PPE er ie Ret, at ek hl dale ately WN Oh Oe es 7 ’ veurn ‘ etd bed ect i) oe a ee ek 8 a bi Nita itle Mh) Mites Wied) Aah hand Sh bch I \ Reeth ah td Take, a td Ceumie Pek Kehoe pee ‘ 4 Ad ea hh svt bin venas ane PT ee PR ee td TR kek Gk tthe & Cre en ee Ce ee NG RE HE NE Rept eH ALAA HU Gy OR ak ere oe ed se Lae tae be bale TER he wed Gel de dlp at bee ee PL Fh fot Te Ee eR PE ANAS mE Tie ake Be tied ctpent ati te Bie Bde ably ' Ve RA Toe eH AD a PAs Moga ey A Tee ee ee Dee at ah Me eA Det Tat hot Rate Pedy Hoey es ee Pea de Cee ee EA Eee EO et gee De CE Fo Oe tor ee Mb eeee ate ee OO Bae bots sok daybed ae bth tay feoywed vt ppg Pee oe Me ee PO Re Pe i ey ed HOP D Oe Metbe pae Oe Reet ke wtb Pew Ye ar a ar ea Pate Wea to hee TO OAL EAR Tab ISIE ASH) AE Rh Gr atop tate ee b tg ted Pe seer on fim ame ctr teres kW DA OE Pi eS eT at ec PE AN ORR OA le Be BR A MoM there tarts De Ps meatier RGty Bee Se Pen Gee eae 8 re pou vente re TATRA he SI ar WW We MT WP aS ee wd vauvae eS ee ee COs Sir Cara tia £6 Dep wy ee ped Lae eat herbage baa Nera a) Parente i ir Ti cn Pea Parte ses Per Yer Si SC ie Me Deady ter ana pew tbe ee mete” tevae tae rua om ‘ ee Re a ra beet tod hat et bad gat taba Ck La eon ‘ Part Se SCS Web tce ak bet feb ve bts wn re ttuws ea pwn WO et a eee Perera re ee ae pate on Porc ee ace Oe et Pa Serer a oyu ' VM ARR ES MB Beste Cae Wo a eM de He tee eh a ed Se WT tye eae ee SP Tab ek ae gat ee ee sehen Poe aaa nn Mek eT TPT OT Nk lee Mag hE Wy kd Ope aM ne Fe Pea TC rau a ee ee ee . hie Sete Denke BUG he By ote Re ke West eBe Hoe fe He Be AQy Bacatente te edie V evDeaterh INP Wes Puri Ser Ges a see Te enn ae ede Ub hoa a Me ea eh a i Meiky a Bog ha Bow Cet OR Uhh BU WM GN RS UTM Hy abe fA cote WUD Bt hag he hs Bs tesdoh hig it rye Ded Re yonns vir e cher Pete he) Cet baa we Care eC Tr ee PO tb a bate REO Rpts Ae eeitgae eee Pare eee Oe ee Rarer eae verre ae Warns rar oe ie ear Ce WO Wve pep eM BM Lok a fee Mem Hae Heteabe ges Rarer ae Vuran Lee aha ge AE oT SU OT Ay SL LY SIE eat GND GbE Vite Pn Cee hs ee , en ' ‘ ay ne Para as War rea DON ST ih WT ic tis Pe cn en Me Te WC EL al het be ee PW Bg ERT Da ek SE EE Ree cB Mag ee Fy ED eh ae oe pe at Ny gat Meee Rap ght Ok oP Be rato tit taeb A ds Daits Oar Se ree ea KO WC a) foe Take $f Vb he Or ba Dat Ce ab pa ee Bee Ee pt Peewrie wri rie CR a ee Pe ee nL Yin ' rea veveean OOS oe i CP Ae ee er a Aan an errr rrr We ean redone eR Wenn Cs a art ran ' vou i ae ei eC ee a re cee Ce ele PTR Cee in a Ye a ED EY Phe Cee ee ' boy bat ear Oe ot es YL Voy ten pe te wee yo bed Patera einen hy SRT Tay rir ren Wem AT WS) eT CL Wor eorvaee s ce HOS p MH ao PE Pe het ha ee ee aoe . wee eA etek ee OT WL ve Chews eran ‘ PCM ee cre Ae Ya uo ' Led yea spe ee eo ee aa bMS chen rn Ree eC eken Manes ea aa fet Pr ra PAV Vege ek a eee te Get aT MeN Ae Oe Oe RCC ’ ' CO Ve a i ee ,imne eed Vev erie ne gee We OE A Mat Methgte 4th hey Meaytpeane tt oY wha ‘ : ra Sy ree ee ee oe ME EX SMa te Re peut Ete We Geb dere te ’ ‘ hae Pe Or et ts Dy oy ee Ried ORI OT PD PaO BC er ob al Ca OO er a bl Oe Pa Dae eA poe ee ee pers eeib ade US SEDO RUCTE: the Bek 8. Ba BoA Teer Gait Mehe iE Ra pWo gst M ‘ von wa CEM OLA EVAR ESL OUT GD EY HAN yee ye RR Pa ged RCT CO SS . ‘ ' Wry shea ee yabee ta peda eade eee eee Rees Pere ie F Yas pee RES re ee ee fe er he ee Ly Pre A Wee Te PUTT Kok oN Me i Tia WY eee SL ca ee ' , Pye breed EEE ee ee Oe ee Pe Oe ee eT cai ' wey Snead whites ds eee ee ‘ Saye i Wr ePee IME PC ICT Ate Yk CC Ok Oe ens a eee th rs ms . be ca pak Shee Ae Te ha PLP bs ee pat daa da TE Aa ayy EO Ee RMN eg LQ. ERIE Dnt Boe w Ream fe pei dt fet ; f yUyags Vi OES eee el te Cee bag Corre he sie wre WEG ADL H Sloe ty A eter t fy eA db ait Netaalts ’ ty : me Sowden ee ks on Vinmes eee eH hE PRAM Reece rt erie at Un SY PRC ML cera ' re , band vin PIP PE wera CO on pease a vn Sa Ee ab op ted B TRIMER YW Foon ate fh rtey BGT ty ATE Be bark me eae ag ua rN ue i Sr Oe Oe Ce whee dep ee ay eo Mage et eb vod Weed beet y Belted why 5 Cee ete ep pa ee EPA VE PAPO Lay a ge nd A ae Ye) re PM AM RC Me Mac rar morc) vt yadeeihey on wren seer , Pee Re eC ea wp tee F eel Re Wes tod Deine by on Uy beh Pits Saigr hr a MeN TR Bs 2 Pee AED Web ihehy Bee HE COD Sanit ’ cee my rue SO Wake ety ey sede payee eT a ar Pa We eT ’ ‘ pire fiN beh’ sen Vier} rat eae p tryed ea Pare enn oh 7a Be or Na hn Wathen, aes i ree ee ' vive vvenge Ero op hae oe ae veye rrag wa twa ny enya aay Vy dene tery , ‘ rene yb ds ten yryeaeee wy ik PY A Pera ce Se ee a Pay ee wee PO De tg ee Tats : HA Hohe EP 1 Tn Ce ‘ yen vytee ’ thy ' vent Cera) migy 4 ee re ' ‘ HE by gry, be dy t pred py , ‘ vy pe ey eye wee vt ey’ . wae cya san on ’ pak een Taye eases Feta : ve Lrenes Ca ' \ Vegtaa bed eye a ore teen ee preagttyeguy ‘ ue erp Vey bake wy Meee er bra ieee io vy ‘ sea ‘ va Paper A yy : ve \ ' be Weta oa Seti aa ON er Me on ‘ vie wwe CV ge YY ree ees peye a ‘ sae 1% . peep ya wpb Tk ee) : my . Vea vere ea ye eye rns ve os vote a eye : rene fe a we yee ge Mp tee Ore te Oe he Rew pleas oe a wat , 1 x ’ va wey wn yo \ ' heap 1 A : t pat ys gn . ' ve ' ‘ ron ty yeh ‘eo as : 1 2) na) " \ , eee eee topeu a a . ve , vay ' ‘ ey 7s ' iN to4 t piety atk ‘ i y : os a 4 : “ fen bas ‘ ease yi eel ‘ . pth yyvey , pote pee : iF i ; CEU YL werk yay 7 cya f : : ' j $l : = na : Ce te : : aly : ! Here ' $3 vt fa 3 i ; oad : . F } cb} sraess ‘ coats . +309 dive pad ‘ . ; rie ee Bea | PES AN AG ho Pd aa “ Fl cde Bl ste tape “ ‘ vil i . id ce of ' : Oo0 dad de tetigu reds " 4 Cok gee et oe Fae ‘ ‘ 2 . ot 3 ; os ‘ a i ; a tat Car COCR ee ee ne onde aged s * eat at Oa bite is ‘ ails paid Fit be Lede Founda oe ‘ bat 1 we bir ta bey ; vi : , i Haid ‘ Nb ie eae ie” z eat : F ‘ i ii aa ‘ ‘ 2343 Lips WEL d Blea de P ae Perret Sea at eae ott eda he Pi uet oe fob abil FV ind tee ' . i iad a mo ‘ a ‘ Tae a se eR L debed toned id Poe kd cd : ‘ a tied bia) Has caw te taal tags Wie A oe Daiied eed 750 vebigna EOF Reade nt ode woth iad: Nin a1d* farevapirenste 8 . ' aa 4 , ie ’ we fae eit ‘ orb bnnw riot i wae boas fe al retin ee ed Cr eee oa ‘ ous eG le tense . bP tb es bate tei ds : Bob dete Sted Baek dae Meet nce een a) wat is on on " pidiaee sede PREAMP RC EY ne Me WOR ee Le ee Be babeipeq nother ashe gaie beg gale we fant tis , PU ty yaa iva os ded pel bad be dial > bu on 8 Hoanties bar i “ ee ai Pe 3 te Spang di ba 8 da PA pant sie ’ ae Te OR are eA fod fon ay : ' to hee ba ake ot sot pan be da bel wedded a dae A dR bad ae Panne erin aprt ie Waar merit me Ser AT Re Pt a Ses : tvove iu hott ees re a cee Oe DE en ge gk Deh se ed ote ae dad anodes ! ioe bun ; Eee ‘ oe eb t eb ad Gag! Ft Pari Or tne Meat ee te Parienenaai Terie Ma rat teen MULT a AULT re TRL et " * 4f “ad ‘ . CA eee ee eae ‘Ae Obaled dbo ES Pet ne ea De Sid bM heb Chia deme Ra rh at peta of ot ; ' ba A a Fe aot Peeihie et As rn eee ea SL pee DM eb bee eee oe te Tt We dat rk da bake Ar eeerrran cee ion. err ne ‘ ' fe i Yi ian’ jv be deta sk Pee beg Feed Bar bbb dal ng to bop detect ged bute hed ee oa Sy ai et ee i wbiee dea bas Sk bog oad Heh eed beat Fb EA OF Sa Od wand # ine rue eee mda ded oe Wa hao 4 ‘ phan ba tars i td eta neta fot abd ee EP Mee etd ot Sai g bee O det D dee ten be eeredigd Beeps bead cee beget oa re ae Me ¥ cot Pe ek Ped d gb cde Pe aad a Oy deed EE PO Oak deh Ret gf, eat aed i tae hid, Hore WEA AT dado tte babe kd a het ‘ de ba ‘ : ‘ . jiu Otte UP wad getee PAL Mode Aroma ea Pr Beak 6 ct bak MRL Lk Ray Peat SPE Fan da dai DER ate ie D pau oo4 : ' ‘ i Ann fan ten ere mera a ame Cee i ce Cae ee reer ar or eee ee Pe son abn pid ot ts ‘ tena ea ‘ i ‘ ryt : Cre eee bab bd ted dlaeicde Dee ee ak Bod dee * ‘ vw ; a) ra fe ea oR Bin ede DG bid goa feet tbe d Pe ec rer A epee deine be eden ‘ js tet apo kay Oe fag rar PES | KER Dig ae KR ila w ad doled. tetede paper erent Wear ere are ree ent PL ee ee Ce CORR elt CRM Oa mere Mere os F : ; faa Pea ee dea bed oki FOR eds a ed ba heed No be Cdn gn ae mir Awe oa ' ‘ ‘ v4 Leda deg tae ‘ Saean rae ee reer ar Ue ee Aare re DP a ee a deaee 9 Stee demas) Potewarr a sehen de let sa fen ra ia ral é a poe d eds oe baw 1 Mreson Yop diego obtek dd NES Dade teed gh pandh ot dadea! dyak delh ob bade otis po bene bes Cb aa Teg Facer nya nea ta wd re dee a fet ‘ ‘ ‘ tice oa an bed pad ‘ Hep eaa tle bovine peter ere eer ee ORLA aa H i Ride ik nanan’ ri PO tok kt EA da book d eT TNT Parenen Dai Serie er ee Pee ee ee eT ; ‘ bo ee ae im tae ia bee tad de da ahd ded i Ph sine ee DOE Bas vig ‘ i eer Pea . , 2b add Hi aa kee oth cod abe denen et Patol i ae ee ‘ . wd oP Oe Uo ted pe vit a a he Ee ro Pitt ee Ml eet an tod apie Tf coat’ , 1 Peet aa oe f Riga ty deh don Fae ee hd ba on ba tee bow PTT S canbeube ne haadiend tocdeecel soa pi ene t piwe ae aera BF re os Wen tte ehh Dat bie ae bat tik hE vente fica tte i aa Pan Wether se Ber 4 Ce dept dg baied PTR Cae Le des tee eked d eden! Gedo rb -P ob oR ied i ria i aifeu 1 PU PLA Ete a aod Poe bye dea bebe & i A avn (htt ape Hea ce adiad 0a ad sabentoeneld poh glpold opted » Shur, 3 ae come Ne ia boat ee eee ‘ 4 Pam ‘ PP eC a clad ‘ on vee vad wares Paelius SA tee poea Dd Pho as wo fa Co fro bab eal Bet Po imesh Lane cn , fo eet De gate dete bg baba eb aed da ‘ PPM ted Oi tens kudate Dott ow eeu ey tm abe o vend ‘ oo ‘ oe “ Cee ec ee elsts Gla OO aay ne Fb Oa ewe er ee Te Ce ile’ i , i fee Mae ee ae ae re ee | a rae Ee Pa od de tye DOr Ee tn Gabe ai eer ben i le thet veh dion a bie} ibe ote clatey gh Wah w ‘ CA Pd hide #8 bw acl da peed Ve bk boars gens org eects ww tertheat (ae tebe alia g site born 6 ue ‘ ‘ todas re ia PIAA GIG wea Pee apa gd Ep eh ER I Dest tee Ne Sei De sb tee bathe g eb Web Be A mi oh me ee ee a or Ace fie had Wa bode rd ed ie era rae Cer Bn ere Mee A a vesad Ca Re See fed wocdue Wthet Fee A pela cee he ech Ethel dn attain ere tb td oh Ae + eee Vie git dod : Po bbe ds (yew bate ‘ po ad H ae ee ee Feb ese ne depen eer nek a rg Cet ett te ' . ' seed : on ‘ . i byw ee dd ou toe oan fo take G deh OAD diopside desractng sien tedden y abe EE ‘ i hee ' pot toad Patae Pir errime eaee ee Dic ae A Se paw on dnp aii ete ped ep bath oe Pe (AAR W UME It we ‘ in one a Ae Gee ea ea on edd eat et Ad wag tae Pooh DS FRPP Mer eee TE ACS en On A ta creed Gl ava ve Ait Pe hae aU Baked PRT eR Le Rie nie eC Cty caret ST Oe ' bah A i fee ae ae PAR toe th Cae GU, fa et Ga Goasd wes, G ee Fila ah pet oiale daly EL decadedetee Qa andade beh BUA KG or) ee re ‘ torpedo’ coe ett Cie geal Ada tte Met tae ha a nC eee Med FA Babe tid ab ege efor Ae Hak Gelb aldo yee Os ie ene eee ined oi eet a ae ae Pitciarie eric me ftir co 0 Writ aie Re ee Miata wean Ha ae veg ob ot welt hatte See Deane l atoll hen ne au oa dt Bont ea past eo eed abe ea at Rarer in TC Cn SRT CD MCA RS TT CC LA fave ‘ ear aes yo bcd Mea. oh iam ia Wea FA a Ari CP ICR CTS MC Eo nied a tau tj hat : Foren an Oba ed ees Payee vier re rr ru co Ps ee LL in Ve ete Vin fal ‘ Se ee ‘ Tht ow bebe Be LO Pay aL in Me era Verne ray A] tT COM ORS Re a es So EAA a ‘ teqeeatoda Ta arene rear are es a iL aa ECOL NM fantd a koe i nly akg it abel aed or pnts bated Mite ir aot ORIG Mek ntl Dasa) ae aS aD sah oe PO VS TR SP Oe TO a es RA I Oe UN aU ny RU ot kbs GN aE Pirie Cb bb Oe ee bd Cag ba bib ba PO a yee ke Oe LM ToD tabat ge distin 0 ghia heal Rudge ase Piet raed ag Hb aBike Cod sue eth DUA? At Mead WAAAY ee a ae os ate ee ee ee % ated ’ Cai ga dae bed ped doe ed ed klp gered EI tn ne ce ae are le EE ati 4 ba a) reg Pow ai Pied babe pny Ca ira BOE bd sre tatoden tat aT a get et GID ied ge bab be Rodale Wake Ti earh edad neat deta es Bits var ay hd adobe we eed ” rhe Pre ee Pde ak eee ne rae i hd a mest fete bt ME aE ete Dae ge 4 ' hana Hee howe woe Coleg tht todd CRD ad Gb kk te ae hor eb ae MO lin ete deh De iat arte ane bee oa aL she Hibet he TRIE ted wt it de dd 8 ea re tee doe Lose vieth peated Myla Wii gade dorarates iol OR LE aR ore are ee ee | Pa a a (eo | WE ey ee ea hb bop ¥ Pa Bere eC Ce WOE eh ee eat teatoane bet ah te de wih the ud eee Ne eee he on = Be hk te Ps 1 II. Method of Conducting the Canal Surveys in the State of New York; by E. F. Jounson, Civil Engineer. ao III. An Estimate of the Philosophical Character of Dr. Priest- ley; by Wittiam Henry, M.D. F.R.S., &c. &e. 28 IV. Motions of a System of Bodies; by Prof. uroporE STRONG. - - - - - = - - * 40 V. Observations on the Saliferous Rock Formation, in the Valley of Ohio; by Dr. 8. P. Hitpreru, of Marietta, 46 VI. On the Expression of the sides of Right-angled Trian- gles, by Rational and Integral numbers ; te Rev. Dante WILKIE, - - - - - 68 VII. Plan of the Locks of Cincinnati, Ohio; by Darius Wie HAM, Assistant Engineer, - - - - - 70 VIII. On the methods of describing various curves for Arches; by J. Tuomson, Civil Engineer, Nashville, Tenn. 73 IX. A new mode of developing Magnetic Galvanism; by Jonn P. Emer, Prof. of ae in the University of Virginia, - - - - - 78 X. On the Oulicncnly, of Tebees words in the Roman character; by Prof. J. W. Gisps, Yale College, - 87 XI. On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui; by R. H. Bon- NYCASTLE, Capt. R. En., - - - - - 97 X. An analytical examination of Prof. Babbage’s “* Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.” = - - -» 105 XI. Supplement to the “‘ Synopsis of the Organic Remains of the Ferruginous Sand Formation of the United | States ;” by 8. G. Morton, M. D. - - - 128 XII. Abstract of Meteorological Observations, taken at Ma- rietta, Ohio, with notices of Floods, Fruits, and flights of pigeons; by S. P. Hitprersu, in the year 1832. Lat. 39° 25’ North, Long. 4° 28’ West of Washington City, 132 XII. M. Hacuerre on the Chemical Action and Decomposi- tion of Water, produced by Electrical Induction. From the Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. Sept., 1832; translated by O. P. Hupsarp, Ass’t in the Chem. Depart. in Y. C., 142 TOT iV CONTENTS. Page. XIV. Current produced by the Rotation of a Magnet, Oct. 29, 1832. From the Ann de Chim. et de Phys., Sept., 1832; translated by O. P. Huszarp, Ass’t in the Chem. Depart. in Y. C., - - - - - - 144 XV. Analysis of the water of Rio Vinagre. From the Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., Sept., 1832; translated by O. P. Huszarp, Ass’t in the Chem. Depart. in Y.C., — - 149 XVI. Notice of the Dispensatory of the United States; by Georce B. Woop, M.D., &c. and Franxuin Bacue, M. D., &c. - - - - - - 151 XVII. Notice of Prof. Dupalison’ s Human Physiology, —- 165 XVIII. Analysis of American Spathic Iron and Bronzite, 170 MISCELLANIES.—DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. 1. Vegetable origin of Anthracite, - - - - 12 2. Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company, - - - 173 _ 3, 4. Atmospheric Sia iuill glass formed from burn- ing hay, - - - - “oe 174 5, 6. New England Asylum for the Bld" Bhilosaalire appa- ratus, - -s - - - - - - 175 7. Notice of the Crotalus durissus, (L.,) as found in Carroll county, Geo., where it is called the Diamond Rattlesnake, 176 8, 9. Delaware Academy of Natural Sciences, and the Address of Dr. Henry Gibbons, at Wilmington—Proposal for es- tablishing a seminary for education in Liberia, - LU, 10,11. The New Universal Gazetteer, by Edwin Wiiliams— Flint’s History and ee of the Valley of Missis- sippi, &c. - - - - - - 179 12. Indiana Historical Society, - - > - - 181 13. Explosion of bellows by inflammable gas, - - 182 i4. Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, kept in the town of New Bedtord, for the year 1832, Al he - 184 15. Notice of a Rocking Stone, - - - - 185 16. Notices of Wheeling, Virginia; by James W. Cizmans, 186 17. Geological notices respecting a part of Green County, Ala., 187 18. Sulphurets of Bismuth; by Lt. W. W. Martner, - 189 19. Address of Mr. H. R. Schoolcraft—Lecture on tobacco; by Prof. Elizur Wright—Address before the ‘Temperance Society of the Medical Class, in Dartmouth College, Oct. 1832, by Prof. Oliver--Temperance Recorder of auigeese 190 20. The Family Cabinet Atlas, - - - - 191 CONTENTS. v FOREIGN. i Page. 21. Polytechnic Society of Paris, - S - - 191 22. Geological Society of France, - - 5 - 192 23. Baron Ferussac’s new work on Shells, - - - 193 24. Epistilbite from Elba, - - - - - 194 _- NECROLOGY. Baron de Zach, - - - - - - Tica | La CHEMISTRY AND MECHANICAL SCIENCE. , 1. Electro-Magnetism, - - - - - - - 196 2. On the chemical action of magneto-electric currents; by G. D. Botto, - - - - - - - - 197 3. Water Barometer, - - - - - - - 198 4, 5,6. Vegetable matter in Carnelian—Clay for sculptors—De- puration of all sorts of oil and of butter, - - 200 NATURAL HISTORY. 1. Thermal spring in the bed of the Rhone, ” - - 201 2. Geology, - - - - - - . - 208 ASTRONOMY. 1, 2. First observation of spots on the sun—Rotation of the plan- et Venus, - - = 2 i u : 204 DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND AGRICULTURE. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Destruction of rats—Lute for bottling wine, &c.— Artificial granite—Method of cleansing wool from its grease, and economizing the residue—To prevent vines from bleeding when trimmed or cut, - - - 205 6. Valuable material for walks and alleys, - - - 206 7, 8. Stucco for walls—Method of cutting glass vessels uniformly without cracking, - - - - - - 206 9. Rice paper, - 4 NW - - - - - 207 HORTICULTURE. Notes relative to Garden Dahlias, - - - = 208 MEDICINE. Use of milk in dropsy, - - - - ~ - - 209 STATISTICS, i 1. The Savings Bank of Geneva, - - - - - 209 2. Scientific premiums, — - - - - - - 210 3. Population of England and Scotland, - - - - O11 New works in England, - - - - - - O12 Vi CONTENTS. NUMBER II. Page. Art. I. On the Reduction of Iron and Silver Ores, with the prin- cipal Silver Mines of Mexico and 8S. A.; by Lt. W. W. Marner, of the U. S. Mil. Acad., West Point, aon FRO II. Miscellaneous Notices, in a letter from an American Na- » tional Ship, a Stitt - - - - - 237 Ill. Miscellaneous Communications from Dr. Hare, Pei! 1(5) {V. Apparatus and processes; by Dr. Hang, - - 247 V. Remarks on the error of supposing that a communication ‘with the Earth, is necessary to the efficacy of Electri- cal Machines; by Dr. Hares, - - - - 253 VI. On Architecture; by Dantexr Wapswortu, Esq., = - 257 VII. On the relation between a Machine and its Model; by Epwarp Sane, Edin., - - - - - 264 VIII. Consideration on the Bitterness of Vegetables, etc.; by Dr. J. B. A. Guittemin, Paris, 1832. - - 273 {X. On the Eupatorium Huaco; by Prof. W. R. Jounson, 279 X. Memoir on the elastic force of the vapor of Mercury, at different temperatures; by M. Avocapro, - 286 XI. On the application of the Fluxional Ratio to particular cases; and the coincidence of the several orders of Fluxions, with the binomial theorem; by Exizur Wricut, Esq. - LBs ts - - - - 298 XII. On some improvements on Brunner’s process for Po- tassium, and in the means of preserving that metal; by Dr. Hare, - - - - - - - 312 XIII. Improved Syphons; by Dr. R. Hare, - - 317 XIV. Stereotype Printing —An original paper of the late Lieut. Gov. Colden, with some account of stereotyping, as now practised in Europe, &c.; by the Editors of the Am. Med. and Philos. Register, - - - 319 XV. Notice of the most simple means of eeete dead ani- mals; by Prof. M. Paven, - - - 326 XVI. An Essay on Gypsies; abridged from the Reve Encyclo- | pedique, Nov. 1832; by J. Griscom, - - 342 XVII. On the Collision of two Comets ;—Comet of July, 1832 ; by J. J. Lirrrow, - - - 346 XVIII. Description of the Bare Hills near vrais : by H. H. Hayoen, M. D., - - - - 349 XIX. Meteorological rable. by Gen. ieee FIELD, - 361 CONTENTS. Vi Page. XX. On Hybernation and other topics of Natural ee by Judge Samve, Wooprurr, - 363 XXI. Mode of drawing Ellipses; by S. Dewan, - 369 MISCELLANIES.——FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC. CHEMISTRY. 1,2. Preparation of pure nitrate of silver—Decomposition of the chloride of silver in the moist way, - - 370 3, 4. Action of ether on sulphate of indigo—Memoir onstarch, 371 5, 6. Action of potash on organic matters—To test the purity of chromate of potash, . - - - - 372 7, 8, 9, 10. Use of mica in chemical analysis on a small scale— Changes of volume in a mixture of alcohol and water— Indelible coloring—Artificial ultramarine at a moderate price, - - - - - - - 373 11, 12. Opium—Combinations of azote, - - - - 374 13. New Febrifuge, - - - - rails Site - 375 MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 1. Analyses of Fer Titané of Baltimore, organ - 376 2. Mines of Freyberg in Saxony, - - - - - 376 3. Water spout on the Lake of Geneva, - - - 3717 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 1. Description of a Photometer, designed for comparing the splendor of the stars, - - - - - - 378 2, 3. Optical properties of saccharine juices—New air pump, 379 DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND THE ARTS. 1, 2. Experiments on coloring matter for the purpose of dyeing or printing—Blowing of glass, - - - - 380 3, 4. Pasteboard roofs—On saponaceous vegetables, - 381 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. Montyon premiums for discoveries in physiology, | - - 382 DOMESTIC. 1. Extract from the MS. of an unpublished narrative of travels and observations in South America, - - - 382 2. Details of an analysis of Danaite, a new ore of iron and cobalt, - - - - - - - - 386 vill CONTENTS. Page. 3. Note to remarks on the Guaco, - - - - 388 4. Optics, - - - - - ~ - - - 389 5. Note on certain experiments on the eae ae of phospho- rus in a rarefied medium, - - - - - 390 6. On the growth of timber, by A. C. Twining, - - 391 7. Barometer, - - - - - Soe 393 8. Propositions, stated by Isaac Orr, - - - 395 9. Prof. Hitchcock’s Report on the Geology of Mussuennaeves 396 10. Manual of Mineralogy and Geology, by Ebenezer oe M.D. - a - - - - - 397 11. Manual of Botany for North America, by Prof. Amos oe 398 12. Botany of the Northern and Middle States, by Lewis C. Beck, 398 | 13. Notice of text-books of Rensselaer School, - - - 399 ERRATA. Page 26, 1. 14 fr. bot. for survey, or, read surveyor ; p. 27, 1. 3 fr. bot. omit always ; p- 237, 1. 2 fr. top, erase and, and insert a , after eandoueds p- 246, 1. 2 fr. top, for 1831, read 1832; p. 258, 1. 8 from top, for ornamental, read ornamented. The Nos. of the Arts. X and XI, in the first No., are repeated both in the con- tents and text, and all the Nos. that follow are, therefore, wrong. Vol. xxiii, p. 404, 1. '7 fr. bot. for Morriss river, read Moosup river. Acknowledgments of the Editor to Friends and Correspondents. FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC. Received.—Memoire sur le L’Entrepot de Paris, 4to., 1832; from M. Montveran through the late J. C. Barnet, Esq., Am. Con. Gen., at Paris. : Transactions of the Society of Arts, Manufactures and Com- merce. London: Vol. xlviii, for 1830 and 31, aun Vol. xlix, part 1 for 1832, from the society. Addresses at the anniversaries of the Royal Society, Nov., 1831 and 1832, by the President, the Duke of Sussex. One copy for Yale College and one for Prof. Silliman ; 3 sent through the care of Dr. Hosack, N. Y. Annales des Mines, to complete a set, 1821, Nos. 1, 2 and 3; 1822, Vol. vii, No. 2; 1832, Vol. i, third series; 1832, Vol. i, Nos. 4, 5 and 6. Kongl. Vetenskaps-Academiens Handlingar for ar 1831. | Stock- holm, 1832. _Anmarkningar om Karantans-Anstalter, framstallde vid Presidi nedlaggande uti Kongl. Vetenskaps-Academien den 4 April, 1832, af C. D. Skogman. Stockholm, 1832. Aminnelse-T'al 6fver Kongl. Vetenskaps-Academiens framlidne Ledamot Herr Joh. Gottl. Gahn, &e. Stockholm, 1832. Aminnelse-Tal 6fver Med. och Bot. Professoren vid Upsala Univ., Kommendéren af Kongl. Wasa-orden M. M. Herr Doktor Carl P. Thunberg, &c. af G. J. Billberg. Stockholm, 1832. Tal om*Handtverks-Skra, hallet vid Presidii nedlaggande uti Kong]. Vetenskaps-Academien den 7 April, 1830, af G. Poppius. Stockholm, 1830. Arsberattelser om Vetenskapernas framsteg, afgifne af Kong]. Ve- tenskaps-Academiens Embetsman D. 31 Mars, 1831. Siocknale 1831. Elemens de Geologie, offrant la concordance des faits historique; avec les faits geologiques. Par L. A. Chaubard, Paris, 1832, from Mr. Solomon Stoddard. —@ L 2 Geological Sketch of the vicinity of Hastings, by Wm. H. Fitton, M.D., V.P.G.S., F.R.S. London. From the author. fanouale of he laws of Cerebral Vision, by John Fearn, Esq. London, 1832. Letter from John Fearn, Esq., to Sir David Brewster, on Cere-' bral Vision. London, 1832. Color Images in the brain, John Fearn, Esq. London, 1832. The human Sensorium, Joha Fearn, Esq. London, 1832. The above four works were received from the author. Hourly observations on the Barometer, by James Hudson, Assist. Sec. and Librarian to the Royal Society. London, 1832. 4to. From the author. Treatise on the Elemental Locomotion, by Steam Carriages, on common roads, by Alexander Gordon, Civil Engineer. From the author. London, 1832. Journal of Elemental Locomotion, No. 1 to 5, by Alexander Gordon. London, 1832-3. From the Editor. Notes on the Progress of Geology in England, by Wm. H. Fit- ion, M.D., V.P.G.S., F.R.S. London. From the author. Prof. Whewell, nie, Cam. Eng., on the recent progress and present state of Mineralogy. London, 1833. From the author. Relazione dei Fenomeni del Nuovo Vulcano sorto del Mare, 1831, Dott. Carlo Gemmelaro, Prof., &c. Catania, Sicily. From the author. . ! Commentaries on American Law, by James Kent. 4 Vols. 8vo. 2d edition; from the author. Comparison of Weights and Measures, by Ferd. Rod. Hassler, M. A. P.S, being Doc. No. 299—two copies—one from the author and one from the Hon. Ed. Everett. Medical Essays, by Dr. David Hosack, 3 Vols. +, 8vo., from the author. Memoir of DeWitt Clinton, 4to., 530 pages, by Dr. D. Hosaek ; from the author. American Portrait Gallery, No. I and 2; from the publishers. American Medical and Philosophical Register, by Drs. Hosack and Francis, 4 Vols., bound; from Dr. D.-Hosack. To the Library of Yale College, from ihe author, Hosack’s Med- ical Essays, 3 Vols., bound. To the Library a Yale College, Memoir of DeWitt Clinton, 4te. From the author. @ 3 Treatise on the Vine, by W. R. and W. Prince, 8vo., 1830, from the authors. Elements of Technology, 1829, from the ante, Dr. J. Bigelow. Views in Theology, No. 12, Vol. iii, May, 1833. Fourteenth Annual Report of the New York Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, from D. C. Bartlett, 1833. First American edition of Sir David Brewster’s Treatise on Optics, edited by Prof. A.D. Bache. Philadelphia, 1833; from the editor. Phrenology, in connexion with the study of Physioedomny, by J. G. Spurzheim, 1st Am. Ed., with a biography of the author, by Na- hum Capen, from the author, N. C. Spurzheim on Insanity, Ist Am. Ed., by Dr. Brigham; from the publishers, Marsh, Capen & Lyon, Boston. Three months in Jamaica in 1832.—Seven weeks on a Sugar Plantation, by Henry Whiteley. — Inquiry into the Nature and Design of Music. Boston, 1831. Dr. Sprague’s Discourse in aid of the Albany Apprentices’ Library. 1833. From the author. Annual Report of the Regents of the University of the State of New York, from the Hon. Simeon DeWitt, Chancellor, 1833. Report on the Surveys for a Rail Road from the coal and iron mines near Blossburg to Lawrenceville, County of Tioga, Penn., by R. C. Taylor, Engineer; from Ogden Day, Albany. Dr. D. Hosack’s Address before the New York Temperance Society, May, 1830; from the author. Do. to the Library of Yale College. Dr. D. Hosack’s Inaugural Discourse at the opening of Rutgers Medical College, 1826; to the Library of Yale College. ‘The same discourse to Prof. Silliman. Annual Report of the Prison Discipline Society, 1633. Essay on the Epidemic or Asiatic Cholera, by Thomas Spencer, M. D.; from the author. Mrs. Willard’s appeal in favor of female education in Greece. Millennial Institutions, New York, 1833. Dr. Barber’s Address before the Boston Phrenological Society, 1833; from the author. The Mirrer of Taste, Philadelphia, weekly, 1832. Letter from the Hon. Thomas S. Grimké to the Hon. J. C. Cal- houn and others, 1832. whe eS 2b fre ee. 3 \ a FO a ae a Ce ee | = ae : CR) © ea % 4 Address of the Hon. S. L. Southard to the Alumni of Nassau Hall, Princeton. Report on Legalizing the Study of Anatomy, House of Repre- sentatives, Boston, 1833. Catalogue of O. Rich, English Literature, London, 1833. Letters to Thomas Cooper, M. D., by the Rev. Samuel P. Press- ley ; from the author. The foreign and domestic Journals received in exchange are, gen- erally, not included in the above list. a The American Journal of Science and Arts. Tuer annexed prospectus is presented to the friends of science, and their aid is respectfully solicited, in promoting the interests of this Journal. Its patronage, since the appeal to the public, in the summer of 1829, has been more than sufficient to pay the expenses, including the usual compensation, to such contributors as have been willing to receive it. But, the stability and prosperity of this work require, on the part of its editor, renewed efforts, especially with those intel- ligent individuals, whose interests, or whose general views, will in- duce them to sustain an American Journal of Science and Arts. When it is remembered, that even England had no Journal of Science till about the beginning of the present century, and that the first attempts in this country, were made only a few years later, it _ will appear that they have been as well sustained by the public, as could have been reasonably expected. Every periodical work must, however, occasionally recruit its number of subscribers, or, it will, in the course of a few years, fall into jeopardy. The American Journal is still safe, (although its patronage has diminished, since 1829, - when, owing to the operation of peculiar causes, its numbers were, suddenly, more than doubled ;) but, if its subscription should be too long neglected, it may decline too far, and therefore the public at- tention is now again invited to the subject. In this country, such a work can neither be got up, without great effort,—nor can it be sus- tained, without inflexible perseverance. If this Journal were suffer- ed to go down, who would undertake the thankless toil of rearing another! Avoiding all the interests of party and sect, and of local prejudice, it thus entirely foregoes the support afforded by popular feeling, and therefore relies, as ¢ has a full right to do, solely upon the intelligent, the patriotic, and the philanthropic, and upon those cultivators of the sciences and the arts, who are impelled by duty, in- terest or taste. It is worse than useless, to push a subscription, for such a work, by indiscriminate solicitations. Subscriptions, obtained in that man- ner, will not continue long, and will produce only a delusive expect- ation of support, and an onerous increase of expense. Such persons ~ therefore, and such only, are now addressed, as, from their correct and considerate estimation of the value of useful knowledge, or from their interests, will probably become permanent patrons. PROSPECTUS. in 1810, 11 and 12, the late Dr. Bruce, of New York, published the first and only volume of his Journal of Mineralogy and Geology. ‘The American Journal was begun in July, 1818, and has completed ats twenty fourth volume ; it was the first, that in this country, em- braced in its plan, the circle of the Physical Sciences, and of their applications to the arts. While it has prompted original seuenenn effort, it has been sus- tained by it, and being devoted to important national and human in- terests, it is, in that character, known and accredited, both at home and abroad. It has elicited many valuable researches and discover- ies, and its miscellaneous department has presented a great variety of topics, ef general interest. ‘The Foreign Journals, (many of them sent in exchange,) eften quote from its pages, which are in turn, en- riched by theirs; and it has thus become identified with the progress of the science and arts of the present day. Terms.—For four quarterly Nos., of not less than 200 pages er fully illustrated by plates, making, together, two annual volumes, of at least 800 pages; six dollars—in advance. The quarterly literary journals, escape the heavy expense incurred by this, for plates, and enjoying, from obvious causes, a more extend- ed circulation, can ke much better afforded at $5 per ann. than this at $6. With its present patronage, this Journal could not be sustain- ed at five dollars, as the actual receipts would not pay for the paper and the mechanical labor. Complete sets, at a proper discount, are furnished, to onder in Nos. or bound. Postage is to be paid on all orders and remittances, but not on communications. When payment is desired fer communications, it must be specified io the editor, or it will be taken for granted that they are gratuitous. A number is sent gratis, as a sample, when requested, and additional subscriptions are now respectfully solicited. Names may be lodged with any of the agents, or sent to the Editor or publishers, and the work may be obtained through all booksellers. A satisfactory compensation will be allowed ¢o all persons who ob- iain good subscribers; and agents and booksellers can, if they choose, setain upon their own books, the names which they may procure; due wotice being given to the Editor. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. Art. I.—Essay on the Georgia Gold Mines ; by Witi1am Puitutrs, Engineer. INTRODUCTION. Iv attempting an essay on this subject, in which it is intended to convey an accurate idea of the gold mines, the author is fully aware of the difficulties he has to encounter, and approaches the subject with great diffidence, under a conviction of his inability to do it the justice it merits. If apology, under such circumstances, be necessary, it will be found in the necessity of inviting the attention of the scien- tific and experienced, to the development of this important branch of our domestic industry. ‘The simple fact that all the mines of the state, have their business conducted without the aid of the expe- rience of older mining countries, would induce a belief that an asso- ciation which would promote an interchange of ideas, and a diffusion of such useful knowledge as could be obtained by sending a compe- tent person to examine the mining business of other countries, would have a most salutary effect. Should the following remarks result in the desired improvement or induce more competent persons to take up the enquiry and aid in improving the mining industry of Georgia, the author will be amply rewarded, for the time devoted to this essay. In accordance with recent approved geological arrangements, the deposit or branch mines will be first considered, and then the vein or ridge mines. ‘The process of separating the gold from the ore, will also be attended to. A description of the Shelton mine is added with a drawing of the lot. Deposit or Branch Mines. That the deposits of which we are to write, owe their origin to the mechanical agency of water, there can be no doubt; but there are persons who believe that the agent producing them, has acted sudden- ly and that these immense beds of gravel have been collected togeth- Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 1 2 | Gold Mines of Georgia. er atone and the same time. If they reflect, however, they will discover reasons to modify their opinions, and adopt a more plausi- ble and perhaps correct theory. The geological character of this part of the country, is denominated primitive according to Eaton, pri- mary by Bakewell, and inferior stratified or non-fosilliferous by De la Beche. I have generally applied the word original, to distinguish these rocks from the others. They are gneiss, mica and talcose slate, hornblende and granite ; the predominating rock being the first named and alternating, in strata of various thickness, from three inch- es to thirty feet. The gneiss occurs, indurated, more frequently, however, in a state of decomposition, but still accupying its original position. When indurated, it formes the skeletons or bases of the ridges, while the decomposed portion, yielding readily to the action of water, is washed away leaving vallies. On this irregular surface, rest the deposits, consisting of rounded or “ rolled” and angular frag- ments of quartz, gneiss, hornblende, &c. with smaller fragments of cy- anite, garnets, catseye, jasper, pyrites, and brown oxide of iron, which often cements them all together, and causes them to appear as if burned without heat. Owing chiefly to the extensive range of the garnets, it is only in the river deposit, that they occur in abundance. The gravel of the branches, had evidently resulted from the disinte- gration of the rock in their neighborhood. In this gravel, as it is eall- ed, which varies from one foot to four feet in depth, the gold is found, and generally at the bottom of the bed. Above the gravel there is a bed of sand, with scales of mica, varying from three to twenty feet deep, on a bed of clay with angular fragments of quartz, from 0 to five feet deep. The fragments of rock forming this gravel, have the ‘‘ rolled” appearance, according generally, with the size of the stream of water adjacent to the deposit. ‘This shews, at once, that the agent producing these deposits, has acted slowly, and when we remember that caloric, electricity, air, water, &c. have been at work chemical- ly and mechanically, for at least six thousand years, we cannot be surprised that the hardest of the rocks, have in the course of ages, yielded to the incessant action to which they have been subjected. Over this irregular surface the rivers, when urged by a freshet, rush with inconceivable fury, and they then have a transporting power, sufficient to carry large blocks over rocky shoals, and to deposit them (where an eddy is caused by a sudden bend in the river) in places far below their former location. ‘These eddies, having but a small transporting power, soon permit an accumulation of rocks, sand, &c. . Gold Mines of Georgia. 3 and by protecting the strata beneath, they frequently produce other phenomena in the directions and levels of the stream. Fig. 1, represents a portion of a river, or (on a horizontal plane) a, b, c, d and e are deposits, resulting from the transporting power of the currents, caused by eddies which arrest the gravel in its descent. It is observed that all water courses, have a disposition to make their channel straight by cutting off points and filling up the bends or ‘“‘bights,” which latter is an indisputable consequence to the former, for if the points f and g are ever worn off to hi, the deposits a 6, will be formed and soon become covered by sand, &c. deposited, when the waters were subsiding from a freshet. Vegetation will encroach as the water will require only a certain width of channel, for its ordi- nary descent. : : 4 Gold Mines of Georgia. In Fig. 2, the manner in which shoal deposits are formed is ex- hibited ; @ is a stratum of indurated gneiss, and b, 6, are decomposed strata. ‘The former is the base of the ridge, terminating abruptly on the side of the stream; cis its ragged projections, which have inter- cepted the gravel and gold. Beyond the more powerful agency of rivers, we find the creeks, branches, &c. abrading the original strata and forming their deposits, and it is remarkable that the smaller the stream, the more angular the fragments of rock, and the gold is more ragged. As the transverse and longitudinal sections of these branches are more various than those of the rivers, it is to be expected that the deposits will occur under different circumstances, and we ac- cordingly find that in some places they are lodged on the edges of strata, in others they fill up hollows, above and below which, the strata run out to the day as in figures 3 and 4. Gold Mines of Georgia. 5 It is easy to conceive that such substances as may be moved by any of the disintegrating agents at a and 6, would descend towards ec, and that de and f would intercept a part of them. ‘The greatest accu- mulation, however, would be at ¢, as the side 6 may have no recep- tacles as that of a has, owing to the face of the strata resisting the agent better than that of the latter, which also may be more decom- posed and easily so abraded as to form receptacles and undermine veins at a. | The gravel in these branch deposits, is composed of fragments of quartz and such other rocks as occur in the immediate vicinity and over it there is generally a bed of clay from one to five feet deep, in which there are fragments of quartz with sharp angles. Besides the deposits on rivers and branches, which have unequivocally resulted from their mechanical agency, there are others, at present above the levels of the sfreams in the neighborhood. ‘Their extent and the fact that the gravel is frequently very much rounded, seem clearly to indicate a force at least equal to that producing similar effects on the Chestalee, but being covered with red clay like that over the branch deposits, we are thus prevented from attributing the effect to its agen- cy. If it were necessary to account for their formation by the river, then we may suppose that the following process was pursued. AZ [—ertieat | _‘ertical Horizontal Any stream having a bend asin Fig. 5, may abrade its banks a bc, until it becomes nearly straight, making deposits similar to a Fig. 6; and when it has attained the direction a d c, the greatest abrading ac- tion of the water, will be on the bottom near the middle of the river, and thus it will be cut deeper, leaving the deposits e e high and dry. The very reverse of this may happen, for the nature of the strata in the 6 | Gold Mines of Georgia. direction of a dc, may admit of abrasion towards 6 and not in any oth- er, and consequently the river encroaches on 6, with the same result as before, leaving e e high and dry, to receive a growth of vegetation. I am of opinion however, that these deposits and many on the branch- es, are of a date anterior to those previously noticed, on which the stratum of sand occurs. I rely chiefly on the evidence of the fol- lowing facts already stated, that the sand contains scales of mica, and varies in depth from three to twenty feet; that it contains also, vegetable remains in a layer of black or bluish mud or Clay, of a yel- Jowish color, resting on the gravel and running into the sand above. The remains are in a state of decomposition, but sufficiently pre- served to indicate the same botanical characters, exhibited on the vegetation of the present banks. | Fig. 7, exhibits a section of a pit, excavated on the bank of the Chestalee, fifty five feet from the river; a isa stratum of sand, 6 the mud or clay containing vegetables, and ¢ the gravel resting on the original strata d. Now nothing can be more evident, than that this formation is of a more recent date than those in which no such re- mains occur. In fact it would seem that on this evidence, we must place the date of the latter, anterior to all vegetation. ‘The clay and sand are now supporting a luxuriant growth of forest timber, of the same age as that on the mountains, and in excavating it is found that their roots penetrate only to the gravel and then spread ; very rarely, however, passing through it, except in situations where the gravel runs out to the day. If vegetation existed anterior to these deposits, Gold Mines of Georgia. 7 it would be reasonably expected, that we should discover its remains, unless we admit the very sudden action of the agent, such as the rush of a great deluge, sweeping away the forests to some basin in which they will be converted into coal. Figs. 8 and 9, represent, what under ordinary circumstances, would be the present and past position of the roots of forest trees. In the first instance, the growth is maintained by the sand or clay, but in the latter, by the original strata and gravel. From this description of deposits, it will be easy to recognise them wherever they occur. In testing lots, however, there are indications to be observed externally, by which we endeavor to form a correct outline of the original strata, independently of what appears at the surface. Experience is the only instructor on this point, and of course, the inexperienced must resort to the more-certain criteria, furnished by the pickaxe and spade. : _ Fig. 10, shows how this is to be effected; a and 6 would be very discouraging excavations, but if we observe the directions in which the inclination of the bottoms of the pits run, we should be led to make excavations at ¢ and d, which as they are in hollows of the out- line, are receptacles to sustain whatever gold may occur in the deposit; e and f, are the extremities of the original outline before alluded to. The indications by the outline and bottom of the pits, are the best we are acquainted with, and ought to be closely examined. It may, sometimes occur, that. deposits, similar to that described by Fig. 3, have been overlooked or abandoned, while that at ais worked out; but, before the works are entirely forsaken, they ought to be examin- a Gold Mines of Georgia. ed, particularly to ascertain that no such deposits as d e f exist on the sides of the ridges.. The working of the rich Shelton Mine, in Haber- sham, was suspended during the inclement winter of 1831, while on a second deposit as g which yielded large particle of gold weighing _ 20 dwts. or more. OOO CO OOOO” The surface mines are considered to be disintegrated veins, scarcely removed from their original position, and are not included in the list of deposits. They may be known by the quartz having very sharp angles. The vein or ridge mines, now claim our attention. ‘The veins traverse the original strata in various directions, and the phenomena attending them, do not clearly indicate the origin of their formation. It is remarked, that the general direction of the strata, is a little to the east and west of north and south, say NNE.N. and ssw. s; and as these strata are confusedly or rather imperfectly crystalline, it follows, that besides the direction already given, the veins may take another depending on the angle peculiar to the crystalline structure of the rock. The crystals appear to be rhomboids, but are only distinctly so in the neighborhood of veins. Fig. 11, is the plan of a vein traversing the strata, as b 6, and a vein in the direction of the strata, as dd; ccare called leaders. These veins are formed of quartz of different characters, varying generally with the original rock in which it is found; it is sometimes crystallized in beautiful transparent six sided prisms, terminated by a pyramid at one end and attached at the other to other crystals, or more frequently to a nucleus of felspar, &c. In some of the veins, the quartz is com- pact, with a slightly conchoidal fracture, and an appearance which at Gold Mines of Georgia. 