by death, and thereby
making room for another to occupy the land.

There is no fact that can be better established than that prairies
are formed, and are now forming, by the operation of wind and fire.
Very abundant proof was exhibited to the writer, more than twenty
eight years ago, when making a pedestrian journey through the dis-
tant and extensive regions of the west. He has seen the prairie in
all its stages; he has seen the hurricane at work upon the forest.
He has seen places where the inroad had been made only the year
before ; where the grass stood but thinly on the ground, and where
it had become sufficiently luxuriant to burn. When the first burn-
ing took place, the timber was, in some places, partly consumed, and
in other places altogether burnt off, leaving holes in the ground, made
by the action of the fire upon the trees, which were burnt when stand-
ing, and thus the stump part was consumed beneath the surface of the
earth.

When a hurricane makes an inroad upon a forest, the rays of the
sun are then admitted to the earth, and this at once affords an oppor-
tunity for the grass to spring ups; and if the land is rich and the sun

Vou. XXIII.—No. 1. 6

42 Origin, Extension and Continuance of Pratries.

freely admitted, the carpet of: grass will be from six to eight feet in
height. Should this grass be burnt during the fall season, or at any
dry time through the winter or spring, and the practice annually con-
tinued, the ground would become more and more prepared for the
production of a still more luxuriant crop of grass, when not only the
dead timber would be consumed, but those trees that are alive would
suffer by the fire and in a few years be killed, unless they stand on
the borders of ponds of water, or on some very unproductive spots;
_in either case the grass is found to be short and puny, and insufficient
to support a flame that would affect a tree. - In extensive prairies, we
often observe little clusters of trees, which, by occupying peculiar
situations, are enabled to avoid the consuming flames of a burning
prairie. :

In a few years, all the trees which come within the reach of the
fires will be killed, and thus the forest is annually dilapidated, until
no signs of it remain, except those which appear in the holes in the
land left by the standing trees, and in the little hillocks made by the
roots throwing up the ground when they are laid prostrate by the
wind. The hillock will be, in time, brought down by the action of
rain; but on a.very level piece of land the holes left by the burnt
stumps will remain, and perhaps would never be entirely obliterated.

The prairie, which is now in its infancy, continues to make annual
encroachments upon the surrounding forests. The grass of this prai-
rie becomes closely set, and may be from ten to twelve feet in height.
It pushes close up under the trees of the surrounding forest, and eve-
ry fire acts injuriously upon the nearest trees; and as they are killed,
the grass not. only surrounds them, but passes on and crowds hard
upon other trees, so that the prairie is constantly increasing, and would
always exist and extend its borders while fire was applied.

FIRES IN THE PRAIRIES.

It is difficult to conceive of the horror excited at the sight of a
burning prairie. It is an ocean of fire, whose billows roll and heave,
and run together, when the mountain of pyramidal flames ascends
and drives detached bodies of fire seemingly into the very clouds.
The whole horizon appears to be on fire; the earth and the sky are
hidden by the flames, and the eye can reach no pomt beyond their
boundary. When the wind is brisk, the burning grass ascends and
gives the appearance, as though the heavens were filled with fire-
brands; and such is the rapidity with which the flame moves over

Origin, Extension and Continuance of Prairies. 43

the face of the earth, that an attempt at escape, by the swiftest ani-
mak, would prove abortive.

In these regions of natural beauty remote from civilization, the
exhausted spirits of the weary pedestrian are enlivened and fatigue
is allayed, as he beholds the unrivalled charms of these vast prairies
in their successive seasons of flowering. In May and June, they are
robed in flowers of white and pale yellow; in July and August, in
those of sky blue and red ; and in September and October, in others
of deep blue and brown. Flora has here her paradise of innocence
and beauty, and vegetable and animal life know nothing of the tyran-
ny of man. He destroys vegetables and animals, to produce others
in their stead, and thus maintains a constant warfare with animated
nature.

Domestic animals travel Jess than the beast of. the forest, and their
journeys, when performed, are not so extensive ; hence they collect
their food on a smaller and more contracted surface, by which means
they break down and tread under foot so much of the grass within
their usual bounds that the fire is either arrested on the borders of
their range, or runs lightly over it without injury to the shoots that
may have come forward the preceding spring. Such circumstances
favor the introduction of trees, which then immediately appear, and
as they obtain sufficient size to shade the land, the grass itself is driv-
en out; the cattle are thus driven toa greater distance from the plan-
tations in some new direction, where they soon crop the grass, and
place it beyond the reach of fire. As the cattle recede, they are
followed by the forest; and so soon as a farm can be enclosed by the
young trees, the farmer, for the convenience of his stock, moves nearer
to the prairie; otherwise, from the receding of the prairie, the cattle
would seldom return to their home, and perhaps become wild by ab-
sence. In this way, the prairies of Kentucky have disappeared; and
those to the west of the Ohio and Mississippi, retreat as_the settle-
ments approach them. Itshould be remembered that some prairies
are so very level, and retain water so long at the surface, that the
seeds of trees will perish, and even the roots, if the seed had sprout-
ed, and the shoots had been burnt, or left standing.

Hence, you may observe such prairies to continue long after stock
are turned upon them. So soon as the fires are restrained, trees
come forth, upon all the prairies that are formed of rolling land.

2

44 Origin, Extension and Continuance of Prairies.

A TORNADO.

We have stated that hurricanes and whirlwinds, by their inroads
upon the forests, are chiefly instrumental in forming prairies.

It is believed that hurricanes are not so frequent and so violent as
formerly. For the last twenty-five years particularly, they have dimin-
ished in numberand energy. ‘The signs of hurricanes, previous to
the year 1805, would indicate in their case, a frequency and violence
unequalled in any subsequent period.

In the year 1805 it happened to the writer to be roving on that
most beautiful lawn, extending from Kaskaskia to [hnois, and which
is called the American bottom. ‘There was the most charming alter-
nation of prairie, and woodland, and while he was musing on the
causes which gave rise to forests of grass, or cane, and of stu-
pendous oaks and cotton woods, he was roused, and his attention di-
rected toa scene of unequalled grandeur and horror.’ It was a whirl-
wind that had crossed the Mississippi, and was making its way through
the swamp, until it was near the charming prairie, which at that mo-
ment afforded rest and comfort to a solitary pedestrian. By the irre-
sistible force of the wind, whole forests were in a moment twisted
from the ground, and when thrown from the mouth of the vortex,
such was the violent collision of tree against tree, that they were
pounded into billets and splinters. A sound of universal distress burst
forth from every quarter, and earth and sky appeared to be blended.
In a twinkling the tornado scooped up a lake, with two or three feet
of mud which lined its bottom. In one instant more, it tore away
a house with its stone chimney. In another moment thirty or forty
horned cattle, and fifteen or sixteen horses, disappeared with incon-
ceivable quickness. ‘The whirlwind twisted off almost every spear
of .a wheat field, and bore it away with the fence, cattle, horses, lake,
trees, house, and whatever was in the way. For more than a mile
the heavens were black, and filled with the wreck of the tempest.

In this tornado, as well as many that had before occurred in these
countries on a smaller scale, there was nothing to justify a belief with
Mr. Dunbar, ‘of a vortex with a central spot ina state of profound
calm ;” or of Dr. Franklin, who supposed the “vortex of a whirl-
wind to be a true vacuum.”

From the. lake to the house, was about two hundred yards, between
which stood a huge cotton-wood tree of at least seven feet in diame-
ter, and more than one hundred feet in height. It was observed,
when the vortex had nearly or quite reached the tree, that the leaves

Observations on depriving Flowers of their Anthers. 45

and limbs began to point upwards, and at the same instant of time
they were crushed, and ran together, which gave the appearance of
a mock body, by which the trunk seemed to be extended; but im-
mediately the trunk was twisted from the stump, leaving about ten
feet above ground, when with a quickness, that the eye could not
follow, all ran through the throat of the-vortex, and was thrown out
to float with others in the regions above.

There was remaining of the stone chimney, about one foot above
ground, and notone of the stones removed was to be seen. Wheth-
er they were carried up in the vortex and thrown out by the circular
‘impetus of the air, and deposited beyond the reach of observation,
we were unable to determine. The water and mud of the lake
were deposited on the field which contained the wheat, and from
thence to the wood land beyond the prairie in the direction of the
tornado, was about three miles; on which land, there were to be
found only the bodies of two of the horses and five or six of the
eattle. This mighty wreck was seen to pass to the north-west of
St. Louis, more than twenty miles above the plantation.

Arr. IX.—Observations on depriving Flowers of their Anthers, to
produce Double Flowers; by E. 'T. Lerrner.*

Some years ago, Dr. Messer, of Cabo, (kingdom of Wuertemberg,)
published a small book, entitled “ Art of raising double Gillyflowers,
Neustadt at the Orla, 1828;” in which he shows how to deprive un-
folded flowers of their anthers to prevent fructification, and that seeds

* Perhaps we cannot, in any better manner, introduce a respectable young stran-
ger to the American public, than by giving publicity to the fol! lowing letter of Dr.
Leitner to the Editor: its frankness and integrity are not less observable than the
intelligence and zeal which it indicates.— Ld.

CHARLESTON, July 14, 1832.

Dear Sir—Since your Journal has fallen into my hands, I have felt a great desire
to become better acquainted with you; I therefore take the liberty to address this
letter to you. I hope you will excuse my inaccuracies in writing; particularly, as
I have been but a short time in this country. From early youth, I have felt a great
inclination for natural history, and when, having arrived at riper age, I saw my
sphere in my native land (Germany) too narrow, then a thought arose in my mind
to visit and explore this interesting country, in hope that I might, perhaps, contri-
bute, by and by, something to the knowledge and science of natural history. After
visiting the College in Tubingen and enlarging my knowledge, I left my native
home, to bid it perhaps the last farewell, and embarking from Havre de Grace, I

46 Observations on depriving Flowers of their Anthers.

from such mutilated flowers produce double fowers. Dr. Messer
gave notice of it to the Horticultural Society of Berlin, (Prussia,)
but with the remark, that he was less fortunate in experiments made
on flowers in his garden than on those which he had in pots, perhaps
because they were less distant from other flowers. ‘The Horticul-
tural Society encouraged him to continue his experiments, which he
performed with great success. At the same time Prof. Bauer, Prof..
Schuebler, Mr. C. Orthman, (inspector of the College garden,)
and myself, made experiments, in Tubingen, on the same subject
and the results are now concentrated as follows. We could not find
much difference between flowers in pots and the same flowers in gar-
dens. Seeds produced by prevented fructification, always showed
in one hundred plants sixty or seventy with double flowers, while
one hundred plants, when in the same ground, in a natural way, pro-
duce no more than twenty or thirty. Even the seeds of the former
produced flowers larger and more full, than in the natural way. In
some of the flowers, the number of the petals was multiplied from
fifty to fifty five, when in single flowers there were no more than

arrived in New York, last year. Having little knowledge of the language, I at first
encountered a great many obstacles, which prevented me from visiting the circles of
the learned and scientific. I came to South Carolina, after I had wandered through
a great part of New York and Pennsylvania. I cannot sufficiently praise the hospi-
tality of the people of Charleston; I am treated with the greatest kindness and be-.
nevolence, and they do every thing in their power to extend my views. — I shall
finish, in Charleston, my studies of medicine, being with Dr. J. Edwards Holbrook,
Professor of Anatomy in the Medical College; at the same time, I am delivering
lectures on botany in that institution. I was indeed surprised and delighted, to find
more spirit here for natural history, than in any part of the United States which I.
have visited. About seventeen ladies and fifteen gentlemen attend my-lectures; a
considerable number in the summer season.
' [have in view an expedition to Florida next March, the time at which the lectures
terminate. I shall visit first the Florida Reefs, (perhaps accompanied by Mr. Audu-
bon,) and penetrate from tnence into the heart of the territory, to explore its great
treasures, and to lift the veil which now covers that part of the United States. I
expect to stay there until the sickly season begins, and then return to Charleston,
if God prospers my undertaking, to distribute the collections among the subscribers.
The subscription is only $10 for each member, and the money is returned in shells,
mineérals, plants, insects, reptiles, and some stuffed birds, and seeds. I hope to pro-
cure about thirty subscribers in this city. If I succeed next year in my expedition
to Florida, and finish my studies in medicine, I shall very probably undertake an
expedition, on a larger scale, to the western states. I hope the gentlemen at the
North will not overlook such an occasion to enlarge their museums and herbariums.
I now take the liberty, Sir, to offer a few observations only, for the pages of your
Journal. Very respectfully yours, K. T. LEITNER.

- Observations on depriving Flowers of their Anthers. 47

four. No stamen, or rudiment of the germ, was discovered im the
centre of the flower. The following are the most interesting re-
marks on the subject.

1. To succeed in these experiments, you must cut out the anthers
from the closed flower, when they are almost formed, but have not yet
spread out the pollen. The Gillyflower (Cheiranthus annuus) suc-
ceeded in the best manner, just when the petals were about 3$—4/”
({linee Parisienses) long, already a little colored, but still closed and
folded; the petals must very cautiously be opened with a pincette,
ae the anthers taken out.

2. If you cut off the anthers when the pollen is already spread out
in some measure, then large and perfect pods are produced, but the
single flowers are mingled with double ones.

3. If you take them before the anthers are formed, and the petals
sull colorless, or only whitish green, and about 1-14’ (Paris meas-
ure) in length, standing out of the calyx, then no seed at all is pro-
duced, and the germ after some time drops off sterile. This obser-
vation proves that the fructification must be according to the former
method certain, though imperfect.

4. If you observe the further growth of the pods of such Sgn eest
flowers, you will remark, that they grow less regular than natural
ones; they thicken and swell up, sometimes on the upper more than
on the under part; they are generally shorter than usual, and vary
very much in size on the same plant.

5. In the state of maturity, you find less seeds in pods of mutila-
ted flowers than in those not so. We find the seeds sometimes only
attached to one side, the other side of the dissepiment being. empty ;
single pods contained from five to seven seeds, when natural ones
had from forty six to fifty.

6. The single seeds are sometimes smaller, sometimes more or
less curved, and imperfect: the weight of one thousand ordinary
seeds of the Gillyflower, in a dry state, attached for ten months to
the dissepiment, was in the month of July 26 grains. One seed
had a weight of- about .026 gr. or near to J, gr. The same num-
her of seeds from double flowers was 22 to 24 grains; single seed,

7 to 75 gr.

"”, We observed sometimes, in natural pods of the Cheiranthus
annuus, curved and imperfect seeds, which produced double flow-
ers also.

48 Observations on depriving Flowers of their Anthers.

8. Simple Gillyflowers, from seeds of artificial, deprived flowers,
displayed sometimes an irregular shaped corolla; instead of four,
only three petals; and instead of six stamens, only three on one side
of the corolla. :

9. The color remained, as well in single as in dauble ones.

10. The odor seems to be augmented in double flowers.

11. Manure has some effect on the multiplying of flowers; how-
ever, not so many flowers are then produced, in the Cheiranthus an-
nuus; the whole plant rather becomes more strong and luxuriant.
Often the manure of pigeons, and powdered bones, has the effect of
imparting white spots to colored flowers.

12. On Cheiranthus incanus,. (Stock flower,)-it has the same effect,
and in that plant the seeds seem to differ too in proportion, so that
the weight of one thousand ce seeds amounted to 33 grains,
and one seed about .033, or near ,'; gr.; the same number of seeds
of double flowers 30 to 33 grains, or single seeds ,'; to ,'5 gr.

These experiments show, that this fkobion of double flowers,
produced by depriving the flowers of their anthers, agrees well
with the theory of sexuality. The usual fructification is only dis-
turbed, but not immediately destroyed; the imperfect seed is still
formed ; the plants raised from them display, instead of the organs
of sexuality, a multitude of petals, where the ability of production is
manifested.

The experiment I made with Nicotiana Langsdorfii and N. pani-
culata, can be connected with it. I deprived the former of the sta-
mens, and fixed the pollen with a quill on the stigma of the latter,
which produced, by sowing the seed the next year, quite a different
plant—a medium between both. Dr. Gaertner made an experiment
of this kind with Nicotiana glutinosa and N. suaveolens, which pro-
duced a variety with a multitude of beautiful red blossoms. It is to
be wished, that similar experiments may be made in this country,.
with different plants and in different places.

- Miscellaneous Geological Topics, Se. 49

Art. X.— Miscellaneous’ Geological Topics relating to the lower
part of the vale of the Mississippi; alluvion by rain’; up filling
and extension of valleys; subsidence of the sea; original vale of
the river with its wings and present channel.—From unpublished

MSS. on the Theory of the Earth; by Dr. Rusu Nurt, of
~ Rodney, Mississippi.

Tar the ocean once rolled its waves over the present Delta of
the Mississippi does not admit of a doubt. We will first consider the
tract of country, from Vicksburgh to Baton Rouge, whose width is
between ten and fifteen miles from the present boundary of the bluff.

SKETCH OF THE COUNTRY.

The unevenness of the face of this district will at once strike the
traveller with surprise. It is a country cut to pieces by broad ravines;
and notwithstanding the narrowness of the ridges, they are much dis-
figured by excavations, running into their sides. The general direc-
tion of the principal ridges is westerly, intersecting the Mississippi at
right angles, and they are gradually depressed, as they run from the
limits of the district now under consideration, until they are cut off by
the vale.

Most of the bluffs are from one to two hundred feet in height. By
observing their descent, which is often gradual, when receding from
the bluff to the limit of the territory we are now describing, it would
appear that, did the ridges run upon a declivity similar to that which
they formerly had, they would extend at least ten or fifteen miles
farther than they now do, in‘a similar course. We shall then sup-
pose, that prior to the existence of the present river, these bluffs were
continued and terminated by a gentle declivity; being met by a slight
subsidence on the other side, which was an extensive ravine, that
was afterwards to become the present vale3 thus they gradually en-
croached upon the basin, and finally succeeded in driving out the
waters of the gulf, which we shall consider as the Natches basin.

COMPOSITION OF THE STRATA.

In proof of the correctness of our position, we shall appeal to the
fact, of the presence of molluscous testacea, which are found to be
very regularly and generally dispersed from within five feet of the
present surface down to the sand, which formed the downs and beach
of the ocean itself. The first foot of soil we shall call vegetable

Vou. XXIII.—No. 1. 7

50 . Miscellaneous Geological Topics

mould; beneath that we find a stratum of deep red clay, very hard
and tenaceous, of about four feet in depth, and abounding in alumina,
iron and lime. The next, or substratum is that. which extends to
the sand; it is of a pale yellow color, contains less alumina and a
very little iron, and abounds in comminuted arenaceous quartz. By
attrition in water it has been rendered as fine as the sand of Arabia,
which is now extending the limits of Cobi, in Asia, and similar causes
are enlarging the desert of Sahara, in Africa; where floods of sand
are carried upon the wings of the wind, until countries and cities are
overwhelmed and lost beneath its accumulating mountains.

In this stratum, the snail shells are regularly distributed throughout
this region, and are found in every foot untill you reach the sand.
Upon examination of the bluffs made by the inroads of the Missis-
sippi, we uniformly find the shells thus deposited. Now as these
snails must have been buried by the gentle alluvion of the higher
land and as the present bluffs formerly pelatied by a gentle declivity
for ten miles into the rear, until they ended in a plain,—where would
they finda limit? Is it not evident that they did once extend by a-
gradual depression, until they were lost-or gently died away? There’
is but one species of snail found buried here, and they exist at this
time very extensively ; and can be found under the bark and in the
cavities of rotten wood. ‘There is another species of snail, whose
shell we have never been able to detect beneath the surface of the
earth; they are rarely to be found, for they delight in perpetual
shade. ‘They must have appeared in this country at a late period :
they are already extinct, unless where the forest has continued 1 in an
uninterrupted state.

We have already remarked, that neither species of the snail is to
be found in the first stratum of clay, nor are they to be seen in the
vegetable mould. It is in the range of these strata, the mould and
first clay stratum, making a depth generally of five feet, that the air
has exerted its influence in decomposing ile shells, converting them
into lime, and the vegetable roots which occupy this region have con-
tributed to their farther and more speedy destruction.

INFLUENCE OF CANE BRAKES, «c.

If we are asked why the shells are decomposed in this and not in
the substratum, we answer that we are about to enter upon another
epoch in our local history :—The visitation of cane (Arundo Missis-
sippi.) As soon as this vegetable got possession and became matted

relating to the Vale of the Mississippi. 51
over the face of the country, the washing down of the land ceased
at the surface, and the helpless snail escaped a premature interment.
It was then that the abrasions and excavations took place beneath the
surface. It was then that the rains bore off the earth and deposited
it in the great north and south ravines, and these were destined to
become, at a future day, the bed of a mighty river, which was to be
employed in transporting the earth to assist in expelling the sea, and
forming what we shall call the Orleans’ basin. It was then that the
- present dark and deep vegetable mould began to be deposited. The
cane roots formed a perfect mat and net-work over the face of the
earth, while their stalks held the leaves and decayed wood so firmly
that all remained and nothing was removed by rain. From century
to century the leaves, limbs and trunks of trees were tied down to the
very spot which they first occupied, and the rains could only sink the
decomposed mineral vegetable and animal matter, imparting ‘by an
increase of iron, lime and alumina, firmness of texture to the stratum
below.

From the depth of the stratum of vegetable earth, we may esti-
mate the time the cane has been on the surface. We have taken
the deposit of one year in leaves and dead wood on a given piece of
ground, and reduced it to ashes; calculations on the result, allowing
for the destruction by fire, and the action of rain and air on this stra-
tum, will bring us to the probable conclusion, that the cane was set,
and the formation of this black mould actually began, twelve hundred
years previous to the time when it began to be disturbed by man.
As doubtful as this calculation may be, it affords us more information
than that derived from the trees. ‘The forest, which witnessed the
arrival of the cane, has perished in days that have long gone by, and
probably several generations of trees besides. We find no trees of this
country, whose life exceeds the term of three hundred years. The
present forest, like the aged hemlock, is dead at the top, and we might
add, inthe center too; as the trees are of the kind, which first decay
in the heart of the trunk. In short, we can safely assert, that had
not the white man appeared to molest this full grown garden of na-
ture, the present race of trees would have disappeared in forty years
more, and the country have been a prairie.

PECULIARITY OF STRUCTURE.

“A remarkable circumstance in this district is the absence of the
superincumbent ‘stratum of clay. In the neighborhood of Natchez

52 Miscellaneous Geological Topics

the vegetable soil rests upon the stratum which abounds in arenace-
ous quartz; and that which is rendered tenaceous by alumma and
iron is wanting. ‘The trees which cover this land, do not exceed
_ fifty or sixty years of age. ‘This land has, in most places, a deep
vegetable mould, but why it should be without the iron and alumina
can be accounted for only upon the supposition, that for ihe greater
part of the period of its present position, it remained a prairie.
From this it would appear, that grass. does not much contribute to
the generation of a sub-stratum, so desirable to the farmer,—without
which he is but poorly compensated for his toil in collecting and
spreading his manure upon a soil which is unable to retam, and ap-
propriate it to use. We therefore conclude, that this section of our
district was a prairie for, at least, six hundred years before the cane
_ got possession of it. ;
ft may be supposed, that the superincumbent stratum of clay was
the last washed down; and brought with it the properties it now ex-
hibits.. ‘To show that such a conjecture was unfounded, we state,
that all the sides of hills, as well as the tops of the ridges and the
-plains, are furnished with this. stratum; but whenever we approach a
grove of aged magnolia trees, which most usually occupies the point of
a ridge, whether the grove is on the summit or on the side of the ridge,
if the rain can remove the leaves, this stratum will be wanting. It
must be remarked, that the magnolia groves so completely obscure
the rays of the sun, as to prevent entirely the growth of the cane, or
permit, at most, only a scattered and small growth. It bas been al-
ready stated, that this clay is found on the sides of ihe hills, where
the cane enjoyed freedom of light, and occasional access to the rays
of the sun. ‘This fact, with the actual appearance of the furrowed
ridges, scooped out on both sides every ten or twenty steps, will
‘suffice to show that the clay was not brought from a distance and
deposited there ; but that it was deposited from the operation of an
earlier cause, and that it remained notwithstanding the disadvantages
such a situation would be attended with in Consequence of frequent
waste from rain.

. While upon. the subject of this sub-stratum, we shall mention the
invariable occurrence of a blue stratum of tough clay, generally
found immediateiy above the sand, or within'a few feet of it. When
wells are sunk and water obtained in this clay, like that in the Lon-
don clay, it is never fit for use; its smell and taste are very offensive
being not unlike that of the mud of a salt marsh. ~In this stratum

relating to the Vale of the Mississippi. 53

the snail shells are very abundant. Should we not attribute this stra-
tum to the washing down of the land, the pushing out the sea, and
the forming, in this manner, of marshes and pools of stagnant water,
which series of events was followed by a luxuriant vegetable erowth ;
It is evidently the vegetable and animal matter of ches marginal stra-
tum which gives to it so unpleasant a smell.

If we are correct in the conclusion, that this is the marginal stra-
tum, which girded the sea in this quarter, the question may be asked,
has the sea subsided ?>—We have made no calculations of the height
of this stratum above the sea, but incline to the opinion that itis
more than one hundred feet above’ the gulf stream. Much attention
has been given by the writer to the appearance of bluffs, and many
inquiries have been made of persons employed in the sinking of wells
for water, to ascertain if there were any reasons to admit a heaving
of the land. - But it appeared, upon inquiry, that nothing of the kind
has occurred, and -that the land of the above named district. has
been gradually formed by the slow and uniform action of the rains,
in bringing down the earth from higher places, and thus raising and
Sct the vallies.

SOURCES OF FRESH WATER.

It is worthy of remark, that, in some instances, wells have been
sunk and the sand reached without observing the blue clay; but
water was not obtained until they descended to the sand containing
pebbles, whose depth is sometimes ten or twelve feet. This sand
must be composed of such beds as are usually observed to be of un-
equal height, such as form the downs of the sea shore, being thrown
up by the wind, and consequently they lie higher than the water level.
In proof, it may be stated that no water can be obtained in these
beds; they are also without the pebbles which invariably occur on
the face of sand as the water runs over it, whether from the base of
the bluffs, or across the bottom of wells. It should be remembered
that the appearance of sand, near the surface, on hills, or other situ-
ations, should not be confounded with the downs above alluded to.
This occasional and rare occurrence of sand, would seem to have
been caused by earthquakes. Such deposits of sand are generally
narrow and short. It is also worthy of remark, that the blue clay,’
or marginal stratum referred to above, should not be confounded with
the occasional appearance of blue clay, from five to thirty feet in
depth, and formed by the gradual interpolation of land upon ponds,

54 Miscellaneous Geological Topics

which have existed at various depths between the surface of the earth
and the sand below. ‘ 7

FERTILITY OF THE CANE DISTRICT 5 INFLUENCE ON WATER.

Notwithstanding the unevenness of this district of country, as be-
fore observed, it is the most-fertile of all the regions of the South,
and for this it is indebted ehiefly to the cane. Previous to the ap-
pearance of this vegetable, the soil which was very fine and easily
acted upon by rain, continued to descend, carrying, leaves, wood and
the molluscous testacea in its course, which, in process of time, pro-
duced this stratum of clay, so remarkable for its fineness and loose-
ness. . Thus it was that every facility was afforded to the solution of
this stratum in water, so as to afford on its arrival a speedy and luxu-
riant growth to the cane. It was then that the surface of the earth
was for the first time, in this region, enabled to enjoy repose. It was
then, that the deposit of wood aus leaves, was-confined to the very
spot which first received them. And it was then, on account of the
fallen leaves and timber, that the rain water was caused to experience
insurmountable difficulties in obtaining a passage on the surface of
the earth. It was, therefore, driven below; here it met with less
‘difficulty, readily pursuing the course of the cane roots, which had
already penetrated the earth in every possible direction. It was
here that the water, assisted by the roots of trees, which enabled it
to descend lower, found a ready outlet. ‘Thus a way of escape was
provided: but it was done at the expense of the stratum of clay ;
as the water passed on, it carried with it much of the earth, which
lay immediately beneath and about the roots of the cane and trees.
This removal. of the earth produced a corresponding subsidence of
the superincumbent trees and cane, and of the earth, which filled up
the interstices of the net work. When the roots again seized upon
the earth below, they obtained a temporary and uncertain hold; but
ihe water, again. accumulating on a declivity, has, in some suri.
burst forth, carrymg downwards, for a considerable extent, both the
cane and the soil; the breach is, however, soon repaired ; the sur-
rounding cane roofs run in and quickly penetrate the earth in every
possible manner, and render the fortification doubly strong. ‘Thus
‘the land was imperceptibly sinking and forming frightful hollows and
mangled ridges, with their sides fluted and grooved to such a degree
that the cultivation, in many places, is rendered almost impracticable.
Yes, this secret and unsuspected removal of the earth was going on

relating to the Vale of the Mississippi. 55

for, perhaps, twelve hundred years; carrying the earth by secret
paths to a great distance, where it was either appropriated in forming
what is now called second. bottoms or bluff-flats ; or deposited at a
point where it was, at some distant day, to be again removed by a
river that did not then ‘exist, and it was destined to assist in laying
the foundation of the Mississippi Delta, or what we have called the
Orleans basin, with its upper or northern boundary beginning at Ba-
ton Rouge and not at Natchez, as supposed by Mr. Dunbar.

, SUBTERRANEAN CAVITIES AND CHANNELS.

Our first stratum of clay, beneath the vegetable soil, contains a
multitude of irregular cavities, traversed by the same clay, and dis-
posed like the reticular texture of bones. ‘These cavities are pro-
duced and perpetuated by rain water, which, as fast as it is com-
pressed by superincumbent weight, passes readily through the soil
and vegetable matter, and through this clay, into the next stratum,
or it forms small channels between the two. ‘These cavities are
lined with a very thin coat of lime or chalk, derived from the rain
water, bringing from the surface the spoils of the snail shells which —
time creates, destroys and decomposes. In very dry seasons, the
lime, iron and alumina, give to this stratum of clay, a hardness and
adhesiveness almost equal to that of lead. It dries so hastily- in the
sun, that it cannot be used by the brick-maker. ‘The second stra-
tum, which contains a superabundance of sand, requires more alumi-
na and iron, to produce the weight and tenacity which are so very
important in bricks. It may be fouled whether the levigated marl,
mentioned by Mr. Dunbar, which ‘ assumes a compactness and so-
lidity zesembling pitch,” is very well « adapted to the use of the
potter.” This earth of the Mississippi bottom is alumina, with a
_ considerable quantity of vegetable and animal matter. We have
noticed the effects of heat upon this earth, when united with sand
and made into brick. While burning, it is extremely difficult to
raise and continue the white heat, without producing fusion ; the
bricks are very light, friable, and remarkably brittle.

To show the readiness with which land covered by cane received
and absorbed the rain water, we will cite-as instances two tracts
thickly set with a natural growth of cane; both of these tracts
received the heaviest falls of rain, without showing the least sign of
draining on the surface. The first field contains about eighty acres,
and was well known to the writer before the cane was removed, or

56 Miscellaneous Geological Topics

the land much trodden by cattle. The whole of this piece of land
was so situated, as to be drained by one outlet or valley. We fre-
quently observed, that the heaviest falls of rain upon this land, pre-
vious to clearing and cultivation, did not exhibit the least sign of wa-
ter on the surface of the vale. But after a part was put into culti-
vation, it was seen that a canal would be necessary to secure the
crop from occasional inundation. So soon‘as all the land was turn-
ed to use, the canal was enlarged from year to year, until it was ten
feet wide and six feet deep, before it was of sufficient dimensions to
retain the water on its passage, and aueven: an overflow, during a
heavy fall of rain.

LEE Ore OF THE INCREASE OF SURFACE WATER.

The next case is not a part of a plantation, but of a tract lymg on
each side of a well known water course of this country, called Coles’
Creek ;—we shall suppose this tract to extend fifteen miles in one
direction; but as the creek has branches, we will confine our re-

marks to its northern stream, in which it may be supposed to con-
tain eight or ten square miles. Sixty years ago, this tract, as well as
that in the vicinity, was a gloomy region of perpetual shade. Our
informant, Mr. Daniels, reports his frequent visits about this time, for
the purpose of hunting here the bearand the deer: for many years
in succession, and often, several times in the same year, he crossed
this then dry ravine, without either a channel or water. After a
-term of years, when settlements were made round about, and the
cattle of the plantations extended their range, treading the land and
breaking the texture of the roots of the cane brake, holes appeared
in the ravine where now is Cole’s Creek: they were occasioned by
the land and cane sinking into the subterranean passages, which had
been made by the water. In wet seasons water was found in these
openings; but in dry weather there was none. At Jength a ditch .
of five or six feet wide, and eight or ten feet deep, was formed by
the rains. For some years after, Mr. D. could step across it in
some places, and in others he could jump over it. ‘Twenty six
years since, when we first observed this creek, the usual crossing
places did not exceed ten or twelve steps in width and eight or ten
in depth. But as the country was. cleared, the creek continued to
enlarge its dimensions until the present time, when it is between two
and four hundred feet wide, and at least twenty five or thirty feet
deep. The inundations are more frequent now than twenty five

relating to the Vale of the Mississippi. 57

years ago, and the creek must of course discharge, in a given time,
an infinitely greater quantity of water. <

What more need we say, in support of our position of subterra-
neous water courses, by the infiltration of water through the earth.
A new or uncultivated country, whether clothed with grass alone, or
with trees and cane, will imbibe all the water that falls upon it, unless
where the country is based upon strata of rock, or the soil is very
sterile; and indeed many of the rocky districts, particularly those
of limestone, are apt to contain more subterranean than superficial
streams. It is worthy of remark, that in settling all the country
west of the Alleghany mountains, there was a very general want of
water; whether it was in the limestone regions of Tennessee, Ken-
tucky and Ohio, or in the extensive prairies of Indiana, Illinois and
Missouri, or in the great cane-brakes of our district; the scarcity of
water was every where observed, and water was truly a desideratum.
But as the settlements extended, with the introduction of cattle, the
earth became more compact, and spontaneous vegetation less flour-
ishing, which, by the increased firmness of the ground, caused the
water to remain upon or rise to the surface ;—hence it was found,
that streams of water multiplied with the increase and extension of
cultivation.

The water of our district is strongly impregnated with lime, which
it receives from the snail shells, in passing through the upper and
lower strata of clay and vegetable earth. Deposition of lime from
the water takes place in all the cavities, whether occasioned by the
decay of former deposits of wood, or of the roots of trees: this
deposition of lime crystallizes, and is found, also, amorphous in
the earth.

THE MISSISSIPPI.

We are again brought to the spot where the magnificent Missis-
sippi now rolls. When did this river appear, and what is its age?
Owing to causes unknown to us, this singular river was not confined,
but driven out from the land, by the operation of the numerous lakes
and grand reservoirs of water, and by the extensive regions of cane,
which alternated with prairies, and began to show themselves and
spread very generally over the continent. When the Indians arrived,
(an unknown period,) they must have found no small difficulty in
penetrating the cane-brakes. ‘To make their journeys the more
readily, they doubtless adopted the plan of burning the cane every

Vou. XXIT.—No. 1. 8

5S Miscellaneous Geological Topics

autumn, which, under favorable circumstances of dry weather, would
sometimes destroy, for the moment, the vegetation of immense re~
gions, burning every tree to the top and leaving none alive. This
mode of removing the cane must have been continued and extended
with the increase of Indian pgpulation, by which means the water,
under the given circumstances, escaped more readily. No matter
how extensive a country of cane and wood was destroyed by fire $
the cane during the following year would spring forth again, and in
two or three months, stand as thick and as luxuriant as before. Hav-
ing the exclusive possession of the land, it precluded the possibility of
the coming forth of trees, but being unable long to withstand the ac-
tion of the sun’s rays, it would ere long die, and leave the land free
for grass and trees to take possession and contend for the- mastery.
It was now that the waters of the lakes found the fractured points
in the hills and the mountains, and began to press hard upon them ;
hurricanes, assisted by fire began to form the prairies, and continued
to extend their bounds. And now during the spring season, on the
surface of the ravines, the water began to show itself, and make its
way slowly, through the thick cane-brake, until taking advantage of
the paths, made along the ravine by the beasts of the forest, it at
length excavated a distinct channel. ‘This channel probably existed
ima very inconsiderable degree, at the time when the white man ap-
peared. Under his subduing hand, forests and cane-brakes disap-
peared, and even prairies lost their names and became forests and

fields.
ABORIGINAL BURNING.

I suppose that during the second century, of the Christian Era,
the Indians passed out of Asia into America, and that about the
fifth and sixth century, they had considerably increased and spread
over North and South America, where they continued to kindle
their autumnal fires. About this time, the waters of the lakes had
probably made a considerable breach through the ridges and moun-
tains, which formed natural dams, running across the ravines, and
then the water began to show itself on the surface of the vale, when
inroads were soon made upon the cane and trees, and thus a channel
was formed. In 1750, the French settlements began on the banks
of the river, above New Orleans ; for the term of twenty years they
cultivated the land and “ Eel says Mr. Dunbar, “had they ever
seen the Mississippi surmount the level of its banks, and the embank-

relating to the Vale of the Mississippi. 59

ment, called by the French name of levee, was rarely required and
only in very low places. Since that period, from year to year, the
river has continued to rise higher and higher, which has obliged
the inhabitants of Lower Louisiana to prolong and reinforce their
levees,” &c.

The Mississippi now is evidently enlarging, as progress is made
in clearing and cultivating the lands, whose waters run into this
iver. Within the last twenty-five years, its general width has
sensibly increased, and its overflows are more frequent. There is
no good reasons for the belief that it is becoming more shallow; but
that the contrary is true, is we think demonstrated by the fact that
there is an evident diminution in the number of what are denominated
snags, and sawyers or planted trees.* It may be observed also, that
the current is less furious at particular points, as near the termination
of a bend, where the water always presses hardest. We think
these changes indicative of an increased depth of water in the river,
rather than of a tendency to become more shallow as many have
supposed. ‘The natural outlets through the Delta, that forms the
mouths of the river cannct increase, but must diminish in number
as the depositions from the water accumulate ; consequently although
the impediments at the mouth may not diminish, they cannot increase,
before the Delta is pushed upon Cuba: We should also recollect,
the weight of this stream, which surpasses, perhaps, any other in the
world, and when assisted by the Gulf stream, it will always keep its
mouths and bar of at least the same depth as at present.

PROSPECTIVE VIEW.

When the surface of the great country, whose waters pour into
the Mississippi, shall be compacted by time, with the aid of a more
scant spontaneous vegetation, and of a more extended cultivation,
the quantity of water which will then be borne through the channel
of the river, will be incomparably greater than at present. Heavy
and repeated rains, which might now bring the water, only within five
feet of the level of the banks, will then produce such an overflow,
as will inundate the vales and destroy the crops.

In the year 1805, the writer stood upon the banks of the Missou-
ri, and with astonishment beheld its diminutive stream. And even
inconsiderable as it was, it appeared to be half filled with sand bars.

* Local names given to trees that have fallen into the-river, and become so fixed
that the currents do not remove them.—Hd.

60 Micellaneous Geological Topics

The current of this river is very rapid, and the sand bars are (like
the billows of the ocean) forever rolling in the current, and shifting
from place to place, and when with the progress of the current they
leave the river, others will follow close behind. ‘This river drains a
country whose extent is more than three times greater than that
watered by any other river of the United States, including the
Mississippi, above its junction with the Missouri. It is not as large as
the Ohio or Tennessee rivers, and its freshets make very little im-.
pression on the Mississippi, as far down as the Natchez basin. Jt is
the Ohio, that compels the Mississippi to call to her assistance, her
thousand reservoirs, and her extensive vale, to retain the waters un-
bosomed by this most beautiful river, her magnificent tributary.

When the prairies of that immense region lymg on both sides of
the Missouri, and extending quite to the Rocky Mountains, shall
have vanished, what will be the appearance, and size of this river?
The same question will apply to the Arkansas and Red River?
It should be remarked, that the country bordering on these rivers,
is more level, than that on the Ohio. Hence their waters-will not
be extricated so readily ; but nevertheless their bounds must be ex-
tended to an incredible degree. When all the water that falls on
this great country, and which now serves to replenish those mighty
rivers, that roll through dark and gloomy forests, and through inter-
minable deserts, shall be turned in their courses, and caused to keep
as much above ground as the waters of the Ohio; the Missouri
will then indeed become vast, and her freshets will be truly terrific.
Judging from the observations of more than twenty five years, we
will venture to say, that the Missouri must, by and by, discharge
in a given period, twenty times as much water as now.

OPINIONS OF MR. DUNBAR.

In the 6th vol. of the American Philosophical Transactions of
Philad. may be seen “ A description of the Mississippi and its delta,”
by Mr. Dunbar, in which, when speaking of the formation of the
delta, he remarks. ‘When we survey this immense work, formed
by the hand of nature, we cannot accord with the opinions of cer-
tain visionary philosophers, who have been pleased to amuse them-
selves with the pretended infantile state of our continent, compared
to their trans-atlantic world ; but on the contrary, we must grant to
it an incalculable antiquity.” If Mr. Dunbar had been apprised of
the existence and extent of the Natchez basin, that he sat and

relating to the Vi ale of the Mississippi. 61

wrote within its bounds, and that it was formed by a process, incal-
culably slower than that which formed the Delta, what would he have
said? After a fire-side geological survey of the globe, Dr. Hutton
concluded: ‘“‘ We find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an
end.” It is due to the memory of Mr. Dunbar, thus publicly to
assert, that his remarks upon the Mississippi and its delta, are of the
highest excellence and authority.

Respecting the delta, Mr. Dunbar farther remarks that “ upon all
lands long subject to culture, and defended from the inundation
though near the margin, the appearance is almost lost.” This is a
mistake, as there can be no sensible diminution. of sand; the in-
creased firmness and adhesiveness of all soils upon long culture, is in
consequence of the farther decomposition and consequent loss of
vegetable matter.

The second clay stratum of Natchez basin, has long since lost all
appearances of vegetable matter ; it has been resolved, and all the
volatile and fertilizing properties carried off by the passage of water
through it, leaving nothing behind, but a part of the iron and alumina
yielded by decomposition.

Not to mention absurdities of a higher cast, it is an idle fancy to
talk of the effects of the water of the Mississippi “* banishing disor-
ders common ito other countries.” This delusion is found in all
civilized countries. Mineral waters have often been supposed to
effect that which is due to change of situations producing a new train
of associations, by the novelty of the scene, and the change of air,
and thus often a very powerful influence is exerted upon chronic
diseases. More benefit is derived from these causes than from the
waters, as it rarely occurs that their qualities are suited to the par-
ticular nature and state of the disease.

The Mississippi may be regarded as a river almost without barriers ;
it cannot be controlled by its own banks or by the feeble ramparts
erected by man; occasionally, it rolls through a breadth of thirty
miles; roves with restless activity from side to side; subverts en-
tire forests, and at its pleasure obliterates the soils which it had de-
posited in former ages.

LAKES ALONG THE MISSISSIPPI.

This river has no lakes at its mouth, but it is abundantly supplied
with them on each side, throughout its whole extent. These numer-
ous lakes are formed by bends of the river, presenting not unfrequent-

62 Miscellaneous Geological Topics

ly the figure of a half moon, or of ahorse-shoe. Each cut off, before
the mouths are closed, serves as grand reservoirs for floating wood,
which accumulates in the bogs to an enormous extent. When the
two ends of the bend are filled with wood and mud, leaving a canal
to accumulate with the lake, the river rolls off to the east or west,
when, ere long, another great bend is scooped out, and another cut
off takes place, which are scattered throughout the whole of the vale,
of this most astonishing river.

The mud which causes the turbidness of the water of this river,
is brought principally from the Missouri. Most of the floating tim-
ber, in the time taken to make the journey of five or six hundred
miles, sinks by the accumulation of mud. ‘This journey is accom-
panied by frequent delays, as the planted timber-.often arrests that
which is floating, and detains one and another tree, until many hun-
dreds are locked and interwoven together, when a considerable mass
of logs will be formed and perhaps detained ; both very high and
very low water occasionally extricates the mass, when the trees again
separate and take the direction of the current. Few or none of the
logs from the Missouri, unless perhaps the cotton-wood, reach Natch-
ez. We have never heard of pines arriving at that place, although
cedar has been occasionally seen and supposed to. have left the Ten-
nessee river.

SUBMERGED AND INRUMED WOOD.

That an immense forest of timber lies concealed beneath the
depths of this river, in all its roads across the vale, was evinced by the
earthquakes which occurred in 1612, and which were so severely felt
at New Madrid. These convulsions brought to the surface of the riv-
er an incredible quantity of timber. ‘The first shock was at night;
the boat-men imagined it to be the approach of a storm: hearing a
mighty noise like wind, and feeling considerable agitation of the
boats, they went above to see whether all their fastenings to the shore
were sufficient ; and to their astonishment-no shore could be seen ;
the distant lights of the town were sometimes seen to the right and
sometimes to the left. They imagined themselves to be neither in
the river, nor on the land; but fying with rapidity through the air,
accompanied by a moving forest. It appeared, that for five or six
minutes, the boats were impelled up the stream with great rapidity,
and in the same space of time they were returned, which “accounts
for the shifting appearance of the lights and the rising of the wood gave

relating to the Vale of the Mississippi. 63

Cees a

the appearance of a moving forest. This extraordinnry motion of
the water, so wedged together the logs, that a complete bridge was
‘formed across, and along the river as far as the eye could reach. —
In the above case, the backward current, alternating with the
downward stream, produced by the repetition of the Heavings, which
took place in the river, each Throw brought upon its back, from a
vast depth, sand, fossil coal, and the river, and carried all to a con-
siderable height before the confined air escaped, and the convul-
sion ceased. While this mountain of sand, coal and water was
going up, and during its stay, the river was running down the sides,
alike, to the north, and to the south; the boats and the timbers, on
the south side experienced occasional vollies which continued to
drive them with irregular velocity in the same direction; but it
was otherwise on the northern or upper side; here the current,
when it had descended, united with the accumulated waters above,
and with inconceivable violence returned back, upon the yielding
of the heave. These billows of convulsive nature, repeatedly oc-
occurred in the course of thirty or forty minutes; when the boats,
trees, coal, and sand that were at, or near the summit of this mountain
wave, retreated and pitched headlong into the yawning abyss be-
neath, where they now sleep in silence and darkness. Had a thick
stratum of rock above the confined air formed the bed of this
river, 2 mountain would have been made; and a rampart formed
which would have driven the Mississippi out of its bed, and caused
it to have sought a channel beyond the limits of this mighty bulwark.
Will this river ever lose its primitive character? Should the vale and
adjacent country, be raised by future upheavings of earthquakes, so
as to give the Mississippi its second and final heave, and should it thus
become, like the other rivers of America, fixed within impassible
shores, the principal mountain may be formed in the fork of the Ohio,
and Mississippi, throwing these rivers out of their present channels,
extending the throw along the vale, obliterating the Mexican Gulf,
and Carribean sea, and receiving into her bosom the great Antilles.
The coal beds then exhibited here, would probably equal those
of Pittsburg in quality ; and for quantity would more than equal all
_ the beds of the United States.

But waving hypothetical considerations as to what may be ; and
considering what now exists, or soon will be; we shall suppose the
day not distant, when this river will be perfectly subdued, and its
vale brought within the control of man; that parallel and cross ca-

64 Miscellaneous Geological Topics, &c.

nals will be run, intersecting each other at right angles, for every
two or four miles ; that all the lakes will be filled up, with the accu-
mulation of earthy matter, by conducting the water upon them in
canals, and that all the immense region of cypress forest, the most
valuable timber in the world, will be reclaimed and brought within
the reach of commerce and the arts of life.

PECULIARITIES OF THE MISSISSIPPI.

The Mississippi, like the Caspian Sea, has its bluffs on the eastern
side, with its principal vale and lakes to the west. When the river
is full to the top, all the land and the trees seem to float upon the
surface. The water of the river penetrates the soil with astonishing
facility. This will be seen by observing its level, which is preserved
throughout the vale. A hasty rise in the Mississippi, in consequence
of the want of time, often leaves the water lower in the swamps than
in the river, by which means, the level is lost; but when the flood
remains stationary for a short period, the level is, under favorable
circumstances, recovered. ‘To illustrate the facility with which water
passes through the earth; we might produce the instance of a sand
bar across the Arkansaw, mentioned by Major Pike: When the river
is low, all the water escapes by infiltration through the sand. What is
improperly called the raft in Red river is another example, in which
nearly all the water which descends that river, when low, escapes
through the mud and sand, and along the roots of trees. ‘There is a
sand-bar across the Mississippi, below the Ohio river, which, in low
water, contains not more than three feet. When we consider that
there are a thousand rivers discharging themselves into the Missis-
sippi, and that some of them are at least as wide as it,—shall we say
that the Mississippi is deep and carries off all the water that pours into
it; or shall we conclude that, like the Caspian Sea, it is lost by evapo-
ration? this solution of the difficulty appears to us very absurd.
The size of the Caspian Sea, presenting such an immense sheet of
water to the sun, would of course cause an escape of considerable
water by such a process ;—but will it account for the waste of the
waters of all the rivers which run into it?—We shall not believe that
either the bed of the Caspian Sea, or that of the Mississippi is sheet-
ed over with a flooring, impervious as a solid plate of iron.

Subterranean passages, made by incessant infiltration, producing
small holes or excavations which communicate with the interior of
ihe earth, where they meet with subterranean rivers unquestionably

Ancient American Utensil. 65

exist. As a proof of this fact, we find occasionally that their inhab-
itants leave those dreary regions, and by pursuing the streams, find
their way to the surface of the earth. In what other way can we
account for the appearance of fish in ponds, whose waters are clear,
and whose depth is sufficient to keep cool through summer, and of
a regular temperature during winter. Fish find their way into ponds
in the course of one or two years; where they continue to improve
in size.

We witnessed a very remarkable fact of this kind, in the case of
a fish which visited the surface, a few years ago. The passage which
enabled him to reach the light of the sun, was connected with a hole
at the bottom of a ditch, of about three feet in diameter, and two
feet deep. This canal was.made to drain a small valley, of rain
water ; during the winter and spring*seasons, the water rose quite as
high as the bottom of the canal; but did not during summer ap-
proach nearer the surface than twelve or fifteen feet. This fish was
about eight inches in length, and perhaps of equal circumference.
The hole occupied was filled with water, and there was not a sufti-
cient quantity in the canal to enable him to pass up or down the val-
ley. He was remarkably shy: many attempts were made to ap-
proach the spot so near as to enable one to thrust a pole into the
crevice ; into this he would retreat, when alarmed ; but all efforts to
approach him proved unsuccessful. He would sometimes be absent
for two or three days in succeession. After a stay of about three
weeks, and not being able to find a large stream, or a fit habitation on
the earth,—he disappeared.

Arr. XI.—Notice of an Ancient American Utensil ; by Prof.
~Watter R. Jounson.

Philadelphia, August 9, 1832.

TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

Dear Sir—The early state of the arts among the aborigines of
this country, is a subject of much interest to the American antiquary.
Under this impression, I take the liberty of forwarding to you the
following description, and the accompanying sketch, of an article of
American manufacture, of a date probably anterior to the time of
any European discoveries on the North American continent—per-
haps anterior even to the age of mounds and mummies. For the

Vou. XXIII.—No. 1. 9

66 | Ancient American Utensil.

donation of this interesting relic of antiquity, Lam indebted to the
kindness of Mr. Isaac Rawlings, of Memphis, in Tennessee. He
informs me that it was found near his residence, some eight or ten
years ago, after one of those extensive falls of the river bank, which
are known to be frequent along the line of the Mississippi. It had
been buried several feet beneath the surface, and was brought to
light by the avalanche. The materials of this piece of Indian pot-
tery are blue clay and white particles of a soft, friable substance,
resembling calcined and pulverized shells. ‘The exterior has neither
glazing nor coating of any kind, but only such a degree of smooth-
ness as would be likely to result from long use and much handling.
It does not appear to have been formed upon a potter’s wheel, nor
indeed to have received the effects of any machinery in its manu-
facture, but the hand which mozwlded it, must have been not a little
skilled in the production of such articles, as the figure will sufficient-.
ly indicate. ‘Time appears to have produced but little effect upon
the materials. The figure will show two slight fractures of the rim,
and the scaling off of the whole exterior part of the base, except on
one side.

At four points, on the upper BC trees
portion of the body, and equi-
distant respectively from each
other, are four flattened spots,
each about 1.5 inch in diame-
ter, and, with one exception,
marked by a darker color than
the rest of the vessel. Two }
of these spots are seen in the *
figure. ‘The depressions were ey
obviously made in the moist
state; and, together with the
color, may have resulted from
the arrangement used in burn-
ing or baking the ware; by
which means these four pots were more pressed than others, while
soft, and less exposed to the fire, when hot, than other parts of the
vessel. Hence the carbonaceous or other coloring matter, may not
have been so completely expelled from these parts of the surface.

Articles of this description must, at a very remote period, have
been common in that part of the country whence this was taken.

Ancient American Utensil. 67

In the Philadelphia Museum are two jugs or bottles, composed of.
similar materials, found in Tennessee, at the depth of fifteen or
twenty feet below the surface of the ground. Several specimens of
the same ware, are also contained in the collection of the Philo-
‘sophical Society, in this city. Some of the latter, and one of those
in the Museum, bear a near resemblance in form to an egg, with
one end opened and extended a little, to constitute a neck and
mouth. ‘The most rude and apparently the most ancient specimens
have generally this form; which may possibly have been suggested
to the mind of the savage, together with the very idea of earthen
ware itself, by the previous use of egg shells for some domestic pur-
poses. None of the specimens of pottery above referred to, appear
to have received any glazing—a remark which, as far as my obser-
vation has extended, is likewise applicable to the Mexican and South
American pottery. The latter occasionally exhibit a species of var-
nish very durable in its nature, but entirely distinct from a true gla-
zing. ‘This observation is in conformity with the opinion of Mr.
Abraham Miller of this city, whose practical acquaintance with this
branch of art has led him to a careful examination of many speci-
mens of the ancient manufacture.

The dotted lines and figures in the cut indicate the several dimen-
sions. ‘That the vessel was not formed by revolving machinery is
shown by the difference in the depth of the body on two opposite
sides. The contents of the vase are three andahalf pints. From
its peculiar composition and manufacture, it sends forth when moist-
ened a fresh earthy odor, exactly like that which is perceived at the
commencement,of a sudden shower, at the close of a hot summer’s
day. Asa drinking vessel, this circumstance may have enhanced
its value in the eyes of the Indian, who thus regaled his sense of
smell exactly as when he quaffed from the pure native spring.

I have been thus particular in the above description, from a belief,
that when collected, figured and described, objects of this kind may
aid in forming an estimate of the state of the arts and civilization
among the nations which possessed this continent at periods of very
remote antiquity, and may perhaps furnish an andex to mark the re-
lationship of the American Indians, either with each other, or with
distant nations of the globe.

68 On the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Borlers.

Art. XII.—Remarks on the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Boilers ;
by Watrer R. Jounson, Professor of Mechanics and Natural
Philosophy in the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.*

[Read before the Institute, at the stated monthly meeting, July 26, 1832.]

Ir has been generally supposed that the rolling of bozler-plate iron,
gives to the sheets a greater tenacity in the direction of the length,
than in that of the breadth. Supposing this to be correct, it has fre-
quently been asked, how the sheets ought to be disposed im a cylin-
drical boiler of the common form, in order to oppose the greatest
strength to the greatest strain. It has also been asked, whether the
same arrangement will be required for all diameters, or whether a
magnitude will not be eventually attained, which *y require de di-
rection of the sheets to be reversed ?

To determine these questions in a general manner, recourse must
be had to mathematical formulas, assuming such symbols for each of
the elements as may apply to any given case of which the separate
data are determined either by experiment or by the conditions of the
case. The principles of the calculation require our first notice.

1. To know the force which tends to burst a cyliadrical vessel in
the longitudinal direction,—or, in other words, to separate the head
from the curved sides, we have only to consider the actual area of
the head, and to multiply the number of units of surface by the num-
ber of units of force applied to each superficial unit. This will give
the total divellent force in that direction.

“To counteract this, we have, or may be conceived to have, the te-
nacity of as many longitudinal bars as there are linear units in the cir-
cumference of the cylinder. ‘The united strength of these bars con- ~
stitutes the total retaining or quiescent force, and at the moment when
rupture is about to take place, the divellent and the quiescent forces
must obviously be equal.

2. To ascertain the amount of force which tends to rupture the
cylinder along the curved side, or rather along two opposite sides,
we may regard the pressure as applied through the whole breadth of
the cylinder upon each linear unit of the diameter. Hence the total
amount of force which would tend to divide the cylinder in halves by

* From the Journal of the Franklin Institute.

On the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Boilers. 69

separating it along two lines, on opposite sides, would be represented
by multiplying the diameter by the force exerted on each unit of sur-
face, and this product by the length of the cylinder. But even with-
_ out regarding the Jength, we may consider the force requisite to rup-
ture a single band, in the direction now supposed, and of one linear
unit in breadth; since it obviously makes no difference whether the
cylinder be long or short in respect to the ease or difficulty of sepa-
rating the sides. The divellent force, in this direction, is therefore
truly represented by the diameter multiplied by the pressure per unit
of surface. ‘The retaining or quiescent force in the same direction,
is only the strength or tenacity of the two opposite sides of the sup-
posed band. Here also, at the moment when a rupture is about to
occur, the divellent must exactly equal the quiescent force.

3. In order w. “imate the augmentation of divellent force, conse-
quent upon-an increase of diameter, we have only to consider that as
the diameter is increased, the product of the diameter and the force
per unit of surface, is increased in the same ratio. But unless the
thickness of the metal be increased, the quiescent force must remain
upaltered. ‘The quiescent forces, therefore, continue the same; the
divellent increase with the diameter.

4. Again, asthe dicmeter of the cylinder is increased, the area of
its end is increased in the ratio of the square of the diameter. The
divellent force is therefore augmented in'this ratio. But the retain-
ing force does not, as in the other direction, remain the same, since
the circumference of a circle increases in the same ratio as the diam-
eter. The quiescent force will consequently be augmented in the
simple ratio of the diameter, without any additional thickness of
metal, so that on the whole the total tendency to rupture in this di-
rection will increase only in the simple ratio of the diameter.

5. Since we have seen that the tendency to rupture, in both di-
rections, increases in the simple direct ratio of the increase of diam-
eter, it is obvious that any position of the sheets which is right for
one diameter, must be right for all. Hence, there can never be a
condition, in regard to mere magnitude, which will require the sheets
to be reversed.

6. The foregoing considerations being once admitted, we may
proceed to ascertain what is the true direction of the greatest tena-
city in the sheet, if any difference exist, and to what that difference
might amount, consistently with equal safety of the boiler in both
directions,

70 On the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Boilers.

7. Let «=the diameter of the cylinder; f= the force or pressure
per unit of surface, (pounds per square inch, for example;) ‘T= the
tenacity of metal, which with the diameter x and the force f will be
required in the linear unit of the circumference, in order to hold on
the head. Then, the whole quiescent force will be 3.1416aT, while
the divellent will be .7854x2f; consequently .78540°f=3.14162T,
as above stated. mae by .78542, we have af=4T; and we de-

sg yal

rive immediately ri ae > » f= T=] That is, the tenacity of

the longitudinal bar of the biel unit in width, will be one fourth
of the product of the diameter into the pressure, measuring the tena-
city by the same standard as the pressure, whether in pounds or
kilogrammes.

8. Now assuming the tenacity required in the circular band of the
same width to be ¢, we shall, agreeably to what has already been said,
have the divellent force expressed by af and the quiescent by 2t, so .

x t t
that 2f=2t and _ also f=—? and ae Having thus obtain-

ed two expressions for each of the quantities x and f; we may by
comparing them, readily discover the relative values of 'T and ¢;
4T . d at , 4T. 2¢ T.

thus, 7= f an Poa ie hence Fi rie and) 4-27 on
From which it follows, that, under a known diameter, and with a
given force or pressure, the tenacity of metal in a cylindrical boiler
of uniform thickness, ought to be twice as great in the direction of
the curve as in that of the length of the cylinder, and that if this
could be the case the boiler would still have equal safety in both di-
rections. In whichever direction, therefore, the rolling of the metal
gives the greatest tenacity, in the same direction must the sheet al-
ways be bent in forming the convexity of the cylinder. It follows
that if we suppose the tenacity precisely equal in both directions,
ihe liability to rupture, by a mere internal pressure, ought to be twice
as great along the longitudinal direction as at the juncture of the
head. This supposes the strain regular and the riveting not to
weaken the sheet.

9. To know how large we may safely make a cylindrical boiler,
having the absolute tenacity of the metal, in the strongest direction,
and with a known thickness, we have only to revert to the formula

2t 3
a That is, the diameter will be found by dividing twice the

On the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Boilers. 71

sbioesiy by the greatest force per unit of surface, which the boiler is
ever to sustain.

10. When, knowing the absolute tenacity of a metal or avec ma-
terial reckoned in weight, to the bar of a given area, in its cross sec-
tion, we would determine the thickness of that metal which ought to
be employed in a boiler of given diameter and to sustain a certain

x, , e . e
force, we may use the formula = and, dividing the latter mem-

ber of this equation by the strength of the square bar, which we may
call s, we obtain the thickness demanded in the direction of the curve,

x
which we may denominate p, so that _ this will give the thick-

ness of the boiler plate, either in whole numbers or decimals. ‘Thus,

suppose the diameter of a cylindrical boiler is to be 36 inches,—that

it is to be formed of iron which will bear 55000 lbs. to the square

inch, and is to sustain 750 Ibs. to the square inch ;—what ought to

be the thickness of the metal? Here r=36, f=750, 2s=110,000;
36 X'750

consequently, p= 710000

=.24954, or a little less than one quarter

ofaninch. |

11. It must, however, be evident that the minimum tenacity, of
any particular description of metal, is that on which all the calcula-
tions ought to he made, when there is any probability that the actual
pressure will, in practice, ever reach the limit assigned as the value
of f in the calculation. <i

If we had plates of different metals, or of different known degrees
of tenacity in the same kind of metal, and were desirous of ascer-
taining how strong a kind we must employ under a limited thickness,
diameter and pressure, we should decide the point by transforming

x © af
the formula p= into po and then into = In other terms,

in order to know the strength of the metal required, or the direct
strain which an inch square bar of the same ought to be capable of
sustaining, we must multiply the diameter of the boiler in inches by
the pressure per square inch in pounds, and divide the product by
twice the intended thickness in parts of an inch. Thus, how strong
a metal ought to be employed to sustain a pressure of 1000 Ibs. to
the square inch, ina boiler 30 inches in diameter and one quarter of

72 On the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Boilers.

an inch thick? Here soe =60,000. Hence we see that
the metal must be capable of sustaining sixty thousand pounds to the
inch bar, or in that proportion, for any other size. This formula en-
ables us to determine whether among the metals of known tenacity
any one can be found to fulfil the conditions under the thickness as-
signed.

12. On the basis of the foregoing formulas, the following table of
diameters, thicknesses of iron, and strairs to the inch of metal, in both
directions, has been formed. It is obvious that the actual tenacity of
the metal employed ina given case must be of the greatest impor-
tance to the result. ‘The extensive series of experiments recently
undertaken by the Institute to determine this question, in reference
to different kinds and varieties of boiler plate, and with regard to the
various circumstances of its manufacture and application, will here-
after. furnish us with important data to aid in applying the formulas
to each separate case. I shall for the present assume the tenacity
of an inch square bar of rolled iron at 55000 Ibs. in the direction of
the length of the sheet. Supposing the pressure generally employed
in cylindrical high pressure boilers to be 150 lbs. to the square inch,
agreeably to the practice in this city, the table is calculated upon the
principle that the boiler ought to have five times as great a strength
as it is ordinarily required to exert. ‘The calculation is upon a con-
tinuous sheet of metal, without seams in any direction. ‘The thick-
nesses are given in ten-thousandths of an inch; but in yebe les -the
last figure may be omitted without material error.

On the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Boilers.

73

Thickness of plate iron
which will bear 55,000 Corresponding tenaci-|Tenacity required in
Ibs. to the square inch) ty of each inch wide} each longitudinal bar
yequired to resist the| ring or band requir-| of one inch wide, to
strain in the direction] ed to support a press-| sustain the pressure
Diameter of} of the curve under a) ure of 750 Ibs. to the) tending to burst out
the boiler | pressure of 750 Ibs. to) square inch, calcu-| the head, calcalated
im inches. { the square inch, cal-| lated on the formula] on the formula T=
culated by the formu- af af
la P=5,:
inches. Inch. Pounds. Pounds.
1 -0068 375 187.5
2 _.0136 750 a)
3 0204 1125 562.5
4 0272 1500 750
3) 0341 1875 937.5
6 .0409 2250 1125
7 .0476 2625 1312.5
8 -0545 3000 1500
a, 0613 3375 1687.5
10 0681 3750 1875
11 0745 4125 2062.5
12 .0818 4500 2250
14 0954 5250 2625
16 -1090 6000 3000
18 1227 6750 3375
20 -1363 7500 3750
22 -1490 8250 4125
24 -1636 9000 - 4500
26 L773 9750 4875
28 .1909 - 10500 5250
30 .2045 11250 5625
32 .2182 12000 6000
34 2318 12750 6375
36 2455 13500 6750
38 2091 14250 7125
40 PAT 15000 7500
42 .2860 15750 7875
44 .2980 16500 8250
46 3116 17250 8625
48 .3252 18000 9000
50 .3988 18750 9375

13. I am not aware that this subject has been previously treated
in a general manner, at least as it regards several of the points above
presented. Mr. Oliver Evans made some particular calculations of
the strength requisite to sustain the pressure in a boiler of known di-
mensions, under a tension of 1500 lbs. to the square inch. In the

Vou. XXIII.—No. 1. 10

74 On the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Boilers.

table at p. 27 of his “Young Steam Engineer’s Guide,” he has given
calculations for seventeen different diameters of boilers, with the
power which, at each diameter, the steam would exert “to break
every ring of one inch wide in any one place,” and ‘the thickness
of the sheets of good tron necessary to hold the power.” His table
is formed on the supposition that sheet iron will bear 64,000 lbs. to
the square inch, and would consequently lead to considerable excesses
if strictly applied in practice. To six of the diameters he has an-
nexed the “ power exerted on the heads to burst them out, in pounds
weight.”’ ‘These he has calculated in the usual manner, by multi-
plying the area by the pressure per inch. Opposite to three of the
numbers just mentioned, he has added “the strength of the boiler to
hold the head on, in pounds weight.” ‘These he has calculated on
the supposition that the metal had equal tenacity in all directions.
On this supposition, and on the principles above developed, each of
those three numbers should have been exactly double of that against
which it stands in the preceding column. Neither of the three is so,
precisely ; but the first and third come as near it as could be expect-
ed, considering that the thickness is expressed only in hundredths of
an inch, while the second is too small by more than a million of |
pounds. ‘These errors would not, I apprehend, have occurred had
the author adverted to the general principle above developed, in re-
gard to strength required of the metal in the two directions.

The following extract from the table just alluded to, will illustrate
the preceding remarks: a column of corrected results has been added.

Thickness of| Corrected num-
. |Power to break| the plate of bers to be substi-
Diameter ef} each ring of jiron sustain-| Power ex- | Strength to |tuted for those
the boiler | 1 inch, press-| ing 64,000 |erted on the hold on the |of col. 5, agree-
in inches. ure being | lbs. to the heads. heads. _ {ably to the fore-
2 1500 Ibs. [square inch. going remarks.

42 31,000 48 2,077,500 4,052,400] 4,155,000

|
36 27,000 42 11,525,500 2,037,440) 3,051,000
20 15,000 23 471,000: 918,777; 942,000

The very general use, in this country, of strong cast iron heads,

fastened to the wrought iron cylinders by broad flanches extending
some inches within the latter, there riveted and subsequently further
secured by a strong wrought iron hoop,- driven on when hot and
shrunk by cooling,—appears to obviate the necessity of examining
the question in regard to the best form and necessary thickness of

Reflective Goniometer. 75

wrought iron heads. I have lately seen, at the Philadelphia Water
Works, the range of boilers, constructed several years ago, on thé
above principle, by Oliver Evans himself, removed, on account of
their use having been superseded by water power. Although these
boilers had been for several years employed under a pressure of 100
and 150 Ibs. per square inch, yet the heads did not appear to have
suffered in the least degree from exposure to this force. Hence the
French instructions, forbidding the use of plain cast iron heads for
pressures above 1$ uuibapheres do not seem to be founded on sufhi-
cient experience of their actual value.

Art. XUL.—A simplification of Dr. Wollaston’s Reflective Goni-
ometer ; by R. Graves, Jr., Civil Engineer.

Havine found much difficulty attendant upon the use of Dr.
Wollaston’s goniometer, I was led to the construction of the one, a
description of which follows.

I am aware that it has been said, “that the value of a reflected
angle cannot be found by mere inspection,” yet it will readily be
granted that, let a person assume any degree of intenseness of re-
flection upon one plane of the angle sought, and let him detect the.
same degree of vividness upon the remaining plane, he will have
inspected the angle formed by the meeting of these two planes, the
which, if done upon any graduated surface whose revolving can be
determined, will give the value of the angle sought. Now the
only difficulty lies in detecting equal degrees of intenseness. This
I have tested both by the amount of a double right angle, and by
affixing an angled plate upon the revolving plane. . It can be done
by simply catching the darkening on the edges, as they approach the
axis of the planes the value of whose angles is sought. ‘There
are two kinds that have been used. One made of brass with bands
and braces instead of being solid, is an expensive though light and
pretty instrument. ‘The other is made of well seasoned wood ; it is
less neat in appearance, but is simple, cheap and can be made by al-
most any person, (I made the one I use myself.) It is the latter
instrument that I shall describe.

Elevation view——The dark concentric ring AA, bounding IJ, is
made of mahogany one half or three fourths of an inch in breadth
upon the anterior surface, two inches deep till it meets II, it is then

Reflective Goniometer.
REFLECTIVE GONIOMETER. ~

76

2D lillie 1/ : x a
a WE a

12 I fo.
—!—--.

‘of silvered brass is attached to

b)

y one inch deep to the center square

Scale of one foot.
» posterior]
bolt N. A vernier or nonius DD
AA, half way up anteriorly, graduated in minutes corresponding to

continued beneath TH

Reflective Goniometer. Fi

the degrees upon BB; and for the better concentration of the visual
rays a small knee K, is made to fit upon the line of O on the ver-
nier at the angle of vision K.

The plane II (of maple or any light colored wood) is made to fit
the inner part of A, both surfaces 1 and A being in the same plane
anteriorly, one inch in depth and seventeen inches in diameter. It
revolves upon the iron axis Z, and has a small brass head piece E,
attached to it (and revolving with it) from the center, p, of which is
a pin projecting three fourths of inch from its surface, upon which
the crystalline form that we wish to inspect is adjusted and fastened.
A semi-circular band of brass BB, three fourths of an inch wide is
fastened to the upper edge of IJ, graduated in degrees correspond-
ing to the minutes upon the vernier D. ‘The small rollers a, a, are
of iron one fourth of an inch in diameter, secured in the inner plane
s, s, of A, for the more easy and true moving of II. And to hold
the revolving plane II, immovably upon its arbor Z; and thereby to
prevent BB, from slipping from its place, (after adjusting it by ob-
servation,) before we read the angle off; we have a brass clamp
C, screwed fast upon the edge of I, and pressing upon a groove in
the plane II of A posteriorly by a screw d. (This on the brass in-
strument works by a tangent screw.) ‘The semi-circular groovings
Sf, f; are to fit the end of one’s fingers in moving the rotary plane I.
The whole stands upon a firm support F, M, Q. The legs F, F,
(of mahogany two inches square by twelve inches in elevation, i. e.
from the top of the stand Q, to the horizontal diameter of AA,) are
immovably secured in the mahogany stand or footing Q, which for
the better steadying of the instrument has a leaden bottom H, one
half of an inch in thickness by twelve inches square, attached to the
stand Q, inferiorly, and still further to attain firmness, an iron brace
M, one inch by one fourth of an inch, may be fastened to G, with
its bent end screwed in the surface of Q.

To secure the different parts against shrinking, I would not have
the given proportions (however clumsy they may appear) lessened.

Example.—We first place the instrument upon the table, so that
its anterior plane receives the rays as vertically and strongly as may
be (reflected through any uninterrupted space, for instance a window) ;
then adjust it so that O upon the vernier and O upon the graduated
semi-circle may stand immediately opposite to each other, i. e.
K, p, A being in the same horizontal line. Screw the clamp CG, fast.
And with a bit of wax secure your crystal upon the projection p,

78 List of the Plants of Chile.

turning it till you see (through the pomt of view K) the brightest
light fall upon the center of the chosen side, as shown on Y. It be-
ing now adjusted, unscrew the clamp, and revolve IT gently from you,
(inferiorly) till you catch the same intenseness of light as you started
with, resting upon its remaining side (the faint shadowing playing
upon either edge of the side viewed, leaving a line of strong light
passing through its center). Screw the clamp fast again and read
the angle off,—the degrees upon BB, and the minutes upon DD.

By this simple and expeditious process, the angles of any crystal
(reflecting light from its sides and above the size of a pin’s head, ull
so large that we can measure it by the simple goniometer) may ue
found with the surest accuracy.

nr. KV Last of the Plants of Chile; translated from the “* Mer-
curio Chileno,” byW.S.W.Ruscuensercer, M.D. U.S. Navy.

(Continued from Vol. XX. p. 260.)

Faba vulgaris. Mcench. Haba. A plant cultivated in fields
and olitories. Its seeds are eaten when tender and serve to thicken
broth which the French call purée. Beans make a good diet for
horses, and it woud be well to extend their cultivation with this view,
and particularly 1 in winter when there isa scarcity of grass and straw
and barley is advanced in price.

Fabiana imbricata. Ruiz and Pavon. <A small tree in sandy
places near the torrents of Taguatagua and San Fernando. It is
called Pichz; its singular appearance, the disposition of its small
leaves and the great number of its whitish flowers, recommend it as
an ornamental plant. Country people make spoons of its wood.
There is I think another plant bearing the same vulgar name which
it issaid serves as a dye. I have not seen it and therefore cannot
speak of it.

Fagus obliqua. Mirb. Roble—oak—a tree common in the high
mountains. Its trunk sometimes acquires the thickness of three or
four yards anda very considerable height. The wood is much
used in carpentry ; itis used in the construction of houses, ships,
cart-wheels, &c. Its bark is good for tanning hides and gives them
ared color. In the spring is formed on the branches of this tree a
great number of whitish tubercles, the parenchyma of which is spongy,
though sufficiently consistent at first. I thought ita galla or ex-

List of the Plants of Chile. 79

crescence produced by the wound cf some insect as is seen on some
other trees of Europe, and I gave the matter but little attention, but
two days afterwards they became unglued from the branch and I
observed with surprise that the skin was broken and the whole sur-
face covered with pentagonal tubes precisely similar to the alveoli
of a honey-comb, at first full of a gelatinous substance, of the color
of milk, which disappeared with the maturation, afterwards throw-
ing out from these cavities with some force an impalpable powder
when it was touched, exactly asis observed inthe Peziza vesiculosa.
At the end of two days these bodies softened, lost their expulsive
property and rotted. ‘These circumstances incline me to think that
these tubercles are mosses, and perhaps a new genus approximating
to the Spheria, if the color and consistence are not deceptive. Its
vulgar name is Dignénes. Some persons eat them, but their insip-
id and styptic taste is disagreeable. I will study this singular pro-
duction, the first opportunity that presents itself.

Fedia Samolifolia. Bertero. A very common species in the
fresh pastures of the hills and mountains; it is also met with in the
plain near torrents. It is of no use, although ‘its leaves (somewhat
fatty,) have the same taste as those of the F. olitoria, Vahl.
which is eaten as salad in Europe.

Festuca. LL. Ihave met with many species of this genus; the
most common is that which is called posto blanco, paja teatina which
is the F. muralis, H. B. and K. It grows in arid spots on the plain
and on walls. The coiron is also a Festuca which is found in
the pastures of the high mountains near the snows. Its leaves
are very useful for covering huts and houses. Large quanti-
ties of it are annually used for this purpose. The FF. Brizordes,
Spreng., which authors say comes from Montevideo, is very common
in arid and stony situations in the mountains and along the Cacha-
pual.

Ficus Carica. L. Higuera. The first fruit is called drevas and
the other Aigos, figs. ‘There are many varieties. This tree flour-
ishes in Chile: I have seen some of them of an immense size. The
fruit is delicious, sweet and very abundant. It is dried in large
quantities for the winter and also for exportation. ‘Turners should
make use of its wood as they do in Europe and particularly in
Geneva.

Flaveria Contrayerva. Pers. It is found in fields and olitories
near drains and cultivated places. This plant is called here dan-da;

80 Last of the Plants of Chile.

it is generally used in yellow tincture, prepared by decoction. The
Eupatorium Chilense, Molina, which Steudel has preserved in his
Nomenclator, is only a synonym of this species.

Fragaria Chilensis. Ehrh. A pretty species which is ules
almost every where. Strawberries vary much in their form and
color. ‘They are excellent though they want that pleasant odor
possessed by those of Europe. They should be cultivated in the
neighborhood of the capital. —

Frelichia violacea. Spr. This tree is found in the garden of the
Chilean Lyceum. -There is but one root which it is said was plant-
ed by the Jesuits. The Indians call it uthin; it is the [tia of Mo-
lina according to Sprengel, who designates it under the name of Lon-
wera corymbosa. LL. Although I have only been able to examine the
fruit in its different states, I am of opinion that the plant does not
belong to this genus and not even to the family of Rubiacee to
which this genus belongs. It will. perhaps form a new one which
will be included with the Caprifoliacee, which I will determine when
I see the flower. The fruit is of the size and color of. the orange
and of the form.of the pear; it has but one stone, rarely two. If
this tree were cultivated it might serve as an ornament to gardens
and even be made useful in tanning and dyeing. Gallic acid and
tannin abound in every part of the plant.

Fuchsia macrostemma. Ruiz and Pavon. A shrub which is seen
in shady and humid woods, near the rivulets, on mountains, and
which for the elegance of its flowers, is cultivated under the name
of Tilco, or jasmin del papa; it resembles a variety of the F.
coccinea. Ait. Its beauty makes it worthy of propagation. I have
seen another species of this genus on the heights of Valparaiso,
which resembles the F’. lyctoides, Andr.

Fumago. Pers. The black dust which is often observed on the:
leaves of orange trees, pear trees, and litres, constitutes, according to
Persoon, a genus to which he has given this name, because the leaves
appear to have been exposed to the action of smoke. It forms many
species according to the plant on which it is found. ‘There is some
doubt as to the nature of this production; and modern botanists do
not name it. :

Fumaria spicata. L. It grows near roads, and in the vicinity of
Valparaiso, Santiago, and Corcolen. Although very common, and
particularly in the last place, it is-very Beckie originally from
Europe.

Lust of the Plants of Chile. 81

Fumaria hygrometrica. Hedw. Common on walls, in pastures
and on the margins of drains, and in humid situations. It is a moss,
hke many others, called pastito. I have found another species which
appears to me to be different; it approaches to the EF. calvescens,
Schwagr.

Galinsogea parviflora. W. A weed which grows in all gardens
and is called tomatillo, a name which bears no relation to the plant.
It is useless.

Galium Aparine. L. Lengua de gato, very common in enclos-
ures and thickets in the pastures of the plain, and in other places.
There are three other species: the first resembles the G. rotundi-
folia, L., and the other two appear to be new. One of them has
the stalks ligneous at the base, and the fruit bristly ; it is found in
the woods, on the highlands, and on the banks of the Cachapual.

Galvezia spicata. Bertero. A beautiful shrub which mounts on
trees, adhering by their roots like the yedra (ivy), which name has
been given to it. Its fruit is very red and of the size of a pea: it is
called coralillos. Probably this species is the same as the Myrtus
parasitica Marifolia. Feuill. As to its generic character it ap-
proaches the Galvezia, but the species is very different from the G.
punctata, Ruiz and Pavon, which I have not even met with.

Gardinia purpurascens. Bertero. A bulbous plant resembling
the Alum and the Ornithogalum, L.., which I have seen only once
in the inclosures along the road leading to Quinta, not’ far from the
houses of Zamorano. It is called mapolita azul, and merits cultiva-
tion in gardens on account of the elegant color of its flowers. In
testimony of my veneration and gratitude to him who gave me the
first ideas of botany, I have dedicated this pretty plant to the memo-
ry of the celebrated professor of physics, the late Doctor Francisco
Jose Gardini, a worthy scholar of Becearia, and to whom Galvani
owes, in a great part, the honor of his valuable discovery. Among
his works crowned by the academies of Europe, I will only cite the
following :-—De influxu electricitatis atmospharice in vegetantia.
Taurini, 1782. Svo. .

Gardoquia obovata. Ruizand Pavon. Oreganillo. A small shrub
frequent in elevated situations and among.the thickets on the high-
lands. Its leaves are aromatic and might be employed in certain
painful affections. ave

Vou. XXIILL—No. 1. 11

82 List of the Plants of Chile.

Geastrum hygrometricum. Pers. It is found. in winter on walls
near drains. It resembles the G. rufescens, Pers., but I think it
differs from both.

Geranium Pusillum. L. Very frequently in pastures, along roads
and in cultivated lands. It is called core-core, and is employed as a
remedy in various complaints, particularly in pains of the teeth, gams —
and throat. It is also used in decoction as a wash for old ulcers.
The G. Robertianum, L., is common in woods, and among the rocks
on the highlands. A third species is found in elevated pastures, at
the entrance of woods and thickets; this resembles the G. tuberosum,
L., from which however it differs in its napiform root. Its flowers
vary in size and in the intensity of their color; its stalk is sometimes
recumbent and sometimes upright.

Geum coccineum. Sibth. and Smith. Vulgarly, flor ded clavo.
Modern authors, as Sprengel and De Candolle, give this plant as
originally from Asia Minor, and particularly from Mount Olympus, in
Bithynia, no doubt from the description and plate of it, published by
Sibthorp and Smith in the Flora Greca. Nevertheless De Can-
dolle in his Prodromus says that he had received a specimen of this
species from Balbis, under the name of G. Chiloense. ‘This obser-
vation leads me to think that it is cultivated in the island of Chiloe,
but I have learned with much satisfaction that the flor del clavo is
very common in humid pastures at the foot of the mountains oppo-
site to Cachapual, at a short distance from fzo-claro. _ Consequent-
ly, we must say that Chile is also its native country, and compare
the Asiatic species with that of America, and decide upon their iden-
tity. Amateurs should in the mean time propagate this plant in their
gardens. ‘The inhabitants use its roots in certain complaints 3 it has
the odor of the pink, like those of the G. Urbanum, L.

Gilia lacimata. Ruiz and Pavon. Common in sterile and stony
places, along rivers and torrents, and is not wanting on the highlands.
There is another plant of the family of the Polemoniacee, frequent
in the humid pastures on the plain, and near torrents. In its leaves
it resembles the G. coronopifolia, Pers. ; but the generic characters
are altogether different. I think it will form a genus which IJ will de-
scribe hereafter.

Gnaphalium Viravira. Molina. Vulgarly Viravira; common in
sterile and stony situations on the plain and highlands. I only find
it mentioned by Steudel, and I do not see that it is considered as a
synonym. ‘This plant occupies a middle place between the G. lu-

List of the Plants of Chile. 83

teoalbum, Li., and the G. candicans, Kunth. Perhaps it belongs to
the last, which Gaudichaud has also collected in the Falkland islands
and which he has called G. consanguineum. The comparative ex-
amination of the specimens will decide the question. This plant is
much used and has vulnerary as well as febrifuge and sudorific prop-
erties attributed to it. The G. Chilense, Spr., is a very beautiful
plant which prefers the mountain rocks; it is sometimes as white as
snow; its stalk is woody and is known by the same vulgar name. I
have also met with the G. Chetranthifoliwm, Lamk., in stony situa-
tions, on the hills around Valparaiso and Santiago. It is a beauti-
ful species resembling the G. Montevidense, Spr. Many others
have been collected in dry pastures, along drains, and in the sand near
torrents, both in high and low situations. ‘Two of them appear to me
new; the first approaches the G. Pennsylvanicum, W.; the other,
which is viscous in all its parts, grows in Leona; finally four approx-
mate the G. Germanicum, minumum, Smith, pyramidatum and ar-
vense, W.

Gonolobus. Michx. <A plant is cultivated in gardens which ap-
pears to belong to this species. Its fruit or rather follicles, open
when ripe and give exit to numberless grains armed with very long »
villi, similar to cotton, hence the name of vicuita by which some dis-
tinguish it; but this shrub is more generally known by the name of
jazmin del Tucuman. Not having seen the flower, I can say nothing
at present. Nevertheless the peculiar form of its smooth leaves with
small glands in their insertion with the petiole, the point of which is
oblique, are particulars with which I have not met united in any pub-
lished species. ‘Two other plants of this family are indigenous.
The first is called vogni, a name common to other vegetables. It is
found on the arid hills near the Cachapual on the road to Cauquenes.
‘Its flowers were not open. The second, called voquicillo, frequent
on the hills, in the highlands and even in enclosures on the plains,
appears to be related to the Cynanchum lanceolatum, Kunth, al-
though it differs essentially from it.

Gossypium herbaceum and arboreum. L. Algodon, cotton. ‘They
are sown almost every year in some gardens, but rarely ripen in
consequence of the frost, which begins early. If it were desirable
to try the cultivation of the first of these plants on a large scale, it
would be necessary to select the warmest position, and perhaps if
sown early something might be obtained though never very consid-
erable. Would it not be more profitable to give preference to the

84 List of the Piants of Chile.

caramo? (Cannabis sativa. L.) I have been assured that it is
successfully cultivated in Conception ; a good reason for introducing
it into the province of Santiago, and-though not with a commercial
view, every proprietor should sow a small quantity on his lands as
is the practice in Europe. ‘The small quantity collected would serve
for making cords, which are so necessary, and by which a great num-
ber of hides would be saved, and employed for other purposes. ‘The
stripped and dried stalks, with a small quantity of sulphur on the two
ends, form matches which would cost nothing, the use of which is
unknown in this country, though so useful in domestic hfe. The
great inconvenience of obtaining a light in urgent cases, and particu-
larly in the country, at the expense of the lungs and of patience,
when a single moment lost might be important, is continually experi-
enced. Pardon this digression to objects which may appear too
humble—to those who think so I will say, there is no subject trifling
when the general good of society is linked with it.

Gratiola Peruviana. L. A small plant which grows in gardens
and cultivated places; it delights in the shade and in humidity. It
ismane 304

Grindelia glutinosa. Dun. A pretty species with large flowers,
which grows in the fissures of rocks, and on the hills of Valparaiso,
Leona and 'Taguatagua. Although the description may answer to it,
I am inclined to believe that the Chilian plant differs essentially from
that of Mexico. In the stony and arid pastures, in the vicinity of
the Cachapual, is found the G. Pulchella, Dun., which merits culti-
‘vation. Ihave found two varieties; the first in dry places on the
banks of the Maypu; it is smaller, its leaves are entire very sharp
pointed, and even acerate and prickly; the other, at the foot of
Mount San Cristoval, near the Capital, with tomentose and whitish
leaves. ‘They may possibly be distinct species. In this case £ will
call them G. acerosa and G. canescens. ‘This approaches to the G.
angustifolia, Kunth, but the stalk is fructicose.

Gunnera scabra. W. Vulgarly pangue; a very useful plant
which is met with in marshy places, near water courses and tor-
rents in the mountains. Its virtues and uses are so generally known
that it is useless to enumerate them. Molina speaks of it in detail,
and I will refer to his work. 1 will only add that it should be largely
cultivated for tanning, and yielding an excellent black dye. The
decoction of its root is administered in certain abdominal affections.
The juice of the petiole and stalk (scapus) is acidulous but styptic;
ices are made with it and are generally liked.

List of the Plants of Chile. 85

Gymnostyles Chilensis. Spr. A small plant very common, in the
spring, in pastures, on the highlands, and along roads on the plain.

Hedyotis Virginica. Spr. In the sandy pastures along the edges
of torrents in Taguatagua. A pretty plant with dull blue flowers.
They are very smali and do not claim attention.

Helianthus annuus. L. <A plant from Peru and Mexico, culti-
vated in gardens and which many call flor del sol. Various authors
state that the whole plant offers important advantages, particularly the
seed; they yield oil in abundance. On this account it ought to be
cultivated largely. It would also be well to introduce into the coun-
try the H. tuberosus, L., native of Brazil; its tubercles, known in
France under the names of alcachofes de Jerusalem or topinambours,
are alimentary. Hogs are fond of them and fatten on their use.

Heliotropium Chilense. Bertero. I have seen this beautiful plant
on the sides of the roads, in sandy places surrounding the lake of
Aculéo. It approaches the Hi. filiforme, Humb., though it differs
~ from it considerably. It is strange that the H. Peruvianum, L., is
almost unknown in this country. ‘The sweet smell of its flowers
which is so much like that of the Vainilla, secures for it a conspicu-
ous place in gardens, where it might be easily cultivated in beds,
without any necessity for flower pots.

Hemimeris Urticifolia. W. Found in woods, and principally on
heights and in exposed situations. I do not know whether it has
any vulgar name. It should be cultivated—its flesh-colored and
numerous flowers recommend it.

Heracleum tuberosum. Mola. The species described by this
author is in my opinion doubtful; at least, it does not in any particu-
lar resemble that which I have met and which is very common in
the pastures of Leona and the Punta de Cortes. The plant of Mo-
lina is similar (according to Willdenow) to the Hf. Sphondylium, L.,
while mine closely resembles the Stum Bulbocastanum, Spr., with
the difference that the fruit is alate, the tubercles almost round, of
the size of a nut, blackish outside and white in the interior, and of an
agreeable taste. ‘Phey are much sought by the gwanque or cururu,
a small animal similar to the Jus cyaneus, Molina, which fills the
subterraneous cavities which it BEES, with these tubercles and lives
on them during the winter.

Himantia. Pers. A small moss which grows on rotten wood.
It resembles the H. plumesa, Schumacher.

86 List of the Plants of Chile.

Hoffmanseggia Falcaria. Cav. Frequent in cultivated places
near Chimba and the Magazin. It appears a little different, and
perhaps is that which Miers has called Hl. Chilensis.

Aoitzia linearis. Spr. This plant is common in the pastures of
the highlands and at the entrance of woods near the Cachapual. It
differs in its leaves being smooth, and its flowers not viscous.

Holcus. L. tis met with in the inundated meadows near the
lake of Taguatagua, and resembles the H. Halepensis, L. but dif-
fers from it considerably, and even appears to be another genus.

Hordeum vulgare. L. _ Cebada;—barley, cultivated in fields. Its
grain, mixed with straw, forms excellent food for horses, and par-
ticularly in winter; it is also used for refreshing ptysans. ‘The beer
which is made in the country, and the use of which is daily aug-
menting, consumes a large quantity of this grain; therefore, its cul-
tivation should be extended. Brewers ought also to endeavor-to in-
troduce the hop, (Humulus Lupulus, L.) which would be very ad-
vantageous for them. The H. murinum, L. (cola de raton,) is fre-
quently met with on the sides of roads and at the foot of walls, near
inhabited places. Ihave found a variety of this last species in bar-
ren situations, on the banks of the Cachapual. It is very small and
has the sheath of the leaves swollen. I think it might be separated
and called H. utriculatum, as its character is the same as that of the
Alopecurus, to which that name is given.

Hyacinthus Orientalis. L. Jacinto ;—hyacinth, cultivated in gar-
dens. Its varieties are numerous, but the most beautiful are not
sufficiently propagated in the country, and some are unknown.
They should be taken care of, that they may not degenerate. Its
bulbs, placed in water, in vessels adapted to the purpose, and placed
in a moderate temperature, flourish in winter and form a pretty orna-
ment for saloons. ‘The same may be done with the Narcissus and
other plants of the same family.

Hydrocotyle Asiatica, and Ranunculoides. L. Vulgarly, tembla-
derilla. ‘These two species are common in drains, im stagnant wa-
ters, in villages and neighboring cultivated grounds. Some attribute
inedicinal virtues to them. ‘The acrid principle common to many
aquatic plants, and to some species of this genus, makes its quality
suspicious.

Hymenopappus glaucus. Spr. Manzanilla del campo. Very
common in sterile and sandy places, both on the plains and high-
lands. Its aromatic and penetrating odor, resembling the chamomile,

List of the Plants of Chile. 87

has given it this vulgar name. Its infusion is administered in the
same complaints asthe Spanish chamomile; but the principal use of
the plant is for making brooms, which are of an inferior quality. It
forms also a dye, which is now but little used. The Santolina tine-
toria, Molina, adopted by Persoon and Steudel, is a synonym of this
species, as has been observed by Sprengel.

HAypnum. L. Many species are met with on the barks of trees,
on rocks, in the woods, and on the margins of drains. ‘These plants,
like others of the family of mosses which grow in this country, are
not of sufficient interest to merit enumeration; besides, this labor re-
quires much time, and the means of comparison, which are not al-
ways possessed by a travelling naturalist.

Hypocheris. L. ‘The name of escorzonera is given indifferently
to two plants, which, at first sight, appear to belong to two different
species, since one has a simple stalk, a single flower, and grows
among the rocks of the highlands, and the other is ramose, with
smaller flowers, and prefers sandy spots, near rivers, in the plain.
Notwithstanding this, the intermediate characteristics which I have
observed do not allow me to separate them: I will only say that
the first should be referred to the H. Sonchoides, Kunth. ‘The root
of the escorzonera is much used in the country ; its decoction, con-
sidered as refreshing, is employed in a multitude of cases, as in ca-
tarrhal affections, &c. Those who are recently delivered commonly
make use of it.

Jasminum officinale. L. Jasmine; cultivated for the whiteness
and sweetness of its flowers. ‘The diamelo, (J. Sambac, L.) is also
met with in many gardens; the variety with double flowers is much
esteemed, but the cultivation is more difficult.

Impatiens Balsamina. L. Vulgarly, miramelindre; common in
all gardens. ‘This flower, purely ornamental and inodorous, varies.
much in its color. ‘The double variety is little known.

Tris Germanica, Li. and pallida, Lamk. Liris. They are-met
with in gardens. The foliage and form of their flowers are quite
singular: there is a variety with white flowers. The chatre capu-
chino, (I. Sisyrinchium, L.) is less frequent. These plants are not
much esteemed, on account of their short duration and the rapidity
with which their corollas wither.

Isaria crassa, and mucida. Pers. .'Two small mosses; the first
grows in the dead chrysalides of insects, and the second on rotten
wood, in winter.

88 List of the Plants of Chile.

Esatis tinctoria. L. Common in draims, near Rancagua, and in
cultivated situations. It is probable that some persons may have
been desirous of trying its cultivation, to extract the blue which
might be used as a substitute for the indigo of commerce. This is
what is called in French Indigo-pastel. It might be well to culti-
vate it extensively.

Juglans regia. L. An European tree, known by the name of
nogal. Every body knows the nut and the different uses to which
it can be applied; it is, therefore, useless to enter into details.
Although the walnut is common im this country, it might be usefully
multiplied, with a view both to the increase of its fruit and the abun-
dance of an excellent wood.

Juncus. L. ‘Three species, which approach the J. acutiflorus,
Ebrh. Bufonius and bulbosus, L. They grow in drains and humid
meadows, in the plain.

Jungermannia. L. Plants of the hepatic family, which delight
in shady and humid places. The J. Tamarisci, L. grows on the
mountain rocks; the Magellanica, Lamk. on the trunks of trees:
it is.scarce. ‘There is another species, which I believe — and
which grows in elevated fields, on the highlands.

Jussieua. L. A species of this genus is very frequent in marshy

situations and in drains. It approaches the J. repens, Li. and dif-
fers from it in being velvety, which however is not constant. ‘The
J. Montevidensis, Spr. is not very different from our plant, as I have
often seen the peduncles armed with two bracts. Ialso think that
the Onosuris Chamissonis, DC. predr. belongs to this species, which
should not be separated from the genus Jussieua.

Kageneckia oblonga. Ruiz and Pavon. A very beautiful tree,
called bollen. It grows in the woods, on the highlands, and on the
heights near Cachapual. Its bark is used as a dye; it is also thought
to be purgative, but is not at present employed. I have observed:
that the young branches and_ leaves are glutinous, which induces me
to think that this species is only a variety of the K. glutinosa, Kunth.

Keleria villosa. DC. Avery common grass in the dry pastures
of the highlands, and along the sides of roads in the plain.

_ Krigia. Schreb. A small plant of the tribe of the Chicoracee,
frequent in high meadows, and inthe plain. The generic character
answers to it, with some little difference, but among the species de-
scribed I do not find one with pinnate leaves. I shall call it K.
Chailensis.

List of the Plants of Chile. 89

Lactuca sativa. L. <A vegetable very generally cultivated and
used. ‘There are some varieties much esteemed. ‘This plant. is
said to be refreshing, and as such enters into the composition of pty-
sans. ‘The extract or juice obtained from it either by incisions into
the stalks, or slightly bruising it, inspissated by a moderate heat, is a
sedative remedy, similar to opium but without its irritating property.
This extract is called Lactucarium or Thridace. 'The L. virosa, L.
which some cultivate, in particular, yields an extract more active and
in some cases preferable.

Lardizabala biternata. Ruiz and Pavon. <A shrub with viny
stalks and branches, common in the woods of Taguatagua and Cau-
guenes. ‘Che name vogui, common to other plants very different in
their nature, is given to this. Its stalk acquires the size of the arm
at the base and diminishes insensibly as it lengthens; its neighboring
branches interlace and form beautiful natural arbors. It is one of
the most esteemed ligatures or withes (lianas?) : twisting it when
scorched and warm, the bark peels, and keeping it in water for twen-
ty four hours, it becomes very flexible. It serves to secure the
rafters of roofs, for lathing (envarillar?) and thatching houses: ¢ords
are also made of it which are very durable. Its fruit, which is call-
ed coguil, is sweet and of a delicate flavor when ripe. The inhabi-
tants of the country consume great quantities of it and carry it to
the village markets. Cultivated in gardens this plant would have a
fine effect on account of its foliage and its long branches loaded with
flowers. This great mass of choice green would be very useful in
a garden to hide whatever might be offensive to the view..

Lathyrus odoratus. L. Clarin. Its flowers display their colors
and yield their fragrance in every garden. With a little attention
and sowing the seed-at different periods, this plant might be kept
flourishing throughout the year. ‘I'wo other species are indigenous
and grow amongst the weeds and rocks about the hills. It approach-
es the ZL. sabulatus, and nervosus, Lamk. It is commonly called al-
berjilla.

Laurelia. Juss. The tree which grows in the woods of 'Tagua-
tagua called laurel, is by no means the L. aromatica, Poir: the latter
has the leaves entire, while that which I have seen has them ser-
rate. It might perhaps form a new species which I would call L.
serrata. Its roots run deep; the trunk is usually twenty yards high
and a half a one in circumference. ‘The wood is white, easily work-
ed, but brittle; incorruptible in the air, but rots in water. In the

Vou. XXITI.—No. 1. 12

90 Last of the Plants of Chile.

center are seen some black bands, the undulating veins of which
produce a beautiful effect. The leaves, the flowers and the bark
are aromatic. It is employed as a remedy for headache proceeding
from cold. From the inside of the bark are made some very effi-
cacious sternutatory powders. A decoction of its leaves employed
as a warm lotion or in drink is reputed to be antisiphylitic. Admin-
istered in the form of baths it strengthens the nerves and is thus
employed in paralytic affections. Fumigations from this plant are
used in convulsions and spasmodic diseases. j

Laurus Peumo. Miers. 'The peumo does not belong to the genus
Peumus of Persoon, as we shall see. Molina, has confounded in his
Peumus, trees which are entirely different, the bolda and. peumo:
the first is the P. fragrans, Pers., but the P. rubra, alba and mam-
mosa, Molina, are only varieties of the species of which we speak.
This tree, frequent in the plains and on the hiils, and of an elegant
foliage, reaches the height of from sixteen to twenty yards, and two
in thickness. ‘The wood is very durable in water: its bark is much
used in tanning and gives to the skins an orange tint. ‘The people
of the country are very fond of its fruit and consume large quantities
of it. Its taste, ungrateful and terebinthinous at first, becomes agree-
able by infusion in warm water. Anti-hydropic virtues are attribu-
ted to it. The nut yields an oil which should be extracted, as it
would be advantageously used. Another species of Laurus is that
which is called ingue, line or litchi: Molina has called it L. caus-
tica. Sprengel places it in the genus Persea, Gaertin; Miers-names
it L. Linguy. We are of the opinion of the last, and we are per-
suaded that the LL. caustica differs from our species. This tree
grows in the woods on the mountains ; its trunk is usually from twen-
ty four to thirty yards high, and two in in circumference. ‘The wood
is solid and spotted. It is employed in house-building and for axle-
trees, basins, troughs, and even for the masts of small vessels. It is
worked with facility and rots in water. Its bark is excellent for
currying and tinges red, leather and drumsticks or ramrods (baque-
tas?) The fruit, of the size of a vetch, and of a blackish color, is
grateful to birds, but the flesh of those that eat it acquires a bitter
iaste. It is injurious to small cattle and horses. Some persons are
fond of its infusion. It is strange that no one has attempted to intro-
duce into the gardens of Chile, the sacred tree of poets, the laurel of
Europe. (Z. nobilis. L.) Beside its merit as a sightly tree, it would
serve to awaken the Muses of the Andes, to whom it would yield its
branches to weave civic crowns!

List of the Planis of Chile. OF

Lebidea. Ach. Many species are met with on the bark of trees
and more upon rocks. ‘The &L. atrovirens, Parasema, Lapicida,
Caesia, atroalba, Ach., are quite common. ‘There are many others
which have not been determined. Not one of these plants of the
family of the Lichens attracts the attention of the inhabitants nor
serves for any purpose.

Lemna minor and gibba. L. Frequent on the surface of stagnant
water, in marshes and in drains. Some call it lentejuelas, but its
most common name is luchicillo.

Lepidium bipinnatifidum. Desv. It grows in abundance along
the sides of roads and on walls. ‘This plant varies much: some-
times, it presents itself without a stalk, but more frequently however
with a creeping one. I have seen a variety with a high straight stalk,
which might form a distinct species. The L£. Bonariense, L., is
found in the woods of Cachapual. ‘There is another one common
about the hills of Valparaiso, which resembles the L. spicatum, Desv.
The L. sativum, L., is cultivated ina few gardens. All these plants,
on account of the acrid and piquant principle which they contain,
are ranked among the antiscorbutics.

Leptostroma vulgare. Fries. Found on dead herbs in winter.

Leskea involvens. Hedw. A small moss, which grows. in fresh
and humid places. It is found also on old trunks, in the woods.
‘Two other species grow on the bark of trees. It resembles. the Z.
Sevicea, Hedw. and the L. Bonplandu, Spr.

Labertia Ixioides. Spr. A pretty plant, of the family of the
Iridee. It grows in shady situations, about the hills. It has no vul-
gar name, but merits cultivation.

Ligusticum. Li. The herb called panul appears to belong to this
genus, but at present I cannot assign its species. "The Umbellifere,
generally speaking, are difficult to determine, and particularly when
the fruit has not arrived at perfection. The panul is employed asa
medicine; its root is administered in decoction and its bruised leaves
are applied externally. ‘The whole of the plant is slightly aromatic.
It is probable, however, that the virtues ascribed to it are exaggerated.

Lilea subulata. Humb. IT have only seen this plant once, at the
foot of the hill of San Cristoval, coming out from the Chimba. It
is to be observed, that it has never been met with before the present
time, except in the neighborhood of Zipaquira, a village of New
Granada, at the height of 1410 toises above the level of the sea.
If it was at all interesting, we might suppose that it had been trans-

92 List of the Plants of Chile.

ported, which would be difficult, on account of the absolute want of
communication between the two countries.

Lilium candidum. L. . Vulgarly, azucena—white lily. A com--
mon plant in gardens. Its large flowers, emblems of candor, give it
that appreciation which it enjoys. ‘The Azucena colorada, which is
also seen in some houses, is Hemerocallis fulva, L. Finally, there
is another species of Lalium to which this common name is given,
and which appears to be a variety of the LZ. bulbiferum, L. This
last is still more rare. sho

Limosella aquatica. A small plant which grows in the drains and
marshy situations near Santiago, Corcolen and Taguatagua. Its flow-
ers are either white or blue. I have seen them with two stamina and
sustained by a peduncle larger than their leaves. If these characters
were constant, we might include this species under Lae denomination
of L. australis, R. Br.

Linaria Pelisseriana. DC. Thave not been able to find any
difference between the species which grows in France and Italy,
and that which I have seen in the pastures of the hills, and among
the rocks, near the Punta de Cortes and the Taguatagua. It is
probable, nevertheless, that it has been introduced.

‘Linum Aquilinum. Molina. It is frequent in arid and dry situa-
tions, about the hills and mountains. — Its thick tufts and large yellow
flowers might render it interesting if cultivated. ‘The whole plant is
used in medicine. Its infusion is given in abdominal affections, and
particularly in indigestion. Its fumigations are prescribed under a
variety of circumstances. Without wishing to falsify those who pre-
tend to support the favorable results drawn from daily experience,
we will remark that a large portion of its virtues are derived from
prejudice in its favor, and from the slight character of the diseases
to which this and other remedies are applied. What cannot be de-
nied is, that faith exercises, in certain cases, a much more powerful
action than the medicament itself. It is said that in former times
the cultivation of the Z. usitatissimum (flax) was introduced and
succeeded well, and even at present, in certain parts of the province
of Conception, very excellent crops are gathered. Why is a branch
of agriculture, so essential, and one which has enriched so many indi-
viduals in Europe, neglected? Can we say that the climate, the soil
and the want of irrigation, prevent? Certainly not. There are rea-
sons, perhaps, which we are not permitted to perceive. Still the
nation continues shamefully to pay high tributes to foreign countriés,

List of the Plants of Chile. 93

while it declaims against the favor which their products find in our
markets. Apropos of the filamentous plants, we will point to the
facility ef introducing the cultivation of the Phormium tenax, Forst.
generally called in Europe Wew Zealand flax, because the inhabit-
ants of that island employ this vegetable production in the manufac-
ture of cloths and cordage. This plant is very common in the stoves
and green-houses of Europe, and in the southern provinces of France
and England, it begins to be cultivated in the open air. Consequently,
we should think that the climate of Chile is favorable for it, and that
in a few years rich harvests might be gathered. ‘The experiments
which have been made on the strength of its filaments have afforded
the most satisfactory results. ‘The mode of preparing it is very sim-
ple, so that every thing tends to recommend this new branch of in-
dustry.

Lippia Citriodora. Kunth. ‘There is scarcely a garden in which
we do not meet with the citron, and in fact it merits the appreciation
of florists, on account of the beauty of its foliage and the pleasant
odor which it exhales. Cultivated with care, it might be made a
beautiful plant of embellishment. The infusion of its leaves is em-
ployed in hemicraneal pains, and in all the class of nervous and hys-
terical affections. The ZL. nodiflora, Rich. grows in fields and olito-
ries. ‘There isa variety entirely joined to the earth and smaller than
the others in all its parts. It is common in sandy and arid spots, on
the plain, and near torrents, where it forms a beautiful sod.

Lithospermum Apulum. L. This species appears to be indigenous,
since it is met with in the fields and in cultivated places, and in pas-
tures distant from the hills. It would be necessary to compare it with
that of Europe, to know the difference, if any exists. It has neither
vulgar name nor known use.

Litrea venenosa. Miers. Every body knows or has heard of the
litre, a tree very common in the highlands and plains. I have seen
some six yards high, but the diameter is small. The wood is solid
and hard. It serves for the knees of vessels, for wheels and axles
of carts, and for the points of ploughs. It is substituted for iron in
many cases. Its root, sawn into boards, is beautifully mottled, and
is used for inlaid work. It is said that the shade of this tree is dan-
gerous; that those who lie in it, swell in a most extraordinary man-
ner, and the contact of its leaves produces pimples and flea-bite ef-
florescence. It is generally believed, also, that refrigerants and ano-
dynes are the remedies in these cases. The family of the Terebin-

04 List of the Plants of Chile.

thine, to which this species belongs, includes many which possess
the above qualities ina high degree. But I believe they exaggerate
those of the litre, at least judging from my own experience. ‘The
Indians employ its fruit to prepare honey, sweetmeats, and a chicha,
(a species of drink,) which they assure us is quite pleasant. Admit-
ting, for the present, the name which Miers gives it, ] am of opinion
that the litre is the Mauria simplicifolia, H. B. and Kunth, whose
native place even is not well known, according to the most recent
authors. ‘The generic characters agree entirely and appear common
to the Cambessedea, Kunth, although this is originally from the East
Indies. J agree with Sprengel, who views the Cambessedea as sy-
nonymous with the Mauria.

Loasa, Adans. Many species are natives of Chile. Almost. all
of them grow in the woods on the high lands among brambles and
stones, and some in the neighborhood of the plains. The L. Blacez,
Lindl., (L. acanthifolia, Bot.; Reg.) is the most common. It is
called ortiga brava or cardito. The L. Triloba, Juss. ortiga, orti-
guilla. Ihave met with a well marked variety in the woods near
Cachapual, and I have called it L. heterophylla, believing that it con-
stitutes a distinct species. The ZL. volubilis, Juss., known under the
name of monita. Finally another called ortiga, but with white flow-
ers. It does not differ from the L. palmata, Spreng., to which should
probably belong the Blumenbachia insignis, Schrad., a genus admit-
ted by De Candolle, (Prodr. part iii, p. 340.) -The L. albida, Miers,
is perhaps the same species.

Lobelia, L. The name tupa is given indefinitely to three species
of this genus, whose stalk is fructicose. One of them is the L. Fupa,
LL. ; the other appears to be the ZL. decurrens, Cav., and the third in
my opinion isnew. ‘These shrubs are elegant, and particularly their
flowers. ‘They grow on the borders of woods and near torrents. I
have found the last in Valparaiso. The poisonous property of these
plants is the only reason against cultivating them in gardens where
they would appear well. It is said that formerly this plant was used
to give strength to wine. J believe the Indians only are capable of
such proceeding.

Lolium temulentum, . The whole world is acquainted with the
Vallico, (bearded darnel?) unfortunately too common in fields where
wheat is grown. ‘This baneful plant ought to call the attention of ag-
riculturalists, who must know that they cannot succeed in destroying
it entirely, until they give more attention to the selection of the seed

Last of the Plants of Chile. 95

which they sow, and weed carefully the plant, and afterwards the
ears. ‘This last operation would be facilitated by making parallel
furrows about two yards apart, as in this way one could enter easily
into the sown part without injury to the field. ‘The Vallico, in place
of being cut, should be torn up by the roots, and its sheaves should
be burned out of the reach of any cultivated place. Its grain is very
injurious: bread which contains it intoxicates, causes vertigo, nau-
sea and a torpor of the limbs. It has been the cause of many epi-
demics. Negligence is in a great measure the cause of so many
evils. ‘There is an opinion prevalent here, that wheat sown in a wet
season and in humid soil, will degenerate and become Vallico. I
knew several proprietors and agriculturists, who were desirous of per-
suading me that in certam parts the wheat disappeared altogether.
All supported their assertions by experiments performed under their
own eyes. ‘This prejudice is so gross as not to merit refutation. My
reply was to ask whether cabbages changed to radishes, and whether
beans (porotos) ever became lentils (/entejas). When we come to
speak of tillage, of manure, and of different seed-times, we will en-
deavor to prove that this pretended anomaly, with many others, can-
not be satisfactorily explained without the aid of a precise or definite
knowledge of cultivation, and of philosophical principles on which are
founded ve of vegetation.

Lorantus,L. The three species which I fare met are known
without distinction by the vulgar term quintral. 'The most common
of all isthe Z. Tetrandrus, R. and Pav. It grows on almost every
tree : its fowers are of a magnificent red color. It is not mentioned
in the Species Plantarum of Sprengel. Perhaps it is a synonym
of the L. Lucarquensis, H. B. and Kunth, although Stendel admits
them as two distinct species. ‘The quintral de quisco grows exclu-
sively on the stalks of the Cactus Peruvianus, L., where it is very
common. Its flowers are the same, but always small, contracted,
and absolutely without leaves. It is without doubt the L. aphyllus,
Miers. A third, which 1 believe to be new, isa parasite on the
branches of the thorn in the woods of Taguatagua. The form of its
leaves distinguishes it at once from the first ; its berries are of a dif-
ferent color. Not having seen the flower, I do not know whether it
belongs to the same division. Nevertheless I will call it L. iineari-
folius. "The quintral yields a beautiful black dye which is frequent-
ly used by the people of the country. From the first is prepared a
bird-lime which is used for catching birds. 'The same use is made
of that which is extracted from the Chilca.

96 Last of the Plants of Chile.

Lotus subpinnatus, Lag. Although De Candolle has lately placed
this plant in the genus Anthyllis, giving it the name of 4. Chilensis,
it appears to me impossible to separate it from the Lotus. Its size,
and above all its legumes four times larger than its calyces, which
are not swollen, are the facts I give at present in support of my opin-
ion. ‘The globulous tubercles which De Candolle says are found on its
roots, are also met with in a species of Trifolium, as we shall hereaf-
ter see. This plant is common in sandy pasturages along rivers, and
on hills. : #

Lucuma obovata, Kunth. ELucuma de Coquimbo. ‘This tree is
cultivated in some gardens. The climate here (Santiago) is not fa-
vorable to it. The fruit which is eaten comes from Coquimbo.
Though generally esteemed, its taste is not very superior, and can-
not be compared with that of the Achras Sapota, L., a tree of the
same family.

Lupinus microcarpus, Sims. Common in the sandy plains. near
Cachapual, and in mountain pastures. This interesting species, on
account of its size and the color of its flowers, merits cultivation. Its
vulgar name is Alberjilla. The Artamuz of the gardens does not
differ perhaps from the L. multiflorus, Desrouss. The stalk is fruti-
cose ; it flourishes nearly throughout the year; it is appreciated for
the beautiful color of its many flowers.

Luzula. DC. The species which I have met in the pastures of
the mountains near Leona, is doubtless the Z. interrupta, Desv.

Luzuriaga cordata, Bertero.. It grows among the stones in arid
places in the plains. It is herbaceous; its root is terminated by a
tubercle ; the stalk is prostrate and the leaves cordiform. All these
characters distinguish it from known species.

Lychnis Chalcedonica. Li. Escarapela, cultivated in gardens for
the beauty of its flowers, which are disposed in clusters, and whose
color is either bright red, or rose, or white. ‘The variety with dou-
ble flowers is most esteemed, but is not so common. ‘The L. gran-
diflora, Jacq., should be introduced, as it is much more beautiful.

Lycium Chilense. Miers. A very branchy shrub which grows in
bramble fields, on the banks of the Maipu, in Leona, and in the neigh-
borhood of Santiago. It does not differ from L. obovatum, R. and
P., except in the smallness and form of its leaves, and may be per-
haps only a variety.

(To be continued.)

Notice of a Fountain of Petroleum. . Si

oats XV.— Notice of a Fountain of Petroleum, called the Oil
Spring.—Epiror.

Tue Oil Spring, as it is called, is situated in the western part of
the county of Allegany, in the state of New York. This county is
the third from Lake Erie, on the south line of the state—the coun-
ties of Cataraugus and Chatauque lying west and forming the south
western termination of the state of New York: the spring is very
near the line which divides Allegany and Cataraugus.

Being in the county of Allegany, I was indebted to the kindness
of a friend, who, on the 6th of September, took me from Angelica
to the spring. After crossing the Genesee River, our ride was to the
town of Friendship, six miles; then to Cuba, eight miles; and thence,
into the township of Hinsdale, three and a half miles; making seven-
teen and a half miles from Belvidere, the seat of Philip Church, Esq.
and twenty one miles from Angelica village. ‘The place will be found,
without difficulty, by taking a guide at Hick’s tavern, which is on
the corner of the road from Cuba, where it is intersected by the
road to Warsaw, two miles west of Cuba. The last half mile is in
the forest; a road is cut, for the greater part of the way, through
the woods, but the path becomes, finally, an obscure foot track, in
which a stranger, without a guide, might easily lose his way, or at
least fail of finding the object of his search.

The country is Pothier mountainous, but the road ee cai aiees
the ridges is very good, and leads through a cultivated region, rich
in soil and picturesque in its scenery. Its geological character’ is
the same with that which is known to prevail in this western region ;
a siliceous sandstone, with shale and in some places limestone, is the
immediate basis of the country; the sandstone and shale, (the lime-
stone I did not see,) lie in nearly horizontal strata; the sandstone is
usually of a light gray color, and both it and the shale abound with
entrocites, encrinites, corallines, terebratule, and other reliquie char-
acteristic of the ancient secondary or transition formation.

The oil spring or fountain rises in the midst of a marshy ground ;
it is a muddy and dirty pool, of about eighteen feet in diameter, and
it is nearly circular in form. ‘There is no outlet above ground—no
stream flowing from it, and it is of course a stagnant water, with no
other circulation than that which springs from changes of tempera-
ture, and from the gas and petroleum which are constantly rising
through the pool.

Vou. XXII.—No. 1. 13

98 Notice of a Fountain of Petroleum.

We were told that the odor of petroleum is perceived, at a dis-
tance, In approaching the spring; this may, not improbably, be
true, in particular states of the wind, but we did not distinguish
any peculiar smell until we arrived on the edge of the fountain.
Here, its peculiar character becomes very obvious. ‘The water is
covered with a thin layer of the petroleum or mineral oil, giving it
a foul appearance, as if coated with dirty molasses, having a yellow-
ish brown color. Every part of the water was covered by this film,
but it had no where the iridescence which I recollect to have observ-
ed at St. Catharine’s well, a petroleum fountain near Edinburgh, in
Scotland; there the water was pellucid, and the hues, produced by
the oil, were brilliant, giving the whole a beautiful appearance: the
difference is, however, easily accounted for; St. Catharine’s well is
a lively, flowing fountain, and the quantity of petroleum is only suf-
ficient to cover it partially, while there is nothing to soil the stream ;
in the present instance, the stagnation of the water, the comparative
abundance of the petroleum, and the mixture of leaves and sticks,
and other productions of a dense forest, preclude any beautiful fea-
tures. There are, however, upon this water, here and there, spots
of what seems to be a purer petroleum, probably recently risen,
which is free from mixture, and which has a bright brownish yellow
appearance,—lively and sparkling: were the fountain covered, en-
tirely, with this purer production, it would be beautiful.

We were informed, that when the fountain is frozen, there are al-
ways some air-holes left open, and that in these the petroleum col-
lects in unusual abundance and purity, having, distinctly, the beau-
tiful appearance which has just been mentioned as now occurring,
here and there, upon the water. ‘The cause of this is easily under-
stood ; the petroleum being then protected, by the ice, from the im-
purities which, at other times, fall into it, thus escapes contamination,
and being directed to the air-holes, both by its levity and by the gas
which mixes with it, it there collects in greater quantity and purity.
All the sticks and leaves, and the ground itself around the fountain,
are now rendered, more or less, adhesive, by the petroleum; and
the rods and-paddles which are used in the water, cannot be touch-
ed, without covering the hands with a tar-like coating.

They collect the petroleum by skimming it, like cream froma
milk pan; for this purpose, they use a broad flat board, made thin
at one edge, like a knife; it is moved flat upon, and just under the
surface of the water, and is soon covered by a coating of the pe-

WVotice of a Fountain of Petroleum. 99°

troleum, which is so thick and adhesive that it does not fall off, but
is removed by scraping the instrument upon the lip of acup. It has
then a very foul appearance, like very dirty tar or molasses, but it is
purified by heating it and straining it, while hot, through flannel or other
woolen stuff. It is used, by the people of the vicinity, for sprains and
rheumatism, and for sores on their horses, it being, in both cases, rub-
bed upon the part. It is not monopolized by any one, but is carried
away freely, by all who care to collect it, and for this purpose the
spring is frequently visited. I could not ascertain how much is an-
nually obtained ; the quantity must be considerable. It is said to
rise more abundantly in hot weather than in cold. Gas is constant-
ly escaping through the water, and appears in bubbles upon its sur-
face; it becomes much more abundant and rises in large volume
whenever the mud at the bottom is stirred by a pole. We had no
means of collecting or of firing it, but there can be no doubt that it
is the carburetted hydrogen,—probably the lighter kind, but render-
ed heavier and more odorous by holding a portion of the petroleum
in solution ; whenever it is examined we should of course expect to
find carbonic acid gas mingled with it and not improbably azote or
nitrogen. We could not learn that any one had attempted to fire
the gas, as it rises, or to kindle the film of petroleum upon the wa-
ter: it might form a striking night experiment.

We were told that an intoxicated Indian had fallen into the pool
and been drowned, many years ago, and that his body had never
been recovered; others doubted the truth of the story. Were it true,
it would be a curious enquiry, whether the antiseptic properties of
petroleum, (so well exemplified in the Egyptian mummies,) may not
have preserved this body from putrefaction.

The history of this spring is not distinctly known: the Indians
were well acquainted with it, and a square mile around it is still
reserved for the Senecas. As to the geological origin of the spring,
it can scarcely admit of a doubt, that it rises from beds of bituminous
coal, below; at what depth we know not, but probably far down;
the formation is doubtless connected with the bituminous coal of the
neighboring counties of Pennsylvania and of the West, rather than
with the anthracite beds of the central parts of Pennsylvania.

A branch of the Oil Creek, which flows into the Allegany River,
a principal tributary of the Ohio, passes near this spring, and we
crossed the rivulet in going to it; thus we had the pleasure of see-
ing water that was on its way to New Orleans and the Gulf of Mexi-

100 Notice of a Fountain of Petroleum.

co; we had just passed the Genesee, which flows into Lake Ontario,
and is thus seeking the Atlantic through the St. Lawrence; and a lit-
tle east, rise waters which flow to the Susquehannah and the Chesa-
peake Bay, and thus this elevated land, (said to be one thousand
five hundred feet above the ocean level,) is a grand rain shed, for
the supply of rivers, seeking their exit through very remote and op-
posite parts of the continent.

I cannot learn that any considerable part of the lene quantities of
‘petroleum used in the eastern states, under the name of Seneca oil,
comes from the spring now described. I am assured that its source
is about one hundred miles from Pittsburgh, on the Oil Creek, which
empties into the Allegany River in the township and county of Ve-
nango. It exists there in great abundance, and rises in purity to the
surface of the water; by dams, enclosing certain parts of the river
or creek, it is prevented from flowing away, and it is absorbed by
blankets, from which it is wrung. Although I have. this statement
from an eye witness,* still it would be an interesting service, claiming
a grateful acknowledgment, if some gentleman in the vicinity of the
petroleum, or at Pittsburgh, would furnish an account of it for this
or some similar Journal; and as there are numerous springs of this
mineral oil in various regions of the west and south west, connected
especially with the saline and bituminous coal formations, it would
promote the cause of science, if notices of any of them were for-
warded for publication.

The petroleum, sold in the eastern states, under the name of Sen-
eca oil, is of a dark brown color, between that of tar and molasses,
and its degree of consistence is not dissimilar, according to the tem-
perature ; its odor is strong and too well known to need description.

I have frequently distilled it in a glass retort, and the naptha which
collects in the receiver is of a light straw color, and much lighter,
more odorous and inflammable than the petroleum ; in the first dis-
tillation, a little water usually rests in the receiver, at the bottom of
the naptha; from this, it is easily decanted, and a second distillation
prepares it perfectly for preserving potassium and sodium, the object
which has led me to distil it, and these metals I have kept under it
(as others have done) for years; eventually they acquire some oxy-

* Mr. Ovid Hard, stage proprietor, of Rochester, N. Y. who mentioned Mr. J. L.
Chase, residing on the Oil Creek, Venango County, Penn. asa gentleman from
whom exact information may be obtained.

Notice of a Fountain of Petroleum. 101

gen, from or through the naptha, and the exterior portion of the
metal returns, Llowly; to the condition of alkali~more rapidly, if
the stopper is not tight.

The petroleum remaining from the distillation, is thick like pitch ;
if the distillation has been pushed far, the residuum will flow only
languidly in the retort, and in cold weather it becomes a soft solid,
resembling much the maltha or mineral pitch.

The famous lake of maltha and petroleum, in the island ot Trini-
dad, is well known: I have specimens from that place, in all the con-
aeons between fluid petroleum and firm pitch. It is unnecessary to
repeat, that the English use it on their ships of ‘war, as a substitute
for tar and pitch, and that the bituminous mass in the natural lake,
(which covers several square miles,) is sufficiently tenacious to sup-
port a man, during the colder part of the year, but at the opposite
-season is too soft to sustain any considerable weight. is

Tn alluding to the probable connexion, with bituminous coal, of the
oil spring named at the head of this notice, I did not mean to imply
that petroleum and other bituminous substances necessarily prove, that
there is coal beneath; for it has been ascertained that bitumen exists,
in a limited degree, in many minerals, as appears from some of the
phenomena of volcanos, and was proved experimentally by the late
Hon. George Knox, in an extensive sexies of researches, published in
the Philosophical Transactions of London. As regards the probability
of finding coal, the opinion should be thus modified ; if the country
on whose waters, or in whose rocks, petroleum or other varieties of
bitumen appear, is such an one as, in its geological structure, is con-
sistent with the usual associations of coal, then the existence of bitu-
men, especially if it be abundant, and more especially if the rocks
themselves are impregnated with it, affords a strong presumption in
favor of the existence of coal beneath. Such is the fact in this part
of the state of New York. ‘The shale at Geneseo is highly bitu-
minous and burns readily, with abundant flame. I cannot answer
for the rocks in the immediate vicinity of the Oil Spring, as they are
not inview. ‘The people have dug a few feet for coal at the distance
of a few yards from the spring; the excavation is too shallow to de-
cide any thing, except that the petroleum rose in this place also, as
at the spring, thus proving, that the bituminous impregnation is not
peculiar to that spot.

If these remarks should excite any interest in the minds of landed
proprietors in that vicinity, I would venture to suggest to them, that

102 Notice of a Fountain of Petroleum.

it would not be wise, without more evidence, to proceed to sink shafts ;
for they would be very expensive and might be fruitless. It would
be much wiser, to bore; which would enable them, at a comparative-
ly moderate expense, to ascertain the existence, depth and thickness
of the coal, should it exist; but, even this should not be done with-
out a previous diligent examination of water courses, banks, precipi-
ces, excavations for wells, cellars, roads, &c. which might perhaps
materially aid the enquiry. ‘The well known existence of bitumin-
ous coal beds at the distance of a few miles in Pennsylvania, renders
it highly probable that they may pass under this region, but perhaps
at too great a depth to admit of profitable extraction; for the abun-
dance of coal in other parts of Pennsylvania and the west ;—the
magnitude and easy accessibleness of the beds, and the excellence of
the coal, will long render it impossible that thin beds, in other parts
of thescountry, especially if lying deep in the ground, should be
wrought without ruinous expenditure.

It is worthy of remark, that the cattle drink, freely, of the waters
of the oil springs, a fact which we should hardly expect, since they
are so foul, and since there is abundance of pure water near; and.
also because we should expect that the petroleum would render the
water very disgusting to animals; perhaps they may find in this foun-
tain, something of the reputed_yirtues of tar water; I could not learn
that birds ever light upon or near the spring; the mephitic gases
might, perhaps, make it a real Avernus, to them.

The present depth of the petroleum spring is but a few feet. Itis
scarcely necessary to add, that, in accordance with the usual state of
popular impression in similar cases, it is confidently asserted here,
that the oil spring, was, when first known, lterally a bottomless pit ;
we may however, safely conclude that it was then much deeper than
at present. When I asked a plain man, in the vicinity, how he ima-
gined it was first formed, he replied, that he believed the gas-air,.
(as he called it,) blew up the ground, at the time when the fountain
first rose, and that the flow of the water and gas had preserved it ever
since, although it had been greatly filled and clogged by earth and
other substances, falling or thrown into the cavity. I shall not attempt
to substitute any theory of my own, for this indigenous hypothesis, of
an uninstructed man, who certainly reasoned ingeniously, if not con-
clusively. I presume he had never heard either of Pluto or Nep-
tune, and therefore drew his conclusions from his own mind and not
from any geological theory.

Wood’s Inking Machine. 103

Ss

Art. XVI.—Notice of Woods Inking Machine.*

Or all the inventions produced by the ingenuity of man, none has
had so extensive and beneficia! an influence as the Press; and any
improvement in a machine so widely affecting the interests of society,
cannot be considered unimportant. Accordingly, the history of print-
ing, from the rudely carved block and simple press of the inventor
of the art, to the movable types and complicated machinery of the
present day, would be found at once curious and interesting. But,
though a general view of the progress of this chief of arts, could
not be unacceptable, it is proposed, at present, merely to invite
public attention to a machine which will perhaps be considered not
one of the least important of its improvements.

* This Journal is printed on a press, to which one of the above named machines
is attached.—Ed.

104 Wood’s Inking Machine.

It is well known that the increased demands made upon the press,
by the eager thirst for knowledge, and the general spirit of compe-
tition, that characterize the times, have caused the power of steam
to be called to its aid, to obtain dispatch and cheapness of produc-
tion. The Steam Press, however, though a proud trophy of modern
art, from its great size and enormous cost, could be used only in the
greatest establishments, and by men of large capital; while, at the
same time the general inferiority of its work, which almost necessa-
rily resulted from its great despatch, limited its use chiefly to the
printing of newspapers. A machine was still wanting, that should be
available to the common printer, that would enable him to work at
less cost, and to compete with his more opulent neighbor. This de-
sideratum was attempted to be supplied by some contrivance that
might be applied to the common hand-wrought printing press, in such
a way as to cause it, by its own action, to ink the form of type by means
of aroller, when worked by one man. Several attempts had been
made for this purpose, both in this country and in Europe, but hith-
erto without success: the different machines being either too defi-
cient in the proper distribution of the ink necessary 10 good work—
occasioning too great an obstruction to the action of the press, to al-
low of its being worked by a single person—or requiring too great
an alteration of its construction, to admit of general use.

In this machine, these objections have been overcome; and it is
thought that it will be found to be well adapted to the purpose for
which it is intended. It is applicable to any of the hand-wrought
presses in common use; requires no additional motion on the part of
the workman; and but a slight increase of muscular power. |

The machine being placed on the side of the press, opposite to
that on which the workman stands, the axis of the handle of the press
(called the rounce), is lengthened a few inches on that side, and a
bevel-toothed wheel placed upon it, for the purpose of giving motion
to the machine. ‘This is the only alteration necessary to be made in
the press; and, except a couple of fastenings attached to its frame,
to hold the machine firmly in apposition with it, is the only connexion
between them.

On the front side of the machine is a shaft, having at one end a
bevel-toothed wheel, which is worked upon by that on the end of the
rounce ; in the middle, a barrel to which is attached a strap, which
winds up a weight that propels the inking roller; and at the other
end a spur-wheel, which gives the motion to the rollers, necessary
for distributing the ink thereon.

Wood’s Inking Machine. 105

Above this shaft, on a level with the form of type, is the distribu-
ting roller; upon the surface of which the ink is spread, and from
which it is taken by the inking roller, which rests upon it.

The inking roller is supported by wheels at each end, upon which
it travels; and is suspended in such a manner, that its pressure upon
the type may be regulated with the greatest nicety. A large or
small roller, or two small rollers may be used, if desired.

Behind the distributing roller, is placed the ink fount or trough ;
in which is an accurately-ground iron roller, revolving in the ink,
which is allowed to flow upon its surface more or less freely, by
means of an adjusting scraper.

Resting against the fount roller, is a small supply roller, which,
during the action of the machine, is raised against the distributing
roller, and communicates ink to it, which by the assistance of another
small roller on the opposite side, and of the inking roller on the top,
is spread thereon of a perfectly even and uniform thickness; the dis-
tributing roller having a lateral or end motion, as well as a revolving
motion, to make the distribution more complete. In this manner a
much more perfect distribution is obtamed, than in machines in which
the ink is directly communicated to the roller that passes over the
type.

At the back part, on a horizontal axis, (having in the middle a
moveable barrel, to which is suspended a weight, and to which is al-
so fastened one end of the strap before mentioned, attached to the
barrel on the shaft in front,) are two fly-wheels, of diameters corres-
ponding with the width of the table of the press; having on the outer
side of each, a pivot, that runs in a slot or groove in a perpendicular
lever that works on a joint at the bottom of the machine, and on the
inner side, a small projection, by which a catch holds the wheel in
its proper position.

To these levers, at the height of the inking roller, are attached,
by joints, horizontal arms that extend to it; and which, by the vibra-
tory motion given to the levers by the action of the fly-wheels, move
it forward and backward over the form; and by properly propor-
tioning the barrel on the axis of the fly-wheels, and that on the shaft
in front, the roller may be made to traverse the form, once, twice,
or oftener, as desired.

This description will give a tolerably good idea of the general con-
struction of the machine, the operation of which is as follows :—

Vou. XXIII.—No. 1. 14

106 Wood's Inking Machine.

The workman, in running in the table of the press, winds up the
weight that propels the inking roller; and in running it out, gives the
motion to the several rollers, by which the ink is communicated to,
and distributed upon them.

The frame of the press on which the sheet of paper is placed,
(called the tympan,) when raised, strikes a lever which releases the
catches that hold the fly-wheels, which are immediately set in mo-
tion by the weight on their axis, and, by their revolution, cong the
inking roller forward and backward over the form.

A strap or string attached to the same barrel to which the weight
is suspended, but in an opposite direction, is wound up by its descent,
and, at the proper time, raises a lever which throws the catches into
their places, and arrests the motion of the wheels.

This machine, which has also been adopted in England, is thus
noticed by the editor of the Repertory of Patent Inventions, publish-
ed at London.

“*Persons who have seen the grand rolling cylindrical presses,
moving by the aid of a steam-engine, and at the Atlas newspaper
office in particular, must have been struck by the peculiar method of
distributing the ink.” After describing this method, he says—“ now
the objects gained by this series of rollers—saving of manual labor,
expedition, and regular supply of ink, are gained also by the invention
under notice. The grand difference is in the primum mobile. In
the case we have described, the mover power is steam; the space

occupied is very large, and the expense exceedingly great; and we
have found this invention applied only in the largest establishments,
and to those immense rolling presses, that steam alone can work.-

“Here it is that Mr. Wood’s merit begins. He has applied a sys-
tem of rollers, as like as possible to those we have just described, to
hand-wrought printing presses. ‘The action of a part of the press is
made to produce the rotation of a fly-whéel, which sets in motion the
inking process, and its effect is exactly the same as this important
part of the steam press, without its expense.”

We understand, that in practice, the machine of Mr. Wood, is
found truly valuable ; its operation in inking, being uniform and ex-
peditious, and attended by little i ei cace! ame:

Observations on Inclined Planes. 107

Arr. XVIL—Observations on Inclined Planes; by J. Txomson,
Engineer, and late Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Nashville, Tenn.

TO THE EDITOR.

Sir—In the formation of rail roads, the proper location of inclined
planes forms an important subject of inquiry. The following equa-
tions have been made out in order to facilitate calculations in refer-
ence to the ascent and descent of cars on inclined planes, where fiic-
tion forms a considerable part of the resistance to be overcome.
These equations are given with the expectation that they may be
found easy of application, in cases where general results, approxi-
mating to the truth, and not strict accuracy, are required. Indeed,
it is impossible to give equations that will meet all the causes of ir-
regularity of motion on eines planes, and be found accurate in
practice.

“We will suppose in the first place, that the resistance of friction
that retards the motion of a car, descending an inclined plane by its
own gravity, is required.

Let a=weight of the descending carriage.

g=accelerating force of gravity.
g/=accelerating force in direction of the plane.
n=length of the plane divided by the height.
s=space passed over in time ¢.
x=force of friction of the wheels, compared with g.
f=triction expressed in pounds.
When a body descends a plane without friction, we always have, by

Qs
the laws of descending bodies, 2 =~, but when g” is diminished b
UNS ? g oie

28 ; 2s Aine eS
wnence @—2" —75, an since =_, ¢=_— —
Bea 8 {2? eo ie a

x
A; we have also the proportion g : vita; eal and by

Ug

c=

friction, ¢
2s
12 YeOCOs ONG

nate a 2as
substitution s eae See ee B.
The friction f in this equation includes both the friction of attrition
and of rolling, and also the resistance occasioned by the inertia of
the wheels in rolling. Mr. Wood, in his ‘“ ‘Treatise on Rail roads,”

makes allowance for this latter resistance, so as to obtain the resis-

108 Observations on Inclined Planes.

tance of attrition and rolling unaffected by inertia. To do this, he
introduces into his equations the weight of the wheels separately
from the weight of the load, the wheels being increased in the ratio
of SG to SO, SG being the radius of the wheel, or the distance of
the center of gravity of the wheel from the circumference, and SO
being the distance of the center of oscillation from the same. ‘This
latter point was found by causing the wheel to vibrate from a point
in the circumference, and calculating from the times of vibration.
Although this was necessary in Mr. Wood’s experiments, in order to
obtain separately the amount of rubbing and rolling friction, yet it
will readily be seen that many cases will occur in practice, where it
will be inconvenient and sometimes impossible to ascertain the value

of SG In the equations here given, the inertia is included in the

general estimate of friction, for the sake of convenient application.
Examples will be given hereafter.
Let V=velocity, and I'=accelerating force, we always have, by

We Is
the laws of descent, ¢? he? hence the equation above, 1? =

&>#
vy? Meee a ) A abe Fe
becomes (Gane from which «=g'— 5. and substituting
‘ Qso
ae eaten
for 9” its value, (oe Uys Oo C.

This equation may be used when the height of a plane of a given
length is required, such that a car, descending by its own gravity,
may acquire a given velocity at the foot of the plane; or when the
height is given, the length s may be found. The value of x is found
from equation A by experiment. According to the experiments of
Mr. Wood, x=.15, where the friction is equal to about the 220th
part of the weight. When the friction is taken as the 300th part of
the weight, as is sometimes done, r=.107. In general, if the fric-

tion is equal to the mth part of the weight, we always have te :

The friction f of the wheels being found, it is to be used asa
given quantity in the case where a train of cars, descending an in-
clined plane, draws up another train at the same time, the trains be-
ing connected by a rope passing over a wheel at the top of the plane,
and supported by small wheels or sheaves along the rail track. In
this case it is necessary to find the friction of the rope, sheaves, and
wheel at the head of the plane.

Observations on Inclined Planes. 109

Put w and w’=the absolute weights of the descending and ascend-
ing trains respectively, » and v’=their weights in the direction of the
plane, g’’=the accelerating force by which the united trams move,
x=the friction of all the moving parts, compared with g, F=a ex-
pressed in pounds, I'=the friction of rope, sheaves, and rope-roll in

Ww ww! J
pounds. Then Urry ten ae 2 ==, we have also the proportion
g(v—v)_gw—w)

vtv nw +u')y

Qs
Again, when friction is removed, we always have ¢? = gi but since

o+v' 3 Gate vee and hence g”’=

nt See oe 2s
g’’ is diminished by friction, we have ¢? pease and hence =

WW 2s Sabi Dstitiiti Ca) 2s ee ae
& ~ #2? an y su stitution 7= n(w+w’) rh @ being found, We
es )

have g i aiiwtw! :’/a%@y =the whole resistance in pounds,

/
and since F=F’ —f, pase 2h: Now putting a and d=the
sum and difference of the weights, and substituting for « its value,
we have re a alg sie tial):
n gt?

In this value of F, the resistance arising from the inertia of the
sheaves and rope-roll, is included ; and in the application of the for-
mula, half the weight of the rope is to be considered as constituting
a part of the weight of each train; or a, the sum of the weights, is
equal to the whole weight of the rope added to the weights of the
ascending and descending trains. Mr. Wood obtains the. friction
without the inertia, by introducing into his equations the inertia as
equal to one half the weight of the sheaves and rope-roll. The ac-
curacy is doubtful, as the inertia depends much on the form of the
wheels. Where it is proposed to ascertain the exact amount of rub-
bing friction, it would certainly be necessary to obtain as nearly as
possible the true amount of inertia. But in ordinary practice, the
error would not, perhaps, be important, if the resistance of inertia
and friction were estimated together.

Resuming equation D, it will be seen that if the ascending weight
on the none becomes indefinitely small, d becomes equal to a, and

“the equation becomes

110 Observations on Inclined Planes.

n gt? : :
This formula may be applied where cars are used to draw out the
rope from a fixed engine by the force of gravity alone. In estimating
the value of a@ in this equation, half the weight of the rope is to be
considered a part of the weight of the descending train.

The values of F in equations D and E being found from the data
given in the experiments.of Mr. Wood, we find an approximate value
of F, that may be used in any case in practice. Let =weight of
the rope, m—weight of the sheaves, p= weight of the rope- ral and
*+=weight of the ascending train, we have

eae
F=,(k --m-+-p +

This value of F may be used, when a ee engine draws up a train
of cars, while another train descending, draws out the rope from the
engine. When the engine is not assisted by a descending train, we
find from the experiments mentioned aboge,
F=7,(k+m+p)..... L.

The values of F and f being known, we may ascertain the amount
of resistance overcome by a fixed engine, in drawing a train of cars
up an inclined plane. Putting a= weight of the train, it is evident

. e e a e .
that the resistance to motion will be ae. ek since F and f include

the resistance of friction and inertia of all the moving parts. Hence,
making ¢=time in minutes, we have for the resistance R, moved
one foot in one minute,
a
R=<("+F +] ae: M.
And the horse power necessary to overcome this resistance will be,
supposing p== number of pounds expressing the power of one horse,
2G +F+f)... wdN:
If the engine be assisted by a descending train, we have, making
d= difference of the weights of the ascending and descending trains,

In order to give entice of the Sia, of the above formu-
Iz, we may quote some of the experiments given by Mr. Wood.

Observations on Inclined Planes. 11f

* Haperiment 2d, on friction.—Length of plane 1164 feet; per-
fectly straight, with a uniform and regular descent of 1 yard in 104.24;
edge rail of Losh and Stevenson’s patent, 24 inches broad at top.
The carriages were allowed to descend freely by their gravitating
force, and the space they passed over ascertained by a stop watch.
Four loaded carriages, each weighing 9408 lbs. descended the plane
in 120 seconds.” ‘The value of x in equation A, from these data,
is .15, and f=42.79 lbs. for the resistance of friction of each ear-
riage, being nearly the 220th part of the weight. By Mr. Wood’s
formula, we have, in this case, f=39.35 lbs. The difference in re-
sults may be caused by the resistance of inertia not being included
in the latter value of f-

“ Kaperiment 19th.—Upon the Killingworth rail road: self-acting
plane, with a rope-roll, round which the rope winds, one end of
which is attached to the descending, the other to the ascending car-
riages; length of plane 715 yards, descent 57% feet. Six loaded
carriages, each weighing 8764 lbs. descended by their gravitating
force, and drew up seven empty carriages, each weighing 2800 lbs. ~
on a mean of several times, in 180 seconds; weight of the rope 3884
Ibs.; weight of the sheaves 3297 Ibs.; weight of the rope-roll 4636
Ibs. The descent of this plane is not regular, being greater at the
top than at the botiom, the line of the road perfectly straight.” 'Ta-
king, in this case, f= the 200th part of the weight, we find FE, from
equation D, equal to 212 lbs. Mr. Wood gives, in this instance,
F=204 lbs. BA

“‘ Example.—Suppose a descending plane, the length of which is
1800 yards, down which it is intended to pass 9 loaded carriages at
a time, each weighing 4 tons, which drag up 9 empty carriages, each
weighing 24 cwt.; required the height of the plane, or inclination,
that will cause the descent in 400 seconds. Weight of rope 5562
lbs.; weight of the sheaves 5400 lbs.; rope-roll 454 Ibs.” In this
case, taking f=the 200th part of the weight of the carriages, and

Qr-+-k
Fa), (é+m-tp+ - #208 0m

1099 d 2as : a a

moma —f, which gives n= 51?; that
is, the plane rises 1 in 513. The formula of Mr. Wood gives 1 in
50, for the elevation of the plane.» It should be observed, that ¢ has
been taken equal to of 400, a correction adopted by Mr. Wood,
in order to cause the descent within the required time, in all states
of the weather.

» we have, by substitution

in equation D, 228+

112 Observations on Inclined Planes.

“ Experiment 27th.—Boulton and Waitt’s low pressure condensing
engine, with two thirty inch cylinders, steam 44 lbs. per square inch
above the pressure of the atmosphere, weight of rope 6967 lbs.,
sheaves 10278 lbs., rope-roll 8960 Ibs., length of plane 2646 feet,
height 1544 feet. Time of drawing up seven loaded carriages, each
weighing 9408 lbs., six hundred and twenty seconds, the engine
making three hundred and seventy four single strokes, five feet each.”
Here we have f=294, and F=,5(k-++-m-+p)=655, or more accu-
rately, by a previous experiment on a plane precisely similar, we
have F=686 lbs. Hence by (M) the resistance overcome by the
engine is R=1288960 lbs., the power of the engine is 4988738 lbs.
whence we have the effective power of the engine upon the load,
compared with the pressure of the steam upon the piston, equal to
25.8 per cent., nearly the same as obtained by the author.

“¢ Example.—Suppose an inclined plane, one thousand yards in
length, height sixty feet, up which a train of eight loaded carriages,
each weighing 9408 Ibs., is required to be drawn by an engine on
the summit, in three hundred seconds, with a rope weighmng 4065
Ibs., sheaves 6000 Ibs., rope-roll 4500 Ibs., while at the same time
the same number of empty carriages, each weighing 3472 Ibs. are
descending ; required the power of the engine.” Here we have
f=515, and by (K) F=315 lbs., hence by (S) we have P=32$
horses’ power. Mr. Wood gives in this case P=33¥% for the power
of the engine, the two results differing by 2 of a horse power.

It will be seen from the above examples, that the results of the
equations given, do not differ greatly from those derived from the
equations of Mr. Wood ; and the facility of using them is much great-
er. Strict accuracy is unattainable in questions of the above kind.
The friction of the moveable parts of the apparatus on an inclined
plane, and other circumstances may so vary, that it would be impos-
sible to give equations that would meet with accuracy every case that
may be presented in practice.

The reduction of friction is of the greatest importance in rail road
improvements. We have had no accurate experiments for ascertain-
ing the amount of friction on curved rail ways. In order to reduce
this kind of friction, various plans have been proposed and tried.
The exterior wheel has been enlarged by causing it to run on its
flange while passing a curve ; sometimes the conical wheel has been
adopted to answer the same purpose ; and it has been proposed, in _
order to avoid the inconvenience of the conical wheel, to suffer one
of a pair of wheels to turn freely on its axle. That the first method

Observations on Inclined Planes. 113

cannot be used to advantage, will be seen, if we ascertain the depth
of flange necessary on a curved rail way. Putr = radius of the in-
terior wheel, -++-2= radius of the exterior wheel including the-flange,
R = radius of interior rail, R+d= radius of the exterior, d = dis-

tance between the rails, then R : R+-d: ir: r+-2, hence =o =

depth of the flange. Let R= -500 feet, d= 5 5 r—1.o, then ¢—=
of an inch nearly. If R=1000 feet, x=, of an inch for the denn
of the flange. From these examples it will be seen that the flange
must be too small for the ordinary purpose of keeping the car on the
rails on a straight road. ‘There is also a disadvantage in the use of
the conical wheel. Ona straight road there must necessarily be a
small allowance of breadth between the rails, in order to give play to
the wheels; hence a car will constantly change its position in the
small space allowed it, in passing from one side to the other, and
thus alternately raise and depress the sides of the car. This will
perhaps produce more friction on a straight road, than the wheels
will obviate on a curve.
When he conical wheel is used, the play given to the wheels on
a curve should strictly correspond to the slope of the rim in such a
manner as to produce the intended effect.
Let R = radius of the exterior rail.
ry = inner or greater radius of the wheel.
r‘= outer or less radius of the wheel.
d = distance between the flanges inclusive.
b = breadth of rim of the reer
p = play allowed the wheels while passmg a curve. “Then
to find p when the other quantities are given, we have
i apeyOan
PRG =r) or
And to know the form of the wheels when the necessary play is al-
lowed, we have from the last equation
(d+p)ér
pay 4
In this equation, the inner radius 7 of the wheel, and the breadth 6,
are supposed to be known, whence 7’ is found, and hence the proper
conical shapé may be given to the.wheels. But after all, the conical
wheel does not remove altogether the friction, unless-the axles are
made to take a position perpendicular to the rails. The method of
effecting this to advantage is yet a desideratum.

Vou. XXITI.—No. 1. 15

i

114 Improved Instrument for Venous fryection.

Arr. XVHI.—wWVotice of an improved instrument for Venous Injec-
tron,- with a figure—communicated for this Journal by Dr. J.
Mavran, ina letter to the editor, dated Providence, Sept. 14, 1832.

Remark by the Editor—The annexed notice was accompanied
by an interesting printed report on the Cholera, as it appeared in
New York, up to the middle of July, signed by J. Mauran, Thomas
H. Webb-and Samuel Boyd Tobey. sure . *

The present communication, grew out of the observations of these
medical gentlemen, during a visit which they made to New York, for
the purpose of observing the malignant Cholera.

A. Forcing pump.

B. Glass air chamber.

C. Flexible tube.

D. lvory connector.

E. Silver inserting tube with stop-
cock.

Drawn one fourth the size of the instrument.

TO THE EDITOR.

Sir—We were early persuaded that a part of the failure from the
“ Venous Injections,” which have been resorted to for the promotion
of reaction in aggravated cases of asphyxiated cholera, has arisen
(under the circumstances) not so much from the nature of the ope-
ration, as from the manner of its performance, through the imperfec-
tions of the apparatus employed. ‘This opinion has been subse-
quently fortified by the observations of Dr. Francis, of New York,
in a very interesting communication to Dr. Read, of Savannah, on .
the absorbing topic, wherein he states that ‘in the few autopsic ex-
aminations of subjects after venous injections had been employed,
great cerebral congestion has been found, and az within the heart,

| Improved Instrument for Venous Iyection. 115

mesentery, and large bloodvessels,” and also by his further allusion
to the horrors of a death after the injections, which he remarks, ‘are
‘too terrific for delineation even by a Fuseli.” Are not the results
above quoted mainly the consequence of the-presence of air in the
bloodvessels? Eom a perusal of the interesting communication of
Dr. J. C. Warren, illustrative of the appalling effects of such an ac-
cident on the system, as fully reported in the August number of the
American Journal of the Medical Sciences, and the Boston Medical
Magazine for 1832, we are still more of the opinion that our first im-
pressions were correct.

. Air in the heart and bloodvessels, and sufficient in quantity to be
perceived and noted in post obit examinations !—It certainly did not
exist in a free state in the blood, nor could it have been absorbed by
the liquor and afterwards disengaged and thus rendered free; the
temperature 113° of Fahrenheit, at which it was ejected, precludes
the possibility of such a phenomenon. Whence came it then but
through the imperfections of the instruments employed? I allude
not to the more recent very ingenious arrangement (the barometer
tube, &c.) of Dr. Depeyre, of New York, and adopted by him to
avoid the very terrific effects above described,—an instrument admi-
rably calculated to avoid the introduction of air, and not otherwise
objectionable than from the manifest inconvenience of its use, the
want of portableness. Air being inadmissible to the bloodvessels
(though in ever so small quantities) without imminent danger to life
in a healthy state of the functions, how necessary must it be to ex-
clude it altogether in an operation intended for the relief of that state
where the vital and physical powers (extremely prostrated and re-
acting tardily) are but feebly calculated to resist even present disease,
much less that superinduced artificially by the very means put in re-
quisition for effecting relief. —

My object in addressing you is to communicate, for insertion in
your useful and widely extended Journal, the plan of an instrument
for venous injections which is deemed to be eminently arranged for
general use, being safe, convenient, and portable ; and if its publica-
tion should in any degree subserve the purposes for which it was in-
tended, the ends of the writer will have been fully attained.

From the experiments which have been instituted by Latta, Crai-
gie and Mackintosh abroad, and those more recently performed in
this country, we cannot longer doubt the recuperative effects of prop-
er and judicious venous injections in aggravated cases of asphyxiated

116 Improved Instrument for Venous Inyection.

cholera; nor will this application be limited, it is conceived, exclu-
sively to this disease, but may become eventually a beneficial adju-
vant in other diseases, which (resisting the ordinary methods of treat-
ment) would otherwise be abandoned to the powers of the fell de-
stroyer. ee |

Annexed is a plan of the apparatus proposed, which consists simply
in the addition of a silver inserting tube and a glass air chamber to
the “Improved domestic instrament of Maw,” (with which every
practitioner and private family is or ought to be supplied) or to the
more complicated stomach and injecting pumps of Read and others.

Method of use.—Adapt the whole as illustrated on the plate, then
(the pump bemg placed in the liquor to be employed, the stopcock
freely opened, and the tube inclined upwards) by a few strokes of

the piston, the expulsion of all the air is thoroughly effected, as will
_ be evinced to the operator by the uninterrupted, silent jet. Having
now the air-chamber nearly, and the remainder of the apparatus com-
pletely filled with the liquid, close the stopcock so as to allow but a
‘ euttatim’ emission, and insert with care the extremity of the tube into
the vein previously prepared for its reception. —

‘Phe contained fluid being under compression and constantly flow-
ing from the point of the instrument during its introduction, all admis-
sion of air into the vessels is thereby effectually excluded. Another
advantage arising from the stopcock, which should be noticed, is the
perfect regulation of the current during the process:of injecting.

TO THE EDITOR.

PostTsCRIPT. Providence, September 17, 1832.
Sir—In a communication made to you for insertion in your Jour-
nal on the 14th inst., I forgot to state, that I have occasionally tip-
ped the points of the inserting tube with a bulb (say half a line in
diameter) which, from its exciting less irritation in the vein, I prefer
to the oblique point as presented on the plate. I would also state
that I have purposely omitted the metallic slide or guard to prevent
the reflux of the liquor and flow of blood from the orifice, preferring
rather the application of the finger of the operator for that purpose.

fafe and Wi ay of Francis Huber. 117

feet: XIX.— Francois Huber.—Notice of his a and oe 5
by A. P. De Canpotte.

Translated for this Journal by Pror. Griscom.

Every thing which brings into view the surmounting of a great
difficulty, is gratifying to the human mind. ‘Those who are the least
adventurous or inventive, are pleased with the exhibition of examples
by which the bodily or mental strength of their fellow creatures has
been enabled to conquer obstacles ih appeared to be insuperable 5
and it isin a feeling of this nature, that all the wonderful tales of an- .
cient times have had their origin. 'Those who are more accustomed
to reflection, love to follow such examples into their details, and to -
study the process by which men of genius have succeeded in over-
coming trials, or-turning them to a good account. If such efforts
are of short duration, they are admired as facts of fleeting occur-
rence ; but if the obstacle is permanent, and the efforts continue un-
relaxed, the admiration which is excited by a momentary burst of
genius or energy is increased by the more profound sentiment which
results from the contemplation of that sustained force, that voluntary
and immovable patience which is the gift of so small a portion of our
race. Such examples ought to be preserved for the honor of hu-
manity, and for the encouragement of those who are inclined to turn
aside at the prospect of difficulty. It is right to demonstrate, from
time to time, to young people, that, if patience and resolution, are
not, as some have asserted, the only elements of genius, they are at
least its firmest auxiliaries, its most powerful instruments, and that
they are faculties so important as to lead, not unfrequently, in the
search of truth, to the same results as genius itself. These reflec-
tions, though they may perhaps ¢ appear at the first glance, to be some-
what pretending, will receive support from the history os the individ-
ual to whose memory this notice is devoted.

Francis Huser was born at Geneva, on the 2d of July, 1750,
of an honorable family, in which vivacity of mind and imagination
seemed hereditary. His father, John Huber, had the reputation of
being one of the most witty men of his day, a trait which was fre-
quently noticed by Voltaire who valued him for the originality of his
conversation. He was an agreeable musician, and made verses which
were boasted of even in the saloon at Ferney. He was distinguish-
ed for lively and piquant repartee ; he painted with much facility and

118 Life and Writings of Francis Huber.

talent ;* he excelled so much in the cutting out of landscapes, that
he seemed to have been the creator of this art; his sculpture. was
better than that which those who are simply amateurs are able to ex-
ecute,t and to this diversity of talent he joined the taste and the art
of observing the manners of the animal creation. His work on the
flight of birds of preyt is still consulted with interest by naturalists.
John Huber transmitted almost all his tastes to his son. The latter
- attended from his childhood the public lectures at ‘the college, and
under the guidance of good masters he acquired a predilection for
literature which the conversation of his father served to develope.
He owed to the same paternal inspiration his taste for natural histo-—
ry, and he derived- his fondness for science from the lessons of
De Saussure, and from manipulations in the laboratory of one of his
relatives who ruined himself in searching for the philosopher’s stone.
His precocity of talent was manifest in his attention to nature at an
age when others are scarcely aware of its existence, and in the evi-
dence of deep feeling at an age when others hardly betray emotions.
It seemed that, destined to a submission to the most cruel of priva-
tions, he made, as it were instinctively, a provision of ‘recollections
and feelings, for the remainder of his days. At the age of fifteen,
‘his general health and his sight began to be impaired. The ardor
with which he pursued his labors and his pleasures, the earnestness
with which-he devoted his days to study, and his nights to the read-
ing of romances by the feeble ght of a lamp, and tice which, when
deprived of its use, he sometimes substituted the light of the moon,
were, it is said, the causes which threatened at once, the loss of
health and of sight. His father took him to Paris to consult Tron-
chin on account of his health, and Venzel on the condition of his
eyes.

With a view to his general health, Auorielin sent him to a village
(Stain) in the neighborhood of Paris, in order that he might be free
from all disturbing occupations. There he practised the life of a
simple peasant, followed the plough and diverted himself with all the

* Several pictures of game, a kind in which he excelled, and his own portrait, are
deposited in the Museum of fine arts, given by his family. <

t A trait of his talent is preserved, which isindicative of his character. He is pre-
senting a piece of bread to his dog, insuch a way as to make him bite it off on all
sides, and there issues from it a very striking bust of Voltaire.

¢ Observations sur le vol des oiseaux de proie; par M. Jean Huber. Geneve, in
ato, 1774.

Enfe and Writings of Francis Huber. 119

rural concerns. ‘This regimen was completely successful, and Hu-

ber retained, from this country residence, not only confirmed health,

but a tender recollection and a decided taste for a rural life. He

loved to narrate the hospitality of these good peasants, their mother

wit, their kindness towards him, and the tears which flowed on ‘his

taking leave of them, not only from his own eyes, but from those of
his male, and also, as it is said, his female acquaintance among the
villagers.

The oculist Venzel considered the state of his eyes as incurable,
and he did not think it justifiable to hazard an operation for cataract,
then less understood than at present, and announced to young Huber
the probability of an approaching and-entire blindness. ’

His eyes, however, notwithstanding their weakness, had, before
his departure and after his return, met: those of Maria-Aimée Lullin,
a daughter of one of the syndics of the Swiss Republic. They had
been companions at the lessons of the dancing master, and such a
mutual love was cherished as the age of seventeen is apt to produce.
‘It had become almost a part of their existence, and neither of them
thought it possible that any thing could separate them. The con-
stantly increasing probability, however, of the blindness of Huber,
decided M. Lullin to refuse his consent to the union; but as the
misfortune of her friend and chosen companion became more cer-
tain, the more did Maria regard herself as pledged never to abandon
him. She had become attached to him at first through love, then
through generosity and a sort of heroism, and she resolved to wait
until she had attained the lawful age to decide for herself, (the age
of twenty five,) and then to unite herself with Huber. The latter
perceiving the risk which his infirmity would probably occasion to
his hopes, endeavored to dissimulate. As long as he could discern

_sonie light, he acted and spoke as if he could see, and often beguil-
ed his own misfortune by such a confidence. The seven years thus
spent made such an impression on him that during the rest of his
life, even when his blindness had been overcome with such surprising
ability as to furnish one of his claims to celebrity, he was still fond
of dissembling ; he would boast of the beauty of a landscape, which
he knew of only by hearsay, or by simple recollection—the elegance
of a dress—or the fair complexion of a female whose voice pleased
him; and in his conversation, in his letters, and even in his books,
he would say, I have seen, Ihave seen with my own eyes. ‘These
expressions, which deceived neither himself nor any one else, were

120 Life and Writings of Francis Huber.

like so many recollections of that fatal period of his life when he
was daily sensible of the thickening of the veil which was constantly
spread between him and the material world, and increased his fear
not only of becoming entirely blind, but of being deserted by the
object of his love! But it was not so: Miss Lalla resisted every
persuasion, every persecution even, by which her father endeavored
‘to divert her from her resolution, and as soon as she ‘had attained
her majority, she presented herself at the altar, conducted by her
maternal uncle, M. Rilliet-Fatio, and leading, if we may so term it,
herself, the spouse who in his happy and brilliant days had been her
choice, and to whose saddened fate she was now determined to de-
vote her life! A friend, a relation, an intimate confidant, was at her
side ;—that friend was my mother, and the story of this wedding of
love and devotion, often related to me by her in my youth, is con-
nected in my heart with the sweetest of my recollections. =

Madame Huber proved, by her constancy, that she was worthy of
the energy which she had manifested: during the forty years of their
union, she never ceased to bestow upon her blind husband, the kind-
est attention; she was his reader, his secretary, his observer, and—
she removed, as far as possible, all those embarrassments which
would naturally arise from his infirmity. Her husband, in alluding
to her small stature, would say of her, mens magna in corpore parvo.
As long as she lived, said he also, in his old age, E was not sensible
of the misfortune of being blind.

This affecting union has been alluded to by celebrated pens. Vol-
taire.often noticed it in his correspondence, and the episode of the
Belmont family, in Delphine,* is a true description, though some-
what glossed, of Mons. and Madame Huber. What can I add to
a picture traced by such masters! Let me hasten then to the works

which have placed Huber inthe rank of savans.

We have seén the blind shine as poets, and distinguish temvelpes
as philosophers and calculators; but it was reserved for Huber to
give a lustre to his class in the sciences of observation, and on ob-
jects so minute that the most clear sighted observer can scarcely dis-
tinguish them. ‘The reading of the works of Reaumur and Bonnet,
and the conversation of the latter, directed his curiosity to the his-
tory of bees. His habitual residence in the country, inspired him
with the desire, first of verifying some facts, then of filling some

* Delphine, par Madame de Staé], III partie, lettre XIX.

Life and Writings of Francis Huber. 121

blanks in their history; but this kind of observation, required not
only the use of such an instrument as the optician must furnish, but
an intelligent assistant, who alone could adjust it to its use. He had
then a servant named Francis Burnens, remarkable for his sagacity
and for the devotion which he bore for his master. Huber practised
him in the art of observation, directed him in his researches by ques-
tions adroitly combined, and aided by the recollections of his youth
and by the testimonials of his wife and friends, he rectified the as-
sertions of his assistant, and became enabled to form in his own mind
a true and perfect image of the minutest facts. Lam much more cer-
tain, said he one day to me, smiling, of what I state, than you are,
for you publish what your own eyes only have seen, while I take the
mean among many witnesses. ‘Uhis is doubtless very plausible rea-
soning, but it will hardly render any one mistrustful of his own eyes!
He discovered that the nuptials, so mysterious and so remarkably
fruitful of the queen bee, the only mother of the tribe, never take
place in the hive, but always in the open air, and at such an eleva-
tion as to escape ordinary observation,—but not the intelligence of a
blind man, aided by a peasant. He gives a detailed account of the
consequences of the early and the late periods of this aerial hymen.
He confirmed, by multiplied observations, the discovery of Schirach,
until then disputed, that bees can transform, at pleasure, the eggs of
working bees into queens, by appropriate food; or, to speak more
precisely, neuters into females; he showed also how certain work-
ing bees are able to lay fertile eggs. He described with much care
the combats of queen bees with each other, the massacre of drones
and all the singular occurrences which take place in a hive when a
strange queen is introduced as a substitute for the natural queen.
He showed the influence which the dimensions of the cells exert
upon the shape of the insects which proceed from them,—he related
the manner by which the larve spin the silk of their cocoons; he
proved demonstratively that the queen is oviparous; he studied the
origin of swarms, and was the first who gave a rational and accurate
history of those flying colonies. He proved that the use of the an-
tenne is to allow the bees to distinguish each other, and from the in-
timate knowledge he had acquired of their policy, he prescribed ex-,
cellent rules for their economical administration. ‘The greater num-
ber of these delicate observations, and which had escaped his pre-
decessors, were due to his invention of various forms of glass hives.
One of these, which he called the book or leaf hive, and another

Vou. XXILI.—No. 1. 16

122 Life and Writings of Francis Huber.

which he denominated the flat hive, permitted him to observe the
labors of the community in their minutest details, and to follow each
bee in its operations. They were greatly facilitated by the skill of
Burnens and by his zeal in the search of truth; he braved, without
hesitation, tlée anger of a whole hive, in order to discover the least
fact, and he would seize an enormous wasp’s nest, in spite of the
painful attacks of the whole horde which defended it. We may
judge from this of the enthusiasm which his master, (and I here
employ the term in the sense, not of the relation of a master to his
domestic, but of that of an instructor to his pupil,) we may judge,
I say, of the enthusiasm in favor of truth or fact, with which Huber
was able to inspire his agents.

The publication of these works took place in 1792 j in the form of
letters to -Ch. Bonnet, and under the title of ‘‘ Wouvelles Observa-
tions sur les Abeilles.”* This work made a strong impression on
many naturalists, not only from the novelty of the facts, but from
their rigorous exactness, and the singular difficulty against which the
author had struggled with so much ability. Most of the Academies:
of Europe, (and especially the Academy of Sciences of Paris) ad-
mitted Huber, from time to time, among their associates ;—the poet
Delillet celebrated his blindness and his discoveries, and from this
time he was placed in the first rank among the most skilful, I was
going to say, the most clear sighted observers.

The activity of his researches was relaxed neither by this early
success which might have satisfied his self-love, nor by the embar-
rassments which he suffered in consequence of the revolution, nor
even by a separation from his faithful Burnens. Another assistant of
course became necessary. His first substitute was his wife, then
his son, Pierre Huber, who began from that time to acquire a just
celebrity in the history of the economy of ants, and various other
insects, commenced his apprenticeship as an observer, in assisting his
father. It was principally by his assistance that he made new and
laborious researches relative to his favorite insects. ‘They form the

x

See the seventh chant in the poem des Trois Régnes, which begins with
. Enfin de leur hymen savant depositaire,
L’aveugle Huber I’a vu par les regards d’autrui,
Kt sur ce grand probleme un nouveau jour a lui, &ce.
1 One Vol. 8vo. Geneva. Another edition was printed in Paris in 1796 in one
volume, 12mo.; in which a short practical treatise on the management of bees was
anonymously subjoined to the work of Huber.

Lafe and Writings of Francis Huber. 123

second volume of the second edition of his work published in _
which was edited in part by his son.

The origin of the wax, was at that time, a point in the history of
bees much disputed by naturalists. By some it was asserted, though
without sufficient proof, that it was fabricated by the bee from the
honey. Huber, who had already happily cleared up the origin of
the propolis, confirmed this opinion with respect to the wax by nu-
merous observations, and showed very particularly, with the aid of
Burnens, how it escaped in a laminated form from between the rings
of the abdomen.* He instituted laborious researches to discover
how the bees prepare it for their edifices ; he followed step by step
the whole construction of those wonderful hives, which seem, by
their perfection, to resolve the most delicate problem of geometry ;
he assigned to each class of bees the part it takes in this construc-
tion, and traced their labors from the rudiments of the first cell to
the completed perfection of the comb. He made known the rava-
ges which the Sphinx atropos produces in the hives into which it in-
sinuates itself;~ he even endeavored to unravel the history of the
senses of bees, and especially to examine the seat of the sense of
smell, the existence of which is proved by the whole history of these
insects, while the situation of the organ had never been determined
with any certainty. Finally, he prosecuted a curious research into
the respiration of bees. He proved by very many experiments that
bees consume oxygen gas like other animals. But how can the air
become renewed, and preserve its purity, in a hive plastered with ce-
ment, and closed on all sides except at the narrow orifice which
serves fora door? ‘This problem demanded all the sagacity of our
observer, and he at length ascertained that the bees, by a particular
movement of their wings, agitated the air in such a way as to effect
its renovation ;—and having assured himself of this by direct obser-
vation, he further proved its correctness by means of artificial ven-
tilation.

These experiments on respiration required some analysis of the
air of hives, and this circumstance brought Huber into connection
with Sennebier, who was much engaged in analogous researches with
respect to vegetables. Among the means which Huber had con-

* The works of Huber on this subject appeared in the Bib. Britannique, under
the title of Premiere memoire sur Vorigine de la Cire, T. KXV, p. 59; but they
have been resumed and extended in the second edition of his researches.

t This part of his researches had already appeared in the Bibliotheque Britan-
nique, in 1804, t. X XVII, pp. 275 and 358,-under the title of letter to 4. Pictet.

124 Life and Writings of Francis Huber.

ceived for ascertaining the nature of the air of hives, was that of
causing certain seeds to germinate in it, founded on a vague opinion
that seeds will not sprout in air much deprived of oxygen. This
experiment, imperfect as it respects the direct object in view, united
the two friends in the engagement of pursuing their researches into
the nature of germination, and a curious fact with respect to this
association between a blind man and one of clear vision is that more
frequently it was Sennebier who suggested the experiments and Hu-
ber that-performed them. Their works have been published in their
joint names, under the title of “ Memoirs on the influence of Air in the
Germination of Seeds.” ‘They fully demonstrated the necessity of
oxygen gas in germination, the impossibility of success in a medium
deprived of free oxygen, and the formation of carbonic acid, by the
combination of this oxygen with the carbon of the grain. This
work, conceived principally by Sennebier and edited by him, has
but little of the impress of Huber, and it is evident that in separating
himself from his loved bees, he took less interest in other researches.

This perseverance of a whole life in a given object is one of the
characteristic traits of Huber, and probably one of the causes of
his success. Naturalists are divided from taste, and often from po-
sition, into two: series,—the one love to embrace the tout ensemble
of beings, to compare them with each other, to sieze the relations
of their organization, and to deduce from them their classification
and the general laws of nature. It is this class who have necessa-
rily at their disposal, vast collections, and they mostly dwell in large
cities: the others take pleasure in the profound study of a given sub-
ject, considering it under all its aspects, scrutinizing into its minute de-
tails, and patiently following it in all its peculiarities :—the latter are
generally sedentary and isolated observers, living remote from col-
lections, and far from great cities. ‘The former may be charged with
the neglect of details in consequence of their attention to extensive
generalities. ‘The second, from being circumscribed in a limited
circle, may be disposed to exaggerate its importance, and hence to
judge incorrectly of the connection of parts in the entire series.
But such mutual accusations are in reality idle. Natural history re-
quires both these classes, in the same manner as the architect stands
in need of the stone cutter for the preparation of his materials, and
the stone cutter requires the science of the architect in the construc-
tion of the well planned edifice.

Huber is evidently to be placed in the school of special observers 5
his situation and infirmity retained him in it, and he acquired therein.

Eafe and Writings of Francis Huber. 125

an honorable rank by the sagacity and precision of his researches ;
but it is plainly perceptible, in reading his works, that his brilliant im-
-agination urged him toward the region of generalideas. Unprovided
with terms of comparison, he sought them in that theory of final
causes which is gratifying to every expanded and religious mind, be-
cause it appears to furnish a reason for a multitude of facts, the em-
ployment of which, however, as is well: known, is prone to lead the ~°
mind into error ; but we must do him the justice to acknowledge that
the use he makes of them is always confined within the limits of phil-
osophical doubt and observation. He had, in early life, derived ideas
of this general nature from the Vatural Theology of Derham, and
from the writings of his friend Ch. Bonnet; they found a ready re-
ception in his sensitive and elevated soul, which loved to admire the
author of nature in the harmony of his works. His style is, in gen-
eral, clear and elegant; always retaining the precision requisite to
the didactic, it possesses the attraction which a poetic imagination
can readily confer upon all subjects ; but one thing which particular-
ly distinguishes it, and which we should least expect, is, that he de-
scribes facts in a manner so picturesque, that in reading him, we fan-
cy that we can see the very objects which the author, alas, was never
able to see! In reflecting on this singular quality in the style of a
blind man, the difficulty appeared to be solved in thinking of the ef-
forts which he must have made in arranging and connecting the state-
ments of his assistants; so as to form in his own mind a complete im-
age of the facts. We who enjoy, often with so much indifference,
those invaluable senses by which we are enabled to embrace at once
such a diversity of objects, and so many parts of the same object, of-
ten neglect to study those parts upon which others are dependent,
and which ought to claim the first place in the explanation; our de-
scriptions are often confused, precisely because our impressions of
objects are made simultaneously and without effort. But Huber
was obliged to listen with attention to the recitals of others, to class
them methodically to reproduce an image of the object by his own
conceptions ; and his written narration, after this laborious operation,
presents the subject to our view, under all the aspects which have en-
lightened his own. I venture also to add that we find in his descrip-
tions so many masterly touches, as to justify the conclusion, that if he
had retained his sight he would have been like his father, his broth-
er* and his son, a skillful painter.

* Jean Daniel Huber, a skillful painter of animals.

126. Life and Writings of Francis Huber.

His taste for the fine arts, unable to derive pleasure from forms,
extended to sounds; he loved poetry, but he was more especially
endowed with a strong inclination for music. THis taste for it might
be called innate, and it furnished him with a great source of recrea-
tion throughout his life. . He had an agreeable voice, and was initia-
ted in his childhood in the charms of Italian music. ‘The method by
‘which he studied tunes deserves to be related, as it may be useful to
others. ‘It was not by simple recollection,” his son writes me, ‘ that
he retained airs; he had learned from Grétry the counterpoint in a
dozen lessons, and in studying by himself, he had become an able
harmonist. In teaching him an air, we first dictated to him the base
of a musical phrase ; he arranged it according to the succession of
‘tones; then came the song which he executed with his voice; a
phrase thus disposed he understood perfectly, and a single repetition
was sufficient : we proceeded to the second, and so on to the end of
the piece, which he would then repeat from one end to the other
without tiring the patience of any one who dictated to him: he owed
much in this respect to the complaisance of his sister.”

His musical talents rendered him in his youth extremely popular,
and afier his infirmity, it afforded him many agreeable relations,
among whom may be mentioned those which he held, at an advanced
age, with a female noted for her wit, and between whom there was
the double sympathy of being passionately fond of music and being
blind. ‘ Me

The desire of maintaining his connection with absent friends, with-
out having recourse to a secretary, suggested the idea of a sort of
printing press for his own use; he had it executed by his domestic,
Claude Léchet, whose mechanical talents he had cultivated, as he
had before done those of Francis Burnens for natural history. In
cases properly numbered, were placed small prominent types which
he arranged in his hand. Over the lines thus composed he placed
a sheet blackened with a peculiar ink, then a sheet of white paper,
and with a press which he moved with his feet, he was enabled to
print a letter which he folded and sealed himself, happy in the kind
of independence which he hoped by this means to acquire.* But
the difficulty of putting this press into action, prevented the habitual
use of it. These letters and some algebraic characters formed of

CAL am indebted for these details, as well as others, here and there stated, to his
nephew M. J. Huber, who is distinguishing himself by his literary talents.

Life and Writings of Francis Huber, 127

baked clay, which his ingenious son, always anxious to serve him,
had made for his use, were, during more than fifteen years, a source
of relaxation and amusement to him. He enjoyed walking, and
even a solitary promenade by means of threads which he had caused
to be stretched through all the rural walks about his dwelling. In
following them by his hand, he knew his way, and by small knots in
the thread he was warned of the direction he was taking, and of his
exact position.

The activity of his mind rendered these diversions necessary.~ It
might have rendered him the most unhappy of men, if he had been
less favorably connected: but all who lived with him, had no other
thought than that of pleasing him and contributing to relieve his in-
firmity. Naturally endowed with a benevolent heart, how were those
happy dispositions too often destroyed by the collisions of the world,
preserved in him? He received from all that surrounded him noth-
ing but kindness and respect. ‘The busy world, the scene of so ma-
ny little vexations, had disappeared from his view. His house and
his fortune were taken care of without any embarrassment to him.
A stranger to public duties, he was in a great measure ignorant of
the politics, the cunning, and the fraud of men. Having rarely had
it in his power, (without any fault of his own,) of being useful to
others, he never experienced the bitterness of ingratitude. Jealousy,
even notwithstanding his success, was silenced by his infirmity. To
be happy and prosperous in a situation in which so many others are
given up to continual regrets, was accounted to him asa virtue. The
female sex, provided their voices were agreeable, all appeared to him
as he had seen them at the age of eighteen. His mind preserved
the freshness and candor which constitute the charm and happiness
of adolescence ; he loved young people, for with their sentiments his
own were more in accordance than with those of the aged and expe-
rienced. He took pleasure, to the very last, in directing the studies
of the young, and possessed in the highest degree, the art of pleas-
ing and interesting them. ‘Though fond of new acquaintance, he
never abandoned his old friends. ‘“ One thing I have never been
able to learn,” said he in his extreme old age, “ and that is, to forget
how to love.” 'Thus had he the good sense justly to appreciate and
enjoy the balance of advantages which were furnished him by the
very condition in which he was placed. He appeared to be afraid,
either of the loss of many of his illusions, or of the excitement of hopes
in which he might be deceived, for he always repelled the proposi-

128 Life and Writings of Francis Huber.

tion of having a portion of his sight restored by an operation on one
of his eyes which appeared to be affected only by simple cataract ;
the other was blinded from gutta serena, which rendered it incu-
rable.

Far be it from me, nevertheless, to attach too high a value to the
compensations which he himself found in his infirmity, and for not
having put into requisition the nobility and courage of his philosophy.
He never was the first to speak of his misfortune, and was disposed
to avoid the idea of it. He never complained, and his strong and
enlightened mind ranked courage and resignation, and cheerfulness
among his primary duties.

His conversation was generally amiable and gracious ; he was ea-
sily led into the humorous; he was a stranger to no kind of knowl-
edge ; he loved to elevate his thoughts to the gravest and most im-
portant subjects, as well as to descend to the most familiar sportive-
ness. He was not learned in the ordinary sense of the word, but
like a skilful diver, he went to the bottom of each question by a kind
of tact and a sagacity of perception, which supplied the place of
knowledge. When any one spoke to him on subjects which inter-
ested his head or heart, his noble figure became strikingly animated,
and the vivacity of his countenance seemed, by a mysterious magic,
to animate even his eyes which had so long been condensed to dark-
ness. ‘The sound of his voice had always something of the solemn.
I now understand, said a man of wit to me one day, who had just
seen him for the first time, I understand how young people willingly
grant to the blind, the reputation of supernatural inspiration. ,

Huber spent the last years of his life at Lausanne, under the care
of his daughter, Madame de Molin. He continued to make addi-
tions, at intervals, to his former labors. ‘The discovery of bees with-
out stings, made in the environs of Tampico, by Capt. Hall, excited
his curiosity, and it was a high satisfaction to him when his friend
Prof. Prevost procured for him, at first a few individuals, and then
a hive of these insects. It was the last homage which he rendered
to his old friends, to whom he had devoted so many laborious re-
searches, to whom he owed his celebrity, and what is more, his hap-
piness. Nothing of any importance has been added to their history,
since his time. Naturalists of unimpaired vision have found nothing
of consequence to subjoin to the observations of a brother who was
deprived of sight.

Uses of Chlorides and Chlorine. 129

Huber retained his faculties to the last. He was loving and be-
loved to the end of his days. At the age of eighty one, he wrote to
one of his friends ; there is a time when it ts impossible to remain neg-
lectful ; it is, when separating gradually from each other, we may re-
veal to those we love, all that esteem, tenderness, and gratitude have
anspired us with towards them. * * * Fsay to you alone, adds
he farther on, that resignation and serenity y are blessings which have
not been refused me. He wrote these lines on the 20th of December
last ; on the 22d he was no more ; his life became extinct without
pain or agony while in the arms of his daughter.

I have always admired the sagacity of his researches, his resolute
perseverance, his love of truth, and his resignation at once mild and
stoical. I loved his amiable conversation, and his benevolent disposi-
tion. While living, [ consecrated his name to the gratitude of naturalists
_ by giving it to a genus of beautiful trees from Brazil.* I have now
endeavored to render the last homage to his memory ; happy shall J
be if those who have known and loved him, find the portrait correct,
—if young people learn from his example the value of resolute de-
termination in the direction and concentration of labor; and espe-
cially if those who are subject to the same misfortune, should learn,
by the example of Huber, not to yield to discouragements on ac-
count of their condition, but to imitate his admirable philosophy.

Bib. Umi. Fev. 1832.

Arr. XX.—On the Uses of Chlorides and Chlorine ; by A.
CHEVALLIER.

_ Translated for this Journal by Pror. Griscom.

Tuer employment of chlorine and chlorides in the arts of salubri-
ty, in therapeutics, &c. has been so multiplied of latter time, it is
conceived that benefit will arise from a statement of their uses at the
present period.

1. The use of chloride of lime in destroying the odor of fresh
paint. For this purpose the chloride is found to be effectual.
Method. Provide shelves or boards about three feet long and two
wide. Over them spread some hay slightly moistened. Powder
this hay with the chloride, and leave it a few days in the apartment

* Huberia laurina. Memoir on the Melastomacez, p. 61, pl. 10. Prodr. 3. p. 167.
Vou. XXIIL—No. 1. 17

130 Uses of Chlorides and Chlorine.

newly painted, and carefully closed. The chlorine emanating from
the chloride from the decomposing action of the carbonic acid of
the atmosphere will spread through ihe apartments and neutralize the
odor of the paint.

If it be desirable also to remove the dampness of the apartment, a
few pieces of chloride of calcium, (or muriate of lime,) placed, in
earthen dishes in the room, will answer the purpose.

It is wrong, in such a case, to use fresh lime, along with the spite
ride, because thre latter is effectual only in proportion as the chlorine
is disengaged by the action of the carbonic acid and moisture of the
air, and the presence of quick lime only serves to attract the same
things, and therefore to retard the decomposition of the chloride.

The same purpose, as it regards odor, may be effected by the
separation of chlorine gas, by placmmg an earthen cup, containing an
ounce of oxide of manganese and three ounces of hydrochloric
(muriatic) acid, on a hot brick, or over a furnace with a few live
coals, or in a vessel of hot water, stirring the materials, and closmg
the apartment for twenty four hours.

By heating in the same manner chloride of lime, dissolved in or
mixed with water sharpened ae sulphuric acid, the same purpose:
is effected. ee

2. The use of chloride in correcting the unhealthiness of manufac-
tortes of cat-gut, or other fabrics from animal materials.

Manufactories of this nature are apt to emita highly disagreeable
odor. ‘The free use of chlorine, iberated in the way above indica-
ted, will effectually correct the unhealthy emanations.

3. In disinfecting the mud and filth of sewers.

Agreeably to the experimental investigations of a committee cho-
sen by the police, it appears that it would require 576 grammes of
dry chloride of lime to disinfect one cubic foot of semi-fluid mud,
weighing 10 kilogrammes, or 620 grammes of chloride, one foot of
more solid filth weighing 10 kilogrammes 50 decagrammes.

The expense, therefore, deduced from these data, of disinfecting
sewers which have become very foul, is considered to be too great,
even at the reduced price of chloride of lime, and they therefore
prefer the purification by ventilation through the agency of fire.

A. In disinfecting the air of rooms in which silk worms are kept.

The experiments of M. Bonafous, very carefully conducted, have
proved that silk worms, exposed to the putrid exhalatjons of their
litter and excrements, to the odor of dead worms, &c. will be injur-

Uses of Chlorides and Chlorine. - 131

ed or destroyed by these and other unwholesome effluvia, much
sooner than if their apartments are. seasoned by the corrective influ-
ence of chlorine. ‘The gas, however, must be very gently and slow-
ly liberated, or its effects will be too powerful. ‘The method recom-
mended is to place in a dish or vessel one part of chloride of lime
and about thirty parts of water, or an ounce of ehloride with a quart
of water, with such a quantity of worms as will issue from an ounce
of grains, (eggs.) Stir the materials, and when precipitated, renew
the water, and repeat the operation two or three times in twenty four
hours, as necessity requires. The chloride is to be changed only: as
it ceases to yield an odor.

In this operation it appears that the carbonic acid arising from the
fermenting materials, unites with the lime, and sets the Uiloune free,
which by its avidity for hydrogen, decomposes the miasms whieh it
meets with. ’

This mode of fumigation does not remove the necessity of fre-
quently renewing the air of the chambers, and of promoting its cur-
rents by fires.

5. In removing from urine and the vessels employed to receive it,
the disagreeable oe emitted from them.

It is al known that the odor of urine, (which is at first ar omatic,
and often partakes of the smell of the food, especially after eating as-
paragus, cauliflowers, peas, &c.) becomes exceedingly repulsive and
communicates its effects to the vessels employed with it.

- These odors are completely removed by a small portion of chl6-
rine. ‘Thus, half a gallon of urine which would not lose all its odor
by being treated with four ounces of acetic acid, would yield it by
the addition of six, eight, or at most ten drops of chlorine or chloride
of lime.

If night tables and other utensils of a room which may have ab-
sorbed the odor of urine contained in chamber vessels be washed
with a sponge dipped in a solution, prepared by adding an ounce of
chloride of lime to a gallon of water, they will be preserved from
taint.

6. In destroying the gases which blacken silver and bronze vessels,
and varnish containing metallic oxides. It has happened that in
emptying privies and in other analogous operations, the effluvium has
produced disagreeable effects on furniture and metallic surfaces.
This may be completely prevented by suspending cloths soaked in a
solution of chloride in the apariment, or placing them in the apertures
through which the gas issues.

132 Uses of Chlorides and Chlorine.

‘It has happened that in our two manufactories of porcelain
ware, the white enamel of the vessels, by being incidentally exposed
to a rupture of foul emanations of this nature before it was perfeetly
dry, has become very much discolored. A remedy has been found
in opposing sclutions of chlorine to the current of sulphuretted hy-
drogen, although the emanations have continued for weeks together.

7. In destroying emanations that may occasion a plague.

M. Felix D’Arcet, a member of the committee sent to Egypt in
order to make experiments relative to the plague, furnished M. de
Lasteyrie with the following details extracted from a letter from
Tripoli of June 14, 1829.

“The most important point to be determined was- whether the
pestilential virus could resist the action of the chlorides.

*'The Vice Consul of France obtained for us six garments of per-

_sons who had died of the plague, all within the last two days. ‘These
garments were soiled with blood, sanies, and sweat. After the Con-
sul had taken an account of their condition, | immersed them during
sixteen hours, in a solution of chloride of sodium, and after drying
them, each of us put on a shirt next to our skin, and then the re-
mains of the dress. ‘The spots still existed on them but much faded.
We slept in these garments, and after wearing them eighteen hours,
replaced them. Itis a week since the experiment, and neither of
us have experienced the least change. Our natural constitutions are
also, it may be remarked, very different.”

It was proposed by M. Pariset that the effect of chlorine should
be tried on other contagious diseases, and accordingly three exper-
iments were made with if, in relation to the measles. ‘The chamber
of a child, exposed to the measles, was disinfected, and his shirt was
dipped in a solution of one ounce of liquid and concentrated chlo-
ride of lime, and three gallons of water. When dried it exhaled,
very slightly, the odor of chlorine.-—He escaped the infection.

8. In the cure of epidemic diseases among dumb creatures.

In 1829 an epidemic malady broke out among fowls in the vicinity
of Paris. The disease spread rapidly, manifesting itself by an in-
flammation of the head, tears in the eyes, blueness of the skin, and
the issue of blood from the beak. The animals soon sunk under it.
Bleeding and other means of restoration were employed without ef-
fect. The author being consulted, directed the chickens which were
still unaffected, to be placed in an enclosure by themselves, and those
on which the disease had made some progress, in another enclosure.

Use of Chlorides and Chlorine. , 133

These places being then sprinkled with chloride of lime, the healthy
fowls remained bealhy; and the others were successively restored to
health.

The same remedy was applied by M. Capliu, at Vaugirard. ‘The
healthy fowls were preserved from the epidemic, and the sick were
soon restored.

The solution employed on these occasions was prepared by add-
ing two ounces of chloride of lime to half a gallon of water, care-
fully mixing, filtering the solution, preserving it in well closed bottles,
and using it as occasion required. ‘The cause of this Epizootie
was not ascertained, but it was perceived that the fowls which were
confined in roosts expesed to the north were not attacked by it.

In a letter from M. Recluz, pharmacien at Vaugirard, it is stated
that during an epidemic among the fowls at that place, it was found
that those feeders who were careful to keep their fowl-yards clean,
and who put clean straw in their roosts and stables, preserved their
stock from the attack, whence it was inferred that the disease arose
from the effluvia of putrefaction from the dung which was suffered
to accumulate on the floors. In one instance fifteen fowls out of
twenty three had died of the infection and three more were sick. The
yard or roost was then well cleaned, washed with common water, and
then sprinkled twice a day with a ciation of one ounce of chloride
in a pint of water. From that time not a fowl died. Similar results
were obtained by other persons, one of whom stated that when he
commenced the use of the chlorides, all his fowls were sick, and
from the time of the first sprinkling with it they all recovered. M.
Recluz regrets very much that he had not had recourse to the same
remedy in a disease among cows at Vaugirard. A single dairy man
lost nine of his cows in two months, ia perceiving whence the
sickness proceeded.

The chloride has also been successively used in disinfecting the
pens or casks in which rabbits are kept. ‘The solution is applied
with a brush, and the casks are drained before the rabbits are re-
turned. Some which were very sick and refused to eat, were re-
stored promptly by this disinfection.

9. In the treatment of tainted fish.

When tainted fish are treated with chlorine, they are said to exhale
an odor of bromine; but the author states than on applying chloride
of lime to a spoiled turbot, the odor was different both from that of
chlorine and of bromine. The fish was washed, and on being cook-

134 Action of Chloride of Lime on Alcohol.

ed the smell disappeared, and it was eaten. Whence he infers that
the odor from fish disinfected by chloride is not injurious to the health
like that from putrid fish.

The baskets and other utensils used by fishermen may be depriv-
ed of the unpleasant odor which they contract, by the use of the
chlorides.

10. In the exhumation and removal of bodies which have been for
some time burved.

It is proposed that on occasions of this nature, when putrefaction
has doubtless occurred, after opening the grave, to water the exca-
vation and ground adjacent with a strong solution of chloride, to lay
a cloth wet with the solution over the coflin, to place the coffin in a
box on the bottom of which is a layer six inches thick, of a mixture
of fifteen parts of charcoal in coarse powder, and one part of dry
chloride of lime, and to surround the sides and top with the same
mixture. With such a precaution the exhumation and removal to a
great distance of a corpse long buried may be safely effected.—Jour.
de Connaissances Usuelles, tome 12, p. 65.

Arr. XXI.— Action of Chloride of Lime on Alcohol ; by M. E. *

SouBEIRAN.

Translated for this Journal, by Prof. Grrscom.

Tue interesting substance formed by the action of chloride of lime
on alcohol, first manufactured, in considerable quantity, by Samuel
Guthrie, at his laboratory on Lake Ontario, and made known to the
chemists and physicians of this country through the medium of this
Journal, possesses properties which will render the following investi-
gation acceptable to our readers.

“‘When chlorine is passed through alcohol, the products are hy-
drochloric acid, a little carbonic acid, a small quantity of a material
rich in carbon, and a peculiar ethereal fluid, constituted, agreeably to
the analysis of Despretz, of 1 atom of chlorine and 2 atoms of per-
carburetted hydrogen. .

In the supposition that the compounds called chlorures @oxides
are really combinations of chlorine with oxygenated bases, the same
products ought to be obtained by bringing them into contact with al-
cohol, the acids being saturated as fast as they are formed.