9 the mines in this variety, acquires for it the name of horn flint. The structure is frequently granular and slaty in the same specimen; there il i = Dt Je are plates of talc interposed between the layers, and the gold occupies the same situation. The crystals of quartz are sometimes radiated from a nucleus. These various kinds of quartz are the gangues or matrices in which the gold is found, and besides gold, they contain iron pyrites in cubic and pseudomorphous crystals, filling irregular cavities, purple oxide of iron, (‘Indian paint,”) brown oxide of iron, sulphur, &c. ———<— or) — \ i SSS] = & Fig. 12, isa vertical section of a vein, traversing strataaaa a which have obviously been disturbed, as they do not correspond with those on the other side of the vein. - fy) Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 2 ee 10 Gold Mines of Georgia. Fig. 13, is another vertical section crossing the strata and exhibiting the vein d dd of Fig. 11; a aa are the strata and b 6 the veins. If it is admitted that volcanic agency, has produced the fissures and filled them with the substances constituting veins. It would then ap- pear probable that the quartz and elements of the metals, have been projected from below into the fissures, and that while the caloric was radiating, these elements were set free to combine and form the met- als and their gangues. ‘This idea appears well supported by various phenomena, concurring to produce such an effect. ‘The interposition of gold in thin leaves between the plates and crystals of quartz, and its filling up irregular cavities, show that it was once in such a state as to be capable of insinuating itself into such places. It appears possible that it was disseminated in the quartz by heat, as it is well known that when gold is subjected to,intense heat, it flies off in minute particles, and such heat as was sufficient to fuse quartz, may have. evolved the gold, or if contrary to present opinions, it be a compound, may have formed it from its elements. ‘If we could detect nature in the act” of making gold, “it would be easy to imitate her,” but as we do not find it in any other state than pure, or alloyed with some other metal and never half formed, we despair of ever discovering the “ philosopher’s stone.” ‘There may be something in the discov- ery, that quartz is an ore of silicium, and that quartz is, in this coun- try, invariably the gangue or matrix of gold, but in the present state of chemical knowledge, we cannot satisfactorily account for the fact of their being found in such close alliance. Fig. 14, is intended to represent the earth a a & a, the strata 6, a subterranean cavity in which (according to the original suggestion of Gold Mines of Georgia. 11 Sir H. Davy, since extended and modified by others,) some very com- bustible substance, as potassium, sodium, or calcium, or some substance powerfully attracting water, as quick lime, may predominate and to which water may have percolated, or more probably have penetrated, -im consequence of the hydrostatic pressure of the ocean; in either case it would happen, that a violent eruption must take place, atten- - ded with all the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanoes; should the exploding gas have sufficient force and meet with quartz in fu- sion near the fissures, it would of course, force it into them, filling them more or less, according to the supply of quartz, and the project- ing force of the gas. The location of these supposed fires, seems to be in a subterranean region, abounding with quartz and the materials of granite, as they are the most frequent of the substances filling veins. The granite contains the following metals, or substances having me- tallic bases, sulphuret of molybdenum, lead, zinc, and copper; sul- phate of lead and of barytes; magnetic iron and plumbago. I am not aware, however, that the granites of Georgia, contain any of these metals. It is a question of importance to the miner, how far when working a vein, he should go with his excavations. 1 know of no rule that would apply generally, for although mines have been wrought in Chili and Peru, to the depth of nine hundred feet, yet as we have no such description of the geological formations of those countries as would answer the purpose of the miners, we are com- pelled to suspend the exercise of our judgment, until we know that analogous or equivalent circumstances, exist in the geological char- acter of those countries, and of this. Gold is said to occur in “* vast quantities,” at the depths, mentioned above. I think it advisable, in experimental excavations, to follow the vein as long as we can per- ceive a trace, or until we arrive at such depth, that it could not, though tolerably rich be profitably worked. It is usual with us, to sink a shaft on the vein and assay the quartz as we descend, and as soon as we arrive at arich place, to commence tunneling* and separating the gold. It would, however, more surely lead to the attainment of the knowledge so much needed, if the former course were pursued, and the tunnel delayed until we were satisfied, that we had gone as deep asisrequired. It is probable that rich mines are, every day, aban- doned, in consequence of disappointments in shafts of twenty, thirty, oe, $$ * L use the word tunnel, although the miner would probably express the same idea by the term “ gallery,” as in Jacob’s Inquiry. 12; Gold Mines of Georgia. or forty feet. In working a shaft, in the decomposing rocks, or in clay, it will be requisite to curb them in a substantial manner with wood, as the work is sufficiently laborious and discouraging, without adding the risk of life. The roof of a tunnel should be stanchioned as the workmen proceed, and the number of stanchions, will depend on the consistency of the rock in which the excavation is made, and are never to be omitted, although it be in granite, for there are so. many fissures in these rocks, that there is always danger to be avoid- ed, by using the precautionary measures, adopted for those of a worse appearance. Fig. 15, exhibits a method of stanchioning a tunnel, recommended =} SSS Gold Mines of Georgia. 13 by its simplicity and economy of timber. Seven feet square is a good size for a shaft, in which it is intended to work two buckets by hand, although five feet will admit the free use of the tools, &c. with- out the buckets. ‘Two of the sides of a shaft, should be in the same _ direction with the vein, and the other two crossing it, as exhibited in Fig. 16. It is not always requisite to commence a shaft on the vein at the surface, for if it dips much, it will soon run out as in Fig. 13. In such a case, it may be advisable, to begin so near to one side of the vein, that it may come into the shaft at any given depth. A vein may occur so near the side of a ridge, a it would be an advantage to drive a tunnel into the side as at Fig. 1 By this method, the chippings may be carried off in wheelbarrows, or even in carts, more conveniently, than when hoisted vertically the same distance. It should be remembered to give the floor suffi- cient inclination, to carry off whatever may come into the workings. A tunnel of this kind is often necessary for the purpose above, but by commencing operations in this way, so much may ultimately be saved. An improved excavator waggon, working on railways, could be used to advantage, when a situation occurs of the kmd just men- tioned. Separating Process. There are two properties of gold of which we may take advantaees in separating it from the ore in which it is found. These are its su- perior gravity and facility of amalgamation with mercury, and its re- sistance to the action of antimony and heat ; and the acids cannot aid, 14 Gold Mines of Georgia. except in refining it from alloy with other metals, by a process called “parting.” All machines for separating, must be adapted to one or the other of the former properties; they are therefore denomina- ted gravitating and amalgamating machines. ‘The most simple pro- cess is called -“ panning out,” and is performed on the gravitating principle. A tin or other pan, entirely free from grease, about four- teen inches diameter, and two inches and a half deep, is filled with the auriferous gravel and taken to a branch or other stream, and the same is washed by stirring it and by inclining the pan, until the light- er substances are carried off, leaving the gold and a fine black ferru- ginous sand at the bottom. ‘This is a very tedious process, but a per- son expert in the practice can secure every particle of gold, however minute. The “hollow gum” is, apparently, the first improvement in the pan; it is a hollow semi-cylinder, about eight feet long and of a diameter depending on the size of the tree of which it is made, say of from twelve to twenty inches. On the inside there are cleats or riffles fitted close, to prevent the gold they intercept, from passing ; they project about an inch. The gravel is thrown in at the upper end, and there stirred about with a rake, until the water from the conductor a, Fig. 18, washes off the dirt. ‘The gravel is thus thrown =e artFAy ea nF ——— ——= SS SS off, and a new supply put in to be acted on as before. When the work for the time is done, the contents of the gum are put into the pan, and the garnets, ferruginous sand, &c. washed off, thus complet- ing the process. I should have mentioned that the gum was kept rocking by a man at the lever, as represented in the figure. Compar- ed with the pan, there can be no doubt that the gum saves labor, but it, as certainly, in careless hands, increases the risk of not saving the gold. Gold Mines of Georgia. 15 At Fig. 19, we have represented another machine. It consist of an inclined plane and box c, with bars across. Half of the plane at the upper end is solid and lined with stout sheet iron ; auriferous gravel is there manipulated by a man and rake, and when sufficiently done, it is allowed to descend to the lower end of the plane, which is per- forated and the gold, &c. thus passes into the box c, while the gravel is thrown out at d. If this machine is cleared, two or three times a day, it answers very well, but when neglected and the bars get filled up and clogged, it loses the light particles; the process is closed with the.pans in this machine, like the former. Fig. 20, appears to be an attempt to improve the gum by adding the inclined plane; a is a rectangular drawer instead of the gum or 16 Gold Mines of Georgia. box cin the preceding figure, which is furnished with cleats, &c. ; the water is distributed over the whole plane and the working is aided by the spring laths 6 on each side. ‘This cannot be called an improve- ment asit is liable to all the objections which apply to the pan-gum or inclined plane, but especially to another which is the shape of the drawer, causing the water to act very forcibly in passing from one side to the other, and thus increasing the probability of the fine par- ticles being carried off with it. ‘The other machines in common use, are mere modifications of those already described. or those pat- ented, the “Journal of the Franklin Institute” may be consulted. An arrangement tried by the author, is intended to unite the amalga- mating to the gravitating process ; it is used when the assay has shewn that mercury will be required to collect the minute particles. It is applied in the following manner. The preparatory washing of the gravel is to be effected in a revolving iron cylinder, similar to a bolter, which will also cause a separation of the large gravel to be discharged at the lower end. The gold and finer fragments of rock, garnets, &c. that have passed through the perforations of the cylinder, are to be swept over a perforated plane, the perforations being of such size as as to allow the largest particles of gold to pass through into rockers, on the principal of the “gum” but hinged by the edge instead of being hung on gudgeons at the centre. The pean thus far,. is capable of securing every particle having any appreciable gravity, but if there are as many minute particles as will pay the expense of saving, I then add the amalgamator, which receives the washings from the rockers and triturates them with the mercury.* ‘There are not many deposit mines requiring the aid of mercury, and when used with the pulverized gangue of the veins or ridge mines, the process is some what different; heat, salt, or acid is then introduced with the ore, and a limited measure of water. The Mexican method is given in the Journal before alluded to. A mill for pulverizing, and a furnace for heating the quartz, are necessary to the vein mines.. * * The drawings are in the patent office, although the machine is not patented, but will be as soon as opportunity offers. Gold Mines of Georgia. 17 Fig. 21, is a representation of the process by which gravel is obtained by boats from the beds of the rivers. A man forces his shovel into the gravel near one end of the boat, and when he thinks he has it deep enough walks to the other end, bearing down the han- dle, and thus loosening the gravel so’ that it may be hoisted into the boat by an assistant, who also works a shovel on the other side. In this way a boat and two men make five loads per diem. I have known a load to yield 6 dwts. although the average'is much less. Shelton’s Gold Mine.—This mine is on the waters of the Soquee a branch of the Chattahoochie river, and with ranges of lots in the fifteenth district, forms the dividing ridge between the Soquee and Tallulah, a branch of the Savannah river. ‘The Oaky mountain is to the north of 35 about a mile, and from the top of it Clarksville can be distinctly seen; it is probably the highest peak in this ridge, as there are no others intercepting a view of the Apalachian termina- ting ridges. The large branch running through 35, terminates at the base of the Oaky mountains, and is supplied by the springs that issue from it and the neighboring elevations. The surface of the lot is ve- ry uneven, as may be seen on inspecting the sections attached to the plan. One corner of the lot appeared to be eight hundred feet above the level of the branch. The geological arrangement of the rocks is not ascertained. Gneiss predominates; there are strata of mica and talcose rocks, and fragments of quartz are abundantly scattered over the surface, indicating veins. 'The bottom described by the dot- ted lines, is alluvial and fit for cultivation; on the smaller branches, Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 3 is Gold Mines of Georgia. tolerable patches could be obtained, especially on No, 2. The branches 1, 2, and 3, are always wet and afford sufficient water to wash out the gold; the main branch could easily be made to work machinery for that purpose; all the other branches are dry, except in rainy weather, or after a wet season. ; | The great deposit of gold, was found on No. 1 and is supposed to have been disintegrated from veins on the adjacent ridge. No. 2 af- fords some beautiful and rich specimens, and I am told is considered fully as valuable as No. 1 although it has not been worked, except in some experimental pits. — : Plan and sections of lot 35 in the eleventh district of Habersham, Geo. on which is the celebrated mine, known as Shelton’s Gold Mine. Fi. ans Hi te DA ARN r vy iain cea} hawk Bive! = Mo TWEarker Se. Ay i POUVA MN ell) } \ i \\ LE Johnsar del. FIELD-BOOK. Fie. 1, Pied. dotted lines thus... : Method of conducting the Canal Surveys. 19 ART. IL. — Method-of Conduetine~the Canal: Surveys inthe State of New York; by E. F. Jonnson, Civil Engineer. Ar the time when the two great Canals of the state of New York were constructed, the outlines or boundaries of the ground. which they occupied were not established by any accurate or systematic surveys, and hence no means were afforded for ascertaining the pre- cise extent of ground intended to be appropriated by the state for their use. ‘ At the period of their completion, the damages to the differate pro- prietors whose lands were intersected and injured by them, were as- sessed by commissioners duly appointed and authorized for the pur- pose. These commissioners in making their estimates directed measurements to be made, i-very many instances, for determining ‘as nearly as practicable, without.too.much delay and expense, the average length and breadth of the several portions of ground tak- en from the oo propre eee whose lands the Canals passed. From these measurements the approximate quantity of ground con-— tained in each portion was deduced, which compared with its value’ per acre, enabled the commissioners to determine, with greater cer- tainty than could otherwise have been attained, the actual damage to individuals occasioned as above stated. Although the measurements thus made, may have answered suffi- ciently well perhaps for the purpose for which they were instituted, — yet the want of more perfect and systematic surveys:in accurately — defining the outlines of the Canals w was soon felt. The proprietors _ ee AOS of the adjoining grounds, being ignorant ‘of the precise “extent of the. claims of the state, could only refer, in their instruments of convey- ance, in a general manner, to the Canal as a boundary, and were equally at loss in the erection of buildings in those éases where as near an approach to the Canals as tae was desirable without i in- fringing upon the rights of the state. ‘The inconvenience resulting from this state of things: was not con- fined altogether to individuals. ‘The rapid increase in the value of lands bordering the Canals, which followed their completion, and the numerous encroachments which were in consequence made upon the ground required for their efficient and successful operation, render- ed it necessary for the state to devise some means of preventing any Qi)" Method of conducting the Canal Surveys. future inconvenience from the same source. This it was apparent could be done only through the medium of surveys properly execu- ted, the maps, field-books, 8c. of which, should be asian in some place convenient for reference. The result of the legislative action upon the aubjebes is to be found in Part. 1. Chap. IX, Title IX. of the Revised Statutes of the state Be New York, in nearly the following words : A complete manuscript map and field notes of every cn that now is or hereafter shall be completed, and of all the lands belonging to the state adjacent thereto or connected therewith shall be made, on which the boundaries of every parcel of such lands to which the state shall have a separate title, shall be designated, and the names of the former owners and the date of each title be entered. The expense to be defrayed out of the Canal fund. The surveys to be executed under the direction of the Canal commissioners, and appro- ved by the Canal board, and when completed to be filed in the of- fice of the comptroller. Copies of the maps and field notes so filed -are to be made under the direction of the Canal board, and trans- mitted by the comptroller to every county intersected by the Canals to which the maps shall relate, and filed im the Clerk’s office of such county. The portion of the revised statutes from which the: P islape is ta- ken received the legislative sanction in 1827, and in 1828 and ’9 the attention of the Canal commissioners was directed to the subject with the view of making the necessary arrangements for the execution of the surveys. The Canals which were at this time completed and considered as the property of the state, were the Erie, Champlain, Seneca and ‘Cayuga, and Oswego, which, including the Chemung and Crooked Lake Canals, upon which operations had already been commenced, constituted an extent of nearly six hundred mules. In accomplishing the survey of these works the importance was at once seen of a rigid adherence to the same uniform system through- out; and it was likewise obvious that the greatest cauuion and judg- ment should be exercised in selecting from the different modes which might be devised, the one which should afford the means of deter- mining at any future day, with the greatest practicable degree of pre- cision, the outlines of the land set apart by the state for the use of the Canals. Method of conducting the Canal Surveys. 21 In the investigation of the subject, it became apparent that one of two modes differing materially from each other in their general prin- ciples, must be adopted. The first method contemplated the measurement, in the usual man- ner with the circumferentor and chain,.of the outlines of the ground occupied by the Canals, with such references to permanent objects and cross measurements as were necessary for verifying the accuracy of the survey. In the other method the location of the outlines or are was to be determined by offsets, made in a specified manner, from a base line situated upon and coinciding with the inner edge of the towing- path, the best defined, and, (as an object for general reference) the most permanent part of the Canal. References were likewise to be made as contemplated in the preceding method to all accessible objects of a permanent character for verifying the accuracy of the survey. This latter method being the one which received the sanction of the commissioners and Canal board, its details will be more fully de- scribed as follows. — 1. The measurements in the direction of the length of the Canal were made upon the base line above mentioned, situated upon or co- inciding with the inner edge of the towing-path. The height of the surface of the towing-path, and the inclination of its inner slope being supposed the same as specified in the transverse profile adopted in the construction of the Canals. 2. The several changes in the direction of the base line were re- fered to the magnetic meridian. ‘The whole line being thus resolved Into as many separate alignments, as it contained petal: having dif- ferent courses or bearings. ; 3. The several alignments were accurately measured in chains and tenths ; (fractions other than tenths being avoided by. a very little care in arranging the stations) and the distances upon each to the several points where the lines of roads, counties, towns, patents, lots, &c. in- tersected the same, together with their courses or bearings, were care- fully observed. 4. The distances likewise to all waste-weirs and culverts, and to all streams that discharged themselves into or otherwise intersected the Canals were taken, and the same was done with respect to the road and farm bridges, locks, aqueducts, &c. ‘The distances to the bridges were taken to the lines joining the two nearest angles or cor- 22 Method of conducting the Canal Surveys. ner-posts of their abutments—those to the locks to the lines passing through the centers of the two nearest quoin-posts, ond those to the aqueducts to the faces of their abutments. 5. Offsets for determining the breadth of eround occupied by the Canal, were made from the base line at each angle or station and like- wise at every other point where a variation in the breadth of the Ca- nals required. The directions of the offsets were such as to bisect the angles formed by the two portions of the base line situated con- tiguous to them on each side, or in other words, the directions of the offsets at the several stations were such as to bisect the angles form- ed by the alignments, on the towing-path, the intermediate offsets be- ing described perpendicular to, and the distances upon both reckoned from the same alignments in links. 6. The offsets on one side, across the towing-path, were made to extend at least twenty links (that being the minimum fixed by the commissioners) and in every case to reach to the base of the out- er slope of the embankment. ‘The offsets in the opposite direction, across the Canal, were made to extend at least fifteen links from the - margin of the water, that being the minimum allowance for the breadth of the berm, and in every case to reach to the base of the exterior slope of the embankment, if any, upon that side. 7. Wherever an enlargement in the breadth of the Canal render- ed the method of offsets inconvenient or impracticable, the portion included in said enlargement was surveyed in the usual manner by measuring the courses and distances of the several lines that enclosed it on the side opposite to the towing-path. 8. The survey embraced within its limits all grounds pertaining to the Canal including all tracts or lots of land, set apart or appropriated for the purposes of lock-houses, weigh-locks, collector’s offices, &c. with the names of the former owners and the date of each separate title inserted as far as the same could be ascertained. 9. The results of the measurements made as above described were inserted in a field-book prepared as represented in the annexed draw- ing, Fig. 1. Each page of the book was ruled into parallel lines as aa’, 6b’, &c. one fourth of an inch distant from each other. Near the center of each page and at right angles with those lines a red line as AB was drawn extending across all the pages of the book. : 10. The red line thus drawn represented the base line of the’sur- vey. The portion of this line as KD or DH corresponding to any given alignment, was made to embrace in its length as many of the i Method of conducting the Canal Surveys. 23 spaces included by the parallel lines as there were chains in the align- ments, or, if the smallness and number of the objects to be noted ren- dered it necessary to enlarge the scale, double the said number of spaces were taken for the purpose mentioned. 11. The offsets as Ko, Kn, Dr, and DS, &c. for the breadth of the survey, were in every case represented upon the larger or doub- le scale, that is, two spaces or one half of an inch was assumed as equal to one chain. The offsets at the several stations or angles K. D. H. &c. in the base line, were represented by continued red lines. The intervening offsets as L w were indicated by the red dot- ted lines. 12. The distances between the several stations, or the lengths of each separate alignment, were inserted at the ends of the same, with- in the space occupied by the Canal. ‘The same was likewise done with respect to the intervening offsets and all other measurements up- on the base line, the distances being in each case reckoned from the last preceding station. The lengths of the offsets were inserted on the right and Jeft of the Canal, according as they were made on one side or upon the other. 13. In the field-book thus arranged all line appertaining to the survey were described as nearly as possible.in their true positions ; likewise all such objects of interest of every description, including roads, streams, buildings, changes in the inclination of the ground, geological characteristics, localities of minerals, &c. &c. as came within the limits of the field-book, were carefully sketched. The sketches being executed with greater accuracy through the aid of the parallel lines as above described. 14. The results of the measurements for the several bearings and distances were distinctly put down upon the lines to which they res- pectively belonged, and the whole accompanied by such remarks as were necessary Cay to elucidate every thing - ae lating to the survey.* *Tt is perhaps proper to remark that occasional observations for determining the variation of the magnetic needle were contemplated, but for the want of the neces- _ sary instruments, were omitted. The importance of such observations was howev- er duly considered, and the precaution was frequently taken to note with precision the magnetic bearings of distant and permanent objects, so that, should suitable ob- servations be hereafter instituted, the exact variation of the magnetic meridian as it existed at the time of making the survey can be easily ascertained.’ 24 Method of conducting the Canal Surveys. Fig. 2. exhibits a portion of the map as constructed from the field minutes. It differs from the field-book principally in the circum- stance of its several lines and angles being reduced to their proper relative positions and dimensions. ‘The explanations therefore which have been given for the one will it is believed, be sufficient for a prop- er understanding of the other. The maps were formed on separate sheets of super royal paper, bound in the Atlas style, each volume containing fifty sheets and comprehending about thirty or thirty-five miles of Canal. They were projected upon the same uniform scale of two chains to the inch and the border lines, on each separate sheet, were so drawn relatively as to coincide in direction with the magnetic cardinal points of the hori- zon. ‘The shading and lettering were executed in a superior man- ner and the whole exhibited a style and perfection of finish corres- ponding with the importance of the survey. Of the two modes of survey whose merits were canvassed by the commissioners, the one above described, was the one to which, as al- ready stated, the preference was awarded. In this method the principal measures in the direction of the rel of the Canals, were made upon the base line, situated upon the level and even surface of the towing path, under circumstances, it will be conceded, in the highest degree favorable for accuracy; while in the other mode the measures would have been subject to all the errors arising from inequalities of ground, and the various obstacles to be met with upon the outlines, such as trees, fences, streams of water, ravines, swamps, rocks, &c. which occur more or less frequently upon all portions of the Canals; add to this, the absolute impracticabili- ty of making such a survey in the many places where the Canal is bounded on both sides by impassable swamps, as is the case at the Cayuga marshes, or is separated as it frequently is, from an adjoinmg river, by a high terrace wall or embankment, or is bounded upon the berm side by a steep and thickly wooded side-hill, or by lofty and _ precipitous rocks, similar to what is seen at the Little Falls, at Flint Hill, at the Big Nose, or at the Cohoes upon the Mohawk and at va- rious other places. In the method, as pursued, the base or governing line, is located upon the inner edge of the towing path, the best defined, and for the. purpose of general reference, ane the most permanent part of the Canal. The importance of maintaining a hard and even surface for the horse track, renders it necessary to construct it of ma- a_i —— ee ———— Method of conducting the Canal Surveys. 25 terials of a solid and durable character. Its inner edge likewise is usually protected by a slope wall of stone or docking of timber to re- sist the action of the water, the abrasive effects of which if they oc- © cur at all, are confined to short distances and to particular places, and under circumstances, which render it an easy matter to deter- mine the precise extent of the encroachment. Upon the New York Canals, and indeed upon most other works of the kind in the coun- try, there are distances of miles together where substantial buildings or bridges or objects of an equally permanent character cannot be found, in consequence of which, and from the little reliance to be placed upon the directive property of the magnetic needle, in tracing long and irregular lines, in cases where an error of even one or two feet in the distance of a mile would be attended with se- rious inconvenience, and considering moreover, the imperfection and disagreement of different instruments, and the want of the requisite skill not uncommon with many ‘surveyors, a constant reference to some part of the Canal, as a standard for preserving the location of the outlines becomes absolutely essential. In selecting the part of the Canal for this purpose, the choice, it will be obvious, would necessarily fall, either upon the inner edges of the berm or towing path, or upon one or both margins of the water. Of these the towing path was considered as entitled to the preference, since the berm side is not only constructed of less durable materials, more liable to abrasion and seldom kept in proper repair, but for much of the distance where the Canal runs along sidelong ground no regular or artificial berm is formed, the water being allowed to flow back and conform to the natural irregularities of the surface. In some places likewise the berm, is subject to alteration from the grad- ual sliding or giving of the earth producing a contraction of the chan- nel, while the embankment on the side of the towing path remains comparatively firm and undisturbed. . Similar objections will like- wise apply to either margin of the water, particularly on the berm side, while on both sides the marginal line is subject to constant va- riation from the fluctuations of droughts and floods, and the irregu- lar demand for the supply of inferior levels and for the purposes of lockage. ; From the preceding it will appear, that even in the mode of sur- veying the outlines, as rejected by the commissioners, a general reli- ance must necessarily have been placed, as in the other method, up- on offsets to the inner edge of the towing path, with this difference, Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 4 26 Method of conducting the Canal Surveys. | ; that as no survey is made along the inner edge of the towing path, any changes or variations in it cannot be so easily detected and rec- tified. ‘These offsets likewise, owing to the great difference in level of thesurface of the towing path, and the ground on which the out- lines are situated, particularly in places where there are high em- bankments or deep excavations, would be subject to very great in- accuracy, which combined with the difficulty of reducing them to any regular system, would occasion many irreconcilable discrepan- cies between the measures upon the offsets and those upon the out- lines, and render the precise location of the boundaries a matter of corresponding uncertainty. Inthe mode as pursued, the accuracy or inaccuracy of the offsets does not in the least affect the location of the base line, and by means of the measures upon it, and the uniform mode of describing the offsets, the bearings and distances of the out- lines can be calculated, if required, with much greater precision than they could possibly be measured, and when so calculated, the differ- ent parts of the survey, will have the additional merit of a perfect agreement with each other, a desideratum which in the other method must be pronounced to be practically unattainable. Another consideration of much importance in favor of this mode is found in the facilities afforded for recording the field notes and representing the whole by means of sketches end diagrams in such a manner as to avoid all liability to mistake or confusion and _present- ing at the same time a very tolerable map of the survey. ‘The check likewise which the mode of sketching exercises over the measures with the chain—the one keeping pace in all cases with the other, and both under the immediate and constant supervision of the survey, or (each chain-distance oa the base line being represented by its cor- responding space in the field-book,) combined with the practice of requiring a separate account from each of the chainmen, rendered an error in the reckoning almost impossible. In the other mode the frequent obstructions to be encountered up- on the outlines and the constant necessity of deviating by offsets from a direct course, would add very much to the liabilities to error, and although the measures, upon the two outlines if the cross measures were repeated ofien enough, would serve ‘to detect any errors or omissions of integer chains upon each, yet no evidence would be af- forded, upon which of the lines it occurred, and an attempt to cor- rect without an actual re-survey would be as likely to increase as to remedy the evil ; add to this, the discrepancy that would unavoidably Method of conducting the Canal Surveys. ‘On result from the circumstance of the two outlines being surveyed at perhaps different times by different surveyors with different instru- ments and different assistants, and the great inconvenience of refer- ring, at any future time, for the results of the measures of a given por- tion of the Canal, to different field-books or to different parts of the same field-book, a necessity which from the nature of the case could not be avoided. The disadvantage of this mode, is likewise evident im another re-’ spect. The law of the Legislature authorizing the survey, requires that the maps and field-books, with all that they contain, shall be sanctioned and certified by the commissioners, and for this purpose before the survey can be said to be completed, the whole ground -must be examined by the commissioners in company with the sur- veyor, and .in the many instances where the opinion of the former would probably differ from the latter, as to the precise extent of ground proper to be embraced in the survey, alterations in the measures and the field-books must necessarily be made. These cannot be effected without completely deranging the previous sur- veys, and requiring an entire re-survey of the objectionable portions, while in the method as adopted, the necessary alterations are spee- dily and easily effected by simply enlarging or diminishing the offsets to the extent required. In,tracing the outlines, moreover, by the - former mode, the surveyor from a natural desire to expedite his work, by reducing the number of separate courses or bearings, might per- haps extend his lines io an undue length, the consequence of which would be, that the outlines would, in many places approach nearer to, and in others recede farther from the Canal than would be proper, and too much or too little ground would be embraced within the survey. ‘This would be particularly the case, upon the concave and convex sides of those portions of the Canal which were the most curved. In the method as pursued, this difficulty is entirely avoided, The variations in the breadth of the ground embraced in the survey are gradual, conforming as nearly as possible to the natural changes in the surface of the ground and the requisitions of the canal. It moreover completely secures to the State the possession of the spe- cified breadth of ground, appropriated to the Canal, and in this res- pect it accords in its practical operation with the established principle that the interest of the public should always take precedence of that of individuals, in all cases where the means necessary for the per- fect protection of the former, are so limited, that the extreme of & 28 Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. abuse or encroachment which can possibly result, will not expose the rights of the latter to material or important injury. There is still another consideration of great importance in favor of this method which does not exist in the other. In all ordinary cases the location of the boundaries may be determined without the aid of the circumferentor, by, means of the chain only. The great- est error which can thereby result in the position of either boun- dary, will not, exceed ten or twelve inches, supposing the offsets to be made twelve degrees out of their proper direction, and in the majority of cases will not ey exceed one third or one fourth of that amount. The expense likewise, of this mode is at least forty per cent. less than by the other, and when it is considered that the object to be at-- tained is effected in a much more perfect and scientific manner, it | must be conceded that it possesses a decided superiority. The mode of survey above described is alike applicable to rail- ways as to Canals, and the description of it is thus publicly made, that those who are engaged in the construction of works of inter-commu- nication may avail themselves of the advantages which it possesses over the less perfect methods ordinarily pursued in such cases. Middletown, Conn. Nov. 1832. ed Ann. Ill.—An Estimate of the Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley; by Witu1am Henry, M.D., F.R.S., &c. &e. Read to the first meeting of the British Association, for the promotion of science, at York, September 28th, 1831. Tue principal source of the materials of the following pages, is the work, in which the discoveries of Dr. Priestley were originally announced to the public. Jt consists of six volumes in octavo, which were published by him, at intervals between the years 1774 and 17863 the first three under the title of “ Experiments and Obser- vations on different kinds of Air ;” and the.Jast three under that of ‘¢ Experiments and Observations relating to various Branches of Nat- ural Philosophy, with a continuation of the Observations on Air.” These volumes were afterwards methodised by himself, and com- pressed into three octavos, which were printed in 1790. As a rec- ord of facts, and as a book of reference, the systematized work is to be preferred. But as affording materials for the history of that » Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. 29 department of science, which Dr. Priestly cultivated with such ex- traordinary success; and, still more, for estimating the value of his discoveries, and adjusting his station as an experimental philosopher, the simple narrative, which he originally gave in the order of time, supplies the amplest and the firmest ground-work. In every thing that respects the history of this branch of experi- mental philosophy, the writings and researches of Dr. Priestley, to which I have alluded, are peculiarly instructive. ‘They are distin- guished by great merits, and by great defects; the latter of which are wholly undisguised by their author. He unveils, with perfect frankness, the whole process of reasoning, which led to his discov- eries; he pretends to no more sagacity than belonged to him, and sometimes disclaims even that to which he was fairly entitled; he freely acknowledges his mistakes, and candidly confesses when his success was the result of accident, rather than of judicious anticipa- tion; and by writing historically, and analytically, he exhibits the progressive improvement of his views, from their first dawnings, to their final and distinct development. Now, with whatever delight we may contemplate a systematic arrangement, the materials of which have been judiciously selected, and from which every thing has been © excluded, that is not essential to the harmony of the general design, yet there can be no question that as elucidating the operations of the hu-. - man mind, and enabling us to trace and appreciate its powers of in- vention and discovery, the analytic method of writing has decided advantages. ) To estimate, justly, the extent of Dr. Priestley’s bela to philoso- phical reputation, it is necessary to take into account the state of our knowlege of gaseous chemistry, at the time when he began his inqui- ries. Without underrating, what had been already done by Van Hel- mont, Ray, Hooke, Mayow, Boyle, Hales, Macbride, Black, Cav- endish, and some others, Priestley may be safely affirmed to have entered upon a field, which, though not altogether untilled, had yet been very imperfectly prepared to yield the rich harvest, which he afterwards gathered from it. The very implements, with which he was to work, were for the most part to be invented ; and of the mer- its of those, which he did invent, it is a sufficient proof that they con- tinue in use to this day, with no very important modifications. All his contrivances for collecting, transferring, and preserving different kinds of air, and for submitting those airs to the action of solid and liquid substances, were exceedingly simple, beautiful, and effectual. 