Action of Chloride of Lime on Alcohol. 135

‘To be certain of this, I mixed a solution of chloride of lime, very
concentrated, with alcohol; the mixture grew warm and an odor of
chlorine was manifest ; in raising it to ebullition, an abundant white
precipitate was formed, and a liquid passed over, of a very sweet
odor and a sugary taste.

The matter remaining in the retort was alkaline, and the precipi-
tate effervesced with acids. It was carbonate of lime, mixed with a
little caustic lime. Not the least portion of carbonic acid was dis-
engaged durimg the action.

The distilled product being redistilled or rectified, a weak alcohol
remained in the retort, and the distilled fluid had a more penetrating
ethereal odor. ‘The following process will ensure a notable quantity
in a state of purity.

Into a retort of the capacity of about a gallon, introduce a mixture
of 1 part alcohol at 33°, and from 30 to 32 parts of very concen-
trated liquid chloride of lime, (1 part, by weight, of chloride and 5
of water;) attach a receiver, which must be kept cool, apply heat
to the retort and as soon as ebullition commences, withdraw the fire,
as the distillation will then proceed without it. ‘The process must
be stopped when no more ethereal fluid passes over.

In the receiver are two distinct strata; the heavier is the new _
ether,—the lighter is a solution of that substance in weak alcohol.
The whole is to be shaken with a littke mercury, to absorb a small
quantity of free chlorine; it is then placed in a retort, to which are
added the rinsings of the receiver, with a little water, and distilled
afresh from the heat of a water bath. ‘The ether is thus obtained,
with a supernatant fluid of weak etherized alcohol, which may be re-
served for a new rectification.

The new ether is not pure. The alcohol which it contains may
be removed, by agitating it several times with water, and finally al-
lowing the water to remain in contact, several hours, with plenty of
dry muriate of lime, and then distilling at a temperature not exceed-
ing 160° F.

It is proper to observe, that the chloride of lime which is used in
the making of this ether, must be limpid, or at least must contain
but very little lime in suspension, otherwise the mass will swell very
much. I have endeavored to avoid such a mass of fluid, by using
a cream of the chloride of lime, but it was almost impossible to
conduct the distillation.

136 Action of Chloride of Lime on Alcohol.

This new etherized liquor is a compound different from all those
hitherto observed by chemists. Its elements are chlorine, hydrogen
and carbon. Various experiments which have been made upon it,
prove that it contains no oxygen.

The decomposition of it, by means of oxide of copper, has proved
to me the relation of its component parts. It is extremely difficult
to effect the combustion of its hydrogen and carbon, doubtless on
account of the great quantity of chlorine that it contains.

After a careful analysis, the author determines that this ether is
composed of

1 atom of carbon, - - - - 14.39
Qn tone hydrogen, — - - - ~ 2.35
Di ne chlorine, - - - - 83.26

100.00

It may be considered as a compound of chlorine and per-carburetted
hydrogen, and may be provisionally called bi-chloric ether.

The bi-chloric ether is an ethereal liquid, very limpid, and colorless,
with a penetrating and very sweet odor. When breathed, the va-
pors which penetrate to the palate develope a taste decidedly sac-
charine. It may almost be said to have a saccharine odor. Its
density is greater than water, and its boiling point is 158° F’.

It cannot be burned alone in contact with air. If used in a lamp,
the cotton wick does not kindle until all the ether is evaporated. In
directing a jet of its vapor on the flame of a spizit lamp, it burns and
diffuses much smoke. It may easily be kindled when mixed with
an equal volume of alcohol. It then gives out a black and thick
smoke, of a penetrating odor, and the soot which it deposits, washed
with water, is acid, and forms an abundant precipitate with nitrate of
silver. Paper of tournesol, moistened with this etherized alcohol, is
reddened on the spots which have been burned.

Water dissolves very little of it, and acquires a saccharine taste.
Alcohol mixes with it in every proportion ; and if the alcohol is not
very concentrated, and the ether be mixed with it in suitable propor-
tions, a saccharine liquor is obtained of a very agreeable aromatic
flavor.

Iodine dissolves in the new ether, and does not appear to alter it.

Potassium decomposes it at common temperatures ; the action is
very slow ; and hydrogen, containing some carbon, is disengaged.

Action of Chloride of Lime on Alcohol. 137

Barytes and lime decompose it with heat. At the moment of re-
action, they become incandescent. A metallic chloride is formed,
carbon is deposited, and an inflammable gas, with aqueous vapor,
is disengaged.

A concentrated solution of caustic potash produces a slow decom-
position ofthe chloric ether. Mixed with an equal volume of alco-
hol, the addition of the caustic potash produces instantaneous decom-
position when slightly heated. ‘The action is strong, and there is
formed along with chloride of potassium, an oily matter, which sep-
arates on the addition of water. It is of a yellow color, and its odor
aromatic, and somewhat like that of cummin. © It is volatile.

Sulphuric acid appears to exert no action on bi-chloric ether. In
heating. the latter with nitric acid, vapors of nitrous acid are very
slightly exhaled. Hydrochloric acid does not change it even with
heat. Nitrate of silver appears not to decompose it ; at least a mix-
ture of alcohol and ether with nitrate of silver produced no deposit
in the course of a month, of chloride of silver.

The memoir of M. Soubeiran is extended to the investigation of
various other compounds of chlorine, of which our limits will not ad-
mit the detail. ‘The summary of his results is as follows :—

1. That the gas called protoxide of chlorine, is a mixture of chlo-
rine with the deutoxide of chlorine.

2. That the compounds known under the name of chlorides of
oxides, (chlorures d’oxides,) are mixtures of a metallic chloride,
(chlorure metallique,) with a chlorite.

3. That chlorous acid, (acide chloreux,) is without doubt formed
of two volumes of chlorine and three volumes of oxygen.

4. That mineral or organic substances brought into contact with
chlorites, become oxidized by the oxygen of the chlorous acid, and
sometimes by that of its base.

5. That the bleaching by chlorites results from an oxygenation of
the elements of the coloring matter by the oxygen of the chlorous
acid.

6. That chlorine has a power of decoloration, greater than that of
the chlorites.

7. That chloride of lime, in decomposing alcohol, gives rise to a
new ether, represented by two atoms of chlorine and one atom of
per-carburetted hydrogen.

Vou. XXIII.—No. 1. 18

138 Vegetable Physiology.

8. That chlorous acid and ammonia can unite without decomposi-
tion, but that the compound which they form, is changed by water into
chlorine and azote.

9. That the oxide of chlorine, obtained by the method of Stadion,
is composed of one volume of chlorine and two volumes of oxygen,
and is the same as that obtained by Davy.

10. That the chlorous acid may become a constituent part of an
ether which is singularly disposed to a transformation into acetic
ether.—Annales de Chim. et de Phys. Oct. 1831.

Arr. XXI.—Vegetable Physiology in relation to Rotation ss
Crops x by M. Macatre.

Translated for this Journal by Pror. Griscom.

In a memoir inserted in the transactions of the Soczeté de physique
et d’histoire naturelle of Geneva, this gentleman has developed some
physiological facts, interesting to science and to practical agriculture.

A judicious rotation of crops is known to be a matter of great im-
portance. One kind of vegetable (A) will grow and flourish well in
a soil from which another kind of vegetable (B) has just been gath-
ered, while an attempt to raise another crop of the first vegetable (A),
or a crop of a third vegetable (C) immediately after the first (A) in
the same soil will be attended with little or no success. The discoy-
ery of this fact which is almost as ancient as agriculture itself, is sup-
posed to have led to the practice of fallowing.. <A piece of fallow
ground will, almost to a certainty, be covered with a crop of weeds.
These being plants of a different nature, do not unfit the soil, but
prepare it for a succession of the same crop as that which preceded
them. But science or experience has taught the enlightened farmer.
to substitute useful plants in the room of weeds, and thus to keep his
grounds in profitable activity.

Various reasonings have been employed to account for the neces-
sity of this rotation. 1st. That different plants absorb different juices
from ihe same soil, and that a piece of ground exhausted by culture,
may still be rich for another class of vegetables. But it is known
to physiologists, that plants absorb all the soluble substances that the
soil contains, whether injurious to their growth or not. 2d. That the
roots of different plants being of different lengths, extend intq differ-
ent layers of the soil, and thus derive from it appropriate nourishment.

Vegetable Physiology. 139

But the roots of all plants, at the period of germination, must be in.
the same stratum, and of course be equally dependent upon it 5 and
besides, the culture of the farmer turns up and mixes the various
layers of the soil together, so as to render them, in all probability, ho-
mogeneous. It is known also that plants of the same family, such as
clover (tréfle) and lucerne do not prosper in succession, although their
roots are of very different lengths.

The true explanation of the necessity of rotation, appears to be
founded on the fact stated by Brugmans, and more fully exposed by
De Candolle, that a certain portion of the juices which are absorbed
by the roots of plants, are, after the salutiferous portions have been
extracted by the vessels of the plant, again thrown out, by exudation,
from the roots and deposited in the soil. It is probably the exist-
ence of this exuded matter, which may be regarded, in some meas-
ure, as the excrement of the preceding crop of vegetables, that
proves injurious to a succeeding vegetation. It has been compared to
an attempt to feed animals upon their own excrements. The parti-
cles which have been deleterious to one tribe of plants cannot but
prove injurious to plants of the same kind, and probably to those of
some other kinds, while they may furnish nutriment to another order
of vegetables.*

The author endeavored to subject these theoretic views to the test
of experiment. After various attempts to raise plants in pure sili-
ceous sand, pounded glass, washed sponge, white linen, &c. he de-
cided upon pure rain water. After cleansing and washing the roots
thoroughly, he placed them in vials with a certain quantity of pure
water. After they had put forth leaves, expanded their flowers and
flourished for some time, he ascertained, by the evaporation of the
water, and the use of chemical reagents, that the water contained
matter which had exuded from the roots. He satisfied himself that
this is the fact with respect to nearly all the phanerogamous plants.

Several plants of Chondrilla muralis, perfectly clean, were placed
with their roots in pure water. At the end of a week, the water was
yellowish and emitted an odor like opium, and had a bitter taste.
Sub-acetate and acetate of lead produced a brownish flocculent pre-
cipitate, and a solution of gelatine disturbed its transparency. As a

* T have been assured, by farmers, of a fact somewhat analogous in relation to an-
imals. Hay, which has been left in the manger of a horse, or which has otherwise
received the impregnations of his breath, will not be touched by another horse, but
will be freely eaten by cows or sheep.—G. ’

140 Vegetable Physiology.

proof that this matter was the result of excretion from the roots, it
was found that neither pieces of the root nor of the stem, when ma-
cerated in the water during the same time, occasioned either taste,
smell, or precipitate. ~

To determine at what period, whether night or day, this discharge
from the roots takes place, a plant of common bean (Phaseolus vul-
garis) was carefully cleaned, placed in rain water and kept a week
during the day time in one vessel, and during the night in another,
being well wiped at each transfer. In both the fluids there were ev-
ident marks of excretion from the roots, but that in which the roots
were immersed during the night contained a very notable excess of
the transpired matter. Numerous other experiments gave the same
result. As it is well known that the light of day causes the roots to
absorb their juices, it is natural to suppose that during the night ab-
sorption ceases and excretion takes place.

To prove that plants employ, (if we may so speak,) the excreto-
ry power of their roots in order to get rid of hurtful substances which
they may have imbibed, the following experiments were made. Some
plants of Mercurialis annua, were well washed in distilled water, and
placed so that one portion of their roots dipped into a weak solution
of acetate of lead, and another branch of the same root into pure wa-
ter. Having vegetated in this manner very well for several days,
the water was tested by hydro-sulphuret of ammonia, which _proved,
by the black precipitate which it formed, that a notable portion of
the lead had been absorbed and deposited by the branch which dip-
ped in the pure water. Groundsel, cabbage, and other plants gave
the same result. ‘Some plants grew very well for two days in ace-
tate of lead. ‘They were then withdrawn, their roots well washed
with distilled water, carefully wiped, again washed in distilled water,
{which bemg afterwards ments was found to contain no lead,) and
then placed to vegetate in a vessel of rain water. In the course of
two days, this water was found to contain a small quantity of acetate
of lead.

The same experiments were made with lime water, which, being
less injurious to plants, is preferable to lead. The roots being
partly placed in lime water and parily in pure water, the plants lived
well and the pure water soon shewed the presence of lime by oxa-
late of ammonia,—and plants which had grown in lime and then
transferred with every precaution to pure water, soon disgorged into
it a portion of lime.

Vegetable Physiology. 141

Similar trials were made with a weak solution of marine salt, and
with a like result. Learning from M. De Candolle that marine plants
when transported ma _ healthy situation, frequently grow well ata
distance from the sea, and that in such cases the soil in which they
grow contains more salt than the surrounding soil, the author endeav-
ored to imitate nature by taking a few common plants, placing their
roots in rain water, and wetting their leaves with a solution of ma-
rine salt. None of the salt was discoverable in the water, and it
may therefore be inferred either that solutions of salt cannot imitate
the delicate process of nature, or perhaps more probably that soda
plants alone have the power of absorbing by their leaves, marine
salt and rejecting a portion of it by their roots.

There can be no doubt then that plants have the power of reject-
ing by their roots, soluble salts which are injurious to vegetation. ‘The
author gives a few interesting details of experiments on some partic-
ular families of plants.

Leguminous Plants.—The only plants which he tried of this fam-
ily were peas and beans. ‘They live and grow well in pure water.
After sometime, the liquid, being examined, has no sensible taste, its
smell is faintly herbaceous. It is quite clear and almost colorless in
the case of kidney beans, (haricots,) more yellow in peas and com-
mon beans, (féves.) ‘The fluid when examined by chemical tests,
evaporation, &c. is found to contain a matter very analogous to gum
and a little carbonate of lime.

-It was found that when the water in lich these plants had lived
was pretty well charged with this excrementitious matter, fresh plants
of the same species soon withered in it and did not live well. To
ascertain whether this was for want of carbonic acid in the fluid,
(which plants derive from the earth as well as from the air,) or from
the presence of the excreted matter, which they repudiated, the au-
thor put into the fluid, some plants of another family, and especially
wheat. ‘This lived well, the yellow color of the fluid became less
intense, the residuum less considerable, and it was evident that the
new plant absorbed a portion of the matter discharged by the first.
It was a kind of rotation experiment performed in a bottle, and the
result tends to confirm the theory of De Candolle. It is not impos-
sible that by experiments of this kind, results may be obtained of prac-
tical importance to agriculture. The author would infer that wheat
may follow with great advantage a crop of beans.

142 Vegetable Physiology.

Gramineous Plants—Wheat rye and barley were examined.
They do not grow well in rain water, probably from the notable quan-
tity of mineral substances, especially silex, which they contain, and
which they cannot derive from pure water. The water in which
they have vegetated is clear, transparent, without color, smell, or taste.
It contains some salts, alkaline and earthy muriates and carbonates,
and only a very small portion of gummy matter. He thinks these plants
reject scarcely any thing but the saline matters foreign to vegetation.

Chicoraceous Plants.—The Chondrilla muralis and the Sonchus-
oleraceus live very well in rain water. The latter acquires a clear
yellow color, a strong smell, and a bitter taste. Treated with tests, and
concentrated by evaporation it is found to contain tannin, a brown
gummo-extractive substance, and some salts. _

Papaveraceous Plants.—Plants of field poppy (Papaver Rheas,)
will, not live in rain water; they speedily fade. The white poppy
(papaver somniferum) lives very well. The roots produce a yellow
color, a vinous odor, a bitter taste, and the brownish residuum might
be taken for opium. ‘This plant is one of those which neither the
roots nor the stems cut into pieces and steeped in water, produce in
it, any of the changes which the growing plants communicate.

Euphorbiaceous Plants—The Euphorbia cyparisias and E. pep-
lus, are the plants from whose roots Brugmans observed the exuda-
tion of drops during the night. The author has not been able to ver-
ify this fact by direct observation. The plants vegetate well in rain
water, giving a very strong and persisting odor. Boiling alcohol dis-
solves the residuum and deposits by evaporation, a granular, gummo-
resinous, yellowish white, very acrid substance, leaving a strong after
taste.

Solanaceous Plants.—The only plant of this family which I have
tried in water is the potato. It lives well in rain water and puts forth
its leaves. The water is scarcely colored, leaves little residuum,
gives but little taste, which induces the belief this is one of the
plants whose roots secrete little or nothing of a decided char-
acter. This however is the result of only a single hasty experiment
made upon a plant at an early stage of ‘its Hee emer.

The inferences which the author deduces from his experiments
(acknowledging however that more extended trials on a greater num-
ber of families and individuals are desirable,) are, 1st, that the greater
number of vegetables exude by their roots substances unfit for their
vegetation. 2d, That the nature of those substances varies accord-

Facts relating to Hydrophobia. 143

ing to the families of the plants which produce them. 3d, That
some being acrid and resinous may be injurious, and others being
mild and gummy may assist in the nourishment of other plants. 4th,
That these facts tend to confirm the theory of rotation due to M.
De Candolle.-—ib. Univ. Mai, 1832.

Art. XXIU.—Facts in relation to several Remarkable Deaths at-
tributed to Hydrophobia.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

Tue death of a friend,* in the parish of Chester, in Connecticut,
having called me to that place in July, 1830; the occasion of his fu-
neral brought me into contact with some of the surviving friends of
four persons who, not many years before, had died there under very
remarkable circumstances. From the father of one of them, I receiv-
ed a very painful statement of facts, of which I had heard, somewhat
vaguely before, and which had excited, in my mind, no little interest
and curiosity. ‘This bereaved father, a sensible and judicious, elder-
ly man, expressed to me, in the most decided terms, his belief, that
his son died of the hydrophobia. As the circumstances of my visit
did not permit me, to make a full investigation, a letter was some-
time after, addressed to the Rev. William Case, the clergyman of
the village, (a gentleman upon whose zeal, intelligence, and candor,
the fullest reliance could be placed,) requesting him to transmit to me
a statement of the facts.

There is no wish on his part or on mine, to agitate medical
theories ; and every one will, of course, form his own opinion as
to the possibility of the communication of the hydrophobic virus,
from one human being to another. On physical principles, no satis-
factory reason can be assigned, why the human subject of this mal-
ady should be unable to transmit the poison of the infected saliva to
the fluids of a wounded person, although it is confidently asserted,

* The late Dr. Burr Noyes. Chester is thirty miles north east of New Haven, in
the town of Saybrook, near the mouth of Connecticut river. Dr. Noyes was much
esteemed asa physician, and was in attendance in the case of C. C., described in the
succeeding pages.

144 Facts relating to Hydrophobia.

that no such case has ever occurred.* As to the time during which
the virus may lie dormant, popular opinion is perhaps in one extreme,
and philosophical caution in the other. It is stated that ‘ the devel-
opment of the morbid symptoms rarely takes place before the fortieth
or after the sixtieth day.”+ There are, however, very many well at-
tested cases in which the virus has lain much longer in the system, and
the limit seems not to be, as yet, definitely established.

Proof sheets of the annexed statement, having been communicated
to a number of medical gentlemen of high standing, most of them
were of the opinion, that although the facts stated in the Chester
cases are not, diagnostically, conclusive, they are interesting, and
also important, in as much as they may induce caution in those who
attend upon hydrophobic patients. So rare is hydrophobia in this
part of the United States, that although the gentlemen consulted had
practised medicine extensively, most of them for many years, in five
different geographical locations, remote from each other, only two of
them had ever seen a case of undoubted hydrophobia. One of
theset had attended on two unequivocal cases, both of which termi-
nated fatally ; and this physician considers the facts that occurred at
Chester to be such as belong to hydrophobia, and that there is noth-
ing in the cases inconsistent with this supposition. ‘The narrative is
given, however, not as a medical, but as a popular statement, believ-
ed to be true by judicious people, personally acquainted with the
cases. ‘The facts in Part II. are added for illustration and compar-
ison.— Editor of the Am. Jour. of Science and Arts.

Statement of facts by the Rev. William Case.

PART I.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

Chester, October 14, 1831.
Dear Sir,—tin compliance with your request, I have endeavored to
collect the facts, respecting the supposed cases of hydrophobia in this

* «¢ There is no instance of the rabies having been communicated from one person
to another ;°,—Encyclopedia Americana, Vol. VI,p. 511. And it is asserted also,
in the same work, that the hog, sheep, and cow are incapable of communicating the
poison, but these statements are contradicted by cases in this article.

t Encyclopedia Americana, Vol. VI, p. 511.

+ Dr. Elilves, Professor of Theory and Practice in the Medical Institution of Yale
College.

Facts relating to Hydrophobia. 145

place, and the transmission of the poison from one human being to
another. I ought, perhaps, to state that most of the physicians, con-
sulted in the three cases of supposed transmission from one human
being to another, attributed their death to some other disease, such
as might be supposed to be attended by symptoms similar to those
which characterize this malady. It is believed, however, that the
material facts, in these cases, were never fully made known to these
gentlemen. Neighbors and attendants, in whose possession they
were, feared, perhaps, to disclose them.

Allow me to say that I was in some measure prepared to feel the
dangers of this disease, from having, in my early years, assisted in
destroying several rabid animals. ‘The first was a dog nearly spent
with the disease. He was killed by a gun, in my father’s barn-yard.
The utmost care, I well remember, was taken to avoid touching the
animal, and to remove, and bury with him, the straw and loose ma-
terials on which his saliva had fallen. At a subsequent time, while
the family were at breakfast, a fox appeared in the same yard, in
pursuit of the fowls. He ran after them, and when they flew, jump-
ed high to seize them. He was not intimidated at the sight of men,
or by the throwing of clubs and stones. Fears were entertained of
his being rabid, and the life of a noble dog was risked in preference
to suffering the animal to escape in this state. He was too feeble to
run with great speed, and the dog overtook, and seized him at the
distance of a hundred rods. I followed in the pursuit, and with the
aid of the trusty dog, a billet of wood, and a stone, killed the fox.
The poor dog, which every member of the family regretted to lose,
was shut up in a small stable, and fed and watered, daily, with care.
In about fourteen days he began to refuse food, and to be averse to
water. He soon began to loll, to discharge saliva, jump towards the
scaffold floor, bite sticks that were thrust through the sides of his pri-
son, and, when excited, to fly at its sides with such force that he
broke off his long teeth. It became evident that he was rabid, and
he was killed to shorten his sufferings.

In 1807, W. C.* was bitten and wounded by a mad dog, when at
the age of eleven years, and on his way home from school. After

* The rabid dog, which bit W.C., was seen, when he was bitten by another supposed
tobe rabid. I had the facts from a gentleman now residing in Ohio, and as nearly as
I can recollect, they are as follow :—A strange dog crossed the orchard adjoining his
house, and was seen, without provocation, to seize and bite the dog which bit W. C.
The gentleman’s daughter, then a small girl, now the widow of C. C., was in the

Vou. XXIII.—No. 1. 19

146 Facts relating to Hydrophobia.

biting this youth, the dog was confined in a small apartment in his
owuer’s house, where he was seen by many persons, and where he
exhibited all the symptoms of hydrophobia. A person, in company
with others, with a gun in hand, ascended the chamber stairs, dis-
placed a part of the floor, and through the aperture, shot and killed
the dog. These facts are attested by a man who was an eye witness,
and they are correborated by many others.

At the time of the bite, in 1807, W. C. is said to have had a fee-
ble constitution, but it is testified on all hands that he grew up without
sickness. It is said, he conducted strangely, by turns, sometime
before his last sickness. The disease appeared in him fifteen
years after the bite, and was preceded by mental irregularity. He
had a short season of strange excitement, during public worship
on the Sabbath. At a neighbor’s house, the next day, he sud-
denly jumped, screamed, broke windows, and ran out at the door,
with great nimbleness of foot. He soon became quiet and return-
ed; and when his friends remonstrated with him for such conduct,
he said he could not avoid doing thus, for he had been bitten by a
mad dog. During the progress of the disease, he gnashed his
teeth ;* discharged large quantities of saliva, had distressing spasms,
and was set on biting every body and every thing. ‘The pillow ca-
ses, through which he made holes, by taking them in his teeth and
shaking them, are now to be seen. He spit on persons who came
in, and on all parts of the room. He was averse to swallowing any
thing. He watched for opportunities to bite persons, and if he could
bite any one it seemed to afford him pleasure, and was followed by
laughing. He lived after his attack, fourteen or fifteen days. It re-
quired four or five able men to attend upon him. He died Sept. Ist.
1822, aged twenty six years.

L. T..C., S. W. H. and C. C. a brother of W. C., were all
bitten by W. C. while attending on him in his last sickness. The

orchard at the time, and her mother seeing the dog in the act of biting the other,
and being alarmed, called her in. ‘The circumstance she well remembers, and says
the bitten dog fled into her father’s house, instead of his owner’s, not more than four
rods distant, and ran under the bed. The stray dog afterwards appeared in front of
the house and sat down. The gentleman pointed out the spot, described his appear-
ance, and said he had not a doubt of his being mad. If { do net misremember, he
was destroyed. The bitten dog bit W. C. between two and three weeks after he
received his own bite.

*Itis stated also that he howled and growled, but it is easy to suppose that the
imagination may convert groans and shrieks of distress, into imitative sounds.

Facts relating to Hydrophobia. 147

bite in these three cases, drew. fresh blood from the hand or wrist,
and this fact is attested by many witnesses. These three cases were
preceded by mental anxiety, and followed by spasms, delirium, and
lucid intervals. The first spasms were of short duration, and attend-
ed by jumping, hopping, and screaming. Successive spasms con-
tinued longer and became more severe. The eyes. of all assumed
a glassy and watery appearance. What I have termed, discharge of
saliva, was, in all these cases, called frothing at the mouth.

L. T. C. was a strong athletic man, he was bitten in 1822, by
W. C. and after a sickness of two weeks, died March 13, 1826,
aged thirty two years. Some weeks before his confinement, he
exhibited symptoms of mental aberration.* »He would hop back-
ward -and forwards, and talk incoherently, for a few minutes, and
then say he was sorry he conducted so, but he could not avoid it.
His attendants say, the taking of water or drinks made him rave.
A spectator observes, that he sometimes called for drinks, when it
seemed as if he thought they would be refreshing, and do him
good; but no sooner had he filled his mouth with the fluid, than
he would spirt it in the face of him who offered it, and decline to
swallow the drink. So strong was his aversion to swallowing, that
a near relative questions whether he could swallow. Another says,
that drinks were sometimes forced down; but he shuddered at swal-
lowing. With his mouth he seized by the arm, a person attending
upon him, and through thick clothing, left upon his flesh the print of
his teeth. He immediately said, ‘‘ Now I have hurt you, and I.am
sorry; but I could not avoid it; I must either die myself or bite
you.” If he had not been confined, says one, I have no doubt, he
would have bitten every person in the room. A part of the time, it
required seven able men to keep him to his bed and in his chamber.
It is said that he was not known to walk to, or from the bed ; but al-
ways leaped off and upon the floor ; he would whirl suddenly around,
and shift his position on the bed, and sit on his feet, and the by-stand-
ers imagined that he imitated the motions and the barking of a dog.
He frothed at his mouth and ran out his tongue. He spirted drinks

* It is not supposed that there was any proper delirium, but merely that degree
of aberration which might be supposed to arise from the violent paroxysms of the
disease in a very strong muscular subject. L. T. C. and C. C. particularly were
very powerful men, and C, C. was unrivalled as a wrestler.

148 Facts relating to Hydrophobia.

into the face of his attendants, spit on them, on every body and eve-
ry thing, and all over the room.* His efforts in spasms exhibited
such strength as literally to frighten his attendants.

S. W. H. sickened and died Aug. 10, 1827, aged thirty years.
He was sick five days. Although he had been for years subject
to epilepsy, yet there was no appearance of this disease in his last
sickness. He was bitten by W. C. in 1822, and carried the scar of
the bite to his grave. _ At the time, there was no general apprehen-
sion of hydrophobia, nor any excitement on the subject. It is not
known, that the fact of his bite was mentioned to his - physician.
His disease was pronounced to be something else. Whatever it might
have been, it was preceded by mental anxiety, and attended by the
following symptoms. He at first inclined to wander from his house,
and gave indications of mental aberration, and of a great dread of
water. He resided near a'small lake, and before being confined to
his room, requested his companion to keep him from the water, and
be sure and not let him get into that lake; if he did it would kill
him. He is represented as having had, in the first stages of his dis-
ease, a constant dread of water, but six hours before he died, he call-
ed for some, and drank of it. Before his spasms commenced, he
entreated his wife, that if he should be as W. C. was, she would pro-—
cure some strong man to take care of him, and be careful to get
some one who would make him mind, lest he should hurt others.
During one of his spasms, he bit his tongue and loosened a piece of
it. He requested his wife to take the scissors and cut it out, but to
take care and not get any of the blood on her. He would take drinks
to oblige his friends and attendants, but they say, he always swallow-
ed with a convulsive effort, such as they cannot describe. The dis-
position to wander continued to the last. He tried various expedi-
ents to be released, and to escape from the house. He would
grin and fix his glaring eyes on his attendants, when near him, in-
such a manner as to make them guard against being bitten. He
would take a handkerchief and bed clothes in his teeth, and bite and
shake them. He is represented as of a peaceable disposition, and
some of his friends think that he made great efforts to curb the dis-
position to bite.

—

: * The prevailing popular impressions on this subject are well known; perhaps it
is not surprising that some of the distressing and various appearances in hydrophobic
patients should be attributed, by the terrified beholders, to a specific canine influ-
ence. Medical men do not admit the genuineness of these appearances.

Facts relating to Hydrophobia. 149
The death of L. T. C. and S. W. H. left on the minds of the

community an impression of mystery. There was a general feeling
that. the cases were very singular. Individuals, who witnessed their
sickness, and were acquainted with the facts above mentioned, firmly
believed, that they died of hydrophobia, but no professional man had
encouraged that belief or laid stress on the facts which supported it,
and the friends, for obvious reasons, were not forward to express it.

Things remained thus, till C. C. a brother of W. C. sickened
and died, March 24, 1828, aged thirty seven years. He was sick
but eleven days. He was a strong laboring man, and had never
before been the subject of sickness. After attending a meeting in
the evening, he retired to rest, and slept as usual. About mid-
night, he suddenly sprang from bed, and ran undressed, into the
street, screaming so loudly as to alarm his neighbors. From this
first decisive appearance of his disease, remedies seemed not even
to abate his distressing symptoms. Nor was his malady suspected
by his ‘attending physician, till the third or fourth day. On my
making inquiries of a parishioner, in regard to the sick man, he said _
to me, “ He is no better. Do you know what people say about C.?
They say he was bitten by his brother W. who died with hydropho-
bia, and they can prove it, and they know he is mad.” I immedi-
ately made inquiries, and became satisfied that this was not mere
talk. I saw, the next day, his attending physician, and having men-
tioned the facts to him, I asked if he had suspected the nature of this
disease. He replied no. I then inquired if he would not examine
his authorities and look for the symptoms of the disease, with sole
reference to them. His next visit to the sick man resulted in his
conviction that his disease was hydrophobia. 'The physician had told
the attendants, that if they would preserve some of the saliva, and
inoculate a dog with it, he would become rabid in a certain number
of days. They had carefully taken up on a woollen string and drop-
ped into a phial, a quantity of this and corked the phial. ‘They had
selected the victim and the place of his confinement, and were hold-
ing the corked phial in the hand, when the man was seized with his
last spasm. The phial was suddenly dropped, and all search for it
in future proved ineffectual—a circumstance deeply to be regretted,
for had the experiment been made, the result would probably have
removed from every mind, capable of appreciating it, all doubt re-
specting the sick man’s disease.

150 Facts relating to Hydrophobia.

The following are some of the facts as stated to me by his physi-
cian,* and corroborated by his widow, and those who attended him.
The sight of water produced a recurrence of distressing spasms, or
in the language of attendants, made him rave. In the intervals of
spasms, he was rational. In one, he requested his father-in-law to
remove and hide his razors, for he did not know what he might be
left to do in his turns. In another, he gave this caution-to his wife.
“‘] wish you to keep away from me when I have these turns; [know
not why it is, but I want to bite, and I fear I shall bite you.” His
attendants think he strove to curb the disposition to bite. It was how-
ever very evident. A neighbor one evening entered the room. On
seeing him, he immediately said in a pleasant way, ‘‘ How do you
do, Mr. B————? I am glad to see you. Come here; I want to
shake hands with you.” The neighbor approached, and extended
his hand. The sick man seized it instantly, and with a convulsive
spring, rose from the lying posture, and drew it to his mouth. The
attendants who stood near, and expected this result of shaking hands,
instantly seized Mr. B———, and forced him from the sick man’s
grasp before he was bitten. He talked much about biting, and the
attendants, as usual in such cases, imagined that he growled, snapped
and barked, like a dog. The shaking of pillows and bed clothes in
his teeth, was a frequent exercise. His eyes were glassy and wa-
tery. He spit much, the night after he left the bed, and during his
sickness. He spit to all-parts of the room, and watched the oppor-
tunity to spit on persons who came into it. During his sickness, and
especially the night before his death, he screamed and hallooed oe
fully. ;

On the supposition that these are to be regarded as cases of ca
hydrophobia, the facts will stand thus :

1. W.C., first victim, bitten by a rabid dog in 1807. Sick fifteen
days. Died fifteen years after the bite, im 1822, Au. 26 years.

2. L. T. C., second victim, bitten by W. C. in 1822. Sick four-
teen days. Died short of four years after the bite, in 1826, AZ. 32
years.

* Dr. Noyes who was the attending physician in the last case, intended to collect
the facts and draw up the statement. We had conversed on the subject, and agreed
in our views of its importance, and he had consented to undertake it. His early re-
moval prevented. I shall always regret that the task had not devolved on some
member of the medical profession.

Facts relating to Hydrophobia. 151

3. S. W. H., third victim, bitten by W. C. in 1822. Sick five
days. Died five years after the bite, in 1827, AL. 30 years.

4. C.C., fourth victim, bitten by W.C. in 1822. Sick eleven
days. Died short of six years after the bite, in 1828, AZ. 37 years.

These facts are well established, and they preclude the necessity,
if not the propriety, of referring the symptoms of their disease to what
is sometimes termed spontaneous hydrophobia. Nor did the previ-
ous habits of life, in a majority of the patients, at all favor such a
reference of their symptoms.

C. C. was a constant spectator of his brother W. C._ in his last
sickness. ‘They died in the same house. C. C. also watched with
L. T. C. and S. W. H., and repeatedly told his wife, as she now
affirms, that they were sick just as his brother was. <A sensible man
who witnessed three of the cases, says the persons were sick alike
as nearly as the difference of natural dispositions, and habits of life
would permit. Different individuals, who observed attentively two
or three of the cases, bear the same testimony, in such numbers, as
to include in it all the four. With persons at all acquainted with the
facts and the cases, it is now the general opinion that the disease was
hydrophobia.

All four dreaded confinement, and exhibited great quickness of ap-
prehension in regard to persons, and circumstances which surrounded
them. ‘There was uncommon agility and sprightliness in their mo-
tions, and an evident display of cunning, especially in their efforts to
escape and to bite persons. ‘Till within about two days of the termi-
nation of the disease, the patients were not only inclined to escape,
but a primary object of the intended escape was to have opportunity
torun. It is the opinion of the attendants, that if they could have
escaped, they would have run till they dropped down dead. One,
among other things, pretended to have business at a place sixteen
miles distant. He plead with his attendants to let him place his feet
on the door steps, and assured them that if he might do it, he would
run so that no man could overtake him till he had reached the place.

The fears of all were that they should injure others. One was, at
times, afraid of receiving injury from others; but this fact, it is be-
lieved, may be explained, by a reference to circumstances peculiar
to himself. All that is claimed, however, is that there was a general
concurrence in the class of symptoms to which allusion has been
made. from momentary agitations, connected with slight mental
aberration, the spasms gradually increased, in duration and force, to
the last. One attendant says the strength of the patient seemed to

152 Facts relating to Hydrophobia.

increase during the spasms, till he finally sunk under them. This
man’s services have always been sought, and freely rendered in ex-
treme sickness. He affirms that he never witnessed cases at all re-
sembling these. - In attending on the last individual, he covered with
rags spots of fractured skin on his hands, lest the saliva of the patient
should reach them. Another procured and constantly wore, a pair
of stout gloves. An attendant in one of the cases, says, that twelve
hours’ service at a time, was as much as he could endure, and that
others were obliged frequently to change, and retire from the scene,
and suspend the efforts required of them when present.

Many testify that there was in all the cases, during the spasms or
spells as termed, an uncommon scent from the patient’s breath. ‘This
was observed in every case by numbers. Some designate it by the
epithet strong; others say they never experienced the like before,
nor since, and they cannot describe it. All seem to remember it as
perfectly distinct in its character. One person in endeavoring to con-
vey an idea of it, said it resembled that of cats and dogs when fight-
ing. This smell was not perceived, except at the times when the
patient raved, or had spells, and frothed at the mouth.

It is the opinion of attendants, that the patients were literally stiff
ened during the spasms, and that in the latter stages of the disease,
they might have been raised up erect, by the application of force to
the head, without any bending of the body. The corpses were stiff
immediately after dissolution, and the jaws set so as to require no
muffler. On them, and near the surface of the skin, blue spots ap-
peared, which some mistook for indications of mortification. One
was kept four days, and on this body the spots wholly disappeared,
and it underwent no other visible change. It is stated that the spots
appeared as soon as the patient was supposed to be struck with death,
and that when they disappeared, they left the skin slightly affected,
and of a greenish hue. It is said the corpses had a strange appear-
ance, the countenance resembling that of a living person in health
when cold. Some designate this appearance by the epithet blue.

P. S. An intelligent medical man, who has heard the above state-
ment, and conversed largely with witnesses, believes these cases to
have been hydrophobia. Two of them have been attributed by oth-
ers to delirium tremens, but the previous habits of the patients did
not favor that idea; none of the four were addicted to the use of ar-
dent spirits, and one of them had a constitutional aversion to distilled
liquors.

Facts relating to Hydrophobia. 153

PART Ii.

HypropHosia :—Extent, ease of transmission, dangers of exposure,
tume during which the virus lurks in the system, &c.

If hydrophobia should ever become as frequent in the United
States, as it has been in some countries, it would be a subject of re-
gret that we have no regular statistics of the disease. We have sta-
tistics of other diseases, as well as of vice and crime. The labor of
collecting them, is more than compensated by the diminution of suf-
fering, which their publicity occasions. The present is deemed a
favorable time for inviting attention to hydrophobia, as it is believed
that the disease is more prevalent in the country than at ay former
period of its history. During the last year especially, the cases have
been frequent ; and there is reason to believe, that with more knowl-
edge of the disease, and of the dangers of exposure, some at least,
of the many fatal terminations which have occurred, might have been
‘avoided.

_ ‘A table, containing a statement of the number of deaths by hydro-
phobia, in the different parts of the Prussian monarchy, was publish-
ed in Hufeland’s Journal for March, 1824. . From this table, it ap-
pears that the deaths in ten years amounted to one thousand six
hundred and sixty-six.

Years. Deaths. . Years. ‘Deaths.
1810 104 ~ 1815 79
1811 117 - 1816 201
1812 101 - 1817 228
1813 85 ~ 1818 268
1814 127 - 1819 356

‘The deaths occurred more frequently in some provinces than in
others. ‘The greatest number mentioned in one province is two hun-
dred and twenty-eight. In several provinces, the cases were very
rare, or totally absent. Dr. Hufeland accounts for this great diver-
sity, by remarking that the provinces in which it is frequent are con-
tiguous to the forests containing wolves, as those of Poland, Prussia,
and the Ardennes.’*

* United States Literary Gazette.

Vou. XXII1.—Nao. 1. 20

154 Facts relating to Hydrophobia.

This table is cited, not only as aespecimen of useful research, but
as furnishing palpable evidence of the gradual increase of the dis-
ease, in a single country, in a period of ten years; the deaths by it
being two hundred and fifty-two more in the tenth year, than in the
first of the series. It also suggests that the disease continually finds
victims to prey upon, among animals which roam in the forests. In
this country, farmers have frequently destroyed foxes which fearlessly
approached them in open day, without, perhaps, suspecting that they
were rabid. From this species of animals, many dogs unquéstiona-
bly derive the disease, and transmit it to others, and they to other do-
mestic animals, and to human beings. From the fact that the poison
is transmissible from one species of animals to another, and from an-
imals to human beings, it appears highly probable that it may be
transmitted from one human being to another. Man then, of all the
animal creation, is most exposed to this fearful malady. He alone
is endowed with reason to ascertain its nature, and use the means of
self-preservation. ‘To contribute, in some degree, to this object, is
all that this article attempts. vy

The following cases, it is believed, are well authenticated. They
are quoted with names, dates and references, so that if any error
exists, it may be easily discovered.

1. Hydrophobia from the hair of a rabid animal. Time of the
virus lurking, eight or ten weeks.

A young man, named Morehead, suddenly expired at Cincinnati,
on the 3d of May, 1831. It is stated that all the usual characteris-
tics of the disease were manifested during his short illness, and that
a subsequent examination of the body, satisfied the four physicians
who attended him, that the case was precisely such an one as is pro-
duced by the bite of a mad dog; although it was ascertained that he
had never been bitten by one. He was a tanner by trade. As sev-
eral domestic animals had died of hydrophobia during the winter, it
is supposed that one of them, which had besmeared its own hair with
saliva, had been skinned, and its hide sent to the tan yard, where the
poison might have been imparted to those who handled it. The
opinion of professional gentlemen is, that the poison, applied to the
sound skin, cannot excite the disease, but the victim, in this instance,
had a burn on one of his fingers, and the sore had a scab on it at the
time of his death.*

* New York Observer, June 18, $831.

Facts relating te Hydrophobia. 155,

2. Hydrophobia, from giving medicine to a rabid animal. Time
of the virus lurking, eight or ten months.

Mr. David Rock, of Bedford, Pa., died of hydrophobia, January
1, 1832. Light or ten months previous to his death, he attempted
to administer medicine to a sick heifer, which subsequently proved
to have been mad. In the act of giving the medicine, he wounded
one of his fingers, and thereby is supposed to have caught the infec-
tion which resulted in his death.*

3. Hydrophobia, from the bite of a mad dog. ‘Time of the virus
lurking, about five weeks.

The subject was Mr. Street, who resided near Sharon, Hamilton
County, Ohio. Near the first of June, 1831, he observed a dog in
the stye, biting his swine. In attempting to drive him out, the dog
flew at Mr. S., and bit him severely. Nine days after, one of the
swine died in a rabid state. Nearly thirty-five days after, on retir-
ing to bed, Mr. S. complained of being unwell. The succeeding
morning, on putting his hands into water, for the purpose of washing,
he was seized with violent spasms, and forced to recoil several pa-
ces. After repeated trials, he succeeded in washing himself.

He is represented as having been, from this moment, fully con-
scious of his danger; he was a pious man, and was supported by
réligion in his extremest suffering, and in the hour of dissolution.

*« The strange spectacle was here presented to the living, of a man
in his full strength, who, while walking about the room, conversing
with his friends, and exhorting them to prepare for death, and yet
perfectly conscious that he must die in a few hours, was foaming at
the mouth, and exhibiting, by the convulsions of his whole frame,
and the horrible distortion of his countenance, and the unnatural ex-
pression of his eyes, which seemed ready to burst from their sockets,
that a terrible poison was drinking up his spirits, the progress of whose
destructive energy, no power on earth-was able to resist.”+

_ 4. Hydrophobia, from the bite of a mad dog. ‘Time of the virus
lurking, fifty-four days.

The subject was a little girl, named Johnson, two and a half
years old. On the 20th of April, a small dog entered the yard, No.
138 Christie Street, New York, where she was at play, and lacera-
ted her nose severely. The child soon recovered of her wound, and

* Philadelphia Saturday Evening Post, Jan. 7, 1882.
t New York Observer, July 30, 1831.

156 Facts relating to Hydrophobia.

continued well to the 13th of June, when she became fretful, and
complained of pain in the head and stomach. The mother prepar-
ed an infusion of senna, and when she attempted to administer it, the
child wonld shudder and become convulsed. The first circumstance
that attracted the attention of the mother, was the peculiar actions of
the child when she drank, for she was thirsty, and asked for water,
but when she swallowed the“water, she would choke and spit it out.

On the succeeding day, Dr. Mead, of. Cliff Street, from whom. the
particulars were derived, was called to attend the child. ‘ He found
her lying quietly on her bed, cheerful and intelligent, for the child
was remarkably sprightly for her age, and seemed pleased with the
idea of being made well. She said she had no pain, except a little
in her stomach; she allowed her person to be examined freely, but
when the nose was touched, she would recoil with shuddering, and
when it was pressed she would thrust out her tongue with a shriek,
and catch her breath as if suffocated. This was not incidental, for
it was tried several times with the same result. ‘The cicatrix of the
wound appeared perfectly well, and there was no appearance of dis-
ease, or discoloration of the part. She was asked to drink some
water. She seemed thirsty, and readily assented. A cup was
brought, and she rose in bed, grasped it with both hands, and filled
her mouth, but in an instant she dashed the cup from her, and seemetl
to spit or blow the water from her mouth, with a force and sound, as
if it were ejected from a heated crucible, and fell upon the bed in
horrible convulsions. Ina few moments she was quiet and compo-
sed again. ‘These experiments were forbidden, as they added
greatly to the sufferings of the child. Several attempts were made
to administer medicine, but unsuccessfully ; for every effort to swal-
low even the smallest quantity, would bring on a spasm and a dix
tressing constriction of the throat, which would eject it from her
mouth. ‘The dread of water continued to increase, to such a de-
gree, that if a person approached her with a tumbler of water, it
would bring on a recurrence of the paroxysms. ‘The spasms occur-
red spontaneously with increased power and frequency, until she
exhibited all the horrors of this fearful malady. The eyes were wild
and protruded, there was gnashing of the teeth, until the tongue be-
came lacerated ; with frequent spitting and foaming at the mouth ;
and retching which was peculiar. It returned at regular intervals of
a few moments, attended with but one effort, as if the stomach were
suddenly affected by a spasm, and forcibly expelled through the

Facts relating to Hydrophobia. 157

constricted pharynx, a little frothy mucus. Then again returned the
horrible convulsions and shrieks not to be described, and dreadful to
behold, until she became gradually exhausted, and expired forty
hours after the invasion of the disease, and fifty-seven days after the
infliction of the wound. Several physicians saw the child, and ne
doubt was left on their minds as to the nature of the disease.”*

Such are some of the details in relation to this fearful disease.
The list might be greatly extended, but these are deemed sufficient,
to render highly probable the following conclusions respecting it.

Animals known to have been exposed, or slightly suspected of the
disease, ought to be immediately confined. On the decisive appear-. .
ance of the disease, they ought to be immediately destroyed. There
is an instinctive dread of animals infected with the disease, as there
is of certain poisonous reptiles. Numbers, however, delight in ex-
hibiting a useless bravery, in approaching them without sure means
of defence at hand. It can never be safe, in any way to trifle with
a poison, so deadly in its effects, and at the same time so easily con-
veyed into the system. One moment the rabid animal may be qui-
escent, and apparently harmless, and the next moved by convulsions,
and a strong propensity to bite; to inflict a death wound on the un-
suspecting being who shall be within its reach.f

It appears evident that the transmissible poison is contained in the
mucus or saliva of the diseased animal, and that the disease may be
produced by almost any minute portion of this mucus or saliva, if it
only come in contact with the fluids of the system. The poison also
appears to be permanent, and active, at least, for a considerable
time after the death of the diseased animal.{ No doubt therefore
need remain, as to the active nature of the poison, or the ease with
which it is transmitted. In the case of animals diseased or dead, it

* Journal of Commerce, June 18, 1831. 2d page, Ist col. top.

t+ A dog which had imparted the disease to several domestic animals, afterwards
approached his master, licked his hand, and suffered himself to be caressed, without
offering to injure him. He suddenly turned from his master, to a little child stand-
ing near, and in the act of biting her, was prevented, by a severe blow on the neck,
from the child’s father, who was anxiously watching the motions of the dog.

{ In the case of reptiles, this fact is of general notoriety, as persons who destroy
them, always sink the head toa great depth in the earth. The poison of a dead rep-
tile, applied to the outer bark of a green stick filled with sap, will preduce no action.
Ifa hole be made through the bark, and the poison be placed in contact with the
sap, its rapid diffusion may be detected by the eye, since it will raise the bark as it

proceeds, and render visible its actua) progress, for some distance from the place of
contact.

158 Facts relating to Hydrophobia.

is not safe for persons having fractured skin, or open wounds to ap-
proach, or handle them, either for the purpose of administering med-
icine, or for the operation of skinning. It is better in all cases to
sacrifice the small value of the skin, than to endanger life in attempt-
ing to save it. Nor can the hides of such animals, be safely handled
for the purpose of dressing. It is unsafe for persons free from wounds,
to approach such animals, just in proportion as they are in danger of
being wounded, or in any way liable to take the poison.

If substantially the same poison rages in beasts of the forest, in
domestic animals, and in human beings: as is evident from the same-
ness of its effects—if it is transmissible from one species of animals
to another, and from them to human beings, as facts clearly prove ;
then it is reasonable to conclude, that it may be transmitted from one
human being to another. On this ground, the greatest caution is
required of those who have the care of the victims of this disease.
It is imprudent for persons having uncovered wounds of any descrip~
tion, to attend on the human victim afflicted with this disease. ‘The
poisonous mucus or saliva may be, and often, if not always, is thrown
to every part of the room in which he is confined. It may strike a
small uncovered wound, and be as effectually transmitted, as from
the tooth of a fox, a wolf, or a dog. ‘The utmost care is requisite
on the part of attendants, not only to avoid bites, but to prevent the
ingress of the virus, in any quantity through an aperture of the skin.

- The time during which the virus lurks in the human system, has
been stated, not to be short of ten days, nor to exceed nineteen
months. ‘This statement was the result of an observation of a_
given number of cases. Facts, however, are not wanting, to prove
that it acts short of the least term, and lurks beyond the greatest.
The time of lurking may depend on the stage of the disease in
the animal, or human being from whom the poison is transmitted ;
it being reasonable to conclude, that if taken in the earlier stages of
the disease, it will be less likely to operate soon, than if taken,
when the disease has reached its maximum, or in the later stages.
It may also depend on the quantity as well as on the power of the virus
transmitted.* Both these circumstances may, in different individuals,

* In reference to the four cases of supposed hydrophobia, stated in part I, of this
account, it is an ascertained fact, that the person bitten by the dog, was bitten on the
first day of the appearance of the disease in the dog; and that the three who were
bitten by this person, were all bitten in the earlier stages of his disease, and during
the first manifestation of his disposition to bite; and that the wound, inflicted on
the one who died first, was more severe than on either of the others, and the wound
on the one who died last the slightest of the three.

Facts relating to Hydrophobia. } 159

vary the symptoms of-the disease as well as the time of its appear-
ance. Difference in age, constitution, habits of life, and state of
health, at the time of exposure, may cause a difference in the symp-
toms of the disease, and in the time intervening, between exposure and
its development, and between its development and fatal termination.
Facts indicate this difference, some falling under its power in a very
short period, and others enduring it longer. In some the disease ap-
pears soon, and in others, years elapse before its development. _

As a practical rule, in relation to this strange and hitherto uncon-
trollable poison, it is deemed strictly philosophical, to fix the time of
its lurking, in every instance, by the known facts which mark its de-
velopment, and altogether unphilosophical, when it appears with mark-
ed symptoms, to deny its existence, because it appears long after ex-
posure. ‘To deny the possibility of its lurking beyond a short period,
has an evident tendency to multiply the dangers of exposure, pre-
clude the explanation of facts which occur, and increase the chances
of malpractice. It may appear very improbable, that so active a poi-_
son should lurk in the system for years; but since its development is
affected by so many circumstances, facts may render it morally cer-
tain, that it does remain inactive, in the system, for a period of years.
Facts constitute a firmer basis of belief, than any theory, however
nicely contructed, and, however fully supported, by that kind of evi-
dence, on which all theories depend. Is it the greater improbability,
that the poison should remain long inactive in the system ; or that the
disease should appear with marked symptoms, and be wholly separ-
ate from the only known exciting cause? It invites consideration,
whether a preconceived opinion, that the poison does never remain
long inactive in the system, has not caused many genuine Gases of
this disease, to be passed over in silence; inquiries respecting the
cause of others, which might have proved successful, to be suppress-
ed ; and others still to be designated spontaneous hydrophobia. Causa
latet, is a rule of safe application to effects witnessed in one connex-
ion, without a circumstantial knowledge of the cause, with which, in
other connexions, they have been invariably associated.

It may not be difficult to trace the close analogy between these
views of hydrophobia, and that scornful defiance of rules and limits,
which characterizes almost all other inveterate diseases; and from
that analogy to infer their probable correctness. If they err, it is on
the safe side. A disease of such power and terror, which has rarely
if ever been cured, should, if possible, be avoided. The more se-

160 Facts relating to Hydrophobia.

cret and undefined the modes of transmitting the poison, the more
unceasing and vigilant should be our endeavors, to hedge up every
possible way of access to it. ;

In thus adverting to the secondary causes of this disease, in glan-
cing at the wide field on which they may act, and in attempting to set
up beacons, to warn the unwary to stop short of the point at which
danger commences, we do not forget that unseen Power, on whose
will the action of all secondary causes depends, and by whom their
every ‘action is hastened or suspended at pleasure; nor our obliga-
tions ‘of gratitude, that in limits so circumscribed, as those which con-
stitute the boundaries of human knowledge, we may arrive at fixed
truths, which, by disclosing hidden dangers, pointing out the means
of avoiding them, and inspiring us with salutary caution, shall ward
off the fatal dart, that was covertly aimed at our life, prevent, in many
instances, the exquisite sufferings of our fellow beings, and impose,
at least, partial restraints on the progress of one of the direst mala-
dies, before whose energy man is ever forced to bow in death.

APPENDIX.

* COMMON SALT A REMEDY FOR ANIMAL POISON.”

“The Rev. S. G. Fisher, a missionary in South America, says he
actually and effectually cured all kinds of painful and dangerous ser-
pents’ bites, after they had been inflicted for many hours, by the ap-
plication of common salt, moistened with water, and bound upon the
wound, without any bad effect ever occurring afterwards. 1, for my
part, says he, never had an opportunity to meet with a mad dog, or
any person who was bitten by a mad dog. I cannot, therefore, speak
with experience as to hydrophobia, but that I have cured serpents’
bites, always without fail, 1 can declare in truth. He then cites a
‘case from a newspaper, in which, a person was bitten by a dog, which,
in a few hours, died raving mad. Salt was immediately rubbed, for
some time, into the wound, and the person never experienced any

-4nconvenience from the bite.. Mr. Fisher was induced to try the

‘above remedy from a statement made by the late Bishop Loskiel, in
his history of the missions of the Moravian Church, in North Amer-
ica, purporting that certain tribes of Indians, had not the least fear of
the bite of serpents, relying upon the application of salt as so certain

Facts relating to Hydrophobia. 161

a remedy, that some of them would suffer the bite for the sake of a
glass of rum.” —.Ann. de Chimie.*

Salt is generally known as the most efficacious remedy, for the
stings of insects, which to some persons are extremely poisonous. It
is also extensively used, as a certain remedy by fishermen, and per-
sons obliged to stand in water, to whom the bite of aa suckers is
poisonous. fey

The following fact may be relied upon as well authenticated. In
1807, a boy, at the age of four years, was severely bitten by a mad
dog, and wounded in the arm. A lad several years older was bitten
by the same dog, on the same day, and has since died of the disease.
No'remedy was applied to his wound. ‘The arm of the lad bitten at
the age of four years, was immediately done up in common salt.
The wound swelled badly, suppurated freely, and finally healed. He
has since experienced no inconvenience from the bite, and is now a
healthy, active man. A respectable physician, to whom the particu-
lars were subsequently related, approved of the course pursued, and
assured the anxious mother that she had done the best thing which it
was in her power to do. There is reason to hope, that this may
prove a cure, and if so, the cure was effected by so simple an Bees,
as common salt.

Query.—If salt has any power to counteract animal poison, might
it not afford relief, by being administered to persons afflicted with
hydrophobia ?

The above statement and the annexed fact, are made public, not
so much from a conviction that salt is a remedy, as from the hope
that. they will lead to experiments, which shall decide the point,
whether salt has the power to neutralize or destroy animal poison.
If such is not the fact, a prevalent tradition should be forthwith cor-
rected. If it has such a power, immense good would result from
having the fact scientifically established, and universally promulgated.

Chlorine is known to destroy mstantly every species of virus to
which it has been hitherto applied. fs it possible that the chlorine
in common salt may become so far active, as to destroy the poison ?
We have no fact as yet ascertained that can sustain this conclusion,
but it may perhaps be worthy of some attention.—Ep.

* New York Observer.
Vou. XXITI.—No. 1. ihe

162 Miscellanies.

MISCELLANIES.
FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC.

1. Museum of Groron Manre xt, Esq. of Lewes, in Sussex, Eng-
land.—We have for some time intended to publish a notice of this
museum, which, in the sciences to, which it relates, is one of the most
remarkable and instructive in the world, dsvectally when it is consid-
ered that it is the result of individual effort. We are happy to man-
ifest, in this manner, our respect for the character of the distinguished
and excellent proprietor, and to exhibit this museum, as a model wor-
thy of imitation in this country, especially in the vast secondary, ter-
tiary and diluvial region of our middle and southern Atlantic coast.

We shall adopt Mr. Mantell’s own account in his published cata-
logue of 1829, which is introduced by the following eloquent and
beautiful passage from Sir H. Davy.

“If we look with wonder upon the great remains icf human works,
such as the columns of Palmyra, broken in the midst of the desert 5
the temples of Pestum, beautiful in the decay of twenty centuries 5
or the mutilated fragments of Greek sculpture in the Acropolis of
Athens, or in our own museums, as proofs of the genius of artists, and
power and riches of nations now past away ; with how much deeper
feeling of admiration must we consider those grand monuments of na-
ture which mark the revolutions of the globe ; continents broken into
islands ; one land produced, another destroyed; the bottom of the
ocean become a fertile soil ; whole races of animals extinct, and the
bones and exuviz of one class covered with the remains of another ;
and upon the graves of past generations—the marble or rocky tomb,
as it were, of a former animated world—new generations rising, and
order and harmony established, and a system of life and beauty pro-
duced out of chaos and death ; proving the infinite power, wisdom,
and goodness of the Great Cause of all things !”

‘Sussex, and the adjacent parts of Hampshire, Surrey, and Kent,
are composed of beds of gravel, chalk, clay, limestone, sand, and
sandstone, lying upon one another in a certain order, and having a
general inclination towards the south-east in Sussex, and north-east
in Surrey and Kent. In these beds are found, more or less abund-
antly, the remains of animals and vegetables ; but the organic bodies
discovered in some of the strata, are not to be met with in others ;
for instance, in certain beds the fossils are entirely of terrestrial or

Jifiscellanies. 163

fresh water origin; while in others they are marine. Now it is ob-
vious that the strata which contain marine bodies only, must have
been deposited under very different circumstances to those which
contain fresh water fossils ; hence we*have two natural divisions—
namely, the marine, and the fresh water formations. ‘The chalk,
and the sands and marls associated with it, belong to the former ;
the weald clay, and the sand and sandstones of the interior of the
country, to the latter. The subordinate divisions of the strata refer
principally to their mineralogical characters. There are also beds
of gravel, sand, and clay, containing boulders, &c. the debris of the
regular deposits, and which, although of vast antiquity, are of far more
recent origin than those on which they repose ; these contain bones
and teeth of large terrestrial quadrupeds.

The strata are grouped, and named as follows, beginning with the
uppermost or newest bed.

Alluvium.—The silt, clay, sand, gravel, &c. formed by the rivers
now in action. Lewes Leveis afford a familiar example.

Diluvium.—Sand, gravel, &c. containing the debris of older for-
mations, bones of the horse, elephant, deer, whale, &c. ‘The cliffs
between Brighton and Rottingdean are diluvial.

Tertiary Strata.—These consist of regular beds of sand, clay, &c.
resting on the chalk, and are characterised by their organic remains. —
Castle Hill, at Newhaven, Bognor Rocks, Clay at Bracklesham, are
examples of these strata.

Chalk Formation.—This comprises,

1. The chalk, with and without flints ; ; it forms the Sussex, Hamp-
shire, Surrey, and Kent Downs. °

2. Grey marl, forming the base of the Downs, and generally ap-
pearing on the weald escarpment of the chalk; at Hamsey, Stone-
ham, and Southerham there are marl _ pits, where the usual fossils
occur.

3. Galt,* or blue chalk marl, a stiff bie clay; its fossils have
their shells beautifully preserved. It is seen, at Ringmer, near
Lewes; and on the road-side from Wannock stream to Eastbourn ;
at Newtimber it appears under the grey marl.

4, Shanklin Sand, so called from Shanklin Chine, in the Isle of
Wight, where it is beautifully exhibited. ‘This sand forms hills, that
rival the Downs in altitude in the west of Sussex ; near Lewes it oc-

* A provincial term, used in Cambridgeshire.

164 : JViscellanies.

curs but obscurely. Ditchling stands on a eee of it; Norlington
Green, near Ringmer, 1 is another locality.

The organic remains found in the above strata are entirely marine.

Hastings Sands and Clays.—These strata, with but very few ex-
ceptions, contain fresh water fossils only ; hence they are naturally
separated from the above, and constitute a well marked, distinct for-
mation. ‘They are subdivided into,

1. Weald Clay, in whcih the Sussex limestone or marble is found.
This occurs at Laughton.

2. Strata of Tileate Forest, well displayed in the cliffs near bes
ings. ;

3. Clays and limestones of Ashburnham.

PLAN CF THE MUSEUM.

= ull HA

TTT
UT TE

inn

Case I.—Contains minerals, recent shells and corals, from various
parts of England, and other countries. Some fine specimens of Sul-
phate of Barytes from Nuitfield, in Surrey; Tourmalines; Native
Gold and Silver; polished Sections of Ammonites; Crystallized
Sandstone of Fontainbleau, &c.

Case II.—The fossils of the strata of 'Tilgate Forest, and the other
subdivisions of the Hastings formation.

These consist of many hundred specimens of the nan oe &c. of
reptiles, turtles, fishes, and birds ; of the stems of enormous vegeta-
bles, allied to the Dragon-blood plant, and Euphorbia; Ferns of ex-
tinct species and genera, &c.; the whole presenting the characters —
of a Fauna and Flora of an unknown tropical region. ‘The intelli-

Mideeiionics. 165

gent observer will at once perceive, that such an assemblage can be
explained only by supposing the strata to have been formed in the bed
of a river or estuary. Imagine a river flowing through a country in-
habited by lizards, turtles, &c., and clothed with forests of plants, al-
lied to the palms and arborescent ferns. If the country were com-
posed of primitive rocks, as granite, &c. we might expect deposi-
tions of clay, and siliceous sand and sandstone, with particles of mica,
quartz, pebbles of various sizes, derived from the veins in the gran-
ite ; bones, more or less rolled, of the lizards and turtles ; associated
with the remains of the fishes and shells that lived and died in the.
river, and the stems and leaves of the vegetables that grew upon its
banks; in short, such a collection of organic remains, imbedded in
clay and sand, as the one in the case before us.

In the strata of Tilgate Forest, the remains of four enormous rep-
tiles have been identified, and there are also bones and teeth which
belong to others not yet determined. The following are the most
remarkable.

Iguanodon.*—An herbivorous reptile, related to the Iguana.
This monster of the ancient world must have equalled the elephant
in bulk, as the enormous bones in this collection indisputably prove.
Its remains have been found in Sussex only, and were first describ-
ed by the author in a memoir, published in the ‘Transactions of the
Royal Society for 1825. Of this gigantic reptile, the collection con-
tains bones of the head, teeth, vertebre, clavicles, coracoid bone, ribs,
chevron bone, femur, leg bones, (tidi:a and fibula,) metatarsal bones,
phalanges, ungueal bone, and horn. ‘The femur, tibia, and fibula ly-
ing together in the lower division of this case, were found near each
other, Dada belonged to the same limb ; from their immense size some
idea may be formed of the gigantic proportion of the leg and thigh
of the original animal.

Megalosaurus.—A reptile allied to the Monitor,+ but almost of as
enormous a magnitude as the Iguanodon. Its remains occur also in
the slate at Stonesfield, near Oxford, and were first described by Dr.
Buckland. In this case there are teeth, vertebre, femur, and other
bones. ;

* So called from its teeth resembling those of the Iguana.
+ There are stuffed specimens of the Iguana and Monitor in the Collection, for
comparison.

166 /Wiscellanies.

Crocodile.—Two, or more, enormous species of this genus of
Saurian reptiles, were contemporaries of the Iguanodon. ‘There are
teeth, vertebra, humeri, chevron bone, ribs, &c. One of the spe-
cies resembles a fossil crocodile found at Soleure, and described by
Baron Cuvier.

Plesiosaurus.—Of this extinct genus, first described by Mr. Cony-
beare, vertebra, teeth, humeri, and other bones, occur in the strata
of Tilgate Forest.

Chelonian Reptiles.*—The bones and scales of these animals are
of frequent occurrence in the Hastings beds. They are referable to
the following :—

1. A fresh water species, allied to the Trionyx.

2. An unknown species of Emys, resembling a fossil fresh water
turtle found in the Jura limestone.

3. A marine species, belonging to the subgenus Chelonia, and re-
lated to the fossil turtle of Maestricht.

Fishes.—Their remains consist of dorsal fins, of great strength,
and armed with spines, resembling those of the Stlurus ;+ teeth of
various forms, some tricuspid and striated ; others hemispherical, the
bufonites of the older geologists; and palates of various kinds. — In
the collection there are two splendid specimens of a fish with lozenge-
shaped scales ; one showing a pectoral fin ; the other, portions of the
opercula of the gills.

Vegetable Remains.—These are numerous, although belonging to
but few species. ‘The most remarkable is the

Clathrariat Lyellii,§ of which there are specimens of the inter-
nal and external parts of the stem, in a beautiful state of preserva-
tion. The original probably attained a considerable height ; it is re-
lated to the Dracena draco, (Dragon-blood plant). Some exam-
ples show traces of the base of the flowers; and the fossil seed-ves-
sels found in the same strata, are supposed to belong to this plant.
The other large vegetable of this period is the Endogenites erosa, of
which there are many enormous stems: the original was evidently a
monocotyledonous plant, bearing an analogy to the Cacti and Euphor-
bia. Almost all the specimens are flattened by the compression of
the strata, when in a softened state.

* Tortoises and turtles.

t The Silurus is a fish that inhabits the rivers of Europe and the East, aoe is the
largest of fresh water fishes.

} From the chinks on its surface. § Named in honor of C. Lyell, Esq. F. R.S.

Miscellanies. 167

There are also the remains of several kinds of ferns in the Tilgate
strata: one of the most elegant is the species named by M. Brong-
niart, Sphenopteris Mantelli. Another is the Lonchoteris Mantelli,
distinguished by the beautiful reticulated structure of the leaves.

Besides the fossil vegetables above noticed, there are stems of
other plants 5 and vegetable matter im the state of lignite, (an impure
coal,) is abundantly diseprsed throughout the strata.

Birds.—Long slender bones occur which were supposed to have
belonged to birds ; but from the discovery of the bones of the Pter-
odacey hiss (a flying reptile,) 1 in the lias at Lyme Regis, it is now be-
lieved that the specimens in question belonged to that a
reptile.

Shells.—These consist of univalves and bivalves, allied to recent
fresh water genera. In some instances they constitute entire beds of
limestone, of which the Sussex marble is a familiar example. _

The specimens above described are distributed in the cabinet as
follows :—

Shelf No. 1. Stems of vegetables, bones of Saurians, &c.*

2. Vertebre, ribs, humeri, and other bones of the Iguanodon, Me-
galosaurus, Crocodile, Plesiosaurus, &c.

3. A series of specimens, illustrative of the Geology of Sussex,
commencing with the rocks of Bognor, and ending with the strata at
Hastings.

4. Bones of Turtles; teeth of Iguanodon, &c.; horn and claw of
ditto ; remains of Fishes, Birds, &c.; vertebre of Crocodile and
Plesiosaurus. . a

5. Vegetable remains: Clathraria Lyellii, Exdogenites erosa,
Ferns, Lignite, &c.

6. Bones of the extremities and pelvis of the Iguanodon, &c.

In the drawers of the Cabinet, No. 6, there are also many fossils
from the Tilgate strata.

From the examination of these organic remains, the following in-
ferences arise :— :

Ist. The reptiles and vegetables must have been inhabitants of a
country, enjoying a much higher temperature than any part of Eu-
rope ; and the former, from their enormous magnitude and osteolo-
gical characters, clearly belong to an order of things, of which the
present state of the earth affords no example ; the epoch of their ex-
istence may, indeed, be termed the age of reptiles. ©

* On this Shelf there is also part of the fossil rib of a whale, from Brighton Cliffs.

168 JWiscellanies.

Qdly, The broken and rolled: state of the greater part of the
bones, the pebbles, and the conglomeritic character of many of the
deposits, prove that the strata were formed in the i of a river, or
an estuary.

3dly, It is equally obvious, that the Hastings, or Tilgate strata,
must have been formed and consolidated before the chalk, which
rests upon and once covered them, was deposited. It follows, that
after the Hastings’ beds were formed, they must have been sub-
merged beneath the ocean which deposited the chalk formation ; for
the latter, as we shall presently shew, contains nothing but marine re- ~
mains, and not one fossil of the Hastings’ beds.

4thly, The ocean of the chalk, in its turn, must have passed away,
and the consolidated chalk have been covered by the waters which
deposited the tertiary strata, for the latter contain fossils entirely dis-
tinct from those of the chalk.

Lastly, The tertiary, in common with the chalk and Hastings’ beds,
must have been subsequently broken up, probably by volcanic agen-
cy, and the wealds of Kent and Sussex formed, and the chalk dislo-
cated and separated, by the upheaving of the central strata of the
Hastings’ formation : the lateral fissures in the chalk now constituting
the vallies, through which the existing rivers flow, and effect’ the
drainage of the country. To this epoch may probably also be refer-
red the formation of the beds of diluvium.

Case I1I.—With but few exceptions, the fossils in this Case are
not from Sussex.

Shelf 1. Teeth of Elephants, from the diluvial beds forming the
cliffs at Brighton and Rottingdean: horns of Aurochs, fragments of
the antlers of the fossil Elk of Ireland, &c.

2. Tusks of elephants, horns of buffaloes and aurochs, &c. from
Walton, in Essex, presented by G. B. Greenough, Esq. la
bone, (scapula,) of a Mammoth, from North America.

.3. and 4. Teeth and bones of mammoths, rhinoceroses, croco-
diles, plates of turtles, fossil vegetables, &c. from the diluvial plains
forming the banks of the Lrawadi river, two hundred miles below Ava,
in the Burmese Empire. Collected is presented by J. Craufurd,
Esq. F.R.S.

5. Remains of Ichthyosauri, from Lyme Regis skull of the ex-
tinct fossil bear, (Ursus speleus,) from the caverns of Gaylenreuth ;
bones in limestone, from Gibraltar ; tooth of a mammoth, from Sibe-
ria, &c.

JMiscellanies. 169

6. Fishes from Dorsetshire, Monte Bolca, Purbeck. A magnifi-

cent suite of fishes and insects, from Aix, in Provence. Collected by
Charles Lyell and R. Murchison, Esqrs. in 1828. A beautiful fos-
sil palm leaf, from Aix, by C. Lyell, Esq.
' %. A series of models, accurately colored from nature, of nearly
seventy of the most interesting fossils in the Museum at Paris. Pre-
sented by M. le Baron Cuvier. Among them are teeth of the
Mastodon ; jaws and teeth of the extinct animals found in the quar-
ries near Paris; paddles and skull of the Ichthyosaurus, Nc.

The drawers of this case contain fossils, from the diluvial deposits
near Lewes, Bognor rocks, Bracklesham Bay, Castle Hill, near
Newhaven ; chalk fossils, from the South Downs, near Lewes ; Galt,
Shanklin sand, &c.

Casz IV.—The principal contents are from the chalk strata near
Lewes.

Compartment A. Ammonites, Nautili, &c. from the chalk and
marl. i

Remains of fishes and shells of great beauty and interest.

B. Fossil Zoophytes, allied to the Sponges and Alcyonia. A fine
series of the Ventriculites, first figured and described by the author
in the Linnean Transactions, Vol. XI.

C. Mass of Pectunculi, from the rocks at Bognor; Nautilus im-
perialis and Pinna affinis, from ditto ; Plagiostoma gigantea, ostree,
&e.; Zoophytes, from Warminster Common; presented by Miss
Benett, of Norton House: from near Bristol, Dudley, Malta, &c.

Several magnificent specimens of fossil fish, from Lewes. in
some, the air bladder, dorsal fin, gills, teeth, and even the tongue are
preserved.

D. Remains of fishes allied to the Murena; groups of palates of
an unknown fish; ‘T’eredines; Zoophytes. A matchless collection
of Turrilites, from Hamsay and Middleham ; an Ammonite, with the
Siphunculus beautifully exposed ; Nautilus elegans ; Ammonites ca-
tinus ; Ammonites Lewesiensis.

E. Crystallized carbonate of lime ; wood in chalk ; breccia, from
Castle Hill.

Subsulphate of alumme, from Castle Hill, near Newhaven; chal-
cedony ; crystallized quartz, &c. from near Lewes.

A beautiful series of Fishes, allied to the Zeus, from the chalk-pits
near Lewes ; one of these is a matchless specimen, the mouth being
open and entire.

Vou. XXII.—No. 1. 22

170 JViscellanies.

F. Pecten beaveri and other shells.

A fine suite of specimens of the large fibrous bivalves of the chalk,
—the Inocerami.

Case V.—A mahogany cabinet.

The drawers contain, a beautiful suite of the vegetables of the coal
formation ; fossil ferns ; insects in amber; Zoophytes from re
Faringdon, &c.

Encrinites and Pentacrinites; Pear Encrinite of Bradford, ke.

Pentacrinite, Echinites, &c. from the oolite of Gloucestershire.

Terebratule, and other shells, from Derbyshire, Shropshire, &c.

Shells, converted into chalcedony, from the Whetstone Pits, De-
vonshire.

Shells, from the Firestone, or Upper Green Sand of Wilts; pre-
sented by Miss Benett.

Chalk Zoophytes of Wilts, by Miss Benett.

Cast VI.—The Glass Case contains an interesting collection of
the remains of Crustacea, from the chalk near Lewes, and several
splendid fossil fishes, of great beauty. Vertebre of the Mososaurus,
the celebrated fossil reptile of Maestricht : jaws aud palates, and ver-
tebre of fishes.

In the drawers are,

Specimens from the Strata of Tilgate Forest ; among these is an
interesting collection of the teeth of the Iguanodon, Crocodile, Me-
galosaurus, &c.

Specimens illustrative of the strata near Horsham, Hastings, Bur-
wash, Tunbridge Wells, &c.

Fossil bones, shells, &c. from Stonesfield, near Oxford. Present-
ed by Charles Lyell, Esq. F. R.S., &c.

Shells from the Craig of Suffolk. Presented by the late Mrs.
Cobbold of Holywell’s Park, near Ipswich.

Shells from Hordwell Cliffs. Presented by Miss Benett of Nor-
ton House. .

Shells from the London clay, Highgate Tunnell, Isle of Sheppy, &c.

Specimens illustrative of a recent formation of rock marl from Ba-
kie Loch, Forfarshire, Scotland, by C. Lyell, Esq. F. R.S.

Specimens, illustrative of the geology of the Isle of Wight, by C.
Lyell, Esq. F.R.S.

Teeth and bones of Ichthyosauri, pentacrinites, fishes, &c. from
the Lias, by C. M. Hutchinson, Esq.

Belemnites, crustaea, shells, &c. from St. Peter’s Mountain, Maes-
trieht,

MMiscellanies. 171

Specimens of the tertiary formations of France, &c. Presented
by M. le Baron Cuvier.

Fossil shells from Grignon. Presented by M. le Baron Cuvier.

Ammonites, Scaphites, Turrilites, &c. from Rouen in Normandy:
Presented by M. Brongniart.

Shells from the tertiary formations of France and Italy. Present-
ed by M. Brongniart.

Teeth and bones of hyenas, bears, deer, foxes, &c. from the cel-
ebrated Cavern of Kirkdale, in. Yorkshire.

Bones and teeth of the Hippopotamus and Rhinoceros, from the
Vale of Arno, &c. ;

A glass case in the center of the room contains numerous speci-
mens of fossil teeth of sharks and other fishes from the chalk near
Lewes.

A thigh bone (femur) of a Mammoth from Cheshire.

A most elegant and perfect specimen of the antlers of the celebra-
ted extinct Fossil Elk of freland, measuring nearly eleven feet from
one extremity to the other.

Resutrs.—There have been discovered in the strata of Sussex,
exclusively of the organic contents of the modern alluvial deposits,
the remains of nearly four hundred species of animals and vegetables,
of which the following arrangement exhibits a condensed view.

Vertebrated Animals.

Pachydermata: four species belonging to as
Mammatia, many genera.

Cetacea . one species . one genus.
Birps, One or more. _

Chelonia . three species . three genera.
REPTILES, Sauria . nine species ._ four genera.
_ Pterodactylus ?

FisHEs, Twenty-four or more species. 18 genera.

Invertebrated Animals.
( Multilocular, fifty species belonging to

eight genera.
Univalve, (9 fresh water)
77 species belonging to 34 genera.
Bivalve, (12 fresh water)
130 species . . . 42 genera.
| Multvalve, 3 species . . 3 genera.

'TESTACEOUS
Mo.uuusca,

172 JMiscellanies.

ANNULOSA, Eleven or more. . . . 40 genera.
Echinda, 24 species . . 5 genera.
RapiatvTa, ies
Asteriade,twoormore ._ 1 genus.
EcHINODERMATA, re 4
Crinoide, . three «|...» 3 genera.
ZOORHWDAG © (65. tua: Twenty-seven, 10 or more genera-

Vegetables.

Alcotyledonous, ten or more species . . . 6 or more genera.
Monocotyledonous, four... . . .- . . 98 genera.

=

Dicotyledonous, one 2 ee eek enn

Total——Mammalia, 5. Birds, one or more. Reptiles, 12.
Fishes, 24. Testaceous Mollusca, 260, of which 21 are fresh wa-
ter. Annulose Animals, 11. WRadiated Animals, 29. Zoophytes,
27. Vegetables, 15.*

The following notice is from the English Magazine of Natural
History, and was drawn up by Mr. Robert Bakewell, the well known
author of an excellent elementary work on Geology :

“The collection consists principally of Fossil Organic Remains,
illustrative of the Gedlogy of Sussex. They are in admirable pres-
ervation, and are very tastefully and judiciously arranged. Many of
the specimens in this collection are unrivalled and unique; indeed,
we are entirely indebted to the scientific investigation of Mr. M. for
the knowledge of their existence ; for when he first commenced his
researches in the vicinity of Lewes, no fossil organic remains had
been collected there, nor had the quarry-men noticed them in the
beds in which they were working. Yet in the course of a few years
Mr. M. succeeded in obtaining the finest collection of Chalk Fossils
in the kingdom; many of them are described in a splendid work which
he published in 1822, with forty-two plates, by his lady, Mrs. M. The
most important discoveries were made in the beds of Weald clay,
&c. below the chalk and green sand formation. He observed that
though the latter strata, as is well known, contain exclusively the re-
mains of marine animals, the strata of the former contain almost ex-
clusively the remains of terrestrial plants, and shells analogous to
fresh-water shells, or the bones of vertebrated animals, some of which
were of enormous magnitude, and were evidently formed for walk-
ing on solid ground. ‘The strata in which these are found must have

As the imperfect and undetermined species are not enumerated, the number is
actually much greater.

JVascellanies. 173

been deposited in a fresh water lake or estuary, or in the bed of a
mighty river, on the sides of which lived and flourished plants and
animals analogous to those of tropical climates ; these strata compose
a great fresh water formation below the chalk.

“It was fortunate that the ardent and intelligent mind-of Mr. M.,
enlightened by anatomical and physiological science, connected with
his professional pursuits, perceived the true value of his discoveries,
but to make them properly appreciated by his own countrymen, the
testimony of Baron Cuvier was wanting. This illustrious anatomist
pronounced the Iguanodon, discovered by Mr. M., to be a reptile
more extraordinary than all those previously known. It is indeed

* most extraordinary, not only from being the largest amphibious or
terrestrial animal known, but from its peculiar structure, as an her-
bivorous masticating reptile. These observations are made chiefly
to prove to country readers, how much may be done for the promo-
tion of science, even in situations not favorable to its pursuit, at a dis-
tance from public museums, and removed from the excitement pro-
duced by associating with others engaged in kindred studies.

“The room in which the objects are placed, has been recently
erected by Mr. M. for the purpose, and is well lighted from above ;
the larger specimens are arranged in glass cases, and the smaller
ones in drawers below. It has already been stated that the collec-
tion of Chalk Fossils is the finest in the kingdom ; it will not be ne-
cessary to particularize them, but it may be observed that the stone
in which the most delicate animal remains are imbedded, has been
partly removed with a degree of science and care, that I have noti-
ced in no other museum, and they are displayed to the greatest ad-
vantage. The beautiful fossil fishes allied to the Zeus or Doree,
from the chalk near Lewes; are particularly interesting ; one of
them is an unrivalled specimen, the mouth being open and entire.—
But the most remarkable circumstance in some of Mr. M.’s speci-
mens, is the uncompressed and perfect form of the bodies, which was
doubtless chiefly owing to the preservation of the air-bladder, for it

“appears unbroken in many of the specimens. ‘This is an important
fact, as it proves that the bodies were completely incased in the
chalk before the putrefactive process had commenced. In some of
the fossil fishes, the fins, gills and teeth, are preserved, as well as the
air bladder and tongue ; the scales are also very distinct. Vegetable
remains in chalk are extremely rare; there are, however, in this
collection fine specimens of wood in chalk, and in the centre of flints,

174 JViscellanies.

and also various remains of marine plants in chalk. Among the
most interesting objects in this museum, are the fossils from the Sus-
sex beds beneath the chalk formation. Many of the vegetables ap-
pear allied to the ferns and palms, &c. of tropical climates, and
prove the existence of dry land, at or before the period when the
strata that contain them were deposited. Of these vegetable remains
there are numerous fine specimens in this collection, comprising all
the fossil species discovered in Sussex. But it is the remains of
large animals evidently formed for walking on land, that renders the
museum of Mr. Mantell so unique. In the strata of Tilgate Forest,
Mr. M. has identified no less than four gigantic reptiles. ‘The Igua-
nodon, so named from its resemblance in many respects to the living *
Iguana, is justly regarded by Mr. M. as the most gratifying result of
his labors. ‘To form some notion of the immense magnitude of this
animal, it may be useful to mention, that I measured the circumfer-
ence of the condyle, or joint of a-thigh-bone, in the museum, and
found it to be thirty-five inches! and the thigh-bone of a larger ani-
mal at a distance from the condyle, measured twenty-five inches im
circumference ; were this thigh clothed with muscles and integu-
ments of suitable proportions, where is the living animal with a limb
that could rival this extremity of a lizard of the primitive ages of the
world?

“« Among the other bones in this museum, from Tilgate Forest,
there are some of one or more species of birds. It ought, however,
to be remarked, that as the supposed bird’s bones found in the Lias,
have been discovered to belong to a flying lizard, it may be doubtful
whether these bones do not belong to a similar species of reptile ;
Mr. M., whose authority as a comparative anatomist ought to have
great weight, is, however, inclined to refer these bones to birds.—
There are also the remains of three species of ‘Turtles from the Sus-
sex beds, two of which are supposed to be fresh-water ; the remains
of fishes are also numerous: they consist chiefly of detached bones,
teeth, and scales; no entire skeleton has been found.

‘A very satisfactory description of the Fossils and Strata of 'Til- .
gate Forest, is given in the second volume of Mr. Mantell’s Ilustra-
tions of the Geology of Sussex, a work which ought to be in every
library where natural history is cultivated : the forty-two plates of the
first volume, it has already been mentioned, were engraved by Mrs.
Mantell, without whose able co-operation it would have been impos-
sible for Mr. M., occupied as he is in the arduous labors of an exten-

WMiscellanies. 175

sive medical practice, to have effected so much for the advancement
of science.

‘‘ Besides the collection of Sussex Fossils, this museum contains
many interesting organic remains from various parts of the world.

“ Mr. M., with much liberality, allows the museum to be seen on
the first and third Tuesdays of every month, from one till three, ap-
plication having previously been made by letter.

<‘ Hampstead, Sept. 1829.”

We learn from Mr. Mantell, that his principal additions since the
above notices were written, are splendid fishes from the chalk, and
many gigantic bones of reptiles from Tilgate forest. A fine suite of
geological specimens of rocks and organic remains, illustrative of all
the British formations, from the granite to the tertiary inclusive.
Most beautiful tertiary shells from Palermo, collected and presented
by the Marquis of Northampton. Many objects of comparative anat-
omy. Skeletons of Iguana, Monitor, Alligator, &c.

Mr. Mantell has also received from Dr. Morton and others, many
specimens of American fossils and minerals, and their identity with
those of England has been particularly remarked. The mososau-
rus was an inhabitant both of the old and the new world.

Mr. Mantell, at the great scientific meeting held at Oxford Uni-
versity in June, 1832, exhibited the first hippurites that have been
found in England; they were from the chalk beds near Lewes. He
shewed also drawings and specimens of the horn, claw, clavicle, os
quadratum, femur, tibia and fibula of the Iguanodon.

In a mass of grit stone, blown into fifty pieces by the quarrymen, in
Tilgate forest, Mr. Mantell has recently found many bones, which,
with great difiiculiy and labor, he replaced, so as to form a slab four
and a half by two and a half feet, exhibiting twelve vertebre, eight in
place, with many ribs, coracoid bones, omoplates, chevron plates,
&c., and several of those curious dermal bones which support the
scales. In another slab were found some beautiful metacarpal
bones. In the mass of vegetable matter which enclosed the animal,
were found six cropolithes, and many paludine and limones.

Through the kindness of Mr. Mantell, we have received an inter-
esting and instructive suite of specimens, illustrative of his museum
and catalogue. Among them are bones of his Iguanodon, of the
Megalosaurus of Prof. Buckland, &c. It appears that the vegeta-
ble remains of the ancient geological periods were exuberant, and

176 MWiiscellanies.

some of them gigantic, indicating a warmer climate than any now
found in Europe. Several ‘kinds of ferns appear to have consti-
tuted the immediate vegetable clothing of the soil: the elegant
Hymenopteris psilotoides, which probably never attained a greater
height than three or four feet, and the beautiful Pecopteris reticu-
lata, of still lesser growth, being abundant every where. But the
loftier vegetables were so éntirely distinct from any that are now
known to exist in European countries, that we seek in vain for any
thing, at all analogous, without the tropics. The forests of Clathra-
rie and Endogenite, (the plants of which, like some of the recent
arborescent ferns, probably attained a height of thirty or forty feet,)
must have borne a much greater resemblance to those of tropical re-
gions, than to any that now occur in temperate climates.

If we attempt, says Mr. Mantell, to pourtray the animals of this
ancient country, our description will possess more of the character of
a romance, than of a legitimate deduction from established faets.
Turtles of various kinds, must have been seen on the banks of its
rivers or lakes, and groups of enormous crocodiles basking in the
fens and shallows.

The gigantic Megalosaurus, and yet more gigantic [gwanedon, to
whom the groves of palms and arborescent ferns would be mere beds
of reeds, must have been of such prodigious magnitude, that the ex-
isting animal creation presents us with no fit object of comparison.
Imagine an animal of the lizard tribe, three or four times as large as
the largest crocodile ; having jaws, with teeth equal in size to the
incisors of the rhinoceros, and crested with horns; such a creature
must have been the Iguanodon! Nor were the inhabitants of the
waters much less wonderful; witness the Plesiosaurus, which only
required wings to be a flying dragon; the fishes resembling Salurz
Balista, &c.*

Mr. Mantell’s principal work is the Geology of Sussex, in two
quarto volumes, the first of which appeared in 1822, consisting of
320 pages, with forty-two plates, executed by Mrs. Mantell, who has
most nobly and skilfully aided her husband in his important research-
es and publications. ‘The second volume appeared in 1827; it
consists of ninety-two pages, with twenty plates, and is particularly
remarkable for containing the drawings and description of the bones

* Mantell’s Geology of Sussex, and Vossils of Tilgate Forest.

JMiscellantes. 177

of the gigantic extinct fossil animal, the Iguanodon; both volumes
now lie before us. Mr. Mantell’s other philosophical works are,

1. Letters on the Geology of the Environs of Lewes. Published
in the Sussex Advertiser, 1813.

2. Description of a Fossil Aleyonium (Ventriculites.) Publishied
in the 11th Vol. of the Linnean Transactions.

3. The Fossils of the South Downs, or Illustrations of the Geol-
ogy of Sussex, 1 vol. royal 4to, with 42 plates, engraved by Mrs. .
Mantell ; London, 1822.

4. Notice on the Hastings Strata in the Geological Transactions,
1826.

5. Memoir of the Geology of the Environs of Lewes, in the Ist
Vol. of the History of Lewes, 1824.

6. Notice of the guanodon, a newly discovered Fossil herbivor-
ous Reptile, from the Strata of Tilgate Forest. Philosophical Trans-
actions for 1825.

7. A Folio Plate of remarkable Fossil Fishes, from the Chalk
near Lewes, 1826.

8. Notice on the Geological Position of the Strata of Tilgate For-
est... Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 1826.

9. Sketch of the Geology of the Rape of Bramber, with Map
and Plate, 3rd Vol. of the County History of Sussex.

10. Systematical Catalogue of the Organic Remains of Sussex,
in Illustration of a Paper on the Strata of the South-eastern Part of
England, by Dr. Fitton. Geological Transactions.

Mr. Mantell has other philosophical labors in hand, the result of
which we may hope to hear of in due time.

We must not omit to mention the History of the Antiquities of Lew-
es and its Vicinity, by the Rev. T. W. Horsfield, F. S. A., of which
the part relating to Natural History is by Mr. Mantell. This work
is in two splendid quarto volumes, rich in plates, illustrating buildings
ancient and modern, scenery, ancient tombs, coins, weapons, uten-
sils, &c. &c.- It is a most curious and instructive work, and possess-
es a familiar interest even to a transatlantic reader. Sussex and the
vicinal counties were, for centuries, the principal seat of the Roman
Empire in Britain; and in this part of the island happened many
memorable battles, and other great events in Danish, Saxon and
Norman warfare, and political sway. Hastings, where Harold lost,
and William the Norman gained a crown, is but a few miles from
Lewes. We, in this country, have almost an equal interest with

Vou. XXIL.—No. 1. 23

178 Miscellantes.

the English in tracing our descent from. those warring and discor-
dant nations ; and their antiquities must ever be objects of gratifying
research to Anglo-Americans. England is rich in splendid local
histories, and that of Sussex is probably one of the most remark-
able.

Mr. Mantell has published also an interesting account of the visit
of their present majesties to Lewes in October, 1830. The quarto
is adorned by beautiful engravings of the royal personages. —

We discover, here and there, that Mr. Mantell is not unacquainted
with the muses; he like Sir Humphry Davy, exhibits the philos-
opher and the elegant scholar united, and proves that he is capable
alike of exploring the most obscure and minute facts in science, and
of rising into flights of euphonious and elevated verse. ‘This ap-
pears in the concluding ode of the work just mentioned, contrasting
the peaceful visit of William IV. in 1830, with the bloody visitation
of Henry IL. in 1264, when, after a destructive battle near Lewes,
finished in its very streets,* this king granted to force, what Wil-
liam. IV. has peacefully conceded—a reform in the national repre-
sentation.

Mr. Mantell, actively engaged in the very responsible duties of a
laborious profession, and notwithstanding the interruptions to which
he is liable from the numerous visits, not only of scientific men, but
of the gentry, passing to and from Brighton, the modern Baie, which
is but seven miles from Lewes, still redeems time from repose, to
write instructive and interesting works, and to sustain an extensive
correspondence with scientific men both at home and abroad. The
fine old town of Lewes, presents many ruins, among the most inter-
esting of which are those of its Abbey, of the Priory of St. Pancras,
and of its Castle, all of which were in full glory at the time of the
visit of Henry IL. and afforded protection to that monarch and _ his
fugitive followers. ‘The Castle, judging from the views of it in the
History of Lewes, is still an imposing ruin; and Mr. Mantell’s house
is at the foot of a bank, which is joined by a small garden to another
bank, on which the castle stands. Its venerable ivied towers hang
immediately over, and form the best substitute for an extensive and
more distant prospect ; a fit residence for a philosopher and a philan-
thropist ; for every friend of man must rejoice in viewing the ruined

~~

* With his revolted barons.™ ?

Miscellanies. 179

fortresses of an iron age, of arbitrary power, and although it is not -
appropriate to this. work, we shall still be pardoned in indulging the
wish that this favored abode may long remain sacred to science and
domestic happiness.

2. British Association for the Advancement of Science.—The sec-
ond meeting of the British Association for the advancement of Sci-
ence, was held at Oxford, on Monday, the 18th June, and continued
on the subsequent days of that week. It may be proper to recal to
the minds of our readers, that the first meeting of this great associa-
tion took place at York, last year, under the most distinguished pat-
ronage. ‘The ,present meeting, held within the venerable walls of
the University of Oxford, and under the’patronage of some of its
most distinguished ornaments, has been attended with the most bril-
liant success.

Monday was occupied with preliminary arrangements, and espe-
cially the formation of sections and committees, in which the nume-
rous papers on different branches of science submitted to the associ-
ation on this occasion, were to be read, and where the votaries of
science were collected together to enjoy the advantages of a mu-
tual interchange of ideas. On the evening of that day, the mem-
bers of the Association were invited to attend at the Clarendon
building, for the purpose of scientific conversation.

At ten o’clock on Tuesday morning, the following committees met
in different apartments of the Clarendon building :

1. The Committee of Mathematical and Physico-Mathematical
Sciences.

- 2. Of Chemistry, Electricity, Galvanism, Magnetism, and Mine-
ralogy.

3. Of Geology and Geography.

4. Of Natural History (including Medicine.)

These committees appointed each its own chairman and secretary,
and were employed, between the hours of ten and one, in their res-
pective departments of science. At one o’clock the various commit-
tees met in the great theatre. Lord Milton, the president of the
preceding year, delivered an eloquent address, on resigning his du-
ties to Dr. Buckland, who, on taking the chair, opened the business
of the meeting by an appropriate speech. Professor Airey, of Cam-
bridge, then read his promised report ‘on the state and progress of
astronomical science, in reference particularly to physical astrono-

-

180 /Vliscellanies.

my.” He was followed by the Rev. Professor Whewell, of Cam-
bridge, who read a report furnished by J. W. Lubbock, Esq. Vice-
President of *the Royal Society, ‘on the means of calculating the
time and height of high water.” ‘These valuable reports were lis-
tened to with the utmost attention, by a crowded audience, which in-
cluded the beauty and fashion of Oxford. ;

The members of the Association resident in Oxford, afterwards
gave a sumptuous entertainment to their fellow members in the great
Hall of New College. Two hundred and fifty-three noblemen and
gentlemen sat down to dinner on this occasion. Dr. Buckland was
in the chair, supported on his right hand by Lord Milton, and on his
left by the Vice-Chancellor of ihe University. _Amogg the company
present, we noticed the Marquis of Northampton, Lord Selkirk,
Lord Morpeth, Lord Sandon, Viscount Cole, Sir Thomas Acland,
Sir Thomas Brisbane, Sir David Brewster, Mr. Davies Gilbert, Pro-
fessor Hamilton of Dublin, the Rev. A. Sedgwick of Cambridge,
&e. &c.

A variety of aise mene toasts and speeches enlivened this social
meeting. On the following morning the whole Association break-
fasted, by invitation, with the Vice-Chancellor, the head of Exeter
College. The hall of this College being insufficient to accommo-
date the numerous party assembled, tables were.laid in the gardens.
At ten o’clock the Association adjourned to the Clarendon, where,
separating into their respective sections, scientific business was resum-
ed, as on the preceding day.

Many interesting papers upon different branches of science were
read at the sectional meetings on this and the subsequent days,
which want of space prevents us from enumerating. We must make
an exception, however, in favor of one paper, bearing more directly
than others upon medical science,—namely, Dr. Prout’s important
“‘ Observations on Atmospheric Air ;” in the course of which, this
distinguished philosopher pointed out, that, in London, the air under-
went a remarkable and sudden increase in its specific gravity, at the
precise period when cholera first appeared there.

The reports read at the General Meeting, on Wednesday, were—
“ On Thermo-Electricity, and on the allied subjects in reference to
the discoveries recently made in them,” by the Rev. Professor Cum-
ming, of Cambridge. ‘* On the present state of Meteorological Sci-
ence,” by James David Forbes, Esq. F.R.S.L. & E.3 and “On

the Phenomena of Sound,” by the Rev. Robert Willis, of Gam:
bridge.

JMiscellanies. 181

On the evening of Wednesday, Mr. Ritchie, of the Royal Institu-
tion, delivered a popular lecture on the recent discoveries in electro-
magnetism. Dr. Turner gratified a numercus audience by a display
of experiments illustrating the phenomena of chemical action.

The morning of Thursday was set apart for the ceremony of con-
ferring, in full convocation, honorary degrees on four of the most dis-
tinguished cultivators of science, members of the association, uncon-
nected with the university of Oxford—namely, Sir David Brewster,
Mr. Brown, the well-known botanist, Mr. Faraday, and the venera-
ble John Dalton. At the conclusion of this ceremony, honorable
alike to the university and the association, Dr. Buckland proceeded,
with a numerous equestrian party, to’survey the geology of the neigh-
borhood; while Professor Henslon, with a party of pedestrians, en-
joyed a botanical excursion. Sectional meetings were held in the
_ evening, in which important discussions took place.

The reports read at the general meetings of Friday and Saturday,
were, “‘ on the progress of optical science,” by Sir David Brewster ;
‘on the state and progress of mineralogical science,” by the Rev.
Professor Whewell, of Cambridge; “on the phenomena of heat,”
by the Rev. Professor Powel, of Oxford; and ‘on the recent pro-
- gress of chemical science,” by. James F. W. Johnstcn, Esquire,
F.R.S.E. The business of the meeting concluded on Saturday
with an interesting lecture ‘on fossil remains,” by Professor Buck-
land. :

It was agreed that the next annual meeting should be held at
Cambridge, and the association separated with the most lively feel-
ings of gratitude towards the university of Oxford for the uniform
attentions and hospitality bestowed upon them during this week, so
memorable in the annals of British science. We doubt whether
upon any former occasion ‘so many distinguished ornaments of sci-
ence from all parts of the British dominions were ever assembled to-
gether.

In consequence of the unanticipated extent of this Association, and
the great accumulation of matter, the meeting not being previously
prepared with a suitable plan of organization to meet the emergen-
cies, the sister sciences of medicine do not appear, at the late meet-
ing, to hold that place in the programme to which their importance
and interest entitle them. Several scientific members of the profes-
sion appeared at different periods of the week, and enrolled their
names; but the display of animal and@vegetable physiology was

182 JMiscellanies.

somewhat meagre. ‘The arrangements for sectional papers and oral
communications were, we understand, thrown into some confusion
latterly ; and a forthcoming report by Mr. Broughton, on some re-
cent physiological investigations, could not obtain a hearing before the
morning of the last day, when the greater proportion of the members
devoted to such subjects had left Oxford.

The popular exhibitions of the two great leaders in geology—Pro-
fessors Buckland and Sedgewick—absorbed the almost undivided
attention of the meeting, whenever these two talented geologists lec-
tured ; so that other sectional communications were necessarily post-
poned upon such occasions.—London Medical Gazette, June, 1832.

3. Leipsic Fair, Autumn, 1831.—The Leipsic catalogue of books:
for the Michaelmas or autumnal fair, in 1831, announces two thou-
sand seven hundred and thirty eight new works. At the Easter or
spring fair for the same year, the German press had put into circu-
lation two thousand nine hundred and twenty works. ‘The number,
therefore, of new publications in Germany for the year 1831, is five
thousand six hundred and fifty eight, which is two hundred and six-
ty eight less than for the year 1830.

Among the two thousand seven hundred and thirty eight works of
the last fair, we find ninety written in foreign modern languages,
seventy nine romances, twenty seven theatrical pieces, one hundred
and twenty five on the cholera morbus, and very nearly as many
upon the politics of the day. ‘The affairs of the several states of the
German confederation have given rise to some pamphlets, but the
greater part of these are devoted to the cause of Poland. The live-
ly interest felt in Germany for this unfortunate people is not less man-
ifested in their romances, many of which have their heroes and hero-
ines taken from among the defenders of Poland.

In general, we remark in this catalogue the absence of great names
and of important works for the advancement of the sciences. Yet
the department of history has not.furnished fewer valuable publica-
tions than in former years; and in this branch Germany has preserv-
ed its usual preeminence. In proof of this, we mention the following
publications: the sixth and last volume of the History of the Roman
Law during the middle ages, by Savigny ; the History of the Mace-
donians, by Flathe ; additions to the History of the Teutonic Order
in Prussia, by Schubert ; an Essay upon the Commerce of the Mid-
dle Ages, by Wilda; the @ities of Suabia during the Middle Ages,

MMiscellanies. 183

by Jager ; the History of the City of Vienna, by Mailath; the His-
tory of the City of Augsburg, by Seida; the History of Tyrol, by
Mersi ; the sixth volume of the History of Germany, by Luden ; the
fourth volume of the Modern History of the Germans, by K. A.
Menzel; the History of Ferdinand I., by Buchholz; the Conspira-
cy against Venice in 1618, by Ranke; the fourth part of the trans-
lation of the History of the Crusades, by Michaud ; Monumenta Boi-
ca, published by the firm of Cotta ; a new edition of the History of
Modern Times, by Hormayer; Letters written from Paris ‘on the
History of the sixteenth and seventeenth Centuries, by Raumer ; the
Almanac of Modern History, by W. Menzel ; a work upon the Prus-
sian Campaigns in 1793, from posthumous papers, by Wagner ; the
Military History of the years 1813—1815, by Stuhr; the History
of the War between Russia and Turkey, by Ehrenkrenz ; the His-
tory of France under Louis XVIII., and under Charles X., by P.
Kobbe; the History of secret Associations in Germany, Poland, and
Russia; the Memoirs of Baron Julius Soden; a Historical Almanac,
by Raumer; an Abridgement of Universal History, in four volumes,
by Rotteck; the History of Painting, by Lanzi; the third part of the
second volume of the History of the Church, by Neander ; the Crit-
ical History of primitive Christianity, by Gfrorer. Grimm has pub-
lished the third part of his celebrated German Grammar. A collec-
tion of the works of J. Muller and Westerreider has been published.
Among biographies, we notice the Life of Durer, by Neller; the
Life of Keppler, by Breitschwert; Letters of J. H. Voss, those of
Bagesen, and the sixth number of the Life of John Paul.

The natural sciences are enriched with numerous medical works,
and some interesting accounts of travels, such as the Description of
the Black Forest, by Buhrlen ; Burkhardt’s work on the Bedooins ;
China and Manchooria, by Plaths ; the Travels of Heber in India ;
Geognostic Observations in the Uralian Mountains, by Hoffmann; a
work on Japan, published at Berlin, by Hasselberg ; Travels in Egypt
and in the Holy Land, by Prokesch; the second part of Travels in
Colombia, by Gosselmann ; Travels of Wenchs and of Martius in
Brazil; the third part of Russia as it is, by Sainte-Maure ; Travels
of Lessing in Norway ; Travels of Horn in Germany, considered in
respect to medicine, &c. .

For theology, besides the works upon ecclesiastical history which
we have already mentioned, we notice three works on Saint Simon-
ism, of which one is by Carové ; a new edition of False Theology,

184 MWiscellanies.

by Steffens; and the Apotheosis of Lutheranism, by the same au-
thor.

Philosophy is .at this time rather poor in important works. We
find in the catalogue but one new Encyclopedia, by Herbart; the
third part of the History of Philosophy, by Ritter ; the Anthropology
of Heinroth ; and a new edition of the Critique of Reason, by Fries.
We mention also a new work of this last author on the organization
and administration of the German States. Schelling, the veteran of
German philosophy, who obliges us still to wait for his great work
announced se long ago, has published a little treatise on Method in
philosophical studies. :

The letters of Borne are not found in the catalogue. As to poli-
tical pamphlets, published anonymously, the most remarkable are,
that of Murhardt upon the sovereignty of the people, and another by
Troxler.

Literature, properly so called, is, as usual, rich in new ibn eaeORR
There are complete editions of the works of Spindler, Van Der Velde,
Eberhard, of Madam Schopenhauer, collections of the works of W.
Alexis, L. Schefer, and of Madam Th. Huber. Of the lyric kind,
we notice the fifth edition of the poems of Uhland; a Latin transla-
tion of all Schiller’s poems, by Feuerlein ; a German translation of
the songs of Béranger. ‘The sixth volume of Shakspeare, by 'Tieck
and Schlegel, has just appeared; also some novels by Tieck, and
the fifth edition of Don Quixote. The firm of Weidmann announce
the approaching publication of Russian Legends. We shall not pass
over in silence the work of the unfortunate Lessman, the Travels of
a melancholy man and his preparation for death. Harro Harring,
who has recently published Memoirs of Poland, announces additions
to his work. Among romances; the most worthy of notice, are those
of Beckstein, Boikowie Chézy, Agnés Franz, Gersdorf, Hanke,
Herloszsohn, Lewald, Pichler, stekeh| Wolf, &c.

In communicating to our readers this recent information upon the
state of the German press, we would draw their attention to the new
character which it has begun to assume, especially since the French
revolution of July, to wit, the political bearing of their publications.
We all have felt the most lively joy in learning the happy issue of
the persevering efforts of Welker, of Rotteck, of Mebold, of Jordan,
who have sustained with so much devotion a courageous contest for
freedom of thought in their country.— Revue Encyclopédique, Nov.
1831.

JViscellanies. . - 185

CHEMISTRY.

1. New Experiments in Caloric, by MM. Nosini and Mez-
Loni, performed by means of the Thermo-multiplier. (Translated
and abridged from the Annales de Chim. et de Phys. Oct. 1831,
by C. U. Shepard.)—The Thermo-multiplier is a species’ of ther-
moscope, which is so delicate an indicator of temperature, as to be
sensibly affected by the natural heat of a person, placed at the dis-
tance of twenty-five or thirty feet. The principal parts of the in-
strument are: Ist, a thermo-electric pile; 2ndly, a galvanometer
with two needles, which are specially designed for the thermo-electric
currents. It is the first part of this apparatus which constitutes it a
thermoscopic instrument; the second serves simply as an index.
The heat excites the electric currents in the pile; these currents
pass through two metallic wires which connect the two kinds of ap-
paratus together, are transmitted to the galvanometer, and act through
their influence upon the steel needle, by causing it to turn round
from its natural position of equilibrium with a foree more or less stri-
king, according to the intensity of the calorific emanation.

Heat radiates freely through the atmosphere ; it traverses also un-
der the radiant form, glass and rock crystal.. This would induce us
to imagine, that the instantaneous passage of the rays of heat through
bodies, depends upon the same circumstances which allow of dhieic
permeability by-the rays of light ; or, in other words, that the instan-
taneous passage of radiant heat through bodies, depends upon the
degree of their transparency. ‘This in fact, is what generally hap-
pens; for the heating rays traverse with more or less facility, selenite,
mica, oil, alcohol, and nitric acid. Of this we assured ourselves by
the following experiment. - Laminz, or strata of these different sub-
stances, were placed successively at the extremity of the cylindrical
appendix, whose axis was vertical and superior to the reflector. At
a certain distance above it, a ball of iron, heated either in live coals
or boiling water, was rapidly passed; and at the same instant, the steel
needle was seen to deviate more or less from its position in equilibrio.

But if the general law of the rapid movement of the caloric through
the transparent substances above mentioned, is thus established, it is
altogether the reverse as respectsahe most useful and the most wide-

- ly diffused liquid -in nature. Water intercepts the instantaneous

passage of the calorific rays: it intercepts them entirely ; and the
obstacle which it opposes to them is so insurmountable, that it is in

Vou. XXIIIl.—No. 1. 24

186 MMiscellani.

vain for us to reduce the thickness of .;,, w' = to the least possi-
ble film, or even to heat the iron ballto r-<. _ md to pass it slowly
over the thermo-multiplier; the index always preserves we most per-
fect immobility. :

- After the foregoing experiments, it fould not be imagined that this
singular property of water should be owing to its fluidity ; since the
alcohol, the oil, and the nitric acid, all partake of the same physical
constitution, while they conduct in a manner totally different. We
had a right therefore, to attribute the effect to the chemical constitu-
tion of water. Nevertheless, we were disposed to resolve the ques-
tion directly, by performing the experiment upon solid water. With
this intent, we took two thin layers of very transparent ice ; we ap-
plied them to the appendices of the thermo-multiplier, which, in the
present instance, were two equal cylinders. By this means, the ra-
diation towards the ice being the same on both sides, the needle as-
sumed the place of zero on the scale. We then presented the heated
ball at a little distance from the upper layer of ice; the needle expe-
rienced no alteration in its position.

These experiments, which we have pene made, show, in the
most satisfactory manner, that water owes to a peculiar property, de-
pendant upon the nature of its molecules, the remarkable exception
which it presents among transparent bodies of assisting the instanta-
neous passage of radiant caloric. .

It has been very generally admitted until recently, that insects do
not possess a temperature independent of the medium in which they
are situated. Notwithstanding, the carbonic acid. which is formed in
the atmosphere from the action of these little animals, placed beyond
a doubt the existence of a slow combustion in the interior of their
-bodies,—a combustion which must of necessity give rise to the extri-
cation of heat. This has in fact been demonstrated of Jate through
the experiments of John Davy, who measured the temperature of
several insects by making incisions into their bodies, and introducing
the bulb of a thermometer. He perceived that their temperature
was in general a little superior to that of the atmosphere. Among
twelve insects taken from different classes, he found two, the scor-
pron and the julus, whose temperature, instead of being higher, was
2° below that of the surrounding,air. ‘The method of Davy was
unsatisfactory, inasmuch as it was inapplicable to all insects, except
such as possess extraordinary dimensions ; hesides, it did not give the
temperature of the animal in the natural state, but in a maimed. and

JMiscellanies. ee

suffering condition !h)-*. thermometer must have been affected
by the evaporation tids of the insect. ‘The thermo-multiplier,
slightly modified, offers “ie means of repeating these experiments
without incurring any of the inconveniences above alluded to. As
the result of our experiments, it must be admitted that insects pos-
sess a temperature of their own, however slightly superior it may be
in some cases to that of the surrounding medium. Without enlarg-
ing upon the names of the different insects submitted to our instru-
‘ment, or stopping to particularize the effects produced on each indi-
vidual, it will suffice to say—that we have experimented upon more
than four hundred indigenous insects, selected from all the different
classes, and in all the states of metamorphosis in which these animals
are ever found. ‘The differences of temperature amount in some
cases to 30°; but all the divisions of the needle were positive ; that
is to say, in the calorific sense of the isect.

In comparing the different results obtamed in the order of the
Lepidoptera, we. observed a law, which seems worthy of remark ;
viz. “ The caterpillars always possess a more elevated eiaparature
than the butterflies or the chrysalides.”

Now the respiratory system of insects in the caterpillar state, is
much more developed than that of the same animals metamorphosed
into chrysalides, or into butterflies; and we should say from these
signs, that the insect, in the first period of its life, where its nourish-
ment is abundant and its growth rapid, converts into carbonic acid a
much greater quantity of oxygen, than at subsequent periods. It
follows from admitting these considerations and the law announced,
that the heat of the animal will vary, so to speak, proportionally to
the quantity of oxygen employed in the act of respiration.

~ The theory which attributes animal heat to a slow combustion of
the blood, appears then to be supported not only by the comparison
of birds and mammifera, of mammifera and reptiles, which pos-
sess a temperature as much more elevated as their respiratory sys.
- tem is more active ; but also by the relation which subsists between
the vivacity of the respiration of certain insects and their tempera-
ture.

There are many bodies which, like insects, give us reason to be-
lieve that they possess a temperature independent of the surrounding
air. These may be submitted to the trial of the thermo-multiplier.
It #s thus, for example, that we have obtained a deviation of 50° in
introducing into the interior of our apparatus a very small piece of

188 Miscellanies,

phosphorus—a substance which, in contact with the most delica
thermometer, affords no indication of heat. Phosphorus has ber
cited as an example of the disengagement of light unattended by
caloric: we see, therefore, that the supposed separation of these two
agents is not real. With respect to the temperature of the luminous
rays of the moon, the different means we have adopted in order to
decide upon this subject have not completely succeeded ; but we
think that we are able to assert, that, if the rays of the moon really
possess a peculiar temperature, it cannot happen except to a fraction
of a degree excessively small.

_ The thermo-multiplier, possesses many advantages in determining
the reflecting powers of different surfaces. Our experiments prove
that Merewry i is the best reflector of caloric: after which, come cop-
per and the other metals, in the order indicated by Leslie. Polishing
increases the power of reflection, but to a much less degree than is
ordinarily supposed. Non-metallic substances have scarcely any pow-
er of reflecting heat, whatever may be the nature of their surfaces.

The method which we employed for ascertaining the absorbing
powers of different bodies, is very simple. The substances, upon
which we wish to experiment, are attached to equal disks of sheet-tin,
to the opposite side of which is attached a stem, perpendicularly from
its centre. ‘The substances are exposed for several minutes to the
rays of the sun, and are then presented to the instrument. ..By ope-
rating thus, we do not obtain results absolutely free fronrerror; but
we Ieann with a high degree of precision, whether one surface has a
higher absorbing power than another. Here follows the order of our
experiments.

In the first place, we wished to assure ourselves, whether, what
has so long been admitted, the state and the color of surfaces have
any influence upon the absorbing power. In order to resolve the first
of these questions, we employed two metallic disks, one in its natural
state, the other was covered with furrows or scratches: the motion
of the needle took place constantly from the side of the furrowed disk.
As to the second question, we could not resolve it directly, since in
altering the color of a surface, we necessarily alter the chemical na-
ture of the surface which composes it. It was necessary therefore
to resort to an indirect solution. With this view, we colored many
pair of disks black, or white, with all sorts of vegetable and min-
eral pigments; we covered others with layers of marble or of wood,
with fabrics of silk, wool and cotton. The absorption was always

Miscellanies. i189

1e strongest by the black surfaces. Now, since the effect was the
ime, whatever the chemical composition of the coloring matter, it is
proper to infer that it is wholly independent of the coloring matter,
and that is derived simply from the action of the color.

- But are these two circumstances of color and surface, the only ones
which communicate to bodies the faculty of absorbing calorific rays?
In order to ascertain this point, .it was necessary in the first place
- to proceed independently of the said circumstances of surface and.
color. For this purpose, we took white fabrics of silk, of cotton, of
wool, of hemp and of flax; all exactly equal in the size of the thread,
in the tissue and in the shade. The five tissues were applied with
gum to the disks, exposed to the sun, and presented to the instrument.
We obtained the following order for the absorbing power: silk, wool,
cotton, flax and hemp. ‘This is just the inverse order of their con-
ductibilities.

There are no very great differences in the tone or the tints which
the common metals present; and if we except lead and tin, we can
communicate to them all nearly the same degree of polish. We cov-
ered, therefore, several disks with equal sized mefallic layers, and in
submitting them to the instrument, we obtained the same result.
The scale of the conductibility of the metals is, as is known, copper,
silver, gold, stecl. tron, tin and lead. Our experiments upon the ab-
sorbing powers of different substances show, therefore, that it is pre-
cisely the reverse of their powers of conduction.

Many mineral substances are found which affect the yellowish col-
or of wood: we selected thercfore, plates of wood and of stone,
equal’as nearly as possible as to the state and color of their surfaces ;
and we repeated upon them’ the same experiments as upon the met-
als and the tissues. ‘The woods, which were worse conductors than
the minerals, were nevertheless, those which showed the greatest ab-
sorbing power. Finally, we compared lead with a stone of similar
color. ‘The substance possessed of least conductibility, proved the
most absorbant; that is to say, the stone gave an eee su-
perior to that of the lead.

At first, we were tempted to believe that this inverse relation be-
tween the absorbing and conducting powers, exists only in appear-
ance ; and is derived from the resistance, more or less considerable,
wie the motion of the caloric experiences from the action of the -
bodies: so that the caloric, not being able to pass freely through the
internal strata of the non-conducting substances, accumulates at its

190 MMiscellanies.

surface in greater quantity than in substances of higher powers of
conduction. - But then the under surface, in the disk composed of
non-conducting matter, evidently ought to acquire a less elevated
temperature than in the disk formed of the body whose conducting
power is better: and in turning from the side of the pile the face of
each disk which has not received the direct impression of the solar
rays, we ought to perceive an opposite effect. But this does not
take place; for whichever of the surfaces of the disks we present to -
the instrument, we always obtain the same result. We conclude
therefore, that “the color and state of the surface of bodies being
the same, one body is possessed of greater absorbing power, in pro-
portion as its power of conduction is less.” ‘This law, new and un-
expected, seems destined to play an important part in the theory of
radiant caloric.

Extracted and Translated by Prof. Griscon.

2. New process for obtaining Morphine.—Ant. Galvani, (Ann.
delle Scienze, etc. Maggio et Giguno, 1831,) describes a method
of obtaining, directly from opium, morphine free from narcotine. He
admits that his process is a modification of that contrived by M.
Guillermond, apothecary at Lyons. It consists essentially of redu-
cing, by evaporation, the alcoholic solution of opium, to the density
of an extract, then by successive solutions and filtrations, to separate
from all the resinous matter of the extract, which causes the narco-
tine to be separated from the morphine ;—a prolonged ebullition with
calcined magnesia, a succession of filtrations, washings and desieca-
tions, produces at length very pure morphine, completely separated
from all narcotine. ; alg

With respect to the resinous matter, by dissolving it in dilute sul-
phuric acid, and decomposing the solution by potash, the narcotine is
precipitated, and must be purified by treating it again with sulphuric
acid and’ ammonia, filtering, resolution in alcohol at 24°, and crys-
tallization. In making, with one pound of opium, five tinctures in
alcohol of different degrees of strength, the author was enabled, by
the foregoing process, to obtain from it eight drachms, of very pure
morphine. i

3. Action of Oils upon Oxygen gas, at the temperature of the at-
mosphere; by Tuzop. Dr Saussurze.—The experiments upon this

Miscellanies. 191

subject were made over mercury in cylindrical vessels which con-
tained 180 or 200 cubic centimetres of oxygen, extracted from chlo-
rate of potash. The oil formed at the surface of the metallic fluid,
a stratum of 33 millimetres in diameter, and about three millimetres
thick, (about ;', of an inch). The receivers were replenished, as it
became necessary, by fresh gas. They were exposed to a diffused
light, and to a temperature not exceeding 75° F’. in summer, and ap-
proaching to zero in winter. ‘The volumes were reduced to 60° F..,
and to a pressure of 29.2 inches.’

1. Olive Oul.—This was exposed during five adhitie without any
sensible action on the gas, and without absorbing more than its vol-
ume of oxygen. ‘The most rapid absorption was in the sixteenth
-month. In the course of four years, it had observed 380 cubic cen-
timetres of gas. The oil was then a little thicker, and had entirely
lost its color. It was very rancid. ‘The residue. of the gas, 124 -
c. c. consisted of

Carbonic acid, - +=, - a Sr.7
INAOLE mg ie - - - a. & 149
Hydrogen, - - - - - st 923.2
Oxygen, Sar ies - - - - 4,2
| 124.

2. Oil of Sweet Almonds.—In the first week it absorbed 3 c.c.,
_in one year 140 c.c., and in four years 427 c.c. In the last year
the absorption was 30 c.c. ‘The remaining 142 c.c. of gas con-

tained Carbonic acid, - - - - - 96.
“Hydrogen, - - - - - - 20.4
Azote, - - = - - - 18.7
Oxygen, Ba = aN - - - 6.9
142

3. Hemp Seed Oil.—This oil is siccative. The two former are
not drying oils. It was of a deep greenish yellow. The absorption
during three months was. slow, then increased in rapidity, and the
color gradually disappeared ; the oil thickened, and a gelatinous pel-
licle appeared on the surface. -In the course of a year, the oil had
absorbed 577 c.c., in the second year 29 c.c., and in the third 14
c.c. The whole gas disappeared, amounted to 620c.c. The oil
was semi-fluid. ;

192 Miscellanies.

‘The Jisidinten gas contained,

Carbonic acid, ——- - - - = ea?
Hydrogen, = - 2 4S - - - 26.4
NAHAEP AM, HS - - - > ESR Tee

*-- Oxygen, eda iis a - - - 3.6 +
138.5

4. Nut Oil.—In seven months it absorbed but 3c. c.: in six
weeks following, it increased to 7 c. c.; in the next week it sudden-
ly absorbed 27 c. c. per day, under a temperature of 73° F, It ab-
sorbed in the whole 578 c.c. of oxygen, and was almost entirely
discolored by the operation, and was reduced to so gelatinous a con-
dition as not to stain paper.

It thus appears that the drying oils form less carbonic acid than’
the non-siccative oils ;—olive and almond produce one volume of
acid gas, for the fourth or fifth of the oxygen absorbed,—and the
nut and hemp, one volume for the seventh of the oxygen.

VouaTiLe Ors: 1. Lavender.—The same’ quantity of these as
of the former were similarly exposed. ‘The total: absorption oe la-
vender oil 443.5 c.c. ‘The remaining gas was,

Carbonic acid, - - - - - 82.6
Oxygen, Se - - - - 51.0 .
Azote, = - - - - - 24.5
Hydrogen,. - ie - - - 6.9
165

The oil turned yellow and preserved its fluidity nearly unimpaired.
2. Citron Oil.—Quantity of gas absorbed, 528 c. c. in the course
of about one year. It was colored brownish yellow.

Residue of air, Carbonic acid, . - - - 61.9
Azote, - - - - - 2ae2

Oxygen, De aes - - 16.8

Hydrogen, - - - - 10.8

114.6

3. Turpentine.—Quantity absorbed in a year, 440 c.c., and in
thirty three months, 475 ;- color deép brownish yellow. .

Residual air, Carbonic acid, - - - = 66.
_ Hydrogen, - ~ - - 20.5
Azote,- - - - =i 13.8
Oxygen, =) > -= - - ~ oO

oe

100.6

Miscellanies. 193

it is remarkable that oxygen deprives fixed oils of their color, and
colors volatile oils.

Experiments of this nature will give rise to the discovery of other
products. The oxygenation of the essence of lavender, for exam-
ple, affords a compound which, treated with potash, yields an abund-
ant salt, unchangeable in the air, and remarkable for its beautiful and
easy crystallization. ,

4. Vaphtha.—The naphtha of Amiano, when rectified, has a much
weaker action on the air than any of the preceding oils. 2.145 c.c.
of this naphtha, kept over mercury ina cubic decimetre of air, for one
year, did not change its volume. In six years, it had absorbed 9.4
centim. cub. of oxygen, and. formed 1.3 c. c. of carbonic acid. The
naphtha preserved all its transparency and whiteness ; but it had de-
posited on the sides of the receiver, a thin coating of a yellow color,
and the mercury was covered with a small quantity of black powder,
which had all the character of a sulphuret of mercury.

The author found that a kilogramme of natural and impure naph-
tha, furnished by careful rectification, about 20 grammes of white
naphtha, density .755. It has then an elastic force equal to 2.8 inch-
es of mercury at 68° F. It begins to boil at 158° F’. in a platina
crucible, but it acquires by ebullition a constant temperature of 192°
F. It dissolves in the cold, in all proportions, in absolute alcohol.
One hundred parts of spirit of wine, (density .835,) dissolve only
14. Its analysis, by distilling it slowly through incandescent iron
turnings in a porcelain tube show it to consist of

Carbon, - - - - = - 84.65
Hydrogen, - - - - - - 13.31
Oxygen, - - - - - - 1.04
Sulphur, - a Ni tane - - a trace.

Bib. Univ. Fév. 1832.

4. On the injurious action of gases on Vegetation ; by M. Ma-
carre.—At the suggestion of M. De Candolle, the author performed
several experiments to ascertain whether certain gases were equally
injurious to plants by day as by night. Agriculturists have sometimes
complained that certain manufactures injured the vegetation around
them, whereas chemists who have been appealed to, have found from
their experiments that the plants were not injured by the action of
those gases. From the suspicion that their experiments were always

Vou. XXUI.—No. 1. 25

194 MWMiscellanies.

made in the day time, and that the result might be different in the
night, the following trials were made.

Plants of Euphorbia, Mercurialis, Senecio, Sonchus, and Cabbage,
were placed, in the morning, in a large vase into which chloride of
lime was introduced. ‘The roots of the plants were immersed out-
side the vase. The quantity of chlorine disengaged was far from be-
ing sufficient to affect the vegetable tissue. In the evening the plants
had not suffered, and the odor of the chlorine was natural. The
same plants, without any addition whatever to the chlorine, were all
faded the next morning, after having passed the night in the chlo-
rine, except the cabbage, which had resisted its action. ‘he odor
of the chlorine had disappeared, and in the room of it, a disagreeable
acid odor was manifest. The experiment was several times repeat-
ed, with an increased quantity of chlorine, and with the same result ;
and the plants which during the day supported a strong atmosphere
of chlorine, were always withered in the night by a smaller dose.

Nitric Acip.—With the vapor of nitric acid, introduced in the
evening, the plants were found withered in the morning, some.of the
leaves being browned by the action of the acid. _ When the experi-
ment was commenced in the morning, although some of the leaves
were browned, the others were not withered.

Nitrous acid gas.—Appeared to be a violent poison to plants,
and killed them in the night by very small doses. Nevertheless, by
day they were not sensibly altered, though the disengagement of gas
was abundant.

Sulphuretted hydrogen.—The same result precisely. Plants left
in it during the night were all withered in the morning, although they
were not in the least altered in the light.

Muriaire acid gas——The same results. ‘The plants do not perish -
by day, even when there is gas enough to brown one or two of the
leaves. ‘They are entirely dead in the morning, leaving the peculiar
odor before mentioned. Cabbage is still an exception.

_It appears then, that several gases are injurious to vegetation, but
that their action is exerted only in the absence of light, as M. De
Candolle had foreseen.—Idem.

5. On the Distillation of Bread.—Finding it announced -in the
English Journals, that alcohol is distilled from bread during the bak-
ing, and may be collected by condensing the vapor, M. Leseune
and B. Monruse were induced to repeat the experiment. Having

JVfiscellanies. 195

adjusted tubes of large and small diameter to the oven, connected
them with a worm, and luted the mouth of the oven, they procured,
from the baking of two hundred loaves, by means of the large tubes,
about 50 litres (=13} gallons) of a limpid fluid, of a yellow color, a
sweetish taste, and emitting the odor of rye bread. Reagents indica-
ted the presence of acetate of lead resulting from the tubes of that
metal, acetic acid, but not a trace of alcohol. When the distillation
was performed through small tubes, the quantity of liquor obtained
was but three or four litres. Surprised at finding no alcohol in the
product, according to the statements of the English Journals, the
process was varied, but with the same result, and as a counter proof,
a quantity of alcohol was placed in a vessel in the middle of the oven,
but instead of a simple distillation, it was decomposed or absorbed by
the materials, and the quantity of acetic acid was seusibly eee
ed. From this it may be inferred,

1. That the materials of an oven are tuo permeable to prevent the
alcohol from passing through them.

2. That at the temperature of 300° cent. the alcohol, if it exist,
is immediately transformed into acetic acid by the air contained in
the oven, or that which percolates through the materials. Whether
an oven constructed of iron plates would furnish alcohol has not been
determined, at least in France, and to prevent the disappointment
into which speculators may be led, the writers were induced to make
known the result of their experiment.—Idem, tome 15, p. 190.

6. Imitation Silver.—Cutlers, and all those who have occasion to
imitate silver, often purchase, very dear, an alloy called mailchior for
escutcheons-and other ornaments. It possesses considerable tenacity,
and may serve as a substitute for silver in certain instruments of sur-
gery. The two following prescriptions are both practised according
to the uses of the metal. ‘Their preparation requires the same pre-
cautions.

‘Melt in a Hessian crucible of the capacity of a quart, twenty ounces
of nickel, six oz. of red copper, two oz. of salt of tartar, and three
oz. of good clear glass: When the mixture is liquefied, withdraw it
from the fire, and when the crucible begins to lose its redness, pro-
ject into it 4 oz. of pure granulated zinc, and stir it carefully, that the
zinc may be well diffused; place it for a very short time over the fire,
and then pour it out on an earthen slab, removing carefully the sco-
riz. This mixture is somewhat brittle ; the following is more solid.

196 JMiscellanies.

22 oz. of nickel, 18 oz. of copper, 5 oz. of zinc, and the same quan-
tity as before mentioned. If the zinc contains the least quantity of
arsenic, the alloy will be yellow.—Jour. de Connors. Usuelles, tome
12, p. 89.

GEOLOGY.

Cuvier AND Broneniart’s report on M. Drsuayes’ “ Tableau
comparatif des coquilles vivantes avec les fossiles des terrains ter-
tiaires de l’ Europe.” —Among the organized bodies preserved in the
strata of the earth, none are more abundant, more diffused, or more
interesting to science, than shells. Their rapid multiplication and
their stony nature have contributed, at once, to their preservation in
great numbers; so that they furnish the most positive proofs of the
condition of the ambient fluid at the period when each bed was de-
posited on its bottom.

M. Deshayes has undertaken to examine the shells of each stra-
tum, and to compare them with those of the superior and. inferior
layers, as well as with those now living in the ocean in different lati-
tudes, with a view thereby, to ascertain whether there have been a
succession and extinction of races, and to discover how those of the
races which have escaped the changes of the surface of the earth
have been distributed throughout the various regions of the sea. He
was well convinced that he could not arrive at any conclusions on
this point that would be free from objections, until he had observed
and compared the greatest possible number of species ;—that it was
not genera but species which must be taken into account,—that ge-
nera, which are only creations of the mind, would supply no import-
ant information, when they passed from one series of layers to anoth-
er, while they did not pass in the same identical species.

He has thus been able, by unexampled assiduity, to bring togeth-
er more than three thousand species of shells, of certain origin, and
to arrange them in a tabular form, compared with the known order
of the superposition of the beds; to show at what epoch each spe-
cies commenced and finished ; while, from the comparison of them
with more than four thousand living species, he shows which of them
have been preserved to the present time, and what kind of beds have
been deposited upon them since their appearance.

M. Deshayes has thus become convinced that the shell formations
may be very distinctly divided into two grand series which corres-

Miscellanies. 197

pond with the two series already determined, aithough with less pre-
cision, by their mineralogical relations. ‘The first, which is the most

considerable and the most ancient, and which is known under the
~name of secondary formation, contains not a single fossil species,
which has an analogous fossil in the second series ; so that every
race of this epoch is not only now extinct, but most have been so
when the formation of the second series began. ‘This assertion does
not seem to accord with some of the results announced by M. Du-
fresnoy ; but this was not the principal object of the memoir ; and
M. Deshayes directs his attention almost exclusively to the second
series, which comprehends the tertiary formations properly so called.
With this series, says the author, begins a new Zoology, which, in
its ensemble has intimate relations to that which actually exists, and
is connected with the present epoch, because it shows us, in propor-
tions varying in each stratum, fossil species identically the same as
those which now exist.

In tertiary formations, M. Deshayes discovers three distinct
groups, corresponding to three different periods of formation.

In the first group, which is the oldest, the number of species thus
far determined is about three hundred, of which forty two are found
in a fossil state in the following groups, and thirty eight are analo-
gous to living species. ;

In the second, there are more than nine hundred species, of which
seventy three are found in the superior formation, and one hundred
and sixty one are analogous to living species.

’ For the third epoch, the proportion between the number of species

still living, and those which are lost, is much increased. It is in the
first group, three per cent. ; in the second, nineteen per cent. ; in
the last, more than fifty per cent.; that is, of seven hundred fossil
species belonging to this group, about three huncred and sixty have
their analogies among the shells which people our waters. ‘This
third epoch forms, of course, in some sort, the commencement of the
actual state of things.

Another enquiry still remained, namely, to compare thevactual dis-
tribution of shells which have their analogous fossils with the ancient
distribution over the globe. The author has ascertained that of the
thirty eight living species of the first group, some are found in almost
all latitudes, the greater number, however, in the intertropical regions.
The same thing holds good in sixteen species of the second epoch ;
the greater number of which are found in Senegal, Madagascar and

198 MMiscellanies.

the Indian Archipelago. A smaller number inhabits the south of the
Mediterranean, and some only the European seas. A peculiarity
with respect to the analogous species of the third epoch is, that they
still inhabit the seas which wash in part the deposits from which they
are receding. ‘This is observable at Nice, Rochelle, and in many
other places, in which shell formations of this order are in the vicini-
ty of the sea.

The work of M. Deshayes, say the committee, appears to us to
be in all respects a model. Founded on the observation of more
than forty thousand specimens, every thing is proved by facts, every
thing is reduced to figures.—Rev. Encyc. Oct. 1831.

NECROLOGY.

Batavia.—Count Cuarves Vinva te Gonzano, after travelling
through the greater part of Europe, through America, and particular-
ly on its western coast, and through the greater part of Asia, died
on the 25th of December, 1830, just as he was returning from the
Island of Celebes, and was entering the gulf of Amboyna. He spent
several months in the Isle of Java in 1829, traversing the greater por-
tion of it, and displaying often inconceivable corporeal strength in
surmounting the obstacles which were presented to his progress. He
had proposed to fix, by barometrical observations on the summits of
the mountains, a line extending from Samarany to the southern side
of the island. He visited the Indian Archipelago, and the Mollucca
Islands, whence he made an excursion io the coast of New Guinea.
—FRiev. Encyc. Oct. 1831.

Count Vidua has not published any relation of his travels except
a collection of Greek inscriptions which he had collected in the Turk-
ish empire. It is known that his notes were continually forwarded
to one of his friends in Europe. ‘The occurrence of his visit at New
York about 1825 or 26, his amiable deportment, and the interest he
took in the benevolent and literary institutions of our country, are well
remembered. G.

OTHER NOTICES.
1. Case of treatment by carded cotton.—The authors of the Bib.

Univ. say that they guarantee the authenticity of the following case :
A gil twelve years of age, who had enjoyed good health, was ta-

JMiscellanies. 199

ken with measles, which did not acquire a full development. In a
few months after, she was seized with pain in her limbs, and espe-
cially in the right knee. This was at first treated by leeches, &c., as
a rheumatic affection, but without success. The inflammation of
the limb and knee became terribly severe ; abscesses were succes-
sively formed, and although their suppuration and lancing diminished
the pain, the inflammation was renewed with increased intensity.
Fomentations, and a deep incision in the knee were resorted to with-
out any advantage. This painful condition had continued five
months, when it was resolved, in consequence of the success of Dr.
Peschier with carded cotton, to make an application of it. The
whole leg was enveloped with it. Ina few days the suppuration be-
came more free and abundant, the inflammation was sensibly dimin-
ished, the pains abated, and her sleep was more tranquil. In a few
weeks the change was decided, and in three months, viz. eight
months after the first attack, the girl was cured, except that the leg
remained weak and stiff, which it was expected that the use of min-
eral waters would remove. It may be remarked, that before the ap-
plication of the cotton, there had been some periods of amendment,
but always followed by a relapse ; whereas, after the first trial of the
cotton, the healing went on with perfect regularity—Bib. Univ.
Jan. 1832.

2. Preservation against rust, dampness, &c.—A piece of linen
or cotton cloth, steeped in a saturated solution of lime or sulphate of
soda, and carefully dried, preserves from humidity and oxidation,
delicate steel instruments, and also preserves parchment and paper.

Steel instruments may also be preserved in quick lime.

A magnetic needle, suspended by a silk thread in lime water, un-
dergoes no deterioration.—Jour. de Connois. Usuelle’s tome 12, p. 89.

3. Coating for the preservation of Cordage, Leather and Wood,
From the effects of moisture—The material which has been princi-
pally relied on for the preservation of cordage, &c. is tar, in the use
of which there-are several disadvantages. The following is confi-
dently proposed as a substitute.

Take ten lbs. of common resin, pulverize it coarsely, and expose
it to a dry atmosphere, so that all the moisture it contains may leave
it; place itin a kettle over a fire, melt it, and continue the heat
gently till the swelling ceases, and it becomes transparent ; then add

200 JViscellanies.

by degrees, stirring the mass carefully, 18 Ibs. 6 oz. of pure olive
oil, (no matter what its age or taste.) The mixture becomes trans-
parent, and acquires, while warm, a syrupy consistence, and when
cold it is tenacious, viscous, and looks like turpentine. ‘This mixture,
furnishes an excellent varnish for leather, properly prepared, leaving
it in a flexible state, and admitting a2 good polish.

Ten lbs. of resin and fifteen lbs. of fish oil, or oil of rape seed, or
colza, afford a proper coating for cordage or oakum, or sail cloth.
The cloth must be perfectly dry, and the mixture applied boiling
hot. It should then, after the superfluous portions have drained off,
be carefully dried in the air, before it is exposed to water. A
month’s drying is generally sufficient. Oil of linseed, olivette, or
beach, can by no means be substituted for that prescribed.

Ten pounds of resin and thirteen and a half pounds of fish oil,
make a proper varnish for wood; applied boiling hot. When the
wood is duly impregnated, a little quick lime should be sprinkled over
it, moistened with water, and then the whole surface well rubbed
with a wisp of straw, by which the pores of the wood become com-
pletely closed.

' Asa hydrofuge for walls, the following is recommended: 10 Ibs.
of resin deprived of its moisture, and 10 Ibs. of rape seed oil, melted
together and applied to the wall with a tow brush. The wall must

be previously made very dry and well warmed.

This coating had better be applied twice, or subsequently a mix-
ture of 10 lbs. of drying linseed oil, 10 lbs. of resin, and 6 Ibs. of
Bougival white, may be applied as a thin coating. The wall should
be rubbed with a very coarse cloth, and allowed to dry. A wall
thus prepared may be pajnted on, or papered, without risk.—Jdem,
tome 15, p. 186.

4. Economy of Sealing Wax.—tIn public offices, and other situa-
tions, in which letters sealed with wax accumulate to a great extent,
it may be well to know that the wax may be preserved and used on
other occasions. ‘Two methods have been tried in France, (both
effectual,) of separating the wax from the paper. ‘The first is to
pulverize the whole in an iron mortar, and then effect the separation
by sieves of a proper degree of coarseness. ‘The second is to place
the mixture in a wire basket with open meshes, and expose it to the
action of steam. The wax melts, runs through, and is thus separa-
ted from the paper. It may then, in either case, be cast into sticks
or rolls, for use.—-Idem.

Miscellanies. 201

5. Composition for mending crystals, glass, porcelain and crock-
ery.— Take half a pound of the curd of skimmed milk, wash it until
the water comes from it limpid ; press out all the water, mix with
this washed curd the whites of six eggs, and to this mixture add the
expressed juice of 15 cloves of garlic; triturate the whole together
thoroughly in a mortar, then add, gradually, powdered and sifted
quick lime, in sufficient quantity to make a a dey paste, and stir the
whole until it is perfectly mixed.

To use this mastic, rub a small por tion of it with a little water, on
a piece of glass with a muller ; when well rubbed, put it on the frag-
ment to be mended, or in the crack to be filled, and fasten the parts
well together, and let it dry inthe shade. This cement, if well dried,
resists fire and boiling water. Vases and other valuable articles can
be perfectly mended by it.

The mixture of curd, whites of eggs, and garlic juice, may be pul-
verized, mixed with an equal part of quick lime, and kept for use in
a well-stopped vial. Such a mixture as this is kept for sale as an Eng-
lish article, in a shop in the Palais-Royal and is in demand.—Idem.

6. Indelible Ink for marking linen.—The following composition
may be used with facility and success: ‘Take nitrate of silver 1 dram,
printer’s ink 1 ounce ; rub the salt with the ink very thoroughly on a
glass plate with a glass muller, so as to incorporate them well. A
small portion of the ink, put, by means of a ball, on types or letters
in relief, and thus impressed on linen or muslin, will remain very dis-
tinct through many washings with soap or ley.—Idem.

7. How to boil Potatoes.—F ew persons are aware of ihe neces-
sity of skill or attention in this common operation. Potatoes should
be cooked by steam, either by putting a small quantity of water
in the pot, just enough to preserve an atmosphere of steam around
the potatoes, or by introducing steam among them through a pipe
from a boiler. Strict attention must be paid, that they be not
overdone. In general from ten to twenty minutes of steaming
are sufficient. Where the right point is attained, they are dry and
friable and easily reduced into meal. Ifthe action of the steam
is continued even a few moments too long, they become greasy,
compact, and acrid, and are not easily mashed, which proves that
a change of composition is commencing which alters their quali-
ties. It has been ascertained that potatoes which have thus been in-

Vou. XXIII.—No. 1. 26

302 Miscellanies.

jured, or which are naturally acrid, may lose these qualities by the
moderate and suitable operation of heat.—Jdem.

8. How to boil Rice.—The grains of rice when properly boiled,
remain dry and loose, and are then much more sweet and wholesome
than when agglutinated or partially converted into starch. - To boil
rice properly, add salt to the water, and when boiling hot, stir in the
rice. Keep it boiling for twelve minutes by the Gece then pour off
the water and set the pot on live coals during ten minutes. ‘The
rice is then fit for the table.

9. Potatoe Cheese.—In Thuringia and Saxony, potatoe cheese is
made, which is an object of considerable research, as it has the ad-
vantage of retaining its freshness during several years, provided it is
kept in close vessels.

It is thus prepared :—select potatoes of good quality, especially
large white ones; boil them in a kettle, skin them and when cold re-
duce them to a homogeneous pulp; add a pint of sour milk to five
pounds of this pulp, knead the mass well and keep it covered three
or four days, then knead it again, and place it in small baskets to
drain; lastly dry it in the shade and pack it in layers in pots or casks
and leave it thus for a fortnight before using it. The’older it is the
better, as its quality improves by age.

The above proportions are most commonly used ; a fom parts
of potatoes may be added to two parts of curdled vail or even oth-
er proportions according to the taste of the manufacturer.—Idem,
tome 12, p. 89.

10. Collecting swarms of Bees.—In Corsica the following method
is employed for collecting swarms of bees. When the swarm comes
out, a man follows them with an empty hive swung over his shoul-
ders, the bottom and sides of which are rubbed over with lemon
bark. He approaches the swarm and sprinkles. it with lemon juice,
with which he fills his mouth. ‘The odor attracts the bees, and as
soon as a single one enters the hive the’ rest follow.—Idem.

JWiscellanies. 203

Trilobite.

Letter to the Editor, from Mr. Fred. Jukes, dated July 4th, 1832, 17 Paradise street,
Birmingham, (Eng.)

Sirn—My friend Mr. Holmes,
on his return to America, having
kindly offered to convey to you
a parcel, and knowing the inter-
est you take in all branches of
natural history, I avail myself of
the opportunity, by sending you
some casts and a drawing of an
extraordinary fossil of the Trilo-
bite kind, which I have in my
possession. You may probably
have seen some account of it in
Loudon’s Magazine of Natural
History, with remarks upon it by Mr. I. D. Sa in which he
refers to some similar specimens discovered in your country at Tren-
ton Falls. ‘The singularity of this tribe of fossils, and the cireum-
stance of their being associated only with the most ancient strata,
render them so peculiarly interesting, that no opportunity should be
lost in making known the various. species aes are from time to
time discovered.

This fossil was found in a low stratum of transition limestone, at
Great Barr in Staffordshire, and though it is more than ten miles
from Dudley, where the limestone is so celebrated for its beautiful
specimens of the ‘‘ Calyméne Blumenbachii,” there is no doubt but
it is a continuation of the same formation, and in all probability this
fossil will some day be met with there. ‘The other species which
are found at Dudley are, the ‘“A’saphus caudatus,” ‘Calymene
variolaris,” and the lower portion of an unknown one, fae 53 in
the 4th Vol. of Loudon’s Magazine. ef

Remarks.—The No. of Loudon’s Magazine alluded to by Mr.
Jukes, is missing from our collection. Supposing however that it
may be interesting to American readers to see a figure of this trilo-
bite, we republish the figure, with the letter of Mr. Jukes. The
casts alluded to arrived in perfect order, and are of course still more
striking than the drawing. We learn from Prof. Jacob Green, that
the genus of trilobites, to which the specimen of Mr. Jukes belongs,
has not yet been found in this country.—Ed.

204 MMiscellanies.

DOMESTIC.

1. Fossil Shells of the Tertiary Formations of North America,
illustrated by figures drawn on stone, from nature; by T. A. Con-
RAD, Philad. 1832.—A work of this kind has long been a desidera-
tum to geologists, and we have now the pleasure to announce the
publication® of the first number, with six plates illustrative of twenty
three species of American tertiary fossils. ‘The style and spirit in
which this work is commenced give great promise of future useful-
ness: the plates are lithographed by the best artists, and the figures
are drawn with such clearness and elegance, as will enable even the
learner to detect their character with facility.

“The beauty, variety, and peculiar character of our Tertiary Fos-
sils,” says the author, “ are such as to recommend them to the mere
Conchologist ; but when viewed in connexion with Geological phe-
nomena, they will prove, in consequence of their vast extent and
continuous beds, even more important than the most celebrated con-
temporaneous deposits in Europe.”

The three great divisions of the Tertiary class, viz. the upper ma-
rine, London clay and plastic clay formations are all now positively
identified in this country by their organic remains, of which Mr.
Conrad is already in possession of about two hundred and fifty spe-
cies. Of these, the upper marine beds furnish a large proportion ;
the London clay, (or, as Mr. Conrad terms it, the middle tertiary,)
also affords a profusion of fossils, although hitherto but very partially
explored on this continent. ‘The plastic clay, on the contrary, is as
yet characterized by few and imperfect species.

Mr. Conrad’s Introduction gives us a brief but clear view of all
these formations,—their mineralogical and organic characters, and
geographical distribution, accompanied by various novel details which
cannot fail to attract attention wherever geology is appreciated. It
is designed to figure all the species of Tertiary shells ; and the pres-
ent number contains six species of Arca, two of Pectunculus, eight
of Fusus, three of Buccinum, a Murex, a Cuppemanes a Cardita, and
an Artemis.

The value of Mr. Conrad’s work is much enhanced by the fact,
that it is the result of personal observations made during several
tours through the formations he describes ; and he has announced

—_——

* By Mr. J. Dobson, Chesnut Street, Philadelphia.

Miscellanies. 205

his intention of visiting, during the present year, the whole Tertiary
frontier of our country from New Jersey to Alabama.

It is our intention to resume this subject more in detail on a future
occasion, and for the present shall close our remarks with a beautiful
passage from the preface of our author.

“The recent shells have been sought with avidity on the shores
of every sea, to adorn the cabinets of the curious with the symmetry
and beauty of their forms, or the brilliancy of their colors ; but the
science of Geology has given to the more homely fossils, a charm
which amply compensates for the loss of a portion of exterior orna-
ment, inasmuch as they are mute interpreters of those strange revo-
lutions, of which the memory of man has not preserved a solitary
trace. They chronicle the various eras of an unknown world, where
one ocean has retired to give place to another with its peculiar tribes
of animated beings, whose silent eloquence reveals the mysterious
operations of nature, when the sudden elevation of mountains, irrup-
tion of seas, and destruction of various races of animals and _ plants,
were forming in the crust of our globe those numerous strata, the
study of which must ever be an inexhaustible source of pleasure and
instruction. ‘Thus have long periods of violence and revolution been
necessary to create the beautiful variety of the present surface of the
earth, and perhaps to prepare it for the support of man, as all these
changes appear to have been effected anterior to the existence of the
human race.”

It will be agreed by all that this important division of our geology
could not have fallen into better hands, and if it were needed, the
ablest assistance is easily obtained from Dr. Morton and other gentle-
men in Philadelphia, who have already distinguished themselves in
this branch of research. Sept. 23d, 1832.

2. Declination of the Magnetic Needle ; by Mr. Grorce Giuuet,
in a letter to the editor, dated Hebron, Conn. May 1st, 1832.

Sir—In your Journal of Arts and Sciences, the observations of
Mr. De Witt and of Dr. Bowditch, for the declination of the mag-
netic needle, are recorded in direct opposition to each other—one
giving an increase and the other a decrease of west declination. In
the year 1813, an article appeared ina Philadelphia paper from
which the following was extracted.

At that city, “1701, W. declination 8° 30’, by Mr. Scull. 1793,
W. 1° 30’, by R. Brooks. 1794, the needle was observed to re-

206 JMiscellanies.

cede westward, by H. Brooks of Philadelphia, M. Humphrys of Md.
and others in Virginia. 1802, more than 1° 30’ W., by R. Howel.
1804, 2° W., by several men of science. 1813, 2° 27/ W., by
Thomas Whitney.” About the year 1810, the late Mr. Spencer of
Litchfield county published in the Connecticut Courant, that for a
number of years then past, the needle had declined to the west. Mr.
Nathaniel Goodwin of Hartford, than whom there is not a more cor-
rect man in that city, has, for many years past, attended to the de-
clination of the needle, and, according to his observations, it has
steadily tended to the west. In 1805, I commenced observa-
tions, and since that period, the needle has declined to the west more
than a degree. ‘The distance between this town and Salem does
not exceed one hundred miles. If it is sufficiently proved that while
the west declination at Salem has decreased, at other places to the
west it has increased, who can account for the anomaly ?

3. Boring for Water.—In a former volume of this Journal, we
gave some account of Mr. Disbrow’s operations for obtaining water
by boring. We observe with pleasure that the subject is acquiring a
fresh interest, in consequence of new and successful experiments, as
stated in a pamphlet which appeared in July in the city of New
York, with the signatures of John L. Sullivan and Levi Disbrow.
We are not, on this occasion, about to discuss the causes of the rise’:
of water from deep perforations, nor, even to agitate the question
whether it may always be expected at a certain depth. It is suffi-
cient that it is often obtamed. The excavation in New York, of the
- great well for the city tank to the depth of one hundred feet, sixteen
feet diameter, with two horizontal shafts of four feet square, yields
eight thousand gallons per diem, or three hundred and thirty-three
per hour, or between five and six gallons per minute,

The Bleecker-street perforation of four hundred and forty-two
feet, yields forty-four thousand gallons per day, or one thousand eight
hundred and thirty-three gallons per hour, or about thirty gallons,
nearly a barrel, a minute: It would seem, therefore, that if such a
treasure is attainable in these places, it may be in others within the
city, and therefore that there should be no hesitation in proceeding
vigorously and promptly with the effort. The probability of success
justifies a decisive experiment at the expense of even one hundred
thousand dollars ; and complete success in obtaining abundance of
fresh water from the strata below New York, is worth, we will not
say millions; 2 is beyond all price.—Ed.

Miscellanies. 207

4. Alluvial Deposits of the Mohawk.
Extract of a letter from Mr. C. H. Tomurnsown to the Editor, dated
« Scurnectapy, April, 1832.

“© Dear Sir—I herewith send you specimens of a deposit of leaves
which are found ten or twelve feet below the surface of the flats or
alluvial banks of the Mohawk River at this place. ‘These, with ma-
ny other specimens, some of them one anda half feet square and six
or eight inches thick, were washed out of a deep hole made in the
Erie Canal during the great freshet in March last; when the river
broke over the canal banks, three miles above this city, and came
down till it was stopped by the high ground on which the city is
built. It then rose high enough to break over the canal banks and
return to the river. The hole spoken of above was about twenty
feet below the surface of the flats across which the canal runs. Judge
De Graff of this place, tells me, that in digging a well some years
ago, about a quarter of a mile from this spot, he dug through the
same deposit of leaves. It was more than six inches thick. I am
informed by another person who is familiar with the river, that at low
water the same deposit may be seen in the bank of the river, a few
hundred yards from the place out of which these’ specimens were
washed.”

Remarks.—Every such deposit is interesting, as giving us the
means of comparing things that were with those that are. ‘These
masses of leaves are perfectly combustible, burning with bright flame
and much smoke, smelling like that of recent dry leaves. ‘They are
enveloped by a fine black river mud, exactly like that which forms
the sediment of the Mohawk at the present time.

Since receiving Mr. Tomlinson’s letter, we have visited the spot
from which the leaves were taken, and no one who sees the place,
can doubt that it was once the upper surface, although it is now lower
than the bed of the river.—Ed.

P. S. October 11, 1832.—Observing, recently, some excavations
going on upon the Genesee River, at Angelica, Allegany county,
(N. Y.) for the purpose of forming a mill race, we saw parts of trees
brought up from beneath tough and firm clay, some yards below the
surface, evincing the shifting of the banks in ancient time.

5. Detection of corrosive sublimate:—This is not a difficult task,
and the following facts are mentioned, not as being novel, but as af-
fording an example of an easy method of operating with means usu-
ally found in the family without resorting to a laboratory.

208 MVMisceilanies.

The preliminary facts, were as follows:—A cider barrel being
brought empty to the mill, stood over night and was filled in the mor-
ning with fresh made cider. As one head proved leaky, the cider
was removed, and some pounds of a substance resembling flour were
found in the barrel with several lumps of a heavy white firm matter,
doubtless introduced as a poison. ‘The latter was conjectured to be
corrosive sublimate, and the opinion was proved to be correct by the ~
following observations and experiments.

1. The substance yielded to a knife blade and a slight blow—flew
apart with some elasticity, had a glistening diamond like (adaman-
tine) lustre, was rather acrid to the taste, leaving a lasting metallic
impression, and was readily soluble in rain water, to the bottom of
which the larger fragments fell, allhough the fine powder floated for
a time. ;

2. From charcoal, when by the blowpipe, a candle flame was di-
rected upon it, it rose rapidly in white acrid clouds, without any
other odor.

3. Placed in a small vial loosely stopped with a cork, the vial be-
ing moved rapidly and horizontally over the clear blaze of a candle,
the substance readily sublimed and concreted on the cooler side of
the vial, partly in a white coating, and partly in crystalline spicule.
The crystallization was very conspicuous when the substance was
sublimed from the bottom of a glass tube bent into the form of the
letter U.

4. The solution gave a brick red precipitate with a solution of sub-
_ carbonate of soda, and a white one with sub-carbonate of ammonia.

5. A silver quarter of a dollar and a bright copper cent being laid
in contact with the cent uppermost, a drop of the solution was placed
on the bright part of the cent, and a connexion formed between it
and the silver by an iron staple brightened at the points ; instantly
the mercury began to precipitate upon the copper, and in half an
hour there was a distinct silver white coating with minute points or
globules of mercury. Itis not necessary to say that this was a gal-
vanic circle, and that the mercury was evolved at the copper or ne-
gative pole, according to a general law, propounded by Sir H. Davy,
in 1806. These metals were used for the circle, because they were
at hand. A piece of bright zinc was partly covered with gold leaf,
and a drop of the solution being placed on the gold, it became speed-
ily white, even before a metallic communication was established by a
wire placed so as to touch both the fluid and the zinc.

THE

AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &ce.

Arr. l.—Experiments upon the Solidification of raw Gypsum ; by
Joun P. Emer, Prof. of Chemistry in the Univ. of Virginia.

Tue facility with which burnt gypsum sets, when made into a
paste with water, has rendered it not only conspicuous among min-
erals but highly useful in the arts; hitherto, however, as far as I am
aware, it has not been supposed that the raw or natural production
is capable of exhibitmg the same property. The following experi-
ments, although resulting from an enquiry not professedly connected
with the subject of the present communication, and therefore not,
perhaps, carried as far as they might have been with advantage, are
considered of sufficient importance to receive a distinct notice.
They satisfactorily show that native gypsum may be rendered ca-
pable of perfect solidification without having undergone the opera-
tion of burning, and may perhaps contribute to illustrate or render
more available the setting property of this valuable natural pro-
duction. |

Raw gypsum, finely pulverized, is capable of undergoing imme-
diate and perfect solidification, when mixed with certain solutions of
the alkali potassa. Among those that answer best, may be enumer-
ated caustic potassa, carbonate and bi-carbonate, sulphate and super-
sulphate, silicate and double tartrate or Rochelle salt.

In all these cases, the process may be easily rendered more expe-
ditious than when burnt plaster alone is employed, and the resulting
solid, after having licen properly dried, does not seem to differ es-
sentially from that usually obtained, except in composition. There
does not appear to be any exact point of saturation; for the solid
masses, when broken up and worked with fresh portions of the solu-
tions, constantly recover their tendency to set, even when the saline

Vou. XXITI._—No. 2. QY

210 Solidification of Gypsum.

matter is in very great excess; yet, no doubt, each case requires
a specific amount, in order to produce the maximum of solidity.
When water alone is employed, after the first mixture, the paste
rarely exhibits any remarkable tendency to become hard; but a
fresh application of one of the foregoing solutions never failed to de-
velop it promptly. |

There is also a marked difference as to the time required for the
operation ; solutions of carbonate and sulphate of potassa, if suffi-
ciently dilute, produce their effects so slowly as to admit of com-
plete incorporation, whereas Rochelle salt acts as soon as the pow-
der touches the fluid and all subsequent motion necessarily weakens
the cohesion. If crystals of Rochelle salt be triturated with raw gyp-
sum and water, and then brought in contact with the mixture, there
will be no apparent interval of time between contact and solidifica-
tion. This extreme rapidity effectually prevents incorporation by.
the ordinary mode, and would induce one to imagine that Rochelle
salt does not possess the power; for when the gypsum. and solution
are worked together with a spatula, although the particles feel hard
and harsh, they readily crumble, and by continuing the operation,
actually assume a semi-fluid condition.

No other salts, but those holding potassa, were found to render
raw gypsum capable of solidification. Those of soda, as far as they
were examined, invariably produced a contrary effect, if we except
Rochelle salt, which, however, seems to operate by its potassa. Yet
it is remarkable that several neutral salts of the latter alkali, as the
nitrate and chlorate, did not occasion the slightest alteration. ‘The
bi-carbonate of potassa invariably produced a brisk effervescence,
which considerably impaired, although it did not prevent, solidifica-
tion. ‘The same disadvantage characterizes the action of super-
sulphate of potassa, whenever the mineral contains an admixture of
carbonate of lime, as was found to be the case with the specimen of
gypsum under examination. As the idea has been advanced that
the setting property of ordinary burnt ‘plaster, depends upon the
presence of carbonate of lime, most of these experiments were re-
peated, with equal success, upon pure sulphate of lime obtained by
precipitation.

The opinion that carbonate of lime facilitates or causes solidifica-
tion in the ordinary case, seems but little entitled to belief, when it
is considered that the heat, necessary for the burning of plaster, falls

Solidification of Gypsum. 211

far short of that required for bringing limestone to its caustic state,
or even to that half-calcined condition which renders it capable of
hardening under water; but, whatever may be its agency, subse-
quent to the application of heat, the operation must be totally differ-
ent in the present case, since the super-sulphate of potassa com-
pletely decomposes all the carbonate of lime in the gypsum.

It is probable, as Gay-Lussac has observed, in his examination of
this singular property of burnt plaster,* that we should refer the fact
to an inherent property of the mineral; yet I cannot but think the
foregomg experiment abundantly proves that it does not always de-
pend upon the simple union with water, and subsequent aggregation
of the saturated particles, as seems to be the fact with burnt plaster.
These cases may not, indeed, be parallel, as some of the saline solu-
tions, added, partially affect the composition of the gypsum; yet I
have satisfied myself that the alteration is neither uniform nor essen-
tial to the result, although it is extremely difficult to ascribe the so-
lidification, in the foregoing instances, to the proper cause. Both
potassa and its carbonate are extremely deliquescent, and do not,
therefore, act by rapidity of crystallization; sulphate of potassa can-
not affect the composition of sulphate of lime, and, although the
former salt may possibly be formed in all the cases of mixture enu-
merated, it does not seem to form any permanent combination with
the gypsum, since the latter, in two experiments, was found to lose
one twelfth of its weight by the mixture of the substances and sub-
sequent washing with warm water. ‘The only uniformity observable,
in all the saline solutions capable of producing solidification, is the
necessity of the presence of potassa, and the rapidity with which the
operation takes place seems greatly opposed to the supposition that
the result depends upon double decomposition. If we take the pul-
verized gypsum and saturate it by the solution of carbonate of po-
tassa, all subsequent chemical action, from the same substances,
should be prevented, and yet, when the solidified mass, thus formed,
is worked up again with a fresh portion of the same saline solution,
it sets with equal facility. This property appears but little dimin-
ished by three or four repetitions. As plain water does not answer,
until after the evaporation of the fluid, it seems more probable that
the saline solutions exert a kind of repulsion towards the particles of

* Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tom. xl. p. 436.

212 Solidification of Gypsum.

gypsum, and thus tend to promote that solidification which is so very
characteristic of it in the burnt state.

The experiment which first exhibited the solidifying property of
raw gypsum, was well calculated to give the impression that chem-
ical decomposition was necessary for the result. I wished to deter-
mine how far fresh precipitated carbonate of lime was capable of
improving gypsum, (intending subsequently to burn the mixture ;)
with this view, pulverized, raw gypsum was placed on a filter, and
a cold solution of carbonate of potassa poured over it. ‘The result
was the rapid solidification of the crude mineral and an evident di-
minution of the alkali. Upon repeatedly returning the same solu-
tion through the filter, turmeric paper ceased to indicate the pres-
ence of potassa, and reagents showed that sulphate of potassa had
taken its place. In this manner, a saturated solution of the latter
salt may soon be obtained. Yet, as has been already stated, a fur-
ther examination proved that the sulphate of potassa is not capable
of contracting a permanent union with the gypsum.

Further. enquiry will, no doubt, lead to the detection of salts better
adapted to the developement of this property than those here noti-
ced, but the cheapness of carbonate of potassa seems more likely to
recommend its use for practical purposes, provided it shall be found
that the solidification of raw or effete plaster, by the process here
indicated, equals, in durability, that which has been recently burnt.
Gypsum, it is well known, requires judicious treatment, in order to
fit it for taking casts, and unless carefully defended from moisture,
will soon lose its valuable property. ‘The process of burning may,
moreover, not always be convenient, and in this case, a solution of
carbonate of potassa, or, for common purposes, the ley from wood
ashes, will always enable the operator to effect rapid solidification,
and, as far as I have observed, it is perfect.

Review of the Practical Tourist. 213

Art. Ii.—The Practical Tourist, or sketches of the useful arts,
and of Society, Scenery, &§c. &c. in Great Britain, France and
Holland. Intwo volumes; by Z. Auten, Providence, R. I. 1832.

COMMUNICATED.

Tue author of this work is already favorably known to the public
by his valuable book on practical mechanics. He made the tour,
here noticed, chiefly for the purpose of minutely inspecting manufac-
turing establishments, and collecting such information respecting their
internal operations and general economy, and their influence upon
individual character and national prosperity, as would be practically
useful to his own countrymen,—a kind of knowledge which, as he
justly remarks, could be obtained only “ by entering apartments filled
with the smoke of furnaces and resounding with the deafening noise
of machinery, or by conversing with men devoted to the common
handicraft labors of life.” For this, if in no other respect, his book
is peculiarly valuable. Such information was much wanted, and he
has proved himself a very suitable person to furnish it. Besides his
individual interest in manufactures, his previous acquaintance, with
their condition in this country, and his lucid and pleasing manner of
describing what he saw, the author exhibits throughout these vol-
umes, ample proof that he is a candid and faithful observer. With
the facts pertaining to the useful arts, there is judiciously blended
such matter of general interest, as will render this an entertaining
work to all persons who would, at their own fire side, ramble over the
same countries with an agreeable: fellow traveler, and will also serve
as a useful guide to those who may incline to visit the same places
personally. ‘The work, as well for the rich entertainment it will fur-
nish to the general reader, as for the important information it con-
tains for several kinds of manufacturers, cannot fail of meeting a
favorable reception from the public.

The plan of this journal makes it necessary to notice such facts
and observations only, as will interest the scientific manufacturer,
and of these even, our limits allow us to admit only a few notices,
which will be given, mainly, in the writer’s own words.

After describing the gradual improvements made in the carding,
spinning and weaving of cotton, from the state such operations were in —
for ages prior to the middle of last century, and in this country till
within the last fifty years, and exhibiting their present advanced

214 Review of the Practical Tourist.

state in Great Britain and the United States, he estimates the num-
ber of power looms for cotton in the former country in 1832, at
about sixty thousand.—He adds concerning steam power that,

“ Tt requires about a one horse power of the steam engine stand-
ard, to work twelve looms, with the machinery for dressing the webs.
To keep in motion the above number of sixty thousand power looms,
would therefore require a steam power rated equal to that of five
thousand horses employed during twelve hours each day; but, in
reality, equal to the actual force of about ten thousand ordinary
horses, which animal is found capable of performing effective labor
during only about eight hours of each day. Thus is exhibited at
a glance the surprising economy of human strength brought about
by the single labor saving contrivance of the power loom.”

The amount saved in the expense of weaving ina year, com-
paring it with the cost of manual labor as formerly practised, our
author estimates atten million of dollars.

*¢ It can hardly be believed, indeed, at this late day, how great were
the profits which resulted from the employment of Arkwright’s ma-
chinery, when first invented. * * An English child employed at
a machine was able to produce fabrics of greater exchangeable value
than one or two score of able bodied men on the adjacent continent,
or in the United States. One of the oldest cotton manufacturers in
the latter country, who commenced his business at a period when the
richest portion of the harvest of wealth had been gathered in Eng-
land, has declared, that he would prefer to receive merely the profits
of one of his old original cotton’ mills, after deducting all the cost of
stock, labor and other charges, rather than the unconditional gift of
the whole product of cloths from a mill of the same number of spin-
dles at the present day. Cotton yarn of No. 100, was sold in Eng-
land in 1788 at about eight dollars and three quarters per pound, and
the same kind of article can now be bought in the same country for
about seventy-five to one hundred cents.”

In connexion with cotton manufactures the author gives a cursory
view of the equally rapid and wonderful extension of the culture of
cotton, which now furnishes nearly half of the clothing to the inhabi-
tants of the civilized world.

“The cotton plant itself is a native of the three continents of
Asia, Africa, and America, and flourishes in a broad zone of climates.
In Hindoostan and South America, it shoots up into a tree with lofty
branches, and annually produces its bursting pods as a spontaneous

Review of the Practical Tourist. 215

crop for the inhabitants, who gather the locks of cotton with no other
labor than that of the harvest. In more northerly latitudes, it be-
comes dwindled into an annual plant, requiring careful tillage, and
the vigilant attention of the cultivator during the seed time, as well
as the harvest. The product of the cotton plant seems to vary in
quality from local peculiarities of heat and moisture ; as that with the
black seed, which is raised in the vicinity of the ocean on the sea
islands of Georgia, loses its superior-excellence of staple when trans-
planted to the interior country.

“In the early stages of the cotton manufacture in England, the
supply of the raw material was derived from the countries of Asia
bordering on the Mediterranean, and from the West Indies. In 1705,
it appears that only one million one hundred and seventy thousand
pounds of cotton were imported into England; and in 1775, at the
period of the commencement of the inventions to which we have
been alluding, only four million seven hundred and sixty four thou-
sand pounds were imported. Fifty years after this, eight hundred
and twenty thousand bags were landed in Great Britain in one year.
About seventy two thousand of these having been re-exported, there
remained seven hundred and forty eight thousand bags of cotton to
supply the annual consumption of this single island. Of this vast
quantity, the greater part was brought from a remote country (the
United States) where in 1784 not a single bag of cotton was produ-
ced as an article of export. j

“In 1785 it was ascertained by the English custom house officers
at Liverpool, that an American ship had discharged upon the quay
eight bales of cotton, which being then an article of import never be-
fore brought from any part of the Uunited States, were seized, upon
the supposition that they had been brought circuitously from some of
the English West India Islands, contrary to the rigid navigation laws,
designed to encourage British shipping. For several years subse-
quent to this period, the culture of cotton was neglected in the Uni-
ted States, on account of the great labor required to free it of its
seeds and motes by manual labor; but the invention (by the late
Eli Whitney,) of the cotton gin, for cleaning the raw cotton, gave in
1793 a new impulse to the culture in the United States, quite as
great as that given to the manufacture of the same staple material by
the inventions of Arkwright.

The following table of the comparative rates of wages in England,
France and the United States furnishes the best information on the
subject that we have seen.

216 Review of the Practical Tourist.

Wages of a common day laborer,
per day, about - - -
Do. with steady employment,
Carpenter, = - - - | 55 to 75
Mason, - - - 85
Mule spinners in cotton mills, 85) 90 to 137
Do. do. — in woollen mills, 137
Weavers on hand looms, 95
Boys 11 or 12 y’rs old, per day, 30 |
Women in cotton aie per week, ) | 300
do. in woollen mills, - -
Maid servants in private families, per
week, board found, - -
Machine makers and forgers, best,
perday, - - - -
Do. ordinary, - “ -
Children, piecers in mills, for mules
and billeys, - - -
Overlooker of carding rooms, -
Slubbers of woollen roving, -
Experienced workmen to attend
shearing machines and gig mills
for woolens, - ~ -
Firemen for steam engines, - 91 100
Price of coals for steam engines,
per ton, (1827) - - - ‘| 220* /700F° 700%
Wheat (per bushel of 60 lbs.) We) MIE 96

The cupidity of English manufacturers requiring more hours of
labor from their workmen and especially from children than humanity
could sanction, attracted the attention of Parliament, and induced it,
in 1831, to establish the following hours of labor in mills for manu-
facturing silk, cotton, wool, flax, &c.

‘¢No person under twenty one years of age, shall be allowed to
work in the night—that is, between half past eight o’clock in the
evening, and half past five A. M.

‘‘ No person, under the age of eighteen years, shall be employed
more than twelve hours per day, and nine hours on Saturday, (ex-
cepting in fulling mills and in finishing woolen alia equal to sixty
nine hours per spcele

* Manchester. t Louviers. t New York. § Pittsburgh.

Review of the Practical Tourist. 217

“In case of loss of time by drought, or damage to steam engines,
the proprietors of mills shall be allowed twelve hours on Saturday,
and one hour per day as additional labor.

‘“¢No child shall be employed in any description of work in any
mill until nine years old, exert in silk mills, where they may be
employed at seven years of age.”

A: description is given of the finishing processes by which cotton
cloths, after they are taken from the looms, are prepared for va-
rious uses. One of these is the singeing of the cloth to impart to
‘it the appearance of linen, which was formerly effected by passing
it over red hot cylinders. A blaze of gas is now substituted, “ which
is made to issue from a tube perforated with a long row of nearly
contiguous small holes, like those of the burners of a gas lamp.
By kindling the gas issuing from one of the apertures, the blaze in-
stantly flashes along the whole extent of the tube, forming a contin-
ued sheet of dazzling flame, shooting upwards. Directly above this
is fixed another tube of equal length, and perforated with a long slit
exactly adapted to receive into its bottom cavity the jet of flame.
The upper tube is connected with large air-pumps, worked by steam
power, whereby a rush of air is created into the aperture of the
slit. When the cloth is passed between the tubes, the blaze of gas
ascending from the lower one, is actually drawn or sucked through
the texture between the threads, by means of the slit in the upper
tube. The most delicate muslins may be thus passed through a
vivid sheet of flame, and become, during the fiery ordeal, not only
divested of the rough fibres on the face of the texture, as has been
previously accomplished by passing it over the red hot cylinder, but
even the rough fibres between the threads are singed off by the pen-
etrating flame, and the exact appearance of the smooth linen thread
is produced.”

A particular description is given of the above mentioned air-pumps
and their mode of operation. ‘This is followed by a sketch of the
processes of bleaching, printing, and calendering which differ very
little from those employed in the United States. Nor is there much
difference in the method which he describes of manufacturing woollen
cloth by the English, excepting that they still weave woollen chiefly
by hand instead of the power loom. The author concludes this
subject by the following interesting comparison.

Vou. XXITI.—No. 2. 28

218 Review of the Practical Tourist.

“Taking the general average of the cost of making a yard of
broadcloth in England, and in the United States, including that of
the steam and water power, it appears that the American manufac-
turer produces fabrics of equal quality, as cheaply as they are made
in England. But widely different are their respective advantages of
obtaining a supply of wool. ‘The raw material is from seventy to
an hundred per cent. dearer in New England than in Old England.

“In the manufacture of stuff goods the wool is prepared by first
combing the long fibres or hairs by means of a sort of hatchel,
precisely as flax is prepared. ‘The operation, however, is perform- °
ed upon the wool, whilst it is exposed to heat, which renders the
fibres permanently elongated. ‘The combed wool is passed suc-
cessively between sets of rollers, to extend the fibres, and to reduce
them to the rudiments of a fine thread, for which perpose machine-
ry is employed similar to that used for manufacturing cotton. hia
this it is spun into worsted yarn.”

It is gratifying to learn from Mr. Allen’s book, that small fibwaties
are formed by the proprietors at many of the large manufacturing es-
tablishments in England, for the use of the workmen, which are
supported by a small periodical payment from those who receive the
books. If the comparatively small size of our own manufactories
renders such an appendage less worthy of the attention of owners,
they might at least unite in large manufacturing villages in forming
similar means of mental improvement.

The foregoing extracts are interesting to a comparatively small
class of readers only, and present but indifferent specimens of the
authors style. ‘They are offered as samples of the more substantial
sort of goods which the inquirer may find in this ware-house of in-
formation. It would have suited the manufacturer, if this‘description
of goods had been packed separately at the farther end of the
building, in the form of an appendix, instead of being thrown about,
promiscuously, among castles and abbeys, theatres and gaming houses,
cottages and palaces, foundling hospitals and cathedrals, baptisms and
funerals. ‘The general reader, however, whose taste the author no
doubt consulted, would prefer the book as it is. Although his at-
tention was particularly directed to mills for making cotton, woollen,
silk and linen cloths, yet he has not omitted the various workshops
for cutlery and other hardware, both useful and ornamental, as well
as founderies, coal mines, porcelain works, canals, rail roads, &c. &c.;
thus incorporating a mass of useful facts and observations that are be-

Review of the Practical Tourist. 219

coming of daily increasing importance in our own country, and which
tourists are rarely at pains to furnish with such faithful accuracy.*

The following graphic description of a salt mine in Cheshire, is
the only extract we shall make that does not bear upon the interests
of an American manufacturer. After describing the manner of de-
scending the shaft of the mine, and the appearance of the various
strata of earth, the author says, ‘alighting from our tub upon the
firm dry floor of rock salt, the guide observed, that we had descended
three hundred and thirty six feet from the surface of the ground.
When our eyes had become sufficiently accustomed to the twilight
gloom of the vast cavern, we stood motionless with surprise at the
sight before us, gazing with wonder at the magnificent aisles extend-
ed horizontally to great distances, between huge pillars of salt, and
lighted by rows of lamps arranged at regular distances asunder, like
those in the streets of a city, some appearing brilliant near at hand,
and others faintly twinkling from remote extremities of the mine.
The resemblance to a night scene in the street of a city was render-
ed more striking from the rattling of the wheels traversing the rail
roads, and the tramp of the horses’ feet.

** Our conductor now began to point out the various objects visible,
and to describe the subterraneous works. ‘The excavations, he sta-
ted, are made horizontally, as level as a plain, to the extent of about
twenty six acres, the height of the roof being eighteen feet. Ob-
serve, he said, how perfectly smooth the roof and floor are formed,
resembling those of an immense room. ‘Those pillars of salt are left
at the regular distance of seventy five feet asunder, to sustain the
great weight of superincumbent earth, more than three hundred feet
CRT kee RE é

_ © There being no seams or fissures throughout the solid mass, no
water can penetrate into the salt mine. 'To convince us of the tight-
ness of the roof of salt, the guide conducted us to the part of the
mine directly beneath the canal upon which we had previously seen
loaded canal boats floating, more than three hundred feet above our
heads supported with all the load of waters by the pillars of salt
around us.

“Tn distant parts of the mine, numerous workmen appeared by
candle-light engaged in drilling holes in the salt, which is nearly as

‘* Asa very slight exception, however, to the general accuracy that pervades the
book, we may notice, that in describing the process for making alum in Scotland,
page 361, the author forgets to add an alkali as an ingredient.

220 Review of the Practical Tourist.

hard as marble; for the purpose of detaching fragments by explo-
sions of gunpowder. ‘They commence working next the roof, and
carry forward the excavations in the form of broad steps, breaking
up successively the several tiers or layers. The stunning reverbera-
tions of the explosions, following one after another in quick succes-
sion, cause the startled visitant to shrink back with a momentary
feeling of alarm, whilst the very roof seems to be upheaved, and the
pillars to tremble under their load.

“In order to show us the extent of the mine, our conductor fired
a preparation of gunpowder, termed blue-lights, which he had provi-
‘ded for the purpose of affording a brilliant illumination. On firing
the combustible preparation, instantly, countless remote square pil-
Jars seemed to start up from a large plain, distinctly visible, as if
the resplendent meridian sun had burst in upon the gloomy cavern.
After the flashes have thus suddenly illuminated with a dazzling,
fearful light, the vast aisles, and pillars of salt, they as suddenly ex-
pire, and all the scene, as if conjured up into momentary existence
by some magic spell, again becomes shrouded in darkness.”

Among the most important manufacturing operations carried on
in Manchester, are those connected with the priating of cotton cloths
or calico. The mere designing or inventing of new patterns of
figures for the printers is of itself a considerable business, furnishing
regular employment to many persons, who gain a good living by their
ingenuity in this branch of business. ‘The process of engraving the
copper cylinders and blocks for printing, is another considerable
business. Inone apartment, I saw nearly thirty men at work. The
small figures and sprigs are engraved, or rather sunk into the surface
of the copper cylinders by steel dies, instead of being cut by the
graver. ‘The pattern of a flower, or other figure, is thus perfectly
impressed in the twinkling of an eye.

“ After the process of engraving is completed, the copper cylinder
is placed ina strong frame, where it is made to revolve by steam pow-
er, with a pertion of the under surface constantly immersed in the
liquid dye contained in a trough. ‘The dye stuff which adheres to
the surface of the cylinder is scraped off by the smocth edge of a
steel blade, applied firmly against it. ‘This blade, designated by the
singular appellation of the “doctor,” cleans off the liquid dye stuff
only from the smooth surface of the copper, and leaves all the fur-
rowed lines of the engraving full of the coloring substance. ‘The
cloth is imprinted whilst passing beneath a roller pressed by heavy
weights upon the engraved cylinder, and operating together like two

Review of the Practical Tourist. 221

calender rollers. ‘The spongy texture of the cloth sinks into all the
engraved cavities and imbibes the coloring matter lodged in them;
whilst from the smooth surface of the copper, cleaned by the doctor,
it receives no dye to stain it. The cotton cloth is seen to enter be-
tween the rollers as white and spotless as pure snow; and as if by a
magical transformation to issue from between them ou the other side,
covered with gay flowers, or with pictured landscapes, spread over
the surface in all the fair proportions of hills and dales and winding
rivers. ‘Three or more distinct eclors may be printed and duly blend-
ed together to produce an harmonious effect, at one operation, by
arranging an equal number of the printing cylinders, each engraved
and supplied with its own peculiar color, to bear or press against the
surface of the large smooth central cylinder, around which the cloth
to be printed is made to pass. Beautiful chintzes of several bright
dyes, thus perfected at one operation, pass off over machinery to be
dried nearly as fast as one can walk.”

This is followed by a description of block printing which is much
used in this country, and is performed with pieces of wood twelve or
fifteen inches long, and six or eight inches wide, varying so as to
suit the required patterns. ‘They are used on the principle of com-
mon type printing, and when several colors are to be printed on one
piece, several blocks are passed over it so as to produce the variety
of colors required.

“The prints are finally completed by being glazed or polished.
This is accomplished by first impregnating the calico or chintz with
gum, starch or beeswax as may be best adapted to the purpose
for which it may be intended. Thus prepared, the cloth is passed
between two cylinders, one of which is hollow, afd is heated by red
hot pieces of iron inserted in the cavity, or by steam. 'To one of
the rollers is given by the machinery a quicker rotation than to the
other. The two calender cylinders are thus not only caused to roll
in contact, but also a rubbing effect is produced, owing to the differ-
ent relative velocities with which the surface of each is caused to
move. By this means, the hot surface of the polished cylinder is
made to partially slide over the surface of the cloth to be glazed,
as the polished surface of a flat iron or sad iron is passed over cloths
by the laundress in the familiar domestic operation of ironing.

‘‘ Some of the machine shops of Manchester are constructed on
a most extensive scale. The proprietor of one of these establish-
ments informed me that he employed three hundred and eighty

229 Review, of the Practical Tourist.

workmen. ‘The bars of iron are heaped up in his yards like piles
of cord wood. A branch of a canal has been formed through the
center of his premises, over which there is a bridge that is capa-
ble, as it was stated to me, of being raised, for canal boats to pass
beneath it, upon the principle of the hydrostatic paradox. The
pressure is conveyed through tubes filled with water, and laid beneath
the surface of the ground, to act on the movable pistons upon which
the bridge rest; and when the forcing pump is put in motion, the
bridge rises from the abutments as if by magic.”

In Sheffield the author confined his attention chiefly to the manu-
facture of hard ware, in which, this place, with a population of sixty
five thousand persons, has become the rival of Birmingham. The
following extracts are less interesting for any new practical information,
than for the idea they give us of the scale of business carried on in
Sheffield.

“Tt affords much gratification to a stranger to view the various pro-
cesses in the manufacture of cutlery, whereby in some cases, a bar
of rough iron, brought here from Sweden, is wrought, by the skilful
labor of the artists, into articles more valuable than a bar of silver of
the same weight. My first visit was to the extensive works for con-
verting iron into cast steel, belonging to the Messr. Naylor & Sand-
erson. ‘Their brands are well known to the machinists of the Uni-
ted States, as indicating the best qualities of cast steel sent from Eng-
land, About seven thousand pounds have been made here in one
day. ‘The coal used for the works is of aselected quality; in some
of the lumps of which the charred particles of the fibres of wood
appeared distinctly visible, exactly resembling those perceptible in
common charcoal.

“‘ The first process in making the cast steel is to arrange bars
of Swedish iron in a long narrow brick box or oven, about two and
a half feet wide and three feet deep, and of a length sufficient to
receive the longest bars. Between each layer of iron bars, pow-
dered charcoal is sifted and the top of this box is covered with a
layer of clay nearly five inches thick, to exclude the air and prevent
the powdered charcoal from being consumed by the heat, which is
communicated to it through the lining of the brick work. ‘This
brick box is enclosed in a regular furnace, in such a manner that the
intense heat of the flames may circulate around it and gradually heat
the bars of iron, covered up by the charcoal, to an intense glow, for
about the period of a week; after which the whole is cooled. If the

Review of the Practical Tourist. 223

heat be not properly regulated during the process, the pile of iron
bars, as I was told by one of the proprietors, becomes fused into a
solid mass. The surface of the bars, after being withdrawn, is found
io be covered with blisters, resembling air bubbles half bursting from
the swollen surface of the metal, which becomes converted by the
operation into steel. From the peculiar appearance of the blisters .
upon the bars, it is called “ blistered steel,” and sometimes “ steel of
cementation,” from the process performed; and also ‘shear steel,”
from the general use formerly made of it in the manufacture of
blades of shears. No iron made in England is equal to that impor-
ted from Sweden for the purpose of being converted into steel.

‘To make cast steel, the bars of blistered steel are broken into
small pieces, from which the imperfect portions are carefully exclu-
ded, and the remainder are put into crucibles about eighteen inches
deep. Each crucible is set into a small furnace, about twelve or
fourteen inches square, and two feet in depth. Many of these fur-
naces, each containing its crucible, are arranged side by side. About
forty pounds of the fragments of the bars of steel are put into each
one, and immediately covered up closely by a luting to exclude the
air, until the metal becomes melted ; after which, it is poured out in
a fluid state into moulds to form ingots. Hence the name of cast
steel is given to this new product. The ingots are subjected to
the action of hammers and rollers, to reduce them into bars like
wrought iron, in which state it is prepared for use.”

The author visited Birmingham, and after describing the various
manufactories and workshops of the place, he adds,

“One of the wonders of Birmingham is the manufacture of a pin,
which has been often mentioned by writers on political economy,
to demonstrate the benefits resulting from the subdivision of labor.
This simple, little article, which occupies so important a station on
the toilet of a lady, in the course of its manufacture, passes, in de-
tail, through nearly as many hands as the complicated mechanism of
a watch. One person is employed to polish the wire; a second, to
cut it into suitable pieces, each of the length of two pins, and a third
person takes several of these pieces between the thumb and fore-
finger, and applies them to a circular steel grinding-wheel or rasp.
The pieces of wire, for a dozen or more pins, are thus sharpened at
once by the operator, who dexterously causes all of them to turn
simultaneously between his thumb and finger; whereby the points
are rendered perfectly round and acute. A fourth person divides
each of these pieces in the middle ta form two pms, and slips on the

224 Review of the Practical Tourist.

heads (which are formed by a fifth person) over the shank of the
. wire. A sixth person. now takes the rudely formed pins, rivets the
heads and passes them to a seventh workman, who whitens them by
means of a composition of melted tin. The scouring and brighten-
ing or polishing occupies another hand, and the ninth in thé series is
busily engaged in sticking the pins into papers for packing. ‘This
completes the operation of manufacturing the little article, which for
its apparent insignificance, is made the subject of every diminishing
comparison ; but which, however, in the aggregate amount, forms an
important staple article of business, affording employment and the
means of subsistence to many hundred persons.”

He adds in a note that the quantity of pins annually made in Eng-
land, as appears from a published statement, has been valued at four
millions of dollars. He describes, also, a machine for making them
constructed, by an ingenious American, in London, which accom-
plishes all the above processes except tinning and packing; and sev-
eral of the machines may be attended by one boy. The pins made
by this machinery differ from those made by hand in being headed
like cut nails from the shaft of the metal, and therefore the heads
are not liable to be slipped over the body of the pin.

The origin of the term pig-iron is not generally known, and ap-
pears from our author to be this. The metal, in English founderies,
flows from the furnace like melted lava, first into a broad deep chan-
nel moulded in the sand to receive it; and from thence it diverges
and flows into numerous smaller channels, arranged regularly at right
angles on each side of the main one. When the iron was originally
cast in this form, the workmen regarded the great central channel of
molten metal as bearing a resemblance to a sow extended at length ;
and the smaller channels filled with metal on each side of the large
one, they fancied to bear also some similitude to a litter of sucking
pigs. Hence they termed these ingots “ pig-iron.”*

‘Instead of bellows of the ordinary form, cast iron cylinders,
larger than those of steam engines, and similarly furnished with a
working piston, are used in Birmingham furnaces to create the blast
of-air which is propelled into the glowing furnace through pipes, with
a roaring sound, audible at a considerable distance, and truly resem-
bling those of a ‘mighty rushing wind.’”+

* This explanation was current in this country many years since.—Ep.

t This kind of bellows is now used in some of our founderies: e. g. at Canaan
Falls, Ct.—Eb.

On Polarization of Light by Refraction. 225

_ In all comparisons drawn between the institutions, customs, man-
ners, &c. of the countries he visited, and those of the United States,
the author of the Tourist sustains the character of a candid unsophisti-
cated republican gentleman, duly attached to his own country, yet free
from those narrow prejudices that obscured the vision of Faux,
Fearon, Captain Basil Hall and others in their tour through the Uni-
ted States. Every American reader must fell an honorable pride in
contrasting the candid and ingenuous spirit manifested throughout this
book, with the disingenuous censure lavished upon us by those
authors. ;

Arr. III.—On the laws of the polarization of light by refraction ;
by Davip Brewster, LL. D. F.R.S. L.& E.

Read before the Royal Society, February 25, 1830.

In the autumn of 1813 I announced to the Royal Society the dis-
covery which I had then made of the polarization of light by refrac-
tion ;* and in the November following I communicated an extensive
series of experiments which established the general law of the phe-
nomena. During the sixteen years which have since elapsed, the
subject does not seem to have made any progress. From. experi-
ments indeed stated to have been performed at all angles of incidence
with plates of glass, M. Araco announced that the quantity of light
which the plate polarized by reflexion at any given angle was equal
to the quantity polarized by transmission; but this result, founded
upon incorrect observation, led to false views, and thus contributed to
stop the progress of this branch of optics.

I had shown in 1813, from incontrovertible experiments, that the
action of each refracting surface in polarizing light, produced a phy-
sical change on the refracted pencil, and brought it into a state ap-
proaching more and more to that of complete polarization. But this
result, which will be presently demonstrated, was opposed as hypo-
thetical by Dr. Youne and the French philosophers ; and Mr. Hers-
cHEL has more recently given it as his decision, that of the two con-
tending opinions, that which was first asserted by Matus, and subse-
quently maintained by Bror, Araco, and F'REsnex, is the most prob-

* In this discovery I was anticipated by Matus.

Vou. XXITI.—No. 2. Q9

226 On Polarization of Light by Refraction.

able,—namely, that the unpolarized part of the pencil, in place of
having suffered any physical change, retains the condition - common
light.

T shall now proceed taapply to this subject the same principles
which I have already applied to the polarization of light by reflexion,
and to establish on the basis of actual experiment the true laws of the
phzenomena.

The first step in this inquiry is to ascertain the law according -to
which the polarizing force of the refracting surface changes the posi-
tion of the planes of polarized light,—a subject which, in as far as I
know, has not occupied the attention of any other person.

If we take a plate of glass deviating so slightly from parallelism as
to throw off from the principal image the images formed by reflexion
from its inner surfaces, we shall be able to see, even at great obli-
quities, the transmitted light free from all admixture of reflected light.
Let this plate be placed upon a divided circle, so that we can ob-
serve through it two luminous discs of polarized light A, B, (Fig. 1.)
formed by double refraction, and ha- hee
ving their planes of polarization incli- ,
ned -+-45° and — 45° to the plane of
refraction. At an angle of incidence
of 0°, when the light passes perpen-
dicularly, the inclination of the planes
of polarization will suffer no change ;
but at an incidence of 30° they will
be turned round 40’; so that their in-
clination to MN or the angle aec will
be 45° 40’. At 45° their inclination
will be 46° 47’. At 60° it will be
50° 7; and it will increase gradual-
ly to 90°, where it becomes 66° 19’.
Hence the maximum change produ-
ced by a single plate of glass upon the
planes of polarization is 66° 19/—
45° =21° 19%, an effect exactly equal
to what is produced by reflexion at
angles of 389 or 70°. It is remarka-
ble, however, that this change is made in the opposite direction, the
planes of polarization now approaching to coincidence in a plane at

On Polarization of Light by Refraction. 227

right angles to that of reflexion. This difference is exactly what
might have been expected from the opposite character of the result-
ing polarization, the poles of the particles of light which were form-
erly repelled by the force of reflexion, being now attracted by the re-
fracting force.

In this experiment the action of the two surfaces is developed in
succession, so that we cannot deduce from the maximum rotation of
21° 19’, the real action of the first, or of a single surface, which must
be obviously more than half of the action of the tyo surfaces, because
the planes of polarization have been widened before they undergo the
action of the second surface.

In order to obtain the rotation
due toa single surface, I took a
prism of glass ABC (Fig. 2.) hav-
ing such an angle BAC, that a ray
RR, incident as obliquely as pos-
sible, should emerge in a direction
Rr perpendicular to the surface
AC. I took care that this prism was well annealed, and I caused
the refraction to be performed as near as possible to the vertex A,
where the glass was thinnest and consequently most free from the in-
fluence of any polarizing structure. In this way I obtained the fol-
lowing measures.