30 Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. They were chiefly, too, the work of his own hands, or were con- structed under his direction by unskilled persons; for the class of in- genious artists, from whom the chemical philosophers now derives such valuable aid, had not then been called into existence by the de- mands of the science. With a very limited knowledge of the general principles of chemistry, and almost without practice in its most com- mon manipulations ;—restricted by a narrow income, and at first with little pecuniary assistance from others ;—compelled, too, to devote a large portion of his time to other pressing occupations, he neverthe- less surmounted all obstacles; and in the career of discovery, out- stripped many, who had long been exclusively devoted to science, and were richly provided with all appliances and means for its ad- vancement. It is well known that the accident of living near a public brewery at Leeds, first directed the attention of Dr. Priestley to pneumatic chemistry, by casually presenting to his observation the appearances attending the extinction of lighted chips of wood, in the gas which floats over fermenting liquors. He remarked, that the smoke form- ed distinct clouds floating on the surface of the atmosphere of the vessel, and that this mixture of air and smoke, when thrown over the sides of the vat, fell to the ground; from whence he deduced the greater weight of this sort of air than of atmospheric air. He next found that water imbibes the new air, and again abandons it when boiled or frozen. ‘These more obvious properties of fixed air hav- ing been ascertained, he extended his inquiries to its other qualities -and relations; and was afterwards led by analogy to the discovery of various others gases, and to the investigation of their characteristic properties. , ‘ It would be inconsistent with the scope of this Essay to give a full catalogue of Dr. Priestley’s discoveries, or to enumerate more of them, than are necessary to a just estimate of his philosophical habits and character. He was the unquestionable author of our first knowl- edge of oxygen gas, of nitrous oxide, of muriatic, sulphurous, and use acid gases, of ammoniacal gas, and of its condensation into a solid form by the acid gases. Hydrogen gas was known before his time ; but he greatly extended our acquaintance with its properties. Nitrous gas, barely discovered by Dr. Hales, was first investigated by Priestley, and applied by him to eudiometry. To the chemical history of the acids derived from nitre, he contributed a vast acces-— - sion of original and most.valuable facts. He seems. to have been Philosophical Character af Dr. Priestley. 3k quite aware that those acids are essentially gaseous substances, and that they might be exhibited as such, provided a fluid could be found that is incapable of absorbing or acting upon them.* He obtained, and distinctly described,+ the curious crystalline compound of sul- phuric acid with the vapor of.nitrous acid, or, more correctly, of sul- phuric and hyponitrous acids, which, being of rare occurrence, was forgotten, and, has since been rediscovered, like many other neg- lected anticipations of the same author. He greatly enlarged our knowledge of the important class of metals, and traced out of their most interesting relations to oxygen and to acids. He unfolded, and illustrated by simple and beautiful experiments, distinct views of com- bustion$ of the respiration of animals, both of the inferior and higher classes; of the changes produced in organized bodies by putrefac- tion, and of the causes, that accelerate or retard that process; of the importance of azote as the characteristic ingredient of animal substan- ces, obtainable by the action of dilute nitric acid on muscle and ten- don; of the functions and economy of living vegetables; and of the relations and subserviency, which exist between the animal and veg- etable kingdoms. After trying, without effect, a variety of methods, by which he expected to purify air vitiated by the breathing of ani- mals, he discovered. that its purity was restored by the growth of liv- img and healthy vegetables, freely exposed to the solar light. It is impossible to account for these, and a variety of other discov- erles, of less importance singly, but forming altogether a tribute to science, greatly exceeding, in richness and extent, that of any con- temporary, without pronouncing that their author must have been fur- nished by nature with intellectual powers, far surpassing the common average of human endowments. If we examine, with which of its various faculties the mind of Dr. Priestley was most eminently gifted, it will, I believe, be found that it was most remarkable for clearness and quickness of apprehension, and for rapidity and extent of asso- ciation. On these qualities were founded that apparently intuitive perception of analogies, and that happy facility of tracing and pursu- ing them through all their consequences, which led to several of his most brilliant discoveries: Of these analogies many were just and legitimate, and have stood the test of examination by the clearer light, since reflected upon them from the improved condition of sci-. * Series I. Vol. ii. p. 175. t Series II. Vol. i. p. 26. 32 Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. ence. But, in other cases, his analogies were fanciful and unfound- ed, and led him far astray from the path, which might have conduct- ed him directly to truth. It is curious, however, as he himself ob- serves, that in missing one thing, of which he was in search, he often found another. of greater value. In such cases, his vigilance seldom failed to put him in full possession of the treasure upon which he had stumbled. Finding by experience, how much chance had to do with the success of his investigations, he resolved to multiply experiments, with the view of increasing the numerical probabilites of discovery. We find him confessing, on one occasion, that he “was led on, by a random expectation of some change or other taking place.” In other instances, he was influenced by theoretical views of so flimsy a texture, that they were dispersed by the first appeal to experiment. ‘These mistakes,” he observes, ‘it was in my power to have con- cealed ; but I was determined to show how little mystery there is in the business of. experimental philosophy ; and with how little saga- city, discoveries, which some persons are pleased to consider great and wonderful, have been made.” Candid acknowledgments of this kind were, however, turned against him by persons envious. of his ' growing fame; and it was asserted that all his discoveries, when not the fruits of plagiarism, were “lucky guesses,” or owing’ to mere chance.* Such detractors, however, could not have been aware of the great amount of credit, that is due to the philosopher, who at once perceives the value of a casual observation, or of an unexpect- ed result; who discriminates what facts are trivial, and what are im- portant; and selects the latter, to guide him through difficult and perplexed mazes of investigation. In the words of D’Alembert, “Ces hazards ne sont que pour ceux qui jouent bien.” The talents and qualifications, which are here represented as hav- ing characterized the mind of Dr. Priestley, though not of the rarest kind, or of the highest dignity, were yet such, as admirably adapt- ed him for improving chemical science, at the time when he lived. What 4s then wanted, was a wider field of observation ;—an en- larged sphere of chemical phenomena ;—an acquaintance with a far greater number of individual bodies, than: were then known; from the properties of which, and from those of their combinations, tenta- = These charges, especially that of plagiarism, which had been unjustly advanced by some friends of Dr. Higgins, were triumphantly repelled by Dr. Priestly, ina pamphlet entitled, «‘ Philosophical Empiricism,’ published in 1775. Philosipphickl Character of Dr. Priestley. 33 tive approximations to general principles might at first be deduced ; to be confirmed or corrected, enlarged or circumscribed, by future experience. It would have retarded the progress of science, and put off, toa far distant day, that affluence of new facts, which Priest- ley so rapidly accumulated, if he had stopped to investigate, with painful and rigid precision, all the minute circumstances of temper- ature, of specific gravity, of absolute and relative weights, and of crystalline structure, on which the more exact science of our.own times is firmly based, and from which its evidences must henceforward be derived. Nor could such refined investigations have then been car- ried on with any success, on account of the imperfection of philo- sophical instruments. It would have been fruitless, also, at that time, to have indulged in speculations respecting the ultimate constitution of bodies ;—speculations that have no solid ground-work, except in a class of facts developed within the last thirty-five years, all tending to establish the laws of combination in definite and in multiple pro- portions, and to support the still more extensive generalization, which has been reared by the genius of Dalton. It was, indeed, by the activity of his intellectual faculties, rather than by their reach or vigor, that Dr. Priestley was enabled to ren- der such important services to natural science. We should look, in vain, in any thing that he has achieved,. for demonstrations of that powerful and sustained attention, which enables the mind to mstitute close and accurate comparisons ;—to trace resemblances that are far from obvious ;—and te discriminate differences that are recondite . and obscure... The analogies, which caught his observation, lay near the surface, and were eagerly and hastily pursued ; often, in- deed, beyond the boundaries, within which they ought to have been circumscribed. Quick as his mind was in the perception of resem- blances, it appears (probably for that reason) to have been little adapt- ed for those profound and cautious abstractions, which supply the only solid foundations of general laws. In sober, patient, and suc- cessful induction, Priestley must yield the palm to many others, who, though far less fertile than himself in new and happy ¢y,abinations of . thought, surpassed him in the use of a searching and rigorous logic ; in the art of advancing, by secure steps, from phenomena to general conclusions ;—and again in the employment of general axioms as the instruments of farther discoveries. Among the defects of his philosophical habits, may be remarked, that he frequently pursued an object of inquiry too exclusively, neg- Vou. XXIV.—No. |. 5 34 Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. lecting others, which were necessarily connected with it, and which, if investigated, would have thrown great light on the main research. As an instance, may be mentioned his omitting to examine the re- lation of gases to water. This relation, of which he had indistinct glimpses, was a source of perpetual embarrassment to him, and led him to imagine changes in the intimate constitution of gases, which were in fact due to nothing more than an interchange of place be- tween the gas in the water and that above the water, or between the former and the external atmosphere. Thus he erroneously supposed that hydrogen gas was transposed into azotic gas, by remaining long confined by the water of a pneumatic cistern. The same eager di- rection of his mind to a single object, caused him, also, to overlook several new substances, which he must necessarily have obtained, and which, by a r‘ore watchful care, he might have secured and identified. Ata very early period of his inquiries, (viz. before No- vember, 1771), he was in possession of oxygen gas from saltpetre, and had remarked its striking effect on the flame of a candle; but he pursued the subject no farther untill August, 1774, when he again procured the same kind of gas from the red oxide of mercury, and, in a less pure state, from red lead... Placed thus a second time with- in his grasp, he did not omit to make prize of this, his greatest, dis- covery. He must, also, have obtained chlorine by the solution of manganese in spirit of salt; but it escaped his notice, because, being received over mercury, the gas was instantly absorbed.* If he had employed a bladder, as Scheele afterwards did, to collect the pro- duct of the same materials, he could not have failed to anticipate the Swedish philosopher, in a discovery not less important than that of oxygen gas. Carbonic oxide early and repeatedly presented itself to his observation, without his being aware of its true distinctions from other kinds of inflammable air; and it was reserved for Mr. Cruick- shank of Woolwich to unfold its real nature and characters. It is re- markable, also, that in various parts of his works, Dr. Priestley has stated facts, that might have given him a hint of the law, since unfold- ed by the sagacity of M. Gay Lussac, ‘that gaseous substances com- bine in definite volumes.’ He shows that 1 measure of fixed air unites with 1 measute of alkaline air, 1 measure of. sulphurous acid with 2 measures of do. . * Series II. p. 258. Phuilosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. 35 i measure of fluor acid with 2 measures of do. ° 1 measure of oxygen’ gas with 2 measures nitrous, very nearly ; and that by the decomposition of 1 vol. of ammonia, 3 vols. of hy- drogen are evolved. ne - Let.not, however, failures such as these, to reap all that was with- in lis compass, derogate more.than their due share from the merits of Dr. Priestley: for they may be traced to that very ardor of tem- perament, which, though to a certain degree a disqualification for close and correct observation, was the vital and sustaining principle of his zealous devotion to the pursuit of scientific truth. Let it be re- membered, that philosophers of the loftiest pretensions are charge- able with similar oversights ;—that even Kepler and Newton over- looked discoveries, upon the very confines of which they trod, but which they left’ to confer glory on the names of'less illustrious fol- lowers. Of the general correctness of Dr. Priestley’s experiments, it is but justice to him to speak with decided approbation. In some instan- ces, it must be acknowledged, that his results have been rectified, by subsequent inquirers, chiefly as respects quantities and proportions. But of the immense number of new facts originating with him, it is surprising how very few are at variance with recent and correct ob- servations. Even in these few examples, his errors may be traced to causes connected with the actual condition of science at the time ; sometimes to the use of impure substances, or to the imperfection of his instruments of research; but never to carelessness of. inquiry or negligence of truth. Nor was he more remarkable for the zeal, with which he-sought satisfactory evidence, than for the fidelity, with which he reported it. Inno one instance is he chargeable with mis- stating, or even with straining or coloring, a fact, to suit an hypothe- sis. And though this praise may, doubtless, be conceded to the great majority of experimental philosophers, yet Dr. Priestley was singularly exempt from that disposition to view phenomena through a colored medium, which sometimes steals imperceptibly over minds of the greatest general probity. This security he owed to his free- dom from all undue attachment to hypotheses, and to the facility, with which he was accustomed to frame and abandon them ;—a fa- Mee not from habit only, but from principle. +‘ Hypothe- s”. he pronounces, in one place, “to be a cheap commodity ;” in seen to be “of no value except as the parents of facts;” and so far as he was himself concerned, he exhorts his readers “ to consid- 36 Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. er new facts only as discoveries, and to draw conclusions for them- selves.” ‘The only exception to this general praise is to be found in the pertinacity with which he adhered, to the last, to'the Stahlian hypothesis of phlogiston ; and in the anxiety, which he evinced, to reconcile to it new phenomena, which were considered by almost all other philosophers, as proofs of its utter unsoundness. But this anx- iety, it must be remembered, was chiefly apparent at a period of life, when most men feel a reluctance to change the principle of arrange- ment, by which they have been long need to class the multifa- rious particulars oftheir knowledge. | In all those feelings and habits that connect the purest morals with the highest philosophy, (and that there is such a connection no one can doubt), Dr. Priestley is entitled to unqualified esteem and admi- ration. Attached to science by the most generous motives, he pur- sued it with an entire disregard to his own peculiar interests. He neither sought, nor accepted when offered, any pecuniary aid in his philosophical pursuits, that did not leave him in possession of the most complete independence of thought and of action. Free from all lit- tle jealousies of contemporaries or rivals, he earnestly invited other laborers into the field, which he was cultivating ; gave publicity, in. his own volumes, to their experiments; and, with true candor, was as ready to record the evidence which contradicted, as that which confirmed, his own views and results. Every hint, which he had derived from the writings or conversation of others, was unreserved- ly acknowledged. As the best way of accelerating the progress of science, he recommended and practised the early publication of all discoveries ; though quite aware that, in his own case, more durable fame would often have resulted from a delayed.and more finished performance. ‘Those persons,” he remarks, ‘are very properly disappointed, who, for the sake of’a little more reputation, delay pub- lishing their discoveries, till they are anticipated by others.” : In perfect consistency with that liberality of temper, which has been ascribed to Dr. Priestley, it. may be remarked also, that he took the most enlarged views of the scope and objects of Natural Science. In various passages of his works he has enforced, with warm and impressive eloquence, the considerations, that flow from the contemplation of those arrangements in the natural world, which are not only perfect in themselves, but are essential parts of one grand and harmonious design. He strenuously recommends experimental philosophy as an agreeable relief from employments, that excite the x Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. 37 _ feelings or overstrain the attention; and he proposes it to the young, - the high-born, and the affluent, as a source of pleasure unalloyed with the anxieties and agitations of public life. He regarded the benefits of its investigations, not merely as issuing in the acquire- ment of new facts, however striking and valuable ; nor yet in the de- duction of general principles, however sound and important; but as having a necessary tendency to increase the intellectual power ‘and energy of man, and to exalt human nature to the highest dignity, of which it is susceptible. The springs of such inquiries he represents: as inexhaustible ; and the prospects, that may be gained by successive advances in knowledge, as in themselves ‘truly sublime and glorious.” Into our estimate of the intellectual character of an individual, the extent and the comprehensiveness of his studies must always enter as an essential element. Of Dr. Priestley it may be justly affirmed, that few men have taken a wider range over the vast and diversified field of human knowledge. In devoting, through the greater part of his life, a large portion of his attention to theological pursuits, he ful- filled, what he strongly felt to be his primary duty as a minister of religion. This is not the fit occasion to pronounce an opinion of the* fruits of those inquiries, related as they are to topics, which still con- tinue to be agitated as matters of earnest controversy. In Ethics, in Metaphysics, in the philosophy of Language, and in that of Gen- eral History, he expatiated largely. He has given particular histo- ries of the Sciences of Electricity and of Optics, characterized by strict impartiality, and by great perspicuity of language and arrange- ment. Of the mathematics, he appears to have had only a general or elementary knowledge; nor, perhaps, did the original qualities, or acquired habits, of his mind, fit him to excel in ne mee ces. On the whole, though Dr. Priestley may have been surpass- ed by many, in vigor of understanding and capacity for profound research, yet it would be difficult to produce an instance of a wri- ter more eminent for the variety and versatility of his talents, or more meritorious for their zealous, unwearied, and productive em- ployment. N= Appendix.—Since the foregoing pages were written, I have added a few remarks on a passage contained in a recent work of Victor Cou-. sin, in which that writer has committed a material error as to the or- igin of Dr. Priestley’s philosophical discoveries. ‘ La chimie,” he observes, “est une création du dixhuitieme siécle, une création de la France; c’est Europe entiere qui a appelé chimie Francaise le 38 Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. mouvement qui a imprime a cette belle science une impulsion si forte et une direction si sage; c’est a l’exemple et sur les traces de La- voisier, de Guyton, de Fourcroy, de Berthollet, de Vauquelin, que se sont formés et que marchent encore les grands chimistes étrangers, ici Priestley et Davy; 1a Klaproth et Berzelius.” (Cours de ’His- toire de la Philosophie, tom.i.p.25.) ‘ It is to be lamented that so enlightened a writer as Victor Cousin, yielding, in this instance, to the seduction of national vanity, should have advanced pretensions in behalf of his countrymen, which have no foundation in truth or justice. Nothing can be more absurd or unprofitable than to claim honors in science, either for individuals or for nations, the title to which may be at once set aside by an appt ‘to public and authentic records. ‘It was in England, not in France, that the first decided advances were made in our knowledge of elastic fluids. ‘To say nothing of anterior writers, Dr. Black Hes traced the causticity acquired by al- kalies, and by.certain earths, to their being freed from combination with fixed air; and Mr. Cavendish, in 1766, had enlarged our knowl- ‘edge of that gas and of inflammable air. In England, the value of these discoveries was fully appreciated ; in France,. little or no at- tention was paid to them, till the philosophers of that country were roused by the striking phenomena exhibited by the experiments of Priestley. Lavoisier, it is true had been led, by an examination of evidence derived from previous.writers, to discard the hypothesis of phlogiston. The discovery of oxygen gas by Dr. Priestley not only — completed the demonstration of its fallacy, but served as the corner- stone of a more sound and consistent theory. By a series of re- vs Ms executed at great expense, and with consummate skill, the French philosopher verified in some cases, and corrected in others, the results of his predecessors, and added new and important obser- vations of his own. Upon these, united, he founded that beautiful system of general laws, chiefly relating to the absorption of oxygen. by combustible bodies, and to the constitution of acids, to which, alone, the epithet of the Antiphlogistic or French theory of chemistry -is properly applied. Of the genius manifested in the construction of that system, and the taste apparent in its exposition, it is scarcely possible to speak with too much praise. But it is inverting the order of time to assert, that it had any share in giving origin to the research- es of Priestley, which were not only anterior to the French theory, but were carried on under the influence of precisely opposite views. This, too, may be asserted of the discoveries of Scheele, who, at the Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. 39 same period with Dr. Priestley, was following, in a distant part of Eu- rope, a scarcely less illustrious career. It is the natural progress of most generalizations in science, that at first too hasty and comprehensive, they require to be narrowed as new facts arise. This has happened to the theory of Lavoisier, in consequence of its having been discovered, that combustion is not ne- cessarily accompanied with an absorption of oxygen, and that acids exist independently of oxygen, regarded by him as the general acidi- fying principle. But after all the deductions, that can justly be made on that account from the merits of Lavoisier, he must still hold one of the highest places among those illustrious men, who have advanced chemistry to its present rank among the physical sciences. It is deeply to be lamented that his fame, otherwise unsullied, should have been stained by his want of candor and justice to Dr. Priest- ley, in appropriating to himself the discovery of oxygen gas. This charge, often preferred and never answered, would not have been revived in this place, but for the claim so recently and indiscreetly advanced by M. Victor Cousin. To the credit of Dr. Priestley it may be observed, that in asserting his own right, he exercised more forbearance, than could reasonably have been expected under such circumstances. In an unpublished letter to a friend, he thus alludes ‘to the subject of ‘M. Lavoisier’s plagiarism. “ He,” (M. Lavoisier) “is an Intendant of the Finances, and has much public business, but finds leisure for various philosophical pursuits, for which he is exceedingly well qualified. He ought to have acknowleged that my giving him an account of the air I had got from Mercurius Calcin- , atus, and buying a quantity of M. Cadet while I was at Paris, led him to try what air it yielded, which he did presently after I left. I have however, barely hinted at this in my second volume.”* The communication alluded to was made by Dr. Priestley to M. Lavois- ier in October, 17745; and the Memoir, in which the latter assumes to himself the discovery that mercurius calcinatus (red oxide of mercury) affords oxygen gas when distilled per se, was not read to the Academy of Sciences before April, 1775.+ In evincing so little irritability about his own claim, and leaving its vindication with calm and just confidence to,posterity, the English philosopher has lost nothing of the honor of that discovery, which is now awarded to him, by men of science of every country, as Sa and undividedly his own. * Letter to the late Mr. Henry, dated Calne, Dec. 1775. + See an Abstract of this Memoir in the Journal de Rozier, Mai, 1775. 40 Motions of a System of Bodies. Art. 1V.—Motions of a ‘System of Bodies ; by Prof. Tuzopore Srrone. ‘Continued from p. 345, Vol. xx11. Let m, m’, m’’, &c. denote the quantities of matter in the moving bodies, or the number of times which they severally contain the as- sumed unit of masses: supposing them so small that every unit of each may be considered as acted on by the forces (which are sup- posed to affect their motions,) with the same intensity. 1. Motions of the system when estimated in the directions of three fixed rectangular axes drawn (at pleasure,) through any assumed point for their origin. Let the codrdinates be designated by the axes of 2, y, 2, sev- erally: put ayy; 2). 0/3y/,:2%) Se. for.:the codrdinates (reckoned from their origin,) which define the places of m, m’, &c. at any time t. Let P, Q, R, P’, Q’, R’, &c. be the resultants of all the forces ‘which affect a unit of m, m’, &c. when reduced to the directions of the axes of wv, y, z, severally; then Pi known formule, supposing ‘dt=const. ((a) p. 284, vole se ae ety _— P’, &e. (1); P2ap ise day! d?z ae! , sian a = (), Fee ie to (2); di? lr ae =R’, &c. (3); which are the equations of motion required. It is supposed that P,Q, R &c. are the resultants of all the accelerations or retardations which _ m, m/, &e. receive, whether from their mutual attractions or repul- sions, or from ‘bodies foreign to the system, also that the reactions of the surfaces or curves on which any of the bodies may be suppo- sed to move are included ; itis also supposed that P, Q, R, &c. tend to increase x, y, z, &c.; but should any of them tend the contrary way their signs must be changed. ‘The forces which arise from the actions of the bodies on each other may be made to destroy each other by the following method. Let Pp denote any force which a unit of m exerts on a sidiveol m’, then it is evident that a unit of m’ will react on a unit of m with the force — p which is directly opposite to p, agreeably to the well known law of action and reaction ; hence m p=the whole force of m on a unit of m’, and — m’ p is the whole force of the consequent reaction of m’ on a unit of ms if m p’ equals the value of m p when reduced to the axis of «, then evidently —m’ p’ equals the value of —m’ p when re- Motions of a System of Bodres. 41 duced to the same axis. Hence—*m’ p’ is one of the forces which compose P in the first of (1), and m p’ is one of the components of P’ in the second of (1); but these forces may be made to disappear by multiplying the first of (1) by m, the second by.m’, and then adding the products. It is hence evident that if the first of (1) is multiplied by m, the second by m’, and so on, and the Peele add- 2 lf d?x d? ‘ ed, there will result m yaa i >> +&c.=mP+m’P’+&e. sath is independent of any actions of the bodies on each other; for the terms arising from the reciprocal actions of every two of them ae ini each other as above: in the same way (2) and (3) give me sari =e +&c. —mQ-1-m’/Q’-+k&c., toe + m/ ate + &c. =mR + m/R/+&c. ; 3 put m+-m'+&c.=M, mx+m’'e’4+&ce.=MX, my+ my’ + &c.=MY, mz+m/2’/+&c.=MZ, and let mP+m’P’+ &c. be denoted by SmP, mQ-+m’Q’+ &c. by SmQ, mR+m’R'+ &c. by SmR ; then by substitution and reduction the above equations become aX SmP ay SmQ d?Z SmR as Mo ge Md OM (4); which are indepen- dent of any terms arising from the actions of the bodies on each oth- er. X,Y, Z, are evidently the coordinates of the center of gravity of the system ; and it is manifest by (4) that the center of gravity moves in the same manner that the unit of masses would do if it was SmP SmQ SmR collected at the center, and weed on by the forces >;- WM? M?°M? in the directions of the axes of &,Y, Z, respectively. If the bodies are subjected to no forces but their mutual actions, then as shown above SmP=0, SmQ=0, SmR=0; —), d?Y d°?Z : Hime dY dZ lee) a: whose integrals give panne a Vi Wis aw (5); V, WV’, V”, being the arbitrary constants, they also express the velocities of the center of gravity in the directions of the axes of 2, y, 2, severally, which are hence constant; and it is easy to see that the motion of the center is rectilineal and uniform, unless V, V’, V” are each =0, in which case the center is at rest. The equations (4) are easily adapted to the motion of a solid by putting M= to its mass, and denoting any indefinite element of it by dM ; and repre- " senting indefinitely by P, Q, R, the forces which act on dM in the Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 6 42 Motions of a System of Bodies. directions of the axes of x, y, z, respectively, and by considering S as the sign of integration. It may be remarked, that if the bodies m, m’, &c. receive finite changes in their motions in the indefinitely small portion | of time dt, by the actions e the forces P, Q, R, &c., dx / that (1), es (3) will be changed to pe “7 =Pat, Di =Pidt, Be. yy pz dz dz’ (1); Di7= Qu, D * dt “7 =Qit, &e. "9 (2/5) . aa Rat, Das R/dt, &c. (3’); D being the characteristic of finite rae Hence dX diSmP we may find by the same reasoning as before used, D. de oe dY dtSmQ _ dZ pus DM a , (4 . which are independent of any finite changes which the ie receive from their reciprocal actions in. the instant dt; also if the bodies are subjected only to their mu- dX tual actions, SmP=0, SmQ=0, SmR=03. .’. as before DD. = 9 dY dZ manly dX dY Dz, oe Dz =0, whose firite integrals give ae i Fe ay ; hence the same remarks concerning the motion of the cen- ter of gravity apply as in the former case, when the bodies were only subjected to their mutual actions. From what has been proved, it is manifest that (4) are independent of any changes in the motions of the bodies, and that whether they are gradual, or finite in an instant; provided they arise from the mutual actions of the bodies on each other. See Prin. cor. 4 to the laws of motion; Méc. Anal. vol. i, p. 259, Méc. Ceél. vol. i, pp. 54, 70. : II. When the bodies which compose the system are supposed to revolve around a center of force situated at the origin of the co- © érdinates, and acted on by any other forces. . I shall consider all the forces except that which is directed towards the origin of the codrdinates as disturbing forces. Let each body, (regarded as collected at its center of gravity,) and the forces which affect it be reduced orthographically to the plane x, y, (or fixed plane,) as at p. 134, vol. xxii; put r=the distance of m thus pro- jected from the origin of the coérdinates, v=the angle made by r and 2 = bald c v i wale the axis of x at the time ¢, a> ode =the area described by r around the center of force in a unit of time, T=the intensity of the result- Motions of a System of Bodies. i: ant of all the disturbing forces which affect a unit of m, when re- duced to the plane a, y, and then resolved in a direction at right an- a le gles to r; let 7’, 0’, a= Odi” tities for m/, and so on for m”, &c. Then asat p. 134, cde='Tr*dv, T’, denote the corresponding quan- >, pelos 9 2 New Lae? renin Wel or, (since F =dt,) de=Trdt, in the same way de’='T’r'dt, and so on; hence the equations of motion are de=Trdt, de’='T’r'dt, &c. (6). If the first of (6) is multiplied by m, the second by m’, and so on for all the bodies, and the products be added, the result- ‘ing equation will, (as before,) be independent of any terms arising from the actions of the bodies on each other. For let a unit of m act on a unit of m/ with the force p, then, as before shown, mp=the whole force with which m acts on a unit of m/, and —m’p=the whole force with which m’ reacts on a unit of m; and if mp’=the projection of mp on the plane 2, y, then evi- dently —m/‘p’=the projection of —m’p on the same plane. Let the extremities of r and 7’ be joined by the straight line q, put o, 9’, for the angles of the triangle, (thus formed,) opposite 7, 7’, respec- tively ; then mp’ sin. 9, — mp’ sin. o’ are the aoe mp’, peu , when resolved at right angles to 7’, r, severally ; . mp sin. 9’ is a com- ponent of T in the first of (6), and mp’sin.¢ is a component of T’ in the second; hence multiplying the first of (6) by m, and the second by m’, then adding the products, there results the term . dtmm'p'(—r sin. 9’-++r’ sin. ¢) from the action of m and the consequent reaction of m/; but the triangle, (sides r, 7’, g,) gives ri 7r/i isin. o $ sin. o’, -". —rsin. o’--7’ sin.o=0, which reduces the above term to zero: hence mdc+m/de’ + &c.=dt X (mT r+m/T’r’+&c.) is mani- festly independent of any terms which arise from the actions of the bodies on each other. In a similar way, two other equations which are analogous to’ the above, may be obtained; by projecting the bodies’ and the forces on the planes 2, z and y, z; and by represent- ing the quantities corresponding to ¢, T, r, v, &c. by ,c, ,T, ,7, ,v for the plane.x, z; and by ,,c, ,,T, ,,7, ,,2, for the -plane y, 2; they will be md,c+m/d ce! + &c. =dt x (m,T,r+-m' Tr’ + &c.) and md,,e+ md c+ &e.=dt X(m,,T ,r+m,T’ ,r’+&c.) Let me-+m’e'+&e. be denoted by Sme, mTr-+-m/T’r’ + &c. by SmTr, and so on for the other equations; then the above equations become dSmc=dt.SmTr, dSm,c=dt.Sm/T,r, dSm,c=dt.Sm,/T,,r, (7); which are independent of any terms arising from the actions of the bodies on each other, 440° Motions of a System of Bodies. they are also independent of any force which acts towards the ori- gin of the codrdinates, as was remarked of the motion of a particle of matter at p. 133, vol. xxii. If the forces cause finite changes in the motions of the bodies in the indefinitely small time dt, (7) will be changed to D.Sme=dt.SmTr, D.Sm,c=dt.Sm,T,r, D.Sm,c= dt.Sm,,T 7, (8) 5 ; which are also independent of any changes which the bodies receive in their motions from their finite actions in the in- stant dt, they are also independent of any finite changes caused by forces, which are directed towards the origin of the coordinates. __ (7) and (8) are easily adapted to the motion of a solid by putting M=to its mass, and changing m into dM=any indefinite element of the solid, and representing indefinitely by c, the values of ¢, c’, &c. in the first of those equations; and by ,c, ,,c the corresponding quanti- ties in the second and thirds: and using S as the sign of integration. If the solid revolves around the axis of z asa fixed axis, the second and third equations in the case of (7) will evidently not exist ; also dv=dv' = &c.=the angle described by the solid around the Ged axis in the time dt; andr, r’, &c. will each be invariable; .*. since c=r7du, d?y SdMTr c’=r'*dv, &c. it is easy to find, (by the first of (7),) di SdMr2.2_ put SdMr?=Mk? =the moment of inertia of the solid around the ¢ iy d?y SdMTr aise than axis of z, and there results — a Was (9); which formula is well known : in the same way by (8) eg the forces are impulsive, dv or cause finite changes in the time dt; by putting D. Pest the angular velocity of the solid, (caused by the forces,) we have SdMTr eer CTO Again, since 2=1 Cos. v, y=r sin. v, &e., by r°dv «dy — yaa putting P= —T smn. v, Q=T cos. », &e. then e=— Frenne aT &c., also Tr = 2Q — Bey; 0) Reeusi\\0) the first of (7) bécomes xd?y —yd?x th Wa es M\ ae = §Sm(aQ—Py), which agrees with the equation found at p. 66, Vol. i, of the Mécanique Céleste, and by making similar changes i the second and third of (7), the two other equations given at the place cited, are easily found: I would also observe that the same equations may easily be found by (1), (2) and (3), but I have preferred the method which I have used because it has some advantages over the other. Motions of a System of Bodies. 45 ‘If the bodies are affected by no forces but their mutual actions, and forces directed towards the origin of the codrdinates; then in the use of (7), their right hand members are each=03 .°.dSme=0O, dSme=0, dSm,c=0, whose integrals are Smc=A, Sm,c=,A, Sm,=,,A, (11); A, ,A,,,A, being the arbitrary constants, also the same results are true inthe use of (8). (11) are evidently the same that they would be if the bodies did not act upon each other; but in this case each of them would manifestly describe a plane curve around the center of force situated at the origin of the codrdinates; put 5 =the area described by the radius vector of m ina unit of — f ny time, @ —the area described by the radius vector of m’ in the same time and so on; leta, 6, ¢, a’, b’, c’, &c. denote the angles which the first, second, &c. of thgse planes make with the planes 2, y, a, 2, y, 2, severally; then evidently mD cos. a+m'D’ cos. a’+ &c. =A, mD cos.b+m’D' cos. b’-+ &c. =,A, mD cos.c+m'D’ cos. c’+&c. =,,A, (12); it is also evident that equations analogous to (12) will exist for any other rectangular codrdinates, ,v, ,y, ,2, whose origin is the same as that of x, y,2; for the position of the codrdinates is ar- bitrary, although they are to be considered as fixed during the mo- tion of the system: hence mD cos. ,a+m’D’ cos. ,a’+ &c. =B, mD cos. ,b+m/D’ cos. ,b/-+ &c. =,B, mD cos. ,c+m’D’ cos. ,c’-+ &c. =,,B, (13); where B, ,B, ,,B, are what A, ,A, ,,A, become when the planes, x,y, 2,2, y, 2, are changed to ‘the planes ,2, Yo 17% You%, severally,.and ,a,,b, ,c, &c. are what a, b, ¢, &c. become respectively. Let /,m,n denote the angles made by the plane ,x, ,y, with the planes 2, y, «,2, y,2; and I’, m’, n’ the cor- responding angles for the plane ,v, ,2; also 1”, m/, n’ those for the plane jy, ,2,-°. cos. ,a=cos. a:cos. 1+ cos. bcos. m+ cos. ¢ cos. n, COS. a’ =cos. a’ cos. 1+ cos. b’ cos. m+ cos c’ cos. n, &e. ; hence by (12) and (13) Acos.?+,A cos. m+,,A cos. n=B, also A cos. V--,A cos. m/+-,,A cos. n‘=,B, A cos. l’+,A cos. m’+,,A cos. n’=,B, (14). By adding the squares of (14) there results A? -+-,A? +/,A2?=B’?+,B?+,,B?, (15); since cos. 27+ cos. *l/-+ cos. ?1”= 1, cos. °m-+ cos. ?m’-+ cos.?m”=1, cos.?n-+ cos. ?n’-+ Cos. 2! =1, cos. Jcos. m+ cos. cos. m+ cos.’ cos.m”=0, &e.3 now since the position of the plane ,2, ,y is arbitrary let it-be so assumed 46 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. iy ; A ; /A " that pening so Cos. CTT ee COs. pA | Pyne a VER ak =, (16) ; then by sobstibiinig these valuesia in the first of (14) it gives WA?+,A? Ties B, (17); ; also the sec- ond and third of (14) by substituting the values of A, ,A, ,,A from (16) give B (cos. J cos. l’ + cos. m cos. m’ + cos. ncos. n’)=,B =0, B (cos. J cos. l’” + cos. m cos. m’’ ++ cos. n cos. n!’) =,B= 0, since cos. U cos. l/ +-cos. m cos. m! + COS. i COSa mn) — 0,605: Hees Il’ --cos. m cos. m’’--cos. ncos. n’=0. ‘The plane ,x, ,y, determined by (16) is the invariable plane ; on which the sum of the products of each body by the area which its radius vector describes in a unit of time (or in any given time,) is the greatest possible; and it is evident by ‘what has been proved that the sum of the products of each body by the area which its radius vector desc¥ibes‘on any plane which is perpendicular to x, ,y, in any given time is always ==0. See Meéc. Cél. Vol, I. p..60, also Méc. Anal. Vol. I. p. 269. | Note.—By unit of masses, as used in this paper, is to be understood a portion of matter, so small that it may be considered as a particle. ‘ Art. V.