GLASS.
Angles of Inclination of Planes ab, cd, (Fig. 1.) ,
Incidence. to the Plane of Reflexion. Rotation.

eae eis mire Oo LOL. ues cael aa Oo Le
A On i ase eL No ue My walt oo ogee! on,
ERY PA EE SANS PN ME SEO 2. a) reg PA 0 fg?)

I next made the following experiments with two kinds of glass,—
the one a piece of parallel plate glass, and the other a piece of very
thin crown. The latter had the advantage of separating the reflected
from the transmitted light.

PLATE GLASS. CROWN GLASS.
Incidence. Inclination. Rotation. Inclination. Rotation.
Doris aoe Or. 5 QOOV aan te ean ss mnt oar

BU ei a ON es Le eG. a Me POL rae em

doe ee a A OO Ee AOD fee Eo NO ee eae

Oe s Gooey 6 hk Oo. a he Oe cere

SO. Oe Oe wean bo OO: oe (oes ee ee ae

Sig.) GE OTs eV LO TO” 2 er On mena a Tong

228 On Polarization of Light by Refraction.

I was now desirous of ascertaining the influence of refractive pow-
er, although I had already determined in 1813, that a greater quan-
tity of light was polarized, at the same angle of incidence, by plates
of a high than by plates of a low refractive power. I experienced
great difficulty in this part of the inquiry, from the necessity of having
plates without any crystalline structure. I tried gold leaf in a varie-
ty of ways; but I found it almost impossible to obtain correct results,
on account of the light which was transmitted unchanged through its
pores.

By stretching a film of soapy water across a rectangular frame of
copper wire | ahiained the following measure.

WATER.
Incidence. Inclination. Rotation.
SOOM Oe NT AON VGN ee aN Pe aL ea
I next tried a thin plate of metalline glass of a very high refractive
power.
METALLINE GLASS.
Incidence. Inclination. Rotation.
OP hong Ry phos OC rs ett eenree: ay OS wr

PO iscsi ioiegy, sey AOA. ‘emir euernieh Opa

SOs ar yecrp sien (AO KOO Gc tints skool

AD Voise Accionecpeta gh Bs Doors ety wayuradioy ee

Diebagech Spe pithe) SON MED ek ah Yat) |) ay) eg Oeees

SO seenctern ei OR BOQ Ys ial 3). SRS

From a comparison of these results it is manifest that the rotation
increases with the refractive power.

In examining the effects produced at different angles of incidence,
it becomes obvious that the rotation varies with the deviation of the
refracted ray ; that is, with 2—2’, the difference of the angles of inci-
dence and refraction. Hence from a consideration of the circum-
stances of the phenomena I have been led to express the inclination
g of the planes of polarization to the plane of refraction by the for-
mula,

Cot 9=cos (t—2’),
the rotation being =p— 45°.

This formula obviously gives a minimum at 0°, and a maximum
at 90°; and at intermediate points it represents the experiments so
accurately, that when the rhomb of calcareous spar is set to the cal-
culated angle of inclination, the extraordinary image is completely in-

visible,—a striking test of the correctness of the principle on which it
is founded.

id

On Polarization of Light by Refraction. 229

The above expression is of course suited only to the case where
the inclination x of the planes of polarization ab, cd, (Fig. 1,) is 45° ;
but when this is not the case, the general expression is

Cot p=cot x2 cos (¢—7). »

When the light passes through a second surface, as in a single
plate of glass, the value of « for the second surface is evidently the
value of 9 after the 1st refraction, or in general, calling 4 the inclina-
tion after any number n of refractions, and @ the inclination after
one refraction,

Cot 6=(cot ¢)”

When 4 is given by observation we have

Cot o=V/ cot 4.
The general formula for any inclination 2 and any number n of re-
fractions is
Cot 6==(cot x cos (1—2’))”, and
Cot o=V cot x cos (1—7).
And when x=45 and cot z=1 as in common light,
Cot 6=(cos (2 —1’))”.
Bio tenae ans,

As the term (cos (7 —7’))" can never become equal to 0, the planes
of polarization can never be brought into a state of coincidence in a
plane perpendicular to that of reflexion, either at the polarizing an-
gle, or at any other angle.

In order to compare the formula with experiment, I took a plate
of well annealed glass, which at all incidences separates the reflect-

ed from the transmitted rays, and in which m was nearly 1.510,
and I obtained the following results.

230 On Polarization of Light by Refraction.

Angles of in-,Angles of re-) Rotation ob-) Inclination ) Inclination

cidence. fraction. served. observed. | calculated. HL BIE LBe: i
OF OS 0 OS. 0" | aaO 0 ane a ee

10 G 30s |" ONS W 45 VS cae 6 | +0° 7
20 13 3) 0. 27 | 45° 27 | 45 25 | +0 2
25 16.45.) 0) 82° ).45. 432 (45.240 —0O 8
30 19 20 0 40 | 45 40 | 46 0 -O 20
30 226 LO Lo 12) |)-46 0212. |.46, 5 25, 3k
40 25 10 1 30 | 46 30 | 46 56; —O 26
45 Palit a) 1 42 | 46 47 | 47 34 | +0 47
50 30 29 2 48 | 47 42 | 48 24 | —O 42
55 3d O2 3 54 | 48 54 | 48 59 | —O 5
60 35 60 B..°9 ) | 50° 87). 50>. 36 |). Ores
65 36 «653 6 48 ) 51. 48 | 52 7} —O0O 19
70 BO. 29 8 7 | 53 7 | 53. 59 -O 52
795 39 45).\. (95. 55.4|.54 =. 55> | 56. a8 —)b 23
80 40 42 | 12 10 | 57 10 |. 59 5 —1 55
85 41 17 ) 15 45 | 60 45 | 62 24 | —1 39
86 41 21 16 39 | 61 39 3. 9 -1 30
90 41 28 66 19

The last column but one of the Table was calculated by the for-

mula,

Cot 6=(cos (1 —7’))?

n being in this case 2. The conformity of the observed with the
calculated results is sufficiently great, the average difference being
only 41’. The errors however being almost all negative, I suspect-
ed that there was an error of adjustment in the apparatus; and
upon repeating the experiment at 80°, the point of maximum error,
I found that the inclination was fully 58° 40’, giving a difference only
of 25/ in place of 1° 55’. I did not think it necessary to repeat all
the observations; but I found, by placing the analysing rhomb at the
calculated inclinations, that the extraordinary image invariably disap-
peared, the best of all proofs of the correctness of the formula.

In these experiments =45° and cot e=13; but in order to try
the formula when 2 varied from 0° to 90°, I took the*case where the
angle of incidence was 80° and p=58° 40’ when t=45°. The
following were the results.

On Polarization of Light by Refraction. 231

Inclination observ-, Inclination calcu-

Values of x. ae in Difference.
eer 0° 0! 0° 0! 0° 0
z t.10 4% 20 —0O 10

5 9 40 8 19 +1 21
10 17 °Al® 16% 25 +0 45
15 24 42 24 6 +0 36
20° BOs 0) By as, +1 It
25 39 #415 37 «454 +1 21
30 44 10 43 57 +0 15
3) 49 38 49 28 +0 10
40 | 54 36 54° 31 +0 +3)
45 58 40 59 5 —O 25
50 63 10 63 19 - 0 9
55 66 58 67 15 —0O 17
- 60 70 18 70 56 —O 38
65 74 8 Ta Bul —-0O 16
70 76 56 Pig RE OD —O 46
75 Tisex GAO) 80 53 —1 33
80 83 23 83°70 98 —0O 35.
85 86 23 86 0 +0 23
90 90 0 90 0 (0) (0)

The last column but one was calculated by the formula cot 6=cot
x. (cot 58° 40’)?. The differences on an average amount only
to 36’.

In determining the quantity of polarized light in the refracted pen-
cil, we must-follow the method already explained for the reflected
ray, mutatis mutandis. ‘The principal section of the analysing rhomb
being now supposed to be placed in a plane perpendicular to the
plane of reflexion, the quantity of light Q’ polarized in that plane,
will be

Q’=1—2 cos 29,
the quantity of transmitted light being unity. But,
: Cot p=cot a cos(2z — 7’),

COs? 9
and as cot ee ron
and the sum of sin? @ and cos? @ to find them. Hence

(cot x cos (u—7’))?
1+ (cot # cos (t—1’))?
and by substituting this for cos? g in the former equation, it becomes
qe (cot x cos at cit
1+(cot xcos (1—7))?

and sin? ¢-+cos? p=1, we have the quotient

Cos? 9=

232 On Polarization of Light by Refraction.

Now since by Fresnev’s formula the quantity of reflected light is
See irda Cs Yotaen hr =|
ae = (GG4v)* tan? (G4)
the quantity of transmitted light T will be
if sin? (1-2) tan? (t—7/)
ee (Sn (t-+1’) "tan? (i+7’)

Hence

eh sin? (1-7) tan? ay (cos (1—2/))?
fc (1 x a(S Gi)" tan? 6471 7 \1 712 (cosG ayy,

This formula is applicable to common light in which cot e=1 dis-
appears from the equation; but on the same principles which we
have explained in a preceding paper, it becomes for partially polari-
zed rays and for polarized light,

sin? (1~—2’) : tan? (4-2) . )
Q’= ¢ oe (i477) cos? x TERETE C=) sin? x)
(cot x cos (1 —7’))?
(1 Be +(cot x cos ae

In ali these cases the formula expresses the quantity of light real-
ly or apparently polarized in the plane of refraction.

As the planes of polarization of a pencil polarized+45° and
— 45° cannot be brought into a state of coincidence by refraction,
the quantity of light polarized by refraction can never be mathemat-
ically equal to the whole of the transmitted pencil, however numer-
ous be the refractions which it undergoes; or, what is the same
thing, refraction cannot produce rays truly polarized, that is, with
their planes of polarization parallel.

The preceding analysis of the changes produced on common
light, considered as represented by two oppositely polarized pencils,
furnishes us with the same conclusions respecting the partial polari- |
zation of light by refraction, which we deduced in a preceding pa-
per respecting the partial polarization of light by reflexion. Each
refracting surface produces a change in the position of the planes of
polarization, and consequently a physical change upon the transmit-
ted pencil by which it has approached to the state of complete po-
larization.

This position I shall illustrate by applying the formula to the expe-
riments which I have published in the Philosophical Transactions
for 1814.

According to the first of these experiments, the light of a wax
candle at the distance of ten or twelve feet is wholly polarized by

On Polarization of Light by Refracti 233

eight plates, or sixteen surfaces of parallel plate glass at an angle of
78° 52’. Now I have ascertained that a pencil of light of this in-
tensity, will disappear from the extraordmary image, or appear to be
completely polarized, provided its planes of polarization do not form
an angle of Jess than 882° with the plane of refraction for a mode-
rate number of plates, or 881° for a considerable number of plates,
the difference arising from the great diminution of the light in pass-
ing through the substance of the glass. In the Po case the for-
mula gives. :

Cot j= ooste—a ie and 6=88° 50’;
so that. the light should ABRGOR to be aceite polarized as it was
found to be.

At an angle of 61° 0’ the pencil was petamead: by ‘saci four
plates or axl eight surfaces. Here

Cot é= (cos (1—2/))* ®=89° 36%

At an angle of 43° 34’ the light was polarized: by oa seven

plates or ninety four surfaces. foe
Cot 6=(cos (¢—2’))°* and 6=88° 27,

It is needless to carry this comparison any further 5 but it may be
interesting to ascertain by the formula the smallest number of refrac-
tions which will produce complete sctieaisenl In this case the an-
gle of incidence must be 90°...

Hence 9=56° 29’ and (cue HE gives 88° 36’, and (cos
Ga ))#° 89° 4’; that is, the polarization will be nearly complete by
the most alien transmission through four and half plates or nine
surfaces, and will be perfectly complete through five plates or ten
surfaces.

. Having thus wiataimeds formule for the quantity of light Schutze
by refraction and reflexion, it becomes a point of great importance
to compare the results which they furnish. Calling R the reflected
light, these formule become

= ss

cos (t —2’) ) sie
eee —

cos (1—7)

= okie cary

Q=R(1-2

Vou. XXIII.—No. 2. 30

234 On Polarization of Light by Refraction.

But these two quantities are exactly equal, and hence we obtain
the important general law, that,—At the first surface of all bodies,
and at all angles of incidence, the quantity of light polarized by re-
fraction is equal to the quantity polarized by reflection. Ihave said
‘of all bodies,’ because the law is equally applicable to the surfaces
of crystallized and metallic bodies, though the action of their first
surface is masked or modified by other causes. :

It is obvious from the formula that there must be some aoe of in-
cidence where R=1—R, that is, where the reflected is equal to the
transmitted light. When this takes place, we have sin? o=cos? @’,
that is,

The reflected is equal to the transmitted light, when the inclination
of the planes of polarization of the reflected pencil to the plane of
reflection, is the complement of the inclination of the planes of po-
larization of the refracted pencil to the same plane;—or if we refer
the inclination of the planes to the two rectangular planes into which
the planes of polarization are brought,—The reflected will be equal
to the transmitted light when the inclination of the planes of polari-
zation of the reflected pencil to the plane of reflection, is equal to
the inclination of the plane of polarization of the refracted pencil to
a plane perpendicular to the plane of reflection.

In order to show the connection between the phenomena of the
reflected and those of the transmitted light, I have given the fellow-
ing Table, which shows the inclination of the planes of polarization
of the reflected and the refracted pencil, and the quantities of light
reflected, transmitted, and polarized, at all angles of incidence upon
glass, m being equal to 1.525, and the incident light=1000.

On Polarization of Light by Refraction. 235

; Inclination of| Lnclination of
Angles |Angles of|Plane of Pola-|Plane of Polari-|Quantity of, Quantity | Quantity

of In-- | Refrac- |rization of the] zation of the | Light Re-| of Light of Light
cidence, | tion, Reflected Refracted flected, | Trans- | Polar-
Z. 2! Light, Light, 13 mitted, IZeds
° i ° 1 ° 1 1
0.0;0 0O 45 45 0 43.23 | 956.77| 0.
ZO | A Tos) 44-50 45 0.7 43.26 | 956.74| 0.07
10 0} 6 32 43 51 45 3 43.39 | 956.61} 1.73
20 0O |12 58 40 13 45 13 43.41 | 956.59} 7.22
25 0|16 5 37 21 45 21 43.64 | 956.36) 11.6
30 0/19 84} 33 40 45 31 44.78 | 955.22} 17.24
35 O |22 6 29. 8 45 44 46.33 | 953.67] 24.4
40 O (24 56| 23 41 46 0O 49.10 | 950.90} 32.2
45. 0 27 3is| 17 22% 46 20 53.66 | 946.33| 44.0
50 0 |)30 9 10 18 46 45 | 61.36 | 938.64) 57.4
56 45 (33 15 OF Ore Aa 29 79.5. |920.5 | 79.5
60 0O (34 36 5 Ads AT 543 93.31 | 906.69! 91.6
65 0 |36 28 12 45 48 42 124.86 | 875.14 |112.7
70 O |388 2 18 32 49 28 162.67 | 837.33 |129.8
75 O |39 18 26 52 50 55 257.56 | 742.44 1152.3
78 0 )39 54 30 44 51 48 329.95 | 670.05 |157.6
78 7 (389 55} 30 53 ol 50 333.20 | 666.80 |157.65
79 0 |40 4 aor 4 oan? 359.27 | 640.73 |157.6 —
80 40 |40 13 33 13 52 27% | 391.7 | 608.3 {156.7
82 4 |40 35 36 22 53 264 | 499.44 | 500.56 |145.4
84 0 |40 42 38 2 53 57 560.32 | 439.68 |134.93
85 0 |40 47 39 12 54 22 616.28 | 383.72 |123.7
85 503/40 502; 40 12 04 44 666.44 | 333.56 |111.11
86 0 40 51 | 40 227) 54 48 | 676.26| 323.74 /108.67
87 O |40 54 41 32 55 16 744.11 | 255.89} 89.8
88 0 40 573) 41 23 55 43 819.9 | 180.1 | 65.9 -
89 O |40 58 43 51 56 14 904.81} 95.19) 36.3
90 0O |40 58 45 0 56 29 '1000. 0. 0.

It is obvious from a consideration of the principle of the formula
for reflected light, that the quantity of polarized light is nothing at 0°
because the force which polarizes it is there a minimum. At the
maximum polarizing angle, Q is only 79° because the glass is inca-
pable of reflecting more light at that angle, otherwise more would
have been polarized. - The value of Q then rises to its maximum at
78° 7’, and descends to its minimum at 90°; but the polarizing
force has not increased from 56° 45/ to 78° 7’ as the value of 0’
shows. It is only the quantity of reflected light that has increased,
which occasions a greater quantity of light to disappear from the
extraordinary image of the analysing rhomb.

236 On Polarization of Light by Refraction.

The case, however, is different with the refracted light. ‘The
value of Q’ has one minimum at 0° and another at 90°, while its
maximum is at 78° 7/, while the force has its minimum at 0° and
its maximum at 90°, where its effect is a mmimum only because
there is no light to polarize. At the incidence of 78° 7’, where the
quantities Q, Q’, reach their maxima, the reflected light is exactly
one half of the transmitted light; sin?¢=cos?9 and tan 9’= Cos o.

At 85° 50’ 40”, where the transmitted light is one half of the
reflected light, the deviation (¢—2’)=45°, and the quantity of po-
larized light is one third of the transmitted light, one sixth of the re-
flected light, and one ninth of the incident light. Sin*¢/ t cos’¢=-
reflected light : transmitted light, and cot 9’= sin (¢—7’).

At 45° we have (2+72/)+(1—7/)=90° and 9p =(z—“),

2g 3 eos{te sin (1—2%
Tan Eis ioe ?, and tane(2—2/)?= — eae mat

At 56° 45’, the polarizing angle, the formula for reflected light
becomes R=3#(sin?(¢—7’))?; but at this angle we have 7’/=90° —1.
Hence we obtain the following simple expression in terms of the an-
gle of incidence, for the quantity of light reflected by all bodies at
the polarizing angle.

R=(cos 22)?.

I have already mentioned the experiment of M. Arago with plates
of glass, in which he found that ‘‘ at every possible inclination” the
quantity of light polarized by transmission was equal to the quantity
polarized by reflexion. This conclusion he extends to single surfa-
ces; but it is remarkable that the law is true of single surfaces in _
which he did not ascertain it to be true, while it is incorrect with re-
gard to plates in which he believes that he has ascertained it to be
true. As the consideration of this point does not strictly belong to
the present branch of the inquiry, I shall reserve it for a separate
communication, “on the action of the second surfaces of transpa-
rent plates upon light.”*

Allerly, December 29, 1829.

* Inserted in the last number of this Journal.

The Microscopic Compass. 237

Arr. IV.—The Microscopic Compass ; invented by Joun Locke,
M.D., Principal of Cincinnati Female Academy.

TO THE EDITOR.

Dear Sir—For several years I have been procuring a variety of
miniature or pocket instruments for mathematical and philosophical
purposes. To the pocket sextant, telescope, level, &c. I have been
desirous to add a compass, which should have nearly the accuracy of
a surveyor’s large compass of the best construction.

After several fruitless attempts to procure one already made, I at-
tempted to invent one and have succeeded so much to my satisfaction
that it has seemed to me that an account of my invention would not
be useless or uninteresting to the public.* |My compass has the grad-
uated rim attached to the needle and revolving with it in the man-
ner of the card of the mariner’s compass Fig. 1. This rim is made

*I commenced my experiments on this instrument in Feb. 1832. I presently
had one constructed for myself by a very ingenious young artisan of this city Mr. T.
Wells. Another has been constructed under my direction by Mr. Cox, for Mr. Bon-
ney.

238 The Microscopic Compass.

of brass, three inches in diameter and very light, weighing fifty grains.
Although the word “card” is inappropriate, yet as it has been ‘coin-
ed” by use for that part of a compass when it moves with the needle,
I shall use it in the subsequent part of this paper. ,

Fig. 2.
s|" I
RNS | See aie Sd SD te Se RE She ee ed A ali oa
ae fGen ereaas < “Seta TPA OMN SENS | Thane AUR UM Rea es Mees Tae Goa ean aN es EE ERS en NE epee © ‘i
T, "ee
ae Fi 5
Ia

This card is suspended in a brass box three and a quarter inches
in the inside diameter and half an inch deep, (TV Fig. 2.) The
sights (K S and V J Fig. 2.) arise from opposite sides of the box as in
the surveyor’s compass, but are not carried out on arms, the distance
between them being the exact diameter of the box. Indeed these

The Microscopic Compass. 239

sights may be considered as a part of the cylinder of which the box
is made. The sight KS which is to be used next to the eye, is made
precisely as in the common compass, having several holes placed ver-
tically, and these connected by a slit one-thirtieth of an inch wide.
(Fig. 3.) The opposite sight V J is slitted and perforated in a simi-
lar manner from V to Q chiefly for the purpose of reversing for ad-
justment. Jts main use however is independent of these slits, it is in-
tended to support at its top an inclinable reflector (M), the inclina-
tion being directly towards the first sight KS; and immediately be-
low the reflector, a single lens or microscope (L), placed horizontal-
ly one inch above the card and having an inch focus. In these two
parts, the lens and the reflector, lies the peculiarity of the instru-
ment.

Every philosophical reader is now enabled to understand the use
of the instrument. The rays of light passing divergingly upward
from any point of the card to the lens, pass through it and emerge
parallel above it, where meeting with the reflector (M) inclined to an
angle of forty-five degrees, they are reflected horizontally through the
opposite sight at(O). The eye at the sight (O) would of course see
the card in the direction in which the rays were last received ; that is,
in a horizontal direction. As the rays would be rendered parallel, the
card would appear at a great distance and magnified.

The card thus reflected would appear in a vertical position, in
the position of a full moon just risen, with that pomt which is really
farthest from the eye as the lowest point in the reflected image. It
should be remarked that the whole of the card is not seen at once in the
reflector, but only about ten degrees of the lowest part of it. (Fig. 4.)
The silvering of the reflector being removed from the lower half, (from
M towards J) any distant object can be seen through the opening
while the card is reflected from the upper part, and by inclining the
reflector on the hinge (J) the graduated edge of the reflected card
can always be brought to visual contact with the object whose bear-
ing is at once read, as it were, on itself. The rays of light coming
from a distant point are nearly parallel, and those coming from the
card are made so by passing through the convex lens; the conse-
quence is that both the degrees on the card, and the object are seen
perfectly clear as if equally distant. ‘This would not be the case if
the card were reflected without the interposition of the lens. The
degrees on the card and the object would then be in the condition of
one object within three inches of the eye and another at an indefinite-

240 The Microscopic Compass.

ly great distance. On account of the — — of sith rc both
cannot be clearly seen at once. = 6 SG ek ae
~ Any person may be satisfied of this ay making nen coe the
twentieth of an inch apart on the edge of a piece of paper, holding it
np at the distance of three inches, sie looking over the graduated edge
at a distant object; the lines will appear entirely blended ; if the at-
tention be then directed to the lens the object disappears or is seen
very indistinctly. I mention this principle more especially, because
TI once saw a French compass of this defective construction, in which
the sight and the reflector were close to the card. It could not of
course be used for objects either above or below the horizon and even
for horizontal objects it could not, for the above defect, be read with
accuracy. It was the inspection of this however which led me to at-
‘tempt the present improved invention. | Sos
‘The degrees in my compass are siconigid so oe that. etek —_
gree Seeoties! a true measure of a degree of the horizon, as the de-
grees of a horizontal circle would be if they were seen from the cen-
tre. When a degree of a circle is viewed from the circumference, it
measures one-half a degree; Euc. 11. 20. If under these circum-
stances the degrees were magnified twice, then a degree of the circle
seen at the distance of the diameter, would be the true measure of a
degree. If the degrees are seen at a greater distance than a diame-
ter, they become proper measures of dexises by being proportionally
magnified. ‘This is true only of a few degrees on ee side of the
diameter; so far only as the arc, chord, sine and tangent have no sen-
sible difference. ‘The degrees of the card in my compass are mag-
nified very nearly to that proportion, so that the bearing of all the ob-
jects in the field of view, which takes in ten degrees, can be read at
once without moving the instrument: Fig. 4 exhibits the appearance
of the field of view as seen in the reflector. ‘The space D G includes
ten degrees of the card seen in the silvered part; DH is the part of
the horizon seen through the unsilvered part. The bearings of the
objects A, B, C, would be read as follows, A 177°, B179° 257,
C 184°. It will be seen from this reading that the circle is number-
ed quite round from 0 to 360. Zero or 0 is placed North and the
reading continued eastward. East is 90°, South 180° and West
270°. Reading at several points in the field of view as above is lia-
ble to error from the vibrations of the card up and down and from
‘¢ aberration” of the lens, the degrees being seen out of its axis. A
principal reading point or sight is therefore made by a scratch or line

The Microscopic Compass. 241

on the glass cover directly underneath the lens. This mark (B K Fig.
4) appears in the field of view crossing the card vertically. It has
nearly the distinctness of the degrees because it is so near the card that
the rays from it pass through the lens and are rendered nearly parallel.

Manner of using the Microscopic compass.—As it is contained in
a box, three and a half inches in diameter and one inch and nine-tenths
deep, it may be carried in the waistcoat pocket.

When the bearing of an object is to be taken, remove the cover,
raise the sights, and holding the compass horizontally, by grasping the
milled edge of the bottom by the thumb and fingers of one hand,
move the eye up or down along the slitted sight till the object appears
in the unsilvered part of the reflector. With the other hand incline
the reflector backwards or forwards on its hinge till the graduated
edge of the card is brought to the lower edge of the silvered part of
the reflector and in apparent contact with the object. ‘Turn the com-
pass round till the vertical sight line crosses the object. The degree
or degree and part which appears behind this line is the bearing.
Some advantages might be obtained by using the instrument on a
stand, but by a little practice the bearings may be taken very accu-
rately by hand. I do not propose this as a substitute for the survey-
or’s compass; but merely as an instrument exactly suited to ama-
teurs and scientific travellers, to whom it is inconvenient or unpleas-
ant to carry aback load of machinery, to take the bearing of an ob-
ject. Ihave, for several years, been carrying on a trigonometrical
survey of the beautiful valley of Cincinnati in which I reside. This
I have done for the recreation both physical and intellectual which
it affords. It invites me to exercise in the open air and is the best
antidyspeptic I have tried. J have managed the several points of the
valley very much to my satisfaction with the sextant; but nothing
answers so well for ‘‘ meandering” the ravines, rivulets, and ridges of
the hills as the microscopic compass. I can take the angles with equal
accuracy as with the surveyor’s and with ten times the convenience.
It remains to explain the figures, and make some remarks on the
construction. Fig. 1. represents the needle and graduated rim, a
vertical section of which is shown in Fig. 2. N is the needle, which
is one twenty fifth of an inch thick, one eighth of an inch wide, and
three inches long. AA are two pieces of brass, by means of which,
the rim is fastened to the needle by screws at BB. The pieces
AA have holes at BB a little larger than the screws which pass
through them, to allow the rim to be adjusted both to the center

Vou. XXUI.—No. 2. 31

242 The Microscopic Compass.

and to the magnetic axis of the needle. The pieces AA are bent
as in Fig. 2. so as to raise the rim even with the point of suspen-
sion in the cap. C is the brass cap riveted through the needle,
and D an agate cap fastened into its socket, by burnishing the
brass over its edge in the lathe. The rim is on fiftieth of an inch
thick, and divided very accurately into degrees. The figures num-
bering the degrees, must be reversed in the manner of types,
because they are to be read in the reflector which will rectify them.
Fig. 2. This is in general a vertical section of the whole instrument
in the plane of the sights. VVV is the box turned out of cast brass
or soldered out of thick sheet brass. G is the glass resting ona pro-
jection below and held in by aring above. The sight KS has a joint
at K by which it can be turned down on the glassG. M is the re-
flector previously described. I is a screw passing through the brass
back which protects the silvered part, and screws against a thin plate
interposed between it and the glass, to keep the latter firmly in its
place. Lis the lens set in brass and fastened to the sight by two
screws below, each near the outer edge of the sight. The brass is
slitted on the screws soas to allow of an adjustment of the micro-
scope. ‘The lens should be seven tenths of an inch in diameter, and if
necessary should be ground off on the side next the sight so as to bring
the axis over the rim R, or the axis may be a little inclined so that
the ray RM shall not be perpendicular, but shall strike the reflector,
say, at the screen I. H is a steel pivot screwed into the bottom of
the box with a ‘flange’ at X squared for unscrewing. PHP is a
spring to raise the needle against the glass from the point. W isthe
screw by which it is raised. ‘The dotted line TTTT represents
a brass cover which closes the whole instrument, the sight KS and
the reflector M being shut down by means of their joints KJ. The
compass thus closed has the appearance of a pocket sextant. At
the top and bottom of this box is the milled projection, which is of
use in opening and holding it. Fig. 4. has already been described.
In making the instrument the artisan should be careful so to construct
it, that the plane of the sights may pass through the point of the pi-
vot and that the hinge of the reflector may have its axis exactly per-
pendicular to that plane. ‘The ends of the needle should not come
within the eighth of an inch of the box, as it may otherwise be influen-
ced by the magnetism of the brass. J have not found a specimen
of hammered brass which was not magnetic when tried by a delicate
test needle. Its magnetism is however destroyed by heating it to a

e
Facts relating to Diluvial Action. 243

bright red. So great was the magnetism of some of the brass of my
compass, that it would attract the test needle more than one eighth of
an inch, and by contact would carry it 70° out of the meridian.
I was obliged to anneal the whole box. I did not find it to possess
polarity, but it acted like soft iron.

That the brass was not magnetic by actually containing iron, was
evident by its magnetism being destroyed by annealing. It might be
well to make the spring of silver. It is possible that this application
of the lens and reflector to the compass is not new; but so far, I
have not been able to find an account of any thing similar. Notice
of the invention has been communicated to the Patent Office of the
United States. A patent will be applied for as soon as the best modi-

fication of the instrument shall be obtained.
Cincinnati Female Academy, Oct. 20th. 1832.

Art. V.—Facts relating to Diluvial Action ; by the Hon. Wm.
A. THompson.

TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

Dear Sir.—When I had the pleasure of seeing you at New
Haven, last autumn, I intimated my intention of sending you my
views of the geological features of Sullivan County, New York,
and likewise the traces of diluvial action on the solid strata, with
some of the proofs that present themselves, in every part of the
country where the earth has been removed, so deep as to come
to firm rock, below the effects of frost and other decomposing
agents; but, the snow came on so early in the fall and my health
has been so indifferent, this spring, that I have been obliged to de-
fer ituntil the present time. Perhaps I shall not even now be able to
write any thing new or interesting on this subject, especially as I
find that Sir James Hall, many years since, described traces of
diluvial action in Scotland, and Mr. David Thomas of Cayuga has
made similar observations in the western part of this State as appears
in Vol. xvit, p. 408 of your Journal. I have examined this part of
the State with considerable care, and have found that in more than
fifty different places where I have seen the solid strata, the grooves
and furrows appear from an inch to one fourth of an inch deep, and
from one fourth of an inch, to three and four inches wide; and in
some cases they run due north, and in every direction from north
to twenty five degrees south of east. I have found them also in the

e
244 Facts relating to Diluvial Action.

bottoms of cellars, of excavations made in digging wells, and where
the earth has been removed by making roads, and in many instances
where I have uncovered the solid rock for the purpose of observing
the effects of the diluvial action. I have paid some attention to this
subject while travelling in the Eastern States, and I could find none
of the furrows ;* but the solid strata appears to be worn very smooth
by attrition, by the motion of some bodies smaller and less solid than
those which have produced the distinct traces, in this part of the State
of New York.

It may be proper to reine first, that Sullivan County is wanna
ed south and west by the Delaware river; north by Delaware
and Ulster Counties, and east by Orange: that the county lies on
the easterly part of the Alleghany range of mountains, and that the
mean altitude of the county, is on a level with the highlands be-
low Newburgh,—about one thousand five hundred feet above the
tide water; that this level is continued westerly through Sullivan
County and the state of Pennsylvania, from the Shongham moun-
tain to the Susquehannah River; that a space of above fifty miles
wide of this level lies continuously, in the Alleghany range, unul you
come to mountains of a greater height, on the west side of the Sus-
quehannah ; that the depth of the earth above the solid rock, gradu-
ally and regularly increases from Shongham mountain to the Susque-
hannah; that the average depth of earth in Sullivan County is not
more than twenty five feet, nor more than thirty five through the
state of Pennsylvania: that the range of the Kattskill mountain,
bounds the north part of Sullivan; that south of this space of fifty
miles, the altitude of the mountains considerably increases ; in this
intermediate sp:ce it appears that tops of the ridges had been dilapi-
dated by mighty force, and that the current had pressed easterly,
and often times carried large pieces of rock to a considerable dis-
tance, say from fifty to two hundred rods, and if the fragments are
of very considerable size they always rest on the solid strata. In
many instances, sections of the strata were broken out and raised
by the violence of the current and left on the tops of the highest
hills; I have seen an instance where a rock twenty feet square has
been carried half a mile on the level surface of the strata that are
covered about three feet with earth, and there left in that position ;

* The author will find notices of such appearances in Massachusetts by Mr. Ap-
pleton, Vol. XI. p. 100 of this Journal.

Facts relating to Diluvial Action. 245

the violence of the current having ceased to effect its farther re-
moval from its original position.

The upper strata of the whole .section of the country before the
deluge, appear to have been composed of a common grey sandstone
covering the surface of the rock from twelve to twenty four inches
thick. This seems to have been the last marine formation ; it is full
of fissures and cracks, being broken into small angular pieces by the
first violent surges of the deluge, and now scattered on the surface of
the ground.

The next lower strata are puddingstone, filled with quartz us
feldspar and other primitive minerals; its parts are generally water
worn and are from the size of a robin’s to that of a hen’s egg. The
next rock underneath is the old red sandstone, which is universally
found-in the bottoms of the vallies; on the tops however of the
highest hills the red clay slate is universally found, and for eighty or
ninety miles west, gives a reddish color to all the soils of the country,
and passes southerly through New Jersey and Pennsylvania.

The vallies in this section of country uniformly run from north
to south, are in many instances from ten to twelve hundred feet deep,
and are the beds of the large streams. ‘The lesser vallies are cov-
ered with pieces of red and grey sandstone of a convenient size for
making fences. The most free and feasible_land is always found on
the tops, and on the eastern sides of the hills, the western sides being
uniformly steep and broken. ‘The whole of the earth or soil appears
to have been removed from the solid strata at the deluge, and most,
if not all the upper strata of sandstone, were then broken up. A
small portion of the puddingstone was also broken up in large
square blocks and occasionally pieces of the old red sandstone were
detached from the bottom of the vallies. It is probable that pre-
vious to the deluge there was little or no soil on this section of the
country, that the hills, -vallies and streams were the same previous to
the deluge that they are at this time, excepting that the hills were
dilapidated and lowered, and the deep vallies were made still deep-
er by the tremendous cataracts and surges, the water being carried
violently over the high ledges and hills and then, in crossing the ridges
from west to east, falling ten or twelve hundred feet into the vallies.
While contemplating such a scene, our imaginations must fall infinite-
ly short of the reality. The single wave that totally destroyed the
port town of Lima, or the surge that overwhelmed the Turkish
fleet in Candia comes nearer to the terrific scene than any simi-
lar events that are recorded.

246 Facts relating to Diluvial Action.

That these large masses of rocks should be broken up and thrown
upon the the tops of high hills will appear in no way surprizing when
we consider what must be the effect of the precipitation of the cata-
racts into deep vallies and of their subsequent violent reflux over the
high hills; a power more than sufficient to raise the large masses of
rock that were left on the high grounds in the country.

That water has the power to carry rocks and other heavy bodies
over ihe tops of mountains, is evinced by the simple fact, that the only
place where the millstone is found within two hundred miles, is at
Kizerack, on the west side of Shongham mountain, fifleen to twenty
miles from Esopus or Kingston, up the Roundout Hill. At this
place, all the country or Esopus millstones are sold. Now, over a
great part of the west side of Shongham mountain, which is com-
posed of the millstone grit, this rock has been carried to the
height of ten or twelve hundred feet, so.as to pass over the top of the
mountain, and it lies scattered through the country for many miles
east, between Newburgh and the Shongham mountain, and as there is
no other similar stone within two hundred miles, this is conclusive
evidence that the violence of the surge carried the rock over the top
of the mountain and left them in the position in which we now see
them; some of the stones weigh from three to four tons.

Professor Eaton, in his geological survey of the Kattskill or Alle-
ghany, says, that all the eastern slope of the Alleghany is capped or
protected by the millstone grit, but what he called the millstone
grit, I call the conglomerate, or puddingstone; both are form-
ed in part of quartz, but in the true millstone grit, the fine parts
are formed by abrasion of the quartz only, while common sand mixed
with globular pieces of quartz, forms what he calls the millstone grit
of the Alleghany range.

I have never been able to find any grooves or furrows, on the west
side of the hills and ridges in the County ; nothing appears but the
traces and breaches where the rocks have been torn up by some vio-
lent agent. It very rarely happens that any traces can be found on
the red argillaceous sandstone; it is not sufficiently solid to sustain
the force of heavy bodies moving in contact with it, although in some
instances the grooves appear for fifteen or twenty feet, and then
the strata are rough and broken, but the traces are mostly on the
solid puddingstone, and the common grey sandstone which remained
solid and unbroken at the deluge. In those cases where the old red
sandstone appears, if the slope or side of the hill faces the north, I have
seen three or four instances in which the furrows run in that direction

Facts relating to Diluvial Action. Q47

for half a mile, and on meeting a ridge of rocks in the low grounds, the
furrows turned due east, and after passing the obstruction, again turn-
ed north east, or east. Not a mile from the same place, on descend-
ing from the same high ground, the furrows run east, tallying with the
face of the hill. On the high lands west of the Shongham and where
there could be no obstruction for seventy or eighty miles, I examined
ten or twelve different places in which the furrows were deep and
distinct, and found them to run from ten to twelve degrees north of
east, and they continued in the same direction for a considerable dis-
tance down the mountain; at no great distance to the south, the
furrows tended twenty-five degrees south of east, leading to a low
opening in Shongham mountain, through which the currents of water
naturally run. I have rarely examined the strata below the de-
composing effects of frost, without discovering distinct traces of di-
luvial action. Near the banks of streams, I hardly ever found any
such marks, but the solid strata appeared broken and very little
altered by attrition. In one place where the earth was removed
and where there was no visible obstacle to alter the current of water,
the furrows crossed each other, shewing that the current took a new
direction, after the first furrows were made. About twelve or four-
teen miles west of Newburgh, I found the marks on the solid gray-
wacke to run nearly north and south. At Coxakie, in Green County,
in digging a well and coming to the solid strata, the furrows ran
northerly and southerly about in the direction of the mountain. I
found that in different places, between thirty and forty miles apart, the
furrows ran about ten degrees north of east, especially where the
current had a free course for any considerable distance without any
obstacle. Where the solid strata remained, but a part has been re-
moved by some powerful agent.

On examination, I have found, that the corners of rock have been
worn off by abrasion from eighteen to twenty four inches, and that the
furrows made on the rocks by the abrasion of hard substances, were
very distinct, although the edges of rock were rounded. This fact
is of frequent occurrence. On the high land, as well as on the low,
the furrows appear near small streams, in every possible situation,
showing, without a doubt, that the rivers and hills remain now as they
were before the flood. Pieces of the solid strata with the furrows
on them, are often found where part of the strata was broken
up after the furrows were made, but more of the argillite than
of any other rock appears in fragments. It was supposed that these

248 Facts relating to Diluvial Action.

grooves were made by the Indians, before the settlement of the
country by the white people. Large fragments of rocks or boul-
ders are found in every part of country, which fragments, in pass-
ing over the surface of the strata, have doubtless made these fur-
rows. Most of them have the corners worn off. There are but few
instances in which other stones are found besides the natural strata
of the country.-. In some instances, the stones are composed altogeth-
er of sea shells; in-two instances, | have found palm leaves and
ferns incorporated in the soft gray slate. The soil is much fuller of
the small particles of quartz and feldspar than in Orange county, or
in the New England states. The disintegration produces a fine sand,
upon which there rises an abundant growth of pine and hemlock.
For three hundred miles to the westward, it is evident that the soil or
earth was raised and increased very much by the deluge, and the
mountains and ridges were lowered and robbed of their loose stones,
by the same cause. The opening of about fifty miles wide through
this part of the Alleghany ridge has probably tended in some measure
to control and direct the course of the current of water. ‘The mas-
todon appears not to have been a native of this section of the country,
but was probably an inhabitant of the champaign countries to the west,
and the bodies may have been borne, on this mighty current, through
falls and. cataracts to the low, basin-like counties of Ulster and Or-
ange, where they were finally deposited. Before the deluge, the
counties of Orange and Ulster were probably formed of low sharp
ridges of graywacke and limestone, and narrow short vallies running
in different directions, with little or scarcely any soil or earth either in
the vallies, or on the low sharp ridges, and of course such countries
would not be the natural residence of the unwieldy mastodon. ‘The
carcases of these animals were probably in some cases brought whole,
in others they were lacerated and torn assunder, or bruised, and the
bones broken, before the flesh had decayed and dropped from them.
This appears from the place and the condition in which the bones
are found. The first skeleton found in Orange was taken out. of a
swamp near Crawford on the Newburgh turnpike. ‘This carease
was deposited entire and unbroken in a pond or basin of water, and
after the flesh was decayed from the bones, they were spread over
an area of about thirty feet square ; the outlet of this pond is a firm
rock 3 the pond has been filled up by decayed vegetable substances,
and now forms a swamp of about ten acres covered with maple and
black ash. In the north part of this swamp, about two years ago,

Facts relating to Diluvial Action. 249

on digging a deep ditch to drain the ground, a skeleton of the mam-
moth was found; this skeleton I immediately examined very mi-
nutely, and found, that the carcase had been deposited whole, but
that the jaw-bone, two of the ribs, and a thigh bone had been broken
by some violent force while the carcase was whole; on taking up
the bones, this was evident, from every circumstance. ‘Two other
parts of skeletons were, some years since, disinterred, one near
Ward’s Bridge, and the other at Masten’s meadow, in Shongham ; in
both instances, the carcases had been torn asunder, and the bones
had been deposited with the flesh on, and in two or three instances,
the bones were fractured. ‘That the bones were deposited with the
flesh attached to them, appears from the fact that they were found
closely attached to each other, and evidently belonged only to one
part of the carcase, and on a diligent search, no part of the other
bones could be found within a moderate distance of the spot. If
the animal had died where the bones were found, the whole skel-
eton would have been found at or near the place. _ Great violence
would be necessary to break the bones of such large animals;
in the ordinary course of things, no force adequate to that effect,
would be exerted; I think it therefore fair reasoning, to say, that
at the deluge, they were brought by the westerly currents, to the
place where they were found; that the carcases were brought in
the first violent surges, and bruised, broken, and torn asunder by
the tremendous cataracts, created when the currents crossed the
high mountains and ridges, and fell into the deep vallies between
Shongham mountain, and the level countries at the west; that
those careases that came whole to the place where they finally rest-
ed, arrived after the waters had attained a greater height, and were
probably less violent, and of course the bodies were less liable to
be beaten and bruised by coming into contact with the rocks.
This view of the facts appears to me fairly to account for the condi-
tion in which the bones of the mammoth are found.

I have thus given a desultory sketch of a number of facts relating
to the currents of water at the deluge, and their effects on the face
of the country ; if they should not appear to be new, they may still
be received as evidences of diluvial effect in different parts of our
country. I have a number of specimens, which I can send you, of
rocks containing the traces left on the different strata, and should any
additional information be desired, I will cheerfully furnish it.

Thompson, Sullivan County, Aug. 20, 1832.

Vou. XXIT.—No 2. 32

250 List of the Plants of Chile.

Art. V1.—List of the Plants of Chile; translated from the ‘ Mer-
curio Chileno,” by W.S.W. Ruscuenzercer, M.D.U.S. pid

(Concluded from p. 96.)

Lycogala argenteum and L. miniatum. Pers. ‘These two small
mosses are seen on rotten wood towards the close of the autumn
after rains. ‘They are not distinguishable from those of Europe.

Lycopersicum esculentum. Dun. 'The tomato Is a well known
plant. It is generally cultivated and its fruit forms one of the great
resources of the kitchen. It may be perfectly preserved during the
winter by the method pointed out by Mr. Appert.

Lysimachia Linum stellatum. L. Common in fields and in aly
places on the highlands, in the Punta de Cortes and ‘Taguatagua.
It does not appear that it came from Europe as it is found growing
far from inhabited places. If it was desirable to introduce some
species of this genus into gardens the L. thyrsiflora, L. ge
Pall, and the L. punctata, might be selected.

Eythrum thymifolium and L. hyssopifolium, L. Frequent in humid
situations, in drains near habitations and torrents. Ihave met with
a third species, which I think new, near the Powder House* and at
the foot of San Cristoval. It differs from the preceding by its flow-
ers being three times as large, and its stalks much more prolonged
and white. I have called it L. albicaule, and it should be placed at
the side of the L. maritimum, H. B. and Kunth.

Macrea parvifolia. Lindl. A very branching shrub which grows
on the barren hills of Punta de Cortes and of Leona. The whitish
appearance of its leaves is very beautiful. Ido not think it easy to
cultivate.

Macrocystis Pyrifera. Agardh. A beautiful marine plant which
is met with in the bay of Valparaiso, and along the whole’ coast,
and even before arriving at Cape Horn. i. e. to the southward of
it. I believe that the M. Humboldtii, Ag., is but a variety of the
former, as I have had occasion to observe all the difference relative
to the figure of the leaves and the vesicles which sustain them. The
name fee Is given to an infinity of species which belong to
this family and particularly to those which grow in the sea. Phat
which is most generally known under this appellation, and of which

* Santiago.

East of the Plants of Chile. 251

most use is made, is to me as yet quite uncertain, having only seen
some stalks of it which were without leaves and fructification. It
serves as an aliment, and when well prepared is not a disagreeable
dish. A

Madia sativa. Molina. Melosa. It is found every where both in
cultivated and uncultivated situations. <A. variety is found upon the
arid highlands which might be separated from the soil but it would
first be necessary to ascertain whether its characters are not changed
by cultivation. Molina recommends this plant strongly on account
~ of the quantity and quality of the oil produced from its seeds. Nev-
ertheless it is at present neglected and looked on as a weed.

_Malesherbia paniculata. Don. Common in the stony and arid
situations both on the highlands and in the plains, in Santiago, Ran-
cagua, and S. Fernando. Its numerous violet flowers recommend
it for cultivation. De Candolle is mistaken in attributing yellow
flowers to this genus; I have always seen them of the color named
above, or rose or white. The Gynopleura dentata and lacinvata,
Miers, are in my opinion only varieties of the same species the
leaves of which present many anomalies, and sometimes even in the
same individual. I possess another species which appears to differ
from the M. thyrsiflora, Ruiz and Pavon, in its leaves, which are
constantly entire. In other respects they are similar. It grows in
the stony situations in the highlands and particularly in the vicinity of
the copper mines of Porpaico. Its flowers are small and white. I
am indebted for it to Claudius Gay, Professor of Physics and Chem-
istry in the college of Santiago. This gentleman has very kindly in-
formed me of other plants which I have not yet met with.

Malva. L. The most common species met with in the country
resembles the M. Brasiliensis, Desrouss. It grows every where:
its stalk is generally prostrate ; sometimes erect. Its common name
is Malva. The WM. prostrata, Cav. pilapila, grows in fields and
on the margins of drains. Its flowers are of a bright red. - The
M. Caroliniana, L.. Malvaloca, is not uncommon in the plains and
near roads. Its figured leaves (hojas recortadas) and large sky-blue
flowers, disposed in clusters, render it agreeable to the eye. ‘The
M. umbeilata, Cav. Malvavizco, is frequent in gardens and likewise
on the sides of roads, near Quinta and Santiago. If itis not new I
think it is the M. leprosa, Ortega. The first is most used. It is
employed in cataplasms. The decoction of its roots and leaves and
the infusion of its flowers are prescribed in many diseases. Vir-

252 Laisof the Plinietap Chile.

tues eminently pectoral are attributed to the malvavizco, and to the
pilapila, properties which are specific in diseases of the throat.

Marchantia Chenopoda and polymorpha, 1. ‘These two Hepat-
ice are found in shady and humid situations, near drains and _ wvalls,
and among rocks and in woods on the mountains and plains.

Margyricarpus setosus. Ruiz and Payon. This under-shrub is
seen in the woods and ravines near the Cachapual running to Cangue-
nes. Ihave seen in these same places a shrub of the same family pre-
cisely similar m size. It differs only in the number of stamina which
are six; in the fruit which is not drupaceous (drupaceo), and is
provided_with four wings; and finally, in the leaves which are obtuse.
It may form a new genus.

Matricaria Chamomilla. L. Vulgarly Manzanilla de Castilla.
It grows in olitories and cultivated places, and near houses. ‘This
plant is generally employed as a medicine. ‘The aromatic odor of
the whole plant and particularly of its flowers, and the bitter princi-
ple declare its virtues, which are confirmed by experience : particu-
larly with persons of a nervous temperament. Its infusion is pre-
scribed as a drink and as an injection. Fumigations of it are
also used. .

Maytenus Chilensis. DC. A pretty tree with light foliage and
hanging branches. It sometimes acquires a considerable elevation 5
its wood serves for many works in carpentry. It might be employed
in forming woods and groves about country seats, Cattle eat its
leaves and even its bark in the winter season when fodder is scarce.
The M. Boaria, Molina, is the same badly described. It appears
that this author has examined the flower after the fall of the petals,
and calycine teeth, and he thought that the fleshy disk which sur-
rounds the ovary was the corolla. Ihave observed three very mark-
ed varieties which merit the attention of botanists; the first, in the
woods of Leona. Its branches are straight, the leaves are twice as
large but less pointed. ‘The other two resemble it in size ; but the
first has the anthers sessile, the ovary more distinct, and the stigma
bifid. ‘The stamens of the other have quite long filaments, the ovary
much shorter, and the stigma scarcely bilobate. Not having seen
its fruit, when ripe, I cannot at present say whether it belongs to a
different species. ‘The variety angustifolia is met with near Quinta -
and in Rio Claro. ;

Medicago, lu. Of allthe species of this genus the most common
is the AM. sativa, L.; alfalfa. Jt is the general aliment of cattle,

Lasts of the Plants of Chile. 253

but its advantages though great do not appear to me proportioned to
the expense and the extent of surface which its cultivation requires,
particularly as respects certain localities and quality of soil. But the
method of cultivating the Alfalfa might in my opinion undergo some
useful and important changes; but as my plan does not allow me to
enter into long disquisitions relative to agriculture, this subject as well
as others of the same nature will occupy a separate communication.
There are many other species of Medicago quite common in meadows
and fields; they come from Europe and are generally confounded
under the name of gualputa: such are the M. lupulina, L., macu-
lata, tuberculata, denticulata, Willdn. minima, Lamk, and murica-
ta, All.

Melia Azedarach. Li. Ihave seen only one of prodigious dimen-
sions on the farm of Liceo, which was planted, I have no doubt
by the Jesuits. This tree should be cultivated with care; for the
elegance of its leaves and the delicate color of its numerous silerwict
recommend it as an ornament of the garden.

Melica violacea and laxiflora. Cav. ‘Two pretty grasses com-
mon in thickets and stony places on the highland near Cachapual.
Another of the size of the last, but of a different appearance is fund
in the same situations.

Melilotus officrnalis. W. Trebol ;—common in fields on the plain
near drains and humid places. It doubtless came from Europe:
it is not applicable to any purpose.

Melissa officinalis. Lu. ‘There is scarcely a garden which has not
a corner appropriated to the toronjil. It isa Benue remedy for
soothing pain. As its efficacy depends chiefly on the odor of its
leaves, 1 am far from condemning its occasional use, and it can be
injurious only in cases of special aversion.

Menonvillea linearis. DC. Common in fields near Leona and
Cachapual. I have met with a variety of this plant in the sandy
fields near this river towards Canguenes. All its leaves are cylindri-
cal and fleshy, but I have not observed any difference in the flower.
As the flowers of this genus vary much, I do not think that it should
form a distinct species; I have seen the flowers sometimes entire,
sometimes figured, (recortadas) and aga pinnate. The flowers are
whitish inclining to yellow. De Candolle must have had a bad speci-
men when he said: Petala....sordide in disco rufa, verosimiliter
Hesperidis tristis colorem referentia. (Regn. Veg. Syst. Nat. vol.
2. pag. 420.)

254 List of the Plants of Chile.

Mentha. L. The yerba buena, the bergamota and the poleo very
common near drains, along the fences of olitories, and the last in
marshy fields in the plain, are plants brought from Europe. ‘They
belong to the M. Piperita, L. Citrata, Ehrh. and Pulegium, L. and
serve for various domestic and pharmaceutic purposes.

Merisma. Pers. I have found only one species of this genus on
pieces of wood and branches of trees which have been buried and
are half rotten. This mossis blackish, its branches are caked, coria-
ceous, and figured at the extremity.

Merulius Morchellicephalus.. Bertero. A small pretty moss which
I have only seen once in a heap of rotten branches ina garden. ‘The
superior part of the Pilews shows some cuts analogous to those of the
Morchella, Pers. and on the inferior part the generic character was
very decided.

Meum Feniculum. Spr. Hinojo—Fennel. Very common on farms.
This plant is much used as a condiment and asa remedy. The
seeds are used to flavor spirits (aguardiente). Sown in good soil the
fennel yields very tender sprouts of good flavor which may be served
at table as is the custom in Italy.

Micropus. L.. Two species ; the first resembles the JM. supinus,
L.; it grows in the pastures on the highlands and plains. The other 1s
found in barren situations and in the fields of Rancagua and Quinta.
The particular forin of its flowers almost sticking to the earth, has ob-
tained for it the name of JM. globiferus which I have given it.

Miersia Chilensis. Lindl. A precious little plant which grows in
the woods, in stony and humid situations on the hills near Leona and
Punta de Cortés. Its flowers incline to a greenish yellow. _ Anoth-
er species is met with in the same situations which, although similar
in appearance to the first, differs from it in the following particulars.
Its leaves are narrower, its flowers less numerous and only of half the
size, the exterior bracts are linear, lanceolate, greenish with violet
rays, and the two inferior declinate. I have called it M. Myodes,
from its figure’s being analogous to the Ophrys of this name.

Mimulus luteus. L. In drains and inundated places both on the
highlands and plains. A variety or species with large yellow flow-
ers with red spots is also met with and is that perhaps which Miers has .
called M. punctatus. Another species grows amongst rocks, near
torrents on the mountains, and is sometimes seen on the plains. Itis
the M. Andicola, Kunth ; at least it cannot be classed with any other
which is known. These three plants are vulgarly called placa. ‘The

List of the Plants of Chile. 255

leaves and particularly of the last are succulent and of an agreeable
taste. ‘They are eaten in salad.

Mirabilis Jalapa. L. Dengue; a plant cultivated in gardens. Its
flowers vary in color and succeed each other for a long period of
time.

Mollugo radiata. Ryiz and Pavon. Common in sand along tor-
rents in Taguatagua. It possesses no interest whatever.

Moluccella levis. L. Cultivated in small gardens. It is remarkable
solely on account of the large size, and extraordinary form of its ca-
lyces. In other respects it is not worthy of note.

Morus alba. lu. There are some shoots of this tree in Santiago,
which proves that attempts were formerly made to introduce the silk
worm. I am ignorant why the undertaking has been abandoned.
The difficulties which oppose it do not appear to me serious, and at
any rate they cannot be greater than in other countries where this
branch of industry is the only resource of the inhabitants. Pied-
mont, near the Alps, with a less favorable climate, with more rigor-
ous winters and more stormy and variable springs, is covered with
mulberry trees, and the money which the exportation of silk produces
is a great cause of the prosperity enjoyed by the agricultural class of
the people. Besides, the great number of these trees which sur-
round the fields, planted in rows, are grateful to the sight, temper
the heat of the sun in summer, offer a shade to cattle, and possess
many other uses an enumeration of which is not necessary at present.
The wood is durable; it is used in carpentry and for domestic pur-
poses. The fruit is sweet and agreeable; poultry eat it and it makes
a good syrup. :

Mucor aquosus. Mart. Mucedo violaceus. Spr. and Stilbes-
pora. Bertero. A species of mould which covers various substan-
ces, in the state of putrefaction, during the autumn and _ after rains.

Musa Paradisiaca. L. ‘The banana and plantain, originally from
India, are extensively cultivated in the Antilles and the equatorial
regions of South America. It may be said that it forms the princi-
pal food of the poorer classes in those regions. ‘There are some
trees of this interesting plant in the gardens in Santiago, and ama-
teurs are desirous of propagating them. I will only observe here
that the climate will never permit this branch of agriculture to flour-
ish to any extent. Its cultivation will always be an object of luxu-
ry, and cannot be of any public utility. We are accustomed to re-
ceive plantains from Lima, but they suffer on the voyage, and do
not preserve that exquisite taste which is proper to them.

5

256 Last of the Plants of Chile.

Mutisia. L. 'The species which J have seen are not well deter-
mined. ‘Two of them approach the MM. inflexa, Cav., and M. sagit-
tata, W. They grow in the woods. »The third grows on the rocks
in the highlands, and appears to me new. It is called yerba negra,
though this appellation is more commonly given to another, Synan-
thera, which I have not seen in flower, and which is common in the
mountains.

Mycogone rosea. Link. It grows on rotten mosses, and particu-
ularly on the Boletus cervinus, Schwein.

Myosotis corymbosa. Ruiz and Pavon. In the fields on the high-
lands. I have in my possession three other species, one of which
resembles the M. humilis, Ruiz and Pavon, and the others are wor-
thy of being again studied. ‘These plants delight in the stony situ-
ations of the highlands and near torrents. ‘They present nothing re-
markable.

Myriophyllum: verticillatum. L. Yerba del pato: common in
drains and marshes. It does not differ from the European plant.

Myrtus. L. ‘The common name, arrayan—myrile, is given to
many species. ‘The most common, which is thus called, is a very
elegant tree. It usually grows seven or eight yards high and I have
seen it higher and of an extraordinary size, at a country seat near
Corcolen. It has a fine effect in gardens from the thickness of its
foliage and the whiteness of its flowers. Although its wood is hard,
it is not worked, from the difficulty in meeting with large pieces of it.
The leaves are employed as a medicine. Its blackish berries filled
with white pulp, although but slightly juicy, are much sought after
by some species of birds. ‘The country people make an agreeable
drink of them. The M. Arayan, H. B. and Kunth, approximates
to the preceding, but differs from it in the red and binocular berries.
Is our species the true Mugni, Molina? The M. triflora, Spr.,
pitra is frequent in the woods near Santiago, Donigue and Taguata-
gua. Its height varies from eight to ten yards. The green wood
is fragile; when dry, it is stronger, but rots when humid or in the
ground, and therefore is employed only asa fuel. ‘The use of its
leaves is recommended in rheumatic pains. Many other species
mentioned by Molina are known only by his descriptions of them.

Narcissus. L. 'The names junca, tulipan and junquillo are gen-
erally given to the NV. Tazetta, N. odorus, L., N. incomparabilis,
Curt., and NV. Jonquilla, L. ‘These plants, originally from Europe,
are cultivated in gardens, and are esteemed for the beauty of their
flowers. The double varieties are most appreciated,

Last of the Plants of Chile. 257

~ Nardus.. Li. . Two grasses approach this genus, but I believe they
do not belong to it. One is found in the dry pastures on the moun-
tains which are made very slippery by its remains; the other : sorta
- much higher i in the woods on the highland near Cachapual.
Nasturtium. officinale, var. Chilense, DC., Wornicasileetuaede
Common in the brooks on the»mountains, and in the plains. It is
eaten as a salad, and is both wholesome and agreeable. ‘There are
persons who believe that the water-cress possesses eminent virtues
for the cure of pulmonary phthisis.* | Wonderful stories are related of
it. I have been told that a victim of this disease, who was given over
by the most skillful physicians of the capital, retired to the country
to die in tranquillity, and, when there, lived exclusively on this plant,
in pursuance of advice which had been given him, and that in two
months he was restored to perfect health. He died, however, as
was thought, of another disease, and on examination of the. body a
Jarge quantity of cresses was found in a sack which they had formed
for themselves. With this tale in view, we may form some idea of
the degree of credulity of the very many unhappy creatures, who
are sacrificed to ignorance and charlatanism. -

Nesea. Kunth. This genus has been reformed by De Candolle
in his Prodromus. The three species with which I have met in the
sandy pastures and among the rocks, near Cachapual, do not belong
to it and perhaps will form a part of the Cuphea, L., or of the other
‘intermediate genus. However, I have not seen them described.
Their flowers, although small, are pretty, and particularly in the spring.

_ Nicotiana angustifolia. Ruiz and Pavon. Tabaco del Diablo.
In inclosures near roads and torrents. This plant is of but little im-
portance. The JV. minima, Molina, which some botanists have re-
tained, does not differ from the first, and ought to be considered as
a synonym. I have seen in some gardens the NV. fruticosa, L. Its
leaves are large and do not possess the fragrance of the V. Tabacum ;
so that no use is made of them. The leaves of all the species of
tobacco are employed in certain diseases, sometimes externally, some-
times in decoction, and are the vehicle of an immensity of drugs which
ignorance alone can tolerate.

— Ocimum basilicum, minimum and monachorum. L. Albahaca—
Sweet basil. Plants very common in gardens. It is highly appre-

* It is also used in hepatic affections.

Vou. XXIII.—No. 2. 33

258 List of the Plants of Chile.

ciated for its odor. It is quite necessary amongst the constituents of
a nosegay, and sometimes required for the table. a

Enothera mollissima. L. Metron, flor dela noche. It ee in
sandy situations near rivers. It is cultivated in gardens, and is con- —
sidered valuable as a vulnerary.. A decoction of its leaves is em=
ployed to wash ulcers, and particularly those of the legs. ‘The ra-
dalau—(E. acaulis, Cav., is frequent in the humid pastures of the
plain, near Taguatagua. Its variety 8. Ser. in DC. prodr., is found
in Valparaiso, in shaded spots. ‘This plant and its roots are consid-
ered efficacious remedies in boils. The CE. tenwifolia, Cav., grows
in sandy situations, and among stones, along torrents and rivers. A
variety with flowers, three times as large, is found in the same situa-
tions, and on mountains; perhaps it is a different species. The San-
gre de toro, the . tenella, Cav., is very common in pastures. — Its
flowers are either violet, or purple. I have gathered another species
in the dry pastures near San Fernando. It approaches to the .
rosea, Ait., but appears to be different. “

Ogiera triplinervia. Cassin. A shrub very frequent in the woods
on the highlands, known by the name of mitriu. Its flowers are of
the size of a Spilanthus. Like the leaves, they are somewhat aro-
matic. The wood is fragile and only useful as a combustible.

Olea Europea. Li. Aceiturro—Olive.. Cultivated near habita-
tions. Its wood is employed in white work. Its prepared fruit is ex-
cellent. The oil made in this country is far from being good. Con-
sidering the facility with which the tree yields its fruit, and the great
quantities which might be obtained, we wonder at the negligence with
which it is cultivated, and the small extent of its plantations. It is
said that to sow and to reap is not the work of a day—a selfish maxim
which is gainsaid by the father who is not indifferent to the pros-
pects of his children. The introduction of foreign oils which is
daily becoming more necessary, is no eulogy upon native industry.

Onoseris. W. ‘There are many species, some of which perhaps
belong to the genus Chetanthera. 'The most common is called yez-
quilla. It grows in dry pastures on the plain, near rivers, and on the
mountains, and differs very little from the O. Hieracioides, Kunth.
The down, which covers the plant when it is in flower, is used by
the country people for spunk. Another grows among the stones
along the Cachapual. I have called it O. linifolia from the form
of its leaves.

Last of the Plants of Chile. 259

. Ophioglossum..Li. The plant which I have seen in the humid
glsics at the foot of mountains is perhaps the O. lingulatum, Miers:
It is of no use.

Orbignya trifolra. Bertero. A shrub of the family of the Eu Aisi
biacee(tricocce), notable for its compound leaves, a rare example
in this group. It is met with on the heights near the Punta de Cor-
tes. Professor Gay has also seen it on the summit of Mount San
Cristoval. It is not lactescent, nor does it resemble, in any particu-
lar, the Colliguaya, which inhabits the same places. The fruit is of
the same figure, with the exception of the capsule’s being ligneous. Its
seeds are used for rosary beads. It appears that Molina in charac-
terising his genus, Colliguaya, has described the staminate flower of
this, since he attributes to it eight stamina. I have dedicated this
beautiful genus to M. D’ Orbigny, a learned and zealous naturalist,
who is at present exploring the banks of the Rio de la Plata, and
who will soon visit Patagonia with the view of enriching those scien-
ces which he professes.

Origanum Maru. L. Oregano—Wild Marjoram. Cultivated in
gardens; an aromatic plant used as a condiment. It might serve to
garnish parterres, being advantageously substituted for the brick which
is here employed for that purpose. Many other plants might be in-
troduced for the purpose, as the 4rmeria vulgaris. W., Bellis pe-
rennis, fl. pleno, Primula veris. W. P. elatior, Jacq.

_ Ormthogalum. L. ‘There are many species in almost every gar-
den. The Flor de la cuenta of gardens appears to be the O. Arab-
scum, L. The Lagrima de la Virjen, also cultivated, does not agree
entirely with the O. corymbosum, Ruiz and Pavon, according to the
phrase of Sprengel, in his Species Plantarum, (vol. 4, part. 2, p.
132.) The cebolleta, O. equipetalum, Bertero, in the dry pastures
of the high land, and the O. striatellum, Miers, (guilli de perro o°
de zorro,) common in meadows and cultivated places. This last
appears to differ from the genus, and in fact, I have just seen in the
Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, vol. vi, part. 1,
that Lindley has called it Allium striatellum.

Orthopogon Crus-Galli. Spr. A grass frequent in drains and hu-
mid places. Some call it carrizo,a name by which a species of
cane is designated, which frequently grows in wet situations, near
Santiago and other places. This last is of the size of the Arundo
Phragmites, L. although in my opinion it is different. Itis used for
various domestic purposes, and large quantities of it are consumed.

260 List of the Plants of Chile.

-Orthotrichum affine, Schrad., O. anomalum, Hedw., and O. dia-
phanum, Schrad. Small mosses which grow upon stones and the
barks of trees. ‘They are not interesting except in a botanical point
of view. They are all confounded under the name of pastito.

Oscillatoria nigra. Vauch. and O. muralis, Ag. Syn. Two alge
very frequent in winter. The first on the surface of stagnant waters,
and the second on walls which are damp and in the shade. ‘There
are other species which grow in similar situations, but whose charae-
ters, being for the most part microscopic, require time, instruments,
and books which are not always within reach of the traveller to de-
termine them. They are only interesting in a scientific point of view.

Oxalis. Li. This genus offers many species proper to this coun=
trv > gome are not well known, and others are new. The name
vinagrillo is generally applied to those with yellow flowers, and vin-
agrillo colorado to the species with a reddish flower. The most re=
markable are the following. 'The most common of the species is
that which is called flor de las perdices. It begins to appear in April,
and continues flowering till the close of May. It covers the fields
and lawns of the plain. Iam told that the Indians call this plant
rimu, and make use of its tincture. The word runu, according to
Father Andres Hebres, signifies partridge. Keeping in sight what
we have just said, and what Molina says, there is room for suppos-
ing that the Sassia perdicaria of this author, is the plant mentioned ;
save the leaves, the disposition of which he may not have had occa-
sion to observe, and particularly examining the plant from imperfect
specimens, which most probably has been the case. We have called
it O. perdicaria, not being able to refer it to any known species.
About the same time, and in the spring, another Owalis is found,
with purple and sometimes violet flowers, in the sandy plams, near
rivers, and on the highlands. This, with the same exception, re=
sembles the Sassia tinctoria, Molina. I therefore think that this
genus should be expunged from the books, and I invite all botanists
who possess specimens of these two plants, to subject them to a care-
ful examination, in order to decide the question. I have called the
last O. arenaria. It closely resembles the O. tetraphylla, Cav.
Gardens are overrun by another species which is of the size of the
O. corniculata, LL. The O. rosea, Jacq. is met with in abundance.
in shady woods, both on the highland and on the plain. The O.
megalorhiza, Jacq. grows upon heights, and in the clefts of rocks.
It does not differ from the O. tuberosa, Molina. The O. pubescens,

List of the Plants of Chile. 261

H. B. and Kunth. is frequent in olitories, on mud-walls, in cool and
shady situations. In fine, I have found two other species which I
believe to be new. One on the edges of roads and level plains 5 the
_ other in the woods of Punta de Cortés. I have called the first O.
gyrorhiza, from the direction of its root; and the second O. mi-
crantha, from its very small and frequently apetalous flowers. There
are many others which I have not had time to examine minutely.
All the vinagrillos possess more or less the same acid property.

Oxybaphus viscosus. Herit. Among the stones on the margin of
brooks, on the plain in the neighborhood of Quinta. ‘Though close-
ly resembling it, I think this plant should be separated from that de-
scribed by L’Heritier, which is originally from Peru.

Papaver somniferum. L. Vulgarly Amapola—Adormidera. Cul-
tivated in gardens. The flowers are commonly double, large, vari-
ously colored and have a rich appearance. ‘The capsule is very use-
' ful in medicine ; its decoction is employed either as a fomentation or
enema in colics and in nervous diseases. Opium, a heroic remedy
so much used throughout Asia, is obtained from the juice of this
species, by incision and exudation from its capsule. The P. Rheas,
L., is scarcely known in Chile. Its varieties with double flowers and
variously combined colors merit preference. Its juice possesses the
same properties, though in a less degree. The infusion of its petals
is said to be sudorific. :

Parmelia. Ach. There are a great many species here; they
grow upon stones and on the bark of trees. All are known under
the name of calchacura. Some possess a gelatinous principle in
abundance, similar in properties to that of the Lichen Islandicus. The
most common are the following: P. aquila, atra, caperata, chrys-
ophthalma, cycloselis, murorum, parietina, saturnina, saxicola, stella-
ris, subfusca, varia, Ach. and many others, two of which, m my
opinion, are new. I will call the first, P. Chilensis ; it resembles
the P. scopulorum, Ach. ; and I will name the second, P. discolor.

Paronychia Chilensis. DC. On the dry and stony plain of
Cachapual and San Fernando. P. ramosissima, DC. upon the
arid pastures of the highlands and mountains. It is known by the
name of dicha. It is a troublesome plant, when dry, from its nume-
rous thorns. It resembles the Polycnemum arvense, L.

Paspalum. L. The plant called chepica is of this genus. It ap-
proaches, though it differs from the P. conjugatum, Bery. .A ptisan
made of its roots is daily prescribed as a cooling specific in urinary

262 List of the Plants of Chile-

complaints. The ckepicu dlanca is preferred to the colorada. We |
regret that it is not in our power to decide this question, as well as
many others of a similar nature, and which are so interesting to the
country people.

Passiflora cerulea. LL. Flor de Pasion. An ornamental plant
much cultivated in gardens.

Pastinaca sativa. L. It grows in cultivated situations. It is
called vulgarly chirivia. Formerly it was attended to, and its root
eaten, but at present, other plants more nutritive and pleasant are
substituted for it.

Patellaria eruginosa. Spr. .A Lichen which commonly grows
upon old mud walls. 1 have met with other species which are not
yet determined. ;

Pelargonium. Herit. The Malva de olor and the Malva rosa,
are the only species of this genus which I have seen in the gardens
of Chile. . The first is the P. odoratessimum, and the second the P.
Radula, Ait. var. roseum, W. The fragrance of their leaves, as
well as the facility of preserving them in the open air, makes them
valued. It is strange that other Geranzacee have not been introdu-
ced, their flowers being so much sought by lovers of the garden.
Many species would flourish in Chile, and would decorate gardens
with elegant flowers of an infinite variety, in form, color, and size.

Peltigera canina. Hoftm. In woods, at the foot of trees, and
among the stones on the ‘ Montafia de la Leona.’ It is also a calcha-
cura, of which no use is made.

Peumus fragrans. Pers. Vulgarly boldu, a tree common on the
plains, on the declivities of mountains, and in vallies. The trunk ac-
quires a height of six or eight yards. Its wood is applied to no use,
and even as fuel, it is not valued. (The charcoal made from it is ea-
sily extinguished. ‘The leaves, par-boiled and moistened with wine,
are employed as a remedy in colds and defluxions from the head.
Baths of its decoction are said to be antisyphilitic, and are used in
rheumatic diseases and dropsies. It is also said that the juice is effi-
eacious in the ear-ach. The fruit, when ripe, is of the size of a small
apricot. It is sweet, but ue very little meat. ‘T’he stones are used
for rosary beads. ‘

Peziza. L. Mosses, the greater part of which are on trunks me
rotten branches; some of them are scarcely visible. ‘To the spe-
cies, the names of which I have already published, I will add the
following. P. ascoboloides, Bertero, in a large quantity on the skins

List of the Plants of Chile. 263

of half decayed grapes, P. badia, Pers. on the banks of drains. P.
vesiculosa, Bull. on mud-walls in winter after rains. P. caulicola,
Fries. upon the dry stalks of plants. P. cinnabarina, Bertero, on
old posts and forks in vineyards. P. Valenzueliana, Bertero, on the
damp walls of the orchards of Rancagua. In testimony of gratitude
to Don Manuel Valenzuela, for the assistance he has afforded me in
my botanical pursuits, I have given his name to this last. plant.

Phacelia circinata. Jacq. Common on heights, in the clefts of
rocks; it has no common name. ‘There is another species, (which
I believe to be new,) that grows in shady situations in Punta de Cortés
and Leona. I have called it P. clinopodioides, from its resem-
blance to a Clinopodium. Its flowers are reddish.

Phalaris. lu. I have met with two plants which I think belong to
this genus. One is rare on the plain of Leona: the other in Cacha-
pual. The glumes of the first are almost violet.

Phascum. Li. A small moss common in the pastures of the moun-
tains, on declivities, and in humid places. I believe it is not de-
scribed.

Phaseolus vulgaris. L. Porotos—Frijoles. An extensively cul-
tivated vegetable, of which great consumption is made by country
people. ‘There are many varieties to which different names are giv-
en, according to the color, form or taste of the fruit. Some of them
are delightful. Larger crops might be obtained, if cultivators would
leave their blind routine and adopt the plans pointed out by agricul-
turists and experience. In some gardens, is cultivated the P. mul-
tiflorus, W. poroto de Espafa: its flowers are of a cochineal color,
and are very pretty. The P. Caracalla, caracol, universally culti-
vated, is not however indigenous to Chile. The size, peculiar form,
and sweetness of its flowers have acquired for it some distinction.
A sweetmeat is made of its petals, which is said to be excellent.

Phlox unidentata. Bertero. A precious species which grows in
the skirts of woods on the sandy plain near Cachapual. The flow-
ers disposed in clusters and of a magnificent orange color, make it
worthy of a place in gardens. The specific name which I have giy-
en it, is not strictly correct, since the number of its teeth varies from
one to three, and sometimes the leaves are entire.

Phenix Dactylifera. L. Palma datil. We see some stalks cul-
tivated, but they do not flourish nor yield fruit. In Coquimbo, this
palm might be propagated : its fruit imported from Lima, is much
esteemed.

264 List of the Plants of Chile.

Physalis pubescens. L.A plant cultivated for its yellow, aroma-
tic, pleasantly acid fruit. ‘The stalk is fructicose, and lives —
winter in the open air. 2

Physarum Museicola, P. farinaceum, Pars. “ repaitilems, et ¢ areo-
latum, Bertero, on rotten plants and wood at the close of autumn,
and in winter after rain. oh wi email

Phytolacca Chilensis. Miers. A cultivated plant which I do not
think indigenous. Itresemblesthe P. dioica, L., but its flowers are
hermaphrodite; the styles vary from fourteen to eighteen. It is
called carmin. Its ripe berries are used to dye yarn.

Pilobolus roridus. Pers. Upon compost and excrement of canis

Pinus. L.. A tree resembling the P. Laricio, Poir., is seen in
some places. It is from Europe, and is commonly called wie’
pine. This tree should be propagated.

Piper inequalifolium. Vahl. ‘The congona is eulliconali in some
gardens, but its young shoots do not resist the winter. Its aromatic
leaves, of a slightly pungent taste, are said to be useful in some diseases.
It is administered in infusion, in atonic affections of the stomach. —

Pircunia drastica. Bertero. A small under-shrub, common on the
declivities of mountains, among stones in Cauquenes, Taguatagua,
and other places. Its root, resembling a large wooden pin, (fusi-
form ?) almost always divided at the extremity, possesses emetic and
purgative virtues in a very high degree. The country people fre-
quently employ it, and even in small doses its exhibition is sometimes
attended with unhappy results. It should only be given by the pre-
scription of a physician. A careful chemical analysis and experi-
ments made with it, would no doubt afford us an exact knowledge of
this medicine, which, in my opinion, is highly useful in certain cases.
I have thought proper to preserve the vulgar name pircun, and would
propose it to botanists as a new genus. ee Vicente Bustillos has
given me some specimens in seed.

Pisum satiwum. L. Aberja. Generally cultivated and is a grand
resource in domestic economy. ‘The tender seeds may be preserved
throughout the winter in brine, and thus afford a delicacy. ‘The va-
riety macrocarpum. Ser. in the prodr., DC., is not sufficiently pro-
pagated. The tender thick pods are eoleek and are called by
the French, pois gaulu, pois mangetout.

Plantago. L. The Llanten (P: major. L.)i is the most common
species. Its leaves are employed for the cure of vesicatories, and
their decoction passes for a vulnerary. I have met with other spe-

List of the Plants of Chile. 265

cies which are not determined. The P. lanceolata, L., on the
banks of rivers; the P. hispidula, Ruiz and Pavon, in sandy spots
upon the plains and highland. The P. Patagonica. Jacq., on the
mountains of Leona. The L. truncata and twmida, Chamiss, are
met with in banancos—the dry beds of mountain torrents, and in the
pastures on the highland.

| Poa annua, P. pratensis and P. pilosa. L. Grasses frequent in
cultivated situations, in fields, and near drains. ‘The last is very com-
mon on farms, and does not differ from the European species, all the
characters of which it possesses, except that itis larger. ‘They have
all been introduced.

Polianthes tuberosa. L. Margarita. Cultivated in gardens.
The variety with double flowers is less known. ‘The odor of the
flowers is pleasant, though rather strong.

Polygala Thesioides. W. A shrub met with in the mountains,
vulgarly called Quelenquelen. ‘The root is used in decoction in
many diseases which are called internal. The P. Gnidioides, W.
does not differ from the preceding, except in its herbaceous stalk.
It is found in fields and along the skirts of woods in the highland.

Polygonum aviculare. Li. Sanguinarta. It is found in all dry,
stony situations along roads. ‘The variety with straight stalks grows
in humid meadows and about marshes. Its decoction is prescribed
in certain female complaints. The P. Persicaria and lapathifoli-
um, L., duraznillo, frequent in drains and pools. ‘They are employ-
ed for the same purposes, and if we may believe what we hear res-
pecting them, possess great virtues. ‘The P. orientale, L., should
be cultivated for the beauty of its flowers; and the P. Fagopyrum,
L., for its farimaceous grain which might form a substitute for wheat.

Polypodium. L. Ferns which grow in woods, on the mountains,
and among stones. The doradilla, a species of this genus not de-
termined, is considered a great remedy in certain diseases. ‘The
yerba del lagarto which I take to be the Polypodium radice squamosa,
Feuill., appears to be a new species which I will name, P. Feuiller,
and another which is called palmilla. ‘This approaches the P. rest-
niferum, Desv: I believe it however to be different. The last two
were found and communicated to me by Don Vicente Bustillos.

Polypogon. Desv. The name rabo de zorro, is also given to two
species of this genus, one of which is the P. maritimus, W.; the
other does not agree with any yet described. It is found in drains
and in fields on the plain.

Vou. XXII.—No. 2. 34

266 List of the Plants of Chile.

-Polytrichum commune. L. Frequent in meadows and shady pla-
ces onthe mountains. Another resembling the P. hyperboreum, R.
Br., grows in similar situations, and particularly im Leona.

Populus dilatata. Ait. Alamo. This tree was long since introdu-
ced but is just beginning to draw the attention of land holders. It
ought to be planted almost without limit. It grows rapidly—forms
good plank for many kinds of work, and its branches make good fuel.

Porliera hygrometrica. Ruiz and Pavon. The tree which is
designated here by the name of guayacan is called in Peru turucasa.
Its wood is very hard and veined blue and Yellow. It serves for ma-
king combs, balls, and many utensils. Its decoction is antisyphilitic,
particularly when united with sarsaparilla. It is met with onthe
mountains, and on the banks of large rivers on the plain. The
true guaiacum (Guaracum, L.) cannot grow in these latitudes. It
is indigenous to the Antilles.

Portulaca oleracea. L. Verdolaga. Itis found in cultivated situa-
tions, in fields and in gardens. Sown in good soil properly irrigated,
it would yield its leaves three times as large, and of a higher flavor,
which could be used as nutriment as is the fact in other countries.
Its decoction is said to be a vermifuge, and it is employed as such in
the form of a ptisan.

Potamogeton striatus. Ruiz and Pavon. In the praore t and run-
ning waters of Taguatagua. It is called luchi, and is of no use.

Pourretia coarctata. Ruizand Pavon. Phagnal, Maguey, Par-
don, Paya. A beautiful plant of the family of the Bromeliacee, com-
mon on heights and craggy points. Its leaves are armed with strong
thorns. Its seape, quite high and tolerably thick, supports flowers
which yield a honey like juice, which is sought with avidity by birds
and particularly by the humming bird. The stalk when dry is used
for corks and for razor straps. Cut into boards it makes excellent
boxes for preserving insects, an advantage to entomologists in a coun-
try where there is no cork. From openings and incisions made in
the stalk exudes a gum which merits examination, and might per-
haps form a substitute for that imported.

Pozoa coriacea. Lag. On arid heights among broken rocks and
craggy places. Sprengel joins this species with the Asteriscitum Chis
lense, Chamiss. I do not know whether he is correct.

Prosopis Siliquastrum. DC. Algorrobo. Quite a common tree
in stony soils, near rivers in the plain. Its elevation is from four to
five yards, the thorns are commonly. very long though sometimes

List of the Plants of Chile. 267

short or scarcely visible. ‘The fruit is used to feed eattle, though it
is indigestible for them. The wood is incorruptible in water and is
employed for sills, door posts, and mills. The Ceratonia Chilensis,
Molina belongs to this species. as well as the P. flexuosa.

Prunus domestica. L. ‘The ciruelo—the plum tree, is widely
spread over the country. Many varieties are enumerated; the fruit
of some of them is made into sweetmeats. Dried plums (prunes) are
purgative and may be substituted for tamarinds particularly if used
with cream of tartar. Plum trees planted at a short distance from
each other, form an impenetrable inclosure, if care is taken to cut
them at about the height of a man. JI have seen some beautiful in-
closures in this style in the neighborhood of San Fernando.

Psorealea glandulosa. L. The culen is very common in woods
near rivers, and in the vallies. The bark and leaves of this little
tree are used as a medicine. It is said that the infusion is a specific
in abdominal pains, ‘ empachos,’ (surfeits) indigestions, &c. The
same virtue is attributed to the ashes. ‘The dry leaves powdered,
and the green ones wilted, are applied to wounds in the form of a
cataplasm. Ulcers are washed with its decoction. It is made into
a ptisan with the heart of lettuce; it has a pleasant taste and is said
to be salutary. From the bark of this tree a resin exudes which is
used by shoemakers to wax their thread. ‘The P. lutea, Molina is
a monstrosity of this species.

Pteris. Li. ‘I'wo species of this genus grow on mountains, in
woods and on rocks. ‘The first resembles the P. Chilensis, Desv.,
the other may be new. I will call it, P. triphylla. Itis different
from the Adiantum triphyllum. Smith, which Kaulfuss places with
his Passebeeria.

Puccinia. Pers. The name polvillo is given to the species of
this genus, as also to the Meczdium, and Uredo. ‘They all grow upon
thé living leaves of plants, the specific name of which they general-
ly take. I have found the P. Rose, DC., P. graminis, Pers. P.
compositarum, P. Polgonorum, Schlecht. and P. Lyci, Bertero.

Punica Granatum, L. Granada. A common shrub. Its leaves,
flowers, and particularly its fruit render it interesting. ‘The bark of
the fruit is an excellent astringent adapted to various abdominal dis-
eases which are kept up by a want of tone in the absorbent vessels.
A saturated deccction is the base of a tincture black as ink. This
quality depends upon the gallic acid in which it abounds.

268 List of the Plants of Chile.

Pyrethrum Parthenium. W. Frequent in vallies in sandy soil,
near torrents. It is so common that it appears indigenous. ‘The
artemisa is a medicinal plant. Its virtues are analogous to the man-
zanilla and might be substituted for it.

Pyrus communis and Malus. L. Peral y Manzano. Fruit trees
which are so abundant in the country that the inhabitants cannot be-
lieve they have been introduced. _ It is usual to have-apples and pears
of good quality, but in general, this fruit does not attain the same per-
fection as in Europe. ‘The wood is used in carpentry.

Quillaja Saponaria. Molina. In woods at the foot of hills, and
in mountain vallies. -It trunk usually attains ten yards in height, and
about two in circumference. ‘The wood soon perishes if exposed to
the air; but lasts a long time in damp situations under ground. It
is used in mines and in mills. The bark of the quillay is excellent
for washing woollen textures. Its decoction makes a suds the same
as soap. It is administered in certain cases in the form of an ene-
ma.* Botanists differ as to the synonym of this species. De Can-
dolle forms two of it which he names, Q. Molina, and Q. Smegma-
dermis. Sprengel places the last with the Smegmaria emarginata
of Willdenow: and he confounds the Qurllaja of Molina, with the
Smegmadermos, Ruiz and Pavon. Though I have not yet examin-
ed this tree in the different and remote parts of Chile, I think it
forms but one species which varies considerably in the form of its
Jeaves, and thatthe name given by Molina ought to be preferred.

Quinchamalium Chilense. Molina. Common in ‘pastures, on the
highland, and in stony situations near rivers. It is sometimes woody,
at others, herbaceous, though the species is always the same. ‘This
plant is considered a most energetic vulnerary. ‘The juice and de-

“ I am disposed to think that this bark may be made very useful, not only in nfedi-
cine, but for domestic purposes. A small quantity of it broken into pieces, and in-
fused in a basin of cold water, will yield a strong suds when agitated. This will
remove grease spots from cloth, and the oily matter which collects upon the collar
of the coat from the hair, without injury to the garment. The same remark ap-
plies to silks and crapes. {have used it with advantage asa lotion in certain dis-
eases of the skin, and for ulcers; and it has proved in my hands a very appropri-
ate stimulus to the scalp in cases where the hair was falling. In several instances
it arrested it atonee. The ladies of Chile, 1 am told, are in the habit of washing
the head with it, about once in ten days, and they say it preserves the scalp from
dandruff, and it certainly gives the hair a very clean, glossy appearance.

It may be considered a vegetable soap with a super-quantum of alkali. Might it
not become a useful article in the hands of dyers and scourers? W.S. W. R.

Notices in Natural History. 269

coction are administered in what are termed internal complaints, or
in extravasations of blood, boils, &c. “Though I do not deny altogeth-
er its astringent property, I would advise patients to recur to more
certain sind efficient medicines.

* * % % % % % %
Al letter from Dr. R. to the Editor, dated Callao Roads, April
15, 1832.

The revolution, which occurred in Chile in June 1829, interrupt-
ed, and finally stopped the publication of the ‘ Mercurio Chileno.’ At
different times that periodical work contained communications of a po-
litical nature which were highly offensive to one of the parties of the
day, and soon after the present administration assumed the direction
of public affairs, the Editors were forced to leave the country. About
the same time, Dr. Bertero, the industrious and able author of the
‘list’, embarked, at Valparaiso, for the Sandwich Islands, to pursue
his botanical researches there, until he might resume without fear of
interruption, and complete the catalogue of plants which he had com-
menced. While at the Islands, he collected a large herbarium, and
sailed for Chile. More than a year has now elapsed, since the vessel,
in which he was passenger, sailed, and no news having been heard
from her, it is presumed that she perished at sea !

Besides Dr. Bertero, several other scientific men have been late-
ly in that country studying its natural history. Professor Gay, who
is still there, has been for some time travelling in different provinces,
collecting plants and specimens in natural history, and although the re-
sult of his labors has not yet been published, a few letters which
have appeared in ‘ FE] Araucano’—a gazette of Chile—prove that he
has not been idle. ‘These letters are dated at San Fernando, and
are addressed to Don José Alejo Bezanilla, Don Francisco Huido-
bro and Don Vicente Bustillos, members of a scientific commission
in Santiago.

In the first letter he gives a detailed account of a visit to the lake
of Taguatagua. He says that he saw there for the first time, a curi-
ous natural phenomenon celebrated by the old Scotish bards—the
floating island. Almost half of the lake is covered by these islands
which float from north to south, and from east to west, according to
the direction of the wind. They consist of vegetable remains of
many species of plants Convolvuli, Potamogeton, Ranunculi,
Gramineae, &c.— interlaced with each other in a thousand ways, and

270 Notices in Natural History.

upon which other floating plants perish, affording by their decompo-
sition, an extremely fertile soil, increased from time to time by the
constant decay of other plants that spring up and grow in it; so
that in the course of time, these islands, by a gradual augmentation
in extent and thickness, will in-all probability, fill up and cover the
whole superficies of the lake with their artificial soil, and yield to fu-
ture ages a mine of inflammable turf which may supply an excel-
lent fuel for domestic uses.

Upon these islands, which are called chivinas by the inhabitants,
great numbers of birds of many species deposit their eggs. Amongst
them are Swans, Flamingos, Herons and an infinity of others, many
of which are unknown to science.

The geological formation to the north of the lake is ssyackine and
of the south granitic ; these are separated from each other by great
banks of phonolite, of arkose, and ofa very fine stone suitable for
whet-stones. The hill which contains it is called ‘el cerro ae la
piedra de afilar,” whet-stone hill. eg

There is a great number of new and interesting specimens surround-
ing the lake. Amongst the new ones M. Gay enumerates two spe-
cies of Poranthus, one Ranunculus, an Utricularia, a beautiful
Galvezia, Chotanthera, and a number of arborescent Gyneteria.

The next visit of the Professor was to that part of the Cordilleras
called Cauquenes. On this route along the river Cachapual and the
“rio de los cipreses,” he met with more than a hundred species of
‘plants which were unknown to him. Along the Cauquenes he fol-
lowed for more than ten leagues a basaltic formation running in a
horizontal direction, and alternating with wacke, dolerite and a resin-
ous quartz. He made a chemical analysis of the waters of the hot
baths of Cauquenes which are visited annually by great numbers of
invalids from every part of Peru and Chile. The base of these wa-
ters he found to be a hydrochlorate of soda, although it has been
generally supposed heretofore, that they were indebted for their vir-
ues to sulphur, of which substance, M. Gay declares, they do not
contain a single atom. There are however sulphur baths in the
neighborhood. '

In another letter M. Gay describes his visit to the gold mines of
Yaquil, (the ore of which is simply auriferous pyrites,) and to the
plain of Colchagua. ‘ Passing by the plain,” says he, ‘‘ we enjoyed
the curious spectacle which so often disappointed the hopes of the
French troops in Egypt, when suffering from thirst in a dry and

Notices in Natural History. Q271

burning atmosphere. I allude to the phenomenon denominated
mirage, which is seen here in perfection. At a distance it presented
to us the appearance of a true lake, dotted with islands planted with
trees which were reflected on the surface of the imaginary waters,
creating the most perfect illusion. In proportion as we advanced, the .
lake, the waters, the islands fled before us they diminished in
size more and more, and finally disappeared as if by enchantment,
‘much to the surprise of my companions who were little used to such
sights.” fe
On the plain are a number-of hopicelieS or little mountains. In
the side of one of these is a cave, which M. Gay has named after Mo-
lina, the historian of Chile. It has been known heretofore in the prov-
ince of San Fernando simply by the term ‘la cueva,” the cave. It
is supposed that it was once filled with soluble salts, as the sulphate
of lime, the sulphate or carbonate of magnesia, or perhaps muriate
of soda, and the water, which constantly filters into it, dissolving these
salts, has formed this grot now called Molina’s cave. Its form is
more or less round;—embossed on all sides—from fifteen to eight-
een yards long, and from ten to twelve wide. It opens by a great
door which is shut in by a screen-of flowers and shrubs, intertwined
with the Eccremocarpus, and the delicate Lardizabala.

Among other things which he found during this excursion, was lig-
nite under two feciivies one of which is fibrous and of a dull black, which
is the true lignite; the other compact and of shining black, which is
the jet of which beautiful necklaces are made. He met with sever-"
al valuable plants; the Salsola, Salicornia, and a species of Rosella.
He collected also several minerals and petrified shells, as the Retun-
culus, Pirula, Serita, Serpula, Dentalium, &c.

Mr. J. N. Reynolds has been, for many months, travelling in the
southern provinces of Chile and Arauco, collecting subjects of natur-
al history. His attention has been principally directed towards the
birds of the country, and he has already sent several hundred speci-
mens to the United States, among which are many new and highly
interesting species. He has been particular in studying the habits of
all those he has taken, and he intends, if possible, to complete the or-
nithology of Chile before he leaves the coast.

I send these notes under the impression that they will be interest-
ing to you; as they at least show that something is doing for science

in this part of the world. W.25s¥ioR:

272 The Vitality of Toads enclosed in Stone and Wood.

Art. VII.—On the Vitality of Toads enclosed in Stone and Wood ;
by the Rev. W. Bucxianp, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., and
Professor of Geology and Mincilngy ia in the nicer of Ox-
ford. _Communicated by the Author.

- From the pace wee New Sere Journal.

In the month of iovcaber 1825, I commenced the fobioatin dl ex-
periments: with a view to. explain the frequent discoveries of toads
enclosed within blocks of stone and wood, in cavities that are said to
have no communication with the external air. : ie

In one large block of coarse oolitic limestone, (the Oxford oolite
from the quarries of Heddington) twelve circular cells were prepar-
ed, each about one foot deep and five inches in diameter, and having
a groove or shoulder at its upper margin fitted to receive a circular
plate of glass, and a circular slate to protect the glass; the margin
of this double cover was closed round, and rendered impenetrable
to air and water by a luting of soft clay. - Twelve smaller cells, each
six inches deep and five inches in diameter, were made in another
block of compact siliceous sandstone, viz. the Pennant Grit of the
Coal formation near Bristol; these cells also were covered with simi-
lar plates of glass and slate cemented at the edge by clay. ‘The ob-
ject of the glass covers was to allow the animals to be inspected,
without disturbing the clay so as to admit external air or insects into
the cell. The limestone is so porous that it is easily permeable by
water, and probably also by air; the sandstone is very compact.

On the 26th of November 1825, one live toad was placed in each
of the above-mentioned twenty four cells, and the double cover of
glass and slate placed over each of them and cemented down by the
luting of clay; the weight of each toad in grains was ascertained
and noted by Dr. Daubeny and Mr. Dillwyn, at the time of their
being placed in the cells; that of the smallest was one hundred fif-
teen grains, and of the largest one thousand one hundred and eighty
five grains. The large and small animals were distributed in equal
proportion between the limestone and the sandstone cells.

These blocks of stone were buried together in my garden beneath
three feet of earth, and remained sacucubd until the 10th of De-
cember 1826, on which day they were examined. Every toad in
the smaller cells of the compact sandstone was dead, and the bodies
of most of them so much decayed, that they must have been dead

The Vitality of Toads enclosed in Stone and Wood. 273

some months. The greater number of those in the larger cells of
porous limestone were alive. No. 1, whose weight when immured
was nine hundred twenty four grains, now weighed only six hundred
ninety eight grains. No. 5, whose weight when immured was one
thousand one hundred and eight five grains, now weighed one thou-
sand two hundred and sixty five grains. ‘The glass cover over this
cell was slightly cracked, so that minute insects might have entered ;
none, however, were discovered in this cell; but in another cell,
whose glass was broken, and the animal within it dead, there was a
large assemblage of minute insects, and a similar assemblage also on
the outside of the glass of a third cell. In the cell No. 9, a toad
which, when put in, weighed nine hundred eighty eight grains, had
increased to one thousand one hundred and sixteen grains, and the
glass over it was entire; but as the luting of the cell within which
this toad had increased in weight was not particularly examined, it is
probable there was some aperture in it, by which small insects found
admission. No. 11, had decreased from nine hundred thirty six
grains to six hundred fifty two grains.

When they were first examined in December, 1826, not only were
all the small toads dead, but the larger ones appeared much emacia-
ted, with the two exceptions above mentioned. We have already
stated that these probably owed their increased weight to the insects,
which had found access to the cells and become their food.

The death of every individual of every size in the smaller cells
of compact sandstone, appears to have resulted from a deficiency in
the supply of air, in consequence of the smallness of the cells, and
the impermeable nature of the stone; the larger volume of air origi-
nally enclosed in the cells of the limestone, and the porous nature of
this stone itself (permeable as it is slowly by water and probably also
by air) seems to have favored the duration of life to the animals en-
closed in them without food.

It should be noticed that there is a defect in these experiments,
arising from the treatment of the twenty four toads before they were
enclosed in the blocks of stone. ‘They were shut up and buried on
the 26th of November, but the greater number of them had been
caught more than two months before that time, and had been impris-
oned altogether ina cucumber frame placed on common garden
earth, where the supply of food to so many individuals was probably
scanty, and their confinement unnatural, so that they were in an un-
healthy and somewhat meagre state at the time of their imprisonment.

Vou. XXITI.—No 2. 35

274 The Vitality of Toads enclosed in Stone and Wood.

We can therefore scarcely argue with certainty from the death of all
these individuals within two years, as to the duration of life, which
might have been maintained had they retired spontaneously and fallen
into the torpor of their natural hybernization in good bodily condition.
~The results of our experiments amount to this; all the toads both
large and small inclosed in sandstone, and the small toads in the lime-
stone also, were dead atthe end of thirteen months. Before the ex-
piration of the second year, all the large ones also were dead; these
were examined several times during the second year through the
glass covers of the cells, but without removing them to admit air ;
they appeared always awake with their eyes open, and never in a
state of torpor, their meagreness increasing at each interval in which
they were examined, until at length they were found dead; those two,
also, which had gained an accession of weight at the end of the first
year, and were then carefully closed up again, were emaciated and
dead before the expiration of the second year.

At the same time that these toads were enclosed in stone, four eles .
toads of middling size were enclosed in three holes cut for this pur-
pose, on the north side of the trunk of an apple tree; two being pla-
ced in the largest cell, and each of the others in a single-cell; the
cells were nearly circular, about five inches deep and three inches in
diameter; they were carefully closed up with a plug of wood, so. as
to exclude access of insects, and apparently were air-tight; when
examined at the end of a year, every one of the toads was dead
and their bodies were decayed.

From the fatal result of the experiments made in the small cells
cut in the apple tree, and the block of compact sandstone, it seems
to follow that toads cannot live a year excluded totally from atmos-
pheric air; and. from the experiments in the larger cells within the
block of oolite limestone, it seems probable that they cannot sur-
vive two years entirely excluded from food; we may therefore con-
clude, that there is a want of sufficiently minute and accurate obser-
vation in those so frequently recorded cases, where toads are said to
be found alive within blocks of stone and wood, in cavities that had no
communication whatever with the external air. The fact of my two
toads having increased in weight at the end of a year, notwithstand-
ing the care that was taken to enclose them perfectly by a luting of
clay, shews how very small an aperture will admit minute. insects
sufficient to maintain life. In the cell No. 5, where the glass was
slightly cracked, the communication though small was obvious; but

The Vitality of Toads enclosed in Stone and Wood. 275

in the cell No. 9, where the glass cover remained entire, and where
it appears certain, from the increased weight of the enclosed animal,
that insects must have found admission, we have an example of these
minute animals finding their way into a cell, to which great care had
been taken to prevent any possibility of access.

_ Admitting, then, that toads are occasionally found in cavities of
wood and stone, with which there is no communication sufficiently
large to allow the ingress and egress of the animal enclosed in them,
we may, I think, find a solution of such phenomena in the habits of
these reptiles, and of the insects which form their food. The first
effort of the young toad, as soon as it has left its tadpole state and
emerged from the water, is to seek shelter in holes and crevices of
rocks and trees. An individual, which, when young, may have thus
entered a cavity by some very narrow aperture, would find abundance
of food by catching insects, which like itself seek shelter within such
cavities, and may soon have increased so much in bulk as to render
it impossible to go out again, through the narrow aperture at which
it entered. A small hole of this kind is very likely to be overlooked
by common workmen, who are the only people whose operations on
stone and wood disclose cavities in the interior of such substances.
In the case of toads, snakes, and lizards, that occasionally issue from
stones that are broken in a quarry, or in sinking wells, and some-
times even from strata of coal at the bottom of a coal mine, the evi-
dence is never perfect to shew that the reptiles were entirely enclos-
ed in a solid rock; no examination is ever made until the reptile is
first discovered by the breaking of the mass in which it was contain-
ed, and then it is too late to ascertain without carefully replacing
every fragment (and in no case that I have seen reported has this
ever been done) whether or not there was any hole or crevice by
which the animal may have entered the cavity from which it was ex-
tracted. Without previous examination it is almost impossible to
prove that there was no such communication. Inthe case of rocks
near the surface of the earth, and in stone quarries, reptiles find
ready admission to holes and fissures. We havea notorious example
of this kind in the lizard found in a chalk pit, and brought alive to the
late Dr. Clarke. In the case also of wells and coal pits, a reptile
that had fallen down the well or shaft, and survived its fall, would
seek its natural retreat in the first hole or crevice it could find, and
the miner dislodging it from this cavity to which his previous attention
had not been called, might in ignorance conclude that the animal was
coeval with the stone from which he had extracted it.

276 ©The Vitality of Toads enclosed in Stone and Wood.

It remains only to consider the case, (of which I know not any
authenticated example), of toads that have been said to be found
cavities within blocks of limestone to which, on careful examination,
no access whatever could be discovered, and where the animal was ab-
solutely and entirely closed up with stone. Should any such case ever
have existed, it is probable that the communication between this cavity
and the external surface had been closed up by stalactitic incrustation
after the animal had become too large to make its escape. A simi-
lar explanation may be offered of the much more probable case of a
live toad being entirely surrounded with solid wood. In each case
the animal would have continued to increase in bulk so long as the
smallest aperture remained by which air and insects could find ad-
mission; it would probably become torpid as soon as this aperture
was entirely closed by the accumulation of stalactite or the growth of
wood; but it still remains to be ascertained how long this state of
torpor may continue under total exclusion from food, and from exter-
nal air: and although the experiments above recorded shew that life
did not extend two years in the case of any one of the individuals which
formed the subjects of them, yet, for reasons which have been spe-
cified, they are not decisive to shew that a state of torpor, or suspend-
ed animation, may not be endured for a much longer time by toads
that are healthy and well fed up to the moment when they are finally
cut off from food, and from all direct access to atmospheric air.

The common experiment of burying a toad in a flower-pot cover-
ed with a tile, is of no value, unless the cover be carefully luted to
the pot, and the hole at the bottom of the pot also closed, so as to
exclude all possible access of air, earthworms and insects. I have
heard of two or three experiments of this kind, in which these pre-
cautions have not been taken, and in which, at the end of a year, the
toads have been found alive and well.

Besides the toads enclosed in stone and wood, four others were
placed each in a small basin of plaster of Paris, four inches deep
and five inches in diameter, having a cover of the same material eare-
fully luted round with clay ; these were buried at the same time and
in the same place with the blocks of stone, and on being examined
at the same time with them in December, 1826, two. of the toads
were dead, the other two alive, but much emaciated. We-can only
collect from this experiment, that a thin plate of plaster of Paris is

permeable to air in a sufficient degree to maintain the life of a toad
for thirteen months.

The Vitality of Toads enclosed in Stone and Wood. 277

In the 19th Vol. No. 1, p. 167, of Silliman’s American Journal of
Science and Arts, David Thomas, Esq. has published some obser-
vations on frogs and toads in stone and solid earth, enumerating sever-
al authentic and well attested cases: these, however, amount to no
more than a repetition of the facts so often stated and admitted to be
true, viz. that torpid reptiles occur in cavities of stone, and at the
depth of many feet in soil and earth; but, they state not any thing
to disprove the possibility of a small aperture, by which these cavities
may have had communication with the external surface, and insects
have been adinitted. ,

The attention of the discoverer is always directed more to the
toad than to the minutiz of the state of the cavity in which it was
contained. ; ’

In the Literary Gazette of March 12, 1831, p. 169, there isa
very interesting account of the habits of a tame male toad, that was
domesticated and carefully observed during almost two years by
Mr. F. C. Husenbeth. During two winters, from November to
March, he ate no food, though he did not become torpid, but grew
thin and moved much less than at other times. During the winter
of 1828, he gradually lost his appetite and gradually recovered it.
He was well fed during two summers, and after the end of the second
winter, on the 29th of March, 1829, he was found dead. His death
was apparently caused by an unusually long continuance of severe
weather, which seemed to exhaust him before his natural appetite re-
turned. He could not have died from starvation, for the day before
his death he refused a lively fly.

- Dr. ‘Townson also, in his tracts on Natural History, (London,
1799), records a series of observations which he made on tame frogs,
and also on some toads; these were directed chiefly to the very ab-
sorbent power of the skin of these reptiles, and show that they take
in and reject liquids, through their skin alone, by a rapid process of
absorption and evaporation,—a frog absorbing sometimes in half an
hour as much as half its own weight, and in a few hours the whole of

of its own weight of water, and nearly as rapidly giving it off when
placed in any position that is warm and removed from moistnre. Dr.
T.. contends that as the frog tribe never drink water, this fluid must
be supplied by means of absorption through the skin. Both frogs
and toads have a large bladder, which is often found full of water ;
“whatever this fluid may be, (he says), it is as pure as distilled water

and equally tasteless; this I assert as well of that of the toad which
Ihave often tasted, as that of frogs.”

ok On the process of Memory.

Arr. VIII.—On the process of Memory; by Isaac Orr.
TO THE EDITOR.

Dear Sir.—The following suggestions are probably new, and not
altogether unimportant, since if they are correct they throw at least
some light on the subject of Intellectual Philosophy.

In every primary intellectual operation, there are two things to be
especially noted. 1st. The impression or influence on the organ or
faculty of the mind, from the object of perception or observation ; 2d.
The perception of that object by the mind, or the attention of the
mind directed toward it. ‘The former of these, as far as impressions
from without are concerned, Dugald Stewart has distinguished by the
name of sensation, though it is questionable whether it does not often
take place when the organ is entirely torpid. ‘The latter he calls
perception. ‘The process is simply the following. The light from an
object strikes upon the retina. If the mind is sufficiently unoccupied
and awake, it perceives or observes the impulse. ‘This is a volun-
tary or involuntary act of the mind ; and may be in part both. It re-
quires but a moment’s reflection, to understand fully, that it is merely
the repetition of this very act, which afterwards constitutes the recol-
lection or memory of that object. Again, the air vibrates upon the
ear, from some one of the various causes, to which sound is ascri-
bed. The mind perceives or observes the vibration. This also is a
mental act: and memory of the sound in question, is plainly a mere
repetition of this very act, or otherwise the power of repeating it.
In the same manner impressions are made on the organs of smell, taste
and touch ; the mind perceives or observes the impressions ; and the
memory of all the objects by which the impressions are made, is most
evidently mere repetitions of the primary act, that is, the act of per-
ception. One answer, then, to the question, what is memory? Is,
that it is a part of the very act of observation or perception. The
only difference is, that the impression is not made on the organ.
The act of the mind itself, is the very same in kind, and can differ
in no respect, unless it is in the degree of vividness.

It is doubtful, even, whether the mind has not the power of produ-
cing on the organs of sense, just such impressions as are made by
external objects. ‘This power is at least indicated by the electric
light,* which appears to exist in the eye, so scarcely latent, or slightly

* May not this perception of light, (we know of nothing to prove that it is elee-
tric,) arise, merely, from the impulse on the optic nerve ?—£d.

;

On the process of Memory. 278-

confined, that it is excited to action by a stroke, a jar, or by any sud-
den and vivid emotion. The ear, too, has the elements of sound so
much at command, independent of any external cause, that a slight
disorder or irregularity of the parts in or about the ear, will often
produce the sensation of sound as vividly, as if an impression were
really made upon the eay by the action of an external object. It is
well known that the other organs of sense are not near so suscepti-
ble of seeming sensations, without the actual influence of external
causes.. The organs of touch may be thought an exception; but
the sensations caused by internal pain, are very different from those
produced by external objects, on the organs of touch. May it not
be owing to these facts that the senses of seeing and: hearing, are
more concerned in dreams, than the other senses?

The action of the mind, then, in recollection or memory, is the
same as in observation or perception; and there is, perhaps, a slight
probability, that the mind goes farther, in some cases, and produces
on the organs of sense, the phenomena of actual sensation. Itis an
interesting question, why the mind acts in one way, rather than
another; or why the attention of the mind seems directed toward
one object, rather than another? This question is best answered by
well known facts; that the mind acts most readily in that way in
which it has before acted the oftenest and most intensely; that those
sensations are reproduced most readily, by the mind, which have
been before the most frequent and the most vivid; or that the atten-
tion of the mind is most easily directed to those seeming objects,
toward which it has been the oftenest and most earnestly directed.
Now, all this would be well and simply called mental habit. On
habit, too, much of association is plainly dependent. The mind goes
from one thing to another, in a particular train, simply because it has
done so before. Philosophical association.may be thought to he
somewhat different. But when it is analyzed, it will be found to be
quite or very nearly the same. In going from cause to effect, from
effect to cause, from premises to conclusions, from conclusions to
premises, from like to like, and from opposite to opposite, there will
be usually found elements in each, which the mind has before ob-
served or contemplated together. Where it is otherwise, it is gener-
ally not a case of memory, but of actual perception.

Each of the very rapid motions, in the performance of instru-
mental music, and in other similar exercises, has been ascribed to a
distinct act of the memory, and an act of the will. Be it so; and

280 Chemical Analysis of the Aimosphere.

it goes to confirm the views which have been here taken of the sub-
ject. If the fingers make a series of movements, in such sure and
rapid succession, it is not simply because the mind has time to de-
termine and will each movement, but because it has been accustom-
edso to move them. It isa matter of habit. This is the decision
of the great mass of mankind: and there .is nothing in-the whole
circle of intellectual phenomena to contravene it.

When we have arrived at habit, we have arrived apparently at the
ultimate fact. Every body knows that the mind is most apt to operate,
and operates most readily, in the way in which it has operated be-
fore. But the question why or how it is so, probably admits of the
sole answer, that itis an ordinance of the Creator. It is an ordinance
designed and calculated to give to idleness and vice their punishment,
and its reward to diligence.

If these views are correct, the proper and philosophical definition
of memory is not, the recalling of ideas or images laid up in the
mind, or the power of doing it ; nor is it even, the renewing of former
impressions and reflections, or the power of doing it, except im those
doubtful cases in which the mind itself may produce actual sensations 5
but it is, the acts of the mind in ways to which it has been accustomed,
or the force of habit urging, disposing or helping the mind tn the
performance of customary acts. Memory is either the influence or
power of mental habit, or the results of that habit; and as a neces-
sary consequence, the improvement of the memory mainly depends on

the frequency and intenseness of mental action.
Washington, Nov. 1832.

Art. 1X.—Memoir on the Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere ;
by M. Brunner, Prof. of Chemistry at Berne. ‘Translated for
this Journal by Prof. Griscom.

An examination of the chemical constitution of the atmosphere, is
a matter of such great importance, that we are not surprised to find
so many efforts have been made to bring it to the highest possible de-
gree of perfection. The attention of manlusophers has been chiefly
directed to the four substances of which the atmosphere, in its ordinary
state, is always constituted,—to the determination of the proportions
of these substances with as much exactness as the state of science
and the accuracy of our instruments will permit.

The azote and oxygen form the great mass of atmospheric fluid,
and in proportions which appear Tees entirely constant,—at least

Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere. 281

the eudiometric methods show no greater discrepancy than the errors
which may be regarded as inseparable from experiment. ‘The chan-
ges however which we observe in the atmosphere,—the varying phe-
nomena of meteorology, would naturally lead us to think that these
proportions must undergo some changes; and although our experi-
ments do not justify such a supposition, it is desirable to ascertain with
certainty the variations, if any do occur, however small they may be.
_ The two other substances, which are generally regarded as acci-
dental constituents of the air, water and carbonic acid, have equally
engaged the attention of chemists. The estimation of the water con-
stitutes the special branch of Physics called hygrometry, on which
subject we have a great number of very valuable researches. The
valuation of the carbonic acid has been less attended to. Weare in-
debted to ‘Theodore de Saussure for an interesting memoir on this
subject.
. Although the recent es on these latter ee of physics leave
little to be desired in relation to the exactness of the method em-
ployed, I think it may be useful to possess various methods, based on
different principles, and which may on that account serve as checks
to each other, and eventually lead to that exactness which this deli-
cate part of chemistry appears to require. It is with this view that
I have undertaken a series of experiments for obtaining an easy and
sure method of determining in a direct manner the quantity of wa-
ter and carbonic acid contained in a given volume of atmospheric air.

1. Determination of the watery vapor contained in the atmosphere.

A (Fig.1.) is a cylindrical vessel of glass or metal,—tin for exam-
ple;—having two openings a and 8, the latter furnished with a stop
cock. It contains about thirty quarts of water. The upper orifice
a being connected with a horizontal tube of glass, it is evident that
the water which flows through the cock 0 is replaced, in the vessel,
by an equal volume of air passing through the tube. By filling the
latter with a hygrometric substance, capable of retaining the watery
vapor which this air contains, we determine by ‘the increased weight
which the tube thus acquires, the proportion of water contained in a
volume of air equal to that of the discharged water. ,

To use this very simple apparatus with perfect certainty, several
conditions are requisite.

1. The vessel A must contain at least thirty quarts in order to act
upon a considerable volume of air. Although in common experi-

Vou. XXIT.—No. 2. 36

282 Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere.

ments, the half of this volume might be sufficient, there are cases nm
which this quantity becomes necessary. -

2. The discharged water is received in a large bottle B, measur-
ed very exactly and marked on its neck with afile. The bottle which
I use contains 12972.5 cubic centimetres. — By filling it twice, I draw
off nearly the whole volume contained in A. ee :

3. The hygrometric tube is eleven or twelve inches long and from
three lines to three anda half in diameter, internally. It has two
enlargements near the two ends, destined to receive the hygroscopi¢
- liquid, when the tube is not in a perfectly horizontal position.

4. Common sulphuric acid serves as a hygrometric substance. A
quantity of amianthus, sufficient to line the sides of the tube, is in-
troduced, which is moistened by letting about fifty drops of acid fall
into it. It is easy to moisten the amianthus uniformly throughout the
length of the tube, by suitable inclinations.. The tube, thus prepar-
-ed and stopped at the two ends, is weighed in a balance which indi-
cates milligrammes, (two hundredth part (nearly) of a grain.) j

The flowing of the water must be carefully regulated. If too
rapid, a part of the vapor might escape the action of the sulphuric
acid. If on the contrary it be too slow, time would be lost unneces-
sarily, and the air would be acted upon during an interval in which
some change might take place in the constitution of the atmosphere.
Experience has taught me that thirteen thousand grammes of water®
may be drawn from the vessel A in an interval of ten minutes, with-
out the risk of any inconvenience.

6. In calculating the result furnished by the operation, the neces-
sary Corrections must be made for barometric pressure, temperature
of the air which enters the vessel A by taking that of the discharg-
ing water, the temperature of the free air the moisture of which we
are trying, and the tension of the water contained in the vessel.
These reductions are too well known to philosophers to need further
explanation.

Although in the use of this apparatus, there is no difficulty in fol-
lowing exactly the dimensions and manipulations described, it will be
well for the student to adapt a second tube, containing sulphuric acid,
between the hygrometric tube and the vessel A. If the weight of
this latter tube is not altered by the passage of the air requisite to the
operation, the arrangement may be deemed satisfactory. I have sent
through the tube the required volume of air, saturated with moisture

SPRL? (Olas ae Se eS EE a el
* Between three and four gallons.

Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere. 283

(ey pressing it first through a tube containing moist cotton,) without
finding the second tube altered in weight.

The increase of weight of the hygrometric tube, in causing the
discharge of 12972.5 grammes of water, is found, under ordinary
circumstances, included within the limits ‘of sixty to one hundred
milligrammes, an amount apparently considerable enough to be but
ltttle influenced by errors of observation. On the 26th of Dec.
1830, during the finest weather, at a temperature of 16° cent. {=60°
Fah.) I obtained thirteen milligrammes from the same volume of air.

Although this method of estimating the moisture of the atmosphere
always requires an experiment, and for which commen hygrometers
cannot be substituted for the instrument now described, it appears to
me that this is the only one which can give a direct result, and that
it must on that account be useful in regulating others. I think never-
theless, it may be used successfully in travelling. A tin vessel, of
convenient dimensions, (from eight to ten thousand cubie centime-
ters) would be easily transported, as well as tubes containing amian-
thus moistened with sulphuric acid, and weighed beforehand, the ba-
rometer and thermometer always making a part of the equipment of
a scientific traveller.

‘To those who could not conveniently obtain a vessel expressly
adapted to this purpose, | would propose the use of a common bot-
tle, thus—fill the bottle A, (Fig. 2.) with water, which may be drawn
off by the syphon ab, and measured by means of a vessel of known
capacity. ‘To the tube c adapt the hygrometric tube in the common
manner. With this apparatus, which may be constructed wherever
bottles can be found, and a small portable measuring glass, with the
weighed tubes, it is easy to make experiments of sufficient exactness.
Care must of course be taken to guard against the influence of hu-
midity arising from the flow of the water, the decanting from the
measuring glass into the bottle, &c. which will never be difficult.
With a =o apparatus, it would be advisable to perform the experi-
ment near a window, through an opening of which the hygrometrie
tube should pass into the open air. —

Il. Determination of Carbone Acid.

The valuation of the carbonic acid in the atmosphere has been
less studied than that of the other elements, either because it pre-
sents greater obstacles or is judged to be of less interest. All that
is positively known, we owe to Theod. de Saussure, whose memoir,

284 Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere. -

in the Journals of the Société de Physique de Geneve, is the result of
numerous and extensive researches. His process was an improve-
ment on the method of Thenard in 1812, and consisted in causing
a large and known volume of air to act on barytic water, in a glass
balloon, and to calculate the carbonic acid by the carbonate of ba-
rytes thus formed. This process, although founded on a theory per-
fectly established, presents many difficulties in the execution, which
M. de Saussure has overcome and has described with admirable ex-
actness. He found that the atmosphere, in its ordimary state, con-
tains between 3.7 and 6.2 of carbonic acid in ten thousand parts of
air in volume, and he studied the changes produced by the influence »
of seasons, hours and various local causes.* His researches are of
great importance to meteorology. Although the method pursued by
this philosopher can scarcely fail to attain the object proposed, I think
it would be well to possess a second method, if only by way of com-
parison. ‘The method, moreover, of de Saussure requires a train
of operations which may easily lead into error in hands less careful
than his own, and which, as he informs us, required nine days for
each experiment.

I have endeavored to employ the hygrometric apparatus above de-.
scribed ; having first tried the method practised by Thenard and de
Saussure, as well as others, without obtaining results satisfactory to
myself. The method by which I at last succeeded is the following.

A tube of glass three feet long (Fig. 3.)+ and of the same eali-
bre as the hygrometric tube, is filled in the first two thirds of its
length ab, with hydrate of lime; the rest is disposed so as to serve
as a hygrometric tube by putting into it amianthus moistened with
sulphuric acid.{ By the increase of weight of this tube, after a.
measured current of air has passed through, we determine the pro-
portion of carbonic acid it contains. The following details are in-
dispensable.

1. The hydrate of lime must be carefully prepared. _ The lime,
well calcined, is reduced to a hydrate by moistening if with a few
drops of water, and after it has completely crumbled, add a few drops
more of water, so that in stirring it with a spatula it will form small
clots or lumps. It is important to hit the proper degree of humidity.

* Vid. American Journal of Science, Vol. XX, p. 183.

t The tube is bent as shown in the figure, in order to be placed more conve-
niently in the balance.

{ The moistened amianthus is separated from the lime, by a few fragments of
glass or porcelain, occupying the bend b.

Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere. 285

If the lime is too dry, it absorbs the carbonic acid very imperfectly ;
if too moist, it is difficult to make it pass the bend of the tube. By
a few trials the right point may be easily obtained.

2. The sulphuric acid included in the end of the tube, is placed
in the same manner as in the determination of moisture. From fifty
to sixty drops are always sufficient. The effect of this acid is evi-
dent. ‘The lime in passing from the state of hydrate to that of car-
bonate, abandons its water, which would cause a diminution of weight,
as well as the portion of water (still greater) carried along by the cur-
rent of air passing through the tube. It is in order to retain this wa-
ter that the hygrometric portion of the tube becomes necessary.

3. The air before it enters into the tube containing the lime, ought
to pass through a common hygrometric tube, in order to deposit its
water, which, without this precaution, would be confounded with the »
earbonic acid.

4. All the weighings ought to be done by substitution, that is to say,
in taring (en ¢arant) a known weight,—for example, .2 of a gramme,
with the tubes, and on the same plate of the balance, and in deducting
from this weight, that required to be substituted for it after the oper-
ation,—the difference indicating the increase of weight of the tube
produced by the operation. We should never neglect to wipe the
tubes immediately before weighing, since the moisture which they
attract from the air, may, in a certain time, occasion an error of some
milligrammes, as I have ascertained by direct experiment.

5. The volume of air operated upon ought to be large, in order
that the increase of weight of the lime may not be too small. In
drawing 12972.5 grammes of water from the vessel A, I have ob-
tained, in ordinary circumstances, an increase of seven to nine milli-
grammes. It is therefore preferable to operate upon a volume of
twice this size, which may be done without difficulty in the course
of fifty, minutes.

6. To calculate the proportion of carbonic acid in the air analysed,
we set out with the specific gravity of this gas, as determined by Ber-
zelius. and Dulong, and which gives for 1.97978 grammes of carbo-
nic acid its volume equal to one thousand cubic centimetres at 0°
and at 0.76 of the barometric column, (=29.52 in.) The volume
found by calculation is reduced to the volume which it would have
at the temperature of the vessel A and the prevailing height of the
barometer, and from the sum representing the volume of analysed
air, we obtain, by the rule of proportion, the volume of carbonic acid
in a given volume of air, e. g. in ten thousand parts. The reduction

286 Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere.

of the volume of air to that of dry air, or rather to the degree of
humidity shown by the experiment, appears to me too minute to
have any sensible influence on the very feeble proportion of carbonic
acid existing in the air.

To determine the limits of the proportion of carbonic acid appre-
ciable by this method, I operated upon air taken from two feet above
a small charcoal fire, and passed it through barytic water, after it had
passed through the lime tube. Although the carbonic acid was
found to be near one per cent. in the volume of air, the barytic water
was not troubled. When I repeated it with a similar air, but more
highly charged, viz. two per cent. of carbonic acid, the barytic water
was decidedly affected. But this proportion of carbonic acid sur-
passes, by more than thirty times, the maximum found by de Saus-

‘sure in the atmosphere. I would observe, that in the latter experi-
ments, I let the water flow in a natural stream. By slackening the
current, or by lengthening the lime tube, we might peer operate
upon air more highly charged with carbonic acid.

To be certain that the current of air does not bring with it any
sensible quantity of water, I placed a second hygrometric tube be-
tween the lime tube and the vessel A. In several experiments of
this kind, I never observed the least increase of weight in this tube.

In a series of experiments undertaken with a view of studying my
apparatus, I constantly obtained results included within the limits of
those obtained by de Saussure.

it appears therefore that the method now described Tanne an
easy and certain means for ascertaming the proportion of the two ac-
cidental principles of the atmosphere. I think it susceptible of being
extended to those researches which are properly styled eudiomet-
ric.* Perhaps a method may be derived from it, more exact than
those now practised to determine the proportion of the oxygen, which
has hitherto been scarcely brought within one hundreth of the point
of rigorous exactness. It would also be desirable to employ some anal-
ogous methods in researches into the other elements which the at-
mosphere appears to contain. For this purpose currents of air should
be passed, for some time, through different reagents, which might be
enclosed either in tubes similar to those above described, or through
Wolf’s bottles, and in order to act upon large masses of air, an appa-

*Ts it not to be regretted that the term eudiometry and eudiometer should be ap-
plied exclusively to the art of determining the quantity of oxygen in the air and the
instruments for that purpose ? Would not the terms oximetry and oximeter be more
appropriate ?—7r.

Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere. 287

ratus might be erected of large dimensions, by using for example, a
hogshead, and causing the air to flow during whole days through dif-
ferent reagents. ‘To experimenters residing near the Ocean this
method may be specially recommended. It is known that some tri-
als, made within a few years, of the air over the Baltic Sea, have fur-
nished very curious results which it would be interesting to follow up.

But in a variety of other circumstances such researches may be
very useful. I have endeavored to subject our autumnal fog, the pe-
culiar odor of which is known to all, to the action of several rea-
gents. I have passed air, loaded with this fog, through nitrate of sil-
ver, and chloride of silver dissolved in caustic ammonia. Nothing
positive was obtained. In the last case a precipitate was produced
which speedily assumed the color of chloride of silver exposed for
some time to the light, and which was found to be in reality that salt,
doubtless precipitated from its ammoniacal solution by the carbonic
acid introduced with the atmosphere.

I advert to these incomplete trials only to suggest methods which
I think may be followed in investigations of this nature.—Bub. Umi.
Mars, 1832.

Berne, March 27th, 1832.

Fig. i.

288 Organic Remains of the

Arr. X.—Supplement to the “ Synopsis of the Organic Remains of
the Ferruginous Sand Formation of the United States,” contained
wn Vols. XVI and XV ILI of this Journal;* by S.G. Morton,
M.D., &c.

WHEN my attention was first called to this subject, eight years ago,
I could not trace the marl region beyond the peninsula of New Jer-
sey and a small part of Delaware: subsequently, however, it has
been discovered in almost all the Southern States, and I now believe
it to be one of the most extensive formations on this continent.

Its localities in New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland have been
so often referred to, that I shall not recur to them; but for the pur-
pose of exciting the observation of tourists, and others, in the South-
ern States, it may be well to notice the green sand districts which are
already ascertained to exist there.

North Carolina.—At Ashwood, near Cape Fear river, on the

authority of Mr. Vanuxem.
- South Carolina.—At Effingham’s Mills, on Lynch’s creek, on the
authority of Dr. Blanding, who has brought me a number of char-
acteristic fossils; also at Mars’s Bluff, on Pedee river, and at Nelson’s
ferry, on the Santee river.

Georgia.—Near Sandersville, where it is chiefly recognized by
Belemnites.

labama.—My friend Dr. Pitcher, U.S. A., informs me that he
has traced the ferruginous sand all the way from Portland to Mont-
gomery, a tract which embraces Cahawba, a locality already quoted
by me, on the authority of Mr. Nuttall.

Mississippi.—This State has an extensive marl tract in the Chick-
asaw fields, near the borders of Tennessee. ‘The characteristic
fossils have been sent to me by my friend Mr. Brewster.

Tennessee.—The south western portion of Tennessee presents a
continuation of the tract just mentioned, which takes a westerly di-
rection across the Mississippi river at the Chickasaw Bluffs.

Louwisiana.—Dr. Pitcher, in a recent letter, describes an exten-
sive deposit of ferruginous sand between Alexandria and Nachitoches.
Judge Bry has also noticed it near the township of Wachita, on the
Wachita river, where it is recognized by Belemnites, Ammonites and
Gryphee.

* See also a letter to the Editor, Vol. XXII, p. 90.

Ferruginous Sand Formation. 289

Arkansas.—Mr. Nuttall describes this formation as occurring ex-
tensively on the calcareous platform of the Red river, above and be-
low the junction of the Kiamesha; and Dr. Pitcher has lately ob-
tained there some large Ammonites and Se fossils which I have
not yet received.

/Missourt.—Messrs. Lewis and Clarke, Mr. Nuttall and Col. Long
found Baculites, Hamites?, Gryphee, and other marl fossils at the
Great Bend of the Missouri river (Lat. 43° 40’ N., Long. 72° W.
from Washington) intimating the existence of the ferruginous sand in
that remote region of our continent, as mentioned on a former occasion.

Now these various deposits, though seemingly insulated, are doubt-
less continuous, or nearly so, forming an irregular crescent nearly
three thousand miles in extent; and what is very remarkable, there
is not only a generic accordance between the fossil shells scattered
through this vast tract, but in by far the greater number of compar-
isons I have hitherto been able to make, the same species of fossils
are found throughout: thus the Ammonites placenta, Baculites ovatus,
Gryphea Vomer, Gryphea mutabilis, Ostrea falcata, &§c. are found
without a shadow of difference, from New Jersey to Louisiana: al-
though some species have been found in the latter State, that have
not ae noticed in the former, and vice versa.

There seems also to be superposed on the ferruginous sand of the
Southern States a calcareous deposit, in mineralogical characters not
very unlike that of New Jersey; but of its organic remains I have
seen but few species, consisting of Nummulites, Gryphites, and Pec-
tens; all differmg obviously from any others with which I am ac-
quainted. ‘The principal deposit of this kind occurs near Claiborne,
Alabama. Another, noticed by Mr. Nuttall, near Wilmington, in
North Carolina, appears to be a link in the same series.

In further corroboration of the views maintained in these essays I
may add, that Mr. Dela Beche, in his Geological Manual, p. 294,
after giving a list of the fossils contained in the former parts of this
Synopsis, concludes his observations on the cretaceous group in these
words: “It is almost impossible not to be struck, in the foregoing
list, with the great zoological resemblance of this ferruginous sand
deposit with the cretaceous rocks of Europe. As has been above
noticed, the genera Baculites, Scaphites and Turrilites have not been
discovered out of this series in Europe. ‘The Pecten quinquecosta-
tus is a well known and widely distributed chalk fossil. But it is

not so much by individual parts as by the general character of the
Vou. XXITI.—No. 2. 37

290 Organic Remains of the

whole that Dr. Morton’s inference seems in a great measure estab-
lished. How far the cretaceous group of the United States may be
separated beneath and above, from other deposits more or less con-
temporaneous with those of Europe, remains an interesting problem
which it is hoped American geologists will endeavor to solve.-—As-
suming that the American ferruginous sand formation belongs to this
[cretaceous] group, of which there seems great probability, it would
appear that the great white carbonate of lime deposit, or chalk, did
not extend there; but that a series of sands, clays and gravels con-
stituted the whole group.”

In reference to the preceding passages, I may briefly observe, that -
the whole super-cretaceous group, or tertiary series, (excepting only
the fresh water deposits) is now satisfactorily identified in this coun-
try. Thus we have the upper, middle and lower tertiary forma-
tions,* all based directly or indirectly on the ferruginous sand; and
I may repeat, that so far as my observations have extended, not a
solitary fossil of the latter formation has been detected in the super-
posed strata.

In resuming the subject of organic remains it may be observed,
that I have figured on the present occasion, some of the most re-
markable species only, the remaining illustrations being reserved for
a separate edition of this Synopsis: for the same reason the plates
here given do not follow each other in numerical order.

ORGANIC REMAINS.
CHAMBERED UNIVALVES.

AMMONITES.

A. telifer. (S.G.M.) A remarkable species, of which I possess
several fragments from the Delaware marl, almost too imperfect for
description, and yet so different from the other species as to induce
me to give itaname. It will be figured in the second edition of
this Synopsis.

I take this occasion to remark that the 4. hippocrepis of DeKay,
inserted in the first part of this Synopsis, is merely a transverse section
of Scaphites Cuviert. ‘This formation, therefore, possesses but four
published species of Ammonites, viz. 4. placenta, 4. Delawarensis,

Al. Vanuxemi and A. telifer.

* J take the liberty (for reasons to be given in another place) of substituting these
names for those of Upper marine, London clay and Plastic clay formations.

Ferruginous Sand Formation. 291

BACULITES. d

B. compressa. (Say.) Pl. 1X, fig. 1. This beautiful fossil was
described by Mr. Say in the American Journal of Science,* but
is now figured, for the first time, from a fine specimen in the posses-
sion of my friend, Jno. P. Wetherill, Esq. and brought from the Great
Bend of the Missouri river. Although I have not been able to obtain
any details of the geology of this remote region, I have no hesitation
in placing the B. compressa in the series of ferruginous sand fossils.

B. asper. (S. G.M.) Transversely suboval, with prominent lat-
eral nodes between the septa. From Alabama.

SCAPHITES.

S. remformis. (S.G.M.) About an inch in length, with numer-
ous coste that bifurcate laterally. ‘This species bears no resem-
blance to S. Cuviert of this Synopsis, but is not very unlike S. stria-
tus, of the British chalk.

NAUTILUS.

MN. Dekay. (S.G.M.) Pl. VHUL fig. 4. This is the only spe-
cies hitherto found in our marls. It has been sometimes compared
to IV. expansus (Sowerby) but is much larger: it has also been con-
founded with the British NV. imperialis, to which, however, it bears
no other resemblance than all the species of this genus bear to each
other. I have much pleasure in dedicating this fossil to one of the
most zealous and intelligent of American naturalists.

NUMMULITES.

N. Mantell. (S. G. M.) Pl. V, fig. 9. Flattened, thin, be-
coming sharp at the edge, and having a central pustuloid elevation.
Diameter from half an inch to an inch and a half. Innumerable in the
whitish, loose grained limestone near Claiborne, Alabama. I have
much pleasure in dedicating this only known American species of
Nummulites, to one of the most zealous and successful cultivators of
geological science. ’

SIMPLE AND SPIRAL UNIVALVES. |

PATELLA.

P. tentorium. (S.G.M.) Compressed, circular, with sixty or

eighty delicate ribs; diameter half an inch. ‘This fossil has some

appearance of a shelly operculum, in which case it would belong to
the genus Hipponix.

* Vol. ii, p. 41.

292 Organic Remains of the

ROSTELLARIA.

R. arenarum. (S.G.M.) PI. V, fig. 8. Noticed, but not named
or figured in the former part of this Synopsis.

TORNITELLA.
1. T.? bullata. (S.G. M.) PI. V, fig. 3. Ventricose, with very
numerous striz : less than an inch long. ;
2. A minute species, of which casts only are found.

BIVALVES.

TEREDO.

T. tibialis. (S.G.M.) PI. TX, fig. 2. I propose this name for the
Teredo so common and so beautifully preserved in the calcareous
strata of New Jersey. The same species is also common in all the
varieties of marl.

PHOLAS.

Mr. Cooper showed me a cast about an inch long, with concentric
and longitudinal strie, and a longitudinal groove.—Found in Mon-
mouth county, N. J.
| PHOLADOMYA.

P. occidentalis. (S.G. M.) PI. VIUL, fig. 3. Oblong-angular, ven-
tricose near the beaks; with twenty five or thirty narrow, elevated,
subtortuous coste, having broad, slightly concave intervening spaces.
Length two inches, breadth three inches. An extremely variable
species: I possess five specimens, (all more or less broken,) in all of
which there is a difference in the number and relative position of the
ribs.

CYTHEREA.

C. excavata. (S. G. M.) PI. V, fig. 1. Suborbicular, compressed,
posterior slope deeply excavated ; posterior side with an obsolete
fold, margin angular. New Jersey.

i CARDITA.

C. decisa. (S.G.M.) Pl. EX, fig. 3. A solitary cast obtained by

me at St. Georges, Delaware.
NUCULA.

A few small casts in ferruginous clay, near Bordentown, New

Jersey.
PLAGIOSTOMA.

P. gregalis. (S. G. M.) Pl. V, fig. 6. Shell irregular, thin;

back armed with concentric squamous plates; within obsoletely stria-

ae

Plate i :

ibs.
BRC

Her SS

cai mess

é

Fem Natuce ly Me Dhiow

his Silh: Fhil«

Pale

ttom Nalitle by We D thiou f

= G
See

Ferruginous Sand Formation. 293 |

ted. Mostly found attached, and varies from one to three inches in
length. Same as No. 1 of this Synopsis. Common in New Jersey.

P. pelagica. (S. G. M.) PI. V, fig. 2. Subovate, convex, with
twenty five or thirty narrow elevated ribs. An unattached shell.
Found with the preceding. Resembles P. duplicata, (Sowerby) an
oolitic fossil.

PECTEN.

P. craticula. (S. G. M.) Shell suborbicular, unequal, with about
ten large, elevated, convex, longitudinally sulcated ribs, and a much
smaller one interposed between each pair. New Jersey. Very rare.

P. anatipes. (S. G. M.) PI. V, fig. 4.. With four or five broad |
convex ribs, longitudinally striated; at the sides large striez replace
the ribs. Rarely more than half an inch in diameter. From the
overlying limestone of Claiborne, Alabama.

P. perplanus. (S.G. M.) PI. V, fig. 5. Depressed, with about
twenty simple coste, transversely striated. Diameter less than an
inch. Found with the preceding species.

P. venustus. (S. G. M.) Pl. V, fig. 7. Shell thin, depressed,
about half an inch in diameter, with fifteen or twenty double coste ;
those on the lower valve delicately beaded. From New Jersey.

GRYPHEA. :

G. plicatella. (S. G. M.) PI. IX, fig. 4. A minute species
from the overlying limestone of Alabama. I defer further notice of
it in the hope of obtaining larger specimens.

OSTREA. —

In addition to the O. falcata, so common in New Jersey, I am
now able to give the characters of the three following species, all from
the same beds :

O. plumosa. (S. G. M.) Ovato-triangular; lower valve convex,
crenated near the hinge; dorsum marked with delicate striz, radia-
ting with fasciculi from the beak to the margin.

O. panda. (S. G. M.) Same as species No. 2 of this Synopsis,
where it is referred, with a question, to O. Cristagalli of Europe.
(Vide Vol. xviii, pl. 3, fig. 22.)

O. urticosa. (S. G. M.) Discoidal, thin, with numerous spinous cos-
te; many individuals usually adhering together. From New Jersey.

ANOMIA.
A. argentaria. (S. G. M.) Pl. V, fig. 10. Thin, round, with

numerous concentric striz.

294 Organic Remains of the Ferruginous Sand Formation.

A. tellinoides. (S. G. M.) PI. V, fig. 11. Irregular, but most-
ly subovate, with concentric undulations. Both these species are
common in New Jersey; the latter resembles 4. ephippiwm, to
which it is referred in the first part of this Synopsis.

veNILIA.* (S. G. M.)

V. Conradi. P|. VIII, fig. 1,2. Trigonal, ventricose, concentrical-
ly suleated ; beaks long and incurved: diameter an inch and a half.
This singular marine shell, so different from any of the hitherto
known genera, was discovered in New Jersey by my estimable friend
Mr. T. A. Conrad, under whose name I gladly introduce it to notice.

ECHINIDE.’

SPATANGUS.

S. parastatus. (S. G. M.) Same as No. 1, of this Synopsis. See
vol. xviii, Pl. 3, fig. 10.

CIDARIS.

C. diatretum. (S. G. M.) A compressed species, found with the

preceding, in the calcareous beds of New Jersey.
i NUCLEOLITES.

N. crucifer. (S. G. M.) Referred in the former part of this

Synopsis to the genus Ananchytes, and figured, vol. xviii, Pl. 3, fig. 8.
CLYPEASTER. :

C. florealis. (S. G. M.) Noticed generically in the first part of
this Synopsis.
~ Very convex; each of the five ambulacra composed of two pairs

of finely dotted lines: base subelliptical, concave; margin abrupt.
From the blue marlof Delaware.

To be continued...

* Generic description. An equivalve bivalve; hinge with three robust cardinal.
teeth in each valve, and an elongated, thick lateral tooth on the posterior side, simi-
lar to that of Unio: anterior muscular impression profound.

Russian Vapor Bath. 295

Art. XI.—.Account of the Russian Vapor Bath 3 by T.S. Trait,
M.D. Communicated by the Author.*

From the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal.

THe existence in Hamburgh of two establishments where the
Russian Vapor-Bath is used, brought to my recollection the descrip-
tions given by Acerbi, and other travellers, of the intense heat and
sudden transition to cold, so much relished by the nations of North-
ern Europe, and raised my curiosity to experience in my own per-
- son the effects of this singular species of bathing. I was further in-
duced to take this step from finding myself suddenly oppressed with
a violent feverish cold, which raised my pulse considerably above
100°, and rendered me little able to join the public dinner-table in
the Apollo Saal.

Accompanied by two friends who wished to make the same ex-
periment, I repaired to the ALExaNDERBAD, which is under the di-
rection of its proprietor, a Jewish physician, who had liberally opened
it gratuitously to the members of the Society of MNaturforscher,
then assembled at Hamburgh. We were ushered into a very neat
saloon, provided with six couches, beside each of which stood a
dressing table, and a convenient apparatus for suspending the clothes of
the bather. Here we undressed, and were furnished with long flannel
dressing-gowns and warm slippers, after which we were all conducted
into a small hot apartment, where we were desired to lay aside our
gowns and slippers, and were immediately introduced into the room
called the bath, in which the dim light admitted through a single win-
dow of three panes, just sufficed to shew us that there were in it two
persons, like ourselves in puris naturalibus ; one of whom was an
essential personage, the operator, the other a gentleman just finish-
ing the process by a copious affusion of cold water over his body.
This sudden introduction into an atmosphere of hot steam was so
oppressive, that I was forced to cover my face with my hands, to
moderate the painful impression on the lips and nostrils, and was com-
pelled to withdraw my head, as much as possible, from the most
heated part of the atmosphere, by sitting down on a low bench which
ran along two sides of the bath.

* Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool.

296 Russian Vapor Bath.

At first our modesty felt some alarm at our perfect nudity, and
that of those around us; but I soon felt that it would be absolutely
impossible to endure the contact of any sort of covering of our
nakedness in a temperature so high; and consoled myself with the
reflection, that it was no worse than the promiscuous bathing I had so
often practised at the sea-baths of Liverpool; an exposure which,
notwithstanding my passion for bathing, was always disagreeable at
the commencement of each season; Oo: to which custom had soon
rendered me indifferent.

The bath-room is about fifteen feet long by about as much in
breadth. It is lined with wood, rendered quite black by constant
immersion in hot steam. On two sides it has three tiers of benches,
or rude couches, each of which is calculated to hold two persons,
with their feet toward each other ; so that twelve persons might bathe
at the same time. The lowest bench projects farthest into the room ;
they rise two feet above each other; and each has a wooden pillow
at the ends.

In one corner of the farther end of the apartment stands the fur-
nace, which is supplied with fuel from without, and has a thin arch
of fire-brick turned over the fire, against which the flame reverbe-
rates, until the arch is red hot. Over this arch is built a small brick
chamber, the only aperture to which is by a small door about two
feet long, and fifteen inches wide, opening nearly to the level of the
arch. ‘To increase the heated surface, numerous small earthern jars,
or broken pottery, are piled on the arch, and all are kept up to a low
red heat. On these, a basin of water is occasionally dashed; and
the clouds of steam which instantly issue from the door of the heat-
ed chamber, form the source of heat employed to maintain the tem-
perature of the bath. !

In the corner opposite to the furnace is a reservoir of cold water,
into which, during our stay in the bath, the person who manages

frequently plunged to cool his surface; a precaution not un-
necessary for an individual who is exposed daily eight hours, stark
naked, to a temperature quite oppressive.to the uninitiated. Yet this
exposure and this alternation cannot be unhealthy ; for I never saw
a more athletic man than this person, who informed me that he had
- been constanly engaged in this occupation for sixteen or eighteen
months.

The center of the ceiling of the bath-room is perforated by nu-
merous holes which allow a copious shower-bath of cold water to

Russian Vapor Bath. 297

descend on the head of the bather, whena valve managed by a cord
is opened.

Such is the apparatus necessary for a Racin vapor-bath.

After remaining some time in the bath, the first sensations of op-
pressive heat subsided, and I ascended to the second tier of benches,
the wood of which, however, was somewhat cooled by the plentiful
affusion of cold water. At each remove this operation is repeated;
otherwise the contact of the wood would be insupportable to the skin.
It is needless to say, that the perspiration very soon began to run
from every pore, not merely as a moist exhalation, but ran off in co-
pious streams. ‘This greatly moderated the sensation of heat.

After lying extended for some time on the second tier of benches,
a bucket of cold water was dashed on the upper one, and we remov-
ed there; but the heat, so near the ceiling, was fully as oppressive
as on first entering; and I found it necessary to allow the air to enter
my nose through my fingers. If I inhaled it with the mouth wide
open, I felt an oppressive heat in my chest; but by degrees even
this degree of heat became supportable ; though I never was able to
sit upright on the upper bench; so strong was the temperature of the
humid atmosphere close to the ceiling.

While we were groping our way from bench to bench, the assis-
tant more than once plunged headlong into his cold bath, to refresh
himself ere he commenced on us the next part of his professional
occupation.

We were one by one requested to descend to the second tier; and
the assistant, grasping im his hand a bundle of birch rods, began as-
siduously to whip his patients who lay extended on the bench at full
length, from head to heel. ‘This application differs essentially from
the well remembered scholastic birch discipline; for the leaves are
left on the twigs, and the sensations produced in no way resem-
ble the effect of ithe instrument employed in English schools to
convey a knowledge of Greek and Latin into the heads of our
youth. In fact, this species of whipping is performed very dexter-
ously, with a sort of brushing motion, from the shoulders downwards ;
and the application becomes general over the body and limbs, as
the bather turns on his wooden couch. The sensations produced by
this operation are agreeable, and are very far from producing that
excessive redness of the surface described by Acerbi.

The operator now anoints the whole body with a liquid mild soap ;
and, after again mounting to the upper tier for some time, we descend

Vou. XXUL—No.. 2. 38

298 Russian Vapor Bath.

one by one to the middle of the floor, where a powerful affusion of

cold water from the shower-bath in the ceiling removes every vestige
of soap. This sudden affusion of cold water is remarkably grateful :
it is scarcely possible to describe the effect, which is highly exhilara-
ting and refreshing.

It is usual again to undergo the steaming after the temperature of
the bath is increased by the affusion of water on the glowing pottery
in the furnace. For this purpose, the operator opens the door above
described, and placing us out of the direction of the immediate ef-
flux of the steam, he dashes, in successive jets, a small bucket of
water into the furnace. ‘The apartment isinstantly filled with clouds
of steam, at a high temperature; and when the door of the aperture
is closed, we resume our places on the benches, gradually procéed-
ing to the highest, as we become inured to the temperature. From
the upper tier we finally descend to have the cold shower-bath re-
peated ; after which we leave the bathing-room, are rubbed dry by
assistants in the small heated apartrnent, where_we resume the flannel
dressing-gown and slippers, and are reconducted to the saloon, where
we find the couches spread with blankets; and we recline for half an
hour in a most profuse perspiration, and in a state of luxurious lan-
guor, and mental tranquillity.

On a subsequent occasion, I provided myself with the means of
ascertaining the temperature of the bathing-room, and noted its ef-
fect on the pulse of myself and two other bathers. The heat is gen-
erally from 45° to 50° of Reaumur; that is, from 183°.25 to 144.5
of Fahrenheit. On the occasion referred to, it ranged in the bath,
during my stay, from 32° to 46° R.,= 126°.5 and 135°.5 F. in the
lower part of the bathing-room ; but I was unable to examine the
temperature near the ceiling, on account of the thick vapor, and the
intensity of the temperature, which affected my eyes. This temper-
ature, high as.it is, is far short of what Acerbi asserts of the Finnish
baths; he says that they reached from 70° to 75° of Celsius,= to
158° to 167° of our scale: but perhaps his thermometers were sub-
ject to the influence of the open fire-place in the rude baths of that
people; for their furnace consisted of a few loose stones piled into a
sort of rude arch, over a fire on the floor of the hut: or perhaps he
did not accurately ascertain the temperature; as he never entered
the bath but momentarily, for the purpose of placing his thermometer; ~
and I am confirmed in this by observing that the Finnish operator, in
his plate, appears dressed in her or dinary clothes, which I should
think insupportable in so high a temperature as he assigns.

Russian Vapor Bath. 299

__ The effect of the Russian vapor-bath is to accelerate the pulse,
which soon regains its natural standard on leaving the bath; and,
when I took it in a highly feverish state, I was within an hour after
entirely free of fever, and able fully to enjoy the philosophic soiree
that evening.

On bathing a second time, I was accompanied by the same two
friends : our pulses were about seventy four in a minute. On just
coming out of the bath,

Dr. Traill’s pulse, - - = 116
Mr. Johnson’s do. - - = 88
Mr. Palk’s do. - - - = 88

A quarter of an hour afterwards, while on the couch, they were as
follows :

Dr. Traill’s pulse, - ° = 114
Mr. Johnston’s do. sigh ==)/-68
Mr. Palk’s do. - = - = 88

After being dressed, and sitting in an adjoining coffee-room, perhaps
one hour after the bath,

Dr. Traill’s pulse beat, - - = 88
Mr. Johnston’s do. - - = 88
Mr. Palk’s do. = = = = 80

These experiments shew the great difference in the excitability of
the heart in different individuals, from exposure to the same heat.
My pulse in my best health, is about seventy ; since I had the gout it
ranges from seventy four to eighty, but is very easily excited; andI
have often found it raised to more than ninety by an interesting con-
versation, or evena cup of strong tea. |

The process of the vapor-bath is completed by a plentiful supply
of towels, with which we gradually dry the surface, while we are well
rubbed down by an assistant. We then resumed our dress, and re-
tired to a coffee-room, where there was a plentiful supply of news-
papers, and had acup of good coffee for twopence Sterling. As
I have already stated, the baths were free to the naturforscher ; but
I ascertained that the whole expense of the bath and its accompani-
ments is not more than one marc, or sixteenpence English, and for
twopence more the bather is entitled to a cup of coffee, and to read
the newspapers in a handsome apartment.

I received from the liberal owner permission to examine his splen-
did establishment of vapor and shower baths devoted to females.

300 Russian Vapor Bath.

The vapor-bath resembles that already described, but is much
neater. .

The variety of shower-baths surprized me. ‘They are of every
conceivable form, from the powerful stream to the minute drizzing of
water from orifices as fine as a needle, which jet tiny streams of
warm or cold water, at the option of the bather, in every possible di-
rection on her person. By means of polished brass arms, curved
so as to enclose the body, movable by universal joints, connected
with a cistern, and perforated with innumerable minute holes, a cross-
fire of jets (if I may be allowed the expression) is kept up on any
part of the body. If the bather inclines to sit, a perforated seat is
placed on a large flat trough, which collects and carries off the water,
jets of water play from the various movable arms from each side,
from above, and from below, so that every part of the surface is be-
dewed. A general stop-cock commands the whole flow of water,
while each brazen-reed is under the control of one appropriate to
itself. These are at the disposal of the bather; and each trough
or bath is surrounded by curtains to skreen the person from the eyes
of the assistant.

Similar shower-baths are appropriated to gentlemen. ‘The whole
forms one of the most elegant and nerfect establishments of the
kind I have ever seen, and isa source of emolument to the spirited
proprietor. ae :

I inquired anxiously into the medical efficacy of the Russian va-
por-bath, and found that in chronic rheumatism, in the stiffness of
limbs consequent on gout, and other long continued inflammations, in
some cases of palsy, in various cutaneous diseases, it is a most power-
ful and valuable remedy. While in the establishment I saw an inva-
lid enter, who informed me, that, afier severe acute rheumatism, of
several months’ duration, he was so lame that he had been carried by
two persons into the bath ; but that, after five or six times undergo-
ing the discipline I have described, he could walk alone as well as I
saw him (he had walked, aided by a stick, from his house to the bath),
and appeared confident that in a little time he should entirely recov-
er the power and flexibility of his limbs.

From all that I could learn in Hamburgh, I am inclined to con-
sider the Russian vapor-bath as a most valuable remedy in some
chronic diseases, and regret that we have not a similar establishment

in any of our medical charitable institutions.
February, 1832,

Notice of a Cetaceous Animal. 301

Art. XII.—.Notice of a Cetaceous Animal supposed to be new to
the American coast ; by Witi1aAM Sampson.

Read before the New York Lyceum of Natural History, Nov. 4, 1832.

Tuts’ animal belongs to the eighth order of Mammalia which is
“grouped under the name of Cetacea. It is naturally arranged under
the sub-genus Phocena of Cuvier, which comprises the Porpoise,
Grampus, and a few others which are not yet sufficiently known or
distinguished. This genus is characterized by a single dorsal fin,
and the short, abrupt and rounded head without the elongated beak.
It has numerous teeth in each jaw. ‘This had twenty teeth in the
upper and eighteen in the under jaw, increasing in length towards the
middle of each jaw, with a space between the teeth equal to the di-
ameter of the tooth, so as to admit the teeth of the opposing jaw to
shut into the interstice. ‘The teeth were canine in their form and in-
curvated somewhat suddenly towards the point. ‘The longest teeth
were about three quarters of an inch out of the jaw.

The individual, under consideration, belongs to the species Globiceps,

which was first accurately described and delineated by Cuvier in the
Annals of the Museum. ‘This animal, although now for the first time
identified here, is by no means a stranger to our shores. ‘Ten years
ago a shoal, which amounted to near one hundred, came ashore on
Welfleet near Cape Cod. In the notice which appeared in the pa-
pers they were called Black Whale-fish, and were described as being
from ten to twenty feet long; and it is added that they were once
common near these shores, but had not appeared here for many years
previous. It is also stated to be a peculiarity of these animals, when
they find themselves in shallow water, that from fright or other causes
they run ashore and perish. ‘They are @ommon on the coast of
Scotland; and Doctor Hibbert, in his account of the Western Isles,
hhas given an amusing description of a whale hunt in which hundreds
of these animals are captured in a day.

This same animal has also been described and figured in the Jour-
nal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, but the ingenious author
of that description has considered it sufficiently distinct to merit a
new name. ‘The only striking difference appears to be in the stric-
ture near the tail, which may have been an error of the engraver in
the endeavor to represent the peculiar carina on the upper part of
the body where it approaches the tail, and which terminates at the

302 Notice of a Cetaceous Animal.

extremity of that member in a point, where the two lobes are sepa«
rated by a small indentation. Or this appearance may have been
produced in that particular individual by some extraneous and acci-
dental cause ; which idea we are more inclined to adopt, as the ac-
complished naturalist to whom we are indebted for that notice, had
no opportunity of examining the animal in person.

The specific description of Cuvier will perfectly distinguish our
new acquaintance, or we may employ the short specific phrase PHo-
CENA GLOBICEPS. Head very globular, carina extending to the ex-
tremity of the tail; pectorals long and slender. ZA

Occasional habitat. Shores of the Eastern States.

Synonyms.

Delphinus globiceps. Cuv.: Ann. Mus. tom. XIX, pl. 1, fig. 2.

Ca-ing Whale. Neill’s Tour in the Orkneys.

Delphnis Schreber, pl. 345, fig. 2 and 3. :

Delphinus melas. Traill.: Nicholson’s Jour., Vol. XXII, p. 81.

Delphinus deductor. Scoresby: Arctic Regions, I, p. 496, pl.

Dauphin a téte ronde. Desmarest: Mammalogie, p. 519.

Delphinus intermedius. Harlan: Jour. Acad. Nat. Sc. of Phila-
delphia, Vol. VI, p. 51, pl. 1. :

The following are the dimensions of the animal as measured by
John Glover, Esq., Dr. Blakeman, of Greenfield Hill, and W. Samp-
son. The above drawing was taken upon the spot.*

* The following notice appeared, at the time, in the public papers.

A whale ashore.—On Friday last, a whale of the grampus species, was driven
ashore on Fairfield Beach, about three miles from Bridgeport, Conn. He was about
twenty four feet long, and thirteen in circumference ; he lived from ten o’clock in
the morning until three in the afternoon, when he expired after an hour of terrific
struggling. Six yoke of oxen were required to draw him a few feet from low
water mark, and fifteen men were scarcely able to turn him half way over. He
was first discovered by a person who was gunning in the neighborhood, when he
was in full vigor, and made a splashing in the shallow water that almost equalled
the roar of a cataract. Thousands flocked from all quarters to see the self-imprison-
ed monster.

Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier. 303

J Feet. Inches.

Total length, . - - - = 2 20-346
To the pectoral, - - - 3
To the origin of the dorsal, - 225 Bi og
Length of the base of the dorsal, pst: Oise

_ The greatest depth, Beige sh ae eis Ge el
Height of dorsal, Bho - - 1 4
Length of pectoral, Seeker). mR #39 By! 40

Arr. XIII.—Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier.
Translated for this Journal by Prof. Griscom.

1. Memoir of G. Cuvier ; by A. DeECanpoLie.

Europe has sustained an immense and irreparable loss. George
Cuvier died on the 13th of May last, after an illness of four days by
a paralysis of the throat, which rapidly reached the organs of respi-
ration. He was only sixty three years of age, having been born in
the month of February of that year (1769) which produced so many
remarkable men,—Napoleon, Chateaubriand, Walter Scott, &c.
His native town, Montbeliard, since united to France, was then a
principality in alliance with Switzerland and dependent on the Duke
of Wurtemberg. His early studies were pursued at the Gymnasium
of Stuttgardt, and he commenced his career by entering as a sub-
lieutenant of the Swiss regiment of Chateauvieux : the dissolution of
this corps restored him to liberty, and he passed the whole of the
turbulent period of the revolution in the business of education on
the borders of the sea in Normandy. It was there, as a first essay
of his talent, he made his great anatomical discoveries on the mol-
lusca, and overthrew the zoological classifications which had been
universally in vogue since the period of Aristotle.

This work, published in 1795, fixed upon him the attention of the
learned world. Geoffroy St. Hilaire had the honor of first per-
ceiving the importance of his discoveries, and contributed to the ad-
vancement of their author. Cuvier was called almost immediately
to take a part in the class of science of the Institute, and to supply
the place of the aged Mertrud as professor of comparative anatomy
in the Garden of Plants. His lectures soon became remarkable for
their clearness and eloquence, and attracted crowds of students.
He appeared at this time to be threatened with phthisis, and he has

304 Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier.

often since observed that the exercise of his professorship, by giving
activity to his lungs, restored him to health. Being appointed pro-
fessor of natural history at the central school of the Pantheon, he
dignified that station by the publication of his Tableau du Régne Ant-
mal, which, notwithstanding its elementary appearance, has served as
the basis of all subsequent labors in classifications of zoology. He
published, a short time after, his Lecons d’anatomie comparée (five
volumes in 8vo.) which were afterwards designated by the Institute
as having merited the grand decennial prize for the work which had
contributed most to the advancement of knowledge in relation to
the natural sciences. This work, abridged from his course, was ed-
ited under his inspection, at first, by his friend Dameril, and then,
(the last three volumes) by his relative, M. Duvernoy. At the same
period he published a series of memoirs on the anatomy of the mol-
lusca, and then entered upon a detailed examination of the fossil
relics of mammiferous animals. He devoted his attention particularly
to the numerous fossils of the environs of Paris, and was assisted in
the geological part of his labor by his friend Alexander Brongniart.
The sagacity and precision which he bestowed in the determination
of fossil bones, erected his study into anew science, which has
thrown a brilliant light upon geology, and given it a far more philo-
sophieal direction. A multitude of learned works and profound
memoirs published since that time by various naturalists, have de-
monstrated the prodigious influence which the labors of Cuvier have
exercised over the study of geology, of the animal kingdom, and
even on that of vegetable fossils. M. Cuvier refreshed himself in
the intervals of those extended works, by special researches, which
would have been sufficient to add lustre to any other man ;—such
are his beautiful memoirs on the chaunt of birds, on crocodiles, and
on a great number of the diversified topics of zoology; such are,
also, his description of the living animals of the menagerie, &c. On
_all subjects, even of the minutest detail, we observe that clear, lumin-
ous and methodical spirit and that Sagacity. which so remarkably
characterized him. ,

He perceived the necessity of arranging the totality of the knowl-
edge he had acquired on these subjects, and presented the public in
1817, with a general view of zoological classification. ‘This work, en-
titled Le Régne Animal distribtué @aprés son organization (4 vols.
Svo,) became immediately the basis of all zoological study. In most
of the schools, the lectures, collections and researches were subjected

Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier. 305

to its guidance; a second edition which has. since appeared, has
proved its success. Cuvier was assisted in this labor by his friend
Latreille in the class of insects, which is alone more numerous than
the whole of the animal kingdom besides, and which would require
the entire life of a laborious naturalist ; but he had induced this able
entomologist, to deviate in some respects from his accustomed track,
in order that his portion might quadrate with the other parts of the
system.

The arranging of this work enabled its author to perceive how
greatly the study of fishes was in arrear with other divisions of zoo-
logy. It taught him the difficulties which had accumulated in this
branch of science, both by the obscurity of the anatomy of these an-
imals and the impossibility of discovering with precision the laws of
the comparison of organs, by the want of large collections, and per-
haps also by the too artificial methods which had till then regulated
the study of Ichthyology. He used his influence in procuring for the
Museum of Paris, specimens of fishes from all parts of the world,
and such was his success in this search after the materials of his sci-
ence, that the number of fishin the museum, which scarcely exceed-
ed a thousand species, was increased in a few years to about six thou-
sand. He anatomized a great number of them with a care before
unknown. He associated himself in these details, Mr. Vallencien-
nes, a meritorious young man, with whose aid he was enabled in a
space of time, which considering the immensity of the results, may
be deemed very short, to form the elements of his great work on
the history of fish, the first volumes of which have appeared, and
the conclusions of which may be expected from his laborious coad-
jutor. The recent embarrassment of the book trade somewhat re-
tarded its progress, and as the portion digested was in advance with
the press, he was revising his lessons on comparative anatomy, pre-
paratory to a second edition which has been long and greatly wanted.
“¢ Tt will be (he wrote on the 26th of April, to the author of this brief
memoir) almost a new work, so numerous are the facts derivable from
our immense collections, and from the labors of other anatomists
since the first edition; but I see with pleasure that the frame of it
will need but little change, and that it is still preferable, (at least in
my opinion) to the plans whichhave been since adopted by other
Savans. Nevertheless, (adds he) I shall by no means renounce (if
I live) my labors on the large comparative anatomy, for which I have
already thousands of large drawings.” This project constantly

Vou. XXIIIL—No. 2. « 39 :

306 Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier.

cherished, and at which he had labored so many years, seemed to him
to be a needful finish to all his works; but the melancholy doubt ex-
pressed in his letter (if I live) was but too soon verified. It would
be the most appropriate honor that could be rendered to the glory of
Cuvier to publish those original drawings, the perfection of which is
known to all, and which, joined to the new edition of his comparative
anatomy, would supply in part the great work which he had in pros-
pect. ‘Thus the man whose fruitful labors (not to mention his genius)
all Europe has admired, has left, inedited, immense works, which
would seem to demand the devotion of a whole life.

We may now ask, did this laborious attention to natural history,
exclude him from other literary pursuits? Certainly not. Read the
eulogies which he pronounced as perpetual secretary of the Acade-
my of Sciences, in which pass in review so many men and so great
a variety of subjects! From the depth of acquirements which he dis-
played, for example, in the account which he gave of the labors of
Adanson, we are certain that none but a naturalist of the first order
could have written it; but in reading his account of Bonnet, or
Priestley we discover that no branch of human knowledge was foreign
to him: in that of Lemonier, he betrays the man of sensibility, and the
taste and graceful imagination of ascholar. ‘Throughout these produc-
tions, are intermingled the most profound reflexions on the progress of
science, the most penetrating views of human nature and of the social
condition of the period in which he lived. In all is there inter-
mingled that love of virtue, that feeling of the dignity of intellec-
tual power which was one of the liveliest impressions of his mind:
It is to’this elevated sentiment that we must attribute the impartiality
of his eulogies, of his reports, and his literary and scientific decisions,
the entire absence of all intrigue, the zeal which he manifested for
all the establishments with which he was connected, the ardor with
which he protected and encouraged young men of talents, and the
noble disinterestedness which induced him to spare no expense in
the prosecution of his scientific labors.

His talents for administration were at first displayed in their influence
upon natural history. He may be said to have almost created, (so graat
were the changes and enlargements which he effected) the cabinet of
comparative anatomy which constitutes one of the most admirable
portions of the Paris museum of natural history, now the admiration
of Europe. Frequently placed, by the choice of his colleagues, at
the head of that establishment, he powerfully contributed to its prog-

Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier. 307

ress, and introduced into the details of its administration his wonted
activity and method. Called to codperate in the direction of pub-
lic instruction, first as an inspector of the University, then as a mem-
ber of the council of public instruction, as chancellor, as head of the
several faculties, he was through all distinguished by the same quali-
ties: his.report on the primary instruction of Holland is a monument
of his solicitude for popular education, and all those who have traced
him through the higher classes of study, know how much good he
has effected and how much evil he has prevented! This latter bene-
fit, less known than most others, always springs from an elevated
mind, which disdains the applauses of the day for the reality and
utility of the future. Gradually introduced into the field of civil
administration, maitre des requétes, counsellor of state, president of
the section of the Interior, director of protestant worship, and finally
peer of France, he traversed the circle of administrative functions,
except those of Censor, which he nobly refused when offered to his
acceptance. He evinced, in all these appointments, that superiority
for which no one contended with him in science: he became as fa-
miliar with the laws, regulations, and even the minutiz of official acts,
as with the body and details of science. His colleagues, wholly de-
voted to the business of administration, were every day astonished at
his wonderful capacity.

That head, morally as great as it was physically capacious, seemed
to be the depositary of all human knowledge. . He had, throughout his
life, read much, observed much, and forgotten nothing. . The gigantic
memory sustained and directed by a severe logic and a rare sagacity,
was the principal basis of his immense and successful labors. That
memory was remarkable, in a special manner, for all that has relation
to forms, considered in the most extensive sense of the term. ‘The
figure of an animal seen in reality or in a drawing, was never forgot-
ten, and served asa standard of comparison for all analogous ob-
jects: the sight of a chart, of the plan of a city, was sufficient to
preserve his intuitive knowledge of places; and amidst so many fac-
ulties, that memory which may be called graphic seemed the most
evident. He was consequently an able draughtsman ; he seized forms
with justness and rapidity, and had the art of giving by the pencil an
appearance of the tissue of organs in a manner suitable to his pur-
pose. What the Italian sculptures call morbzdezza in statues, he pro-
duced in a superior manner in his anatomical drawings.

308 Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier.

In the midst of so busy a life, he was far from neglecting the at-
tractive accomplishments of social intercourse ; his conversation, some-
times grave and solemn, sometimes keen and witty, always just, cir-
cumspect and original, constituted the ornament of the saloon and
the charms of intimacy. He was a warm, sincere and faithful friend.
He gained the hearts and affections of those who surrounded him,
and the skill with which he directed the efforts of others towards their
proper end, was not one of the least of the causes of his remarka-
ble success. His perseverance in friendship, his gratitude towards
those who contributed to his youthful advancement, his moderation
in all disputes, the devotedness with which he inspired all his de-
pendents, are testimonies of those qualities of the heart and explan-
atory of that moral empire which can be obtained only by depth and
sincerity‘of feeling. He was associated with hearts worthy of his own;
his wife, his daughter in law, angels of kindness, of grace and resig-
nation in his misfortune, lived only to render him happy. His brother,
a man of distinction, and who could have appeared still more so had
he not been placed by the side of-a giant, was his true and faith-
ful friend. His domestic life, which might have been so happy, was
greatly troubled. ‘Three sons m their minority, preceded him to the
tomb, and his daughter, a model of grace and virtue, was taken from
him when on the eve of a hymeneal union which promised the greatest
happiness. Of the four children of his wife by a former marriage,
and whom he had adopted in a true paternal spirit, two were re-
moved by death at an age in which dangers appeared to be past
and hopes brightening into reality. Oh! what balms to a wounded
mind, what consolation in trouble is the love of labor, the love of
truth and of public good! How numerous are the friends that I
could name, were I permitted to go beyond the circle of natural ties
in which so many claimed his affection, who were dear to him and
who loved him tenderly. ‘The homage rendered to the moral quali-
ties of Cuvier might, I am sensible, appear like exaggeration. He
who draws this hasty outline was a friend of thirty four years’ stand-
ing, and who held his heart in higher honor even than his celebrity,
but although he writes this in tears, he has conscientiously described,
very imperfectly indeed, but with truth, the traits of that eminent
man whose loss Europe now deplores.— Bib. Univ. Avril, 1832.

Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier. 309

2. Subscription for a monument to the memory of G. Cuvirr.

~ At the session of the academy of sciences at Paris on the 9th of
July; 1832, the following prospectus was distributed among the Acade-
micians.

The unexpected stroke hich has taken from us our great natu-
ralists, has spread mourning not only throughout France, but in all
parts of the globe where science is held in honor. George Cuvier
was one of those privileged geniuses which appear only at long in-
tervals.

France has been long distinguished for the love and respect which
she bears for the great men whom she has produced ; she knows that
they constitute her highest glory, and this glory must survive all other.

France knows also, that at the period in which we live, it is more
than ever important to draw more closely the fraternal band which
unites enlightened men of every nation; she will not be diverted by
the political agitations which are working within her, from the great
duty which this noble confraternity imposes upon her.

The king has already confided to the chisel of one of our ablest
statuaries the task of reproducing for the academy of sciences, the
features of the immortal Cuvier.

The town of Montbeliard will consecrate, by a monument, the
honor of having given him birth.

These fhomabes are insufficient, to honor the memory of him whose
labors have benefited the whole human race. Public opinion calls
for something further ; it is the wish that a general subscription should
invite the friends of science in all nations to concur in the public hon-
or which it claims for the Aristotle of modern times.

Subscribers have presented themselves from all quarters; the
learned bodies literary and political, of which Cuvier was a ‘member
have been im earnest to lead the subscription.

To consider of the means of collecting these subscriptions, and
concerting upon the nature of the monument to be raised, it appeared
most Hib IS to form a joint committee of members of the Institute
of the University, of the Council of State, and of the Society of natu-
ral history.

This joint committee has not hesitated with respect to the proper
place for the erection of such a monument: what place indeed could

possibly be more appropriate than the garden of plants, the theatre
of all the labor of Cuvier.

310 Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier.

With respect to the monument, the amount of subscription will
determine its nature and importance. It may, however, be primari-
ly understood, that an essential part of it will be the statue of him
whom it honors.

At a time when every country seems to be agitatedwith political.
convulsions, it will be interesting to witness the elevation of a peace-
ful monument, which will attest to future ages, that neither the rival-
ship of nations, the spirit of party, nor the war of opinions has been
able to divert the men of our age from the respect which in all places
is held to be due to letters and to science.

N.B. At the invitation of the minister of public HE the
receivers of colleges and the money agents of the university acade-
mies will receive the subscriptions of the departments. ‘The Consuls
of France in foreign countries will be willing to perform the same
service. M. Cardot, the special agent of the Institute, will hold the
central purse, and will also receive the subscriptions of Paris.

This programme will be addressed to all learned societies.

In all cases in which the amount of the subscription is sufficient,
the subscriber will receive an engraving representing the monument
and the traits of M. Cuvier.

(Signed) Jovy, of the French Academy; F. Araco, Perpetual
secretary of the Academy of Sciences; Grorrroy-Saint-Hinaire,
Vice President of the Academy of Sciences; Durzav DreLamaLuE
of the Academy of Inscription and Belles Lettres; Drcrranpo,
Counsellor of State, Member of the Institute, President of the Com-
mittee; Davin of the Institute; Vittemain; Duparquet, Secreta-
ry of the Committee; A. Broneniart, President of the Society of
Natural History; Percier, Architect, Member of the Institute.

3. Perpetual Secretary in the room of G. Cuvier.

The committee appointed to propose a list of candidates deemed
this step to be unnecessary, as all the members of the Academy were
sufficiently acquainted with all who had any pretensions to the sta-
tion. While the votes were being collected, it was rumored through
the hall that Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire renounced his candidature. ‘The
number of votes given in was forty five, of which JM. Dulong had
twenty; MM. Flourens, eleven; JM. Geoffroy, seven ; M. Bendant,
five; JM. Dumeril, one; blank, one.

Their being no majority, a second balloting took place, when MM.
Dulong received thirty votes, and the president proclaimed the elec-
tion in his favor.

Notices of American Steam Boats. 311

4. Chair of Comparative Anatomy in the room of G. Cuvier at the
Museum of Natural History.

The committee presented as candidates MM. Flourens, Serres,
Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire, Dumeril and DeBlainville.

The number of votes deposited in the urn was forty five, of which
DeBlainville had twenty two; Dumeril, twenty; Flourens, one ;
blank, two. DeBuarnvitte was declared elected.

Session of July 23.

A letter of condolence on account of the death of Cuvier, address-
ed to the Academy, was received from the secretary of the Royal
Institution of Great Britain. “Cuvier,” says this letter, “by the
power of his genius, and the vast extent of his knowledge, held the
most eminent rank in science which it is given to man to attain. His
death is not a loss to France only, but to the whole world. The
Royal Institution which reckoned him in the small number of its
foreign honorary members is forcibly impressed with an event which
deprives it of the lustre which his name reflected upon it, and of

the example held forth by his admirable works.”—Rev. Encyc.
Juillet, 1832.

Art. XIV. DP Metscan of American Steam Boats; by W.C. Rep-

FIELD, of New York.

Tne increase in the number of steam boats in the waters of the
United States, within the last fifteen years, which has not failed to
excite both surprise and gratulation, is hardly greater than the im-
provements which have been made in their structure and efficiency.
Before the commencement of the period alluded to, the steam en-

je had been brought nearly to the maximum of its efficiency, as a
fieuhs power, and the adaptation of its energies to the purposes of
somSation, though less advanced, was supposed to have nearly reach-
-othe same stage of perfection. About ten years since, the steam

ats which navigated the river Hudson, and which were doubtless

=,perior to any others of that period, performed the passage between
thi w York and Albany, in from eighteen to thirty hours, according
‘® ‘he favor of circumstances: five years later, and from one to ue
e.. oly laden vessels, each of more than two hundred tons burthen,

312 Notices of American Steam Boats.

were towed Hine the same rout, by a single steam host, in an
equal range of time.
The power and speed of the Hudson river steam boats, as well
as those employed on the Mississippi and elsewhere, have continued
to be annually increased, up to the present time. In the year
1827, the passage between New York and Albany, which is suppo-
sed to be equal to one hundred and fifty statute miles,* had been per-
formed under favorable circumstances, in about twelve hours. In
1829, this passage had “been accomplished in ten hours and thirty
minutes, and in 1831, in ten hours and fifteen minutes ; all the stop-
pages on the river being included in these statements. But the giant
offspring of science and the arts had not yet attained its full strength
and maturity, and during the present season (1832) the passage has
been performed in nine hours and eighteen minutes, including the
time spent at the different, landings. . Claims to this rate of speed,
have also been set up by more than one competitor. It appears
highly probable, that with the means now possessed or in preparation,
the passage may yet be performed in something less than nine hours,
_ nothwithstanding the obstacles presented by the shallowness of the
‘river and the intricacies of the navigation, in the thirty miles nearest
to Albany. It may be remarked here that the length of the route as
above given, is not supposed to be overrated, as is usually the fact
with inland navigable routes; nor can the assistance of the tides in
ascending the river be fairly estimated at more than one mile per
hour, on an average of the whole distance ; while, in the deseending
passage, little or no advantge can be derived from this source, be-
cause the ebb and flood are then made to alternate in three hours,or
even in a shorter period. Twelve landings are usually made on each one?
passage, and at six of these places, the steam boats are — i
brought to, and fastened to the wharves. acd
Those who are conversant with the difficulties which atti ‘the
attainment of high velocities in navigating a medium whose resistap © pas
accumulates in a ratio exceeding the squares of the velocities sit= — 7
means of an artificial power, the reaction for which, is obtained pogh)
the medium itself, will justly consider the above rates of speedhe
extraordinary. Nor will this view of the subject be weakenedyed _

one hundred and sixty two miles. The direction or course, of the chanbs
river, though generally favorable, ranges between west, and easi-nori

Notices of American Steam Boats. 313 —

statements, which may chance to gain currency, of the attainment of
greater speed in more opén waters, by steam vessels, possessing less
comparative efficiency, on routes either overrated in their extent, or
affording great occasional advantages, from the strength and rapidity
of the tides. It sometimes happens, that, owing to the inadvertence of
a compositor, or some other cause, a mistake of an hour finds its way
into the published accounts of the passage made by a favorite steam
boat.

In addition to twelve steam boats which are employed on this river
in the various lines of transportation, and on short routes, there are
ten boats of the first class which have been employed in daily trips
for the conveyance of passengers between New York and Albany ;
viz. the North America, Albany, Novelty, Erie, Champlain, Ohio,
New Philadelphia, De Witt Clinton, Constitution, and Constellation.
Of these, the five first named depart in the morning at seven o’clock,
and perform the passage in nine and a quarter to thirteen hours; the
latter five, depart usually at five in the evening, and accomplish the
passage in nearly the same time. Passengers in the former, may en-
joy airy accommodations, and the interesting scenery of the Hudson,
together with their accustomed repose at night; and by means of the
latter, men of active and provident habits, are able to transact their
daily business at will, either in our commercial metropolis, or in one
of the flourishing cities at the head of navigation; the intervening
space of one hundred and fifty miles being passed over during the
hours of relaxation and repose, with no other discomfort, than attends
the occupation of a good matress with clean linen, in a steam boat usu-
ally loaded with passengers. ‘The price of passage is commonly fixed
at three dollars. i tis -

Most of these boats have undergone a material change in their size,
form, and general outfit since their first construction, in order to
maintain a successful competition for the business of this noble river.
It will not be necessary to give an account of the various efforts of
professional skill, by means of which these boats have attained to
their present degree of perfection and efliciency, but a general, and
somewhat definite description of one of the number, may prove ac-
ceptable to the readers of the Journal.

The De Witt Clinton, having been twice enlarged, is now of the
following dimensions, viz. entire length on deck, two hundred and
thirty three feet. Breadth of the hull at the water line, twenty eight
feet. Projection of the deck or wheel-guards on each side, eighteen

Vou. XXII.—No. 2. 40

See

314 Notices of American Steam Boats.

feet. Maximum width of deck, including guards, sixty four feet.
Depth of hold, ten feet. Height of the upper deck, eleven feet.
Length of the great cabin, one hundred and seventy five feet. Draft
of water, not exceeding four feet six mches. Diameter of the wa-
ter-wheels, twenty two feet. Length of the same, measured on the
buckets, each wheel, fifteen feet. Dip of the buckets or paddles,
thirty seven inches. _ Diameter of the iron water-wheel shafts, four-
teen inches. Length of the crank, five feet. Length of the stroke
made by the piston, ten feet. Diameter of the piston, sixty six
inches, its superficies being equal to three thousand four hundred
and twenty one square inches. ‘The gross length of the working
cylinder, which is placed in a vertical position, is eleven feet, ten
inches. Its lateral apertures, by which the steam is received and dis-
charged, are forty two by ten and three fourth inches. ‘The en-
gine is worked by means of four circular receiving valves, each of
seventeen inches diameter, (two at either end of the cylinder,) and
four exhausting valves of the same dimensions. ‘The diameter of the
main steam pipe, and side pipes, is twenty five inches.

The entire capacity of the cylinder, deducting the space occu-
pied by the piston, and including one of the side apertures extending
to the valves, is equal to two hundred and fifty two cubic feet, which
is equal to one thousand eight hundred and ninety standard wine
gallons, or to sixty three barrels of thirty gallons: each. Should the
engine perform twenty six revolutions or double strokes per minute,*
there will be exhausted 13.104 cubic feet = 3276 barrels, per min-
ute, and 786.240 cubic feet of steam, or 196.560 barrels, will
be exhausted every hour, during the time in which the engine is in
full motion! But the steam is allowed to enter freely from the boiler,
only during a part of each stroke, the throttle valve being then closed,
and the steam which has previously entered the cylinder is allowed to
expand during the remainder of the stroke. If the pressure of
steam maintained in the boilers be equal to twenty pounds per square
inch above the mean pressure of the atmosphere, (and greater pres-
sure is frequently employed in these boats,) the average effective
pressure on the piston may be safely estimated, even with less pres-
sure, at about ten pounds for each square inch of its superficies.

“The engines of some of the Hudson River boats are often seen running at the
rate of twenty eight double strokes per minute, the velocity of the piston being five
hundred and sixty feet per minute.

Notices of American Steam Boats. 315

To this must be added the net pressure of the atmosphere, obtained
by the use of the condenser and air-pump, which is fully equal to
ten pounds to the iach, the vacuum in the condenser ranging gener-
ally from twelve and a half to thirteen and ahalf pounds to the inch,
by the barometrical guage. This estimate which is obtained by
near approximations, will give an average pressure on the piston,
equal to twenty pounds to the square inch; but lest we should be
charged with overrating, we will reduce it to sixteen pounds, effective
pressure to the square inch, on three thousand four hundred and
twenty one inches of piston, running fifty two single strokes, of ten
feet each, per minute. Estimating now the full power of a horse as
equal to one hundred and fifty pounds, moving at two and a half miles
an hour, or to raising thirty three thousand pounds one foot per

3421 X16 X52 X 10
33.000

= 862, showing a force exerted upon the engine which

minute, we have the following formula;

__ 28462720
Bers 000
is equal to the power of eight hundred and sixty two horses. From
this result we are to deduct the power necessary for moving the en-
gine, or that, required for overcoming the friction and resistance of
its parts, which is comparatively less in engines of this magnitude, work-
ing on such an extended crank, than in the average of smaller engines.
We will estimate it, however, as equal to one third of the force ap-
plied, which gives the effective working power of the engine as equal
to that of five hundred and seventy five horses! An engineer with
whom I have conferred, and under whose direction several of the
engines in these boats have been constructed, estimates the net ef-
fective pressure, exclusive of all deduction for friction, &c. as equal
to twelve pounds for every square inch of the piston. This may be
nearer the truth, and gives the working power of this engine as equal
to six hundred and forty six horses. Such results may at the first
view appear to be of a startling character, even to professional
readers, but having been arrived at by gradual approximations, they
seem hardly to have attracted the attention, either of men of science,
or practical engineers.

The following may be given as a summary statement of the prin-
cipal dimensions of the other boats which have been named, and
which, if not minutely correct in all its particulars, is sufficiently so
for purposes of general information. ‘The Champlain, a new boat,
is one hundred and eighty feet in length, twenty eight feet beam on

316 Notices of American Steam Boats.

the water line, and has two engines of forty two inches cylinder and
ten feet stroke, which with wheels of twenty two feet, run from twenty
six to twenty eight revolutions per minute. The Erie, also, a new
boat, is of the same size, and somewhat greater power, her cylinder
being of forty four inches diameter.* The North America is two
hundred and eighteen feet in length, including a cut-water bow,
(which has also been affixed to most of the other boats,) thirty feet
beam, and has also two engines with cylinders of forty four inches
diameter, and eight feet stroke. The Albany is two hundred. and
seven feet in length, twenty six feet beam, and has one engine of sixty
five inches cylinder, and nine feet stroke. The Ohiois.one hundred
and ninety two feet in length, thirty feet beam, and has one engine
with cylinder of sixty inches diameter and nine feet stroke. The.
New Philadelphia is one hundred and seventy feet in length, twenty
four in breadth, and carries-one engine of fifty five inches cylinder and
ten feet stroke. ‘The Constitution is one hundred and forty five feet
in length, twenty seven feet beam, and has one engine of forty two
inch cylinder and nine feet stroke. ‘The Constellation is about one
hundred and forty nine feet in length, twenty seven feet beam, and
carries one engine of forty four inches cylinder, and ten feet stroke.
The Novelty is about two hundred and twenty feet in length, twenty
five feet beam, and has two engines with cylinders of thirty inches
in diameter-and six feet stroke, working horizontally, using steam
of higher elasticity, and dispensing also with the use of a condenser
and air pump. Most of the above steam boats carry their boilers on
the wheel-guards, entirely without the body of the boat. The Erie
and Champlain carry each four boilers, and the same number of chim-
ney pipes. ‘The Novelty has four sets of boilers, of about forty
inches in diameter, three in each set, and carries also four chimneys.

Little apprehension in regard to personal-safety is now entertained
by persons travelling in steam boats. At a former period, two com-
modious safety barges were employed on the Hudson, which, in or-
der to obviate all danger arising from this source, were devoted exclu-
sively to passengers, and towed at the stern of a steam boat. These
barges which were run during the summer season from 1825 to

* These two boats run to the city of Troy, a prosperous and beautiful town, situa-
ted six miles above Albany. A large lithographic drawing of these steam boats,
including also a sketch of the scenery in the Highlands of the Hudson near the moun-
tain called Anthony’s WVose, has been published by the company owning the boats.

Notices of American Steam Boats. 317

1829, had attained toa speed of eight tonine miles per hour; but the
increase which, during the same period, was given to the speed and
size of the steam boats, tended to discourage this mode of convey-
ance, and it has since been discontinued, to the regret of those who
love quiet enjoyment, and whose nerves have not been inured to com-
posure by frequent proximity with the moving power.
~ It has been frequently remarked that the exposure to fatal accidents
on board of steam boats, is much less than attends the use of the or-
dinary means of conveyance, either by land or water, and it has been
suggested, that the average loss of life by steam boat explosions, is
even less than is annually occasioned by lightning. In order to. test
the accuracy of this suggestion, I have noted during the present year,
such accidents by lightning, as were attended with fatal results, so far
as the same have come to my knowledge. _‘The whole number of ca-
ses thus ascertained is twenty six, which were distributed as follows.
In New Hampshire, 1; Massachusetts, 1; Rhode Island, 1; Connect-
icut, 2; New York, 7; Pennsylvania, 5; Delaware, 3; Virginia, 1;
South Carolina, 2; Louisiana, 2, and Illinois, 1. It is hardly to be
supposed that this statement comprises one moiety of the whole num=- |
ber of fatal casualties of this kind, which have occurred in the United
States during the past year, and it comprises but a single accident, in
the four great states of Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky and Ten-
nessee. In recurring to the list of steam boat accidents, which was re-
cently published in this Journal,* it will be seen that the entire mortal-
ity from this cause, is estimated at three hundred in a period of twenty
years, which amounts to an average of fifteen for each year. The loss
of lives by the bursting of steam boat boilers, during the present year,
I have recorded as follows :—Steam boat Post-boy, on the Mississtp-
pi, 1 killed; Ohio, on the Hudson, 5 killed and drowned; Adam
Duncan, on the Connecticut, 1 drowned; Connecticut, in Boston
harbor, 1 killed; Monticello, on the Mississippi, 2 killed.—Total, 10.
Of this last number, as faras I have been able to ascertain, three
were passengers, and the remainder persons who were employed about
the engine, showing that the risk to passengers is extremely small.
What further improvements in safety, or speed, are yet to be elicit-
ed in the art or science of locomotion, time only can shew us. ‘The
steam boat, a short time ago, appeared to our view, as the ne plus ultra
of human effort, but the suecessful application of steam power on rail-

* Vol. XX, pp. 336—338.

318 Economy of Fuel.

roads, has already rivalled, if not greatly surpassed, our achieve-
ments in steam navigation. It is however, probable that the maxi-
mum of useful effect, has been nearly attained in both these depart-
ments, which, when. practically considered, will be found auxiliaries,
rather than rivals, to each other. ‘The art of obtaining the full power
of steam, and of applying it to the purpose of locomotion on a fluid
which sustains the load and affords sufficient reaction for the mov-
ing power, is now well understood ; and in regard to railroads it is
doubtless true, that a level metallic surface, not only sustains the vehi-

cle, in the most perfect manner, but affords the least possible resistance,
with the best possible'reaction for the propelling power, and combines,
therefore, the greatest conceivable facilities for the transit of persons
and property.* Other expectations, which are often entertained,
without due consideration, will doubtless end in disappointment. It is
to the establishment and extension of these unequalled means of con-
veyance, that the enterprise of our growing country should be direct-
ed. It has been truly said that the career of improvement in our age,
is too impetuous to be stayed, were it wise to attempt it, and ‘though
it be a futile attempt to oppose so mighty an impulse, it may not be
unworthy our ambition, to guide its progress, and direct its course.”

Arr. XV.—On the Economy of Fuel with ee its domestic
applications; by Waiter R. Jounson, Prof. of Mechanics and
Natural Philosophy, in the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. .

Tue art of heating apartments in the most economical and saluta-
ry manner, is of truly vital importance to the interests of society.
Connected with this, the art of ventilation stands preéminent, and with
both the art of constructing dwellings and other buildings, is intimately
related. In all our larger towns and particularly in our maritime cities,
the annual expenditure for fuelis enormous. New York and Philadel-
phia are believed to pay each, not less than twelve hundred or fifteen
hundred thousand dollars per annum, for combustibles, to be employ-
ed either in domestic uses, or in manufactures. In respect to both

* It may be noticed, that the power employed for propelling a single steam boat
of the first class, is equal to that of fifty locomotive engines of the power of twelve
horses each. These would probably be adequate to the conveyance of all the pas-
sengers and property now transported upon the Hudson river, if the same were trans-
ferred to a level rail way of equal extent.

Economy of Fuel. 319

of these objects, but particularly the former, the most astonishing dis-
regard of economy is often perceptible, as well in the arrangements
for burning, as in the manner and extent in which the heat is applied.

So long as the original forests of our country were standing, little
importance was attached to this branch of economy. The burning
of a huge mass of cord-woed in a broad open-mouthed chimney,
supplied to a certain extent, the desired temperature, and involved
as a consequence, the production of such currents of air as effec-
tually prevented stagnation in the atmosphere of apartments. Hence
the occupants were seldom exposed to the peculiar maladies which
arise from a stifled air.

Indeed, the rude and almost primitive method of heating apart-—
ments, then in use, rendered their inmates subject to a contrast of
sensations, quite as striking as that paradox, which the philosopher
exhibits, when by the ebullition of one liquid, he causes the simulta-
neous congelation of another. ‘The chilling blast which assailed one
part of the person, vied strangely with the scorching radiance which
beset the opposite.

The present expensiveness of fuel, renders it desirable to arrange
our houses in-some manner different from the ancient method; se
as at once to limit the consumption of fuel, and to secure an ample
supply of wholesome air. ‘The latter requisite is too often sacrificed
to the mere elevation of temperature. Not only is the composition
of the air allowed to be deteriorated by frequent respiration, but its
hygrometric state is sometimes such, as to operate most injuriously on
the system. Nature is, in general, careful to supply our lungs with
air capable of receiving from them some portion of moisture ; if this
portion be either too great or too small, the lungs, and eventually the
whole body, will suffer either from the excess or the deficiency. To
regulate this quantity is one part of our own duty.

The gradual introduction of mineral fuel, especially of anthracite,
will probably introduce some changes in domestic arrangements,
which will supersede the use-of those more bulky, troublesome, and
unsafe materials, heretofere employed in combustion. The conse-
quences of such changes, if judiciously made, will doubtless be the
diminution of expense, the saving of labor, the gaining of comfort,
and the economizing of space and time.