—Observations on the Saliferous Rock Permalflen an the Valley of the Ohwo; by Dr. S. P. Hitprern, of Marietta. For many years after settlements had been commenced west of the Alleghany Mountains, the inhabitants were entirely dependent on their brethren, ,east of the Appalachian ridge, for salt; an article so necessary to the existence and the comfort of civilized man. It was transported, with immense labor, through narrow defiles, and almost impassable roads across the mountain ranges, on the backs of horses. Tiong trains of these useful animals, might be seen toiling up the steep sides of the mountains, their uncouth pack-saddles laden with kegs of salt, iron ware, and other merchandise, destined for the use of the early settlers. "This, for a long time, was the only mode of transpor- tation. At length rude roads were constructed which could be trav- ersed with wagons, and they caused some reduction -in the cost of transportation, but it was not until the completion of the “ National, or Cumberland road,” that travelling in carriages could be effected with either ease or safety. From the year 1788 to the year 1800, the Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 47 © price of salt varied from four to eight dollars per bushel; and it was supposed by the inhabitants, that its cost would always prove a serious drawback on the prosperity of the country. The upward naviga- tion of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers was so long and tedious, re- quiring from four to six months to accomplish the voyage from New Orleans, and the outlet being owned by a foreign nation, forbade the expectation of relief from that quarter. Iron, so indispensable in ag- ricultural pursuits, was another heavy item of expense, and was, for many years, transported in the same tedious way, until iron ore was discovered in the Laurel Mountains and furnaces were erected. From that period, they have been gradually extending down the river, until no portion of the United States is more cheaply or more abundantly supplied with iron than the valley of the Ohio. Salt, so valuable and so scarce in these early days, as to be looked upon almost,as a luxury, has now become so abundant as to sell for half a cent per pound. The all wise and beneficent Creator, who form- ed this earth for the habitation of man, has stored it with all things necessary for his comfort and happiness. In every region remote from the ocean, he has deposited in the bowels of the earth, vast magazines of salt. .The interior of Africa, Asia, and America, con- tains, in the form of rock or native salt, or of springs, fountains or lakes, or of efflorescences, a sufficient supply for the wants of all the inhab- itatts. The valley.of the Ohio, from its-head water to Shawnee- town, in Illinois, may be said to be based on a saliferous rock, afford- ing an abundance of water, highly charged with muriate of soda, and affording it in abundance, wherever perforations have been made, of a sufficient depth to’reach the precious deposit. ‘There are many evidences of its extending, along the course of the Alleghany range, for more than one hundred miles in breadth, and for several hundred in length. The salt rock commences near its western and northern base, in the coal and.sandstone region, and extends as far north and, west, as these two interesting formations are found. In Ohio, sand-" stone and coal are abundant, from the mouth of Big Beaver, to some miles below the mouth of the Scioto, and they cover a tract of coun-= try, between these two.points, from forty to eighty miles in width on the northern bank of the Ohio. If the salt deposit extends as far north as Lake Erie, it is probably yery thin, or else it descends deep into the earth; as few or no indications of salt are found north of these boundaries. A few miles below the mouth of the Big Sandy, the Ohio takes a more westerly course and the sandstone is left on 48 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. its southern shore. At the western and northern termination of the sand rock, the lime rock commences and continues with little inter- ruption to the Mississippi river, and the great northern lakes. Salt water can doubtless be found in all that region, where sandstone pre- vails, as the two formations are known to accompany each other. The superincumbent strata, composed of sandstone, argillite, marl- slate, &c., as will be more fully shown in another place, varies in thickness from five hundred to twelve hundred feet; and it appears to sink deeper into the earth, on or near the Ohio, as the salt rock is reached at less and less depths, as we ascend the streams discharging their waters into this river.. ‘This is especially the fact with the salt wells in the Muskingum and Big Kenhawa rivers. A few miles above the falls at Zanesville the salt rock is found short of two hundred and fifty feet, while thirty miles below it is eight hundred and fifty feet to the lower salt stratum. From several circumstances, it would seem to be a fact that the ancient inhabitants of this valley were not unac- quainted with the use and the manufacture of salt. In excavating wells at the Scioto Salines, and at the Blue Licks in Kentucky, the beds of furnaces, and large fragments of broken pots, made of coarse earthen ware, were repeatedly found, at considerable depths below the pres- . ent surface; affording strong presumptive evidence, that the quality of the water was known and that it had been applied to the wants of man in ages long since passed away. ‘Tusks and grinders of the Elephant and Mastodon, were also found in digging the salt wells at both these places. The attraction of wild beasts to these salines, probably first brought them to the notice of man. At the licks on the Ken- hawa, several indications were discovered of their having been in use, long before they were known to any white man. ‘ The first attempt at manufacturing salt in Ohio, was made about the year 1798, at what is now called the ‘Old Scioto salt works.” ‘This spot is in Jackson County, on the banks of a small creek, called ‘Salt Creek, a tributary of the river Scioto. The wells were dug near the creek to the depth .of twenty or thirty feet, and the salt water rose into the excavations from crevices in the rock below. The present mode of piercing the rocks. was not known until many years after. *The water thus procured was but weakly impregnated with salt, and required from six to,eight hundred gallons to make a bush- el of fifty pounds weight. It was also very dark colored, and filled with the bittern, composed chiefly of muriates of lime and magnesia ; the manufacturers not giving it time to drain, but transferring it im- Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 49 mediately from the kettles to the pack horses of the purchasers, who, transporting it into the various settlements, sold it to the inhabitants for three and four dollars per bushel, as late as the year 1808. This saline was thought to be so important to the country, that when this territory was erected into a state in the year 1802, a tract of six miles square, was set apart by Congress for the use of the state, em- bracing this saline. Two other tracts of six hundred and forty acres each, were also reserved for the same purpose, one on Salt Creek in Muskingum County, and one in Delaware County, as too valuable to fall into the hands of individuals, lest they should create a monopoly of the article; these being the only places then known in Ohio, where salt could be made. A special act was passed by the Legislature, in the year 1804, regulating the management of these salines, and an agent appointed to rent out the small lots to manufac- turers, laid out on the borders of the creeks, where salt water was found most abundant. ‘The rent demanded was sixteen cents per year on each gallon of capacity in the kettles, and no one person was allowed to use more than four thousand, nor less than six hundred gallons in each furnace, guarding here also, carefully, against monop- oly. The agent was authorized to inspect the salt before it was of- fered for sale, and to lay off suitable wood lots for the use of the furnace holders, free of expense. The amount manufactured in any one year, never produced.a revenue to exceed five hundred dollars. As other and much better saline springs were discovered on the navi- gable streams, the works at the agencies went gradually to decay ; and finally in the year 1826, the “salt reservations” were sold and the proceeds placed in the treasury of the state. In the year 1808, a new era commenced in the manufacture of salt. Previously to this time, the water had been obtained from wells, sunk no deeper than to perforate the superincumbent earth to the rocks below, through some crevice in which it had made its way to the surface. But now, attempts were made to come at the sources of the fountain, by boring, or drilling through the rock formations, to the saline de- posit itself. ‘The first trial of this kind was made on the Big Ken- hawa, six miles above Charleston, and only to the depth of seventy or eighty feet; on further trials, it was discovered, that the water be- came stronger as they descended, and the first wells were gradually deepened to three hundred and fifty feet, with the most satisfactory results. Water was obtained of such strength that seventy five gal- lons would make a bushel of salt of fifty peuues weight, or as much Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 7 50 = Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. as four hundred gallons from the old surface wells; producing an im- mense saving of time and labor to the manufacturer, and a much better article to the consumer. ‘The space, now occupied by the salt wells, extends to the distance of twelve or fourteen miles along the shores of the Kenhawa, and is about seventy miles from the mouth _ of the river. The upper wells reach the salt rock at two hundred and fifty feet. ‘The lower wells strike it at a number of feet deeper, the rock dipping to the north as it recedes from the mountains, or de- scends the river. Salt Region on the Muskingum River. The first attempt at procuring salt on this river, was made by Mr. Ayers, in the year 1817, a few miles below, and at the foot of the rapids at Zanesville, in the year 1819, by S. Fairlamb. He being a man of considerable mechanical ingenuity, constructed some simple machinery, connected with a water mill, which performed the opera- tion of boring without much expense. Salt had been made for many. years at the works on Salt Creek, nine miles S. E. of Zanesville, and some slight indications of salt on the rocks at low water, led to this trial. Water was found, impregnated with muriate of soda, at about three hundred and fifty feet. It afforded salt of a good quality, but was not abundant, nor sufficiently saturated to make its manufac- ture profitable. Within the period of a few years after, several other wells were bored in this vicinity, but generally lower down the river. It was soon discovered, that the water was stronger as they de- scended, and that the salt deposit was at a greater depth. At Dun- can’s falls, nine miles below and at the mouth of Salt Creek, the rock had descended to four hundred and fifty feet, and with a proportion- ate increase in the strength of the water. At the latter place, the owner of a well not finding a sufficient supply of water for his furnace, although it was of the desired strength, pushed his well to the depth of four hundred feet below the salt rock. His praise-worthy per- severance, however, met not with its proper reward. No additional salt water was found, although it is highly probable that other salt strata are deposited below those already discovered, but at such a depth as to render it very difficult to reach them, by the present mode of boring. As we descend the river, wells are found, at short distances, for thirty miles below Zanesville, gradually deepening, un- til the salt rock is reached, at eight hundred and fifty feet below the surface. The water is also so much augmented in strength, as to Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 51 afford fifty pounds of salt to every fifty gallons. ‘Twenty two miles below the rapids, a stratum of flint rock from nine to twelve feet in thickness, comes to the surface and crosses the river, making a slight ripple at low water. This rock has a regular dip to the south, and at McConnelsville, five miles below, it is found at one hundred and fourteen feet; and two and a half miles further down, it is struck, at one hundred and sixty feet. Where wells have been sunk through this rock, it affords a sure guide to the saliferous deposit, as the in- termediate strata are very uniform in quality and thickness, and the practical operator can tell, within a foot or two, the actual distance to be passed between the two rocks, although the interval is six hun- dred and fifty feet. Above the pomt where the flint rock crops out, the rock strata appear to have been worn away, so that as you ascend the river, the salt: rock comes nearer to the surface, until at the forks of the Muskingum, it is only two hundred feet below. This flint rock is so very hard and sharp grained, that it cuts away the best cast steel from the augers, nearly or quite as rapidly as the steel cuts away the rock, and requires three weeks of steady labor, night and day, to penetrate ten feet. With a few exceptions, the other strata are readi- ly passed. The lower salt rock often occasions much difficulty to the work- men, from the auger’s becoming fixed in the hole. The sand of this rock, when beaten fine and allowed to settle compactly about the augur in the bottom of the well, becomes so hard and firm, as to re- quire the greatest exertions to break it loose, frequently fracturing the stout ash poles in the attempt. From the sand and small parti- cles of the rock brought up by the pump, the salt stratum appears to be of a pure pearly whiteness; and the more porous and cellular its structure, the greater is the quantity of water afforded; as more free- dom is given to the discharge of gas, which appears to be a very ac- tive agent in the rise of the water, forcing it, in nearly all the wells, above the bed of the river, and in some to twenty five or thirty feet above the top of the well. Salt region on the Big Kenhawa. ins before stated, salt was first made there in 1808; the indications of salt being discovered at an old buffalo lick, near the margin of the river, six miles above Charleston. Numerous wells are now dug for six miles above and five miles below the lick. The “gum” or coffer- dam, is usually sunk into the rock about eighteen feet below the bed 52° Saluferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. of the river, and rises six feet above, being in all about twenty four feet. Within this the boring of the rock-strata commences. The depth of a well is on an average about three hundred and eighty feet. The salt rock is reached at two hundred and fifty feet, and penetra- ted until a supply of water is obtained, sufficient for the demands of the furnace, evidently shewing the salt deposit to be much thicker here than on the Muskingum river; where it probably approaches its northern termination. When the supply of water grows scanty, as, at low stages of the river, in the autumnal months, is frequently the case, the auger is again introduced, and the depth increased fifteen or twenty feet, when a more abundant quantity is caused to flow. The rock in which the salt water is found is apparently the same with that on the Muskingum, being a white calcareous sand rock, full of fissures and cavities of some inches in diameter, and affording more or less water, as these are more or less abundant. The superincum- bent strata are, different qualities of sandstone, slate, ironstone, and stone coal, but in much less variety than on the latter river. The formation in the adjoining hills, through which the Kenhawa passes, is principally of sandstone, to the height of five or six hundred feet, with thick beds of stone coal at their bases, affording an inexhausti- ble supply of fuel to the manufacturers of salt. Fossil organic re- mains of plants and trees, are also found in the lower sand rocks. In boring the wells, one bed of coal is usually passed in the first one hundred and fifty feet, varying in its thickness from two to six feet. The salt water rises in the heads or “gums” to near the surface of the river at low water, but not so uniformly, nor so certainly, as it did ten or twelve years past, serving to imply that the gas, finding -so many outlets, had diminished in its upward pressure. Since that period, recourse has therefore been had to ‘suck or force pumps,” to aid the rising of the water into the heads or cisterns. Little, if any, difference is found in the strength of the water, whether a well has lain idje for a few weeks, or whether it has been kept in constant use. Neither has there been any perceptible change in that respect, in the course of twenty four years, the period of time since the manu- facture commenced, proving the sources of supply to be vast, if not inexhaustible ; in as much as the quantity made has, for several years, been more than one million of bushels per year. ‘The process of manufacturing salt is the same with that pursued on the Muskingum, which is fully described in this paper. In the course of the last sea- son, the manufacture of alum or coarse salt has been commenced Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 53 upon new principles and with flattering success. It is thus described in the Kenhawa Banner. “The manufactory now in operation consists of a large pan, about thirty five feet long, set in a furnace, and is closely sided up and cov- ered over, so as to prevent the escape of any portion of the steam evolved. Connected with this furnace, is a vat, made of plank, one hundred and thirty five feet long and sixteen feet wide, underneath and along the bottom of which is a trunk, sixteen inches square, of strong plank, which is connected with the pan at the furnace and conducts the steam the whole length of the vat. ‘The upper surface of this trunk or conduit is upon a level with the floor of the vat, and is composed of lead. The pan is used to convert the water into brine, which is then drawn off into vats and settled, when it is again conducted into the large vat, where it is evaporated and converted into alum salt of the finest quality. .'The heat applied in the furnace to the pan, rapidly reduces the water into brine; and the steam, generated by this process, and conducted under the vat, as before described, raises the temperature of the brine therem contained to upwards of a hundred and fifty degrees, and renders the progress of crystallization very rapid. With these very simple fixtures, the pro- prietors are now making not less than two hundied bushels of salt per day, with much less labor and a consumption of a smaller. quantity of coal than is required by an ordinary furnace, which produces much less salt. Inthe process, all the foreign matter is excluded, and the salt produced is, both in appearance and quality, equal to any in the world. With the means of production almost unlimited, the salt from this region would have supplied nearly the whole territory on the Mississippi and its tributaries, had not alum salt been deemed in- dispensable in putting up provisions for commercial purposes, distant shipments and the like. This led to the introduction of alum salt from the West Indies, which, to the extent used, excluded the do- mestic salt from market. The alum salt* now manufactured here, being in no respect inferior to the imported, and furnished at a lower price, will, ere long, entirely exclude or supersede the use of the foreign article, on all of the western waters.” Messrs. Donally and Patrick, two of the company engaged in this new mode of manufacturing coarse salt, were amongst the earliest * An injudicious name: the salt in question appears to have no resemblance to alum, except in forming larger and more distinct crystals.—Zd. 54 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohuo. engaged in the salt business on the Kenhawa. ‘The principles of the process are probably the same with those now in operation in the manufacture and crystallization of sugar, and found to be far superior to the mode formerly,, and still generally, in use. Process pursued in sinking a salt well. The operator having fixed on a spot suitable for the purpose, al- ways near some water course, and where the adjacent hills are high, proceeds to excavate the earth down to the rock, and then the rock itself to the depth of twenty or thirty feet, and from four to six feet in diameter. In this cavity, called ‘the head,” is usually placed a hollow sycamore trunk, called “a gum,” which is imbedded firmly in the rock, in such a way as to exclude the springs of fresh water; others make use of planks to form the head. When this part of the work is accomplished, the process of boring, or drilling, commences. This was formerly done by hand, with the assistance of a spring pole, and was a tedious and laborious operation. It is now performed by a horse or horses, placed on an inclined tread wheel, and machinery very simply, but ingeniously arranged, so as to act, by means of a lever, on the poles attached to the auger, raising it from two to three feet, at each rise of the lever, and letting it drop again very regu- larly. A grass rope, with which the poles are suspended to a high frame, by its spiral convolutions, at each rise and fall gives them a slight rotary motion, so necessary to the progress of the work. ‘T'wo men are employed in this business, who stand regular tours, of six hours each, night and day. When so much of the rock is chiseled up, and comminuted so finely as to make, with the water, which al- ways fills the hole, a soft muddy mass, and impedes the motion of the auger, the poles are withdrawn, and a tube, made of copper, five - or six feet in length and three inches in diameter, called “the pump,” is screwed to the pole and let down. A valve, at the lower end, pre- vents the escape of the contents, which are discharged through a hole made for that purpose, near the top. A cord or rope is sometimes made use of in this process, in place of the poles. ‘The poles are made of tough, white ash wood, twenty five feet in length and two inches in diameter.. They are attached to each other by strong iron sockets and screws, so as that a screw at the lower end enters into a socket at the upper end of each pole. By the addition of fresh poles, as the well descends, they are lengthened to any desirable depth. The auger is pointed with the best cast steel, and is from twelve to Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 55 fourteen inches in length, and from three to four inches wide, as the operator may think best, it being very useful to have the well of a greater diameter at the top, as it necessarily and unavoidably grows narrower as it descends, and would not afford sufficient water, unless an allowance of this kind were made. ‘The operation gradually cuts away the sides of the auger, and 4s it is repaired or a new one ap- plied, unless this adaptation is carefully attended to, it becomes fast in the bottom of the well, and is with great difficulty removed. The progress made, each day, varies, with the density of the rock, from one inch to five or six feet, but is necessarily slower as the well deep- ens ; for much time is necessarily consumed in taking up and letting down the poles, for the purpose of pumping or clearing out the detri- tus, which is composed of sand or mud, according to the nature of the rock. It is often necessary to line the upper portion of the well, for one hundred and fifty or two hundred feet, with a copper tube, to prevent the process of caving, occasioned by the disintegration of the soapstone or argillite, which principally composes the upper strata to this depth. it is also sometimes needed to keep out the springs of fresh water, which, mingling with the salt, would occasion addi- tional labor in the evaporation. Process of making the salt. When a sufficient supply of water is obtained, the next operation is the erection of the furnace, with the cisterns, salt house, shed over the furnace, &c. The evaporation of the water is conducted in large cast iron kettles, of the capacity of sixty or ninety gallons, set over a flue made of stone, sunk so much in the earth as to bring the tops of the kettles nearly on a level with the surface of the soil. The bottom of the flue gradually rises, as it goes forward under the kettles, and ends in a chimney. The wood required is from five to six cords per day, for a furnace of thirty or forty kettles. Gne half the kettles are used for boilers, and the other half for graining the salt. This, however, varies ac- cording to the strength of the water, the strongest requiring more grainers than boilers. In some furnaces, the boilers, or evaporators, are made of large sheets of cast iron, with their sides turned up an inch or two, and connected to each other with rivets in their bottoms. As. the water flows or is pumped from the well, it falls into a large - cistern, made of planks. This being higher than the kettles in the furnace, the water is conducted by means of a bored log, or logs, as 56 Saliferous Rock Formation ‘in the Valley of the Ohio. the distance may be from the furnace, some carrying the water a long way to the fuel, and others bringing the fuel to the water. When the water reaches the furnace, it is let ito the kettles by wooden stop-cocks, placed at different points in a log, which lies lengthwise of the furnace, for the purpose of preserving the temper- ature nearly the same in all the kettles. When it is evaporated to a certain strength, the brine is dipped out of the kettles into a large trough or cistern, where it cools, and deposits a fine, red, earthy sediment, colored by oxide of iron, and held m solution by earbonie acid gas, which is set free when the water first commences boiling, giving it quite a turbid appearance, although it is as clear as rock erystal when running from the well. When sufficiently settled, the brine is led by a conductor to the graining kettles. Into each kettle is now thrown a small quantity of beef’s blood, and the contents brought to the boiling temperature, when the impurities all rise to the top and are skimmed off, leaving the brine of extreme purity and transparency. When salt was first manufactured in the west, this depuration was effected by means of aluminous earth, found in caves and clay banks. As the boiling proceeds, the crystallizing process commences on the surface of the water, im small hollow cubes, gradually enlarging, until their specific gravity forces them to the bottom. When the kettles stand some time without heat, as is the case at these works, on the Sabbath, the water becomes cold, and on the surface are found most beautiful specimens of salt crys- tallization, resembling an inverted hollow pyramid, nearly an inch in diameter at the base. These are generally found one within another. While the water is evaporating, the salt, as it forms, is piled up in the middle of the kettle, and when the kettles are dry, it is shoveled into a large trough, whose inclination suffers the bittern, or “ mother water,” to drain off. When tolerably dry, it is transferred to the “salt house,” where it again drains still more, and is then packed in barrels, ready for market. Each barrel contains from five to six bushels, of fifty pounds weight. A furnace of the above size, when well managed, will make three hundred bushels of salt per week, the average price of which, for some time past, has been about twenty five cents per bushel. At some of the furnaces, a beautifully white and delicate salt is made, for table use, fully equal to any of the best Liverpool “blown salt.” Alum, or coarse salt, has not yet been made at any of the Muskingum works. Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. . 57 A plan and description of the rock formation, in the salt region on the Muskingum river, near McConnelsville, Ohio, eight hundred and twenty feet of which are taken from the original minutes of L. G. Barker, kept while boring his salt well in 1831. N.B. As it would occupy too much space to give a regular scale, in proportion to each formation, therefore the table will be so construct- ed as to take up no more room than will be needed to describe each deposit, with its thickness and color. ., The first column contains the number of the series, with their order; the second, the stratum; the third, its thickness in feet and japhiess The description commences with the most recent deposit, one hundred and eighty two feet above. the Map of the salt well. : Rewant of the Editor.—Dr. Hildreth has given the local .terms of the country to the strata; this accords with the general practice in Europe, where, local matters of fact, relating to mining operations, are frequently stated inthe language of the workmen; for, the miners and borers for salt water and coal are rarely familiar with the terms of geo- logical science. By applying the scientific language, now adopted in England and elsewhere, for the members of the salt formation, the list of strata, in the subsequent table, would doubtless be greatly reduced in the number of its members, and the names of some of them would, undoubtedly, be altered; but we will not venture on the task; cer- tainly not without access to arranged specimens, from the places de- scribed, or better still, to. the strata themselves. No. Description of strata. Thickness—feet. inch. ie Superincumbent soil, composed of alluvion, diluvion, , plastic clay, marl, and earths of different colors, em- bracing red,* orange, pale dun, and ash colored, with vegetable mould, by estimation, iis 50 2. Sand rock.—This rock embraces many different vari- eties, from very coarse grained to very fine, and * Beds of fine nodular oxide of iron, are found in many places, formed in the red or brown marl of the uppermost formation. This marl, before exposure to the at- mosphere is in a stony state, and of a slaty structure, often containing impressions of fern. These impressions are also found on the ore itself. As the side hills are washed away by rain, the nodules of ore tumble out and are found lying on the sur- face along the face of the slope, in large quanties. This red, marly deposit seems to be peculiar to the salt region, and increases in frequency and in thickness as we approach the Alleghany range of mountains. The soil formed from its decomposition is stiff, but very productive. It contains a large share of calcareous matter. Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 8 58. Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. No. Description of strata. Thickness—feet. inch. often contains mica between the layers or beds. Near the top of this formation the beds are thin, varying from two to twelve inches, and increasing to many feet in thickness. near its bottom ; the lower > strata often contain fossil vegetable remains. Beds of coal are also found at various depths, but gener- ally thin, the thickest being near the base of the hills. 80 3. A grey colored, fine, argillaceous stone, generally free from mica; very compact and heavy, containing geodes of argillaceous iron. ‘This rock is sometimes of a laminated structure, containing many fossil vege- table remains of fern, palm leaves, &c. - - 20 4. Bituminous coal.*—This deposit, with the superin- cumbent slate, varies in thickness from three to nine » or more feet. Vegetable impressions are common in the slate stone above the coal. ‘The coal is easily fractured in the course of its horizontal direction, every lamina being divided by a thin layer of pure charcoal, exhibiting the grain and fibre of a woody structure. Its vertical fracture is glistening. Large quantities of iron pyrites are found amongst the slate and sometimes in the coal itself. . It contains much bitumen, and burns with great freedom, - -- 9 5. Sparry lime rock; eight or ten feet in thickness, with © -a bed of fine white clay over it, between the coal © and limestone ; color light grey, and often containing iron pyrites, in droealee and many sided crystals, but generally free of fossil shells, from this place to the mouth of the Muskingum. . Higher up, in the vicinity of Zanesville the lime rock abounds in fossils. - - 10 6. Argillaceous sandstone. ace bluish. The rock in which the boring for salt water commences, when exposed to rain and atmospheric influence, it is read- ily decomposed, into a light pulverulent earth. - 53 _ * In some places two or three beds of coal are found, between the bottom and the top of the sandstone hills, but generally thin, or only one or two feet thick. No. Jee) bt. 12. 13. 14, 15. 16. bids 18. 19. 20. Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 59 Description of strata. Thickness—feet. inch. . 4 rock called here red argillite, or soapstone, being a species of marl, and boring very easily, from ten to . twelve feet in twenty four hours - = - 226 . Lime rock, hard and compact, boring about eighteen inches in twenty four hours. This stratum in some wells contains iron pyrites of very brilliant appear- ance. - - = - = ye ee - - 3 . Blue sandstone, more compact than the upper stratum. 21 Slate rock.—At this depth, fossil shells were found in bituminous shale, on Salt Creek, a few miles north east of this. = = - - = - 106 Grey flint rock in some portions of it mixed with a little sand. . This rock is extremely hard, the avork- men, with the greatest exertions, being unable to penetrate more than two or three inches per day, of twenty four hours. Five miles above McConnels- ville, this rock’ comes to the surface in the bed of the river, making a small ripple; and showing a cor- responding dip to the south, in all the rock strata, of a little more than one hundred feet in that distance. The dip still continues for several miles below, as far as any wells have been bored. 2 hee inaro vue Dl Very hard slaty rock, probably mixed with iron. 15 Black soapstone. - - - - 4 Yellow soapstone,* with sand intermixed. - - 35 Blue soapstone,* without sand. —- cae) Si) B Sandstone; very compact, and the lower part of the stratum nearly white, or very light colored. shove Red. soapstone, highly colored with oxide of iron, soft in texture, and boring from four to five feet per day. - - - - = eines OZ Stratum of dark carbonaceous matter, highly impreg- nated with petroleum, and resembling powdered charcoal. - - - - - 10 Blue slate mixed with grit, some parts of which are tolerably dense, boring from three to four feet per day.- - - - - - - 66 Slate stone, soft and fine, light blue color. Sdlihineheontea i Called also argillite, in the MS. 22. 23. 24, 25. 26. 27, 28. 29. 30. 3l. 32. 33. 34, 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. A8. 49. Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. Description of strata. Thickness—feet. inch. . Soapstone, in which appears some salt water from the stratum of sandstone below, boring from five to’seven feetmper day. oy ei - - - Hard white sand rock, called the upper salt rock ; insthis appeared some salt water, with a discharge of carburetted hydrogen gas. - - oe Slate stone.’ - - - - - White or hght grey sandstone. ph a Slate stone with yellow ochre mixed. A watchin Bituminous coal. quia Os - - White sandstone. - - mini dis Bite Bituminous coal. - - ~ Ue Slate and soapstone. - - oe - Slate intermixed with sand of bibs tint. - Soapstone.* - - - - -. White or light grey sandstone. - - Slate rock. - te Very hard, dark colored rail scsbavly sia with iron. Laght colored slate mixed with sand. Soa Blue slate stone, the upper sane of stratum nba black. - = = ud u White sandstone, very hard. Soe nite Z Blue slate rock. - = 3 ¥ Very hard rock, iron stone, dade pay one inch per day. - - - - - nett Lnght colored slate, mixed with sand. - Very hard rock, iron stone boring, one finch per day. Black slate rock. = = ik x Hard blue sandstone. - = a “ Bituminous coal. sy 2 e cs Hard sandstone, part brown and batt light colored. Bituminous coal. - -° : é White slate. - - NT NR 3 Very light colored sandstone. - - White calcareous sandstone, with particles of pure salt intermixed, very dense in its texture, and affording but a small quantity of water. - - - * Called also argillite, in the MS. 120 34 36 34 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 61 No. Description of strata. Thickness—feet, inch. 50. Grey or dirty sand rock, tolerably hard and very uni- form in its texture or density. —- - - 652 51. Blue sandstone, hard and uniform in density, boring ‘from eight to twelve inches in twenty four hours. TA, 52. Pure white calcareous sand rock, full of cells and va- cant places, as if dissolved by water, the auger sometimes dropping several inches at once. ‘This stratum is only about forty feet in thickness, and is the lower salt rock, affording much stronger water than the upper, and a more steady and copious supply. - - - - -. 40 53. Light blue sand rock, lying under the salt rock, this was penetrated only ten or fifteen feet, but afforded no additional water, and here the boring ceased; no salt water has ever been found below the white cal- careous sand rock, although at the mouth of Salt ‘Creek, eighteen miles above, where the lower salt rock is only four hundred and fifty feet from the sur- face they have penetrated four hundred feet, below it. - - - - - - 10 Total, feet, 1001 7 The first one hundred and eighty two feet in the foregoing esti- mate are occupied by the uplands and rock strata above the well. The last eight hundred and nineteen feet and seven inches are oc- cupied by the strata through which the well passes. -Carburetted Hydrogen Gras. All salt wells afford more or less of this interesting gas; an agent intimately concerned in the free rise of the water, and universally present where salt water is found. Indeed so strong is the evidence afforded by the rising of this gas to the surface, of the existence of the salt rock below, that many wells are sunk on this evidence alone. It is, without doubt, a product of the saliferous formation, as it rises in many wells without any appearance of petroleum, which latter pro- duct is probably generated, by bituminous coal, and in all wells from a depth far below where coal has been discovered in sufficient quantity to furnish such 'an immense and constant supply as is con- tinually rushing from the earth in these saliferous regions. In many 62 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. wells, salt water and inflammable gas rise in company with a steady uniform flow. In others, the gas rises at intervals of ten or twelve hours, or perhaps. as many days, in vast quantity and with over- whelming force, throwing the water from the well to the height of fifty, or a hundred feet in the air, and again retiring within the bowels of the earth to acquire fresh power for a new effort. This phenom- enon is called ‘ blowing,” and is very troublesome and vexatious to the manufacturer. The explosion is sometimes so powerful as to cause the copper tube which lines the upper part of the well to col- lapse, and to entirely misplace and derange the fixtures aboutit. By constant use’ this difficulty is sometimes overcome, by the exhaustion of the gas, and in others the well has been abandoned as hopeless of amendment. A well on the Muskingum, ten miles above McCon- nelsville, at six hundred feet in depth, afforded such an immense quantity of gas, and in such a constant stream, that while they were digging, it several times took fire, from the friction of the iron on the poles against the sides of the well, or from scintillations from the au- ger; driving the workmen away, and communicating the flame to the shed which ieee the works. It spread itself along the surface of the earth, and ignited other com- bustible bodies at the distance of several rods. It became so trouble- some and difficult to extinguish, when once ignited, being in this res- pect a little like the “ Greek fire,” so celebrated by Gibbon, that, from this cause only, the well has been entirely abandoned. In the days of superstition and ignorance, this would doubtless have been at- tributed to the anger of the Genius, who presided over-the spot, and thus protected it from the unhallowed approaches of man. At R. P. Stone’s well, on the opposite side of the river a little be- low McConnelsville, the gas rises in small regular puffs, or dis- charges, averaging one to every minute or two; causing the water to flow in jets from the spout, as it falls into a large cistern below. The water rises in the head through a bored log to the height of twen- ty five feet above the surface of the earth. Through a hole in the top of a small receiver, or cap, the gas issues in a constant stream, and when a candle or torch is applied, kindles into a beautiful flame, burning steadily, until extinguished by closing the hole, affording in the stillness and darkness of midnight, a striking and interesting phenomenon. It is supposed, that this well alone furnishes sufficient gas, if properly applied, to light the town very handsomely. No petroleum rises with it, and very little in any of the other wells at this Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 63 locality. ‘The quantity of gas in different wells varies very consid- erably ; all however afford sufficient to keep the water in constant agitation over the mouth of the well. The supply of water depends very much on the quantity of gas discharged. A few miles above Charleston, on the Big Kenhawa, great quanti- ties of the carburetted hydrogen are slowly emitted, through the earth A tract of several rods in extent near the river bank is so charged with it, that on making shallow cavities in the sand, and applying a fire brand, it immediately becomes ignited and burns with a steady flame for an indefinite period, or until extinguished by covering it with sand. ‘The boatmen, a rude but jolly race, often amase them- selves by tracing a circle in the sand around some one of the com- pany unacquainted with the mystery, and applying fire, a flame im- mediately springs up, as if by magic, around the astonished wight, which being entirely confined to the circle traced, adds much to his terror, and increases the delight of the boisterous spectators.: In a short time the sand beneath the burning gas becomes red hot. The neighboring women sometimes make use of it to boil their water, when washing clothes on the bank of the river; and boatmen occasionally cook their food in the same easy and cheap manner. This spot would afford a fine site for the temple of the fire worshippers of an- cient Persia. In low stages of the water, gas and oil are seen oozing from the bed of the river at various points. On the little Muskingum river, a few miles from Marietta, this gas is discharged in many pla- - ces; often through a pool, or sink hole filled with water, in which case it is called “a burning spring.” Petroleum is often found ri- sing from the earth near the spring. Throughout the whole salifer- ous region, so far as I have any knowledge, on penetrating the salt rock, a greater or less quantity of carburetted hydrogen gas is dis- charged through the opening—in some places accompaned by Petro- leum, and in others without this coéxistent production. Petroleum or Fossil Oil. Since the first settlement of the regions west of the Apallachian range, the hunters and early pioneers have been acquainted with this oil. Rising in a hidden and mysterious manner from the bowels of the earth, it soon arrested their attention, and acquired great value in‘the eyes of these simple sons of the forest. Like some miracu- lous gift from heaven, it was thought to be a sovereign remedy for nearly all the diseases common to those primeval days, and from its 64 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. success in rheumatism, burns, coughs, sprains, &c. was justly enti- tled to all its celebrity. _ It acquired its name of Seneca oil, that by which it is generally known, from having first been found in the vicin- ity of Seneca Lake, N. York. From its being found in limited quan- tities, and its great and extensive demand, a small vial of it would sell for forty or fifty cents. It is, at this time, in general use among the inhabitants ofthe country, for saddle bruises, and that complaint called the scratches, in horses. It seems to be peculiarly adapted to the flesh of horses, and cures many of their ailments with wonderful certain- ty and celerity. Flies and other insects havea natural antipathy to its effluvia, and it is used with much effect in preventing the deposit of eges by the “ blowing fly,” in the wounds of domestic animals during the summer months. In neighborhoods where it is abundant, it is burned in lamps in place of spermaceti oil, affording a brilliant light but filling the room with its own peculiar odor. By filtering it through charcoal, much of this empyreumatic smell is destroyed and the oil greatly improved in quality and appearance. It is also well adapted to prevent friction in machinery, for being free of gluten, so common to animal and vegetable oils, it preserves the parts to which it is applied, for a long time, in free motion—where a heavy vertical shaft runs in a socket, it is preferable to all or any other articles. This oil rises in greater or less abundance in most of the salt wells on the Kenhawa, and collecting as it rises, in the head on the top of -the water, is removed, from time to time, with a ladle, and put by for sale or use. The greater abundance of stone coal in this locality, than that of the Muskingum, gives it a decided advantage in the elabo- ration of petroleum. On the latter river, the wells afford but little oil, and that only during the time the process of boring is going on; it ceas- es soon after the wells are completed; and yet all of them abound more or less in gas. A well on Duck Creek, about thirty miles north of Marietta, owned by Mr. McKee, furnishes the greatest quantity of any inthis region. It was dug in the year 1814, and is four hundred and seventy five feet in depth. Salt water was reached at one hun- dred and eighty five feet, but not in sufficient quantity ; however, no more water was found below this depth. The rocks passed, were similar to those on the Muskingum river above the flint stratum, or like those between the flint and salt deposit, at McConnelsville. A bed of coal two yards in thickness, was found at the depth of one hun- dred feet, and gas, at one hundred and forty four feet, or forty one feet above the salt rock. -Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 65 The hills are sandstone, based on lime, one hundred and fifty or two hundred feet in height, with abundant beds of stone coal near their feet. ‘The oil from this well is discharged periodically, at in- tervals of from two to four days, and from three to six hours duration at each period. Great quantities of gas accompany the discharges of oil, which for the first few years, amounted to from thirty to sixty gal- lons at each eruption. ‘The discharges at this time are less frequent, and diminished in amount, affording only about a barrel per week, which is worth at the well from fifty to seventy five cents a gallon. A. few years ago, when the oil was most abundant, a large quantity had been collected in a cistern holding thirty or forty barrels. At night, some one engaged about the works approached the well-head with a lighted candle. ‘The gas instantly became ignited, and com- municated the flame to the contents of the cistern, which giving way, suffered the oil to be discharged down a short declivity into the creek, whose waters pass with a rapid current close'to the well. The oil still continued to burn most furiously ; and spreading itself along the surface of the stream for half a mile in extent, shot its flames to the tops of the highest trees, exhibiting the novel, and perhaps never be- fore witnessed spectacle of a river actually on fire. Strength of the salt water. The greater or less degtee of saturation in the water of the differ- ent salines must depend on circumstances, and is influenced by sev- eral causes. It may meet with springs of fresh water as it rises near the surface, which, often times, greatly diminishes its strength. A well may perhaps only reach the upper stratum, which generally affords a weaker water than the lower, or if it descends to the lower saliferous rock, it may be at a spot not so fully impregnated with saline matter, and thus it will afford a much weaker water. ‘The strength of a water is usually ascertained by its weight; whatever it may weigh over and above the weight of an equal amount of rain water, is put down for its salt producing quality. This quality.when put to the test by the manufacturer, it will, however, more than sustain,* although the strict chemical analysis would produce a result coinciding with its actual weight. On comparing the two modes, they stand as follows. One pint of water from the Muskingum saline, weighs one pound, two _ounces and one hundred and sixty grains, and requires seventy five * Owing obviously to other substances besides the salt.—Ed. Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 9 66 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. gallons by weight to produce fifty pounds of salt, allowing it to contain no other ingredient than muriate of soda. One pint of rain water by the same measure weighs one pound and one ounce. On evaporating ‘the same water, it produced within fifty grains of two. ounces of salt, equally dry with that put up for sale at the furnaces. On lying a few months, the weight is diminished ten or fifteen per cent, by the drain- age of bittern, composed principally of the muriate of lime, and the muriate of magnesia. By this experiment, one gallon of the water affords fifteen ounces of salt, and it would require less than fifty four gallons to make fifty pounds. ‘The general estimate of the manufac- turers, is however, from fifty five to sixty gallons for every bushel of salt. ‘Some of the wells afford a stronger water, than this, making a bushel from fifty gallons. One pint of the Kenhawa water, weighs one pound, two ounces and forty four grains, giving of saline water, one ounce and forty four grains; the water from the river weighing one pound and one ounce by the same measure. ' By this estimate, it will require ninety one gallons to make a bushel of fifty pounds weight of salt. But, as man-- ufactured at the furnaces seventy five gallons will produce that amount, when by the weight of the water that number of gallons should afford only forty one pounds of salt. This difference can be readily accounted for, by the aqueous particles contained in the salt, it seldom or never being perfectly dry. When carefully manufac- tured, the western salt is as pure and as white as the Liverpool; but, for preserving meat in a hot climate is not considered by the packers and inspectors to be quite equal to the alum or rock salt, the crystallization of which being conducted by slow evaporation, is freer from earthy muriates, than the salt made by fire. ‘The re- ‘cent discovery of making coarse or alum salt by the aid of steam and now in operation at the Kenhawa salines, (as described in this pa- per,) will obviate or remove this difficulty ; and be of immense ad- vantage to the farming and commercial interests of the country. Temperature and analysis of the water. From the theory espoused by late writers on the subject of the in- creased heat of the earth, as we descend towards the centre, I was led to expect that the water rising from the deepest wells would show a temperature above that of the adjacent springs, wells of fresh wa- ter, or the mean annual temperature of the place where the wells are Suliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 67 situated. On conversing with the manufacturers on the subject, they were generally of the opinion that the water was not any warmer and some thought it to be evidently colder. On application of the ther- mometer to one of the deepest wells at McConnelsville, being eight hundred and nineteen feet, the water, as it rushed up from the bot- tom of the well in a constant stream, was found to be only fifty two degres of Fahrenheit, which is very near the actual mean temperature of that spot. In a well four hundred feet deep, three miles below Zanesville, the water as it rises is 50°, and in a fresh water well, for- ty feet deep, the thermometer stands af 53°, near by the. salt well. Whether the salt can have any operation in reducing the tempera- ture I do not know. Salts, while in the act of dissolving, produce cold, but, unless the solution is constantly going on, we can see no reason why the saline waters should remain permanently cold; what- ever may be the reason, | was disappointed in the result. The water of the Muskingum salines has not been accurately analyzed, but the following is the analysis of the Kenhawa water, conducted by a gen- tleman fully competent to the task. | Muriate of soda, _ 3 : : ; i 56. Muriate of lime, . ‘ 4 : . Fit ees Carbonate ofiron, . : : ‘ ; : ld Free carbonic acid, . . 5 , : Atte Be WValers ec i eee ie : ‘ : » - UG. ~1000. The analysis of the bittern shows some additional ingredients. Muriate of lime, . . ‘ : ‘ eilinaaoe Muriate of magnesia, .. : earch Ki pOs Muriate of potash, . : EM ina 22. Muriate’ of ‘soda, : 4 sinned “6 3, OBe Bromide of calcium, a trace, - : : Water,. . . , de haray ‘ ot ee Suid as 1000. From these analyses it would appear that no sulphates are contain- ed in the waters, and that neither Epsom or Glauber’s salts could be made, as they are at the works on the sea board. They would af- ford some magnesia but not in sufficient quantity to make its manu- facture profitable. The amount of muriate of soda that might be pro- duced is without limit. At present, the quantity manufactured at the several works established along the valley of the Ohio, from Kiski- 68 Expression of the sides of Right-angled Triangles, &c. minitas above Pittsburgh to Shawaneetown in Illinois amounts to be- tween two and three millions of bushels annually. "The works at Kenhawa alone furnish twelve hundred thousand bushels, and those on the Muskingum between three and four hundred thousand. Large quantities’ are made at Kiskiminitas or Konemaugh, Pa. and at Yel- low Creek in Columbiana County,-Ohio. Salt is also made in con- siderable quantities on the Big Hockhocking and on Leading Creek. When that beautiful, but simple process of manufacturing by atmos- pheric evaporation, and that still more interesting one by steam, are carried more extensively into use, the people of the west will have nothing farther to desire, either in the abundance, or in the excel- lency of that great and indispensable article, marine or culinary salt. Arr. VI.—On the Expression of the sides of Right-angled Trian- gles, by Rational and Integral numbers; by Rev. Dantex Wiixre. In a late number of your excellent Journal,* there appear two in- genious methods of finding the sides of right-angled triangles in in- featal numbers. The first of these methods is the following—Rule.—“'Take any two numbers whose difference is 2. Their-sum will be the root of one square ; their product that of the other. Add 2 to the product just found, and you obtain the root of the sum of the squares, or the hy- - pothenuse.” This method affords a number of curious results, and farnishes a great number of answers,+ yet it is evidently limited to those cases in which the hypothenuse exceeds the next greater side by 2, or to multiples of these. The second method is simpler and more general. It is as follows. * Assume m, n, p, any rational numbers, so that n be greater than p, then, m(n?-+p?), Oe ) and 2 m2 Py will be the sides of the required triangle.” As the quantity m is a multiplier of all the terms, and does not . otherwise enter into the formation of the rule, it may be omitted. The limitation that 2 be greater than p, is also unnecessary. The following method is proposed, as somewhat simpler, and more general than those above stated. * Vol. xx, No. 2. . + And is accompanied by a demonstration. Expression of the sides of Right-angled Triangles, &c. 69 Let m, and n, be any rational numbers whatever ; then m?-+-n?, m? —n?, and 2mn, will be sides of a right-angled triangle. For, (m? +n?) 2 = (m2 —n?) 2+ (2mn)?. If m remains constant for any set of examples, and 7 be succes- sively increased by unity; the hypothenuse will increase by the fol- lowing series, 3, 5, 7, &c. the base will decrease by the same series, and the perpendicular will increase constantly by 2m. In the following examples m remains constantly equal to 10, and x increases by successive units. The required triangular sides may be extended ad infinitum by the process above explained, without changing the value of m. If m be changed, other series equally un- limited will arise. m n hyp. base. perp. 10 Bike LOM AG mK MOT heUO Oey Maths ven pe AD es 1044 914 CGH Ke 40 Bh rum mewel Hh OOe vin Oia iviigy 60 yeh i LIGiWya's BAnosene 80 none LDS with Bae le 100 eee ec ae Gane Sentient 0 Te PAD) i aa 140 Biities REA ee B60 160 One HSI Ve POs gee aead’ oS OVO 200—sié= Ore 200 Wa 221 2 OP iigias cir 220 T2yem DAA phe AA eis BAG 1B,tyj4 = 969 +.) = 63, jan 260 DAY oily DOG. 3 OGuiay as 280 es Oi as ee 300 Ge “ie 25 GW mula Welaoue wwe 320 Huns BEOwi i ue HS Ob net= 340 Si iets ADAM DOA i tear iSO Qe ait AGW ih 261 «- 380 BOM hae SOO N= 200) th oy an 2OOiece: BO tei OO Oi thehe SOO kui 600 AOs ial eels LTOON tid SEE itl SOO a9) w= 800 BOWiy (My 2600 ech seh oH ZAOOH Ay hy, OOO Eze: FE rom this set of examples, it will be seen, 1. That when m=2, then the hypothenuse and perpendicular are equal, and the base vanishes. 2. That as increases above m, the bases are negative, that is, they lie on the contrary side of the perpendicular. 70 Plan of the Locks at Cincinnati, Ohio. 3. That they now increase. 4. That from this point, the bases and roid: have all a common difference, in this case 200. 5. Asn increases from 1 to m, the ratio of the perpendicular to the hypothenuse increases, till it reach its maximum, namely a ratio of equality, when m=n. 6. This ratio afterwards decreases from equality. 7.. The legs of the isosceles right-angled triangle, cannot be ex- pressed in this manner, not being rational numbers. 8. Nor for the same reason can the triangle of 30°, at thes base, be thus expressed, since, though the base is half the bypothignuses the perpendicular is not rational. 9. While 7 is less than m, the sum of the base and hypothenuse remains constant, and is equal to the co-versed sine of the angle con- tained by these two sides. t 10. When n exceeds m, the sum of the base and hypothenuse, (the former being negative,) is still equal to the same constant quan- tity, but is then, the versed-sine of the same angle. Quebec, December 28, 1832. Art. VII.—Plan of the Locks at Cincinnati, Ohio; by Darius Laruam, Assistant Engineer. o TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir.—As there have, within a few years, been many im- provements in the construction of locks on canals, which have not been noticed in any treatise on that subject, within the knowledge of the writer, it has been thought that a concise description of the locks which are now in an advanced stage of construction in the city of Cincinnati, Ohio, accompanied with a drawing, would be acceptable to the numerous readers of your valuable Journal. Should you think that the following description and plan of those locks, have sufficient merit to justify their insertion in the American Journal of Science and Arts, they are entirely at your disposal. From the intersection of the Miami canal with Main street, in the city of Cincinnati, to the lowest water in the Ohio river, there is a fall of one hundred and twelve feet, which is overcome by ten locks ; nine of eleven feet, and the lower one, of thirteen feet lift. They are placed in a right line, and at such distance apart as will admit of two boats passing each other between them. For the purpose of Plan of the Locks at Cincinnati, Ohio. 71 admitting keel boats, coal arks, sections of lumber rafts, &c. to pass to the upper part of the city, the locks are increased in width to eight- een feet. The stones for the face of the walls, are obtained one hun- dred miles up the Ohio river, at a place which the proprietor has na- med Rockville; and brought down on‘scows by the aid of a steam boat. The whole work is taken by contract by Mr. Joun Loven- RY; and it is under the direction and superintendance of Mr. Samu- EL Forrer, whose reputation as an Engineer is no unenviable dis- tinction. In the drawing are represented, the ground plan, and an elevation, of one of those locks, by a scale of twelve feet to an inch. The foundation is composed of timber one foot thick, and laid transversely, from four to six inches asunder; the interstices are fil- led with puddle of clay and gravel slightly wetted and compressed with wooden rammers. Sheet piling are placed at each gate entire- ly across the foundation, four feet deep, consisting of two inch plank, jointed, and placed on end, resting against a stick of timber in the bottom, and against one of the dogs at the top. On these timbers is laid a floor of three inch plank, which is jointed except under the walls. Both mitre sills are placed on this floor. The lower one is nine inches high; the top of which coincides with the bottom of the canal; the upper one is made eighteen inches high, so that the gates will be less liable to obstruction from gravel. ‘They are made at an angle of twenty eight degrees; and fastened down near the vertex with bolts. Over the three inch floor, within the walls, a lining of two inch plank is laid, and the whole secured to the timbers with ten inch spikes. The face stone of the masonry is laid in mortar, and the rubble wall is grouted. It is required by the contract that there shall be a header in every ten feet in length; the stones are obtained of such size, that it is very seldom, that there is not a header at each end of every stretcher. ‘The edges of the face stones are rusticated or chamfered, which gives to the walls a bold and beautiful appear- ance. Particular attention is paid, in placing the headers at the hol- low coins, so that each stone which has a hollow coin cut in it, shall have a header resting upon i. This is effected by placing them alternately, in each course, above and below the hollow coin. The walls are covered with coping three feet wide, and not less than one foot in thickness; at the head of the lock the coping is two feet thick. 72 Plan of the Locks at Cincinnati, Ohio. Around each lock, the water for the supply of the canal, is carri- ed in a canal for that purpose; and near the foot, it tumbles over a breast of masonry, into the basin below. ‘This tumble is connected with the lock walls, and from below, exhibits the appearance of a double lock. Recesses are made in the sides of the tumble for the insertion of plank to regulate the supply of water. The lock gates are constructed of timber in the usual manner, con- sisting of a coin and mitre post, connected together by ties or arms. On the top of these posts, rests a large lever or balance beam, which serves to keep the gate balanced, and by means of which the gate is opened and shut. ‘The: gates lap two inches and a half below the top of the mitre sill, but the coin post extends to within an inch of the floor. In the lower end of this post is mserted the cast iron sock- et, a, Fig. 1, and secured by a band of iron; the step 6, Fig. 1, is let into the floor, in the centre of the hollow coin, and fastened with spikes, on which the gate turns. ‘The arms are more firmly secured to the coin post by Ts and Ls, connected by bolts with screws. To the mitre post, the arms (except the lower one) are connected by a dove-tail tenon and key, reaching through the post. The up- per and lower arms only, are secured to the mitre post with T's and Ls.. The end of the balance beam is secured to the mitre. post by a strap of iron passing over it, and extending down on each side of the post, and connected by bolts and screws. This end of the beam is also banded, to prevent it from being split by the concussion of boats. The beam is fastened to the coin post to’ prevent it from ri- sing by the high water. That part of the beam which lies over the gate is left square on the top, so that when the gates are shut, they form a foot bridge, which aids the lock tender in his duties. ‘The gate is retained in its place by a collar around the coin post at the top; this is attached by keys to circular iron bars which are bolted to the coping. if During the time of a high flood in the Ohio river, five of these locks will be covered with water, so that it willbe necessary to secure the gates from floating. In order to do this, it is proposed to put a per- manent band around the top of the coin post, with the under side lev- el with the coping, as seen in Fig. 2, at a. In the middle of the pe- riphery of the hollow coin, a groove is cut to receive an iron bar 6, four feet long ; the lower end of this bar is inserted in the wall; atthe top is a head or projection, which covers the band and prevents the gates from rising. . yp woydv 7 (T pas TLIVANIONL) Te SMPOT ott yO NW Td! | | | i) NK Hy (i) 2 sai To) Methods of describing Various Curves for Arches. 73 King’s patent cast iron paddle gates are, used for filling and dis- charging the lock. They are inserted in the lock gates adjoining the coin post, between the two lower arms. ‘The form of this gate is represented in Fig. 3 ;—a, is the blade of the gate; 6 and c, are the fixtures which are attached to the arms of the lock gate, and in which the paddle gate turns. A short post is placed between the lower arms at the breadth of the paddle gate from the coin post. The paddle gate is hung on the upper side of the lock gate, so that when open, the blade will not project on the lower side. Into the socket in the top of the paddle gate, a large rod is inserted, which extends above the balance beam, and on the top is placed a wrench by which the gates are turned. At d, a portion of figure 6 is represented sepa- rate, which can be detached, and the paddle gate inserted, or remo- ved as occasion may require. Cincinnati, January 21, 1835. Art. VIII.—On the methods of describing various curves for Arches ; by J. Tuomson, Civil Engineer, Nashville, Tenn. TO THE EDITOR. Sir.—The following observations on the methods of tracing vari- ous curves for arches, are submitted for publication in the American Journal, with the hope that they may be found useful to mechanics, by saving the time and labor of tedious calculation. In regard to the method of describing oval arches, the communi- cation of Mr. Miller, in Vol. XXII, No. 2, of this Journal, contains, much useful information; yet the merely practical mechanic, unac- quainted with algebraical calculations, is still uninformed in regard to the method of finding the point D, (fig. 1) or the distance CD, the determination of which is the only difficulty he will encounter. ‘The distance CD, in that communication, is only expressed in indefinite parts, and not by means of a quantity derived from the ratio of AC to CB. In order to find CD, divide the difference of the rise and half span of the arch by the following decimal numbers. Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. - 10 74 Methods of describing Various Curves for Arches. For five ‘centers, divide by 0.794. For sevencenters, ‘“ “ O.771. For nine centers, Ce shen QUT aes For eleven centers, ‘“ ‘* 0.749. The method of finding these divisors will be given hereafter. It may be observed that the last divisor is nearly =0.75, hence when > eleven centers are used, multiply the above difference of rise and half span by 4, and divide by 3, the result willbe the distance CD. Having found CD, make CH=3CD. ‘Take one from the number of centers to be used, and half the remainder will be the number of parts into which CH and CD are to be divided ; CH into equal parts, and CD into unequal parts, increasing from Das 1, 2, 3, &e. Join these points of division, as in the figure, by straight lines, whose intersections will give the centers H, G, F, &c. ‘Thus, when nine centers are used, as in the figure, CH is divided into four equal parts, and CD into the same number of unequal parts, increasing as 1, 2, 3, 4, from the point D. To find the above divisors, put CD=y, AD=z and the given quantities AC =a, and BC=d. Now when the number of centers is given, the broken line.HD is equal to CD multiplied by a constant quantity ; put this constant quantity =c, then HD=cy, and since the broken line AH must be equal to BH, we have x-+-cy=d--3y, whence x=d-+y(3—c), and since AC=AD+CD, a=ytd+y(3—c), hence i vy 7 CD. . In order to apply this general equation, c must be calculated for ‘the required number of centers. For five centers, take CD =any assumed quantity, say three; then by trigonometry we find the sum of ‘ : HD the lines that constitute HD=9.619, hence C= Gp = 3.206. Inthe same way we find for seven centers, c=3.229, and for nine centers e=3.242, and for eleven centers e=3.251. Hence we have for a—d : 0.794 a—a Seven centers, CD=9 7971 Five centers, CD= Methods of describing Various Curves for Arches. 75 i a—d Nine centers, CD=9 756° uh a—d Eleven centers, CD=9 749° Since it is thus almost as easy to trace an oval arch with nine or eleven centers as with three, the description of this arch by means of three centers ought always to be avoided, as it is not only disagreea- ble to the eye, but it is deficient in strength, i consequence of the sudden change of curvature resulting from this mode of description. Perhaps no curve unites beauty and strength in a greater degree than the cycloid. ‘The arch, equilibrated by a horizontal road-way, is remarkable for strength, but it is deficient in beauty. The elliptic arch is perhaps the most graceful, but when the rise is small, compar- ed with the span, it will not admit of great pressure with safety at the crown. ‘The cycloidal arch, with the same rise and span ‘with an elliptic arch, is more curved at the crown than the latter, and hence it will sustaina greater weight at that point, such as a heavy load pas- sing over it. We are not at liberty, however, to choose the ratio between the rise and span of this arch, these being always to each other as the diameter of a circle to the circumference. The mechanical construction of thé cycloid is very easy. The following method I have not seen noticed in any work on Mechani¢s. Having fixed upon the dimension of the half span AC, (fig. 2.) take the rise BC such, that AC will be to BC as half the circumference of a circle tothe diameter, the lmes FH and AE being parallel to each other and perpendicular to AC, and make CH=CB. Let the describing line taken equal to BH or twice BC, be extended from -H to A, and brought to a proper tension by means of the point or pin D. Thecurve AB is then described with the centers D and H. This curve will be an approximation to the cycloid. Fix a number of centers (the more the better) along the curve AB, and with these centers describe the curve BE, which will be a cycloid a8 near as can be obtained by any mechanical means. If, instead of a single point, D, three or four points be taken as centers between H and A, so arranged as to be nearly in a cycloidal curve, and keeping at the same time the lime ADH at its proper tension, the resulting curve AB will itself be a very near approximation to the cycloid; but not much greater sensible accuracy can be attained in the second curve BE, than when a single point Dis first assumed. | 76 Methods of describing Various Curves for Arches. The above method of tracing this kind of arch is derived from the principle, that when any curve or broken line ADH is assumed be- tween the parallel lines AE and FH, the successive developments or involutes AB, BE, &c. between the same parallels, constantly ap- proach to, and finally terminate in a cycloid. ‘These involutes con- verge so rapidly to the form of this curve, that when the above method is adopted, the second involute BE: may always be assumed in practice as the required curve. One advantage that might be mentioned, in tracing curves for arches with a variable radius, is that we may always obtain the height of the road-way above any point in the arch, such that it may be equilibrated by the superincumbent weight. ‘Thus, let DE (fig. 3,) represent a road-way passing over the arch AB, let BC= radius of curvature at, the vertex, Al*=radius of curvature at the point A, DB=height of road-way at the crown, then we have —— HEE Ed al x (cos AHB) _ An arch that will require a gentle elevation of road-way at the crown, in order to produce equilibration, may be described by the following method. Let AD, (fig. 4,) represent the span of the arch, BC the rise; describe an arc CG of a circle on DC asa diameter ; extend the describing line from A to G where it is a tan- gent to the circle; the line being fixed at G, describe the half arch AB with centers arranged along the curve CG, and in the same man- ner describe the half arch BD with centers on CE. If the span AD be =100, AG will be =70.7, and hence the rise BC will be 40. It will be found from the above equation that this arch will be nearly equilibrated by a road-way of the form of LHK, gradually rising at the crown of the arch, when HB is taken equal to about one fourth of the rise. A very graceful arch may be described (fig. 5,) by centers ar- ranged along circles tangent to the span and axis of the arch, at the points D, E,and A, E. This arch will also admit with safety a hor- izontal road-way. . The span of this arch will be to the rise as 2r to _ $¢e—r, r being the radius of a circle, and c the circumference, or the ratio will be as 1 to 0.2854. The use however; of arches of this description is limited to cases where we are at liberty to adopt the constant ratio that necessarily exists between their rise and span. Method of describing Various Curves for Arches. 77 78 Magnetic Galvanism. Art. IX.—4 new mode of developing Magnetic Galvanism, by which may be obtained, shocks, vivid sparks and ‘galvanic cur- rents from the Horse-shoe Magnet ; by Joun P. Emmet, Prof. _ of ‘Chemistry in the University of Virginia. THe magnetic apparatus contrived by Nobili and Acacen and by which they were enabled to obtain sparks from the horse-shoe magnet, has become so familiar to the scientific reader, in conse- quence of the experiments of Saxton, Faraday and Ritchie, that it is deemed unnecessary to describe it more particularly, upon the pres- ent occasion, than is required in order to understand the difference between its construction and that which I have found to 2 far supe- rior for the exhibition of galvanic phenomena. Nobili’s instrument as described in the Annales de Chimie, &c.* consists of a coil of silk-bound copper wire, around the middle part of the keeper and so confined by a spool or brass plates, as to pass readi- ly between the poles of a horse-shoe magnet. The ends of this coil are turned outwards in opposite directions, and so arranged as to press with elasticity, upon the contiguous poles of the magnet, when the keeper is on, without touching, at any time, the latter part of the ap- paratus. Fig. 1 will convey a sufficiently precise idea of this ar- rangement. ‘The sparks are observed to pass between the ends of the coil, and the contiguous magnetic poles, whenever the keeper is suddenly pulled off, or restored to its place, but if I mistake not, have never been noticed to occur between the keeper and magnet. It is easy to perceive that this mode of developing the galvanic flu- id, is not calculated to go much beyond the immediate object which it accomplished, namely the production of sparks, because both ends of the copper coil being nearly at the same time in contact with the magnet, the galvanic current becomes instantaneously neutralized by circulating through the magnet, as a conductor. Nor is ita very ad- vantageous form for the exhibition of sparks, since a complete fail- ‘ ure,.in this respect, invariably occurs, whenever both the ends of the coil leave the poles of the magnet, or touch them, simultaneously ; or when, from the constant and violent pulling at the keeper, one wire becomes too short to reach the magnet. With a view of obviating these disadvantages and increasing the rapidity of magnetic induction in the keeper, I made the following arrangement. * December, 1831. Magnetic Galvamsm. 79 _Fig. 1., \ Ist. A permanent connection, by means of wires, between one end (Fig. 2. a) of the copper coil and the keeper and between the other end, 6, andthe magnet. The silk-bound wire was wound round the middle of the keeper s, x, covered with silk, and confined between two brass circular plates, faced on the inside with silk (in order to prevent any communication between the centre and outer portion of 80 Magnetic Galvanism. the coil). These plates were perforated at the centres, so as to al- low the keeper to pass through, and then fastened by pins on the out- side. The end of the coil (6 6), connected with the magnet, must, in no case, touch the keeper or the brass plates fastened to it, and, in the figure, it is represented as preserving this intermediate position by means of a string. It is equally necessary that no metallic com- munication should exist permanently Denies the magnet and the keeper, except through the coil. 2nd. Wires, cand e, are firmly fastened to the keeper and magnet, respectively. ‘They serve as conductors of the galvanic fluid, for the purpose of giving shocks, affecting the galvanometer, &c. 3rd. ‘The keeper to touch the magnetic poles as usual, but instead of being pulled, which is at all times an inconvenient process, is to be pushed smoothly but quickly downwards off the magnet. ‘This movement is very easy, and, when well performed, increases aston- ishingly the induced magnetism of the keeper, and, consequently, the galvanic impulse, as is shown by the brilliant scintillations, and the vivid flashes of light, shock, &c. when the conducting wires c and e are taken into the mouth. The magnet, made use of, consisted of seven plates and could not easily sustain more than fifteen pounds. The poles were not much over an inch apart, which is a great disadvantage, by preventing the use of a sufficiently large coil. ‘The poles, it may be observed, should be ground down until they become very smooth and lie, accurately, in the same plane. As tothe keeper, the best form seems to be that which enables it to adhere most firmly. to the magnet (a result pro- moted by the smoothness of surface), for all the galvanic phenomena seems to be in direct proportion to the degree of adhesion. A flat bar of soft iron, about one quarter of an inch thick, and applied at its edge, was found to answer remarkably well and seemed to receive most rapidly, the induced magnetism, as it passed over the magnet. Contrary to expectation a keeper of the highest tempered steel was found to answer very well, even after it had obtained permanent and powerful polarity. With a coil of about thirty yards, the instrument, here described, gave sparks, shocks, flashes, in the eyes, the galva- nic taste to the conducting wires, and some other results, but the ob- servations, which follow, were made with, about one hundred and ten yards of fine copper coil. Five times the quantity could, it is ob- vious, be as easily managed and, by friction over a magnetic surface of twenty plates, would produce very powerful effects. Magnetic Galvanism. 81 Sparks. —These always occur between the keeper and magnet or between the wires ¢ and e when they are brought close enough to each other, but if the latter touch, no sparks can be produced be- tween the keeper and magnet as in this case, a continuous metallic circuit exists by means of the coil and the wires. Gold and silver foils, placed between the keeper and magnet or hung loosely be- tween the wires c and e, exhibit their characteristically colored light, and tinder may be ignited by holding it beneath the magnet when the keeper is passing off. The color of the sparks, is variable, sometimes brilliant white and at others copper red. The number, magnitude and brilliancy of the sparks, are exceedingly increased by this ar- rangement of the instrument. Upon several occasions, owing, ap- parently, to the combustion of shreds from the keeper, I have produ- ced sparks nearly an inch long. No loud snap or noise accompa- nies them and it seems probable therefore, that they are purely gal- vanic, yet when the metallic foils are placed between the magnet and keeper and the latter pulled off, an indistinct os noise may, al- most always, be heard. The brilliancy of the light between the magnet and keeper, will be always greater, by preventing these parts from communicating at any other surfaces than those of the poles. ‘The brass plates, in par- ticular, should be varnished, or covered with silk on the outside, whenever, from the narrowness of the magnet and the quantity of included coil, the chances of contact become frequent. The follow- ing simple expedient, will enable the galvanic light to become appa- rent toaclass. Place a piece of.very fine wire, (such, for example, as the wire upon the finest guitar string,) so as to lie upon the upper part of the keeper and at the same time, press against the face of the magnet, secure its contact by the thumb and draw down the keeper swiftly. The end of the wire, being the last part in contact with the magnet, will give out a brush of brilliant sparks, closely re- sembling those obtained by rubbing together the conducting wires of an active battery. If for the elastic wire, we substitute metallic foils, and arrange them similarly, the sparks will be very brilliant and ex- hibit the characteristic colors. Shock.—This may be felt in the fingers, by touching the magnet with the left hand and sliding the keeper off with the other ; it is al- most always perceived in the fingers resting on the magnet. The wires c and e must, of course, be kept apart. The most disagreea- ble and sudden shocks, are experienced by putting these wires into Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. «> 11 82 Magnetic Galvanism. the mouth, and they are invariably accompanied by strong flashes of light and an acid taste. The increase of effect, owing to the rapid sliding off of the keeper, may, in this way, be rendered very appar- ent, for the shock, at-times, equals that produced by a powerful gal- vanic battery. A sheet of paper interposed between the keeper and. magnet, diminishes the effect, much more than a metallic plate of greater thickness, The magnet, by its connection with the coil, acts a far more im- portant part than as a conductor for the fluid. ‘For the purpose of -giving slight shocks and the galvanic taste, this connection, it is true, may be destroyed by separating the wire 6 from the magnet—all that is necessary is to put the ends, 6 and a, of the coil, into the mouth and to slide off the keeper. ‘These wires will even impart the acid taste by simply rocking the keeper upon the poles of the magnet, yet no sparks appear between these parts until the connec- tion between 6 and the magnet is restored, and, at the same time, the most obvious increase of shock, flashes of light, &c. will be ex- perienced. It is not a little remarkable, however, that this connec- tion between the coil and magnet, wholly destroys the strong galvanic taste of the connecting wires, occasioned by rocking the keeper upon the magnet. Direction and force of the galvanic current, as inilicated by the galvanometer.—One can scarcely refrain, after having experienced, the effects described in this communication, from entertaining the conviction, that the magnet, thus remarkable for its development of galvanism without the intervention or aid of chemical action, will ere long furnish the philosopher with a powerful and novel instrument of analysis; yet, it must be confessed, that its action upon the galvano- meter is quite insignificant, when compared with the smallest sized elementary battery, exposed to weak acids. ‘The galvanometer em-, ployed, was an inferior one, consisting of a single needle and only seven coils of stout copper wire, yet it obeyed readily the impulse given by plates of zinc and copper, not larger than an inch in diam- eter. My first experiments were made with a coil of about thirty yards on the keeper, and, although I distinctly felt the shock, at dif- ferent times, through the sclwinimsiee I never could perceive more. than a tremulous motion of the needle. By substituting, for this latter instrument, a large spool, (fig. 3,) filled with silk-bound copper wire, (about one hundred yards,) the two ends turning out and con- nected with the coil on the keeper, by means of the wires a, 6, I was Magnetic Galvanism. 83 enabled to trace, distinctly, the galvanic current developed by the magnetic power. This simple arrangement furnished a very delicate galvanometer, by placing the spool so as to range, in length, east and west, and a pocket needle upon the upper part of the coil. Upon connecting it with a small galvanic battery, the ends m and n of the spool became north er south, according to the direction of the current, and the temporary polarity, thus developed, was uniformly so powerful, that the needle, in this form, and in that of tle common galvanometer, must be regarded as actually under the influence of a magnet whose poles, being at right angles, occasion the deviation. The current from the magnet is not interrupted by passing through red hot wires. Under these circumstances, both sparks and shocks may be readily obtained. When the coil on the keeper amounted to one hundred yards in length, the common galvanometer was sufficiently affected by the magnetic apparatus, to furnish definite results, but never indicated a greater declination than ten degrees. The galvanic current is appa- rently directed by that of the znduced magnetism of the keeper, the positive one always moving in opposition to the north magnetism. This will account for the following fact. When the magnet is stationary, the pulling or sliding off, produces a current opposite to that resulting from the replacement of the keep- er. Hence.arises the difficulty of effecting an accumulation of gal- vanic power. Indeed, the difference between galvanism, as gener- ated by the battery, and that developed by the magnet, seems to de- pend less upon intensity, at the commencement, than upon the con- tinuity of impulse and subsequent accumulation. ‘The magnet only produces a momentary effect, and this is succeeded by a cownter current, when the keeper is restored. , The galvanic battery, on the contrary, generates these impulses sO rapidly as to create and sustain, in the coil of the galvanometer, » a strong magnetic polarity, which occasions the prompt declination - of the needle. The battery, moreover, has an equivalent, for want of magnitude, in the increase of chemical action. Hence, the merest metallic points may be made sufficient to cause the needle to fly from its meridian. The action of fused nitrate of ammonia upon zinc is equal to that of the strongest acids, as I particularly noticed in a former communication, and by melting this salt in a platinum cruci- ble, connected with one wire of the galvanometer, I found, that when 84 Magnetic Galvanism. slightly touched by the smallest fragment of zinc, also connected with the galvanometer, the most powerful influence was exerted upon the needle: indeed, this seemed to be a more energetic galvanic battery, for the surface, than any of the usual ones for which acid baths are employed. * | Any arrangement which would prevent the iverszon of the gal- vanic current, when the keeper is restored to the magnet, as well as the loss of force, arising from the communication between these parts, would, no doubt, lead promptly to the decomposition of water, and of saline substances, and to a more conspicuous effect upon the galvanom- eter. So unsatisfactory were the results obtained, as to the decompo- sition of saline fluids, that | do not deem it important to mention the evidence in favor of my success, and I shall, therefore, conclude the subject by offering a few observations upon the galvanic currents. The relation existing between magnetism and galvanism must be of the most intimate character, since it can now be shown, that one may appear either as the cause or effect of the other. ‘Thus, the common galvanic arrangement gives rise to magnetism throughout the circuit, in the battery as well as connecting wires, and the mag- netic apparatus, described in this communication, as unequivocally proves that the galvanic power may proceed from a simple magnetic current. ‘The observation of Faraday, that one of these forces, while circulating, occasions another, of a different kind, to move in the op- posite direction, seems to be confirmed by these magnetic experi- ments. ; ' Thus, (fig. 2,) when the keeper, s , is made suddenly to approach the poles of the magnet, its induced northern polarity is repelled to the southern pole, S, of the magnet, and the galvanometer, at the same time, indicates a current of positive galvanism, flowing in the direction of ns, or opposite to that which the induced magnetism had taken. As soon, however, as the keeper touches the magnet, although its polarity is not disturbed, there is no further circulation, and, almost at the same moment, the galvanic fluid ceases to move. If we suppose the existence of two magnetic and two galvanic forces, the same explanation will apply; the negative fluid then being re- garded as moving in opposition to the direction which the south mag- netism takes; the middle portion of the spool being, perhaps, neutral. Rocking the keeper upon the magnet, as already described, pro- duces a constant, though small, deviation of the needle, and, with a sufficiently powerful apparatus, would, perhaps, effect chemical de- composition. Magnetic Galvamsm. 85 The remarkable want of action of magnetic galvatism upon this instrument depends, I think, upon the following circumstance, which 1 do not remember to have seen noticed by any writer upon galvanism. Whenever a corl is made part of the galvanic circuit, there will be a loss of power upon the galvanometer needle. I have not had time to investigate whether the galvanic force is actually diminished, or whether the interposition of coil, in sufficient quantity, could be made to arrest the progress of chemical decomposition, but the effect upon the needle is obvious, and it seems, therefore, highly probable that the coil around the keeper, so necessary for the development of gal- vanism, is yet the true cause of the want of power of the fluid over the magnetic needle. It is obvious, from the common electro-mag- netic experiments, however, that a coil has great influence in impart- ing magnetism to iron, inclosed within it, and the idea occurred to me that the latter could be made to represent the lost or diminished galvanism of the magnet, by placing the iron close enough to the needle. ‘Trial amply confirmed my conjecture and iablerd me to construct a peculiarly delicate galvanometer for this variety of gal- vanic fluid. ‘The arrangement is simple. A fine wire of soft iron, and equal, in length, to the magnetic needle, is to be closely bound with a coil of covered copper wire, from end to end, and the extrem- ities of the coil made to unite with the circuit wires from the magnet and keeper. This coil of bound iron wire is to be placed at right angles to the needle, and as close to it as the coils. of the common galvanometer. Gently sliding off the keeper always occasions a de- viation, but where the motion is performed briskly, an instantaneous declination of 90° and a permanent one of 80° will always follow. _ It is obvious that the iron wire becomes polar by the passage of the galvanic fluid through the investing coil, and so prompt is the effect, that it is difficult to prevent the needle from describing a quarter circle. Its indications are, of course, contrary to those of the common gal- vanometer since the iron wire takes the opposite polarity from that “portion of the coil nearest to it. ‘The wire may be made to receive a change of poles by simply reversing the keeper or magnet, or by put- ting the keeper, without any other change of position, forcibly upon the magnet. ‘The latter is almost always the least effectual mode. It may be regarded as objectionable to this galvanometer, that the iron wire retains its polarity so long. I have observed it to hold for a day, and I suspect it has a power but little short of steel, which, per- haps, it derives from the close approximation of its coil. But its 86 — Magnetic Galvanism. power of holding magnetism depends upon its being undisturbed, and we may, at any time, remove it all, by simply pressing the wire so as to bend it gently backwards and forwards at its center. Upon test- ing this instrument with a galvanic battery, I found that it was not so delicate as the common one when the bath consists of pump water or weak saline solutions, but its value in pointing out the galvanic currents, generated by the magnet, is not diminished by this circum- stance, since the common galvanometer is scarcely affected, and, if the coil upon the keeper be the cause of this defect, it is highly prob- able that extending it will not add to its power over the needle. The magnetic apparatus occasions prompt declination of the nee- dle, by the assistance of this wire, where the ends of the conductors are separated from each other eighteen inches, and plunged into acid- ulated water. If such strong magnetism can be impressed upon soft iron by this arrangement, it is obvious that a galvanometer of infinite delicacy might be constructed by bending fine iron wire, closely bound by a continuous coil, into the form of the coils in the common galvanometer, and increasing their number. ‘This mode would also, I think, furnish the most powerful temporary magnetism by giving the horse shoe form to the wires, and after having united their re- spective coils, so as to make the whole continuous, and bound the wires firmly together to grind down thew ends until they formed smooth polar surfaces. On the Orthography of Hebrew Words. 87 Art. X.—On the Orthography of Hebrew words in the Roman cha- racter; by Prof. J. W. Gisss, Yale College. Every person conversant with Hebrew literature, must have ob- served the inadequate and fluctuating mode of representing Hebrew words in the Roman character generally adopted; and every one who has occasion to write on that language, must have felt the want of a more perfect and uniform system of notation.