Those awkward projections which now encumber and deform our
apartments, under the name of chimnies, filling, in many cases, from
one-twentieth to one-sixteenth of the whole area of the room, and

320 ; Economy of Fuel.

that too on every floor from the cellar to the garret, will be wholly
excluded. ‘This expenditure for land on which to build chimnies,
is no mean item in the first expense, and is anterior to the building,
as well as to the maintaining of a chimney. Even admitting that
one-thirtieth only of the ground were thus uselessly encumbered by
the stacks of chimney, the aggregate loss on the original investment
would still amount to no mean sum for the population of a large
city. The cost or rent of ground, on which to build chimnies, is
therefore, the first object to be economized. The next item in the
expenditure is the construction of chimnies and fire-places, including
the materials and the various furniture, either for use or for decora-
tion,—the bricks, the marble, the brass and the iron; the fenders,
the hearths and hearth-rugs, the mantles and their ornaments, elegant
or tawdry ; and the glasses; that have been invented in all possible
variety for no other conceivable purpose but to hide the deformaty in
question. — ii

But we have not yet done with the taxation to which the inhabi-
tants of large cities submit for the purpose of warming the air above
their chimney tops. ‘There comes an incessant call for kindling ma-
terials, for wood, for bark, “chips,” charcoal, or the rather less evane-
scent, but far more fumitory cannel coal. ‘There is the labor of one
or more domestics almost constantly kept in requisition to build or to
renew fires, to watch for falling brands and wipe from tarnished fur-
niture the clouds of ashes, dust, and smoke. ‘There is not seldom
found the noise of shovels, and tongs, the distressful, asthmatic, res-
piration of the bellows; the far spreading odor of a scorched hearth
rug; the soon frayed and tattered carpet, cut though by fragments of
combustible, crushed beneath the feet, and worn threadbare by the
incessant application of the broom.

But if the present mode of heating apartments is a grievous tax
upon the purse, how much more upon the person? How many of
the long catalogue of diseases, incident to our citizens, may be tra-
ced to the unequal and ever variable temperatures to which the mode
of heating houses now exposes them? Even admitting that a uni-
form temperature has been obtained in the room chiefly occupied by
the family, yet we seldom find the same heat prevalent throughout the
house. ‘The entries, staircases and other passages are in the cold
weather exposed to frequent currents, of an icy chillness, even while
the parlour suffers the torrid influences of a roaring fire. ‘The cur-
rent up the chimney created by the latter only serves indeed to in-

Economy of Fuel. 321

erease the severity of the cold in the halls and passages by requiring a
constant supply of fresh air from without. To pass from the parlour
into the open air, seldom occasions much sensible inconvenience, be-
cause the person is suitably prepared by supernumerary garments,
hats, bonnets, and hoods, coats, cloaks and belts, gloves, mitts and
overshoes—to encounter the frosty rigor cf the winter. Buf when
we merely pass from the parlor to the “hall,” or through the stair-
case to a chamber, we scarcely think of a similar precaution, and
consequently encounter a fearful hazard by exposing ourselves to the
Opposite extremes of summer and winter temperatures without the
slightest change of apparel. Nor are these exposures always of short
duration. ‘They not unfrequently extend to a length of time, during
which no prudent person would venture to remain in the open air, at
the same temperature, as the entry in which we stand, perhaps con-
versing,—or giving directions—or reciprocating compliments, or pay-
ing cold civilities. We retire at night io our lodging rooms which
have been all day in a freezing state, and load ourselves with numer-
ous and heavy coverings to keep off the cold,—or we sink into mas-
ses of feathers and down for the same purpose, thus stifling and. en-
ervating ourselves in the most effectual manner, instead of enjoying
the elastic and refreshing curled hair matress which proved so agrea-
ble and healthful in summer. Or, we cause a fire to be lighted in the
evening and heat up our lodging rooms for the former part of the
night, only to become more sensibly dreary and comfortless in the
morning. We descend to the breakfast parlor, and find that want
of care, or want of skill, in a domestic, has allowed the fire to remain
inactive till a late hour, or in removing the “ dust and ashes” under
which the family had been humbled on the preceding day, he had
found it convenient to throw up the sash and admit a copious supply
of cold air, which now begins to riot about the room, and at length
takes full possession, driving from the house even that remaining ves-
tige of comfort which the walls, warmed by yesterday’s appliances
had hitherto afforded. ‘The true purpose of heating apartments is not
merely, to allow the occupants to derive heat from a direct exposure
to fire, much less from a contact with the source of heat. _ It is to sup-
ply in winter that equable temperature to our persons which nature
has provided insummer. ‘The means, too, of communicating it, ought
to be similar, and that is, chiefly, through the warming influence of
the air in which we move, and by the respiration of which, the due
temperature of the vital organs is maintained. Although these truths
Vou. XXIII.—No. 2. 41

322 Economy of Fuel.

are almost too obvious to require to be seriously urged in argument,
yet such is the force of habit, as to render most persons insensible to
the justness of this distinction; and to induce a supposition that actu-
al exposure to fire is the duly means of. maintaining a comfortable
condition of body, and a cheerful state of mind. But, do we ever
sigh for the spectacle of a glowing fire in the days of July, or the
evenings of August? Do we, at that season, contend that the parlor
is void of social attraction, because it has no brilliant grate, or the
breakfast room cheerless, because no “ blazing hearth” is seen to
ereet our entrance? And why do we not shiver at the sight of a
drawing room without its fire in summer, as well as in winter? Ob-
viously; because the idea of discomfort is then in no way connected
with the absence of firelight. And the same would be true of our
apartments in winter, were we equally accustomed to be free from
pain, and equally sure of beholding cheerful countenances around us,
while removed from a sight of the process of combustion. So strong
a prepossession has akon hold of many minds on this subject, that
mere reasoning would probably not convince one in ten, that he would
be able to endure a winter’s evening without a sight of the fire. But
I have seldom seen an individual, who when present in a room, oth-
erwise heated, did not actually soon forget his artificial want, and be-
come not merely reconciled to the deprivation of a glowing fire, but
actually delighted with the: summer-like influence which prevailed
around him.

But aside from the mere consideration of temperature and from
its variableness, when governed by the action of fire within the apart-
ment to be heated, there is, in the very pleasure which we fancy to
be found only in the sight of a fire, not unfrequently, an intermixture
of pain and of peril, sufficient, one should suppose, to counterbalance
all the good proposed by that peculiar arrangement of things. The
eye is often pained and sometimes actually injured by the continued
glare to which it is exposed. Resort is tlien had to screens or other
defences to shield us from the blasting ‘¢ excess of light” on which it
has been our pleasure to fix our gaze.

Again, the radiation of heat, at first grateful, is by degrees in-
creased until not only the face but the whole person is found in a glow
far beyond what the system can safely endure. But the retreat
w" ‘ch at length becomes necessary, is not always made until profuse
perspiration has been induced, and then we remove to a distance at
which the radiation is almost unfelt and where its effects on the air

Economy of Fuel. 323

of the room has been wholly neutralized, by the currents from doors,
windows, and other apertures. Thus is the body kept in a manner
oscillating between extremes of temperature, until a confirmed “cold”
er catarrh has taken possession of the system.

‘That pulmonary complaints should ensue, is but the natural con-
sequence ef this artificial variableness of climate, to which we are
frequently exposed, and such a consummation has, it is believed, of-
ten been brought about by the very prudent caution of keeping near
@ good fire for a single evening.*

it were needless to enumerate the dangers to which the inmates
ef a house, and even the house itself are exposed where young chil-
dren have free access to an open fire. The many appalling acci-
dents which are annually recorded as resulting from this cause, are.
sufficient io make us desire some more secure method of keeping up
an agreeable warmth among the tender objects of maternal and paren-
tal solicitude.

That the nursery may be secure from danger, recourse is had to
close stoves; but in attendance upon these, many of the same evils are
experinced which belong to the open fire. In apartments for the
sick, and particularly when wood is the fuel, they are objectionable
en account of the constant watchfulness, required for preserving a
uniform temperature. Hence it is not in the construction only of
houses and chimnies, or in the arrangements of receptacles for the
burning fuel, that a want of economy is visible. The very manner
in which the combusiion is carried on, and the disposal made of its
products, are widely at variance with philosophical principles. . Every
mode of producing combustion, in which more cold gaseous matter
is allowed to approach the ignited mass, than is actually required for
the support of combustion, involves a loss of useful effects depen-
dent on the quantity and capacity of the gas, and on the elevation of
temperature which it acquires by passing over the fire. But the
quantity of unburnt air which passes up an open chimney where
wood is consumed, bears a very large proportion to the gaseous pro-
ducts of the combustion. In stoves, the economy is but little better,
especially where the gas-pipe passes almost immediately from the
presence of the fuel into the chimney. ‘The occupants of some an-

* In a house heated in the manner hereafler deseribed, there has for three winters
been scarcely a cold, or any kindred disease experienced by the inmates. In the
winter of 1831—32, when influenza was nearly universal, the family was wholly
exempt from that troublesome and dangerous complaint.

324 Economy of Fuel.

cient dwellings are perhaps contented, that they can by closing the
fire-place with a board, and conveying through this the pipe of a
small stove, escape the dreariness incident to their former mode of
consuming fuel. ‘They do not appear to imagine that as the gas Is
red hot at the moment of entering the chimney, it would, if conduet-
ed a considerable distance within the apartments, be capable of im-
parting to the air of the room, several hundred degrees of its heat.
The admixture of unburnt air is the evil of open grates and fire
places; the escape of hot gas without discharging its proper office,
is that of close stoves as now generally arranged.

The culinary operations of almost every family involve an im-
mense waste of heat, and of heat too which might be turned to

valuable account, were but a small portion of the ingenuity bestowed

on less important subjects turned towards that much neglected branch
of domestic operations. Philosophy is slow in descending to the
kitchen. Nineteen centuries of time, and twelve hundred leagues
of space, have not impaired the truth of the remark,
“ Coquus preter jus fervens, nihil novz potest imitari.”

Indeed, a new process or a new fashioned utensil is often regarded
by that important dignitary, as a signal for open hostility, or for a sul-
len retirement from the ‘ place” which it hasinvaded. Hence from
ten to twenty cords of wood are annually consumed in many a family
for the sole purpose of cooking, while every other part of the estab-
lishment is supplied with anthracite. In economizing culinary heat,
it seems probable that at least one half of all the fuel usually consum-
ed in families may be saved.

The method proposed to be substituted for that which has been
described, is one which has, under some modifications, been employ-
ed, toa limited extent, for heating public edifices, and on a still
more limited scale, for the warming of private buildings. It consists
in placing in the basement story, or in the cellar, (as the case may
be,) a single furnace capable of effecting the combustion of as much
fuel as will be required to heat all parts of the house. Where an-
thracite is employed, this arrangement is perhaps more desirable
than where any other fuel is used, because the labor of attendance
is then reduced to an amount utterly insignificant, compared with
the expense of fuel and is extremely small compared with what it
would be with some other kinds of combustibles.

The furnace may be either of cast or rolled iron, the latter being

preferable on account of. its lightness and pliability ; the former, for

»

Economy of Fuel. 325

its resistance to corrosion and for the cheapness of the material. A
stove or furnace, formed of either of these materials, may be placed
in the basement, and surrounded, except in front, with any substance
suitable for forming a chamber to receive air at the bottom, which,
after ascending around, and over the surface of the iron, may pass
up through openings in the floor. ‘The front part of the furnace may
be made to join the enclosure allowing access to the fire, but not ad-
mitting a communication with the hot air chamber.

The air to supply the combustion may be taken from the apart-
ment immediately around the furnace, or, what is perhaps preferable,
may be conducted to the grate through a trunk descending from the
floor of one of the upper heated apartments. — In the latter case, it
serves to carry down the colder parts of the air of the room in pro-
portion as the warm air rises from the furnace to take its place.

By the arrangement above described, the fire is left open, and at
liberty to be used for culinary purposes, while the posterior part of
the stove or furnace is employed: to heat the air for supplying §par-
lors, chambers and passages.

The air to be used for this latter purpose should be derived from
a source not subject to any species of contamination. It would gen-
erally be advisable to receive it through a conducting tube from the
open air, and to keep it separate from that which supplies the com-
bustion. chy

Pipes of conduit may be used when several stories, not connected
by an ample stair case, are to be kept at uniform temperatures, but
the opening or closing of doors will often be sufficient to regulate the
heat. It has been found by experience, that when once admitted
into the lower apartment, the warm air will soon make its way into
every open apartment in the house.

The annexed figure exhibits the arrangement above described
with the exception of representing the gas-pipe as passing upwards
through the entry passage, where it is enclosed by a metallic col-
umn C, instead of being carried into the kitchen chimney according
to the actual arrangement, of which this is a representation.

The advantage to be attained by the plan here delineated, is, that
a portion of air from the first floor may be allowed to enter the me-
tallic column at an opening e, seen on one side, at the bottom, and,
ascending between it and the gas pipe, may be discharged into any
of the upper rooms where it may be required.

326 Economy of Fuel.

SSSSSs9

fi

KK

l ce i

\\

A, is the canvass covering (rendered incombustible) through which
air ascends, after being heated by the stove.

K, is the kitchen in the basement.

D, is the parlor above it.

E, the entry or passage extending from front to rear of the
house with a staircase leading to the chambers.

S, isthe stove lined with fire brick.

O, the oven immediately above the fire.

G, the grate with the ash pit below. The grate and fire are rep-
resented as open; but hooks on the right and left show where the
doors are to be suspended, which when shut convert it into a
close stove.

H, is the hearth raised six inches from the floor, the stove resting
on a base not seen in the figure.

Economy of Fuel. 327

U, is an urn with a spigot, and a pipe on the opposite side leading
with a gradual descent obliquely ito the fire through an aperture in
the plate of the stove.

B, is a similar aperture to receive the pipe from a boiler in the
same manner as at that attached to the urn.

P, is the gas pipe six or eight inches in diameter, of which the
various directions within the canvass are indicated by dotted lines.

I, is a piece of sheet iron, six inches broad, extending across the
top and down the sides of the stove in front serving for an attachment
to the cloth, and sufficiently insulating it from the hot metal. The
front of the stove thus constitutes a part of the circular enclosure.

F, isa pipe which may be opened or closed at pleasure for con-
veying to the chimney any fumes which may chance to escape into
the kitchen.

T, is a wooden trunk, beneath the floor, for conveying pure air to
the exterior of the furnace.

nm, its aperture within the air chamber.

h, h, are light iron hoops within the canvass covering to keep it ex-
tended, and prevent contact with the pipe, P. é

w, is a Wire netting, covering the aperture in the parlor floor, and
resting on the edges of a few thin iron bars, seen in the section.
The netting is painted in colors and figures precisely corresponding
with those of the carpet, so that the eye of a stranger seldom de-
tects the source of heat unless he happen to pass over the aperture.

The canvass is rendered incombustible by any heat which can be
radiated from the stove, first, by dipping it in a strong solution of
alum, and afterwards by covering both surfaces with a coat of white-
wash, composed of eight parts of quick lime to one of common salt.
The same covering has been three years in use without the slightest
sign of combustion. ‘The whole apparatus may have cost, in ad-
dition to the price of the cooking stove, about five dollars. It canbe
put up or taken down in an hour, and at the approach of warm weath-
er, when heat is-no longer wanted for the other apartments, the aper-
ture in the floor is closed, the canvass detached, the grate and base
of the stove removed to an ordinary kitchen fire-place; and with
proper supports for boilers and other apparatus, a summer cooking
range is al once constructed out of the materials which had been
used in the winter, and thus no change of fuel becomes necessary at
that season. With a gas pipe of sufficient dimensions to convey
away the fumes, little annoyance can arise from that quarter. To

328 Economy of Fuel.

be entirely freed from inconvenience on account of their occasional
production, it is only necessary to provide an escape in the manner
indicated at F. The kitchen fire place is of course completely closed
during the winter. By the adoption of this plan, every flue in the
house except one, is rendered useless; and much worse than useless,
because, besides occupying a great space, they carry off the hot air
which is sent up from the furnace. And yet they do not perform all
the purposes of ventilation, since their apertures are below the prop-
er level for that object. Seven out of eight have consequently been
closed at the top, by boards laid in mortar. .

Ventilation, when required, is readily effected by letting down a
sash from the top.

From November to April, (the time this apparatus is in use,) the
average consumption of anthracite is one ton per month; and no
other fuel whatever is required except a little charcoal, and a trifling
quantity of light wood for rekindling the fire, should it accidentally
become extinct.

Canvass has been adopted to form the air chamber, because it is
lighter, cheaper, more manageable than either iron or brick, and oc-
cupies no space of importance, when removed for the summer.
Where such removal is not desirable, or where the slightest danger
is apprehended, it were probably better to form it of some ordinary
building material. ‘The whole of the above apparatus would not
perhaps be improperly termed a tent furnace.

As already stated, the gas pipe in the actual arrangement above
described, passes into a kitchen chimney, and the column C, is omit-
ted; consequently considerable loss is sustained notwithstanding the
quantity of pipe enclosed in the air chamber.

In order to assure myself of the practicability of heating an apart-
ment on the third floor, by means of the gas thus escaping from the
kitchen, as well as to determine the relation of the temperature of
the escaping gas, to that of the open air, and to the highest tempera-
ture required in the rooms below, experiments were made at the top
of the chimney, and at several stages below. Care was taken to
allow the thermometer, (which for this purpose was suspended to a
measuring line,) time to attain the temperature of the gas at each
stage, and then to withdraw it quickly, when about to be examined.

Exp. 1. In this experiment the air was at 40°; the parlor D,
72°; the gas at the very top of the chimney, 134°; and at four feet
below, 139°.

Economy of Fuel. 229

_ Exp.2. The air was now 26°; parlor, 70°; the air at top, 118°;
three feet below, 123°; six feet below, 131°; nine feet below, 137°;
ten and and a half feet below, 139, showing an average diminution or
Qo per. foot, in the eee of the age as the gas approached
the top. .

_ Exp. 3. This was a cold - aad a brisk. fire was maintained.
The air was at 18°; the parlor, 7 5°: gas. at the top, oe and
twenty one feet below, 220°, showing a diminution of 1,2,° for each
foot of the height, and demonstrating that the gas had, at its escape,
nearly thrice as much excess above the surrounding air, as any
room in the house. ‘The temperature at which the gas escapes,
must obviously depend upon the state of the fire, as well as upon the
quantity of unburnt air, which obtains admission above it. When the
fire door of the stove is open, the air enters rapidly and mixing with
the gas, partakes of its heat, but probably derives from the fire above
which it passes, a small part only of its ultimate temperature. The
same is true of the air which enters at the throat of a chimney, be-
neath which a grate is in action. ‘The air which approaches to mix
with the gas, continues cold until the moment of passing the throat,
and in this current ‘of cold air, the hand may be held with impuni-
ty, while just within the throat the temperature ‘is that due to the
mixture of hot gas and cold air. If this throat be much lar ger than
is necessary to receive the gas, a greater proportion of the air of the
room will there find an ‘outlet, and the useful effect of the fuel will
be neutralized by sending up the chimney that air which it was the
chief purpose of the fire to warm, in order that it might be retained
in the apartment and applied to its occupants. ee,

Exp. 4. This experiment was made upon a chimney, the gas from
which was derived from an open grate in the basement, and of course
contained much common air, mixed with the products of combustion.
The open air was at 50°, the escaping mixture at 120°.

Exp. 5. A similar examination of another chimney fed by a large
kitchen range in full action, gave 125° for the temperature of the
gas, that of the open air being 45°. The foregoing experiments
served to indicate, that the gas of a close stove, if not of an open
grate, might be usefully employed to warm an additional apartment,
since it constantly escaped at a much higher temperature than it
could be desirable to maintain in any part of a dwelling.

To effect the proposed saving, it was only necessary to arrest the
gas by a partition at the proper point, perforate the side of the chim-

Vou. XXI1.—No 2. 42

330 Economy of Fuel.

ney, and insert a pipe connected with a proper air chamber, or drum,
of sheet iron through which the gas might be made to pass and again
be returned to the flue above the intercepting partition. The plan
actually adopted, as the most simple, was to cover the top of the flue
from which the gas originally escaped, with a board laid in mortar
over the top of the chimney, and when the hot air had traversed the
drum, to turn it into another flue which remained open at the top, but
closed at bottom, except a single aperture for the admission of a pipe
from the drum. ‘The arrangement is seen in the accompanying fig-
ure, where F is the flue coming from the basement; EF is the six inch

pipe which receives the gas; D is the drum three feet and nine
inches high by two feet in diameter, from which proceeds the pipe
e for the exit of the gas, into the chimney at P, through the brick
wall with which the fire place has been closed. F” is the flue
through which the gas finally makes its escape mto the open air; ¢
is a thermometer with its bulb descending through a hole perforated
in the sheet iron, to the center of the pipe, and near where it comes
out of the flue. This is intended to mark the temperature of the
entering gas. i’ is another thermometer similarly mserted into the
pipe where it leaves the drum, and ¢” is a third one, serving to note
the final temperature of the gas at its exit. The drum supports on
its top a broad shallow dish containing water to be evaporated. ‘The
thermometer which marked the temperature of the room stood with-
in one foot of the upper end of the drum. ‘The several thermome-
ters represented, were designed not only to show the temperature at
which the gas entered and left the apartment, but also the relative
portions abstracted by the main body of the drum, and by the pipe
respectively, and the extent of variation between the proportions

Economy of Fuel. 331

taken off when the temperature of the entering gas was increasing,
when it was diminishing, and when stationary. It was likewise im-
portant to determine whether the proportion withdrawn when the
excess of the temperature in the entering gas above that of the room
was great, were the same as when it was less; or whether, on the
contrary, the difference in the velocity of movement, of the gas due
to the difference of density, would sensibly increase the proportion
of that excess which would be withdrawn at the lower temperatures.

__ Sq. inches.
The area of the convex vertical sides of the drum was 3091.4
Do. of the two ends of do. - - - 923.6

Do. of the pipe e from the drum to the thermometer ¢’, 1234.6

Total area, 5249.6
Equal to about 37.8 square feet.

Having made this arrangement, I found the temperature of the apart-
ment which had, in former years, required a separate grate, or stove,
to keep it in a comfortable condition, entirely freed from that neces-
sity, and during the whole season, which will long be remembered
as one of uncommon severity, not a single hour is known to have
found it untenantable from cold. At night, the fire in the kitchen
was prepared for a slow operation, by adding a fresh supply of coal
covered closely by a layer of the finer kind called “ chestnut coal,”
or, what is still better, the coarser parts of the sifted cinders from
which the earthy and vitrified portions were always carefully rejected.
In this state of the fire, the temperature of the entering gas was con-
siderably reduced, but in no instance was it found lower than 100°.
It is probable that the mass of brick work, constituting the chimney
having become hot during the day, contributed to keep up the tem-
perature in the drum during the night,—a contribution which would
have been utterly wasted on the “ upper air” according to the usual
method of arranging both wood fires and open grates.

In the following table are given the results of numerous observa-
tions made, some at irregular intervals during the winter, others at
regular periods of five or ten minutes apart, coutinued for several
hours in immediate succession. ‘They are arranged according to
the temperature of the entering gas which, it will be observed, was
never higher at the time of any observation, than 231°. ‘The chan-
ges were, in general, so gradual as to allow a perfect facility in noting

332) Economy of Fuel.

the rate of variation. ‘The remarks* on this subject are probably
sufficiently numerous to enable us to judge even in those cases in
which the variation was not noted, what was the actual change ta-
king place, or whether the temperature were stationary.

As these experiments were made for a purpose purely practical, it
was no part of their aim to determine the abstract laws relating to
the rate of cooling. Nor is that, probably, necessary in the present
state of science. ‘The very elaborate experiments of Dulong and
Petit} (as well as of many other philosophers,) have left-little to be
desired in regard to the rate of cooling i in vacuo, and in a limited quan-
tity of gas.

They have separated these two things, and given the influence of
each circumstance a distinct consideration. But in what manner
will those laws which have been deduced, be modified by the cur-
rents of gas traversing the trunks of chimnies or the pipes of stoves %&
Will the greater or less velocities of the currents materially influence
the proportion of heat which will be abstracted by a given extent of
surface, when the velocity itself depends on an excess of temperature
in the moving fluid ?

Even allowing for these circumstances, will the quantity of heat
abstracted bear any constant ratio to the excess above the tempera-
ture of the room, with which the gas first enters from the chimney ?
The table is intended to furnish some data for answering these in-
quiries.

* It will be understood that the remarks in the eighth column, refer to the par-
ticular results contained in the sixth, and not to the more general averages which
may chance to fall on the same lines in the seventh.

{See Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. Vol. vii, pp. 113, 225 and 337.

Economy of Fuel. 333

id ee ee = EC .| 828
3 Fe SPIRE thas) aE eas
we Aat | Bb Se , aS 5s &)\Remarks on the variations in the
a2 q g 2 ag o ASS | all =| temperature of the entering gas, at
oid EI 8 2s = Ss $s¢8 4 S| the moment of the corresponding
BS Bp 2 s 2 2 > See = = 3 observations.
a2 1% les | 25. | 22 eee) cee
ge 5 S28 sy |e | SBE ace
i bp as es] He = wee ogo
2s @e 1258/85 | ss | ce8| Pee
Fe (ES iSs8|ee | ge | 22] 528
Pee erate Sate ame ea i
100°F..|65° |35 84 | 16 | .457
102. (66 (36 | 85 | 17 |.472 Rising rapidly.
102 644 1374 | 85 | 17 | .453
105 60 45 85 | 20 | .444
107 60. 47 88 | 19 | .404| .446
109 60 |49 90 | 19 | .387
110 66 44 92 | 18 | .409
110 594 |504 | 88 | 22 | .435
115 {572% |574 | 92 | 23 | .402 Beginning to rise.
117. |56 (61 26 | .426| .412 Rising after closing the
stove doors in the morn.

bok
—"
©
Or
(o8)
(=>)
—
Oo «5
o —_—
(NS)
nS
(Jy)
©
(gp)

Falling 1° in 10’.
: Rising 4$° in 10’.
24 | .387 Falling 1° in 10’.

Fire very low—covered
i up for the night.
.428 Rising 4° in 5’.

joe
WS)
j=)
or
@
(=p)
9)
Ooo
orm
iS)
D
uN
iss)
©

— mt
we
— =
o ©
Cop

Oy oo
Oo =
Lx)

Kote)
mo wv
© 9
ar ©
eo
o ©
a oO

125 |6s8 [57 [101 | 24 |.470
128 {61 (67 |100 | 28 |.418 Rising rapidly.
134 |61 |73 |102 | 32 | .438 Rising 8° in 5’.

134 |583 |754 |102 | 32 | .424 Rising rapidly.
135 |59 |76 [102 | 33 |.434].43 ree ot cee cea
rature 8° in the open air.
140 59 {81 |106 | 34 | .420 Rising 6° in 5’.
142° 163° (79 | NTE outa. 392 Nearly stationary.
142 58 |84 |110 7) 32 | .381
144 (62 {82 |113 | 30 |.362 Falling 4° in 5’.
146 594 1862 {110 | 36 | .405| .392'Rising 5° in 5/.
146 |562 |894 {110 | 36 | .402 Rising gradually.
147 60 |87 {113 | 34 |.390 Stationary.
148 624 /854 {116 | 32 | .374 Falling 43° in 5’.
151 594 (918 (114 | 37 | .403 Rising 6° in 5’.
152 72 |80 |123 | 29 | .362) .386

152 65 |87 |120 | 32 | .367
152 \6a |ss |120| 32 |.364 Falling—fire recently re-
newed.

1524 (624 [90 |1193| 33 |.366 Falling 74° in 5’.

«J

334

Economy of Fuel.

Temperature of the gas when en-

tering the chamber,

= S S on = SS [Corresponding temperature of th
CO Bot BL CoO

el}

room.

568

at
—

OAWIIAaH

Be

Excess of the temperature of the
entering gas above that of the

room.
Temperature of the gas when it re-

entered the chimney.

(o.9)
On
=
pe)
(9)

o7d115
924/120
O84l117
972|124
100 |126
1034/1203
91 |130
101 |126
102 |125
1054122
98 |132
104 |122
1053|128
1114126
108 |136
1093|1314
112 |128
110 |129
112 1131
115 |133
108 |130
108 |129
113 |129
112 |130
114 |130
114 |136
1164|129
117 |138
1194|136
1194|135
11941134
122 |133
118 |140
119 [136

Loss of heat by the gas while in
the chamber.

|

co He CO CO 69
Oe AO

Part. of the excess abstracted by
the combined action of radiation

and conduction.

Go 69
DOD
ODOow

five consecutive ex-
taken at the different
f the entering gas.

Averages of
periments,
temperatures 0

12

379

rs 3)

-389

.389

393

391

Remarks on the variations in the
temperature of the entering gas, at
the moment of the corresponding
observations.

Falling.
Rising.
Falling.
Rising 7° in 5/.
Falling 8° in 5’.

Rising.

Falling 13° in 5’.
Falling 1° in 5’.
Rising 64° in 5’.

Rising rapidly.
Falling 4° in 5’.
Rising 54° in 5’.

Falling very rapidly—
fire just renewed with
cold fuel.

Falling 10° in 5/.

Rising.
Falling.

Rising slowly.
Rising rapidly.
Rising 9° in 5’.
Falling 18° in 5’.
Rising 5$° in 5’.

Falling 2° in 5’.
Rising 4° in 5’.
Rising.

Rising 5° in 5’.

Rising moderately.

Temperature of the gas when en-
tering the chamber.

Corresponding temperature of the

a
oo
he

a
oo

=|
|

aa
no

57

entering gas above that of the

—
NS)
=

hie PKo} ~=room.

Excess of the temperature of the

Economy of Fuel.

Temperature of the gas when it re-

—
eS entered the chimney.
Ne

Loss of heat by the gas while in

*.|Part of the excess abstracted by

the combined action of radiation

I
474! .390
453! 375
45 | .367
42 | .341
50 | .396
40 | .340
52 | .422
51 |.385
50 | .406
50 |.403
44. | 349
51 |.400
494! .386
52 |.400
51 |.398
51 |.387
52 |.392
52 |.391
52 |.391
52 |.390
53 |.401
55 |.406
48 | .369
55 |.400
56 |.383
52 | 374
56 |.383
56 Caen
56 | .372
58 | .384
57 |.382
58 | .381

-08

Averages of five consecutive ex-
taken at the different

periments,

é

f the entering gas.

temperatures 0

339.

Remarks on the variations in the
temperature of the entering gas, at
the moment of the corresponding
observations.

Stationary.
Falling.

380 , Falling—stove just re-

plenished—cold day.

Rising 4° in 5’.

.377/Rising—very cold day.

309

Rising.
Rising.

Rising.

|Rising 3° in 5’.

Rising very little.

Stationary or falling a little.

ide 1° in 5’—stove
opened for an instant.

.093)Stationary.

391

cS

Stationary.
Stationary.
Rising.

Rising.
Rising slowly—a_ very
cold day.

ie slowly—very
cold abroad.
i Nearly stationary—very
cold day.

Nearly stationary.
Rising slowly.

336 Economy of Fuel.

=} te Sa = a ES oo =
5 ° oo = a Sea bee
E Shes de (ee ee ie a
3. z 5 Bs, 2 Ze oa5
os &, 85 |e [& oS $= 2 |Remarks on the variations in the
=a F ais ea © Bis lS S= | temperature of the entering gas, at
68 8 ae 28 = 2 a5 8 |=4° | the moment of the corresponding
23 sp 2g (fe > S85 = ee observations.
Be |#@@ lesa les ise Gloc> pats
= i) Oxo | 2s 3 ot |fH¢g
fe (ES. (2Se ibs |gcee lester ae
Se See) a Bees 4
213°F /67° |146 155 158% | .397/ .383
214 1631 15011159 [55 | 365 Falling.
215 (611 15311159 [56 |.364) __ |Falling.
220 |70 |150 |160 |60 | .400 Rising gradually.
222 -|69 {153 |1613)/601 | .395 Rising slowly.
B22 72 |150 |168 |54 _ | .360) .377
223 70 (153 |162 |61 399 -|Rising.
228 70 (158 |165 |63 | .400 Rising.
231 68 /|163 {170 |61 O14! 391
Mean, 62}

It will be found that the least portion of temperature abstracted
was thirty-three and a third per cent of the excess, with which the
gas entered the drum; and this occurred when a quantity of cold
anthracite had just been added to the fire, which greatly reduced the
temperature of the gas. ‘The drum in the mean time retained some
portion of its previous temperature and imparted to the gas instead
of taking from it, a quantity of heat. ‘The greatest per cent was for-
ty-seven and a half, which was abstracted when the temperature was
rising very rapidly and when, of course, the iron of the drum, as well
as the air of the room was acquiring temperature. It also occurred
when the fire was covered with cinders and the fire-doors opened at
night ; the slowness of motion in the gas having apparently more than
counterbalanced the diminution of tension in the heat, and allowed
a greater portion of the excess to escape.

The result of all the above observations is, that with a temperature
in the room, varying from 56° to 72°, and in the entering gas, from
100° to 231°, the number of degrees of heat abstracted by about thir-
ty-eight square feet of surface, varied, (according to the tempera-
ture,) from 16° to 63°, showing, When compared with the excess of
the gas above that of the room, a portion abstracted equal to ,°°%5
of that excess, or about one per cent for each foot of metallic sur-

face.

The Rattle Snake. 337

The thermometers ¢ and ¢” were so situated as to embrace be-
tween them forty-five inches in the length of the pipe, exhibiting a
surface of eight hundred forty eight and one fourth square inches.
The following observations will show the efficacy of this part of the
apparatus. When the thermometer t was 145°, t/ was 121°, ¢”
109.5°; whole quantity abstracted 35.5°; part taken off by the pipe
between ¢ and ¢’” 11.59. Hence, 32,4, per cent. of the whole di-
minution was due to this portion of surface, although it was only 162,
per cent. (less than one-sixth) of the whole surface exposed. It will
be remarked that in this part, the gas was compelled to move verti-
cally downwards, while.in the body of the drum it ascended some-
what obliquely, and that too, through a medium of gas in the centre
of which it may have formed a current, which being enclosed as it
were, in a pipe of gas, (a very bad conductor) could not readily dis-
charge its heat through the iron.

The mean result of seven experiments made in this manner was,
that 33,4, per cent. of the heat taken off was abstracted by this part
of the pipe. ‘This proves that the form of a drum is by no means
the most favorable for abstracting heat. 'The flattened pipe would
doubtless be most efficacious for this object, where space could be al-
lowed for carrying it to a considerable extent.

Art. XVI.—The Rattle Snake, (Crotalus horridus, L.) disarmed
by the leaves of the White Ash, (Fraxinus Americana, Mich. f.)
Communicated by Judge Samuen Wooprorr, in a letter dated
Windsor, December 4th, 1832.

TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

Dear Sir.—Last evening while perusing your very interesting
Journal, I found in Vol. iii, p. 85, a communication to you by Prof.
Jacob Green, giving an account of a large quantity of rattle snake
skeletons, found in a cave near Princeton College ;. Prof. Green clo-
ses his communication with a passing notice of a popular story,
among the former inhabitants of that town, that the leaves of the
white ash were obnoxious to those reptiles.

This brought to my recollection an occurrence connected with this
subject, of which I was a witness, and now proceed to relate.

During the summer months of 1801, I resided in the north eastern
part of the state of Ohio. Rattle Snakes were then very numerous in

Vou. XXII.—No. 2. 43

338 The Rattle Snake.

that region. I found the opinion universally prevalent among the in-
habitants there, that the leaves of the white ash were highly offensive to
the rattle snake. Several persons of respectability assured me that
the rattle snake was never found on land where the white ash grows,
that it was the uniform practice among hunters, as well as others,
whose business led them to traverse the woods in the summer months,
to stuff their shoes and boots, and frequently their pockets also, with
white ash leaves, as a preventive of the bite of the rattle snake,
and that they had never known or heard of any person being bitten
who had used this precaution.

Sometime in the month of August, I went with Mr. 'T. Kirtland
and Dr. C. Dutton, then residing at Poland, to the Mahoning, for the
purpose of shooting deer, at a place where they were in the habit of
coming into the river, to feed on the moss attached to the stones in
the shoal water. We took our watch station on an elevated part of
the bank, fifteen or twenty yards from the edge of the water. About
an hour after we had commenced our watch, instead of a deer, we
discovered a large rattle snake, which, as it appeared, had left his den,
in the rocks beneath us, and was slowly advancing across a smooth,
narrow sand beach towards the water. Upon hearing our voices,
or for some other cause, he stopped and lay stretched out with his
head near the water. It occurred to me, thatan opportunity now
offered to try the virtues of the white ash leaves. Requesting the
gentlemen to keep, in my absence, a watch over our subject, I went
immediately in search of the leaves, and on a piece of low ground
thirty or forty rods back from the river, I soon found, and by the aid
of my hunting knife, procured a small white ash sapling eight or ten
feet in length, and with a view to make the experiment more satis-
factory, I cut another sapling of the sugar maple, and with these
wands returned tothe scene of action. In order to cut off a retreat
to his den, 1 approached the snake in his rear. As soon as I came
within about seven or eight feet of him, he quickly threw his body
into a coil, elevated his head eight or ten inches, and brandishing his
tongue, ‘gave note of preparation” for combat. 1 first presented
him the white ash, placing the leaves upon his body. He instantly
dropped his head to the ground, unfolded his coil, rolled over upon his
back, writhed and twisted his whole body into every form but that of
a coil, and appearing to be in great anguish. Satisfied with the trial
thus far made, I laid by the white ash. The rattle snake immediate-
ly righted, and placed himself in the same menacing attitude as be-

Fossil and Recent Shells. 339

fore described. I now presented him the sugar maple. He lanced
in a moment, striking his head into atuft of the leaves, “ with all
the malice of the under fiends,” and the next moment coiled and
lanced again, darting his whole length at each effort with the swift-
ness of an arrow. After repeating this several times, I again chang-
ed his fare, and presented him the white ash. He instantly doused
his peak, stretched himself out on bis back, and writhed his body in
the same manner as at the first application. It was then proposed
to try what effect might be produced upon his temper and courage by
a little fogging with the white ash. This was administered. But
instgad of arousing him to resentment, it served only to increase his
troubles. As the flogging grew more severe, the snake frequently
stuck his head into the sand as far as he could thrust it, seeming de-
sirous to bore his way into the earth and rid himself of his unwel-
come visitors.

Being now convinced that the experiment was a satisfactory one, and
fairly conducted on both sides, we deemed it ungenerous to take his
life after he had contributed so much to gratify our curiosity ; and so
we took our leave of the rattle snake, with feelings as friendly at least
as those with which we commenced our acquaintance with him, and
left him to return at leisure to his den.

Art. XVII.—On some new Fossil and Recent Shells of the United
States; by T. A. Conran.

To the Editor of the American Journal of Science.

Sir—As I have a considerable collection of tertiary fossils of the
United States, many of which appear to be new to science, perhaps
you may deem it useful to publish descriptions of some of them,
although unaccompanied with figures; which it is to be hoped the
increasing interest in geological researches will some day enable me
to furnish. I shall here describe only a portion of those species
which I believe to be nondescript, but they will suffice to convince
the naturalist that interesting and perfect fossils are scattered as pro-
fusely in America as in any part of the world. Scarce a rivulet, or

_the bank of a river, in the eastern portion of the Southern States, is
without some trace of organic remains; and persons residing in the
neighborhood of such places would confer a favor on the members
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, if they would
forward specimens to that Institution. Yours, &c. T. A.C.

Philadelphia, December 5, 1832.

. 340 : Fossil and Recent Shells.

MACTRA.

1. M. clathrodonta. Shell subovate; posterior side cuneate ;
dorsal slope but little curved ; posterior lateral tooth much elongated
and elegantly striated; fosset oblique, ovate; anterior lateral tooth
elongated. Length, two inches.

Locality.—Yorktown, Va. Upper marine formation.

So closely does this shell resemble Clathrodon cuneata,* Gray,
that on a superficial examination it might almost be taken for the
same species; the hinge, however, is that of a true Mactra. The
Clathrodon has been arranged among fresh water shells, and con-
sidered as nearly allied to Cyrena, but I should prefer to plage it
next to Mactra ina natural arrangement, as the hinge does not
greatly différ from that genus, and the palleal impression is exactly
similar. With regard to its habit of living in brackish water, it may
be observed that other marine shells are frequently found in like sit-
uations, and I have seen the Solecurtus Caribeus and other shells of
our coast many miles above the mouth of the Potomac and in its ,
tributary rivers. I obtained many specimens of Clathrodon from
the sea beach near Cape Henry, Va., and Mr. I. Lea showed me
others from the coast of South America.

2. M. congesta. Shell triangular, convex, mies posterior side
cuneate, beaks nearly central; lunule none; fosset small, circular,
profound ; lateral teeth thick. Length, one inch.

Locality. —Suffolk, Va., where it is extremely abundant. A much
smaller variety occurs at James river, generally shorter in proportion
to the height, and with central beaks. Upper marine formation.

3. MM. confraga. Shell subtriangular; narrow, somewhat thick,
with coarse concentric lines; umbo oblique; beaks a little elevated,
approximate ; posterior side longer and less obtuse than the anterior ;
fosset large cordate, oblique; lateral teeth strong; muscular im-
pressions large. Length, two inches.

Resembles JM. solidissima, Chem., but the apex is not directed
forwards as in that species. It was found by Mr. Finch in Maryland
and is from the upper marine beds.

4. M. modicella. Shell subtriangular, bikupreie posterior
side shortest and abrupt or truncated at the extremity ; fosset a litile
oblique, triangular; lateral teeth strong. Length, three fourths of
an inch.

Locality.—Yorktown, Va. Upper marine.

* Rangia cyrenoides, M. des Moulins.

Fosat atid Recent Shells. 341

CORBULA.

1. C. idonea. Shell subtriangular, convex, thick, obscurely un-
dulated ; with a fold on the posterior sub-margin and the extremity
angular; basal margin acute; cardinal tooth very thick and elevated.
Length, one inch.

Locality. —Choptank ri river near Easton, Md., common ; Upper
marine.

2. C. oniscus. Shell elevated; larger valve ventricose, with pro-
found sulci terminating at the umbonial slope, which is carinated ;
. posterior extremity narrowed and truncated, from the posterior angle
of which a carina extends to the apex, nearly parallel with that of
the umbonial slope ; superior valve concentrically striated. Length,
one third of an inch.

‘Locality.—Claiborne, Alab. London dae

This species can hardly be distinguished from the C. EE of
Sowerby, Geological Trans. 2d series, vol. ii, pl. 38, fig. 4. The
latter was found in the valley of Gosau, Saltzburg Alps.

CHAMA. ©

C. congregata. Shell sessile, dextral; superior valve a little
convex, with numerous erect elevated arched scales; beaks occa-
sionally rostrated; apex sub-spiral; scales on the inferior valve
broader and more elevated ; inner margin crenulated.

Locality — James river, near Smithfield, Va. Upper marine.

2. C.corticosa. Shell sinistral; with strong concentric undulated
laminz transversely striated ; superior valve flat; inner margin cren-
ulated. Found with the preceding species.

fw

PETRICOLA.

P. centenaria. Shell oblong oval, with numerous prominent ra-
diating strie, and concentric wrinkles ; lunule small, cordate, pro-
foundly impressed ; hinge with two teeth in one valve, and three in
the opposite, the middle one bifid. Length, two inches.

Localities. James river near Smithfield, Va.; Choptank river
near Easton, Md. Upper marine.

PECTEN.

P. eboreus. Shell suborbicular, compressed, thin, a little oblique ;
ribs about twenty two, rounded, little elevated and smooth: 3 inferior
valve nearly flat. Length, twe inches.

Locality.—Suftolk, Va. Upper marine.

342 Fossil and Recent Shells.

VENERUPIS.

FP. subvera. Shell subglobose, rather thin and fragile; beaks
central, elevated and inclined a little forwards. Length, one inch.
Locality.—James river, near Smithfield, Va. Upper marine.

CARDITA.

C. alticostata. Shell subcordate, convex, with about twenty two
profoundly elevated nodulous ribs, which on the anterior side are
laterally carinated. Length, two inches. :

Locality.—Claiborne, Alab. London clay. Extremely abun-
dant and very variable in outline.

ASTARTE.

1. A. tellinoides. Shell oval, with concentric sulci; posterior
side with a slight groove or fold terminating in a slight emargination
of the basal edge; umbo flattened; apex acute but not prominent ;
muscular impressions a little elevated and very distinct. Length, half
an inch.

Locality.—Claiborne, Alab. London clay.

2. A. ungulina. Shell slightly elevated or obovate, a little con-
vex, with fine concentric sulci becoming obsolete with age; beaks
inclining a little forward and the apex acute; inner margin entire ;
lunule none. Length, half an inch.

Locality Accompanies the preceding species.

PECTUNCULUS.

1. P.cuneus. Shell cuneiform, broad, posterior end flattened
and forming an angle at the umbonial slope. Length, half an inch.
This is a remarkable species, very unlike any I have hitherto seen.

Locality.— Claiborne, Alab. London clay.

2. P. trigonella. Shell subtriangular, elevated, with radiating
strie; anterior margin nearly rectilinear and subangular at the ex-
tremity ; inner margin serrate. Length, half an inch.

Locality.— Claiborne, Alab. London clay.

3. P.stamineus. Shell suborbicular, ventricose ; with distant ra-
diating and finer intermediate lines, crossed by minute crowded striz ;
inner margin serrate. Length, one inch and a half.

Locality.—F ound with the preceding species.

Fossil and Recent Shells. 343

LUCINA.

1. L. pandata. Shell oval, compressed, obscurely cancellated ;
anterior side somewhat corrugated ; beaks nearly central; teeth three
in one valve; anterior muscular impression profoundly elongated ;
lunule excavated, minute. Length, one inch and one fourth.

Locality.—Claiborne, Alab. London clay. 'This shell is allied
to Lucina mutabilis, Lam.

2. L. dolabra. Shell elevated, with distant concentric imbrica-
ted and obscure radiating strie; posterior submargin profoundly chan-
neled, beaks prominent and curved forwards; lunule impressed, cor-
date; inner margin crenulated. Length, half an inch. :

Locality.—Claiborne, Alab. London clay.

: CYTHEREA.

C. Marylandica. Shell obtusely ovate, smooth, thick; umbo
obtusely rounded posteriorly ; lunule ovate-acute and slightly impres-
sed; hinge with the anterior tooth very robust.

This shell is from the upper marine formation; it is about the size
and shape of Venus mercenaria, and is vastly abundant in the bank of
the Choptank river, about four miles from Easton, Md. and occurs
inno other loeality which I have visited.

NUCULA.

1. NV. bella. Shell ovate elongated, rostrated, with numerous
regular concentric striz, and two carinated lines on the anterior sub-
margin diverging from the apex 5 on the posterior side is a slight fur-
row from the apex tothe base. Length, half an inch.

_ Locality.—Claiborne, Alab. London clay.

2. N.celata. Shell ovate elongated, with irregular undulated
ridges ; anterior sub-margin with three minutely crenulated carinated
lines diverging from the apex; beaks nearly central. Length, half
an inch.

Locality—F ound with the preceding species.

FULGUR.

F. incilis. Shell fusiform, with coarse alternated with finer spi-
ral stri#; spire elevated; whorls five, rounded, flattened a little above,
but crowned with a carinated line; suture broadly and profoundly
channeled; body whorl ventricose.

Locality.—Yorktown, Va. Upper marine.

This shell is about the size of F. canaliculatus, which it distantly
resembles.

344 Fossil and Recent Shells.

MELONGENA. ©
~~ M. alveata. Shell subglobose, with revolving strie; a few of
which are distinct; body whorl with a broad channel above; spire
very short, columella callous, profoundly so above ; basal | eee
tion profound. Length, one and a half inches. :

Locality. —Chibore, Alab. London clay.

i SS CREPIDULA.
4c arate... “shell: oblique, elevated, compressed : ie
aibbeds beak prominent, incurved, and turned to one side.

Toke _—Claiborne, Alab. London clay.

al SOLARIUM. :

1. S. elaboratum. Shell discoid, with numerous revolving eren-
ulated strie of different sizes; beneath slightly channeled on the sub-
margin, with a few strong grooves; margin of the umbilicus pro-
foundly crenulated ; the crenulations eeieding to the Ss pe
ture nearly circular. Length, one third of aninch. =
~ Locality.—Claiborne, Alab. London clay.

2. S. cancellatum. Shell elevated, cancellated; Slee an-
sil channeled at the suture; umbilicus cancellated ; ae orbi-
‘cular. Length, one fifth of an inch. ‘ ge

Locality. safle Va.

fe _ SIGARETUS.

S. biliz. Shell obliquely oval, convex, with fine crowded striz re-
volving in pairs. Length, one third of an inch.

Locality.—Claiborne, Alab. London clay.

TYPHIS.

oe sae: Shell fusiform, elongated, slender, volutions about
eight; ribs of the body whorl 4, thickened and slightly reflected ;
with two or three arched scales on each; margin of the aperture el-
evated but not reflected. Length, one third of an inch.

Locality—Claiborne, Alab. London clay.

2. T. acuticosta. This shell is described by me as a Murex in =
Jour. ales Nat. Sciences, Vol. 6.

RECENT SHELLS.
LUCINA.

L. Floridana. Shell suborbicular, compressed, with regular con-
centric striz, and covered with a very thin pale brown deciduous epi-

Fossil and Recent Shells. 345

dermis; anterior and posterior sides each with an obscure fold; beaks
central, not elevated; hinge edentulous; anterior muscular impres-
sion not greatly elongated. Length, one inch.

This shell resembles the fossil L. anodonta, of Say, but is very
distinct. It was found near Pensacola by Dr. Hutchins, who sent
it to Dr. S. G. Morton.

: CYTHEREA.

C. Sayana. Shell subovate, convex, with coarse concentric lines,
and destitute of polish; lunule large, cordate, marked by a simple im-
pressed line; hinge, with the teeth compressed. Length, one inch
and one fourth.

Syn. Cyruerna convexa, Say. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sciences, vol.
iv, p. 149.

Found on the coasts of Rhode Island and New Jersey; it is pale
yellowish or white and appears not to differ specifically from the C.
convexa, of Say, but I have changed the name because M. Brong-
niart had previously applied it toa very dissimilar species.

MELAMPUS.

M. borealis. Shell ovate acute, elongated; pale horn color with
darker longitudinal bands; whorls six or seven, with a revolving im-
pressed line below the suture; spire elevated, conical; columella
with three distant and distinct plaits, the middle one most prominent ;
aperture obovate-acute. Length, one fourth of an inch.

This small species of Melampus has been found sparingly on the
coast of Rhode Island, by Lieut. Brown of Newport. Itis similar
in form to a Bulimus and is very unlike the common species with
which it associates.

Ungulina transversa. Lam. As the history of this rare shell is
rather obscure, it may be worthy of remark, that I discovered two
specimens in a piece of limestone, inhabiting cavities which appeared
to have been formed by themselves. ‘The limestone was perforated
in every direction by shells of the genera rca, Crenatula, Veneru-
pis, Petricola, &c., all the species bemg such as are common in the
West Indies, from whence no doubt, the stone which contained them
had been brought. From the circumstance of its occurring in this
situation and from the peculiar form of the shells, I have no doubt
that the genus Ungulina may be properly classed among the litho-
phagous ‘Testacea.

Lama glacialis. Lam. It is a singular fact in the history of this
shell that although it swims with great ease and rapidity, it is often

Vou. XXIII—No. 2. 44

346 Filter and Prepared Charcoal of M. Dumont.

found in the calcareous rocks of the West Indies, and the entrance
to the cavities in which they reside is far less than the’ shells them-
selves, a proof that they have the power of perforating limestone,
- for they must have entered the rocks when very young and gradual-
ly enlarged their habitations as they increased in size. For this fact
I am indebted to General Parker who presented me a specimen
which he himself had procured by breaking the rock in which it was
concealed.

Pholas costata. Lin. The same gentleman bought in the Ha-
vanna market fine living specimens of this Pholas, far larger than are
generally met with on our coast. Dead shells are common on all
the coasts of the Middle and Southern States, but I believe a living
specimen has never been obtained here. ‘They must certainly how-
ever, burrow in the sand at or near low water mark.

Cardium Mortoni. 'This-shell, described and figured by me in the
6th. vol. Jour. Acad. of Natural Sciences, was at that time supposed to
be peculiar to the Eastern States, and especially the shores of Long
Island Sound. Specimens however have lately been sent from the
extreme Southern States ; Dr. Blanding obtained it in East Florida,
and Dr. Hutchins in the vicinity of Pensacola =

Art. XVIII.—Report on the Filter and Prepared Charcoal of M.
Dumont,* by MM. Serullas, Bussy, and Derosne. ‘Translated
from the Journal de Pharmacie, by Franxury R. Situ, of Phi-

ladelphia.

To the Societie*de Pharmacie de Paris.

Gentlemen,—M. Dumont, an experienced manufacturer of beet
sugar, called your attention to a filter of his invention, and to a pre-
pared charcoal, which he employs in the bleaching of syrups, and
you charged MM. Serullas, Bussy, and myself, (Derosne,) to give
you an account thereof.

The discovery of the decolorizing property of charcoal, is due to
Lowitz of St. Petersburg, who however did not remark the difference
in activity between vegetable and animal charcoal. ‘Therefore the
former only was employed in the sugar refineries for the decolora-
tion of syrup. In 1811, M. Figuier of Montpellier ascertained that

* This paper would Jong sinee have appeared, but for the accidental circumstance
of its having heen mislaid and forgotten. In searching’ for another document, we
were glad to recover this.

Filter and Prepared Charcoal of M. Dumont. 347

animal charcoal was superior, and employed it- to remove the color
of wine, vinegar and the residuum of sulphuric ether. We cannot
ascertain from his published memoir that he applied it to syrups. It
was a year later that M. Charles Derosne introduced it into the sugar
refineries and manufactories of beet sugar, thus rendering great ser-
vice to these two branches of national industry, and perhaps a greater
to the manufacturers of sal ammoniac, who, until that time, had
thrown away as useless all the residuum of their distillations. Since
that period the consumption of animal charcoal has been continually
increasing and its manufacture has become a source of considerable
revenue. Its mode of use underwent little change.’ After pulver-
ization and mixture with the syrup to be decolorized, this was boiled
and passed through a woolen cloth; by these means its full action
was thought to have been attained, and we could not have imagined
the possibility of the great improvements in the manner of its em-
ployment which M. Dumont has recently introduced.

This manufacturer, reflecting upon the difficulties of the old pro-
cess not only in the use of the charcoal, but also in the washing of
the residue and upon the foreign taste acquired by the syrup during
ebullition, with that agent sought to remedy them all, and has com-
pletely succeeded. His discovery comprises the preparation of the
charcoal and its employment by means of a filter of his own inven-
tion. The preparation of the charcoal is very simple; it consists in
reducing it to grains of equal bigness with those of sporting gun
powder, and removing the dust; these grains, however, vary in size
withe the density of the syrup to be bleached.

The filter of M. Dumont is a truncated pyramid turned base up-
ward, made of wood and lined throughout with tinned copper. At
the lower part is a spigot for drawing off the syrup, a little above that
an opening communicating with a tube external to the filter, and
used for removing the air of the apparatus. The filter is furnished
with two diaphragms of different sizes. When a syrup is to be fil-
tered, the small diaphragm is to be placed on the bottom of the filter
resting upon four feet, elevating it higher than the spigot and open-
ing of the air tube. Upon this diaphragm a piece of coarse cloth is
to be extended and upon it the charcoal previously moistened with
one sixth of its weight of water, is to be placed in such a manner
that all parts shall be equally furnished. ‘The level surface receives
another coarse cloth and the larger diaphragm upon which the syrup
is to be poured. By this arrangement the effusion of the syrup oc-

348 Filter and Prepared Charcoal of M. Dumont.

casions no derangement of charcoal and the irregular flow of the
liquid is prevented. The syrup, in percolating the beds of charcoal,
displaces the water with which that article was moistened and forces
it out at the spigot, where it may be received until it is ascertained
that its place has been supplied by syrup, which soon flows in an
uninterrupted stream, to be kept up by renewed additions upon the
filter. If the charcoal be not wetted with water, the syrup will have
more difficulty in penetrating its substance, it may pass more in one
part than another, and the filtration will not proceed regularly. Be-
sides, the water acts another part when animal charcoal is employed,
that is, in lixivating (in a partial manner at least) that article, which
may be recognized by the salt taste which it acquires.

M. Dumont made a trial of his filter in our presence with a syrup
made from raw sugar. ‘The experiment was successful, and we pre-
sent you with the product numbered in the order of their flowing;
the syrup No. | is almost colorless. No. 2 of a light amber color.
No. 3 a shade darker. By mixing these in equal proportions, a
syrup equal to that from good clayed sugar was produced. ‘he
purity of taste forms an additional recommendation to these syrups,
the flavor of raw sugar being entirely removed. We made a com-
parative trial of charcoal in the same proportion, by the old process,
and upon the same kind of raw sugar, but the product did not ap-
proach the beauty of that obtained by M. Dumont’s filter, its color
was darker than that of No. 3, and in the taste there was still greater
difference, from the syrup having acquired a disagreeable flavor by
ebullition with the charcoal. For the decoloration of sugar M.
Dumont employs twenty five per cent. of charcoal. This will cer-
tainly appear to be a large proportion, but we would observe, that
after the first operation, the charcoal retains much of its decolorizing
property. Syrup equal in quantity to the first may be poured in
and will lose three fourths of its original color; in fact it will be
bleached more than if we had treated the same quantity of sugar
with twelve per cent. of charcoal in the ordinary way.

When_decoloration ceases M. Dumont’s process still “offers ad-
vantage. By the way, we would observe, that in the experiments
performed before us, M. Dumont employed only fifteen per cent. of
charcoal. We have no doubt that had he employed twenty five per
cent., as he usually does, the product would have equalled a syrup
made with fine refined sugar. After the second operation, the char-
coal has lost a great part of its decolorizing action, but M. D. has
discovered a property which he calls apechante, that is to say, a prop-

Filter and Prepared Charcoal of M. Dumont. 349

erty of modifying or weakening the action of those substances con-
tained in the syrup which are capable of reacting upon the sugar
during the boiling. He, therefore, advises the filtration of a third
or fourth quantity of syrup through the same charcoal, persuaded that
afterward they may be crystallized much more readily.

Long experience only can demonstrate the value of this opinion;
we can, however, cite one fact which appears to confirm it. A
syrup of beets which had passed through a partially exhausted char-
coal without losing any of its dark color, took the fire much better and
crystallized more readily than a portion of the same syrup unfiltered.

M. Dumont’s filters are of different sizes. The small contain
from twelve to fifteen pounds of charcoal, and the jarge as much as
two hundred pounds. By them, syrups of all densities from the least
to the greatest, may be filtered.

Syrup of 28° to 30° of the areometer filters very well cold,
those of 36° to 38° require to be poured in hot, and the charcoal
coarser, as before stated, the operation lasts about the same time, but
the product is not so well decolorized.

The syrup of twelve hundred pounds of sugar can be filtered in
twenty four hours.

Why are the syrups filtered by M. Dumont more decolorized than
those operated upon the old process? Several reasons can be assign-
ed in reply. It is easy to conceive, that syrup, in passing through
the different layers of the column of charcoal should deposit a por-
tion of its coloring matter in each layer, thus producing greater effect
than in the broad and shallow filters used in the old process. Be-
sides, it is not improbable that the ebullition of a syrup with charcoal
counterbalances, in part, the decolorizing action of the agent; per-
haps the caloric effects a reaction of charcoal upon the syrup which,
in destroying one coloring principle elicits another: for the decolor-
ation is uniformly more. perfectly effected without heat. With re-
gard to the superiority in point of taste, of the syrups filtered by M.
Dumont, over those which have been boiled with charcoal, it is
much more easily to be comprehended, it being an incontestable fact,
that animal charcoal imparts to syrups with which it is heated, a dis-
agreeable flavor ;—a flavor which increases with the proportion of
charcoal.

On the other hand, M. D. removes from the charcoal a large pro-
portion of the soluble matters by means of the water with which he
moistens it. He operates without heat, which is is another reason
why his syrups should not acquire any bad flavor. If for perfect

350 Filter and Prepared Charcoal of M. Dumont.

decoloration and good taste the filter of M. Dumont affords de-
cided advantages, it offers yet another in the facility of washing the
charcoal.

The old process required repeated mixtures of the coaly residuum
with large quantities of water to separate the sugar which it retained,
and those washings required expensive evaporation. ‘This disagree-
_able and tedious labor is almost done away with by M. Dumont; for
without deranging the apparatus, the addition of water promptly re-
moved all the sugar, and, what is still more valuable at the com-
mencement of its action, a considerable portion of syrup is obtained
of a density almost equal to that which flows in the first instance.

The simplicity and rapidity of this washing will be especially ap-
preciated in large manufactories. We need not dwell upon the im-
portance of M. D.’s process in point of economy ; those to whom the
manipulation of sugar is familiar, will readily comprehend it. —M. D.
estimates the results obtained by his process as four times greater
than by the old, and assures us that his decolorized syrups are en-
hanced thirty per cent. in value. Were it even necessary to abate
somewhat of these valuations, it is not the less certain that his pro- .
cess will secure great benefits to those who employ it. Already some
pharmaciens have adopted it and it is used by confectioners and dis-
tillers. We know that a director of one of the largest sugar re-
fineries in Paris, has commenced its trial, and every thing induces
the belief that he will have reason to conereilts himself upon the
experiment.*

The ready catpleyiei of M. Dumont’s filter, and the good qual-
ity of the syrups obtained whether for consumption in that state or
for crystallization ; the simplicity and promptitude of the washing in-
duce us to believe that his process will effect marked changes in the
arts connected with the manufacture and refining of sugar.

We think M. Dumont has rendered great service to the arts, and
we propose that the society thank him for calling their attention to his
process and congratulate him on his success.

N.B. The syrups must be clarified and perfectly limpid before
being poured upon the charcoal. This condition is essential to the
success of the operation.

* In another number of the Journal de Pharmacie is the following: <‘the use of
the filter and animal charcoal to which he (M. Dumont,) gives a particular prepa-
ration, has already enabled several manufacturers to vend domestic sugar of supe-'
rior quality to any heretofore made.”

Olmsted’s Introduction to Natural Philosophy. 351

Be Fe
VW oluhlllt.

AA, wooden box lined with tinned copper. B, lower diaphragm pierced with
holes and supported upon four feet; itis movable. C,space for charcoal. D, upper
diaphragm, (movable ) E, space for the colored syrup. F', wooden cover lined with
copper. G, space into which the decolorized syrup flows. H, spigot. K, opening
to which the tube L is. adapted, giving passage to the air.

Art. XIX.—.n Introduction to Natural Philosophy ; designed as
a Text Book, for the use of the studentsin Yale College; by
Denison Otmstep, A.M. Professor of Mathematics and Natu-
ral Philosophy. In two volumes, pp. 346 and 352. New Haven:
Hezekiah Howe.

We have long regarded the objects of a liberal education as three-
fold :—first, to develop and discipline the powers of the mind itself;
secondly, to store it with useful truths; and, thirdly, to give to it the
power of communicating its ideas to others. Or, briefly, thus: it is the
great purpose of a collegiate education to learn us to think, to furnish
us with ideas, and to teach us how to express them. We fully be-
lieve that all the different studies that compose the system of educa-_

352 Olmsted’s Introduction to Natural Philosophy.

tion pursued in Yale College, and in most of the colleges of our
country, severally and conjointly contribute to this main purpose.
Geometry and Mechanics, indeed, unite, in a remarkable degree, the
three objects specified; for nothing is better suited to mental disci-
pline than the demonstrations of the truths they contain; the truths
themselves are of great value as subsidiary to other branches of
knowledge, particularly the knowledge of nature and of the princi-
ples of art; and the practice of conducting long demonstrations on
the black board im the presence of a class, accustoms the student to
express himself with perspicuity and correctness.

All great and accurate attainments in Natural Philosophy and As-
tronomy, are founded in the science of Mechanics, which is, indeed,
little more than an expansion of the three great laws of motion, follow-
ed out through all their consequences. So long as mankind supposed
that motion was one thing on earth and another thing among the
heavenly bodies, they made no progress in investigating the laws, of
the Universe. We owe to Newton the full development of the doc-
trine of the uniformity of the laws of nature. ‘The Principia first
taught the world how to ascend from simple observations and exper-
iments on the motion of bodies around us, to a knowledge of the
sublime but equally simple movements of the spheres.

A philosophical education, therefore, must have its foundations laid
deep inthe science of Mechanics. But it must not stop here. The
student of philosophy must not only have his mind stored with these
universal truths, but he must be initiated in the daily practice of phi-
losophizing, both upon the phenomena of nature and upon the opera-
tions of art, which latter are, indeed, for the most part, only operations
of the powers of nature as modified by the ingenuity of man. We
would have our men of education commence philosophers as soon
as they begin the study of philosophy, and ever afterwards cherish
the habit of seeking an explanation of every phenomenon whether of
art or nature that is presented to their observation.

The want of a good text book for classes in Natural Philosophy, has
long been felt in our colleges. Enfield’s Institutes, although a crude
compilation, abounding in errors,* and far behind the present state
of science, long aed its ground in spite of all these diadvan-
tages, because, imperfect as it was, it was better adapted on the whole

* See a copious list of these errors, pointed out by Professor Fisher, in Vol. iil,
p. 125 of this Journal.

Olmsted’s Introduction to Natural Philosophy. — 353

to be used asa class-book than any other similar work. Cavallo’s
Elements of Natural Philosophy, and the Treatises of Wood and
Vince, have been used in a few of our colleges; but the diffuse style
of the former work, and the absence of practical applications in the
latter, rendered them both ill adapted to the purposes of a class-book.

‘The late publications at Cambridge by Professor Farrar, compri-
sing an entire course of mathematical and philosophical text books,
compiled chiefly from the French writers, ably supplied the deficien-
cy alluded to, and might seem to have rendered the present work
unnecessary. But, for several reasons, the Cambridge Philosophy
was found not to be adapted to the course of mathematical and phi-
losophical instruction in Yale College; particularly, as it does not
correspond, in its references, to the mathematical works of President
Day, which are used in this Institution (and which there is no incli-
nation to exchange for any other) and, moreover, it is so extensive as
to require a greater amount of time, than can be spared for this pur-
pose consistently with the other exigencies of the Philosophical de-
partment, and with the claims of the other departments of instruction.

The general design of Professor Olmsted’s work, is expressed in
the preface. It is, “ first, to make the student thoroughly and fa-
miliarly acquainted with the-leading principles of Natural Philoso-
phy, and, secondly, to furnish him with as much useful information,
as possible, within so limited a compass.” In prosecuting the form-
er design, the compiler has first confined the attention of the student
to the ** Mathematical Elements,” comprising a selection of the most
important principles in the science of Mechanics ;—principles which,
on account of the universality of their application, are particularly
worthy of standing in the fore-ground of Natural Philosophy, and of oc-
cupying for a considerable time the undivided attention of the student.

Under the impression that the interest felt in the investigation and
contemplation of abstract truths, like those of pure geometry, and
theoretical mechanics, is, in its nature, different from that derived
from pursuing these truths into their practical applications, and even
that the two kinds of interest are in some degree incompatible with
each other, the practical part of Mechanics is entirely separated from
the theoretical, and made to constitute Part IJ, of the first volume.
Two incidental advantages, also, result from this arrangement ;—the
first is, that the second part furnishes an excellent general review of
the principles of Mechanics, in their connexion with each other ; and
the second is, that in the explanation of the phenomena, either of

Vou. XXIII.—No. 2. 45

354 Olmsted’s Introduction to Natural Philosophy.

nature or art, we may avail ourselves of principles taken from every
part of the science,—a circumstance which is frequently of great im-
portance to the full and complete explanation of a natural phenomenon.

On this point, a gentleman who has taught the work to a class, and
who is very competent to judge of its merits, has furnished us with
the following observations. ‘ The arrangement adopted in Olmsted’s
Introduction to Natural Philosophy, I have found to posses peculiar
advantages. By separating the ‘ mathematical elements” from the
‘practical part,” and confining the student, at first, exclusively to the
former, his attention is not diverted from the fundamental principles
of the science; but these he studies with the same interest as he
does branches of the pure mathematics and understands them as
perfectly. Those who have either taught or studied Enfield’s Phi-
losophy, know that quite the reverse is true in regard to that system,
in which the theoretical and practical parts are so blended that each
impairs the interest of the other. The pleasure derived from the
contemplation of abstract truths depends on qualities of the mind so
different from those which delight to follow out their application to
useful and economical purposes, that the two kinds of interest can
hardly exist together inthe mind, but, by a kind of incompatibility,
tend to neutralize one another. In this Treatise also, the funda-
mental principles of Natural Philosophy, are impressed upon the
mind of the learner by a great variety of problems annexed to each
chapter, which, in addition to the intellectual advantages, usually at-
tendant on the solution of mathematical problems, serve to render the
student exceedingly familiar with those principles. Thus, the most
difficult parts of the work having been first mastered, the perusal of
what relates to the practical applications, is easy and delightful. In
this part of the work, moreover, there is embodied an amount of useful
information rarely to be met with in works of this size. In short, both
the plan and execution of the work are such as can hardly fail, it is
believed, to commend it to all experienced instructors.”

Part I., to which so much importance is justly ascribed, is abridged
with numerous additions and alterations, froma Treatise on Me-
chanics, published a few years since for the use of the students of the
East India College, by the Rev. B. Bridge, fellow of St. John’s
College, Cambridge. We know not where a work could have been
found better adapted to the purpose. Bridge is an uncommonly lu-
minous writer; and his Mathematical Treatises bear the impress of
@ mind well informed of its subject, and (which is quite as important)

Olmsted’s Introduction to Natural Philosophy. 855

accustomed to teach. —A peculiarity which distinguishes the Trea-
tise of Bridge from almost every similar work, is the great variety of
problems with which the work is enriched. ‘This feature Professor O.
has borrowed very fully, having retained (though with considerable
modification) the greater. part of the Questions for. Practiée, contain-
tained in the original work, and having added many more. Upon
this subject he makes the following remarks. ‘“ A great variety of
problems are annexed to each chapter, the utility of which must be
obvious to every experienced instructor. Indeed, problems hold so
important a place in the estimation of the writer, that he has intro-
duced them into various parts of the work, wherever the subject ap-
peared to be susceptible of deriving aid from them. Problems put
the student upon his own resources; they compel him to think for
himself; they lead him toa just understanding of the principles dem-
onstrated ; and they teach him how to reduce his knowledge to prac-
tice. These truths are so obvious, that it is difficult to account for
the singular fact that treatises on Natural Philosophy, usually contain
few or no problems, although they eccipy so lates a space in most of
the branches of pure mathematics.”

In the subsequent parts of the work, Hydrostatics and Pneumatics,
Acoustics, Magnetism, Electricity and Optics, have severally their
proportionate share of attention. ‘To seize upon a few principles of
very extensive application; to make the learner well acquainted with
these ; and to follow them out in many of their practical bearings ;
are objects which the writer has evidently had constantly in view.

Accordingly, along with these fundamental principles, the truth of
which is established by the best evidence of which they are respec-
tively susceptible, the learner is supplied with as great an amount of
practical information as could be brought within so narrow limits.
For example, in the course of the work, the student will be made
familiarly acquainted with the principles of the Steam Engine, the Mi-
croscope and the Telescope.

The work is neatly printed, and contains nearly three hundred
diagrams in wood, which serve a very valuable purpose, especially in
cases where the student has not the advantage of extensive experi-
mental illustrations; and even where he has ‘such aid from appara-
ius, the diagrams prepare him to take the benefit of them much
more fully than he would otherwise do.

The Analysis which is prefixed to each volume, furnishing a clue
to all the principal matters contained in every paragraph of the text,

356 Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzheim.

and serving a convenient purpose for reviews and examinations, we
regard as a highly useful appendage to an elementary work. No
better way can be devised for storing in the memory the contents of
a book, than to connect with each hedel of such an analysis, a train
of ideas, which, after a few reviews, will, on the orice gee of asso-
ciation, all recur to the mind, almost at a glance.

We commend Professor Olmsted’s book to the examination of
teachers of Natural Philosophy, esteeming those the best judges of
the merits of any class book, who have had an opportunity of wit-
nessing its effects on the mind of the learner.

Art. XX.—Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar SpuRZHEIM ; compt-
led chiefly from the oration of Professor Charles Follen, delivered
at his funeral.

Ir was the will of God, that the course of this eminent and ex-
cellent man should be finished in this country, only four months from
the time when he arrived at New York. He had been long known
to fame, and was the subject of intense curiosity and interest, on the
part, both of those who favored, and of those who did not favor his
peculiar views. With only one exception, no stranger ever visited the
United States, who, (so far as the short career of Dr. Spurzheim among
us will justify the parallel,) possessed the power at once so fully to
excite and absorb and gratify the public mind, and at the same time to
surpass the public expectation. In every place where he stopped,
he inspired respect and kindness; and, fortunately for his fame, and
for the feelmgs of his European friends, the only great intellectual
effort which he made in America, was put forth in a community, in
which, a high state of mental culture and of benevolent feeling gave
nm every possible advantage. Boston, including Cambridge, is both
a focal and radiant point of intellectual light; and, no where in this
country, could Dr. Spurzheim have made his entrance with a more
cordial welcome ; his displays, with a more undivided admiration Sar
his exit, with a more sincere and poignant regret. His visits to other
places began to be anxiously expected. At Hartford, a large au-
dience, pledged to attend his lectures, was impatiently waiting his
arrival ; and the hand, that now attempts a feeble tribute to his mem-
ory, was already engaged in the grateful duty, of inviting him to
give his courses of instruction in the sister city of Connecticut,

Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzheim. 357

when, without premonition of his illness, his death was abruptly
announced. It was one of those thunder strokes, which, in the full
career of life,’ bring us up with a sudden check, and throw us, all
aback. Every man, especially, who presses onward in the habitual
pleasure of intellectual effort, and who lives less for himself than for.
his fellow men; less for the idolatry of his own poor fame than for
the honor of his maker; every such man, feels, on an occasion like
this, a momentary paralysis of his powers, and is, for the time, dis-
posed to cease from the vain struggles of life. This feeling, so in-
consistent with the discharge of duty, is happily temporary. We
look on the illustrious dead—we mourn—we pay them the last honors,
and then resume our arms, and press onward in our warfare.

On the present occasion, however, we are more desirous to ad-
vert to facts than to pursue a course of moral reflections, however,
in other circumstances, proper and useful; and happily, we have an
interesting biograpical notice of Dr. Spurzheim in the excellent fune-
ral oration pronounced by Professor Charles Follen, in honor of the
deceased, which we are permitted to use on the present occasion.
We shall quote, in Dr. Follen’s own words, the Beer eee sketch
of his departed friend and countryman.

«¢ Gaspar SpuRzHEIM was born on the 31st of Decsabex 1775,
at Longvich, a village about seven miles from the city of Treves, on
the Moselle, in the lower circle of the Rhine, now under the domin-
ion of Prussia. His father was a farmer, and in his religious per-
suasion, a Lutheran. Young Spurzheim received his classical edu-
cation at the college of Treves; and was destined by his friends, for
the profession of ‘Bheelory In consequence of the war between
Germany and France, in 1797, the students of that college were dis-
persed, and Spurzheim went to Vienna. Here he devoted himself
to the study of medicine, and became the pupil, and afterward the
associate of Dr. Gall, who was at that time established as a physician
at Vienna.

‘This extraordinary man had been induced, by an observation
made by him when a boy of nine years old, to attempt a new mode
of scientific investigation. While at school, young Gall felt mortified
at seeing himself surpassed by a number of his school-fellows in all
those exercises that required verbal memory. ‘The mortified pupil
tried to find out some reason to account for this fact, that boys who
in their other exercises were much his inferiors, yet showed better
heads in committing lessons to memory. He was struck with the

358 Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzhein.

observation that those boys who learned so easily by heart, had re-
markably large and prominent eyes. The connexion of this exter-
nal sign and that mental faculty occurred to him, and he inferred
that prominent eyes were a mark of good memory. ‘This observa-
tion, insignificant ‘in itself, led Gall to study minutely, on the one
hand the prominent talents and individual characters of men, and on
the other hand, the form of their heads. Little by little he flattered
himself that he could perceive one constant shape in the head of ev-
ery great painter, every great musician, every great mechanic, sey-
erally denoting a aecided predisposition in the individual to one or
the other of these arts. The study of medicine, and particularly of
anatomy, to which he devoted himself, soon induced him to consider
the peculiar form of the skull only as the evidence and the effect of
that of the brain. This part of the human body, which bad always
been considered as the principal instrument of the mind, became now
the chief object of Gall’s investigation; and instead of considering
the whele brain, as was formerly the case, as required for each of
the different manifestations of the mind, he examined each part with
special reference to those prominences of the skull which he had be-
fore perceived to be indications of particular talents and dispositions.
He considered each of these parts of the brain as the particular organ
of each of the different faculties of the mind, in the same manner as
the eyes are the organs of sight, and the ears of hearing. Thus, from .
two sources of observation, from the study of the variety of talent and
character, and of the organization of the brain, there arose a new
science, the Physiology of the brain, that is, the theory of the differ-
ent parts of the brain considered as the organs or instruments of the
various animal, intellectual and moral capacities.* The physiology
of the brain which at first frequently went by the name of Craniology,
or the doctrine of the skull, is now more generally known by that of
Phrenology, or the doctrine of the mind, by which Spurzheim pre-
ferred to designate this new science.

“Tt was at Vienna, in the year 1800, that Spurzheim first attended
a private course which Dr. Gall had repeated from time to time, dur-
ing the four preceding years, in order to explain to a select audience
his new theory of the organs and functions of the brain. The dissec-

* Hence the medal that was published at Paris after Gall’s death, in 1828, bears
the inscription, ‘ Au createur de la physiologie du cerveau.” (To the author of the
physiology of the brain.)

» Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzheim. 359

tion of the brain itself still remained imperfect untill 1804, when Spurz-
heim became his associate, and undertook especially the anatomical
department. - From that time, in their public as well as private de-
monstrations of the brain, Spurzheim always made - dissections,
and Gall explained them to the audience.

“The great interest which was excited by these lectures at Vien-
na, and throughout Germany, roused the fears of that inveterate ene-
my of all innovations, the government of Austria. An imperial de-
cree, which prohibited all private lectures unless by special permis-
sion, silenced the two teachers, and induced them, in 1805, to quit
Vienna. ‘They travelled together through Germany, explaining and
demonstrating their physiological discoveries in the principal universi-
ties and cities; particularly in Berlin, Leipzig, Dresden, Halle, Hei-
delberg and Munic. ‘Their anatomical demonstrations excited eve-
rywhere great interest and applause. ‘The great German anatomist
and physiologist, Reit, before whom Gall and Spurzheim dissected a
brain in 1805, at Halle, said to Professor Bischoff, who wrote an
exposition of their doctrine, ‘I have seen in the anatomical demon-
strations of the bram, made by Gall, more than I thought that a man
could discover in his whole life.’ Their peculiar physiological doc-
trines on the organization of the brain being adapted to various innate
qualities of the mind, found many opposers, but also some warm ad-
herents, and gave rise to a great number Gl eats in which the
subject was discussed. *

‘In the year 1807, Gall and Spurzheim went to Paris, where they
demonstrated their theory of the brain in the presence of Cuvier,
then the chief of the anatomical department of the French Institute,
and before many other distinguished men, and learned societies.
‘Meanwhile their collections of skulls and casts of heads, had much
increased, so that they were able amply to illustrate their doctrines
of special parts of the head, as indicative of mental powers. Cuvier
showed himself at first well disposed toward the new doctrine, and
expressed his approbation of its general features. But in the year
1808, when Gall and Spurzheim delivered their memoir, containing
an account of their scientific labors, to the French Institute, Cuvier
was appointed to draw up the report, in which he seemed to labor

*The first expositions of the doctrines of Gall and Spurzheim were published in
Germany between the years 1802 and 1805, by Froriep and Walter, Bischoff, Kno-
blauch, Bloede; and in Paris, in 1806, by Demangeon.

360° Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzheim.

to diminish as much as possible the merit which he was forced to
allow to this new mode of dissection. It is said that Cuvier, whose
firmness and independence were by no means commensurate with his
great talents, was swayed by the haughtiness of the First Consul,
who had seen with displeasure that the French Institute had awarded
a prize medal to Sir H. Davy for his galvanic experiments, and ‘at
a levee rated the wise men of his land, for allowing themselves to be
taught chemistry by an Englishman, and anatomy by a German.’
- “Jn Paris, Gall and Spurzheim began to publish their great work
on the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system in general,
and that of the brain in particular. They also continued their pub-
lic lectures and demonstrations. 'They remained and labored to-
gether in Paris till the year 1813. In the following year Spurzheim
went over to England, and gave his first public lecture in London,
in the amphitheatre of Mr. Abernethy. Mr. Abernethy, though he
did not give full credit to the evidence brought forward by phrenolo-
gists to prove that special parts of the brain are the organs of certain
innate qualities of the mind, fully acknowledged the superiority of
Dr. Spurzheim’s anatomical demonstrations over every previous
mode of dissecting the brain. 1 have been assured by a gentleman
who at that time attended Mr. Abernethy’s lectures, that he directed
the attention of his class to Dr. Spurzheim’s anatomical labors as
most important discoveries.* Still, the truly scientific method of
establishing phrenology by anatomical demonstration, though it se-
cured the respect of learned men, did not render it popular.
‘From London Dr. Spurzheim went to Bath, Bristol, Cork, and
Dublin, where also he delivered lectures. He then proceeded to
Edinburgh. His desire to visit that city was increased by a very
abusive article on phrenology, which had appeared in the Edinburgh
Review, for June, 1815, concluding with the confident assertion of
the writer that his statement of the doctrine of phrenology could
‘leave no doubt, in the minds of honest and intelligent men, as to the
real ignorance, the real hypocrisy, and the real copuicim of the
author.’

*Mr. Abernethy, in one of his-publications, speaks of Dr. Spurzheim as ‘a man
who had made the motives of human actions a particular study, possessing also great
intellectual powers combined with benevolence and caution in decision ;’ he also
expresses the ‘great gratification he had in being intimate with Dr. Spurzheim
whilst he remained in London.’

Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzheim. 361

“Dr. Spurzheim procured one letter of introduction for that city,
_and but one; that was to the reputed author of the vituperating
essay. He visited him, and obtained per mission to dissect a brain in
his presence. He succeeded in convincing some of his hearers of
the truth of the results of his researches. A second day was named.
The room was crowded to overflowing. There, with the Edinburgh
Review in one hand, and a brain in the other, he opposed fact to
assertion. The writer of the article still believed the Edinburgh Re-
view, but the public believed the anatomist. Dr. Spurzheim now
opened a course of lectures on the anatomy and the functions of the
brain, and its connexion with the mind. He used to say to the Scotch,
‘You are slow, but you are sure. I must remain some time with
you, and then I will leave the fruit of my labors to ripen in your
hands. This is the spot from which, as from a centre, the doctrine
of phrenology shall spread over Britain.’

* Edinburgh, the city from which the great anathema had issued
against phrenology, actually became the principal seat of it. ‘There,
in 1820, a phrenological society was formed, at the head of which
stands Mr. G. Combe, extensively known by his interesting works ;
and there a phrenological journal continues to be published.

“ After a residence of seven months at Edinburgh, Dr. Spurzheim
returned, in.1817, to London, where his doctrine had meanwhile
made many converts, and where he was made Licentiate of the
Royal College of Physicians. During the three years of his resi-
dence in England, he published several works on Phrenology, par-
ticularly one under the title, The Physiognomical System, of which
he afterwards published an abstract (Outlines of the Phystognomical
System.) He also wrote in defence of his principles, his Examina-
tion of the Objections made in Great Britain against Phrenology.

‘¢ Dr. Spurzheim returned to Paris in 1817, where he gave lec-
tures on the anatomy, physiology and pathology of the brain. He
also devoted himself to the practice of medicine, and visited, in this
capacity, several American families then residing in Paris. Still the
medical profession did not seem to be his favorite occupation. At
the same time he published some new works in French, and became
Doctor of Medicine at the University of Paris, in 1821.*

*He published a work, Sur la Folie; another, Sur la Phrenologie ; another,
Essai philosophique sur la nature morale et intellectuelle de Vhomme ; besides his
medical dissertation, Du cerveau sous les rapports anatomiques.

Vou. XXII1.—No. 2. 46

362 Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzheim.

“Tn Paris, Dr. Spurzheim married a lady of great merit. She
was a widow and had three daughters when he married her. Dr.
Spurzheim had no children of his own. Several ladies of this city,
who were introduced to Mrs. Spurzheim in Paris and in London,
remember her with the highest esteem and delight. Her whole
manner expressed a union of true humility, tender attachment, and
conscious power, which excited at once affection and confidence.—
She entered fully into her husband’s pursuits, and aided him by her
uncommon skill in drawing. ‘To her pencil we are indebted for a
number of those excellent drawings used by Dr. Spurzheim im his
lectures. But far more important to him was the aid which he de-
rived from the unseen and inexhaustible treasures of a true and de-
voted heart. It was often observed how well their characters seemed
to be fitted for each other. They were both adepts in that profound-
est of all sciences, and most pleasing of all the fine arts—Christian
benevolence shown forth in beautiful manners. It is characteristic
of Dr. Spurzheim, that one of the reasons which influenced him in
the choice of his wife, was the knowledge that she had undergone
great suffering, which he thought essential to the perfection of human
nature. An ancient philosopher thought that no one could become
a good physician, who had not himself endured many diseases.—
Whatever be the merits of this speculation as regards the medical
profession, it is certainly true in morals—that no one can so readily
perceive and deeply understand, and so successfully alleviate the suf-
ferings of others, as he himself who is a man of sorrows, and acquaint-
ed with grief. Dr. Spurzheim was devotedly attached to his wife,
and he remained so after her death to the end of his own life. While
he was in this country, though surrounded by many whom he had
soon made his friends, he often mourned the loneliness of his situa-
tion, particularly when indisposition, or fatigue, made him long after
those small services of domestic affection and ever watchful care, of
which those who devote themselves wholly to one of the great gene-
ral interests of mankind, be it the cause of religion or of science,
stand in special need—that wholesome atmosphere of constant love,
the absence of which seems to be felt more painfully the more un-
conscious we are while we inhale it. In his last sickness, he, in a
mournful manner, ascribed his illness to the want of warm linen on his
return from his lectures, saying with a sigh, that if his wife had been
living, it would have been before the fire ready for him. The dis-
ease of his heart he ascribed to his loss of her, saying, his pulse one
jntermitted ever since her death.

Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzheim. 363

** The death of his wife, which took place about three years since,
seemed to remind him more strongly that his life and his labors be-
longed to all mankind, whose vital interests he thought most effectu-
ally to promote by developing particularly the principles of education,
morality, and religion, te which his studies of human nature had led
him. He had visited England again in 1825, and was engaged partly
in lecturing, and partly in the publication of different books. The
first work he had published in England, ‘ The Physiognomical Sys-
tem,’ contained several summary views of different branches of an-
thropology, which he now endeavored to make more generally appre-
ciated, by extending the principal chapters, and making them sepa-
rate books. In one of them, Phrenology, he treats of the different
powers of the mind, and their cerebral organs, in general. A smaller
book, Outlines of Phrenology, is an abstract of that work. The two
principal doctrines of Phrenology, | that of the brain, and that of the
raind, were carried out in different works.

“In his Anatomy of the Brain, he laid down his and Gall’s inves-
tigations of the brain and the nervous system. On the other hand, the
doctrine of the mind, with its practical bearings on religion and mo-
rality is carried out in his Philosophical Principles of Phrenology.
The same principles, in a more condensed and practical form, are
set forth in his Philosophical Catechism of the Natural Laws of Man.
The subject of education, on which he rested all his philanthropic
hopes, was treated of in his Elementary Principles of Education, a
book full of the most important information, and excellent counsel.
The deranged functions of the brain is the subject of his interesting
work on Insanity, for which his frequent visits at the Insane Hospitals
afforded him a great number of important observations. All the
works which Dr. Spurzheim edited after his separation from Dr. Gall
in the year 1813, show a spirit of free and indefatigable inquiry.—
The improvement in the anatomy of the brain, was chiefly Spurzheim’s
work ; he also discriminated more minutely between different facul-
ties of the mind which Gall had confounded, and he endeavored te
point out their relation to the development of the brain ; he moreover
brought method and order into the scattered doctrines of Phrenology.

** So great was the interest excited by his lectures, on his second
visit to England, that in 1826, when he delivered his course in Lon-
don, ‘ not only the large lecture-room of the London Institution, but
all the staircases, corridors, and passages leading to it, were filled with
hearers.’ Still, from the nature of the science itself, which requires

364 Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzheim.

constant, extensive, and minute study, it was to be expected that many
of those who had been induced to embrace it either by the eloquence
of the celebrated teacher, or by a partial success in their own phre-
nological divinations, relaxed in their scientific pursuits; and a num-
ber of phrenological societies, formed during the full tide of popu-
larity, dwindled away unul they wholly disappeared. Still in Edin-
burgh, which city Dr. Spurzheim again visited in 1828, the study of
Phrenology is pursued with unabated ardor, and diligence. From
England Dr. Spurzheim returned to Paris, where he continued te
lecture, and where he had collected a large phrenological cabinet.
“‘In the summer of the present year, Dr. Spurzheim came to this
country, where lectures on Phrenology had been delivered long be-
fore his arrival, and a phrenological society formed. at Philadelphia.
On board the ship he proved himself a friend in need to a number
of poor emigrants ; many of whom being taken sick on their passage,
experienced his kind and successful medical assistance. Dr. Spurz-
heim arrived at New York on the 6th of August, in the heat of
summer, while the cholera was raging there, and immediately went
on to New Haven, where he stopped a few days. A letter from one
of the most eminent men of Yale College, in whose family Dr. Spurz-
heim spent much of his time, speaks of the ‘ amiable, winning sim-
plicity of his manners, and his unpretending good sense, and good
feeling.” From New Haven he came on to this city, with which he
felt already familiar, through a number of Bostonians, with whom he
had become acquainted in Europe. He intended to stay in this
country about two years, to lecture in the principal. towns, then to
visit the different tribes of our Indians; and at last to return to Paris.
The easy access which that city presents to so many treasures of
science, and its being the place of residence of some of his most inti-
mate friends, gave rise, now and then, to feelings of homesickness ;
which were soon merged, however, in that universal benevolence
which made him consider any portion of the human family with
which he happened to be connected, and to whom he could do some
good, as his nearest relatives.”
He delivered in Boston, chiefly for medical men, one course of
lectures on the anatomy of the brain; and two popular courses on
Phrenology, one in Boston and the other in Cambridge, “ which he
had nearly completed when death overtook him, in the midst of his
labors. In his anatomical demonstration of the brain, he endeavor-
ed to unfold the design of nature in the complicated structure of this

Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzheim. 365

organ, by tracing its gradual development from its lowest and sim-
plest beginning in the spinal marrow, to its continually increasing,
various and harmonious ramifications. | This scientific demonstration
of the brain, which was made without any reference to the peculiar
doctrines of Phrenology, together with his discoveries of some of the
constituent parts of this organ, obtained for Dr. Spurzheim here the
same high respect as an anatomist of the brain, which had been ac-
corded to him in Europe by the eminent men in that department.”

His lectures on Phrenology were attended by large numbers, who
listened with high interest to his powerful, natural eloquence, flowing
with ‘impressive earnestness and persuasive sweetness.” He had
a “fulness of thought and action embodied in a frame which nature
herself seemed to have made a strong hold of life and health.” His
course of reasoning was the Baconian or induetive, founded on facts;
he rejected metaphysical speculations founded on nominal distinc-
tions—his maxim being res non verba. ‘The principal topics in Phre-
nology are, the anatomical structure of the brain ;—the variety of
talents and. dispositions among men, and their conformity with par-
ticular dispositions and talents,—the latter constituting the physiology
of the brain. Having never studied phrenology, we are not entitled
to pronounce any opinion upon its merits. Dr. Follen remarks that
“its results can never amount to more than probable conjectures, and
that the great subject which lies at the foundation of moral philoso-
phy, the moral freedom and responsibility of man cannot we seit
mined by the physiology of the brain, however true to nature.” He
adds, that should phrenology be rejected, the important facts and:
principles which they have advanced, and among them eminently,
*«Dr. Spurzheim’s principles of education will ever hold a distinguish-
ed place. ‘The merits of Gall and Spurn as anatomists and ob-
servers of man, will never be forgotten.”

The great object of Dr. Spurzheim’s instruction was the improve-
ment and happiness of mankind and “ universal benevolence to the
whole family of man was the burthen of his life and of his philoso-
phy.” He thought that his system had prevented him from being a
misanthrepe, and had taught him to love, respect and pity his fellow
beings. He evinced himself to be ‘a true friend of human freedom
and universal happiness,” and the light that shone in his countenance
** was the spirit of truth and goodness.”

He was kind even to animals; in his visits to Cambridge, his horse

was placed under a warm Hiicdier when he was sometimes regardless
of himself.

366 Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzhein.

When he found a child whose head or whose conversation indica-
ted an extraordinary mind, he would find out the parents and warn
them of the danger of exciting too much the mental faculties, and
of the importance of attending to the moral and physical education
of their child. In his visits to the schools in Boston he denounced
emulation and mere authority as motives of action, but delighted
when benevolence and a sense of ney were made the motives of
action.

He was anxious not to give rroubleae prevent future sufferings
in others, and was to the last, grateful for every kind service render-
ed him.

In education he was anxious that the moral and physical cultiva-
tion of the pupil should not be sacrificed to the intellectual, and he
thought many of our establishments for education deficient in these
respects. In his choice of duties, Dr. Follen remarks that he * al-
ways chose for himself in preference, the performance of that duty
which required the greatest effort and self-denial ;” and he adds,
what it gives us much pain to learn, “ that his anxious desire to ful-
fil his engagements in Boston and in Cambridge, was the chief cause
of his death. Although oppressed by indisposition and. contrary to
the entreaties of his medical friends, he continued to lecture; and
once in his last sickness, he started up with the intention to dress
himself to go to Cambridge.” At the close of each lecture, he listen-
ed patiently to every inquirer, however humble, and never turned him
by, to attend to the great, who were waiting. i

He never suffered poverty to exclude any one from his lectures,
and when his friends were his almoners in the distribution of free
tickets, he wished never to be informed to whom they were given. «

His love of truth was supreme; he wished no one to believe any
thing on his authority but simply from conviction, after due exami-
nation. He was unwilling that phrenology should become an instru-
ment of soothsaying and quackery, and he always refused to desig-
nate the characters of living individuals by the application of the rules .
of his science.

He did not believe, with Dr. Gall, that thst was an organ for
theft and one for murder, which he thought inconsistent with the be-
nevolence of God.

“ All his writings and lectures (says Dr. Follen,) were marked by
the decidedly religious tendency of his mind. He firmly believed
in the essential truths of natural and revealed religion. He adopted

Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzheun. 367

christianity as a divine system, chiefly on the ground of its great in-
ternal evidence, its perfect adaptation to human nature, and the spirit
of truth and divine philanthropy which gives life to all its precepts.
All morality, he thought, was contained in two precepts—‘ Thou shalt
love the Lord thy God and thy neighbor as thyself.’ All prayers,
he thought were comprised in this one—‘ Father, thy will be done.’”

“The great aim of all his inquiries was to search out the will of
God in the creation of man. Obedience to his laws he considered
as the highest wisdom and the most expansive freedom,” included in
the short sentence ‘Thy will be done.’ ‘ We look to him perhaps,”
he would say, ‘amid great trials and on great occasions; but not
smaller things. Wesay ‘they are too little.’ It is this, in which
we err. Can any thing that concerns his children be too little for
a Father 2”

“Religion he thought, must be the result of the freest and most
exalted use of our reason;” we presume, however, in accordance
with revelation, for one of his friends writes to him from Paris, as
one “ well acquainted with Holy Writ.” .

In Boston, his time was spent principally in preparing and deliver-
ing his lectures, and in visiting all kinds of public institutions, and he
evinced the deepest interest in education, reformation of morals and
and prevention of vice.

He thought favorably of our American institutions ; he considered
it as a great happiness that wealth is not here, long, hereditary, and
that men have, in this country, to make their own way.

He thought, however, that we were in danger from self love and
ambition, and that if feelings of veneration and respect were not cul-
tivated in the young we should, by and by, have fighting.

To the compiler of this notice he said, with reference to the per-
manency of our institutions, when it was stated that, as they had
lasted two hundred years, it was hoped they might be permanent.
‘““'True—but, as yet, you have room enough and bread enough, but
how will it be when your population becomes so dense that man
touches man, and there is no more room nor place; how will it be
then? I give you, added he witha smile, five hundred years for your
experiment ; if your institutions stand five hundred years, they may
perhaps be permanent.”

Dr. Spurzheim fell a victim to his great intelleetual labors and to
undue exposure, by night rides, to Boston after his lectures at Cam-
bridge. During his lectures, his mental and physical exertions were

368 Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzheim.

so great, that large drops rolled from his face, while his delivery was,
at the same time, ‘‘ easy, calm, systematic and even sportive.” “At
one of his last lectures in Boston, (the beautiful one on charity and
mutual forbearance) he was seized with shivering, which proved the
commencement of a fever; but, against the wishes of his friends,
he continued to lecture, thinking that it would assist him to throw off
his indisposition. Owing to the constantly increasing number of his
hearers, he exchanged the lecture room in the Atheneum for the
large hall in the Temple. He had finished his course except one
lecture, and before he left the hall he asked “ In what place shall we
meet next time?”

Alas! it was not to be in this world!

He returned to his lodgings and never left them again. During
his sickness, every professional and friendly assiduity was shown
him, for which, while his faculties were his own, he was very grate-
ful; but he relied more on nature than on medicine, and frequently
refused to take the remedies prescribed.

Through his sickness, however, he was patient and submissive, and
distinctly announced his own views of his case in the emphatical
words “I must die;” when his friend replied—lI hope not—he added
“Oh yes, I must die; I wish to live as long as I can, for the good
of the science; but I am not afraid of death.”

His feelings were affected even to weeping by letters from his
friends in Paris,* received a day or two before his death. An in-
creasing delirium ended in stupor, from which he was occasionally
roused, especially when addressed by a friend in his native tongue.

With his hands folded upon his breast, and an uplifted countenance,
he died without a groan, on the night of the 11th of November ; and
although he breathed his last in a land of strangers, he was surround-
ed by affectionate friends, and by able physicians, emulous of doing
something to rescue him from death, or to smooth his downward
passage to the grave. He was in the 56th year of his age.

Artists were eager to copy the outlines of his “ noble and benign
countenance ;” the most eminent men met to arrange the solemnities
of his funeral, which was honored by a public religious service in the
ancient and venerable South Church ; his body, after being examin-
ed, was embalmed and placed in the receiving tomb of Mount Au-

*The public prints mention his having then received a letter from an affectionate
sister.

Si

Obituary Notice of Dr. Gaspar Spurzheim. 369

burn,* that if desired, it might be at the disposition of his friends in
Europe ; a secure and proper disposition of his papers, specimens,
and effects, was made, in the hands of responsible men; a solemn
and pathetic ode was composed for the occasion. of his funeral; the |
medical association met and passed appropriate resolutions to honor
his memory, and no circumstance was omitted which could gratify
the living or honor the dead.

Dr. Spurzheim’s temperance and abstemiousness were very. re-
markable. ‘ We have seen him, (says Dr. Follen,) sitting down to
sumptuous meals provided in honor of him, and have seen him fast-
ing for the want of food adapted to his simple taste.” The same
fact was conspicuous at New-Haven ; at evening, a tumbler of milk
and a cracker, or a piece of the simplest cake, satisfied the demands
of his athletic and commanding frame, and left his fine intellect with-
out a cloud.

In his last sickness he appears to have relied too confidently upon
the strength of his constitution, and the simplicity of his habits of
living, which led him to neglect the use of medicine; his vigorous
intellect sunk under the exertion of its own intense energy, and his
physical powers were broken down by his mind; as was happily said
by another, the sword eat up the scabbard. Such a catastrophe should
prove a warning to all ardent, intellectual men, who, when impelled
by great motives, are in peculiar danger of prostrating their faculties,
and of coming prematurely to the grave.

Dr. Spurzheim was in New-Haven during the week of the annual
commencement. He was much interested in the public exercises,
the whole of which he attended, and it was easy to read in his ex-
pressive features the impressions made upon his mind by the differ-
ent speakers; it was obvious that he understood every thing that he
heard. In the evening of the commencement day he attended the
annual meeting of the society of the Alumni, and listened attentively
to their discussions.

He dissected the brain of a child that had died of hydrocephalus,
and gave great satisfaction to the medical gentlemen present by the
unexampled skill and the perfectly novel manner in which he per-
formed the dissection. At Hartford he was deeply interested in the
fine Institutions in that city, particularly in the Asylum for the deaf
and dumb, and in the retreat for the insane.

*The Pére la Chaise of Boston.
Vou. XXIII—No 2. 47

370 — — Miscellanies.

Had he lived to perform his purposed tour of two years in this coun-
try, and to give lectures in its principal cities, there can be no doubt
that he would have produced a powerful impulse in favor of moral
and physical education, which, whether his views of phrenology had
gained ground or not, would hardly have failed to be very servicea-
ble. Except detached notices of his lectures published in the for-
eign journals, we have not read his writings, and therefore do not
pretend to give any opinion of them. ‘The most important are now
in a course of republication at Boston, and will, doubtless, be exten-

sively read. . ~

MISCELLANIES.
FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC.

Extracted and translated by Prof. Griscom.
NECROLOGY.

1. Within the first six months of the year 1832, the following
distinguished individuals have paid the debt of nature.
England.
George Crabbe, one of the best poets of the age, aged 63.
Andrew Bell, D. D., well known as the founder of the system of
instruction pursued in the national schools of England. Born in 1753,
at St. Andrews. His remains were deposited in Westminster Abbey.
Str James Mackintosh, a distinguished jurist and writer, aged 62.
Jeremy Bentham, a noted philanthropist, and civilian, aged 85.
Sweden.
I’. Orme, a celebrated writer. Destroyed himself by charcoal—
attributed to domestic grief.
: Switzerland.
C. De Bonstetten, a metaphysician and politician, aged 86.
NVaeff, founder of a school for the deaf and dumb at Yverdun.
Italy.
Camille Borghése, brother-in-law to Napoleon. sh
Abbé Angelo Cesaris, first Astronomer of the observatory of Mi-
lan; editor of the Ephemerides Astronomiques de Milan.

JMiscellanies. 371

France.

Baron Boissel de Monville, anthor of Geodesical works, and a work
on Philosophy in 1824, under the title of Peut-étre, aged 68.

Baron George Cuvier, perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sci-
ences; a distinguished naturalist, aged 63.

George Simon Serullas, a celebrated Chemist, aged 58. Seiz-
ed with Cholera, on returning from the obsequies of Cuvier. He
had been just elected to the chair of Chemistry in the Garden of
Plants, vacant by the death of M. Laugier. The vacancy again pro-
duced by his death, was filled on the 6th of August, by the election
of M. Dumas.

Christian, ex-director of the Conservatory of Arts and

Trades.
Auguste Duvau, a distachished botanist, aged 61.
Evariste Gallows, professor of Mathematics.
Doctor Leroux, dean of the Medical Faculty of Paris, aged 83.
Alberic Deville, professor of Natural History ; author of Fables
in poetry.

Meyranx, professor of Natural History ; author of various
useful works.
Jean Francois Champollion, celebrated in Egyptian Antiquities,
aged 42.
Abel Remusat, a celebrated orientalist.
Guillaume-Louis-Julien Carré, author of a learned work on me
Civil Code, aged 55.—Rev. Encyc.

2. Sketches of the lives of Louis Simonp and Cuaries-VictTor
Bonstetren, by M. DeCandolle.—In an anniversary discourse, de-
livered by M. DeCandolle, as Rector of the Academy of Geneva, are
the following notices of the lives of two literary men of that city, one
of whom was for several years well known as a man of letters, and a
distinguished merchant in the United States.

Extract.—After having spoken of our progress, I must also speak
of our losses, and in doing this I enter upon the most painful part of
the task imposed upon me. ‘The year which has just elapsed, will
long be distinguished in Europe, by mournful characters on account
of the number of distinguished men who have finished their course
within its narrow limits. Champollion, Cassini, Cuvier, Abel-Remu-
sat, Gdethe, Mackintosh, Bentham, &c. and although we have thus far
enjoyed the favored privilege of an exemption from the scourge

372: Miscellantes.

which has desolated so many countries, we have nevertheless, occa-
sion to lament over the losses we have sustained. __

Our regrets ought not to be restricted to those whom we chance
of birth had placed within the limited verge of our Canton. From
the earliest period of the republic, Geneva has afforded a hospitable
asylum to all the friends of letters and science, who have desired to
avail themselves of it. She has given a fraternal welcome to all those
whose feelings have sympathized with her own; all those whose tal-
ents have gained the public approbation; she has been indebted to
this reception of learned strangers for a portion of our literary lustre.
The present age is conforming to the habits of the past, and is at-
taining from them analogous results : among those whom the public
sentiment places in the most elevated ranks, are men born in foreign
countries, and adopted by our laws and our society. Two of the
most honorable have been removed from us during the present year,
and I should fail in the duties which the academy has assigned me, if
the names of Simond and Bonstetten were not found in the mortuary
scroll which I am obliged to enrol before you.

Louis Simond was born in Lyons, in 1767; his father was a mer-
chant, and having destined his son to the same pursuit, he gave him
an education strictly conformable to his views, and placed him at an
early age in a counting-room. At the approach of the revolution,
Simond, then about 21, set out for the United States, and soon be-
came one of the most considerable merchants of the city of New-
York. He travelled extensively through different States of the Un-
ion, and published fragments of his observations in the Bibliothéque
Universelle. He acquired a handsome fortune, a portion of which
he lost in consequence of his benevolent efforts in favor of his fellow-
countrymen:: His house was a rendezvous of the most distinguished
Frenchmen, who were compelled to expatriate themselves on account
of the troubles of their country. In their conversation, Simond was
strengthened in his taste for letters and useful knowledge, and at the
the age of 35 he undertook the difficult task of revising his educa-
tion. He made judicious extracts from all his readings, and took
pleasure in combating the negligence of his early instruction. A
character firm and persevering, and a sincere love of truth, qualified
him for the vanquishment of.every obstacle. In 1809, he made a
voyage to England, and wrote to his brother-in-law in America,* a

* Charles Wilkes, Esq., of New York.

Miscellunies. — 373

regular account of his observations in that country. After an abode
of two years, his nephew,* the celebrated Jeffrey, editor of the Ed-
inburgh Review, induced him to publish a collection of his letters,
and this gave rise to his Travels in England, two editions of which,
are ample evidence of its success, and served to place the author,
almost without his knowledge, in the career of literature. In 1816,
he returned to the continent, and left Paris on a journey to Switzer-
land and Italy. He remained for some time among us, and bestowed
a particular notice on our Canton in his Travels in Switzerland, the
suceess of which is also demonstrated by two editions: he afterwards
published his account of Italy. In 1820, on his return to Paris, he
wrote for the Edinburgh Review, and for the Journal des Debats,
several articles on political economy, which indicated an original and
independent mind. He had there the misfortune to lose his wife, a
lady of rare merit, a circumstance which severed his attachments to
the United States. He then decided upon retiring to Geneva, which
he stated to be a country the most worthy of liberty, and the hap-
piest that he had seen. He here married one of our countrywomen,
and became a citizen of our Canton. A short time after he was, by
numerous suffrages, called to the representative council, and in 1823,
he was appointed Mayor of the Commune of Versoix : his efforts in
favor of primary education in this commune, not less than his nu-
merous benefactions, justly claimed for him the gratitude of the in-
habitants, and have hada happy influence in ameliorating the condi-
tion of the schools of the Canton. He was engaged in a work upon
the penitentiary system, when a sudden death removed him from a
family which adored him, and from his newly adopted fellow citizens,
whose esteem and affection he had thoroughly secured.. Under a
taciturn and morose exterior, he bore a serene mind, and a warm
heart. He always disdained the mere show of sentiment as a sub-
stitute for sense and intelligence. Naturally inclined to look upon
the dark rather than the bright side of things, and an enemy of all
enthusiasm, he rectified, by his enlightened love of justice and hu-
manity, the austerity which such a temperament might otherwise have
produced. Having been his own instructor, he acquired the habit
of judging for himself, without being controlled by the opinion of
others ; but the moderation of his sentiments softened the authorita-
tive influence of this independence. His opinions could not always

* By marriage.

374 Miscellanies.

be adopted, but his language uniformly spoke the convictions of his
‘mind, and his regard for the public welfare. He was a truly good
man, a practical philosopher, a grave and striking example, which
reminds us of the virtues of antiquity, and commanded our respect.

If, without departing from the ranks of the most honorable philan-
thropy, I had wished to seek for an example of the most striking
contrast to Mr. Simonp, I should have found it in the person of his
friend and my own, Cuarues Victor pe Bonsterren, of whom it
remains for me to speak. He sprang from one of the most illustri-
ous families of Switzerland, and was born on the 3d of September,
1745, in the highest of the patrician ranks. His father, treasurer of
the State of Bern, and a distinguished magistrate, early perceiving
the promising dispositions of his son, watched carefully over his pri-
mary education, and then sent him to our city for the completion: of
his studies. It was thus that Bonstetten became initiated into our
society. He was intimately attached to Charles Bonnet, who always
designated him in his correspondence with Haller, by the name of
Telemachus. He acquired in the conversation of this able and be-
nevolent Mentor, a strong taste for psychology, which afterwards laid
the foundation of some of his works. .

It may be doubted whether a direction so opposite to the natural
disposition of Bonstetten, contributed to his success. Endowed with
an imagination, lively, active and quite poetical, with a heart acces-
sible to all the feelings of benevolence, love and friendship, he found
himself, by his taste for metaphysics, and by the nature of the servi-_
ces in which he engaged, drawn into a field of labor, but little in
harmony with his native feelings. He travelled, while young, into
various countries, and formed connections with distinguished men,
among whom he loved to name the poet Gray. On his return to
Bern, he engaged in the administration, and filled the station of bai-
liff, at Gessenay and Nyon, magistrate of the Italian bailliages, and
member of the Bernese council of public instruction. He brought
into these stations a lively concern for questions of general interest,
but little taste for the minute details with which the duties of admin-
istration are so often embarrassed, especially in a republic. His ar-
dent love of justice and humanity, his amiable disposition, the grace-
fulness of his manners and conversation, easily obtained for him, in
all good minds, a pardon for his frequent fits of absence, his disre-
gard for the superannuated forms of etiquette, and even for the gaiety

Miscellanies. 375

and carelessness which were so unusual a concomitant of these grave
duties. His abode at Gessenay, gave rise to a description of that
picturesque country ; his sojourn at Nyon is impressed on the mem-
ory of the present generation, by the numerous services which he
rendered to the persecuted of all countries, and all opinions.

After the fall of the ancient government of Bern, De Bonstetten,
restored to liberty, renewed his travels for the purpose of enlightened
observation. He passed through Italy, and especially the province
of Latium, which he traversed with his Virgil in his hand, and of
which he published a lively and original description. He went after-
wards to Denmark, and the physical and moral contrast of these two
countries was so impressed on his mind, as to give rise to a charm-
ing work, L’ Homme du nord et Phomme du midi, and to another less
known, entitled La Scandinavie et les Alpes. In the first, he com-
pares the north and the south, especially -in their moral relations ; in
the second, the worth of Europe and Switzerland, chiefly in their
physical characters. The tendency of his mind naturally gave to
the first of these essays, a decided superiority. At the conclusion
of a journey in France, he published his Pensées sur divers objets de
bien publique. It displays that enlightened love of prudent liberty, and
that amiable philanthropy which directed his whole life. On_his
return from these several journeys, he took up his abode within our
walls, whither he was drawn, as well by the recollections of his youth,
as by the great number of distinguished friends whom he found there,
gathered at that time around Mad. de Staél, Pictet, and many
others, whom we shall always regret. It was in this retreat, embel-
lished by friendship and the conversation of enlightened men, that
he wrote the works above mentioned, and his two great philosophical
treatises on the laws of the imagination, and on the nature of man. In
rendering the justice due to the real merit of these works, we, nev-
ertheless feel, in reading them, that the author does not shine in his
native brilliancy. ‘The grace and the freedom of his style disappear
in this too didactic species of writing. - His genuine triumph was in
the epistolary style. He was intimately connected in his youth with
the celebrated historian Miller, and there remains a collection of
their letters replete with judicious and striking observations. Con-
nected at a later period by a tender friendship with the German poet,
Matthisson, and with Mad. Frederique Braun, a woman of- wit and
learning, his correspondence with these two distinguished persons, is
also preserved, and it is in them that we discover the flexibility of his

376 Miscellanies.

style, and the amiable diversity of his reflections. At a still later
period, even when we were about to lose him, at the age of 86, he
wrote, under the title of Souvenirs, a small work remarkably charac-
terised by the same juvenile qualities. A few days after its publica-
tion, he was struck with apoplexy, which during ten days kept him,
as it were, suspended between life and death ;—deprived of the
power of speech, but not of sensibility, or of reason, he exhibited the
most afflictive spectacle which a family and friend can be called up-
on to. support. His death, which happened on the 3d of February
last, seemed to be, in consequence of their profound attachments,
like a deliverance through the favor of heaven. enscand

De Bonstetten furnishes, in his intellectual developments, remark-
able contrasts. Born in a privileged class, he manifested, while
young, the love of equality, and of a wise liberty. Born on the bor-
ders of the two languages, and consequently in a country in which
neither the one nor the other is spoken with great purity, he raised
himself into the rank of good writers, both in French and German,
and in the latter, particularly, he shines by the grace and rapidity of
his style.

The pupil of a profound metaphysician, allied in friendship to men
devoted to the most serious studies, he glitters in all the charms of a
poetic imagination. ‘The greatest point which he gained by his phi-
losophic studies, was the habit of watching over himself. No one
better understood the art of happiness, even in the extremity of age.
He preserved to the last the most engaging dispositions of youth.
He watched, with animation the advancement of civilization, as if he
had a long time for its enjoyment: his affectionate feelings sought with
avidity new attachments, but never abandoned old ones, and proved,
as he himself observed, that one may be easy without being unfaith-
ful. His house was ever open to strangers of distinction, and his
active benevolence contributed to render their stay among us agree-
able. Nothing can ever restore to us that sustained beneficence,
that touching simplicity and cheerfulness of old age, that poetry of
an imagination always fresh and exuberant, that urbanity of the
eighteenth century, seasoned by the philosophy of the nineteenth.

Thus, the men whom we are accustomed to love, to esteem, and to
admire, are disappearing from amongst us. What can console us for
so many successive privations? We who have been, also, for some
time on the stage of action, we are drawing toward the conclusion
of our parts. What we have been enabled to accomplish for the

Miscellanies. 377

honor and welfare of our country is drawing to its consummation. It
is upon our youthful colleagues, among whom I delight to behold so
many promising hopes, that this care must devolve. They, even in
their adolescence, must prepare to act their parts with honor to them-
selves. May the youth who hear me never remain satisfied with a
barren admiration of those who have gone before them, but may
those who feel within them some sparks of the sacred fire labor faith-
fully to restore it to us. May they remember that the literary and
scientific lustre of Geneva has been one of the principal points in
the interests of Europe, and consequently of our independence.
Young men, you have enjoyed in the improved state of our in-
stitutions, immense facilities for your education. May they be fruit-
ful in your hands! your predecessors have had but one sad advantage
over you, that of having labored in times of trouble, which com-
pelled them, perhaps, to draw upon themselves for all that their
strength was able to afford them, Fatal advantage which I am far
from wishing you to enjoy, and the return of which must be depre-
cated by every friend of his country. But suffer not yourselves to
be enervated by your happy condition; learn to preserve the activi-
ty of your minds, in the midst of a life, as 1 hope, exempt from
storms; learn to pursue a course conformable to your talents and
to pursue it with energy. Learn to resist the seductions with which
our public and domestic habits fritter into rags the time of the most
active ; learn that there can be no possible success without great la-
bor and a most willing patience; learn to withdraw from the seduc-
tive allurements of a life of pleasure, visit foreign countries, not
passing through them in a hasty manner, but by studying their civil
polity, bring back to us every thing that is really useful; bring back
also hearts more truly Genevese, by a more enlightened sense of the
liberty and happiness we enjoy. Do your best to preserve to us now
and forever, that sage liberty, the friend of order, of justice, and
of peace, which we now enjoy, and without which all improvements
become hazardous and problematical. Young people, the country
has its eyes upon you and you will not disappoint its expectations.—

Bib. Univ. Mai, 1832.

CHEMISTRY.

1. Combinations of carburetted hydrogen.—Note by M. Dumas.
—I published, some years since, a work on Ethers conjointly with M.
Boullay, the principal object of which was to show that bi-carbonated

Vou. XXII.—No. 2. 48

378 Miscellanies.

hydrogen may be considered as a base capable of uniting with water
and acids. These results have met with some objections, not in re-
lation to the facts themselves, but with respect to the general theory
which serves to group them. I now furnish a new example in con-
firmation and extension of the laws then deduced.

There exists in artificial camphor a new carbonated hydrogen dis-
covered by M. Oppermann. One volume of this body which I de-
signate by the name of camphogene, includes ten volumes of carbon,
and eight volumes of hydrogen.

One volume of camphogene and half a volume of aqueous vapor
produce essence of turpentine, a combination which in this respect re-
sembles sulphuric ether.

One volume of camphogene and one volume of hydrochloric acid
produce artificial-camphor, a composition which thereby resembles
hydrochloric ether.

Camphogene may be combined in various proportions with oxygen.

One volume of camphogene, united with half a volume of oxygen
constitutes ordinary camphor, a combination analogous to the pro-
toxide of azote with respect to the mode of union of their elements.

Common camphor is a base.

One volume of common camphor and one volume of hydrochloric
acid form a neutral hydrochlorate of camphor.

Four volumes of common camphor and a proportion of nitric acid,
constitute the oil of camphor of the old chemists, the bibasic and an-
hydrous nitrate of camphor.

Sulphuric acid agitated with camphor forms more complicated pro-
ducts. Chlorine exerts a strong action on camphor, but I have not
been able to develop the nature of the products.

Two volumes of camphogene and five volumes of oxygen pro-
duce camphoric acid.

The form of these determinations would be somewhat changed if
the analyses of MM. Liebig and Oppermann should be preferred to
my own results. In researches of so delicate a nature, it is difficult
to decide. The body which I name camphogene would be formed,
according to their analyses, of twelve volumes of carbon and nine
volumes of hydrogen. In this case, cholesterine would be a hydrate
of that body, the capric and caproic acids would be combinations
analogous to the deutoxide of azote and to nitrous acid. If] am not
mistaken, these bodies will belong on the contrary to a new series
analogous to that of camphogene.

Miscellanies. (379

- These determinations suffice to show that the time is not far dis-
tant when the greater proportion of organic substances will be me-
thodically classed conformably to the same bases as mineral chemis-
try.— Ann. de Phys. et de Chimie, Decem., 1831.

2. Separation of the protoxide from the oxide of Iron; by M.
Liezie.—In certain applications, this mode of separation becomes
important. Cotton printers make use of pyrolignite of iron to obtain
every various effects in coloration, and it is a problem of some con-
sequence to them, to know exactly, before they employ this salt of
iron, the quantity of oxide it may contain, in order to produce with
certainty, a uniform tint.

This knowledge may easily be gained by means of magnesia.—
Take two quantities exactly equal of pyrolignite of iron—oxidize
one of them by adding to it water charged with chlorine, or by boil-
ing it with nitric acid—precipitate by ammonia, and thus determine
the entire weight of iron in the solution. ‘Take the other equal part
and boil it with magnesia, then filter it; the protoxide of iron is af-
terwards changed to red oxide by means of an aqueous solution of
chlorine, and precipitated by ammonia after adding a certain. .quan-
tity of sal ammoniac to prevent the precipitation of the magnesia.

The relation of the weights of these two precipitates, after deduct-
ing the second from the first, will express, with sufficient exactness,
the relation of the oxide to the protoxide.—Idem, Nov. 1831.

3. Narceine, a new substance discovered in Opium.—M. PEuiE-
TIER, in endeavoring to obtain from one and the same portion of opium,
all the proximate principles which it contains, was led from the mod-
ification which he adopted, to the discovery of a- new mee
principle which he has called narceine.

This substance is distinguished by the following characters: crys-
tallizes in needles which are prisms with four very slender faces, so-
Juble in alcoho! and water, insoluble in ether, taste bitter and styptic,
not volatile, melts at 92° cent. Its principal distinctive character
consists in the beautiful blue color which it assumes in combining
with acids ata certain degree of concentration ; its combinations with
acid are of the nature of salts. ‘The base can be withdrawn unal-
tered.

The proximate principles, separated i in succession by M. Pellener,
from opium, are twelve in number, viz., morphine, narcotine, meco-

380 Miscellanies.

nine, narceine, meconic acid, brown acid, an acid fatty matter, resin,
caoutchouc, gum, bassorine, and ligneux.. The narceine is the only
one entirely new.

Agreeably to Pelletier, of the twelve substances of which opium is
composed, four are electro-positive, (that is act as bases,) morphine,
narcotine, meconine, and narceine; four are electro-negative, (that
is act as acids,) meconic acid, brown acid, fatty acid, and resin 5 and
four are chemically indifferent ; caoutchouc, gum, bassorine and lig-
neux. The active properties of opium appear to reside in the elec-
tro-positive substances. Experiment, however, has not yet confirmed
this fact, in relation to narceine.*—Rev. Encyc. Juillet, 1832.

4. Meconine.—The chemical history of this substance was read
by M. Coverss, the discoverer, to the French Academy, on the
20th of August, 1832.

It was discovered in 1830, by M. Covrrse, and about the same
time perceived and imperfectly described by M. Dublanc. The
process followed, and described in details, by the former, is, in sub- _
‘stance, the following. An aqueous solution of opium is filtered,
evaporated, and precipitated by dilute ammonia—the mass formed
in the ammoniacal fluid after a repose of fifteen or twenty days, is dis-
solved in boiling alcohol, and crystallised—these crystals are purified
by solution in boiling water, and by animal charcoal—the crystals,
which are again formed; are treated with boiling ether, which dis-
solves only the meconine, which is allowed to crystallize. Meco-
nine is white, crystallizes in six sided prisms, two sides of which are
larger than the others, terminated by a dihedral summit—without
smell—its taste, at first insensible, afterwards becomes acrid—at 90°
cent. it liquefies—melts completely at 90.50°, and remains fluid at
75°—at 155° it vaporises, and may be distilled unchanged—in cool-
ing it becomes a white mass—soluble in 265% parts of cold water,
and in 18.55 parts of hot water—more soluble in alcohol and ether,
and crystallizes from all these solutions. Heated with water it opa-
lises, the crystals become deformed, rise to the surface in flocculi,
then assume an oily appearance, and at length disappear ; dissolved
in water, itis precipitated by sub-acetate, but not by neutral acetate
of lead; it dissolves in most of the alkalies from which it is precipi-
*

a
——

* A very favorable report on Pelletier’s memoir on Opium, was made to the Acade-
my of sciences, by Chevreul and Gay Lussac.

MMiscellanies. 381

tated by carbonate of ammonia; several of the acids dissolve it
without combination, for example, hydrochloric and acetic acids—
others change its nature, especially sulphuric and nitric.
The composition of meconine, deduced from four analyses, is
Atoms. . By calculation. |§ Weight of Atom.

Carbon, 60.247 9 60.234
Hydrogen, - 4,756 9 4.742 +. 1142.102
Oxygen, 34.997 4 35.023

Rev. Encyc. Aout, 1832.

5. Effects of the thermo-multiplicator.—This instrument was in-
vented by M. Nosrx1, (vide Am. Jour., Vol. xxt1. p. 370,) and con-
sists of a thermo-electric pile, united toa galvanometer. M. Macep.
Me ttont has rendered it more sensible and more applicable to radi-
ant heat by several improvements suggested by the inventor himself.
Ina letter to Mr. P. Prevost, M. MeLtoni enumerates some interest-
ing effects exhibited by this instrument.

Calorific rays proceeding from iron heated toa dull or to a cherry
red, are completely stopped by a stratum of water of two or three
millimetres in thickness. It is the same with heat from the flame of
alcohol or sulphur. When the heat of the iron surpasses the above,
some rays begin to pass through, and the quantity increases to white
heat, conformably to the law which Larocue found for glass. ‘The
quantity of heat transmitted varies also when issuing from the flames
of oil, tallow, wax, wood, resin. ‘The greatest effect seems to be
produced by an argand lamp, and by the solar rays.

A singular result is the following, which clearly proves the exist-
ence of two very distinct qualities in calorific rays. A thermometer
is placed on the front surface of a layer of water, and a thermo-mul-
tiplicator, behind the same layer. An iron ball at a dull red heat is
brought near—the thermometer rises from 60 to 90°, and the ther-
mo-multiplicator remains unmoved. A double argand lamp is then
placed at the distance of a few feet: the thermometer does not move
while the thermo-multiplicator shows a deviation of 36°.

The rays from the former source, although endowed with great
energy, are wanting in that quality which those from the latter source
possess—the property of passing through water.

A slight degree of transparency seems necessary to render a body
permeable to radiant caloric, and yet the calorific permeability of dif-
ferent media is far from being proportional to their transparency.—

382 Miscellanies.

The [bi] chloride of sulphur, for example, a very deep red-brown fluid,
the fat and essential oils ; and many saline solutions strongly colored -
are much mere diathermous than acids, ether, alkalies, and water.
The chloride and carbonate of sulphur offer the easiest passage ;
water, of all the substances subjected to experiment, is that which re-
sists the most. ‘The order of permeability does not change with the
degree of heat in the radiating focus, but the differences of permea-
bility are lessened in proportion to the elevation of the heat of the
focus. The writer affirms, as he says with certainty, that the greater ~
the refractive power of a substance, the more easily does radiant cal-
oric find a passage through it.

These experiments of Melloni are in confirmation and extension
of results obtained by P. Prevost, and pulsed by him in 1811.—
Bib. Univ. Avril, 1832.

6. Oxvjecnuted Water—M. Thénard announces, that having
been consulted by physicians, relative to the mode of preparing in an
easy manner, the oxygenated water which is supposed to be _ useful
in the symptoms of cholera asphyxia, he has modified the common
process so as to render it very simple. It is only necessary to add
to the hydrochloric acid used in dissolving the peroxide of barium, a
small quantity of phosphoric acid. This acid seizes the oxide of
manganese, and other metallic oxides which may exist in the solution,
and hinders them from decomposing the binoxide of hydrogen.

When the liquor is saturated and prepared in the ordinary way, it
is sufficient to add a convenient quantity of sulphate of silver, or even
an excess of sulphate of protoxide of mercury, to agitate awhile and
filter.—Rev. Encyc. Avril, 1832.

7. Two chlorides of sulphur.—Thénard and Gay Lussac, made a
very favorable report, (June 11,) on the’ memoir of Dumas on this
subject.

Chemists have hitherto recognized but one combination of sulphur
with chlorine, although the compounds of these elements present them-
selves under different aspects, some red and some yellow. M. Rose
indeed suspected that the red owed its color to an excess of chlorine,
but his hypothesis was supported by no fact. Dumas conceived that
the two kinds were distinct compounds, and to be certain of it, he
subjected them to a rigorous analysis, having obtained both the red.
and the yellow chloride of a high degree of purity. He has accord-
ingly proved that the yellow kind is a protochloride, composed of

Miscellanies. 383

one atom of sulphur, and one atom of chlorine, and that the red is a
bichloride, formed of one atom of sulphur and two atoms of chlorine.
—Rev. Encye. Juin, 1832.

8. Density of the vapor of sulphur and of phosphorus.—The re-
searches of Dumas on these points, have also obtained the approba-
tion of the same distinguished chemists.

To determine the density of the vapor of sulphur, chemists had
resorted to the known analogy of this substance with oxygen. Thus
the vapor of water is formed of one volume of hydrogen, and half a
volume of oxygen, whence it was concluded that sulphuretted hydro-
gen contained in like manner, half a volume of sulphur, and one vol-
ume of hydrogen. Now the density of hydrogen being 1.1912, that
of the vapor of sulphur should be 2.24.* Such was, in fact, the num-
ber generally adopted. Dumas, however, in several experiments
conducted with great care, found it to be just about three times as
great, which induces him to believe that there is only one sixth of
the vapor of sulphur in sulphuretted hydrogen, as in sulphurous acid.

Phosphorus was subjected by Dumas to similar trials, and the
density of its vapor was in like manner, found to be different from
that deduced from the density and analysis of protopkosphuretted
hydrogen gas, agreeably to the supposed analogy between phospho-
rus and azote. ‘The density, by direct measurement, has been found
to be 4.32, the double of that generally accepted.—Idem.

9. Preservation of substances by means of alkalies—M. Payen
has preserved, during many months, polished instruments of iron and
steel by keeping them in solutions of potash or soda,—saturated so-
lutions. diluted with one, two or three times their weight of water.
He at first thought that the preserving power depended upon the dis-
appearance of the air and carbonic acid in the alkaline mixture,
but he afterwards concluded that alkalinity acted an essential part in
the phenomenon. In fact a very small quantity of alkali is sufficient;
—thus 5,';, and even ;,';, of caustic potash in water, will preserve
from oxidation, bars of iron, &c. immersed in it. Lime water di-
luted with its own weight of water, or of course without dilution,
answer the same purpose. Alkaline carbonates and borax have the

same effect, but they must necessarily be stronger—Rev. Encyc.
Aout, 1832.

* These numbers are different from those heretofore used, and we have not ac-
cess to the authority. Ed.

384 JMiscellanies.

10. Crucible for fusion.—Persons who wish to melt or assay steel
are not aware how easy it is to obtain, in the space of twenty min-
utes, a melted mass of one or two ounces without the least difficulty
by means of the following arrangement.

Make a hole in the bottom of a Hessian crucible Haldia two or
three quarts,—put inside of this crucible the cover of a smaller cru-
cible so that it may rest at about three fourths of the depth. Make
with a file several notches around this cover to admit the air freely,
having the knob of the cover uppermost. On this knob place a little
crucible containing the metal, which must be covered,—put some
lighted charcoal around it, and then fill up with coke (or anthracite
coal ?) so as to cover entirely the interior crucible. Connect this ap-
paratus with a blacksmith’s or other bellows and keep up a constant
blast, supplying the waste coal as it is consumed,—in the course of
the time mentioned the steel will be melted. Other minerals, even
some that are reputed infusible, will yield in like manner. ‘This sim-
ple and cheap apparatus abridges time and labor surprisingly, and
effects what with the common and costly furnaces would be impossi-
ble.—Jour. de Con. Usuelles, tom. 15, p. 143.

11. Researches relative to the azote formed in animal substances ;
by MM. Macarre and Marcer.—These judicious chemists, after
remarking upon the influence of life in the transformations of alimen-
tary materials—the importance of physiological investigations into
the causes of the distinctions between vegetable and animal matter,
and especially of well devised efforts to trace the origin of azote, or
rather the causes of its greater abundance in the animal than in the
vegetable system, proceed to remark that the fact may be accounted
for on three assumptions.

Ist. That the azote of animals is contamed in the food by which
they are nourished.

2d. That it is drawn from the atmosphere in respiration, or,

3d. ‘That animals have the property of creating it, by transform-
ing into azote other elements subjected to the action of the vital
forces.

In the course of their inquiries they had occasion to examine the
composition of chyle. As soon as extracted it was introduced into
the receiver of an air pump, placed on sand slightly warmed near a
vessel of strong sulphuric acid, and thus by prolonging the vacuum,
reduced to a Gere dry gray powder. ‘This was analyzed by
means of the black oxide of copper with the following results.

Miscellanies. 385

3 one eiie Chyle of adog. — Chyle of a horse.
Carbon, - - - = - -55.2 - - - = : 65.0 a
Oxygen, - - - - - 269 - - - - 26.8
Hydrogen, - - - -. 66 - - - - 6.7
Azote, - - - - = 110 - - - - 11.0

The horse having been fed on vegetables, and the dog on various
aliments, the result shows that the food had little or no jofiuenes on
the composition of this animalized product.

They found, however, that the excrements of the dog were more
of an animalized character than those of the horse. Being dried
with the same Peacamaons as the chyle, the results were

Excrements of the dog. Excrements of the horse.
Carbon, - - - - - 41.9 - - - = 38.6
Oxygen, - - - - - 28 - = - - 29.
Hydrogen, - - - - 59 - - - - . 6.6
Azote, - = - = 42 -2.- = - 0.8
Min. and earthy sub. - 20. - - - - 25.

Afterstating the nature and offices of the Sleds the authors remark
that in composition, they found the blood of sheep, rabbits, horses,
oxen, dogs, so nearly alike that the differences may be regarded only
as errors of experiment. ‘They then performed with the precau-
tions before stated, the analyses of arterial and of venous blood. -

Arterial and limpid blood reduced to a fine, Black venous blood reduced to
clear, red powder. _.. a brown-red powder.
Carbon, - - - 50.2 - - - - - - 55.7
Meg eG Se oa
Hydrogen, - - 66 - - - - - - 6.4
Oxygen, - - 263 - - - - - - 21.7

Ie thus appears to be proved, for the first time, by elementary anal-
-yses, what had been admitted by general hypotheses, that the pro-
portion of carbon is greater in venous than in arterial blood. But the
authors state that thf change which venous blood undergoes in color
by being gently agitated in contact with air, is not owing to its con-
version into arterial blood. It is always brownish, less limpid, and
when dried, it has the same deep red-brown tinge as dry venous
blood, and furnishes by analysis the same results. The conclusion,
therefore, is that the vital action, as well as oxygen, is necessary to
its transformation into arterial blood.

Vou. XXIII.—No. 2. 49

386 Miscellanies.

They examined the composition of fibrin, albumine, and coloring
matter derived from mammiferous animals, both herbivorous and car-
nivorous and found it identical in each variety.

In reference to the third assumption—the creation of azote by vital
action—the authors, after mentioning the experiments of Vauquelin
and Majendie, inform us that they endeavored to feed a sheep upon
sugar and gum, substances which contain no azote. The animal, al-
though vigorous at first, grew meagre under this regimen, and died
under the twentieth day of the experiment having diminished in
in weight from fifty two to thirty one pounds. Its death and impov-
erishment were fairly attributed to the absence of azote in its food.

The results of the whole investigation are thus enumerated :

1. The identity of elementary chemical composition, particularly
as it respects azote in the chyle of herbivorous and carnivorous
mammifera.

- 2. That arterial blood contains as much azote and less carbon than
venous blood. :

3. That the blood of herbivorous and carnivorous animals is of
the same composition, as well-as the various substances that are se-
creted from it.

4, That in equal weights of the two fluids perfectly dry, the blood
of mammifera, whatever the mode of nourishment, has more azote
- than the chyle.

5. That the excrements of carnivorous contain more azote than
those of herbivorous animals.

6. That herbivorous animals cannot any more than carnivorous,
be supported by food containing no azote.

7, That unless we admit that vital action may form azote, we must
conclude that that which the chyle contains proceeds from the food,
and that in both the classes of animals examined, respiration furnishes
the complement of that which is found in the blood.—Bib. Univ.
Avril, 1832. .

12. Process for silvering copper, so as to polish.—Take two parts
of silver powder, precipitated from a nitric solution by a solution of
common salt—one part of alum, and two parts of cream of tartar;
make them into a paste with a little water, and after cleaning the cop-
per thoroughly, rub this paste upon it with the finger covered with
white leather or very fine muslin; when the piece is sufficiently
whitened, polish it with a buff powdered with calcined hartshorn, or
a little Spanish white ; red copper takes the finest polish.

MMiscellanies. 387

.

For unwrought silvering, take two parts of silver (precipitated
from the nitric solution by copper leaves,) two parts cream of tartar,
two parts marine salt well pulverized. Apply this in the same way
as above described. When the piece is perfectly whitened, put it
into water containing a little potash. Agitate it well in clear water,
Without which it will tarnish and become yellow.—Jour. de Con.

Usuelles.

13. Glass syphons for transferring corroswe fluids.—M. Co.-
LARDEAU has designated the form of a glass syphon, which saves the
necessity of applying the mouth or even the finger to either end of
the tube. Dip the end a of Fig. 1. into the fluid to be tr ansferred,
and pour into the funnel or side opening 6. a quantity of the same
fluid, until it flows out of the end c. The fluid in the vessel F. G.,
then rises and continues through a dec. In this case, the branch
mn remains full, while the liquid in 6 » subsides to near the bend n.

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

*The same object is effected by the more simple form of Fig 2.,
provided the opening ¢ is closed with a finger unul the long branch
of the syphon is full,—or, the application of the finger is unnecessary
if the fluid be poured into the funnel faster than it can be discharged
through c. In that case, the long branch of the syphon will fill and
then act in the usual way.— Bull. D’Encour. Fev. 1832.

14. Carbonate of lime and its compounds ; (M. BecquerEL.)—
Calcareous carbonate is found in countries of the oldest formation,
where it often forms entire mountains. It is found disposed in beds
of a crystalline texture, sometimes saccharoidal, and sometimes more

388 Miscellanies..

or less lamellar. It forms almost the whole of secondary countries,
in which it presents a compact structure. In tertiary formations it is
also very abundant, yellowish, loose, and more or less solid. In tu-
fas, and concretions, which continue to be found on the surface of
the globe, it is not less predominant ; finally, it enters into the com-
position of a great number of organized bodies.

The variety of forms presented by carbonate of lime is immense,
but they may all be arranged in two classes. The first, whose
primitive form is a rhomboid—belonging to substances properly eall-
ed calcareous; the second, whose primitive form is a right rhomboi-
dal prism, belonging to Arragonite.

The circumstances which determine the crystallization are un-
known. All we know is that Arragonite is found in particular beds,
(volcanic or metalliferous regions,) which may influence its formation.

When these two substances are crystallized, nothing is more easy than
to distinguish one from the other by cleavage, the measurement of the
angles, and by the hardness ; but when they are not crystallized we must
have recourse to a particular process, which M. Becquerel points out,
-and by which he proves that flos-ferrz, the concretions called Tivoli
sugar-plums and tabular white marble, present the rhomboidal cleav-
age, while fistular stalactites, alabaster of montmartre, &c. present that
of Arragonite. M. Becquerel describes an apparatus by which, with
electrical forces, he crystallizes Arragonite. He obtains the form of
a quadrangular prism with two dihedral summits; it is that under
which nature presents it. ‘The same apparatus serves to form the
double crystallized carbonate of lime and magnesia, (dolomite,) the
protoxide of copper, and the blue and green carbonates of copper.
Analysis proves that the crystals of Arragonite which he has obtain-
ed, have absolutely the same composition as those of calcareous spar,
and differ from it only in crystallization.— Rev. Ency. Juillet, 1832.

GEOLOGY.

1. New cave of Bones.—An account of this cave was read by
Marcel de Serres to the French Academy on the 28th of May. It
exists in the environs of Mialet near Anduze, department du Gard.

The principal cave has been long known, having served as a re-
treat for the Camisards, who had made a kind of fortress of it, in
cases of sudden attack. It had frequently been visited by the cu-
rious, but without any suspicion, until lately, of its containing fossil
bones.

Miscellanies. 389

This cave is in a compact dolomite, about thirty five metres above
lake Gardon, which washes its base. Its opening is an arch, eight
metres high, which is prolonged in a vestibule about four metres wide.
This communicates with several galleries, the two largest of which,
situated one above the other, grow narrower as we advance. ‘The
lower one, at about fifteen metres from the vestibule, has a floor of
stalagmite, under which is found, in the midst of a bed of mud, like
that of the bed of the lake, human bones, fragments of earthen ware,
some of which are extremely coarse, and bones of ruminating ani- -
mals belonging to existing species. In some of the recesses are
found, mixed pell mell with the same remains, fragments of bones of
extinct species, but that this mud is of a recent period, is proved by
the fact, that in the same spots in which the antediluvian bones are
found, are also found human bones, which might also have been re-
garded as antediluvian but for a little bronze statue found among
them, evidently of Roman fabrication.— Rev. Encyc. Juin, 1832.

2. Prof. Hitchcock’s Report on the Geology of Massachusetts.—
The reviewer of this report, in the Rev. Encyc. Aug. 1832, observes,
that those who consider the English system of abandoning scientific
improvement and researches to individual enterprise, as the best of
all systems, and who censure the continental governments, for devo-
ting the public funds to such purposes, will probably be surprised to
see one of the states of New England, executing at its own expense,
such a work as that of Prof. Hitchcock ; and that a single glance at
this report, is sufficient to convince any one of the utility of such a
work, to the state which has undertaken it; and to regret that there
is so very small a part of the French territory, whose geological consti-
tution is as well known to the public, as is now the state of Massachu-
setts. France has the greater cause to regret her being distanced in
this race by America, from her having a corps of mining engineers,
who ?@f they had the means, would, in a very short time furnish a work
of the same kind, still more complete, of each of the departments.

The same Journal, in remarking on the Geology of Nova Scotia,
&c., by T. Jackson and F. Alger, adverts to the agreeable surprise,
which Humboldt experienced, on debarking at Cumana, on finding
in the Spanish Governor of that province, a man who was capable of
sustaining a scientific conversation; and to his observation, that the
sweet name of one’s country pronounced in a distant land, cannot give
more delight to the ear of one who has been long absent from it, than

390 Miscellanies.

did the terms oxygen and azote, spontaneously uttered on that occa-
sion. A sensation, say the reviewers, as agreeable and unexpected,
was experienced by them in reading a description, printed in another
hemisphere, of a country which they had considered to be divided
between frosts and forests, and to find the most recent and best estab-
lished principles of one of the most recent of the sciences, applied to it
with precision and discernment. May we be pardoned, say they, for
such an explosion of European self love ! How limited soever, may
have been such labors as these, on the other side of the Atlantic, our
American brethren will not be long in placing themselves in a condi-
tion to afford us the like.

ASTRONOMY AND MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

1. Biela’s Comet.—The periodical comet discovered on the 26th
of Feb. 1826, by M. Biela, of Josephstadt, which performs its rev-
olution round the sun in about six years and three quarters, and
whose return in the present year has been made the subject of elab-
orate calculations by mathematicians of the first eminence, has not
disappointed the expectations of astronomers. It is already visible
in superior telescopes, and may be expected shortly to be seen in its
approach to the sun, if not by the naked eye, at least with instruments
of moderate power. Its place this morning before sunrise, was
about one and a half degrees S. W. of 6 Auriga, and its actual course
is directed nearly towards the star of the same name in Gemini, but
its motion is rapid, and it will speedily assume a more southern di-
rection. ‘The reappearance of this comet, the second of short pe-
riod, with which we are acquainted, has been looked for with anxious
interest by astronomers, as likely to elucidate some of the most cu-
rious points in the constitution of our system, and among the won-
derful verifications of astronomical theories which observation is con-
stantly affording, it is hardly possible to imagine any more striking
than the appearance after the lapse of nearly seven years, of such
an all but imperceptible cloud or wisn of vapor, true however to its
predicted time and place, and obeying the same laws, as those which
regulate the movements of the planets.—Slough, Sept. 24, 1832.—

English Paper.

2. Observatory of Geneva.—This institution has received the val-
uable acquisition of the two large instruments which were ordered of

Miscellantes. ; 391

M. Gambey, in 1829, by the city of Geneva. They were a fortnight on
the route from Paris, and arrived in perfect order. (They have been
well adjusted, with the assistance of the maker, in the observatory ;
the transit instrument, in the principal hall of the ground floor, and
the equatorial in the eastern tower under a hemispherical cupola with
moveable roof. They are the admiration of all who have seen them,
from the the beauty of their execution, their free and easy motion,
and the security of their position.—Bib. Univ. Mar, 1832.

3. Medal for discovery of Comets.—The king of Denmark, to
whom astronomy is under numerous obligations, offers a gold medal,
of the weight of twenty ducats, to any one who shall have found the
first comet whose revolution is not yet known, and which is not visible
‘to the naked eye. ‘The discoverer must give immediate informa-
tion to the counsellor of state, Schumacher. ‘The medal will be de-
creed six months after the discovery, to give time for verification and
determination of just claims.—Jdem.

4. Maximum density of Water.—M. Stampfes, professor of the
Polytechnic Institute of Vienna, has recently published a very de-
tailed memoir on the absolute weight of water at different tempera-
tures. His results do not entirely agree with those of prior enquir-
ers. He places the maximum density at the temperature of 3°.75
Centigrade = 38°.75 Fahrenheit Annalen der Physik, Vol. xx1.
page 75. :

5. On the simultaneous motions of a pendulum and the surround-
ing air.—A memoir on this subject was read by M. Poisson to the
Academy of Sciences of Paris on the 22d of August, 1831. It
was drawn up by this great geometer in consequence of the work of
M. Bessel, on the same subject, in which this illustrious astronomer
was the first to show the inaccuracy of the common rule by which
the oscillations of a pendulum are reduced toa vacuum from those
observed in the open air. It had in fact been supposed till then,
that the loss of weight which a pendulum sustains, when plunged in
a fluid, is the same, whether the body is at rest or in motion. Ex-
perience proves the contrary, and the theory of the motion of fluids
has also led M. Poisson to demonstrate that the result ought to be
different. It is the friction of the air which occasions the successive
diminution of the amplitude of the oscillations: This diminution

392 Miscellanies.

goes on in geometrical progression, and being very slow exerts no
sensible influence on the duration of each oscillation. But the pres-
sure of the air, which does not alter the amplitude of the oscillations,
influences their duration, both because it is not the same in the sev-
eral horizontal sections, and because it changes in different parts of
the surface, in proportion to the condensation and dilatations which
accompany the motions of the air. M. Poisson obtains also, by an-
alytic theory, a result which accords in a satisfactory manner with
the direct experiments made on this subject by Captam Sabme. It
results from this that the correction relative to the reduction to a
vacuum ought to be increased one half, which gives rise to an aug-

beats seconds. This length, estimated in parts of the metre, thus be-
comes for Paris, according to the experiments of Borda, 0”.993856.
The expression of the gravity at the surface of the earth (measured
by double the space which it causes a body to pass through in a va-
cuum during the first second of its fall,) is then 9",80897; and the
mass of the earth, as La Place determines it, must be also increased

AGRICULTURE AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY.

1. On the cultivation of Beets and the manufactory of Sugar ; by M.
Girarpin.—In the year 1829-—30, nearly two hundred sugar manu-
factories in France produced fromnine to ten millions of kilogrammes
of beet sugar, and it is believed: that in 1830—1831, two hundred
and eighteen manufactories were in active operation. ‘This business
has now become accessory to farming labor, and may be usefully
combined with the work of a farm of moderate size, on which from
seventy five to one hundred thousand kilogrammes of root can be
raised. It is advisable that neighboring farmers unite in the establish-
ment of acommon manufactory, dividing the sugar and the remains of
the beet in proportion to the quantity of roots respectively furnished.

The identity of the pure sugar of beet and of cane is now chem-
ically demonstrated. There remains however, in all sugars, a slight
mixture of foreign matters, and this furnishes the means of detecting
their origin. M. Dubrunfaut points out two means of testing: Ist,
Heat nitric acid at 25° on sugar until the red vapors cease, if the
liquor then presents a white precipitate, which settles at the bottom

/Viscellanies. 393

of the flask, it may be affirmed to be beet sugar. The precipitate is
oxalate of lime, which is not found in cane sugar.

2d. To a solution of sugar in distilled water, add a few drops of
sub-acetate of lead: the foreign matters of the sugar will combine
with the lead, and they are always more abundant in beet sugar than
in thatof cane. ‘They are precipitated by a few hours rest in beet
sugar, and remain suspended in that of cane.

- Roots which grow much out of the ground, yield less good sugar
than those which are well buried. ‘Those which grow upon richly
manured land run much to leaf, but their juice is less rich in sugar
and more abundant in mucilage. A calcareous soil appears to be
the best for the cultivation of sugar beets. 'The year 1829, the au-
tumn of which was very wet, gave, contrary to expectalions. a sugar
harvest equal to common years.

The molasses of beets has been advantageously used in fodder
with cut straw.. The pulp makes a valuable manure for clayey and
close bound soils.

Some sow the seeds in beds and transplant the roots, but the
greater number of cultivators prefer sowing them in place.—ibd.
Univ. M at, 1832.

2. Relative values of different kinds of food for sheep; by M.
DeDompaste.—Some experiments performed by this celebrated
agriculturist, are well worthy of bemg recorded, as approaching
nearer to an exact determination of the question of the relative nu-
tritive properties of a few of the more common aliments of sheep and
cattle than any which we remember to have seen. He divided forty
nine sheep into seven lots, of seven sheep each, in such a manner
that the total weight of each lot should be, as nearly as possible, equal
to each of the rest. Each lot was kept in a separate division of the
stable, the food was given to each lot in rations of equal weight, and
by means of scales, the total weight of each lot was taken once a
week, and the experiment was continued five weeks. ‘The weight
_of each lot was four hundred and thirty six pounds.

The substances subjected to examination were !. Dry lucern. 2.
Oil cake from flax seed. 3. Oats and barley. 4. Crude potatoes.
5. Cooked potatoes. 6. Beets. 7. Carrots.

The dry lucern formed the unit of the estimate. One of the seven
lots was fed exclusively on dry lucern, and each of the six others
received just half the quantity of lucern, and the remainder of the

Vou. XXITI.—No. 2. 50

394 JMiscellanies.

ration consisted of such a portion of one of the other alimentary sub-
stances before mentioned-as was found sufficient by a careful weigh-
ing during the five weeks to keep each lot in the same healthy con-
dition. The following table shows the current progress of the ex-
periment; the quantity of water drunk by each lot of sheep during
the five weeks being also measured, by a guaged trough. ‘The au-
thor concludes that fifteen pounds of dry lucern may be considered
as a proper ration for one sheep per week, or rather more than two
pounds per day. The primitive weight of each lot, as before ob-
served, was four hundred and thirty six pounds.

Lots. Food. Ist week. 2d week. 3d week. 4th week. 5th week.
ist, Dry iucern, A37\ps. 433 4374 437$ 443
2d, Lucern and oil cake, 428 428 4324 4395 4444

3d, Lucern, oats and barley, 4224 4334 4294 4362 4374
4th, Lucern and crude potatoes, 441 4403 434 432% 4392
5th, Lucernand cooked potatoes, 437 4353 4474 4443 4514
6th, Lucern and Beets, 435 424 436 437 4444
7th, Lucern and carrots, 4174 407 4194 4264 4274

~The quantity of water drunk by the seven lots during the five
weeks was as follows, showing the relative degree of thirst occasion-
ed by the different aliments.

Ist lot, 223 quarts. 5th lot, 108 quarts.
Qnd lot, 189 6th lot, 95
3d lot, 164 7th lot, 36

4th lot, 123

Fifteen pounds of dry lucern being considered as a proper ration
for one sheep per week, or seven and a half pounds a half ration, he
finds that the following quantities of each of the other aliments are
equivalent in nutritive value to the half ration of lucern.
Oil cake. Barley. Oats. Crude potatoes. Cooked potatoes. Beets. Carrots.
4$lbs. 33]bs. Slbs. 14 Ibs. 13 lbs. 163 ]bs. 23 Ibs.
_ Thus taking the quantity of lucern as a standard the nutritive
powers of the different substances will be

Dry lucern, - - - 100 lbs.
Flax seed oil cake, = - - - 57
Barley, - - - - 47
Crude potatoes, - - - 187
Cooked potatoes, “ - 173
Beets, (white variety) - - - 220
Carrots, - - - - 307

Bib. Univ. Mai, 1832.

Miscellanies. 395
DOMESTIC.

1. Professor Jacob Green’s Monograph of the Trilobites of North
America, with colored models of the species.—The author, in his in-
troduction, after stating the general characters by which these fossils
may be recognized, enumerates the genera established by previous
authors, viz. five genera from Brongniart, one genus from Dr. DeKay
and three genera from Prof. Dalman. The essential characters of
all these genera are concisely given, so that those who may wish to
examine this subject, may do it without resorting to the rare and ex-
pensive works of the French and Swedish naturalists. A tenth
genus is here added by Prof. G. to include some curious foreign
trilobites. A list of all the species heretofore described is then added
and the introduction closes with some speculative remarks.

In addition to the ten genera in the introduction, five other genera
are proposed by the author, all supposed to be peculiar to North
America ; he also noticed two others suggested by Prof. Eaton.

The species described as natives of North America are thirty three
in number; twenty two of which are supposed to be now described for
the first time. ‘The work then terminates with some brief observa-
tions on the nature of the trilobites, in which there is a notice of a
recent trilobite, now in the Albany Institute. It is to be regretted
that that animal has remained so long undescribed.

The monograph is admirably illustrated by the colored models,
done in plaster by Joseph Brano, whose success in this effort, must
give full confidence that his talents can be advantageously employed
on other occasions in the service of natural history.

We are happy to see this application of the art of modelling thus
favorably introduced into this country; it must be of great utility to
' cabinets, and teachers, as well as to original investigators. Mr. Bra-
no’s models are beautifully done, and are worthy of the monograph
to which they belong.

‘Prof. Green appears to us to have executed his work with fidelity,
ability and good taste, and it cannot fail to aid in promoting our geo-
logical researches. It is worthy of being mentioned that the mon-
ograph is got up in a very neat style, and forms a very convenient,
volume, either for the desk or the pocket. ‘The minute and exact
examinations and descriptions of natural history are very important
in the discrimination of species and genera, as well as of their various
other relations. We should be very glad to see a complete set of

396 Miscellanies.

models of all the known trilobites, and we trust that the effort of Prot.
Green will meet with the encouragement it merits, and be followed
up, in Europe, until all the species shall be presented in good models.
We regret that our limits do not permit us to extract the descriptiens
of the new species. ‘The following section forms the conclusion of
the work.

“ Nature of the Trilobite—Kvery one familiar with the history
of the trilobites, is aware that a good deal of controversy has existed
among naturalists, respecting the precise link in the grand chain of
organized beings, these singular fossil animals, should occupy. Pro-
fessor Brongniart, Dr. DeKay, Audotin, and several other acute ob-
servers, have placed them in the vicinity of the Limuli, and other
Entomostraca with numerous feet; while P. A. Latreille and others,
presuming that. these animals were destitute of locomotive organs,
as no vestige of them has ever been discovered, fix their natural po-
sition in the neighborhood of: the Chitones; or rather that they con-
stituted the original stock of the Articulata, being connected on the
one hand with these latter Mollusca, and on the other with those first
mentioned, and even with the Glomeris.* It was our original inten-
tion to have closed this Monograph with a short history of these the-
ories—and of the notion advanced by Latreille and others, that the
Trilobites have been annihilated by some ancient revolution of our
planet: All these matters, we think, are now put to rest by the late
discovery of some living Trilobites in the southern seas, near the
Falkland Islands. In the cabinet of the Albany Institute, we have
examined some of these recent animals, which have very nearly the
size and general appearance of the Paradoxides Boltoni, as repre-
sented on our frontispiece ; the species cannot, however, belong to
that genus, as the buckler is furnished with eyes very similar to those
of the Calymene Bufo; its organs of locomotion are short, numerous,
and concealed under the shell—but I do not feel at liberty to notice
the interesting animal more minutely. It will probably be described
and figured shortly, in a perfectly full and satisfactory manner, by
Dr. James Eights, the enterprising discoverer, together with several
other new and remarkable genera and species belonging to the
Entomostraca.”

We had the pleasure of seeing the specimens of Dr. Eights of
what appear to be recent trilobites. If this opinion is correct, the
trilobite must be regarded a being of almost all geological ages.

“ See Cuviet’s Animal Kingdom, Vol. iii, pp. 185—6

- Pe pe ER a e.g oe mig eee
© Ln Raa cities Ute Cnet tdi dun by “an ata

by
5 Pt. 4 we. fai
mm Wed) | ms de: Y Yu. AAV BAbaeces fat A eh toes hous Are,. A Eke

Miscellanies oP che PL Bt)

We annex, from Prof. Green, a notice, just received, Dec. 26,
1832, of a new trilobite.

Alsaphus MMyrmecoides. —Corpore depresso ; costis latis, convexis,
tuberculis magnis; cauda rotunda ?

The large fragment, by means of which ils species has been
identified, is in a fine state of preservation. Thirteen costal arches
and fourteen joints of the middle lobe, with two or three faintly
marked articulations near its extremity, can be very satisfactorily
made out. ‘The costal arches are, therefore, more numerous than
the vertebral joints; an organization not very uncommon with the
Asaphs. The first eight ribs and vertebre, as seen in this fragment,
appear to have been articulated together; after which this irregular
structure commences. ‘The costal arches are rounded on their up-
per surface, without strie; broadest near their lateral extremities,
and are, most of them, irregularly nodulous; these nodules re-
semble very much the protuberances on the ribs of the Pecten no-
dosus. 'The joints of the middle lobe are also rounded and nodu-
lous, but on these the nodules are disposed in the form of two very
obtuse paralellograms. What renders this fragment peculiarly inter-
esting, is that the lower portion of the upper shell, along one of the
lateral edges near the tail, is so fractured as to present the structure
beneath the ends of the ribs which have here scaled off. .At first
sight the broad smooth edging round this part of the fossil, resem-
bles very much the membranaceous expansion beyond the lateral
lobes which is one of Professor Brongniart’ s generic characters of
the Asaph. This border indeed is very like the hem so strikingly
exhibited in the Asaphus macrurus ; but upon comparing the ribs
on the opposite side, where they are perfect, with those terminated
by the border, it will be seen that they are much longer; what there-
fore, seems to be an expansion beyond the ends of the ribs im that
place, must be occasioned by the reflection of the shell beneath the
posterior portions of the lateral lobe. ‘The inferior structure and
mechanism of this part of the fossil trilobite is thus, we believe, for
the first time developed. Ina fine group of the Dudley fossils de-
posited in the cabinet of the Geological Society of Pennsylvania, a
similar inferior reflected edge may be seen beneath the buckler of the
Asaphus Debuchi. It is not uncommon in many of the recent
Crustacea, and.is strikingly exhibited along the lower edge of the

Limulus polyphemus.

398 Miscellanies.

The Asaphus Myrmecoides was found in 2 hard ash colored carbo-
nate of lime in Genesse County, N. Y., by Mr. J. C. G. Kennedy,
and was presented by him to the Philadelphia Museum.

The perfect animal, the fossilized fragment of which is above de-
scribed, must have been at least six inches in length, which is much
longer than any Asaph we have ever seen. Indeed, it is somewhat
doubtful whether it be a true Asaph or not. Although there appears
to have been no membranaceous development extending beyond the
abdominal arches, still its depressed form, and the relative propor-
tions of the middle lobe seem to place it among the ase

2. The Herbarium of the late Zaccheus Collins of Philadelphia.
—TIn consequence of the much regretted death of Mr. Collins, his
herbarium is offered for sale by the administrator of his estate. Mr.
Collins was so well known, that it is quite unnecessary to say that he
was always esteemed an able botanist, and that, although he never
published any thing, his opinion was often consulted, by a majority
of our botanical writers. He Was an assiduous collector, and his
herbarium contains a pretty complete collection of the plants from
the vicinity of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, &c., made by his own
hands—including. cryptogamous plants, mosses, lichens, fuci, &c.
He also received large contributions from his correspondents in va-
rious parts of the United States, especially of southern plants, from
South Carolina and Georgia, which, at the present time, it is ex-
tremely difficult to procure. A complete set of the plants collected
in Arkansaw by Mr. Nuttall, together with many from the Missouri,
and an interesting collection from Labrador, are included in the her-
barium. It is probable, that no more extensive collection of the
plants of the United States, if even there is a more complete one ex-
isting, will, at this day, be offered for sale.

The specimens have been neatly prepared, are enveloped in such
a manner as to be secure from the attacks of insects, are arranged
systematically, and carefully labelled. Mr. C. also possessed a
pretty large collection of exotic plants, which is for sale with the
above.

We are happy in showing, in this manner, our respect for the
memory of Mr. Collins, by making known, the (we doubt not justly)
reputed value of this collection, to the botanical community, and
to public institutions. We are told that Mr. Collins died intestate, and
that otherwise, it is not probable that his collections would have been

Miscellanies. 399

offered for sale. His principal botanical correspondents, as we are
informed by one of his friends, (who does not however, pretend to
remember them all,) were Dr. Bigelow, of Boston; Mr. Nuttall, Dr.
Beck, of Albany ; Dr. Torrey and Mr. Eddy, of New York; Rev.
H. Steinhauer, of Bethlehem; Mr. Schweinitz, Dr. Muhlenberg,
Mr. Elliott, of Charleston; Dr. McBride, Mr. Le Conte, of Savan-
nah; Dr. Boykin, of Milledgeville; Dr. Baldwin, and Mr. Rafinesque.

If desired, a more minute description of the herbarium will be
furnished by Mr. Charles Pickering, of Philadelphia, to whose ex-
amination and judgment, this herbarium has been referred.

3. The coal beds of Pennsylvania equivalent to the great secon-
dary coal measures of Europe.

To Prof. Silliman.—At the ninety first page of the second edi-
tion of my Geological Text Book, (published last June,) I adduced
facts, in proof of the correctness of the heading of this article.
Since its publication, Mr. James Hall, adjunct professor in this in- -
stitution, has made probably, the most extensive collection of veget-
able fossils in Pennsylvania, that has hitherto been made on this con-
tinent. It was the intention of Mr. Hall and myself to have deter-
mined the names of all which had been described by M. Brongniart,
and to have given lithographic figures of the He: “But we
are prevented by other engagements.

At present, I will merely give a list of the names of those which
we determined by the aid of M. Brongniart’s figures and descrip-
tions, as far as his sixth number. I have now before me twenty three
ascertained species of ferns, from the coal mines of Pennsylvania,
which Brongniart has described, as belonging to the great secondary
coal formations of Europe, found in the secondary class of rocks
only. Hence the absurdity of denominating the Alleghany and Cats-
kill Mountains, transition. If organized remains are any evidence
of the equivalent characters of rocks, these mountains are surely se-

condary. They are the upper secondary of some distinguished Eu-

ropean geologists, the upper stratum of the lower secondary of oth-
ers; while others seem unwilling to admit a division of the secondary
class.

It appears to me, that the Alleghany and Catskill Mountains may
be assumed, confidently, as the grand starting range for settling all
questions relating to the equivalent strata of the Eastern and Western
continents. I feel that I am fully supported in the position I have ta-

400 MMiscellanies.

ken in view of such equivalents, and set forth in the last. edition of
amy Text Book, by the additional collections-of organized remains,
made in the months of August, September, and October, of the
present year, by the students and assistant teachers of ‘this school.
At the same time I reviewed the Helderberg range, and continued
my examinations throyghout the southern part of the county of Al
bany. In truth, every step I take, where organized remains are
found, and every specimen brought into this school, (several thou-
sands have already been-seen in the students’ lecture rooms, ) strength-
-en my confidence in the opinion of Cuvier, and of the other great
men of the East that “‘ organized remans are true indexes to geologi-
cal strata.’

The following species, found in connexion with Pennsylvania coal
beds of Wilkesbarre, Carbondale, &c. by Mr. Hall, myself, and stu-
dents, have been determined according to M. Brongniart; and they
are all open to the inspection of the arnateurs of natural science, in
the natural history room of this. school. 5

Genus NevuropTeris. —Flexuosa, gigantea, heterophylla, ele-
gans, Loshu, Cistu, Lorettit, ‘angustifolia, acutifolia, macr onbglle,
tenuifolia, auriculata, cordata. ; eu

Genus Spuenopreris.—Latifolia, furcata, trifoliata, artemisae-
folia, Mantelli, Williamsonis.

Genus Oponropreris.—Crenulata, Sclotheimit.

- Genus Tarniopreris.— Vittatas
Genus CycLopTeRis. —Obliqua.
We have several additional species not determined.

Note.—I hope to be able to furnish the Journal with a description
of the most important remains, in the collections deposited at this
school, accompanied with figures. I have about sixty species already
lithographed. . Amos Eaton.

Rensselaer Institute, Troy, N. Y. Dec. 1, 1832.

4. Correction of anerror in Prof. Green’s Monograph of North
American Trilobites ; with additional explanations.—I gave Prof.
Green several proof sheets of my Geological Text Book, while it
was in the press; in which the genus Brongniartia was erroneously
printed, Brongniatia. As Mr. G. has adopted the erroneous printing,
it is proper to correct the mistake ; as it is the name of a new ge-

Miscellanies. 401

\
nus. ‘The erroneous printing occurs once on p. 32, it is correct on
pp- 90, 126, 128, and 129. It is the name of the author of the first
valuable treatise on trilobites, (Alexander Brongniart,) with a Latin
termination. A. Eaton.

5. Caution addressed to manufacturers and venders of inflamma-
ble substances, especially if volatile—We are told that in subliming
camphor, the vessel sometimes becomes stopped by the condensed va-
por, thus forming a solid plug, and that explosion, with a dangerous
‘combustion of the volatile vapor, occasionally happens.

We knew a gentleman once to set fire to his family parlor, by at-
tempting to distil ether in it, and we have known, by experience, what
it is to pass through a wide flame of ether kindled by a candle at a
‘considerable distance on the table of a lecture room.

It is well known that the entire volume of the air, in a small room,
sometimes becomes inflammable in consequence of the diffusion
through it of etherial vapor, arising from open vessels from which it
was poured at the time. :

The obvious cautions are still more forcibly impressed by the fol-
lowing notice from the National Gazette, of an accident which oc-
curred in Philadelphia, and which eceasioned ‘‘a severe loss to be
sustained by Mr. George W. Carpenter, the eminent chemist and
druggist of Market street. On the night of the 24th of September,
one of the young men of his store was agitating a bottle containing
two gallons of alcohol of thirty six degrees, in which were contained
gums and resins, for the purpose of making a tincture. By some
chance it communicated with a lamp on the counter, and the bottle
broke, throwing its contents over the counter and floor. In an in-
stant the whole was in a flame, rising to the ceiling and spreading to-
wards the side of the room. Unfortunately, a bottle containing spir-
its of turpentine saturated with camphor, which was at the end of the
counter, broke, from the heat, and added double fury to the element,
so that before water could be procured, the whole store was envel-
oped in flames, the bottles on both sides bursting and throwing their
inflammable contents into the fire. The loss sustained by Mr. Car-
penter amounts to ten thousand dollars, of which five thousand dol-
lars were insured. He has also to regret the destruction of a num-
ber of accounts, several years’ letters, and other papers of value, as
well as various unpublished essays on Mineralogy and Medicine in-
tended for Professor Silliman’s Journal and the American Journal of

Vou. XXIII.—No. 2. 51

402 Maseellienies:

the Medical Sciences, mineralogical examination of the Eastern
States intended for publication, and a considerable proportion of his
essays on the Materia Medica, in the loss of which the public have
reason to sympathise with him. ‘The fire had a terrific appearance,
owing to the combustible nature of the contents of the store, and was
seen some distance from the city. Mr. Carpenter bears strong tes-
timony to the efficiency and zeal of the firemen, by which the adja-
cent houses were rescued from destruction, and a portion of his own
saved. when its total loss seemed inevitable.”

We learn from Mr. Carpenter, that a part of his books and papers
was saved; that the upper stories of his buildings filled with drugs
and chemical preparations were rescued, and that his collection of
minerals in a back building was entirely preserved.

6. The Cabinet of Natural History and American Rural Sports,
with illustrations ; monthly ; quarto; by J. &'T. Doucury, Phila-
delphia.—This elegant, interesting, and instructive magazine has now
gone through nearly two volumes. Occupying a middle station between
Journals strictly and drily scientific, and those which are merely pop-
ular, and being beautifully illustrated by colored engravings, not less
remarkable for the exhibition of the appropriate scenery of landscape
than of accurate figures of birds and animals, would seem to be entitled
to an extensive patronage ; a patronage commensurate not only with |
the heavy expences of such a work, but with the talents, taste, industry,
and enterprize of its respectable proprietors. | Nothing but the pres-
sure of numerous duties has prevented us from naming it at an earlier
day, and we regret, that at almost the latest moment of our present num-
ber, we can do little more than to express our mortification that it is
in danger of being discontinued for want of adequate patronage. It
would be little to the credit of our boastful country, that a work of
so attractive and respectable a character, which exhibits and fosters
beautiful and useful arts, as well as science and rational entertain-
ment, should die of penury, when there is bread enough and to spare.
We have had too many instances already of the suspension or failure
of most useful and respectable periodical works for want of pecuniary
support ; a support which might be easily rendered adequate without
any retrenchment from comforts, and with hardly a diminution of lux-
uries and superfluities. Good periodical journals, in literature, sci-
ence, and the arts, contribute much to improve the public mind at
home, and to raise our character abroad, and the nation should be
slow to relinquish such works, (an important portion of national pro-

MMiscellanies. 403

perty,) got up and sustained, as they almost invariably are, with great
labor and personal inconvenience, and usually with little pecuniary
reward ; so that, with few exceptions, only those who love knowledge
will long persevere in sustaining them. ‘The Journal now before us
has peculiar claims from its joint relation to science, arts, instruction
and amusement. We trust, therefore, that the effort which we un-

derstand is about to be made, by the editors, to save their interest-
ing work, will be seconded by some hundreds of good subscribers,
who will both read and pay.

Passus graviora, miseris suceurrere disco.

Each number contains twenty four pages, quarto, with double col-
umns, equal to fifty common 8vo. pages, and “ two beautifully color-
ed plates of birds and quadrupeds, drawn from nature, and executed
in the best style, with a perfect history of each object so represented,
with the addition of many interesting anecdotes.” — Ed.

Terms.—Kight dollars per annum, payable in advance, to J. & T.

Doughty, No. 80, Walnut street, Philadelphia.

7. Manufacture of Telescopes, §c.—Mr. Amasa Holcomb, of
Southwick, Massachusetts, manufactures spy glasses of every descrip-
tion now in use; also, achromatic telescopes of forty eight inches
focal length, which will give a distinct view of Jupiter’s belts, and of
the eclipses of his satellites, as well as of the principal double stars.
He makes also reflecting telescopes of from eight to twelve feet focal
length. ‘These are made on Herschell’s plan only, and will perform
more than those of the refracting kind, but are not as durable and,
in some respects, not as convenient. Any of the above instruments
will be made to order, and warranted to perform more than the im-
ported instruments of the same prices. Prof. Olmsted, of Yale Col-
lege, after some examination of one of Mr. Holcomb’s telescopes,
permits his name to be referred to, and has communicated to the edi-
tor his favorable opinion of the work.

It gives us pleasure to aid in making known an artist, self taught,
and as, we believe, worthy of patronage and encouragement.

Southwick is in Hampden county, upon the Connecticut line, and
is one of the towns intersected by the New Haven, Farmington, and
Northampton Canal. it is five miles distant from Westfield, and
twenty two miles from Northampton.

8. Phosphate of Lime in Edenville, N. Y.—In the month of Au-
gust last, | discovered a locality three fourths of a mile west of this

404 Miscellanies. Nee

village, from which I have obtained well defined six sided prismatic
crystals of phosphate of lime from one half an inch to twelve inches
in length, and from one eighth to one-inch and five eighths in diame-
ter. Their color is a bright asparagus green, of fine lustre, and they.
are variously terminated. Some have equal terminal faces, corres-
ponding with the lateral planes of the prism ; while others have one,
two, and sometimes three of their terminal faces extended at the ex-
pense of others, so as to give the crystal, in some instances, a one,
two, three, four, and even a five sided summit of unequal faces.
Their gangue is the white lime rock of this vicinity, in a partial state
of decomposition, so that by the fingers only it may be reduced into

coarse rhombic fragments, and the crystals disengaged from their na-

tive bed. J. P. Youne, P. M.
Edenville, Oct. 15, 1832. :

9. Geological Map.—A geological map of New London and
Windham counties, is about being published by Mr. Wm. Lester, Jr.
from the surveys of Lieut. W. W. Mather, during the late summer.
It is to be accompanied on the same sheet by a very minute map of
the two counties, upon a scale three fifths of an inch to a mile, hand-
somely colored, varnished, and mounted, from a copper plate en-
graving.

This survey will correct the section published in this Journal last
year. A mica slate stratum, crosses that section, though not seen
in place on the line of that section. It runs through Franklin, Scot-
land, Hampton, Pomfret, Woodstock, and into Massachusetts, and
appears to be a continuation of that in Massachusetts described by
Prof. Hitchcock, on his map of Massachusetts ; but which appears
to. run out before it comes to the Connecticut line. It terminates
again abruptly in Bozrah, Conn. ‘The granular feldspar and quartz
strata of that section, are subordinate strata to gneiss, from twenty
to thirty miles in length. They terminate abruptly on the north bank
of Morriss river. The contorted gneiss extends from Massachu-
setis to Long Island sound, with a breadth from three to ten miles,
and underlies the best land on the east of Connecticut river, in Con-
necticut, except thé valley of the Connecticut. The sienite of that
section forms a bed or overlying mass, covering about twenty or
twenty five square miles, with greenstone, sienitic, and granitic veins,
traversing the strata in every direction around.

W. W. Maruer.
West Point, Noy. 20th, 1832.

Miscellanies. 405

10. Fossil Shells of the Tertiary Formations of the United States,
by T. A. Conrap. No.2. J. Dobson, Philadelphia—We have
much pleasure in announcing the second number of this valuable
work, with eight lithographic plates, illustrating seventeen species of
our tertiary fossils. It is really cheering to observe that this depart-
ment of American geology, is now in a fair way to be fully elucida-
ted; and we must confess our surprise that such interesting facts, such
multiplied materials for geological reseach, should not sooner have
called forth the talent and attention they so justly merit. Mr. Con-
rad’s second number contains five species of Crassatella, one of 'Tur-
binella, four of Ancillaria, four of Ostrea, a Macta, and a Pholado-
mya. ‘These fossils are taken indiscriminately from the upper and
middle tertiary deposits, and-from localities widely distant, New Jer-
sey, Virginia, the Carolinas, Alabama, &c. Mr. Conrad is now ona
tour in the southern states, collecting materials for the continuation
of his work ; from this cause the third number may be delayed until
April or even until May. ‘Those persons who feel interested in the
geology of our country, may look forward with pleasing anticipations
to the results of Mr. Conrad’s journey.

11. Anthracite in Wrentham, Mass.—Specimens of this mineral
have been forwarded to us by Mr. 8S. Day, in a letter dated Provi-
dence, R. 1. Oct.11. It is stated to be newly discovered—that the
boring has been carried to eighty feet and the excavation or shaft, to
sixty ; that the coal lies in strata of different depths, interspersed with
slate, and that it is proposed, should the prospect continue fair, to pe-
tition the legislature for a charter of mcorporation, and in the spring
to push their enterprise with vigor.

The coal appears like the European anthracite, and recemmnies
that of Rhode Island more than that of Pennsylvania. ‘The latter
state possesses such vast resources in this mineral, and of such admi-
rable quality and easy acquisition, that prudent men will look well ‘to
every undertaking, which must depend, in a degree, upon successful
competition.

12. Comparison of weights and measures of length and capacity,
reported to the Senate of the United States by the Treasury Depart-
ment in 1832, and made by Ferd. Rod. Hassler, M.A.P.S., &c. (Doe.
No. 299.) Washington, 1832.—On the 29th of May, 1830, the
Senate passed a resolution requiring a comparison of the weights and
measures used in the several custom houses in the United States,

406 JMiscellanies.

to be made under the direction of the Treasury Department. The
execution of this important commission was entrusted to Mr. F. R.
Hassler, a gentleman who is well known to be fully qualified for the
task. Several well authenticated foreign standards were employed
in the operation, among which were an original metre, and an origi-
nal kilogram. ‘The document above cited contains two reports
made by Mr. H.; the first exhibits principally the results of the op-
erations, and the second a detailed account of the means and meth-
ods used. The report made in 1821, by the Hon. John Q. Adams,
showed that great discrepancies existed among the weights and meas-
ures.used in this country, but no steps were then taken to remedy
- the evil. We learn from the letters of the secretary of the Treas-
ury, accompanying Mr. H’s reports, that the custom houses through-
out the country, are soon to be supplied with uniform and accurate
weights and measures, and authentic standards, to be fabricated at
the United States’ Arsenal in Washington, under the personal super-
intendance of Mr. Hassler.

13. Revised editions of Spurzheim’s Works.—Marsh, Capen &
Lyon, Boston, have in press, and propose publishing, the following
works by the late Dr. SpurzHem.

I, Phrenology, or the Doctrine of Mental Phe-

nomena.—Vol. I, Physiological part. Vol. 2,

Philosophical_part,—with plates, 2 vols. 8vo. $4 00
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INDEX TO V

A.

Alkalies, preserving qualities of, 383.

Alluvial deposites of the Mohawk, 207.

Analysis, chemical, of the atmosphere,
380.

Anthracite in Massachusetts, 405.

Ash, white, effect of, on rattlesnakes, 337.

Association, British, for advancement of

science, 179.
Atmosphere, chemical analysis of, 380.
Azote in animal substances, 384.

B.

Bath, Russian vapor, 295.

Bees, hiving of, 202.

Beets, cultivation and sugar of, 392.

Biela’s comet, 390.

Bone cave, 388.

Bonstetten, Chas. Victor, notice of life of,
374.

Boring for water in New York, 206.

Bread, distillation of, 194.

Brewster, Dr., on polarization of light,
28, 225.

British association for
science, 179.

Brongniartia, correction of Brongniatia
in Prof. Green’s Menograph of Trilo-
bites of North America, 400.

Brunner, Prof., chemical analysis of the
atmosphere, 380.

Buckland, Prof., on vitality of toads en-
closed in wood and stone, 272. -

C.

Cabinet of Natural History and American
rural sports, 402.

Caloric, experiments in, 185,

Camphogene, 378.

Canebrakes, 50.

Carbonate of lime and compounds, 387.

Carburetted hydrogen, combinations of,
377.

advancement of

Case, Rev. Wm., facts on hydrophobia,

144.

OLUME XXIII.

Cave of bones, 388.

Cement for glass, &c. 201.

Cetaceous animal, notice of, 301.

Charcoal prepared by M. Dumont, 346.

Cheese from potatoes, 202.

Chevallier, on uses of chlorine and chlo-
rides, 129.

Chile, plants of, 78, 250.

Chloride of lime, action of on alcohol, 135:

Chlorides and chlorine, uses of, 129.

—of sulphur, 382.

Coal beds of Pennsylvania, Pr oe Eaton
on, 399.

Comet, Biela’s, 390.

Comets, medal for discovery of, 391.

Compass, microscopic, 237.

Conrad’s, T. A., work on fossil and recent
shells of the tertiary formation of North
America, 204, 339, 405.

Copper process for silvering, 386.

Cordage, coating for, 199.

Corrosive fluids, syphons for, 387.

— sublimate, detection of, 207.

Cotton, case of treatment by, 198.

Crucible for fusion, 384.

Cuvier, Baron G., memoir of, 303.

Cuvier and Brongniart’s report on M. Des-

hayes tableau comparatif des coquilles

vivantes, 196.

Cylindrical steam boilers, strength of, 68.

D.

Dampness, prevention of, 199.

De Candolle’s, A. memoir of Cuvier,
303.

De Candolle’s, A. P. memoir of Huber,
117.

Diluvial action, Hon. Wm. A. Thompson
on, 243.

Dumonts’ filter and prepared charcoal,

346.

E.

Earth, increase of temperature in the in-
terior of the, 15.

Eaton, Prof., on coal beds of Pennsylva-
nia, organized remains of, 399.

408

Economy of fuel, 318.
Editor, notice of a fountain of petroleum
by, 97.
facts relating to hydrophobia by,
43.

reminiscences of Dr. Spurzheim
by, 356.

Emmet, Prof., on solidification of gypsum,
209,

F.

Fair at Leipsic, 1831, 182.

Ferruginous sand formation, organic re-
mains of, 288.

Field surveying, 37.

Filter of Dumont, 346.

Flowers deprived of their anthers, 45,

Follen, Prof., funeral oration on the death
of Dr. G. Spurzheim, 356.

Fossil remains in the museum of Gideon
Mantell, Esq., 162.

Fossil remains of strata of Sussex, a7.

shells of tertiary formation in North

America, 204, 405.

and recent shells

Fuel, economy. of, 318.

Fusion, crucible for, 384.

G.

—— 339.

Gases, effect of various, upon vegetation,
193.

Geneva observatory, 390.

Geological map of eastern part of Con-
necticut, 494.

— of gold region of Geor-
gia, North Carolina, and Tennessee, 1.

Geology of gold region of Georgia, North
Carolina, and Tennessee, 1.

Nova Scotia, by Messrs. Jack-
son & Alger, notice of, in the Rev. En-
eye. Aug. 1832, 389.

Georgia gold region, Hon. Judge Peck
on, 1.

Gillet, Mr. Geo., on declination of the
magnetic needle, 205.

Gold region of Georgia, North Carolina,
and Tennessee, 1.

Goniometer reflective, R. Graves, Jr.
on, 76. i
Graves, Jr., R. on reflective goniometer,

76.

Green’s, Prof. J., monograph of trilobites
of North America, 395.
Gypsum, solidification of, 209.

H.

Hail storms, Dr. Jones on, 35. |

INDEX

Hessler, Prof., on weights and measures,

40

Herbarium of Mr. Z. Collins, 398.

Hitchcoek’s, Prof., report on geology of
Massachusetts, notice of, in the Rev.
Encyc. Aug. 1832, 389.

Holcomb, M. H., manufacture of tele-
scopes, 403.

Huber, Francois, notice of life and wri-
tings of, 117.

Hydrophobia, facts on, 144.

I.

Inclined planes, Prof. Thomson on, 107.

Inflammable substances, caution against
accidental combustion of, 401.

Injection, venous, Dr. Mauran on, 114.

Ink, indelible, 201. -

Iron, separation of its oxides, 379.

J.

Johnson, W. R., Prof.,-on an ancient A-
merican utensil, 65.- -

—— cylindrical steam boilers, 68.

economy of fuel, 318.

Jones, Dr., on hail storms, 35.

L.

Leather, coating for, 199,

Leipsic, fair of 1831, 182.

Leitner, E. T., on ‘depriving flowers of
their anthers, 45.

Licht, polarization of, Dr. Brewster on,
28, 225.

Locke, Dr., on microscopic compass, 237.

M.

Macaire, M., on vegetable physiology,
138.

Machine, Wood’s inking, 108.

Magnetic needle, declination of, 205.

Mantell, Gideon, Esq., museum of, 162.

——————__——_. works of, 176.

Mauran, Dr., instrument for venous in-
jection, 114.

Meconine, 380.

Medal for “discovery of comets, 391.

Memoir of G. Cuvier, 303.

RY Huber, 117. -

Memory. Mr. Orr on, 278.

Microscopic compass, 2387.

Mohawk, alluvial deposites of, 207.
Monument to Cuvier, 309.

| Morphine, new process for, 190.

INDEX.

-Morton, Dr., organic remains of ferrugin-
ous sand formation in North America,
288.

N.

Narceine, 379.

Natural Philosophy, by Prof. Olmsted,
351. :

Necrology of Count Chas. Vidua de Gon-

zano, 198.

Geo. Crabbe, Andrew Bell,

Sir James Mackintosh, Jeremy Ben-

tham, T.Ornie, C. de Bonstetten, Naeff,

Camille Borghese, Abbé Angelo Cesa-

ris, 370.

—— Baron Boissel de Monville,
and George Cuvier, George Simon Se-
rullas, Christian, Auguste Duvau, Ey-
ariste Gallois, Dr. Leroux, Albéric De-
ville, Meyranx, Jean Francois Cham-
pollion, Abel Remusat, Guillaume-Lou-
is-Julien Carré, Louis Simond, 371.

Nitrogen in animal substances, 384.

North Carolina, Gold region of, 1.

Nutt, Dr. on origin, extension, and con-
tinuance of prairies, 40.

on geological topics relating to

lower part of valley of Mississippi, 49.

O.

Obituary of Dr. Gaspar Spurzheim, 356.

Observatory of Geneva, 390.

Ocean, its temperature and saltness at
different depths, 10.

Oils, action upon oxygen, 190.

Olmsted’s, Prof., Nat. Philosophy, 351.

Organic remains of the ferruginous sand
formation, by Dr. Morton, 288.

Orr, Isaac, Mr., on memory, 278.

Oxygenated water, 382.

Oxygen, action of oils upon, 190.

P.

Peck, Hon. Judge, on gold region of Geo.,
N. Car. and Tenn., 1.

Pendulum, motions of, and of surrounding}

air, 391.
Petroleum fountain, notice of, by the Ed-
itor, 97.
Phosphate of lime, 403.
Phosphorus, density of its vapo
Physiology, vegetable, 138.
Planes, inclined, Prof. Thomson on, 107.
Plants of Chile, 78, 250.
Poison, animal, remedy for, 168.
Polarization of light, 28, 225,
Potatoes, boiling of, 201.

Vou. XXIT.—No 2.

r, 383.

409

Potatoe cheese, 202. _ :
Practical tourist, review of, 213.

Prairies, origin, extension and continu-
ance of, 40.

R.

Rattle snake, 337.

Redfield, W. C., on Am. steam boats, 311.

Report on Deshayes’ tableau comparatif
des coquilles vivantes, by Cuvier and
Brongniart, 196.

Review of Practical Tourist, 213.

Rice, boiling of, 202.

Ruschenberger, Dr., on plants of Chile,
78, 250.

Rust, preventive of, 199.

S.

Saltness of the ocean, 10.

Sampson, Wm., Esq., notice of a cetace-
ous animal, 301.

Sealing wax, economy in use of, 200.

Sheep feeding, 393.

Shells, fossil and recent, 204, 389.

Silvering copper, 386.

Silver, imitation of, 195.

Simond, Louis, notice of life of, 371.

Soubeiran, on action of chloride of lime
on alcohol, 134.

Spurzheim, Dr. Gaspar, Prof. Follen’s obite
uary of, 356.

—— works republishing in
Boston, 406.

Steam boats, American, W. C. Redfield
on, 311.

Steam boilers, strength of, 68.

Sugar of beets, 392.

Sulphur, chlorides of, 382.

—— vapor of, its density, 883.

Surveying, improvements in, 37.

Syrups, bleaching of, by M. Dumont, 846.

ab:

‘Telescopes, manufacture of, 403.
|Temperature, increase of ia interior of the
earih, 15.

of the ocean, 10.

‘Tennessee, gold region of, 1.

‘Tertiary formation of North America, fos-

| sil shells of, 204, 339.

Thermo-multiplicator, 185, 531.

Thompson, Hon. Wm. A., on diluvial ac-
tion, 243.

aU J., Prof., on inclined planes,

; 107. :

‘Toads enclosed in wood and stone, vitali-
ty of, Prof. Buckland on, 272.

52

410

Traill, Dr., on Russian vapor bath, 295.
Trilobites, new species, 203.
of North America, Prof. Green

on, 395.

U.
Universal terms, by Mrs. Emma Willard,

18.
Utensil, ancient American, 65.

V.

Vapor bath, Russian, 295.
Vegetable physiology, 138.

INDEX.

Vegetation affected by certain gases, 193.
Vidua de Gonzano, Count Chas., -necrolo-
gy of, 198.

Ww.

Water, maximum density of, 391.

oxygenated, 382.

Willard, Mrs. Emma, on universal teas!
18.

Wood, coating for, 199.

W ood’s inking machine, 103.

Woodruff, Judge Samuel, on rattle snake,
337.

Acknowledgments to Friends and Correspondenis.
DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN.

Received.—Hon. Thomas 8S. Grimke’s Address on Peace, before
the Peace Society, New Haven, May 6th, 1832.—His Letter to
Hon. J. C. Calhoun, R. Y. Hayne, G. M’Duffie, and Js. Hamil-
ton, Jr. Philadelphia, 1832.

Treatise on Mineralogy, by C. U. Shepard, New Haven. 1 Vol.
large 12mo. ag:

Annual Report of the American Colonization Society. 1832.

Mr. Dickerson on the Apportionment Bill.

Dr. Sprague on Revivals. 1 Vol. 8vo. Albany, 1832.

Prest. Lindley’s Centennial Address, on Washington’s Birth Day.
Nashville, 1832.

Pres. Humphrey’s Inaugural Address at St. John’s College. An-
napolis, Md. 1832.

Applicability of the principles of the New Testament to the con-
duct of States, on the rights of Self Defence; by J. Dymond.
London. Brooklyn, Ct. reprinted. = -

M. Faraday, on a peculiar class of acoustical figures, and on the
forms of fluids vibrating on elastic substances. Phil. Trans. 1831.

M. Faraday on Electricity. Phil. Trans. 1832. London.

Rapport fait a la Academie des Sciences sur un Memoire de M.
de Beaumont, &c. 1829. M. Brongniart and Beudant: from M.
Alex. Brongniart.

Memoire sur la Peinture sur verre. M. Alex. Brongniart. 1831. -

Report of the Committee on trade and manufactures, on the adul-
terations of potash.

Annual Report of the Regents of the University of the State of
New York, March, 1832, from Jos. Henry.

Fifth Report of the Chester County Cabinet.

Mr. Sullivan and Mr. Disbrow on boring for water.

Address of Samuel A. Foot at Geneva, before certain societies.

A discourse on Language, by A. B. Johnson. Utica.

Description of a few plants near Troy, by Assist. Prof. H. H. Ea-
ton, Trans. Univ.

Dr. William Henry on the Philosophical character of Dr. Priestley.

Report on the gold and silver coin of the United States.

Mr. Adams’s Report on the Tariff.

Dr. Daniel Drake on Medical Education and the Medical Profes-
sion in the United States. Cincinnati.

History and Geography of the Mississippi Valley, and Physical
Geography of the American Continent, by Timothy Flint. 2 Vols.
none. Cincinnati.

Qe Acknowledgments, &c.

Prof. Robert Dunglison’s Human Physiology. 2 Vols. 8vo. bound,
from the publishers, Carey & Lea. Philadelphia.

Family Cabinet Atlas, from Carey & Lea. Philadelphia.

Universal Gazetteer, from the author, Edwin Williams, and the
publisher, James Conner. New York.

Letters on the Natural History and Internal Resources of the
State of New York, by Hibernicus, Gone es to the late Gov. Clin-
ton,) from Prof. Tos. Henry.

The American Almanac and Repositor y! for 1832 and 1833, from
Mr. Jos. E. Worcester.

History of the United States, by Noah Webster, LL.D. from the
publishers, Durrie & Peck. New Haven, 1832.

Geological Sketches and Glimpses of the Ancient Earth, by Maria
Hack, London, 1832, to B. Silliman, Jr. from Walter Mantell, son
of Gideon Mantell, Esq. Lewes, Sussex, England. -

Traité de Chimie, par J. J. Berzelius. 5 Vols. Svo. (three more
to come,) from the author.

Economy of Manufactures, by Prof. Charles Babbage, of the Uni-
versity of Cambridge, Eng. 1 Vol. 8vo. from the author.

Revista Binestre ape Avril de 1832. Tom. 2, No.6. Ha-
bana, from the editor.

Report on Steam Carriages, by a select committee of the house
of commons of Great Brita, &c. from Hon. Gideon Tomlinson,
U.S. Sen.

Essay sur les Orbicules Siliceux. Par M. Alex. Boe 1832.

L’Art de fabriquer le fer. Par M. Ang. Perdonnet, 1831.

Annales de L’Institute Royal Horticole de Fromont, Nos. 33, 34,
and 37. Dr. Pascalis.

Dissertation on the Atonement, Boston, 1832.

President Quincy’s Address at the dedication of Dane Law Col-
lege, 1832, from the author, also from I. M. Bunker.

A discourse before the Hartford County Peace Society, by Rey.
Leonard Bacon, 1832, from the author.

Hon. Edward Everett’s Address at the introduction to the Frank-
lin Lectures in Boston. Noy. 1832, from the author.

Young’s Algebra, from the) publishers, Carey & Lea. Philad.

The Trumbull Picture Gallery.

This splendid collection of historical and other paintings, is now
open for exhibition, in a new and appropriate fire proof building,
recently erected for its reception, on the grounds of Yale College.
Tn a future number, we will state, more particularly, the nature of the
collection, and the object to which it is so benevolently devoted, by
the venerable and patriotic artist,.after he shall cease to be personally
interested in these fine productions, of his mind and his hand.

- Prof Chem, Min., &e. i in Yale oe 3 Cor. Men. Boe; Ants, Man, and Com. ; : ‘anit
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