* The object of the present essay is to offer some hints towards the attainment of such a system. i The problem, here proposed for solution, may be rendered more definite by stating, 1. That it respects the pointed Hebrew text, as it is left us by the Masorites, and as it is exhibited to the eye, modified only by such principles as may be clearly deduced from the Masoretic system itself; -2. That it aims to exhibit all the leading features of the Masoretic punctuation, and to give to each character of importance a distinct and uniform representation; and 3. That the Roman letters chosen to represent the Hebrew, are to give the true sound, with as little ambiguity:as possible to those of any nation who use the Roman alphabet. General principles of the proposed system. I. In Hebrew the consonants only are written on the line, the vow- _ els being written under, over, or in the consonants. ‘This striking pe- culiarity which extends to all the Shemitish languages, may be exhi- bited by using Roman letters for the Hebrew consonants and Italic let- ters for the Hebrew. vowels. II. ‘The six aspirates 2, 4, 4, >, 5, , sometime have a Daghésh inserted in them, in which ease they lose their aspiration. Other- wise they are aspirated. ‘This prominent trait in the Masoretic punc- tuation may be uniformly represented, by appending an h to these * The evils and embarrassments arising from a varying and imperfect orthography have been ably described by Sir William Jones in his Dissertation on the Ortho- graphy of Asiatick Words. Compare J. Pickering’s Essay on a uniform Orthogra- phy for the Indian Languages in North America. 88 On the Orthography of Hebrew Words. letters severally when aspirated, and omitting it. when they are unas- pirated. The sounds represented by bh, gh, dh, kh, ph, and th, are equally simple with those represented by b, g,d,k, p, andt. Of course, these combinations of letters do not express the composition of the sounds. Indeed the French, in expressing several of them, make use, with equal propriety, of ans or z, instead of an h; yet in favor of our mode of representation it may be said, (1.) that these letters, by the common consent of grammarians, are called aspirates ; (2.) that the Greek 3, 0, and x, actually arise from combining +, 7, and x, se- verally, with the spiritus asper, and are expressed in Latin by th, ph, and ch (=kh); (3.) that gh is also used by the Irish for this pur- pose, and that the others bh and dh are formed analogically ; and (4.) that this mode of representation has been adopted in part by many grammarians and in full by Professor Stuart. IH. The letters, x, =, 1, and », frequently quiesce, i, e, lose their sound in that of the preceding vowel point. In order to exhibit this peculiarity, it is proposed to omit the quiescent letter, and to place a circumflex mark, as a sign of ‘proloueauer over the preceding _ vowel. This course has been adopted by De Sacy in reference to the qui- escent letters in Arabic, which he terms letters of prolongation. See his Gram. Arabe, tome i. p. 27, 33, 63. IV. Letters which are otiant, i. e. absolutely mute, may be entire- ly omitted. V. 8 moveable and » have sounds which cannot be represented by Roman letters. Yet they differ so essentially from quiescent and otiant letters, that it is necessary to represent them in some way. The Roman a and Roman o have been selected as the most appropriate signs, for reasons which will appear hereafter. V1. To distinguish letters which have nearly the same:sound, > may be represented ie k and’p by k, w bys and d wh is s,n by t m by t. By this dot we indicate that another character is used in the ori- ginal Hebrew, but not at all the difference of sound. This plan has been adopted, in analogous cases, by oe in his Persian and ° Arabic Dictionary. VII. The long vowels, except when followed by a quiescent, may be marked with ("); when followed by a quiescent, with a pee circumflex (°). On the Orthography of Hebrew Words. 89 VIIE. The short vowels, except when followed by a quiescent, may be marked with (); when followed by a quiescent, win a curved circumflex (~ ys IX. The half vowels may be written in a smaller character and above the line. This method has been adopted by Reseuins and Stuart. X. The tonic accent, when on the ultimate syllable, may be omit- ted ; when on the penult, it may be expressed by (') written immedi- sel after the accented syllable. XI. The euphonic accent may be expressed by (’). XII. Makképh may be expressed by two parallel lines ( = ). XIII. Sclluk may be expressed by a period (.); the other pause accents by a colon (:); disjunctives of the second class by a semico- lon (;); and disjunctives of the third class by a comma (,). Con- junctives need not be expressed.* Remarls on the several leer: and vowel pownts. Aaleph. &, according to the Masoretic punctuation, is either moveable, qui- escent, or otiant. The force of 8 moveable, consisted, like the spiritus lenis (’) of the Greeks, in a gentle emission of the breath from the throat, or rather lungs, and differed from , or the spiritus asper (‘), i being more feeble. It was like the impulse given to the voice when we attempt to pronounce deed in two syllables de-ed, or corner, as if divided thus, corn-er, and may be compared with h in the French word homme, or the Eng. hour. In this way it served to divide syllables, as Syw> yish-aal, not ye-shal. This is the consonant power of x, and was probably its original or primary power. The force of & quiescent, depended on the vowel point which pre- ceded. This was generally a, but sometimes other vowels. This is the vowel power of 8, and was probably a secondary use of this letter. When y had neither the force ofa consonant, nor of a vowel, it was said to be in otio, and was then absolutely destitute of sound. * For this classification of the accents, see Prof. Stuart’s Hebrew Grammar, 8d and 4th editions. Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. © 12 90 On the Orthography of Hebrew Words. The Shemitish Adléph, then, if we may judge from the Masoretic punctuation, was both a consonant and a vowel. ‘The corresponding Alpha of the ancient Greeks, and a of the modern European langua- ges, have retained only the vowel sound. To represent the sound of 8 moveable, we will adopt the Roman a, (1.) because 8, when quiescent, usually quiesces in a; and (2.) because the Roman ais ultimately derived from the Hebrew Aaléph. Hence we merely restore to the Roman a its original consonant power.* Béth. 5 appears to have had two sounds, according as it was written with or without a Daghésh. 2 (without a Daghesh) was aspirated and sounded like the Eng.v. 2 (with a Daghesh) was unaspirated and sounded like b. The Greek Beta is pronounced by the modern Greeks asthe Eng. v. So b in Spanish between two vowels. ‘The Roman b, in the other European languages, has only its usual sound. The Russians retain both sounds. The character v, however, as the representation of 2 aspirated, is liable to some ambiguity, being pronounced by the Germans like f. We will represent it by bh, (1.) because bh or v has the same relation to b, that ph or f has to p; and (2.) because in this way we adopt an uniform mode of representation for all the aspirates. Gimel. 5 had two sounds, according as it was written with or without a Daghésh. 4 (without a Daghesh) was aspirated and pronounced pro- bably like the Irish gh. s (with a Daghesh) was unaspirated and sounded like g hard. The fate of this letter among the different nations has been some- what singular. In Syriac, it seems, asin Hebrew, to have been sometimes aspirated and sometimes not. In Arabic and Persian it is usually pronounced like dzh (Eng. j); but in Egypt and some other provinces it is pronounced like g hard. In modern Greek it is sounded before a, o, u, like g hard; but before ¢, 1, and the diph- thongs having their sound, like the “ng. y. In Russian it partakes of a guttural sound. In French and Portuguese, it is sounded before a, * The necessity of representing $§ moveable in some way has led Professor Stuart to make use of the Hebrew character itself, which ill comports with the other letters. See his Heb. Gram. 2d, 3d, and 4th editions. On the Orthography of Hebrew Words. 91 0, u, like g hard; but before e, i, y, like zh. In Italian and English it is sounded before a, 0, u, like g hard; but before e, i, like dzh, (Eng. j). In Spanish before a, o, u, like g hard ; but before e, i, with ‘a peculiar guttural sound. In German, Swedish, and Danish, usu- ally like g hard, but sometimes nearly like y, and g final with a pecu- liar guttural sound. In Dutch, usually with a guttural sound. The soft sound of g has fluctuated, then, between dzh, zh, y, anda pecu- liar guttural sound. Amid this variety in the sound of g, it is most probable that the Gimel aspirated in Hebrew had a flat guttural sound, bearing the same relation to g hard, that the sharp guttural sound kh does to k. This sound the Irish are said to express by gh before a, 0, u; and probably the Germans, Dutch, and Shea, express nearly the same by their guttural sound of g. We will represent 4 aspirated by gh, (1.) because this combination of letters is so used by the Irish’; (2.) because this flat guttural sound has the same relation to g hard, that the sharp guttural sound repre- sented by kh has to k; 2a (3.) because in this way we adopt an uni- form mode of fopredeutdon for all the aspirates. Daleth. + had two sounds, according as it was written with or without a Daghésh. 7 (without a Daghesh) was aspirated and sounded like Eng. thin thine. 7 (with a Daghesh) was unaspirated and sounded like d. The modern Greeks give to this letter invariably the form- er sound, and the nations using the Roman character, invariably the latter. We will represent 5 aspirated by dh, (1.) because the sound of th in thine has the same relation to the sound of d that the sound of th in thin has to t; and (2.) because in this way we je an uniform mode of representation for all the aspirates. Hé. = moveable is naturally represented by h. quiescent usually quiesces in a, but sometimes in other vowels. It is treated like the other quiescents. [7 otiant is entirely suppressed. Waw. 1 moveable had the sound of the French ou in ou, or of the Eng. w in we, and is best represented by w. This is much nearer, than the sound of the Eng. v, to the vowel power of 3. 92 On the Orthography of Hebrew Words. 1 quiescent, quiesced in o and u, and is treated like the other qui- escents. ! The consonant power of 1 (w) was probably more ancient, as in the ease of , than its vowel power (u). Zayin. ; had the sound‘of the Eng. z, and is best represented by that character. Hhéth. ris admitted by all to have been a strongly aspirated h, and is best represented by hh. Tét. ‘ . © is represented by t (with a dot under it) to distinguish it from Taw which is represented byt. The difference of sound cannot be determined. Y6édh. + moveable was sounded like the Eng. y, and is best represented by that character. + quiescent usually quiesced in e ori, and is treated like the other quiescents. + otiant is entirely suppressed. The consonant power of 7 (y) was probably more ancient, as in the case of &, than the vowel power (1). Kaph. > had two sounds, according as it was written with or Sithout a Daghésh. > (without a Daghesh) was aspirated and had a guttural sound like the Greek -y or the German ch. > (with a Daghésh) was unaspirated and sounded like k. > aspirated we will represent by kh, (1.) because in this way we adopt an uniform mode of representation for all the aspirates; and (2.) because this mode has already been adopted by De Sacy and Stuart. Lameédh, Mém, Nin. 4, 7, 2, present no difficulty as to their sound or the mode of repre- senting them. : Samekh. > is represented by s (with a dot under it) to distinguish it from’ Sin which is represented by s. - How these letters differed in sound On the Orthography of Hebrew Words. 93 is notagreed. According to Gesenius, Sin may have been an inter- mediate sound between Sdmékh and Shin. In Syriac and Arabic for the two characters only one exists, and the ancient Greeks and Romans adopted only one character. Oayin. The sound of » is peculiar to the Shemitish languages. ‘The an- cient Greeks had no occasion for the sound, and adopted the cha- racter to represent the vowel o. We will represent the Hebrew » by the Roman o, because this character is ultimately derived from the Shemitish », and by so doing we merely restore to 0 its original con- sonant power.* Képh. _p is represented by k (with a dot under it) to distinguish it from Kaph which is represented by k. How these letters differed in sound is not agreed. Some suppose Kaph to have been sounded as if fol- lowed by y, asin Eng. kind, when pronounced kyind. One of these letters was rejected by the Greeks, but both were received into the Roman alphabet as k and q. We express the difference by a dot, as in the case of Sin and Samekh. The use of c and k, or of k and q, would lead to ambiguity, or to the supposition that we mean to de- signate the difference between these sounds, which we do not. Pé. » had two sounds, according as it was written with or without a Daghesh. » (without a Daghesh) was aspirated and sounded like ph orf. » (with a Daghesh) was unaspirated and sounded like p. We will represent 5 unaspirated by ph rather than f, (1.) be- cause this combination of letters is already extensively used for this purpose ; and (2.) because in this way we adopt an uniform mode of representation for all the aspirates. Tsadé, Résh. % is naturally represented by ts, and 5 by r. Sin, Shin. w is naturally represented by s, and w by s. *The necessity of representing yy in some way, has led Antonius ab Aquila, to employ a, De Sacy in some cases (’), and Professor Stuart to use the. Hebrew cha- racter itself. See De Sacy, Gram. Arabe, tome i. pp. 34,62. Stuart’s Heb. Gram. 2d, 3d, and 4th editions. 94 On the, Orthography of Hebrew Words. Taw. nhad two sounds, according as it was written with or without a Daghésh. 1 (without a Daghésh) was’ unaspirated and sounded like Eng. th in thin. 1 (with a Dagheésh) was aspirated and sounded like t. n aspirated we will represent by th, (1.) because this combination of letters is already extensively used for this sound; and (2.) because in this way we adopt an uniform mode of representation for all the as- pirates. Kamets. The sound of (_) was like the open or Italian a, or the English a in father. This is the pronunciation of the Spanish Jews. The Jews of Tiberias, however, in ancient times, gave it a sound nearly approaching that of o. So the German and Polish Jews of the present day. But this pronunciation is thought by the learned to be incorrect, although both the figure and name of the vowel originated from it. ) Kamets being: a long vowel, we shall represent its sound, when pure, by 4, as 123 dabhar ; when impure, by 4, as Nx/2 matsd, m3 gala.* Tséri. The sound of (_) was like the continental e, or the English e in vein, they, which is the same as the English a in fate. Tséri being a long vowel, we shall represent its sound, when pure, by 6, as 22%, lebhabh; when impure, by €, as ja, bén, Tian, lémor, mba, gilé. ; | Hhirek gadhol. The sol of (.) was like the French i or the English i in machine. Hhirek gadhél being a long vowel, we shall Penistatt its sound, when pure, by 2, as D374, aaddirzm; when impure, by i, as 7 3 din, PION, rishén. Hhélem. The sound of (') was that of o in rover. * It will be seen that our mode of representation does not determine, in all cases, the quiescent which i is suppressed. This I Teena, in most nae as an unimportant circumstance. On the Orthography of Hebrew Words. 95 Hhélém being a long vowel, we shall represent its sound, when pure, by 6, as Sup") yzktl; when impure, by 6, as >4p, kél, swa, bor, iba, gald. Shirek. The sound of Shtrek was like the Eng. u.in rule. Shirek being a long vowel, we shall represent its sound, when pure, by &, as Sop, katal;* when impure, by i, as SUP, kati. Pattahh. The sound of (_) was like the Eng. a in bat. Pattabh being usually short, we aa represent its sound, when pure, by a, as n>2, bayth; when impure and long, by at as MNP?) fekrdth. S‘ghol. The sound of (_) was like the Eng. e in men. S:ghol being usually short, we shall represent its sound, when pure, by e, as 72) mélek ; when impure and long, by é,t as "3, ge, mon, wmtsénd, mia, golé.. iv Hhir ek katén. (_) is rencuates like the Eng.i in pin. We shall represent it by 1, aS STP 2s mikné. ‘ Kamets Hhatiph. (_) is always short and pronounced like the Eng. 0 in son. We represent it by 0, as M722, hhokhmd. Kzbbits. The sound of (_) was like the Eng. u in gull. Kibbiits being usually short, we shall represent its sound, when pure, by u, as 4>, kullé; when impure and long, by U,+ as san», pura. * Shrek pure, it will be seen, is the same as what Prof. Stuart calls Kibbiits vicarious. t The printers are necessitated, in these cases, to use the pointed instead of the curved circumflex. The latter is to be preferred. 96 On the Orthography of Hebrew Words. Shwa. (.) was a very short e, like the French e mute. We represent it by ¢ written above the line, as >in), kdl. Hhateph Pattabh. (_) was a very short Pattahh. We represent it by written above the line, as 71, Z “habh. Hhateph S‘ghol. (_) was a very short Sighél. We represent it by ° written above the line, as 7x, a'lé. ahs Hhateph Kamets. (_) was a very short Kamets. We shall represent it by ° written above the line, as sm, hh’lt. Pattahh Furtive. () under a final guttural, was pronounced like a very short Pattahh before the guttural. We represent it by “ written above the line and before the final guttural, as M15, ré“hh. Tabular view of the Consonants. Adlph -sb8 nN a aimed} ab 0005 Pend : eB} ele Mém be om Béth na ; 2 é x 2a b Nein 1 sila Gi'mél dn" 4 i 4 gh Samékh FD bs : a Oa’yin rae yO =/ S = , = BABI et 3 gp | Sy mfr He Seb Nag yal 2 i Pp Waw Taian wk ha Tsadhé “y % ts Balygincon Metpstee gy) Vote by ABB hike ARS aiiliee Hhéth mn ons hh Résh Te A i Sin ra) is t : iy: : . S z Shin rare) i % sh Y6édh 77 a ° ae 5 alist Gusyidkh Taw 17 ; ‘ Kaph ah i Sa mn Transition Rocks of the Cataraqut. 97 Arr. XI. seb, the Transition Ross of the Cataragui ; by tert R. H. Bonnycastisz, R. En. (Continued from Vol. XX, p. 74.) Tus is the second instance wherein a new wine has been dis- covered on our interesting tour over so limited a locality, and we therefore pursue our journey onward with redoubled zeal. Coasting the border of the lake, which is now entering upon a new character and rapidly changing its great expanse of water into the thousand intricate channels of the mighty St. Lawrence, we walk, for about a quarter of a mile, or perhaps somewhat less, to the east- ward, over a shore heaped with large boulders, and protected by these from the further destruction of the limestone layers, which basset out in wall-like ledges overhead, from ten to twenty feet in height, occasionally covered and hid by debris and vegetable soil, in which the juniper, the silver birch, and other stunted plants, have a precarious existence, yielding their tender limbs to the rough spray and lashings of the stormy lake. The boulders are-so thickly strown over this shore, that it is diffi- cult to creep along it, even in calm seasons, and when the lake is high, or much vexed, almost impracticable. Suddenly, however, the bank shelves-off in green sward, and a ravine or dell opens, through which meanders a streamlet, whose source is at a short distance, in the limestone rocks above ; its clear and cold waters trickling from a mere cleft, and then bounding away to the lake below. This is one of the many remarkable springs, peculiar to the limestone of the Cataraqui, yielding, in the hottest weather, a chilly cold water, which tastes as though it had been iced. After quitting the soft stone quar- ry, I passed by another, immediately under the great well, which actually flows out of a mere chink, not an inch above the ordinary level of the lake, to receive whose wholesome beverage, so different from that of the sapid Ontario, I have hollowed out.a little votive basin. Clear it of the weedy slime which so rapidly covers it, ye future travellers, and consecrate its virtues to geology! But to return to the valley. This valley is worthy of a prolonged visit. It is small, and scarcely deserves the name given to it; but it is highly interesting, as forming a demarcation between the transition limestone and the first great visible elevation of the sienite of the Cataraqui. The stream issues forth. from the calcareous beds, and Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 13 98 Transition Rocks of the Cataraqut. coursing down the dell, over limestone, suddenly meets a low ram- part of the sienite, which forms the shore of the lake. It then winds, nearly at right angles to its original course, and fairly cuts its way through the sienite, the severe frosts of winter and its own action having evidently worn it out a passage by the large fissures, most of which, in this rock, trend from north east to south west. On the Kingston side of the valley, the limestone crops out, every where, through the soil, to an elevation of above one hundred feet, whilst, on the opposite bank, the sienite, at a short distance, throws up its wave-like rounded masses to an equal elevation, but is cut off in a precipitous wall and bank, by another sharp and ae valley, forming the upper end of the cove. Just before we arrive at the valley of the spring, and just before the banks begin to descend, another alternation of the hard and soft stone occurs; a small quarry, or perhaps only a slide, showing, about fifteen feet shane the lake, a very thick bed of the hard stone, cov- ering a moderate layer of the softer kind. ‘At the termination of the gently shelving bank of iia a new beach suddenly succeeds to the boulder-strewn shore; this beach is composed principally of flat limestone shingles, mixed with a few that are siliceous. We now come to the tongue of land, forming one side of the banks of the stream; here, on the point, we first see the sienite assuming its usual form and standing out. in barren majesty, covered only by the lichens of ages, and shelving gently down into the lake, under whose waters it is lost. It is worthy of note, that here the beach is composed of calcareous shingle, and the rock itself, under water, is almost hidden by a great deposit of the same materials, which become finer and finer, and are mixed with siliceous gravel. Adjoining the lakes, the sienite is broken by the frost, into cuboidal masses or boulders, and here we see very plainly, the usual fissured surface, having its lines of opening, from north east to south west, ‘crossed irregularly by vast rents. Wherever the boulders or fissured fragments have been recently made, the bright deep vivid flesh color of the sienite is beautifully: displayed. ‘The top of this tongue is fissured also, and heaved up into a man- tle-shaped mass, on which the north east and south west grooves so common to this rock are very apparent, and very deep and smooth. Ascending farther up the hill, the limestone is evidently superimposed upon the sienite ; but this is not very visible, as the rocks are cover- ed with soil and turf. Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. 99 We now pass over the streamlet, whose ceaseless currents appear to have deeply grooved the rock along the line of fissures by which they find a vent, and every winter disrupts the solid sienite, more and more, until at last its walls will yield the stream a straiter course ; -and, it is on this spot that we arrive at an interesting place, which merits a little scenic description. After travelling over sienite in the first instance, sandstone in the second, and limestone in the third, we were struck with the singu- lar freaks of nature which they presented ; but it remained for’ us’ to cross a mere runnel, to enter upon a scene still more singular than any we have hitherto met with, either as regards its geological or its picturesque associations. Standing on the summit of the bank, which hems in the farther side of the stream, we see, to the right, the apparently boundless expanse of water, forming the first of the inland seas of Canada ; before us, a rugged islet, wherein the rocks are strangely intermin- gled; beyond that, a river four miles broad, forming the beginning of the real St. Lawrence, and bounded only by a long and fertile island, whose lands, rising to a moderate height, seven miles in breadth, conceal another broad channel of the same mighty river. To our left, ravines cut through the solid sienite, and over a low cape, a long glittering line of waters shows us the forms of several beautiful islets, which are the commencement of the Thousand Isl- ands of that river, whose name here was Iroquois,—a name, now as much forgotten, as are the warlike dead who slumber on its banks. The strange sight of enormous steam vessels, and of still greater ships of war, at nearly a thousand miles from the main ocean, framed to navigate a Mediterranean of fresh water, adds to the grandeur and interest of the prospect; but the geologist turns with no less delight to the stranger prospect of the scene, which meets his eyes in winding round this little bank, and which we thus en- deavor feebly to portray and to explain. This first view of the sienite in the limestone, in pioeeediat from Point Henry towards Haldimand Cove, shows the entrance of the valley where the banks gradually decline; the deep flesh colored and almost brick red spots* being those portions of the sienite which are bared, some of them jutting out a little, others being quite even with * Designated on the two cuts by the letter s 100 Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. _ the limestone, with which they were once conjoined; on the left, is part of the beach of calcareous and siliceous shingle, and on the right is a _ peculiarly large rounded mass of sienite, on which the observer may sit, resting one hand behind him on the limestone, whilst his feet are on the same rock. The variolous aspect of this conjoined rock is fully as distinct and vivid as that of the otherwise imperfect sketch we have given above, and immediately strikes the most listless observer. Oe << = ae ? ans NT HH * yy) SCS iS o_O SS LS NEG) SSS A lg ESS QS es LG Ss = WX Sk! SS N= f : S WiTga'yS 5 : ~ STEN ( === | G e-—¥ dy ALAN Sn noth 3 — “ \\ The transition limestone here alters its nature into a porphyritic rock, as the tables are composed of the usual dark calcareous matter, thick- ly studded, throughout their masses, with nodules and strings of quartz, which, on a polished surface, have a bluish lustre and are very beauti- ful. Ihave had some of the rock blasted on the beach, near this place, © where there is a most interesting mingling of the rocks m every variety of form, which we could suppose a state of jelly or of fusion could create, and I have found the quartz penetrating the calcareous matter, in every direction, as if shot into it; amidst this mass, a few: erystals of pale feldspar appear, but not numerous enough to give a decided character to the mixture. The feldspar indeed, as before noticed, appears to have a decided antipathy to the lime, as the sienite nodules which are interspersed, have, generally, a protecting coat of quartz around them, whilst the feldspar, of a bright red, remains un- disturbed. Transition Rocks of the Cataraqut. 101 The sienite now mounts upwards intoa series of undulating sum- mits, until it attains to its greatest elevation, where its bold top, of a bright red color, bares an extensive bosom of smoothed rocks to the sun. Towards the land side, this surface is easy of access, and from the quartzose particles of the rock having resisted the storms of ages to a greater degree than the feldspar, it is at all times safe to walk over, as it is very smooth only in the long parallel channels run- ning N. w. and s. £. by which it.is so peculiarly marked. On this sur- face, the eye soon distinguishes a number of holes or indentations which appear as though they had been at one time the receptacles of crystals of some size, and seem not unlike those cells in which, in the sandstone, organic remains formerly reposed. ‘The sienite is, more- over, split by the sun and frosts into extensive fissures, and where the rocks occur next to the lake, many of them have toppled down, leaving below them bold walls and a steep slope of debris and soil. These mixed with trees of the fir tribe, and of the ordi- nary deciduous indigene, form the side, a gloomy dell which run- ning to the north east, bounds the sienite rock in this quarter, and also terminates the cove. From the first rivulet, as above. teak it is somewhat difficult, excepting where there is ice, to proceed along the shore, towards this spot, as the bank is in general steep, and the beach is overspread with huge fragments of the sienite and with boulders; the occa- sional jutting out of the limestone may, however, be observed and for a quarter of a mile, we obtain, very frequently, the most conclusive evidence that the two rocks are in contact and form a junction. Looking up the dell which opens from the cove, a curious scene again presents itself; to the left hand the sienite towers upward, its steep slope being covered, occasionally, by soil thickly overgrown with trees, and presents vast blocks and ranges of the disrupted rock, with occasional glimpses of the limestone. On the right is a quarry, opened in some very thick and fine beds of the limestone, the two rocks forming the two sides of a narrow dell, and here the limestone, having been well denuded by the miners, its ancient bassets show themselves completely, their fissured and aged walls being thickly covered with a complete rough casting of minute siliceous fragments-which appear, in many instances, scarcely to have penetrated the stone, here of.a lighter color than usual, and extremely hard and splintery, and to which, wherever they only in- erust it, they so inflexibly adhere, as not to be easily separated. 102 Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. The drawing annexed is a slight sketch of this scene, which is ren- dered still more memorable, from the curious discovery made in con- sequence of the operations carried on, in an extensive quarry. d . a dj iN Qs i ~ oe) ¢ aa A § 45 Ol ‘he \ y h\ aN \ Ny Wa N yh tag | ' WSs SED y ~ SSS LASS S> De SS IN SS NR Kk —S way I XI WINS PAS - ——— \ \\ \\ A = a ——— SS — Ee Gy oO” LES yyy}: YD Zipp A remarkable regularity in the shape and appearance of some of the thick beds of the Cataraqui formation, which are near the water mark of Lake Ontario, had been observed for some time; but it remained for Mr. John Finch to discover and point out the singular fact that several of these beds were regularly divided into prismatic forms, by a species of huge crystallization, resembling that exhibited by basalt, but always in a horizontal position. | That gentleman, being at Kingston, and employed on a course of mineralogical lectures, naturally employed his leisure time in exam- ining the country, and during his walks in the immediate vicinity of the town, was much surprised to find, in two or three places on the banks of the lake, that the calcareous beds near the water mark, were, to a great extent, regularly formed into almost interminable horizontal columns of an hexangular or octagonal shape, not jointed or connected by a.cup and socket, as those of basalt often are, but irregularly, disunited only by occasional rents, evidently the result of the action of time, or of unequal coherency. ‘It would take up too large a space to describe all the appearances and localities of this new freak of nature at Kingston, the evidences Transition Rocks of the Cataraqu. 103 of which, although highly clear and satisfactory, are so uncommon that some geologists who have seen them, are unwilling to attribute .them to any other cause than weathering. Having had the op- ~ portunity of seeing them almost daily, and in many points of view not contemplated by those who entertain doubts concerning them, I - am, perhaps, better acquainted than they, with their form and press- ure, and as, in the great improvements and additions now making to Kingston, they will shortly be swallowed up or lost from our view, I shall, in my-next communication, give three drawings, made with requisite care, showing them in elevation, sideways, and in their bed or floor; and, leaving to better informed geologists the task of in- venting a theory from them, I shall content myself with merely stating that the beds in which they are found are those which, at Haldimand Cove, are nearly or quite in conjunction with the sienite, and on the borders of the lake are uniformly bassets, jutting out over the great gulf which contains its waters, their thickness being usually not above two or at most three feet; and in the octagons, which are the most usual forms, as at Murney’s Point, the upper and lower, as well as the vertical sides are straight and almost or quite equal, whilst the angular faces are slightly concave and much less in size. The drawings, however, will give a much more correct idea of the for- mation than language can afford. It is probable that it is much more extensive than what has been already noticed, for, in several instances, in consequence of the very extensive series of cracks and: fissures running in an opposite direction to the regular partings of the prisms - which the weather and the waters have created, it can scarcely be discovered, when the observer is walking over the large flat tables of limestone on the borders of the lake, whilst frequently even an attentive observer finds it necessary to look for some time at a basset before he can discover the regular forms, either in elevation or profile, owing to the rounding away of the angles from exposure; and, in other cases, as at Haldimand Cove, the crystallization is less perfect, and to detect it, requires much examination, even in newly exposed por- tions from the quarry. In other cases, again, it is as plain as could be wished, as, for instance, at Murney’s Point and just beyond Stu- art’s Point, where stands the celebrated lover’s tree, which bears the poet. Moore’s name, and where it is said that he composed two of the most beautiful of his songs. I had drawn these sketches purposely sh Mr. Finch, and hope, as he examined very minutely into the nature of this new variety of 104» | ‘Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. limestone, he will still describe it, particularly, as ] was unable to send the drawings to him, owing to my having been absent from Kingston on a tour to Gaspé, Anticosti, and the Belavde coast, which I trust _ will, when this meets his eye, excuse me from any apparent neghi- gence in complying with his wish. This basaltiform limestone has, however, a salts which neither that gentleman nor other attentive mineralogists had anticipated, and which renders it the third new mineral, (if I may use that term,) dis- covered in the transition rocks of the Cataraqui. It is an excellent lithographic stone for all the common processes of that admirable art, and is now extensively employed in the surveyor general’s office at York, under the management of Mr. S. O. Tazewell, who first adapted it to this use and invented the peculiar manner of applying it, which is somewhat different from that employed on the Manheim or Bath stone. This lithographic limestone is darker than the usual beds of the Cataraqui formation, and I have not seen any fossils in it; it is very compact and hard, and, if kept at a good temperature, bears the press better than the German stone. Canada seems to abound with limestones suitable for all the pro- cesses of lithography ; 3 a white and very pure kind has been found on Anticosti. Mr. Tazewell discovered a cream colored and very beautiful variety in the rear of Belleville, a new and rapidly increas- ing town on the shores of Lake Ontario, between York and Kings- ton, and I have every reason to.believe that the true lithographic stone exists near Lake St. Clair, of which, however, ‘I trust I shall be able shortly to speak, with more decision than hand specimens | can authorize me to do. Want of time, at present, obliges me to close this paper, which will be continued with the description of the curious amalgamation, or rather intermixture, of the limestone and sienite, and of the sin- gular discovery of fossil organic remains in‘ the very parts of the rock which seem, as it were, to have melted into oe other. work, Upper Canada, Jan. 1, 1833. Economy of Machinery‘and Manufactures. 105 Art. X.—An analytical examination of Prof. Babbage’s ‘* Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.”* AN octavo volume of 320 pages on the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures has recently appeared in England, which elucidates many valuable principles, and comprehends much instruction both for manufacturers and for men of science. \ This work is executed with the precision of a mind habituated to scientific research, under the severe guidance of the inductive philosophy, and is such a produc- tion as we might expect from Prof. Babbage, whose name is con- spicuous on the list of modern English philosophers. The intellectual light, which within the last half century, has beam- ed upon Europe with such unprecedented splendor, has developed the mysterious powers of nature to the penetrating eye of the sci- entific inquirer ; thediffusion of knowledge has enabled the ingen- ious mechanic to apply these newly discovered powers to his own use; and although “in the history of each article of manufac- ture a series of failures have occurred, they disclose an incredible amount of patient thought, of repeated experiment, and of happy - exertion of genius, which have, gradually, led the way to excel- lence.” We now look with admiration and astonishment, at the results of the application of scientific principles to matter; where the great powers of nature are brought under the control of.man, which in their turn, compel inanimate and unwieldy things to work with the dexterity of thinking beings—with a rapidity far sur- passing human efforts—and with a degree of skill, which, at no remote period, would have been attributed to preternatural agency. Nor, are these surprising results beneficial only to the country where . they have originated, “The luxurious natives of the east, and the rude inhabitants of Africa are indebted to the looms of England,” and every country in Europe and America, participates in the pro- ducts of the mechanic arts, as at present conducted in the United Kingdom. “The cottont of India is conveyed by British ships * Since this notice has been put into type we have learned that the interesting work of Prof. Babbage has been reprinted in Philadelphia by Carey & Lea. | Bandanna handkerchiefs, made in Glasgow, have long ago superseded the gen- uine ones in China and India, where they originated—dishes and utensils of the London stamp were seen by Clapperton at the court of the Sultan Bello; and at Calicut, where calicoes originated, and whence they derived their name, the mar- ket is supplied with the article from England. Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 14 106 Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. round half our planet to be woven by British skill, in the manufac- tories of Lancashire. tis again set in motion by British capital and transported to the very plains whereon it grew and is repurchased by the lords of the soil, which gave it birth, at a cheaper price than, mie their coarser machinery, they can manufacture it for themselves.” The explanation of principles, and the detail of processes contain- ed in this work must be extremely interesting to the American man- ufacturer. He will discern the differences, which exist between his own circumstances and those, whose operations he would imitate, and whether all the materials, and modes of economy, and powers and facilities, which have insured success to the foreign manufacturer are within his own compass. He will be able to decide, whether many fair and alluring appearances, may not prove fallacious, from ignorance of the minute aids, and savings, essential to secure profit ; and he will see how far deviations may be practicable, and how far the resources of our own country may yield him a’ peculiar advantage. In every civilized country a considerable proportion of its popula- tion will be employed in agriculture. If it be a wide country with a fine soil, a favoring climate, and ready means for transportation and export, a majority will be agriculturists; if crowded with inhabi- tants, and possessing but a limited territory, every inducement will urge them to procure, by other modes of industry, that which they cannot obtain from their soil. In Great Britain, all the causes which lead to excellence in manufactures, are in no common degree, com- bined ; for, although agriculture is still the foundation of her wealth, the guarantee of its perpetuity, the pillar of her commerce and man- ufactures—yet with a dense, and when compared with the other coun- tries of Europe, an educated population, and a stable government, their enterprise and success in manufacturing industry have been unparalleled. The following table will show the ratio of the manufacturing to the agricultural classes in England, Italy and France: Agriculturists. Non-agriculturists. “In- Italy, - - 100 - - 31 France, airy LOOM - 50 England, — - eT OO Rem ite - 200 and the proportion of non- -agricultural to agricultural persons in Great Britain is, continually, increasing. In three different periods of ten years, during each of which the general population of the country has" * See p. 4, Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 107 increased thirteen per cent., the increase in the five large manufac- turing towns of Manchester, Glasgow, Liverpool, Nottingham, and Birmingham, in the whole period of thirty years, has been one hundred and twenty three per cent.” How far the disproportion between the agricultural and manufacturing classes can be carried, with safety, either to individuals or to the state, is a problem, which must soon be solved by the future progress of their history in Great Britain. It is remarked by M. Say, that ‘the complete inviolability of prop- erty, whether by public or private attack, and the habitual exercise of attention and judgment to which her people are trained from the earliest years, are the predominating causes of the manufacturing prosperity of England.” To return to the work which is named at the head of this article ; Mr. Babbage says, “the fact, that England can undersell other na- tions seems to be well established: and it appears to depend on the superior goodness and cheapness of those raw materials of machin- ery, the metals—on the excellence of the tools—and on the admi- rable arrangements of the domestic economy of the manufactories.” The object of the author is “to point out the effects and the ad- vantages, which arise from the use of tools and machines; to classify their modes of action; and to trace both the causes and consequences of applying machinery to supersede the skill and power of the hu- man arm.” The work is divided into two sections—the first treats of tools and machinery, illustrating, by examples, the principles which direct their use; the second, considers some questions of political economy re- lating to the subject of manufactures. It is believed, that a brief analysis of so meritorious a work, will "be eminently useful to the American artisan, and hardly less accept able to the man of science. In tracing the advantages derived from machinery, Mr. Babbage says, that they seem to arise, principally, from three sources. _ “st. Addition to human power. «©2nd. The economy they. produce of human time. “<3rd. The conversion of substances apparently worthless into valuable products. “1st. Of addition to human power. “< Beside the forces derived from wind, water and steam, there are other sources of increase, by which the animal force of the individual is itself made to act with far greater than its unassisted powers. «At each increase of knowledge, as well as on the contrivance of a new tool, human labor becomes abridged; the man who contrived rollers, invented a tool, by which his power was quintupled. The workman, who first suggested the employ- 108 Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. ment of soap or grease, was immediately enabled to move, without exerting a greater effort, more than three times the weight he could before.” The advantage of mechanical assistance will appear from the following experiment related by M. Redelet, sur ?4rt de Bator. “Ist. A block of squared stone, weight - - - _ = 1080 Ibs. ‘2nd. In order to drag this stone along the floor of the quarry, roughly chiseled, it required a force equal to - - - - - 758 “3rd. The same stone dragged over a floor of planks required - 652 *‘4th. The same stone placed on a platform of moe and dragged over a floor of planks, required = = J B q & 606 “5th. After soaping the two surfaces of wood, which slid over each other, it required - 5 a S 2 u zs 182 **6th. The same stone was now placed upon rollers ‘of three inches diameter, when it required to put it in motion, along the floor of the quarry, - - - - - - - 34 “7th. To drag it by those rallees over a wooden floor, - - - 28 “8th. When the stone was mounted on a wooden platform, and the same rollers placed between that and a plank floor, it required 2 22 ‘From this experiment it results, that the force necessary to move a stone along the roughly chiseled floor of its quarry, is nearly two thirds of its weight—to move it along a wooden floor, three fifths; by wood upon wood, five ninths; if the wooden surfaces are soaped, one sixth; if rollers are used on the floor of the quarry, it re- quires one thirty second part an its weight; if rolled over wood, yone fortieth ; and if between wood, one fiftieth of its weight.” The erection of palaces and temples,* monuments and tombs, seems to have engaged the early attention of nations; and the mode of removing, from their native repositories, those immense blocks of stone which minister to the grandeur or piety of the builders, has, through ages, and to the present day, remained a subject of astonishment. The manner of applying the different degrees of force necessary to move those ponderous masses, and to elevate them to the summit of the pyramids, or of the temple of Belus, is beyond the limit of conjecture ; their artificers must have possessed mechanical knowledge, of which their history contains no record. An interesting discovery, which was made by Champollion, a few years since, in Egypt, of an ancient Egyptian drawing, may throw some light upon this subject. ‘A multitude of men appeared har- nessed to a huge block of stone, on the top of which stood a single individual with his hands raised above his head, apparently in the act of clapping them, for the purpose of Melita the exertion of bes combined force at the same moment of time.” * See page 6, Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 109 In later times, also, sound has been employed to enable men to unite their efforts at a given point. ‘In removing the vast mass of granite, weighing above twenty eight thousand pounds, on which the eques- trian staute of Peter the Great is placed, at St. Petersburgh, a drummer was stationed on its summit to give the signal for the united efforts of the workmen.” “ The economy of human time” is an advantage, second only to “ the addition to human power,” which machinery gives to manufacturers. The use of gunpowder in blasting rocks, and of the diamond in cutting glass, offers familiar examples of the economy of time. In the former, effects are produced in a short space of time, which could not be accomplished, even with the best tools, in many months. An important improvement has been made in the art of using the di- amond, which twenty years since, even after seven years’ apprentice- ship, many glaziers were but indifferently skilled in. “This arose from the difficulty of finding the precise. angle at which the diamond cuts, and of guiding it at the proper angle, when found.” In the im- proved tool, the gem is set in a small piece of squared brass, with its edge nearly: parallel to one side of the square. A person, skilled in its use, files away one side of the brass until, by trial, he finds that the diamond will make a clean cut, when guided by keeping this edge against the ruler. Thus the merest tyro, at once applies the cutting edge at the proper angle.* ‘*‘ The relative hardness of the diamond in different directions is a singular fact. An experienced workman ground one on a cast iron mill with diamond powder for three hours, without its being at all worn, but on changing its direction with refer- ence to the grinding surface, the same edge was quickly ground down.” _ 8rd. The advantage of machinery and manufacturing is, most strikingly, obvious, in the saving of materials, apparently worthless. Nothing can seem of less value than the worn out remnants of tin ware, the offals of animals and the sweepings of workshops, and yet such is the result of economy and science, that nothing is lost, but the products of little intrinsic value are made valuable by the skill of the manufacturer. ‘‘ Gold-beater’s skins are made of animal offal. The hoofs and horny refuse of cattle are employed in the production of prussiate of potash, that beautiful yellow crystallized salt, which is exhibited in the shops of chemists. The worn out sauce pans, tin ware, and coal scuttles, when beyond the reach of the tinker’s art, have not completed their useful course. Their less corroded parts are cut into strips, punched with * See page 9, Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 110 Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. small holes, and varnished with a coarse black varnish, for the use of the trunk ma- ker, who protects the edges and angles of his boxes with them; the remainder are consigned to the manufacturing chemists, who employ them, in conjunction with pyroligneous acid, in making a black dye for the use of calico printers.” Of tools.—A tool is a ready assistance to the human hand, by which it is chiefly used. There are multitudes of things which it would be impossible to make, by the unaided efforts of the hands, but add to them the rudest instruments, and their power is enlarged ; with improved machinery their power becomes still farther extended, and in their applications, various almost beyond the limits of calcu- lation. By placing a tool in a frame, it becomes a machine, and the combination of many tools in a machine requires an-accumulation of power proportioned to its weight, and the forces it is designed to communicate. ‘The powers of wind and water have long been ap- plied to mechanical purposes, generally in aid of animal exertion, al- though in some instances, they nearly supersede it. Steam, another fertile source of moving power, when regulated and directed to ma- chinery, possesses singular advantages, and produces effects unattain- able by other methods. ~ But it is not alone in the moving of tools and: machinery in the work shop, that economy. of power should be practised in order to secure profit. Every one who examines this subject must be sur- prised to find how much success, in every department of the arts, de- pends upon a due application of this principle. Mr. Babbage gives an example in point, relating to the expense of transport. «© When a mass of matter is to be removed, a certain amount of force must be ex- pended, and upon the economy of this force, the price of transport will depend. For . instance, the cotton of Java is conveyed in junks to the cvast of China; but from the seed not being previously separated, three quarters of the weight thus carried is not cotton. This might, perhaps, be justified in Java by the want of machinery to sepa- rate the seed, or by the relative cost of the operation in the two countries. But the cotton, as packed by the Chinese, occupies three times the bulk of an equal quan- tity shipped by Europeans for their. own markets. Thus the freight of a given quantity of cotton costs the Chinese nearly twelve times the price, to which, by a proper attention to mechanical methods, it might be reduced.” This statement suggests the immense value of the cotton gin, in- vented by the late Mr. Whitney, of New Haven, which may, in some degree, be compared with the steam engine, in the extent of its usefulness. Cotton is now so universally used for clothing, that whatever reduces its cost, is a benefit to the whole family of mankind. When it is estimated, that the seed, before it is separated from the cotton, makes three quarters of the weight of the article; and that it requires the hand labor of one person for an entire day to clean one Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 111 pound fit for the manufacturer,* while the same individual, by the aid of the cotton gin, can clean one thousand pounds in the same space of time—language is scarcely adequate to convey a full idea of its value. Mr. Whitney says in his application to Congress in 1812, that his cotton gin “as a labor saving machine would enable one man to perform the work of a thousand men.” “ Accumulating power.”—Under this head, the author describes the fly wheel and the sledge hammer. ‘The fly wheel, constructed with a heavy rim, has the weight near the circumference ; and when moving with considerable velocity, produces powerful effects. It is usefully employed in increasing the force for rolling 1 iron, perforating iron plates, &c. &c. The power of the hammer consists in raismg a weight and letting it fall, and increases in the ratio of its weight and the distance, through which it falls. Regulating power.— cA Gantngy and steadiness, in the rate at whieh seer works, are essential to its effect and duration.” The contrivance which governs the steam engine, controlling its fearful _Yapidity, producing uniformity and steadiness in its movements, is a beautiful example of the regulating power. It is on the same principle, that the water power is regulated, which drives the spinning-jenny, raises timber at ae sake and supplies fuel in particular furnaces. “ Advantage of velocity.” —‘ Whenever work is light, it becomes necessary, in order to save time, to increase velocity. The propor- tion between the velocity, with which men and animals move, is of considerable importance. It is also of great importance for the econ- omy of labor, to adjust the weight of that part of the animal’s body, which is moved, to the weight of the tool it urges, and the frequency of repetition of these efforts so as to produce the greatest effect.” Twisting the fibres of wool by the fingers would be a most tedious operation. In the common spinning wheel, velocity is increased by a simple contrivance, which is common to a multitude of machines, such, for example, as the machine for: winding cotton balls, ribbons, &c. &c. . But the economy resulting from the increase of velocity, is more striking in the larger and more important machines.t * Vide Memoir of Mr. Whitney, by Prof. D. Olmsted, p. 208, vol. xxi of this Journal. t Economy, &c. p. 26. 112 Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. In converting cast into wrought iron, it is of importance, that the mass of softened metal should receive the greatest possible number of strokes before it cools; but as the momentum of the hammer, de- rived merely from the space through which it falls, would consume much time, the velocity is increased by throwing the hammer up with a jerk, against a large beam, which acts as a powerful spring, and drives it down with such force and rapidity as to make double the number of blows in a given time. “The smaller tilt hammers “are made to rebound with such velocity, that from three. to five hun- dred strokes are made ina minute.” . i There is also, in extending the time of the action of forces, a very great advantage, e.g. the winding up of a clock, or watch, extends the action of the original force for hours and days. Small machines set in motion by springs, with a train of wheels, are employed in magnetic and electric experiments, to produce a rotatory motion of a metallic disk or other body, thus giving the experimenter ‘the un- impeded use of his hands. ‘The domestic smoke jack is a familiar illustration of this principle. A similar apparatus is sometimes ap- plied to polish minerals, and in certain chemical processes, to agitate a solution.* ‘ | Machinery is also employed to save time in natural operations. An accelerating process in tanning was long a desideratum. In the old method, it required two years for the tanning principle to become so thoroughly combined with the animal fibre, as to make firm and durable leather. 7 - The improved process consists in placing the hides with a solution of tan in close vessels, and then exhausting the air.. The consequence of this is to withdraw. all the air contained in the pores of the hides, and to employ the pressure of the at- mosphere to aid capillary attraction in forcing the tan into the interior of the skins. The effect of the additional force, thus brought into action, can be equal only to one atmosphere, but a further improvement has been made. The vessel containing the hides is, after exhaustion, filled up with a solution of tan: a small additional quan- tity is then injected with a forcing pump. By these means, any degree of pressure may be given, which the containing vessels are capable of supporting, and it has been found, that the thickest hides may thus be tanned in six weeks or two months.” In noticing the practical value of science to the arts, the beautiful and improved process of bleaching with chloride of lime, although more of a‘chemical than of a mechanical operation, can scarcely be passed in silence. * Economy of Machinery, p. 28. Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 113 ‘‘ Amongst the natural processes, which are perpetually altering the surface of our globe, there are some which it would be desirable to accelerate. The wearing down of the rocks, which impede the rapids of navigable rivers, is one of this class. A very beautiful process for accomplishing this object has been employed in Amer- ica. A boat is placed at the bottom of the rapid, and kept in its position by a long rope, which is firmly fixed on the bank of the river near the top. An axis having a wheel similar to the paddle wheel of a steam-boat fixed at each end of it, is placed across the boat, so that the two wheels and their connecting axis shall revolve rap- idly, being driven by the force of the passing current. Let us now imagine several beams of wood, called stampers, shod with pointed iron, fixed at right angles on the ends of strong levers, projecting beyond the bow of the boat. The levers being at liberty to move up and down, the action of the stream upon the wheels will keep up a perpetual succession of blows. The sharp pointed shoe, striking upon the rock at the bottom, will continually detach small pieces, which the stream will immedi- ately carry away. Thus, by the mere action of the river itself, a constant and most effectual system of pounding the rock at its bottom is established. A single work- man, by the aid of a rudder, may direct the boat to any part of the stream; and when it is necessary to move up the stream, as the channel is cut, he can easily cause the boat to advance by means of a capstan.* When the object of this machinery has been accomplished and the channel is sufficiently deep, aslight alteration converts the apparatus to another purpose, almost equally advantageous. The stampers and projecting pieces on the axis are removed, and a barrel of wood or metal surrounding part of the axis, and capable at pleasure of being disconnected from the axis itself, is substituted. The rope, which hitherto fastened the boat, is now fixed to the bar- rel, which being attached to the axis, begins to turn, and winding the rope upon it- self, the boat is gradually drawn up against the stream, and may be employed as a tug-boat for vessels which ascend the rapid. When the tug-boat reaches the sum- mit, the barrel is released from the axis, and friction being applied to moderate its velocity, the boat is allowed to descend.” «The economy of applying the power of steam to overcome resistances, which it would require a far greater expense to surmount by animal power, is of frequent occurrence in large manufactories. The twisting of the largest cables, the rolling, hammering, and cutting of large masses of iron, the drawing of wires, all require enormous exertions of physical force, continued for considerable periods of time. When the force required is great, and the space through which it is to act is small, other means are adopted. The hydraulic press of Bramah, by the exertion of one man, can produce a pressure of 1500 atmospheres, and with such an instrument a hollow cylinder of wrought iron, three inches thick, has been burst. In rivetting the iron plates to form steam-engine boilers, it is necessary to produce as close a joint as possible. This is accomplished by using the rivets red hot: while they are in that state, the two plates of iron are rivetted together, and the contraction which the rivet undergoes in cooling draws them together, with a force which is only lim- ited by the tenacity of the metal of which the rivet itself is made. ‘ | The quantities in the second member of this equation are all givew by the observations, or by calculation. This formula supposes that the law of Mariotte applies to the vapor of mercury, as well as to air. ‘This may not be true for temperatures and pressures near to the point at which the vapor is converted into a liquid; but we have no means of correcting the small errors which may be thus produced. From the data furnished by my experiments, and by the method just stated, I determined the following numbers for the tensions of the vapor of mereury, for every eighteen degrees from 446° F’. to 554° F.* ‘The tensions are given in inches} of mercury at 32° F. Temperatures, 446°, 464°, 482°, 500°, 518°, 536°, 554°F. eer conomains ; 2.285, 3.152, 4.170, 5.263, 6.508, 8.177, 9.946.} tensions, The observation at 572° F.,§ the highest temperature to which: the bath was carried, gave 12.187|| inches for the tension; but this result having been obtained only from one observation, made while the temperature was rising, is not altogether comparable with the others which result from two observations, one in each series. * 930° and 290° C. + Millimetres. { Temperatures, 230°, 240°, 250°, 260°, 270°, 280°, 290° C. Pressures, 58.01, 80.02, 105.88, 133.62, 165.22, 207.59, 252.51 millimetres. The numbers for the pressures have been reduced in the translation, at the rate of 39.39 inches to the metre.— Trans. § 300° C. | 309.40 millimetres. 290 On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury. I observed, also, the tensions at temperatures below 446° F., but conceive that at those temperatures the tension is so small and the. errors of observation so much increased, in reference to the tensions, that the results are not to be relied upon. Having thus obtained, from experiment, the tensions of mercurial vapor, corresponding to a considerable range of temperature, I en- deavored to represent the result by some empirical formula, by the aid of which [ might obtain the approximate values of the tensions at other temperatures, between that at which the tension begins to be sensible, and that at which it is equivalent to the pressure of the atmosphere. I tried first a formula which has been found to apply to the vapor of water, namely, e=(1-:at)”,* in which e represents the tension of the vapor, taking atmospheric pressure, or 29.94 inches of mercury as unity; ¢ the corresponding temperature, in degrees of the ther- mometric scale, reckoned from the boiling point of the liquid, 100 degrees being taken as unity; a, a coéfficient, to be determined, as well as the exponent m, from experiment. This formula evidently satisfies the condition, that at the boiling point of the liquid the ten- sion is equal to the pressure of the atmosphere, since for <=0, we have e=1, whatever may be the values of a and m. Determining a and m, in the formula just given, by the tensions corresponding to the two extremes of temperature 446° and 554° F., taking for unity 100 degrees, I find m=2.875, a=0.2527,7 so that the formula becomes e=(1-++0.2527t)?:°7°. A comparison of the tensions given by this formula, with those furnished by observa- tion, shows that the formula may be considered as representing, very nearly, the law of the tensions in terms of the temperature. There is an experiment which seems to show that this formula does not truly express the law of the tension of mercurial vapor ; at all events, that it does not apply at tensions much lower than those within the range of the experiments. We know that mercury emits, even at ordinary temperatures, a vapor which is recognized by its deleterious action on the animal economy, its chemical action on certain metals, &c.; and from the experiments of Faraday it appears that the limit to this evaporation * This formula, as applied to the vapor of water, was printed erroneously in Vol. XIX, p. 182 of this Journal. It should have been, e=(1-+0.7153t)° .— Trans. + For the Cent. thermometer a=0.4548, and the formula is e=(1--0.4548t)?"*7° On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury. 291 is ator near the freezing point of water. It follows, that although the tension at such temperatures would be too small to be detected by the column of mercury supported by it, a formula representing, precisely, the law of tensions, would indicate the zero of tension somewhere about the limit of which we have just spoken. ‘The for- mula e=(1-+0.2527t)?'*7% does not satisfy this condition, for when e== 0, t= >» =— 3.96 or 284° F.* It is thus evident that MOR527 the tensions decrease more rapidly, with the decrease of tempera- ture, within the range of temperature embraced by my experiments, than would be shown by any expression which should also corres- pond to the observations of Faraday. It is easy to see that the er- rors of the formula would be increased, if the tensions were referred to the temperatures obtained by an air thermometer, corrected for the expansion of the glass, since my experiments refer to the com- mon mercurial thermometer, which, at high temperatures, is in ad- vance of the air thermometer. It is by no means strange that this formula should fail to express the law of tensions, through the whole extent of 648° F’., between the boiling point of mercury and the melting point of ice. It con- tains but two arbitrary constants, to be determined by observation, and, therefore, its use as an empirical formula is limited to a certain range of temperature. ‘The agreement of a similar formula with ob- servations on the tension of the vapor of water, would seem to be accidental. I have for the reasons developed in the preceding remarks, en- deavored to represent my results by another formula, into which as many arbitrary constants may be introduced, as are necessary to ex- press the results of all observations. ‘The formula, to which I refer was first used by Laplace, in the Mécanique Céleste, to represent the observations of Dalton on the tension of watery vapor: he found it necessary to use but two terms of the formula. ‘Three terms were afterwards used by Biot, in his Traité de Physique, to express, more accurately, the law of tensions of the vapor of water, between 32° and 212° F. This formula, calling A, the tension at the boiling point, under atmospheric pressure; e, the tension corresponding to the temperature ¢, reckoned from the boiling point of the liquid, and ‘t= = — 2.2, or 220° below the boiling point of mercury, that is, 140° C. 1 ~ 0.4548 292 On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury. a, 6, ¢, Sc. coéfficients to be determined by experiment, is of the form, log. e=log. A--at-+-bt? + ct? + &e. , Taking the terms containing the first three powers of ¢ to deter- mine the value of log. e, I have deduced a formula for the tension of mercurial vapor, which gives results in accordance with the experi- nents of Faraday. I assume as before, an atmosphere of 29.94 inches of mercury, as unity of tension, and 100° Fah. reckoned from the boiling point of mercury, as unity of temperature, ¢ representing the number of these units; but in order to avoid the changes of sign for the different powers of ¢, I consider ¢. positive below the boiling point of mercu- ry. The formula just given, neglecting the terms containing powers of ¢t above the third, and observing that log. 1=0, becomes, log. e =at+b6t?--ct?. The seven observations already given, between 446° F. and 554° F.* would furnish seven equations of -this form, which combined by the method of least squares would give the most probable values of the coéfficients determined from all the experi- ments. Ihave not considered such a proceeding to be necessary, but have taken the two extreme observations, and an intermediate one, viz. that at 500° F.+ to give three equations by which to de- termine the coéfficients. By the aid of logarithmic tables, I find a=—0.35909, 6=+0.023443, c= —0.03164.f The formula, therefore, is, log. e=—0.35909¢-+ 0.023443 ¢? —0.03164¢°. The tensions calculated by this formula agree within one or two twenty fifths of an inch (.04 to .08 in.) of those observed ; the differ- ences being within the limits of errors of observation. ‘The value of e given by this formula does not become zero at any temperature ; neither does the formula show any minimum of tension, for the equation corresponding to that supposition would be—0.35909 +0.023443.2¢ — 0.03164.3¢2 =0, which has none but imaginary roots. The ten- sions according to this formula, should decrease with the diminu- tion of temperature, and, become insensible, though never mathe- matically nothing. If, for example, we determine from the formu- la the tension of mercurial vapor at the melting point of ice, we find e =0.00000000011208 atmospheres, or 0.00000000335 inches, a quantity altogether inappreciable. Faraday’s observation that mercury isnot vaporized at temperatures below 32° Fah. cannot be consider- * 930° and 290° C. + 260° C. t Inthe Centigrade thermometer, a = — 0.64637, b=---0.075956, c— — 0.18452. On the Elastic Force of the Vi apor of Mercury. 293 ed as contradicting this result; for although the delicate methods employed by that chemist, enabled him to detect vapor at tempera- tures as low as 32°, it may readily be conceded, that below this the exceeding tenuity of the vapor might have caused it to escape his re- searches. But even if the limit determined by Faraday, be consid- ered absolute, it may be attributed toa physical cause, entirely inde- pendent of the tension of the vapor, and by which the formation of vapor is suddenly checked. The formula gives for the tension of mercurial vapor at 212° F. e=0.00003889 atm.=0.001164 inches, or less than twelve ten thou- sandths of an inch; an elasticity which may be considered as insen- sible in experiments on the elasticity of its vapor. The formula, therefore, although empirical, not only represents the results of experiments between 446° F’. and the boiling point of mer- ~ cury, 680° F’., but also the observations on its vapor at temperatures as low as the freezing point of water. It may be used, therefore, to cal- culate a table of tensions from the boiling point of water, up to that of mercury, the temperature being estimated by the mercurial thermom- eter. A table thus calculated will be found at the end of this extract, and may be considered as a condensed expression of the results of my experiments. Itis probable that the estimation of these tensions may lead to the application of a correction in certain experiments, in which no correction has been used, owing to uncertainty as to its amount. ‘This table can hardly be considered accurate beyond hun- dredths of an inch, although I have carried out the figures given by the formula. In the table the temperatures are given in intervals of degrees, while in the formula, a range of a 100 degrees was taken as unity. The formula expressed for degrees of Fah. would be,* log. e =—0.0035909¢-- 0.00000234437? — 0.000000031 647°. The degrees are reckoned from, the boiling point of mercury, (680° F. ;) that is, the value of ¢ will be found by subtracting the given temperature from 680° F. One column of the table gives the tensions in atmospheres, and a second in inches of mercury. The numbers of the second column would be found from the formu- la, by adding to log. e, which it gives, the logarithm of 29.94. I may remark that from the elasticity of mercurial vapor, at different * In the Centigrade scale, log. e= — 0.0064637 t-+-0.0000075956 £2 — 9.00000018452 73. Vou. XXIV.—No. 2. 38 294 On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury. temperatures, its density compared. with that of aw at 32° and at a pressure of 29.94 inches may be found, if we know the ratio which the two densities bear to each other, at any determined temperature and pressure. For example, if we admit this ratio to be seven, as it was given by the experiments of Dumas, the density of the vapor of mercury at 212° F., the elasticity bemg according to the table 0012 in., will be almost 0.0002 : that is, if the air were saturated with the vapor of mercury at 212° this vapor would have a density 0.0002 of that of air at 32° and under a pressure of 29.94 mches ; and since 100 cubic inches of air weigh about 31 grains, there would be in a space of 100 cubic inches about .0062 of a grain of mercury. Similar calculations for ordinary atmospheric temperatures, may give an idea of the relative danger of an exposure to mercury, in cases when the space may become saturated with its vapor, at the assumed temperature. The different forms of the expression for the elasticity of the vapor of mercury, refer to the temperatures as given by the mercurial thermometer ; they may readily be changed into others which shall have reference to the air thermometer, corrected for the expansion of glass. ‘To make these changes, the approximate relation between the temperatures shown by the two instruments, must first be ex- pressed. ‘This may be done by referring to the experiments of Du- long and Petit on the subject of the comparative indication of the two instruments. I find that if ¢ denote the degrees of the mercurial ther- mometer, and + those of the air thermometer, the relation, in degrees of Fahrenheit’s scale, will be t=0.98450797-+-0.00006349272 + 0.4307312,* or if the degrees be reckoned from the boiling point of mercury downwards 1=1.06857147 — 0.00063492-* ;+ if each interval of one hundred degrees be considered as unity, this for- mula will become t=1.06857147 —0.0634927?.{ If, now, this. value of ¢ be substituted ig the formula log. e=—0.35909¢ +0.0234432? —0.03164¢? it becomes, neglecting the powers of 7 higher than the third,§ log. e = —0.383727-+-0.02905r? — 0.038937. From this formula a table might be constructed in which the temperatures would refer to the air thermometer. * For the Centigrade scale {= 0.98857141-4-0.00011428672 . { t= 1.06857147 — 0.000114285672 , for the Centigrade thermometer. ¢ —£=1.06857147 — 0.0114285672 . § Log. e==— 0.69069:-+-0.09411772 — 0.2270078. On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury. 295 The law of the tension of the vapor of mercury may now be ap- plied to test certain principles and theoretical formule which have been proposed to represent the elasticity of vapors in general, and which have been applied to the vapors of water and of some other liquids. If the principles of these formule should prove applicable to mercury, a liquid so different from water, they would receive a striking confirmation, and if not, their conformity with the law of elasticity in certain other liquids may be looked upon as entirely ac- cidental. First, it is evident that the elasticity of the vapor of mercury does not conform to the theory advanced by Dalton, that the tensions of the vapor of all liquids, at temperatures equally distant from their re- spective boiling points are equal. If this were true of the vapor of mercury, as compared with that of water, the tension at 500° F. or 180° below the boiling point ought to be about .2 of an inch, whereas according to my experiments it is about 5.3 inches. ‘The inaccuracy of this theory had already been remarked in relation to liquids more volatile than water, and Dalton, himself, seems to have abandoned it. M. August, of Berlin, in Poggendorff’s Annals of Philosophy and Chemistry, No. 5, 1828, and Professor Roche, of Toulon, in a memoir presented to the Academy of Sciences of Paris, during the same year, have both proposed formule to represent the law of the tensions of the vapor of water, based, at least in part, upon theoretical principles, and which, as I have shown in my memoir, although different in form are really identical. ‘These formule are At Stk essentially of the following form, log. e=Bip in which e is the elasticity of the vapor, ¢ the number of degrees from its boiling point, and A. and B two constants to be determined by observation. Messrs. August and Roche propose to determine the constant B by con- sidering that the tension must be nought at —448° Fahr.,* which they regard as the absolute zero of temperature. Calling n the number of degrees from the boiling point of the liquid to this abso- n lute zero, we have e=0 when t= — n, whence log. e= — A’ Baan —o,or B—n=0, and B=n. Substituting the value just found for t : B, the formula becomes log. e=A° ee and there remains only the constant A to be found by observation. * __ 9662C. 296 On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury. The form of the expression just given, leaving out of considera- tion the determination made of B, is arbitrary ; it has been found ap- plicable to the tension of watery vapor, and M. Roche endeavors to derive it from an examination of the forces which may be supposed to act, in the vaporization of liquids. Without discussing the reason- ing, I purpose to test this formula by my experiments on the vapor of mercury. The boiling point of this liquid beg at 680° Fahr. n=680+448=—1128,* My observation of the tension at 500° or 180° below the boiling point of mercury, or t= —180°, gives A= 3.976t 1128+¢ were applicable to the observations, it should when thus deduced from the medium temperature, give very nearly the result obtained by observation for the two extremes, or 446° Fahr. and 554° Fahr. ; for the first it gives e=0.091 atmospheres, and for the second, e= 0.316 atmospheres. The coéfficient of this formula, therefore, when determined by an observation at a medium temperature, gives results which are too high at low temperatures, and too low towards the upper limit of the series; in other words the rate of increase of elasticity, for an increase of temperature, is less than that shown by my observations. The formula would vary still more from the truth if the air thermometer were referred to as a standard. The failure of this formula is unfavorable to the theoretical views of M. Roche, and it seems probable that the expression has no_ special advantage over other empirical formule which have a single constant to be de- duced from experiment. I have further shown in my memoir that the form of the function which I formerly supposed, from theoretical views, to express the laws of the tension of the vapor of water,{ namely, log. e= a(V tb? —6,) in which e and i represent the same quantities as in the formula last given, and a and 6 are two constants, to be deter- mined by experiment, does not apply to the tension of the vapor of mercury. 3.976 and the formula becomest log. e= If this formula * 2 = 360-+266.67 — 626.67, for the Centigrade seale. 3.976 626.67--¢° { Pavia Philosophical Journal, 1819 t Log. e= On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury. 297 Table of the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury for every eighteen degrees, from 212° F. to 680° F., the boiling point of Mercury. os Qa OE & i= a LL EN hey PR earn AD ak 10 212 0.00004 0.00119 110 230 0.00009 0.00269 120 248 0.00022 0.00658 130 266 0.00047 0.01407 140 284 0.00096 0.02874 150 302 0.00188 0.05628 160 320 0.00343 0.10269 170 | 338 | 0,00603 | 0.18054 180 306 0.01015 0.30389 190 | 874 | 0.01638 | 0.49042 200 392 0.02539 0.76017 210 410 0.03790 1.15473 220 428 0.05466 1.63652 230 446 0.07633 2.28532 240 464 0.10349 3.09849 250 482 0.13655 4.08830 260 900 0.17582 5.26405 270 518 0.22145 6.63022 280 536 0.27355 8.19009 290 504 0.33225 9.94756 300 572 0.39780 11.91013 310 590 0.47073 14.09365 320 608 0.55181 16.52119 330 626 0.64261 19.23974 340 644 0.74523 22.31217 390 662 0.86286 25.83402 360 680 1.00000 29.94000 298 Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. Ant. XL—On the application of the Fluxional Ratio to particular cases ; and the coincidence of the several orders of Fluxions, with the binomial theorem; by Exzzur Wrieut, Esq. Tue object of this essay is to develope more fully the nature of the fluxional ratio; and to apply it to particular cases. ‘To do this it will be necessary to bring into view certain particulars, familiar probably to every one, who has paid any attention to the subject. When the method, used in algebra, of determining unknown quan- tities is extended, by considering the unknown quantity as capable of increase or decrease, that is, of taking all possible values, from 0 to «”, itis called fluxions. If this principle be applied to quantities, in which the rate of increase is uniform in all its parts, no advantage is gained. But if it be applied to those, in which the rate is variable according to some given law, it affects quantities, which require an artful management, and involves problems, that are sometimes of very difficult solution. It may therefore be understood, that fluxions have respect to those quantities, which increase or decrease by de- grees that are less than any assignable one; that is, in which the alteration of magnitude is produced by one continued increment or decrement, and in which the rate of increase is variable. ‘The laws, by which the rate of increase is regulated, result from the va- rious dimensions of the variable, and are intimately connected with the development of the binomial series. In the year 1772 La Grange in the Berlin Memoirs proposed to show, that the theory of the de- velopment of functions into series, contains the true principles of the Differential Calculus (Fluxions) independently of the consideration of infinitely small quantities; and he demonstrated by this theory the theorem of ‘Taylor, which he regarded as the fundamental princi-_ ple of the Calculus, and which had been demonstrated only by the help of the Calculus itself, or else by the consideration of infinitely little quantities. La Grange, in my opinion, has hit upon the true method of explaining the theory of fluxions. He doubtless gave a just view of the elements of a fluxion, when he said, that, in the devel- opment of a binomial, the fluxion is expressed by the second term of the series.* But notwithstanding all that La Grange has done, the * Ryan’s Dif. and Ent. Calculus, Art. 19. Application of the Flucional Ratio, &. 299 principles of fluxions have not yet been so completely disclosed, as to give entiresatisfaction. ‘That distinguished Mathematician, Carnot, supposed that something is lost, when a fluxion is introduced into an equation ; and that the error in this defective equation is compensated by an error of equal magnitude, but opposite value, produced when the fluent istaken.* In an essay, contained in Vol. XIV of the Journal of Science, page 297, after mentioning some difficulties attending the metaphysics of fluxions, the Author goes on to say; “ For an il- lustration of our remarks, suppse e be an increment of a uniformly varying quantity x: then ze will be the quantity varied by the in- crement. ‘This variation will be uniform in all values of z, but the variation of the variables dependent on xe, or what is denominated the functions of this new value of x, as (c+e)”, will not be uniform ; but may be easily investigated by the development of (x+e)". For greater simplicity suppose the function to be («+e)? =2?-+2re+e?, the increment, or variation of this from its first value, when it had no increment, is 2ze-++ee, which is to the uniform increment of z, as 2re-+-ee $c, or as 2x-+e:1. Here the ratio of the increment of the function to its base, or root, is ascertained very readily by its algebraic development; and if this were truly its differential or flux- ion, there would be no ground of questioning the legitimacy of the logic of this science; but the objection to it rests entirely on casting away the increment e from the expression 2z+e of the ratio of the whole increment of the function; since e must ever constitute a part of it, while it has any finite value. It may be said that the ratio 2x : 1, or what is called the differential coefficient, is independent of e, and has areal value, when e vanishes; which is true, but it is then at its limit, and the ratio is that of the limit, and not of the increment, con- sequently no new discovery is made by this mode of conception. If the second term of the development be assumed as the true differen- tial, this will be a petitio principu. In short we perceive no logical principles in La Grange’s analytical demonstrations, which are not common to the geometrical.” Itis true that, when rightly understood, the principles in the ana- lytical method of La Grange coincide with those in the geometrical method. The error lies, not in the contrariety of the methods, but in taking it for granted, that the ratio between two fluxions is that of the increments ; for instance, that of the increment of a function which * Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. Vol. 8, Art. iv. 300 Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. is momently varying to the increment of its base .or root, which is considered as uniform. ‘To render the results of any two flowing quantities analogous, their rates of increase must be similar. A quantity, therefore, generated by a uniform motion, cannot be com- pared with a quantity generated by an accelerated motion; for it would involve the same absurdity as to say, that a certain given line is three times greater than a certain given cube. Mathematicians were aware of this, but instead of taking the limits according to Sir Isaac Newton’s view of the subject, they have taken the increments, for they say by way of objection: ‘but it is then at its limit, and the ratio is that of the limit, and not of the increment.” Under the influence of this view, they have sought for an analogous term by making the increment small. Hence they have been deceived by contemplating a quantity, in which the error is less than the imagin- . ation can reach, and have dignified it with the name infinitesimal. Instead of laying hold of the finite quantity, they have sought for the increment, and have attempted to overtake it at the end of an infi- nite series !—a thing impossible. So far from its being correct that an error is committed by casting away the increment e, it is true, that if we introduce the quantity e at all, an error exists exactly pro- portional to the magnitude of e. ‘The petitio principu, then, lies on the other side, for the ratio is not that of a whole to its part, but that of a whole to the sum of its sources of increase, which consists of the limits made analogous by combining them with the fluxional base. ‘These sources of increase are dependent on the dimensions of the variable function, and in case of the first fluxions are expressed by the second term in the development of the binomial series. ‘That this term is the true fluxion, and not a petitio principu is made evi- dent, as will be shown hereafter, by the coincidence of the second term with the first fluxion, of the third term with the second fluxion, of the fourth term with the third fluxion, and so on, in expanding any power of a binomial quantity. Fluxions, therefore, are the ele- ments, that arise in the development of a bmomial quantity. We may, then, describe a fluxion to be an artificial finite quantity, aris- ing from the sources of increase belonging to any power of a varia- ble quantity ; which sources are exhibited, when that quantity is ex- panded in the form of a binomial series. Quantities thus constitu- ted may be analogous, and may admit of the existence of a ratio be- tween them. The fundamental principle of fluxions is, that while the fluent is generated with an accelerated or retarded motion, and Lec og a A I I TN A TE I EE ew om Application of the Flucional Ratio, &c. 301 consequently the rate of increase is momently varying, the fluxion in all its parts is produced by a uniform motion. 'This may be re- garded asa true definition of fluxions. In algebra the fluxzon is ex- pressed by a single term in the binomial x+-2" raised to the given power; while the increment is expressed by all the terms that re- main, after the first is withdrawn. In as much as an abstruse prin- ciple is best elucidated by an example, let us suppose that v+-2’ is the variable root, and this root raised to'the fourth power, or «*+- 4030+ 6n2v'2 +4r2'2+a' is a function of +2’. Now with- draw x*, and the increment is expressed by all the remaining terms 4n3n'+6x2x'?+4a2'*+'4. But the first fluxion is expressed by 4a*a’, the second term of the series, not because the following terms 6x2 x’? +4xx'?-+2x'4 are so exceedingly small as not to deserve no- tice, but because by the definition of a fluxion, just given, they do not enter into its expression. The doctrine of ultimate ratios and limits, applied to fluxions, is only a particular way of arriving at the second term of a binomial series, by which all the following terms are exterminated. The consideration of infinity, however,’ has spread over the theory a degree of obscurity and mystery, which is altogether unnecessary. For although the method of exhaustions, and of ultimate ratios, and the limits of variable quantities, are very useful in the solution of certain problems; yet they are not essential to the theory of fluxions. Without any scruples we may assume the second term in the binomial series, as containing all the elements, which are necessary to form a relation between the unknown quanti- ty sought, and a known quantity, by means of which the value of that unknown quantity can be obtained. The foregoing remarks regard the determination of the shee itself. But ihe calitign of the fluxion to its corresponding fluent is quite a different thing. Since this, in my apprehension, depends on a similar principle with the relation of the sides of two similar trian- gles to each other in trigonometry, it may perhaps receive some elu- cidation from a comparison. A ratio is the quotient of any number or quantity divided by another, and is either that of the antecedent divided by its consequent, or that of the consequent divided by its antecedent. When the ratio between any two quantities is equal to the ratio between any other two quantities, those four quantities are said to be analogous or proportional ; and the two figures, which are compared, are said to be similar. When three of these proportion- al quantities are given; or when two are given, and one of them is Vou. XXIV.—No. de 39 302 Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. the ratio, the fourth may be found. Figures are similar, when they may be supposed to be placed in such a manner, that any right line being drawn from a determined point to the terms that bound them, the parts of the right line intercepted betwiat that point and those terms, are always in one constant ratio to each other; and when, if all the parts, which the nature of the case admits of, are made to coincide, all their homologous lines, that are rectilineal, either lie one upon another, or are parallel.* ‘This similarity may be exem- plified in the Parabola. Let Fig. 1. BpCE, APDG, (Fig. 1.) be D two parabolas, that are simi- lar. By the definition, if the foci are both placed at F, and the parameters Fp, FP, are made to coincide, and any right Imes FD, FG are drawn A B F Hote Ko from the point F to the terms C, E, and D, G, that bound them; then the lines FC, FD, and FE, FG, are in the invariable ratio of Fp : FP, thatis FC : FD:: FE: FG::Fp : FP, and FC: FD:: HC: 1D, and FE: FG::KE: LG. Here the lines FC, FE lie upon the lines FD, FG; and although the curved lines BpCE, APDG are not parallel, but continually approximate toward each other, yet the homologous right lines HC, ID; KE, LG, are par- allel. In trigonometry, let AC=a (Fig. Fig. 2. i 2.) be the base, and CB=6 be the perpendicular of a right angled trian- AE gle, taken from a table of sines, tan- gents, and secants. Also Jet DC be B the base, and CE be the perpendicu- lar of a second triangle; FC the base, " and CG the perpendicular of a third F D A triangle ; and suppose they are all similar. Suppose DC=Ba, CE =Bd, FC=Da, and CG=Db. By the principles of trigonometry Bb De Oi ay ‘ Ba: Bb::Da: Db. Hence —- = ,- =-, which is the ratio, and Ba Da a BDab Ba =D0 the fourth term. It is most convenient to find this term, *Maclaurin’s Flux. Vol. i. Art. 122. Application of the Fluxional Ratio, ge. 303 by multiplying the second and third terms together, and dividing the product by the first term according to the rule of proportion in common arithmetic. But it will lead to the same result, if we mul- b tiply the third term Da by the ratio-- Here a relation manifest] : : a y exists between the quantities Ba, Bd, and the quantities Da, Dd, which is that of proportion. Mathematicians, in explaining the nature of fluxions, have pro- ceeded on the tacit acknowledgment, that a circle is a polygon of an infinite number of sides, (Brewster’s Encyclopedia, Art. Flux- ions) and have considered a fluxion to be an elementary part of its fluent. But, if we proceed ever so far in making the fluxion small, since it is a rectilineal quantity, a part, Céa (Fig. 1.) being the dif- ference between the increment CHI0, and the corresponding fluxion CHa, will still be left behind. In theory, therefore, something is lost. The rejection of this part renders the theory imperfect, and unsatisfactory, and creates a suspicion, that it may lead to some er- ror. But in the application of the method no such error is ever found. This practical correctness depends on the fact, that fluxions are not the elementary parts of their fluents, Fig. 3. but merely proportional quantities. Let the lines EF’, FG, (Fig. 3.) commence an existence A; at the corner C, and proceed with a uniform motion generating the square ABDC. Nowit is manifest, that, since the generating lines EF, FG are continually increasing, the superficies EFGC increases in a ratio, which is momently varying. Suppose that the lines MN, NO, (Fig. 4.) moving with a uniform velocity, gen- erate the square HILK in the same time, Fig. 4. that the lines EF, EG, generate the square ABDC. We have now the two fluents ABDC and HILK. Nowifthese. fluentsare produced by the lines AC (Fig. 3.) and HK, (Fig. 4.) moving with such velocity, that the area generated by AC is always equal to the area generated by EF, FG, and the area generated by ie HK is always equal to the area Desi i MN, NO, it is evident that AC and HK must move with a velocity, which is accelerated. Hence ABDC and HILK may be considered. as 304 Application of the Flumonal Ratio, &c. being produced by lines moving with an accelerated velocity. Again let the lines EF, FG and MN, NO, become invariable at the moment when they arrive at the situations AB, BD, and HI, IL. Proceeding with the same uniform velocity, which they before had, they will then generate the quantities ABba, BDdc, and Hih,.1LIr, whose increase is uniform, because equal areas are generated in equaltimes. The quantities ABba+BDde, and Hich-+ILlr are the fluxions corresponding to ABDC, and HILK. From the manner in which these quantities are produced, it results that, | ABba+BDde : ABDC: :HIih+1Lir : HILK. We have now obtained the proportion between quantities generated by an accelerated velocity, and quantities generated by a uniform ve- locity, disclosing the relation between fluxions and their fluents. This illustration may be rendered more general by assuming a prin- ciple, which bears a very near resemblance to motion. It is this. A variable quantity of any kind may be generated by assuming, suc- cessively, and ina regular gradation, every possible value from 0 to x”. This will embrace the whole range of fluxional quantities. Let AB=AC be represented by Ba and HI=HK be represented by Dz, then, 2B? ag, 1 B72? s 3 2DAac: 2 DFx2. If we take cubes, the proportion will be, 8B%e%a° } Bea%::3D%e2a" ; D323. and generally, LL AEE Ta NPG BFC ARR AT CD Jer ci aie as Bn nee, te: | male me i hence span Sy me the general formula of the fluxion- na" al ratio; hence D'x" x — =nD"xr"-'2" is the general equation, by which the fluxion is derived from the fluent. In this ratio, n represents the exponent of the power, and is ob- tained by adding 1 to the exponent of the variable part of the flux- . ional expression; x represents the root of the given power, and a- represents the fluxion of that root. ‘The existence of this ratio re- sults from the peculiar nature of algebra. The fluxion nB'x"~'2- e . . e Nx f consists of the fluent Bx” combined with the ratio os In geome- try, these two elements are blended together, and are expressed by the parallelogram GacC. (Fig. 3.) But in algebra the ratio is pre- served distinct during the process, and therefore, since nB"2"~ 2" is Application of the Flucional Ratio, &e. 305 equivalent to B'a” x— > the fluxion may be resolved into its con- stituent parts. Let APBD, Fig. 3. EpGC, be two similar para- bolas, the parameter PF =a, the parameter pl'=6, the abscissa KC=2a, the abscissa AD=mz, then the ordinate CG=b22%, and the ordinate DB=a2 2,2 "mx", the fluxional ! base Cc=2-, the fluxional A ge c 6D base Dd=ma:. Since 2 and ma- are supposed to be generated contemporaneously, and the ratio depends upon their relative, and not upon their absolute magnitude, we may assign to v any magni- tude at pleasure. Conceive the two parabolas to be generated by the lines CG, DB moving uniformly from the points A, E, toward c,d. The parabolic spaces EGC, ABD increase with an accelera- ted motion, but the increments are continually diminishing, and the motion approximates toward a uniform motion. ‘Suppose the two fluents to be taken when the generating lines arrive at the points C, D. By the definition of a fluxion before given, the increments are annihilated at the moment the generating lines arrive at C, D, and the parabolic spaces are left to increase uniformly. Hence the fluxions are represented by the rectilineal parallelograms BndD= Pieae and GueC 08 nea". Then according to the foregoing proposition, amen: : APBD: b2aea: : EpGC. Here, although an expression for the first and third terms are ob- tained, yet the second term is not given, hence the fourth term can- not be obtained by the common rule, as is the case in trigonometry. But the ratio of the second term to the first can be had. As in trigo- nometry the ratio is a 80 in fluxions, the general formula of the ra- tio is —- ‘The great advantage of this ratio consists in this, that by TU fo) multiplying the third term in the proportion by it, we arrive at the same result as by multiplying the second term by the third, and di- viding the preduct by the first term. Now, in this example, the third 306 Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. 22 x term is the fluxion 6*.*x-, and the ratio is oar » hence bode gu" x ber? ap oS In the circles ALH, Big. 4 DNG, (Fig. 4.) let the = diameter AH=m, the di- ameter DG=a, DE=za, =EpGC, the area of the parabola. Mx ha the fluxional base Ed=z-, the fluxional base MX ees : Fe=—— EO=(ax—- wa)? , AOR Dene C FB="(ax—22)*, then the fluxion OndE=(ax-2x)*x-, and the on)Px. It has just been stated, that the fluxion multiplied by the ratio will give the correspondent fluent sought. But the analysis requires some fluent, out of which the given fluxion has arisen, which by a contrary process is again made . e se e ne* to appear. ‘To this end it is necessary, that the ratio oa should be contained in the fluxional quantity, that the quantities represented by it may be eliminated by the multiplication of its reciprocal. But there is no quantity, which will produce Cee for its fluxion ; nx s . e . . ; hence the ratio = IS not contained in it, and its fluent under its present form cannot be found. We are, therefore, under the ne- cessity of transforming it into an infinite series. It will then be & 5 a 9 1 ck! a GU AIRY ALE AT 5 A (ax — er ere - Dh ASG ULE a a &e. 2a" 8a? 16a? 128a? It is manifest, that this series presents as many distinct problems, a requring different modifications of the ratio ——, as there are terms. x L ve v For the first term, —-=;— ; for the second term, —-= =~; for i x the third term, ae ae iq &c. If the several terms are multiplied 2 Application of the Fluxonal Ratio, &c. 307 ' ; Made a*e* & by their respective ratios, the series will become Ti, ro 5a? ci 9 mW Be a Bue"? 3 ;-—- 7— &c. Let the terms which compose the 28a? 72a? T04a? fluent ABF be represented by A, B, C, D, &c. ae then BbeF : A::OadE: “ BbeF : —B::OadE: ... -—> 5a? | Z | w Boek — Cy Oadby.) ie 8), a 28a? Bs WseOndh _— : 72a? 5 SUC hence (E.12.5.)BbeF : A—~B-—C—D :: OadE : 20%x? -— — 5 2 uf 9 ‘ Hae x? --— — &.=DOE 28a? 72a? If it is required to find te e the length of the arc DO, (Fig. 5.) called the rec- tification of the curve, let CO be represented by a, DE by x, EO by y, and the arc DOby z. While the point generating the line DE is supposed to move with a uniform motion, the points which generate the line EO and the are DO move with a retarded motion; but at the instant in which they arrive at O, the decrements cease to exist, and the gen- erating points are left to proceed on with a uniform motion. A necessary consequence of this change is, that a right lined triangle Ond is generated, in which On represents the fluxion of w, nd the fluxion of y, and Od, which is the tangent of the circle, represents A FDc Em Cc G H 308 Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. the fluxion of the arc z. CE: CO::ind: ning ie ay’ y te poe tay = (4 oes (a? — y?)? 2a 8a5 Teen Soy MOSH 8. Q2olyrsy Hed 29un 2 yy an 128a° 1 256a'1 + 1024"? soaeai7t 8] Oy Fay gear Syty Syey B5y%yr | G8yt ey 2dlyt*y | 429y" ty: “8a! ' 164° * 128a* ' 256a1° ' 1024a'2 * 2048"? ee, ea aa ck aia OP TE SD ea Now y Xratio ; _ Oa? X ratio 5 By: ene) iene Xratio By sy? 5y*y" YR peOyh sOUm Yi SOY A0a4) 16a X™" 7y.=I1 9983 19ga° ~~ — Cee ean a ae, Se — Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. 309 II. To find the fluxion of (z?-++x%)*; in this example D*z"= > 2 3 (c2+2°)!, dies —— i oe A(2Q227°+3 ‘i ( - ae geod A(z? +23) X (2rz° +3272"). ) III. To find the fluxion of (gp Ane here Bee(anan)*, and ans a (az: — —Irx° eax") aS (ax —: — rr" xx") Ne ; hence D“z” ~ = (22-425)! hence D"z "x (ax —xx)" X aE ar — LL ar — 22 Coimaet 2(azx _ on)? IV. To find the fluxion of goa yy; here D’z"= 2 2 (a? —y . x-2 a(a? —y?) ~2 an = a a x x ma(a2-y! Nia By BX —2yy aah Sarai ial Be a uy (a?—y?)? 5 The fluxion of I is a(a?—y°) ae ratio ae ae ae Ui. (a> —y°) nie Say*y° ‘ 2(a? —y°)? 1 1Xr : The fluxion of = is z=! X ratio — ii = oan wv £ £ 1 1 34° 37° The fluxion Of ra is Fee ratio jaar a ax L ax The fluxion of 3(az — a?)? is GC ae a)? atic ae a(az—a*)Par 1 1 The fluxion of ia AG vy is aa ("+ a2)'+1 x ratio (n-+1)ma"~ 4° G+ a? The fluxion of ——— ==(qe eat X27) 2". When the fluent is the product of two or more flowing quantities, as zyz, the fluxion of each is to be taken serzatim, the other remain- Vou. XXIV.—No. 2. 40 =(z"+-a?)" X mz ie Bee ( (inne. (a™+2")"t3 . (n+ 1)m2z"-3 2° m(n-+-1) is m(n-+1) a Tate ee 310 Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. ing quantities being considered as a coéfficient; then the several quantities thus arising will be the fluxion sought. Ex. to find the fluxion of zyz. Taking x, the ratio is FO Be and tX—=2'; which is the fluxion of x; hence yzz* is one part of the fluxion. ‘Taking y, the ratio is wae and yx ay the flux- ion of y; hence xzy is another part of the fluxion. Taking z, the ratio is “= and ee the fluxion of z; hence xyz" is x od a another part. Therefore, yza*-+-x2zy'--zyz* is the whole fluxion of tYZ» Ex. to find the fluxion of x*y°. The quantity z* X the ratio ae the fluxion of x*; and the quantity y® x the ratio th i y 5y*y, the fluxion of y°. Hence 3y5a?2:+5x%y%y° is the fluxion Of e292). To find the fluxion of the fraction yay Taking 2, the ratio GS 8 di is ee and xX 7 , the fluxion of «; hence y"'2° maa is one Hh part of the fluxion. ‘Taking y~', the ratio is ar and y~! X : in ’ {= = yo? ye = P the fluxion of y~1; hence — is the other part of the fluxion; therefore cae — y “! is the fluxion of the awe fraction ~. ‘). To find the fluxion of the fraction = =2?y"%. Taking «? the 3 Ne ree eae Dy ratio is — =~, and 2° X eae the fluxion of x? ; hence 2y7 2a: y x fi is one part of the fuxion. ‘Taking y~? the ratio is an a? and : 3 e s eR y= —3y7‘y* the fluxion of y~?, hence — 3a?y~‘*y" is the | 2 other part of the fluxion. Therefore 2y7?zx°—32°y-‘y: ao Br2y° Wyre? —3r2y" a a z is the fluxion of the Faction oe y y ¥y a A SIE EA OF Application of the Flumonal Ratio, &c. 311 Since a fluxion always implies a fluent from whence it is derived, the only way of obtaining a fluent from its fluxion is by an opposite process; this is called the inverse method of fluxions. Hence when the fluxion is derived from any power of a variable quantity, its fluent is found by multiplying the fluxion by > the reciprocal of = The general equation is nD" "~'2 ee — aa I. To find the fluent of 27%2°2°, we first find the value of m in the ratio “ae and because x? ®a: is a in the general formula by z"—1 a", therefore 26+1=27=n, and ~ hence nD"2"~'x O7x? ae = 27x? Sa Xoa. =2?7 the fluent required. Il. To find the fluent of 5(7?-++-x)* x ae here 4+-1=5= % riety m, and Bay hence nD"2"~!2: xX = = 5(4?+2)1 x te+a (cea: ern ee yee ce —22r2° Ill. To find the fluent of 4 ee nes 2 x (ar - 2(ar—x?) z ar —x? Qrz°) 5 here —4 + -= 4 =n, aC ass nee 3a" — 202°) hence e axr— x? nD 2-12 —=4(ar — x?) * 2 x (ac- ~ 282°) X5 Cae: — Dna) (ax — ue the fluent required. ahs 3 —y?)- Zayy 3 ; here (u?—y2) —2+1=—4=n, and - sy aS =(a2—y?) Fayy x ae —y?) = ce the EX —2yy" oF Ue Nitiate fluent required. V. The fluent of (2—n)e"~*2"is (2—n)e!-*2" x ratio (gy CN 312 Improvements on Brunner’s process for Potassium. n™ mn ¢ m-l- a z VI. The fluent o imi @ Zi lS iki ° mtn m+-n n n | When the fluxion arises from the product of two or more variable quantities its fluent is found in the following manner. Suppose the fluxion to be Recut cue Taking the term 3y°r?z-, the z value of n is 2+1=3, hence |, — , and 3y5z?z° = =a ys the fluent of 3y°r?2°. Taking ie term 5r%y4y:, the value of n is Ave hence =. ey , and 5zr3y4y" xe =z*y* the fluent of 5r%y4y°, The sum 2x%y* divided by 2 the number of parts, is : 2yrx* — 3x2 y- z*y® the fluent required. ‘To find the fluent of a ae 4 2y-*zx-—3zr%y-*y. ‘Taking 2y~?zz- the value of n is 1+1=2, rt x aha hence et ae and 2y-?2z° Kom! UN the fluent of 2y~*zz- Gi Taking — 3z2y-4y: the value of n is=—4+1= -— 3, hence s= —_ ae and — Sey X—ge=ety the fluent of —32%y-4y-. The sum 2x?y-3 divided by the number of parts, which is 2, be- 9 pa 2z comes Z2y7? = y the fluent required. To be continued. Arr. XII.—On some improvements on Brunner’s process for Po- tassium, and in the means of preserving that metal; by R. Hare, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. Wuen I first went through Brunner’s process for potassium, as modified and described by Berzelius, I conceived the idea of sub- stituting, for the piece of a gun barrel between the iron bottle and receiver, an iron cylinder much larger in bore, and using an iron vessel without naphtha, instead of that recommended by the great chemist last mentioned. From the employment of this, much in- convenience was experienced ; as in consequence of reiterated ex- plosions, every one present was more or less bespattered with naph- tha. Subsequently I found that in both of my conceptions I had Improvements on Brunner’s process for Potassum. 313 been anticipated by Dr. Gale of New York. Agreeably to my la- ter experiments, I find that the receiver may be dispensed with ad- vantageously on every account. I have successfully employed a. hollow iron cylinder of about two inches in bore, and fifteen inches in length; which is at one end fastened into the generating bottle by screwing, and at the other end receives a piece of a gun barrel to which a lead pipe is adapted, so as to be air tight. This pipe is re- curved in such a manner, as to convey the gas and fumes into the ash hole of the furnace employed. 2 By means of a keg supplied with water, from which s¥oreeds a lead pipe furnished with a cock, a stream of water is directed up- on the iron cylinder sufficient to keep it cool. The water as it runs off from the cylinder, is caught in a flat dish, from which it is con- veyed by another lead pipe. ‘Thus refrigerated, the cylinder retains nearly all the condensible potassium. ‘The receiver should not, however, be allowed at a minimum, to be below a boiling heat in the coldest part, as in that case aqueous matter is detained in it, and, I believe, re-oxidizes more or less of the potassium. ‘Towards the close of the process to prevent the condensible matter from obstruct- ing the narrow part of the receiver next the bottle, it must be kept in a state of incandescence. Operating with the proceeds of seven pounds of bitartrate of pot- ash, properly carbonized, I have obtained of the metal in question, seventeen hundred grains in pieces large enough to be conveniently lifted by forceps. But as in boring the metal out of the tube in- flammation is liable to ensue, unless naphtha be applied, the potassi- um thus extricated is much imbued with this liquid, with which it always has a reaction productive of some loss. Besides, a consid- erable proportion of it, is always deposited in a state of mixture or combination, with a carbonaceous matter, from which it can be com- pletely separated only by intense heat. Hence I deem it prefera- ble, after removing the cylinder from the bottle, to close one end by screwing on an iron cap provided for that purpose, to adapt to the other a piece of a gun barrel duly recurved, and proceed to distilla- tion. I have tried distillation per descensum, which has the advant- age of allowing a portion of the metal to be extricated by simple fu- sion. The last portions however can only be obtamed at a white heat. I must confess that I have not as yet been enabled to make up my mind as to the method, which may be upon the whole prefer- able in this part of the process. From actual trials it appears that it is possible to receive the potassium, as it comes over by distillation, 314 , Improvements on Brunner’s process for Potassium. in a bottle, replete with hydrogen desiccated by chloride of calcium. I have constructed an apparatus, by which I expect this method of operating will be rendered more easy and effectual, but I have not as yet put it into operation. Notwithstanding its unusually large calibre the cylmder became re- peatedly so clogged by the metal, and the carbonaceous deposit, as to occasion some difficulty in keeping the passage clear; and like- wise some loss of potassium, of which a considerable quantity always accompanied the rod used for the purpose when retracted. In or- der to remedy these evils, as a substitute for the iron cylinder above mentioned, I have had another equally long receiver forged, of which the bore at each orifice is two inches in diameter but enlarges at a little distance from either end to two and a half inches. I hope that the cavity of this receiver will be adequate to receive all the conden- sible products without being obstructed. I intend hereafter to furnish a more complete description of my process for potassium, illustrated by a cut. , I have made an improvement in the art of luting. It consists in using the shreds of iron, which are shaved off in making weavers’ reeds of that material. These shreds are entangled together like the fibres of wool and constitute a mass which, by analogy, we have call- ed iron wool. With these shreds fire clay blended with as much sand as is consistent with the necessary plasticity is intimately inter-- mingled and stamped into a flat cake of a size sufficient to envelope the bottle completely. Being applied to the bottle, it is afterwards secured by a wire wound about it in a spiral, of which the rounds are not more than a half inch asunder, and the ends are duly secured by twisting them together. The effect of this intermixture of iron fibres is surprismg. The lute hardens on exposure to the fire without previous desiccation. I rolled up two equal balls, one, consisting of fire clay alone, the other of the same clay intermingled with the iron wool. Both were thrown into an intensely heated part of an anthracite fire. The ball which consisted of clay alone, soon flew to pieces, while the other re- tained its shape and hardened into a mass having the firmness of a brick. The plan proposed by Dr. Gale of keeping potassium in glass without naphtha, is one which I have pursued since 1818. I have been accustomed to seal a tube at one end, then to heat it at a con- venient distance from the end, and reduce the diameter by drawing it down to about a quarter of an inch. Into the tube thus prepared, hydrogen is made to enter, so as to exclude the air. ‘The potassi- Inprovements on Brunner’s process for Potassium. 315 um being then introduced, and the open end of the tube, closed by means of a spirit lamp, the metal may be fused, and with a little dexterity may be transferred in pure globules to that part of the cav- ity of the tube which is between the sealed end and the narrow part. This object being effected, the tube is divided at that part, and seal- ed by fusion. In this case the potassium usually falls upon the glass and adheres to it, presenting a perfectly brilliant metallic coating, and en this appearance without diminution for years. It is however liable to inflammation from slight causes when kept without naphtha. I had an ounce of it in a small phial for eighteen months which took fire on my venturing to divide the phial by means of a file. An account of an explosive compound produced by the reiction of naphtha with potassium, by the author of the preceding article. T avail myself of this opportunity of mentioning a circumstance which occurred in January, 1831, and which I should have mention- ed before, had I not hoped to have had leisure to ascertain the cause of the phenomenon. Having some globules of vice of a size so small, as to be separated with difficulty from the naphtha with which they had been intermingled. endeavored to get rid of the naphtha by heat. With this view I heated the whole mass in a sealed tube, properly recurv- ed to act as aretort. ‘The glass, when heated to the boiling point of the naphtha, became quite black so as to lose its transparency. When ‘all the naphtha had been expelled, I inverted the tube in another of a larger size filled with hydrogen, and otherwise prepared as above mentioned. A few globules of the metal ran into the tube thus pre- pared, and were secured there; so that to this day their brilliancy is unimpaired, and they still have in some points, a striking degree of brightness. ‘They are accompanied by a few drops of colorless naph- tha, which is still unchanged. Being dissatisfied with the quantity of potassium thus procured, I proceeded to examine the caput mortuum left in the tube used as a retort. With this view striking it with a hammer, I was startled by a violent detonation. From the circumstance that this result was the consequence of the reaction of potassium, naphtha, and flint-glass, it seems to be distinguished from the explosions which are well known to occur in the process above alluded to, by which potassium is obtained from carbonate of potash, according to Brunner. 316 Improvements on Brunner’s process for Potassium. I have already mentioned that in the first operation which I made after that plan, I used the copper vessels recommended by Berze- lius. ‘The inner vessel having been allowed to remain in connection with the gun barrel, which formed the means of communication be- tween it and the iron bottle, for thirty six hours after the process was terminated, my assistant attempting to effect a separation, struck the neck of the receiver with a hard body. Immediately a detona- tion ensued, as violent as if a musket had been fired, and the receiv- er though open at one end, was bulged from a square nearly into a cylindrical form. In this case it might be imagined that naphtha had some agency, yet it could have had but little access to the part of the apparatus from which the explosion proceeded. Besides, Dr. Gale mentions that he met with explosions in removing potassium and its accompaniments from the interior of the tube, when no naphtha had been used, and he recommends the affusion of that liquid, as a pre- ventive of explosion. The rod ‘employed to keep the passage through the iron cylinder free as above mentioned, coming out coated with potassium, I strove to detach it by scraping, and to save it by receiving it in naph- tha. I succeeded in amassing in this way a quantity worthy of the trouble. In scraping the rod for this purpose by the edge of a square bar, explosions constantly took place as the latter came in contact with a bluish matter, the nature of which I could: not ascertain. Berzelius ascribes these explosions to moisture ; but they have occur- red, as in the instance above mentioned of detaching the receiver, where moisture could not have contributed to the result. Of a method of filling tubes with potassium, by the author of the preceding articles. Ihave succeeded in filling glass tubes with potassium in the follow- ing manner. One ehd of a tube is luted to one of the orifices of a cock ; to the other orifice, the neck of a gum elastic bag of a suitable size is attached. ‘The open end of the tube is reduced in diameter by means’of a flame excited by the blow-pipe, so as to have an orifice about large enough to receive a knitting needle. ‘The gum elastic bag is filled with hydrogen, and the cock closed. Mean- while the potassium is heated in naphtha, in a larger tube, till it hes at the bottom in a liquid state. In the next place, the bag is grasped with one hand and subjected to pressure, at the same time introducing the small orifice of the tube Improved Syphous. — . 317 into the naphtha, the cock is opened till the hydrogen begins to es- cape in bubbles. ‘The escape of the bubbles is kept up to prevent the naphtha from entering the tube, and to.evacuate the bag. Before this is quite accomplished, the orifice of the tube is to be approxima- ted to the surface of the potassium as nearly as possible without en- tering it, and just as the last of the gas is expelled, is to be merged in the metal. The cock is at the same time to be closed, and the pressure of the hand on the bag discontinued. ‘The cock being in the next place very cautiously opened, the elasticity of the bag coun- teracts the pressure of the atmosphere within the tube; and the li- quid potassium is forced to rise into it. ‘This effect may be controll- ed by the cock, which is to be closed when the column of the metal has attained a satisfactory height. After being removed, cooled and separated from the cock, the tube may be closed by a covering of sheet gum-elastic, such as is procured by the inflation of bags soften- ed by ether. Any portion of the contents thus preserved may be extricated by cutting off and fracturing a portion of the tube, ade- quate to yield the requisite quantity. In order to guard against accidents the apparatus was heated in this process by a bath of naptha; ina bath of hot water. For the object last mentioned, the vessels ordinarily used for the solution of glue were employed, the naphtha being placed in the inner vessel usu- ally occupied by the glue. I have long been in the practice of fillmg tubes with phosphorus by a similar process. Art. XIII.—Improved Syphons ; by R. Harz, M. D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. SuUBJOINED are engravings of two Syphons, which I have found use- ful in my laboratory. Of these, one represents the more complete method of execution; the other, that which can be more easily resorted to by Chemists in general, who have not easy access to skil- ful workmen. The construction last alluded to, is represented by fig. 1. A cork is perforated in two places parallel to the axis. Through one of the perforations, the longer leg of the syphon passes: into the other, one end of asmall lead tube is inserted. In order to support this tube, it is wound about the syphon until it approaches the summit, where a Vou. XXIV.—No. 2. Al 318 Improved Syphons. portion of about three or four inches in length, is left free, so that advantage may be taken of its flexibility, to bend it into a situation convenient for applying the lips to the orifice. About the cork, the neck of a stout gum elastic bag is tied air tight. ‘The joinings of the tubes with the cork, must also be air tight. The lower half of the gum elastic bag is removed, as represented. In order to put this syphon into operation, a bottle must be used, having a neck and a mouth of such dimensions as to form an air tight juncture with the bag when pressed into it. ‘This object being ac- complished, the air must be inhaled from the bottle, until the dimi- nution of pressure causes the liquid to come over, and fill the syphon, After this, on releasing the neck of the bottle, the current continues, as when established in any other way. Fig. 2, represents the more complete construction. In this are two metal tubes, passing through perforations made for them in 2 Stereotype Printing. 319 brass disk, turned quite true. ‘Through one of these tubes, which is by much the larger, the syphon passes, and is cemented air tight. The other answers the purpose of the leaden tube described in the preceding article. The brass disk is covered by a piece of gum elastic, which may be obtained by dividing a bag of proper dimen- sions. The covering thus procured, is kept in its place by a brass band or clasp, made to embrace both it, and the circumference of the plate, and to fasten by means of a screw. Before applying the caoutchouc, it was softened by soaking it in ether, and a hole, obviously necessary, was made in the centre, by a hollow punch. There is no difference between operating with this syphon, and _ that described in the preceding article, excepting that the juncture of the syphon with the bottle, is effected by pressing the orifice of the latter against the disk covered with gum elastic. Arr. XIV.—Stereotype Printing.—An original paper of the late LTneut. Gov. Colden, on a new method of printing discovered by him; together with an original letter from the late Dr. Franklin, on the same subject ; and some account of stereotyping, as now practised in Europe, &c. by the Editors of the Register. We republish from the American Med. and Philos. Register, Vol. I, 1814, p. 439; edited by Profrs. Hosack and Francis an inte- resting paper on the origin of Stereotype printing. We are obliged to a friend for pointing out to us this curious document.—Ed. of Am. Jour. of Scrence, &c. New Method of Printing. ‘¢ As the art of printing has, without question, been of very great use in advancing learning and knowledge, the abuse of it, as of all other good things, has likewise produced many inconveniences. The number of books printed on the same subject, most of which are nothing but unskilful and erroneous copies of good works, written only for ostentation of learning, or for sordid profit, renders the path to knowledge very intricate and tedious. ‘The reader, who has no guide, and the greatest number have none, is lost in the wilderness of numberless books. He is most commonly led astray by the glaring 320 Stereotype Printing. appearances of title pages, and other artifices of the mystery of book- selling. “Tt is likewise a common complaint, that a poor author makes nothing near the profit that the bookseller does of his labor; and probably, the more pains the author has taken, the more difficult the performance, and the more masterly it is done, the less profit to him ; for the good books, like jewels, never lose their intrinsic value ; wet they have fewer purchasers ten Bristol stones, and the sale of Heth is slow. ‘As the lessening or removing of some of these inconveniences, may be of use to the republic of letters, I hope to be excused in ma- king the following attempt for that purpose, by proposing a new method of printing’. ‘Let there be made of some hard metal, such as copper or brass a number of types, or rather matrices, on the face of each of which one letter of the alphabet is to be printed en creuse, by a stamp, or such other method by which matrices for founding of types are commonly made. ‘They must be all of the same dimension, as to breadth and thickness, with that of types, but half their length seems sufficient. ‘Their sides must be so equal and smooth as to leave no vacuity between them when joined. ‘There must likewise be a suffi- cient number of each letter or character, to compose at least one page in,octavo, of any book. «‘ These matrices, I suppose, may be cast in a mould, or a plate of copper may be divided exactly into squares, and the letter or cha- racter be stamped into the middle of each square, and the squares af- terwards cut asunder by a proper saw. ‘The best method of ma- king these will be easily discovered by those whose business it is to make founts for printing types. “When a sufficient number of each letter and character is obtain- ed, they are to be placed in the same manner that types are, when composed for printing, only that they must all stand directly as they are read, and as they will appear afterwards on paper. «The composure of one page after it is carefully corrected, is to be placed in a case or mould, fitted to it, of the length and breadth of the page, and of such depth as to cast a plate a quarter of an ~ inch thick, which will perfectly represent a page composed in the common manner for printing. “ As to the art of casting the plate perfect, founders and type ma- kers must be consulted; for the composition of the metal, and for Stereotype Printing. 321 the flux for running it clean and clear, so that no vacuities be left ; for which purpose, I am told, that the funnel, by which the melted metal is poured in, being made large and the filling it with the melted metal after the mould is full, is of use to make the letter every where full and complete. For, by the weight of the metal in the funnel, the liquid metal in the mould is pressed into every crevice. The funnel’s extending the whole length of one of the sides, gives like- wise free vent to the air. “‘Or, after a page shall be composed, as before mentioned, and the types and matrices well secured in a frame upon a strong plate, they may, by a screw, be pressed upon a sheet of melted lead, and thereby a plate of lead be procured, representing as the former a page composed of types for printing. Which of the methods are most practicable artists can best determine. “« After the page shall be thus formed the matrices may be loosen- ed and dispersed in their proper boxes, and may serve for as many other pages as types in common printing do. © ‘When a number of pages, sufficient for a sheet are thus made, they may be carried to any printing press, and such a number of sheets as shall be thought proper be cast off, and then be laid by till more copies be wanted. *‘] choose an octavo page, because, if the page title and page number be left out, as likewise the directions and signatures at the foot of the page, by joining two pages together, it may be made a quarto, or by joiming four a folio. ‘Thus several editions in octavo, quarto and folio, may at once be made, to suit every buyer’s humor. “The page titles, number and bottom signatures may be cast in small moulds apart, and joined, as may be proper. ‘“‘'The most convenient size of a page is that of small paper, so as to fill itup, and to leave very little margin ; then by adding the page titles, or marginal notes, or notes at the bottom, all cast in frames separately, the large paper may be sufficiently filled. “‘T believe that this method of printing, every thing considered, will not be more chargeable than the common method. A thousand, or some thousands sometimes, of copies, are cast off at once in the common method, and the paper and pressman’s labor of what is not speedily sold may, or must lie dead for some years,’ whereas in this method, no more need be cast off at a time than may well be sup- posed to sell speedily. If I be not mistaken, the metal necessary for one sheet will not exceed the value of four hundred sheets of pa- 322 hi Stereotype Printing. per, and in the common method, several hundred sheets lie useless for sometimes, many years. If the book should not answer, there is a great loss in the paper, whereas the metal used in this method retains its intrinsic value. “‘T shall instance some of the advantages in this method which in- duce me to communicate my thoughts to others. ‘1. An author by this means can secure the property of his own labor. “2. A correct edition is at all times secured, and therefore may be useful in the classics, trigonometrical tables, &c. “©3. A weak and ignorant attempt on the same subject will be dis- couraged, for as a new edition of a valuable book is continually se- cured, without any new expense, booksellers will not readily hazard the publishing of books of the same nature. ‘64, But what I chiefly value this method of printing for, is from the advantages it gives an author in making his work perfect, and in freeing it from mistakes; for, by printing off a few copies of any sheet, and sending them among his friends, and by suffering them to fall into the hands of a malevolent critic, he may have an opportunity of correcting his mistakes, before they appear to the world. By the same means he may make his work more complete than he other- wise could, by the assistance which his friends may give him in seve- ral parts of it. It is for these reasons chiefly, that I propose the plates not to exceed an octavo page, and to have no signatures; for in case of a mistake, the loss of one page may correct the error, and where. improvements or additions are necessary, as many pages may be in- termixed as shall be necessary, without any inconvenience, and small explications may be made by the marginal notes. «Lastly. The greatest advantage I conceive will be in the learned sciences; for they often require a long time to bring these to per- fection, and require the assistance of others in many particulars. Many a valuable piece has been lost to the world by the author’s dying before he could bring his work to the perfection he designed. Now by the assistance which he may have by this method from others, this time may be much shortened, and the progress he has made may be preserved for others to continue in case of his death. An author may publish his work in parts, and shall continue, in many ca- ses, to complete and make them more perfect, without any loss of what was done before. By this method likewise, a man of learning, when poor, may leave some parts of his estate in his own way for.a child, as mechanics often do for theirs. Stereotype Printing’. 323 ‘* Whether the method I propose will answer the end designed, or whether it be practicable, I cannot with sufficient assurance say ; because we have no artists in this country who can make the experi- ment, neither can they have encouragement sufficient to tempt them to make the trial. However, I hope to be excused, by the use of the design, and as it may chance to give some hint to a skilful person to perform effectually what I only aim at in vain. “If the charge of lead or metal plates be thought too great, I know not but that the impression may be made on thin planes of some kinds of wood, such as lime tree or poplar, which have a soft smooth grain when green, and are hard and smooth when dry. ‘¢ Ever since [ had the pleasure of a conversation with you, though very short, by our accidental meeting on the road, I have been very desirous to engage you in a correspondence. You was pleased to take some notice of a method of printing which I mentioned to you at that time, and to think it practicable. I have no further concern for it than as it may be useful to the public; my reasons for thinking so, you will find in the inclosed copy of a paper which I last year sent to Mr. Collinson in London. Perhaps my fondness for my own conceptions may make me think more of it than it deserves, and may make me jealous that. the common printers are willing to discourage out of private interest, any discovery of this sort. But as you have given me reason to think you zealous in promoting every useful at- tempt, you will be able absolutely to determine my opinion of it. I long very much to hear what you have done in your scheme of erecting a society at Philadelphia, for promoting useful arts and scien- ces in America. If you think of any thing in my power whereby I can promote so useful an undertaking, I will with much pleasure re- ceive your instructions for that end. As my son Cadwallader, bears this, I thereby think myself secured of the pleasure of a line from you by him.” Philadelphia, November 4, 1743. SIR, I received the favor of yours, with the proposal for 2 new meth- od of printing, which | am much pleased with; and since you ex- press some confidence in my opinion, I shall consider it very atten- tively and particularly, and in a post or two, send you some observa- tions on every article. My long absence from home in the summer, put my business so much behind hand, that I have been in a continual hurry ever since 324 Stereotype Printing. my return, and had no leisure to forward the scheme of the society. But that hurry being now near over, I purpose to proceed in the affair very soon, your approbation being no small encouragement to me. | I cannot but be fond of engaging in a correspondence so advanta- geous to me as yours must be. I shall always receive your favors as such, and with great pleasure. I wish I could by any means, have made your son’s longer stay here as agreeable to him, as it would have been to those who began to be acquainted with him. Tam, Sir, with much respect, Your most humble servant, Dr. CoLpen. B. FRANKLIN. The mode of printing above described is now known by the term Stereotype ; and itisa curious fact that the stereotype process, said to have been invented by M. Herhan, in Paris, and now practised by him in that city, under letters patent of Napoleon, is precisely the same as that spoken of by Dr. Colden more than sixty years ago. It ig more than probable that when Dr. Franklin went to France, he communicated Dr. Colden’s “new method of printing” to some artists there, and that it lay dormant till about sixteen years since; when Herhan, a German, who had been an assistant to M. Didot, the printer and type founder of Paris, but then separated from him, took it up in opposition to M. Didot. We have conversed with gen- tlemen who have seen M. Herhan’s method of stereotyping, and they describe it to be exactly what Governor Colden invented. This fact established, there can be no doubt that M. Herhan, is indebted to America for the celebrity he has obtained in France. Since the above papers fell into our hands, we have endeavored to obtain information respecting the different methods of stereotyping now in use. The following is the result of our inquiries. . By a book published in Paris, about ten years since, by M. Camus of the French National Institute, we find that a Bible was printed in Strasburgh, by one Gillet, more than a hundred years ago, with plates similar to those now used by Didot and Herhan, but not by any means so perfect. Gillet’s moulds were made of a fine clay and a particular kind of sand found only in the neighborhood of Paris. It is also stated that a number of other ingenious men had at various Stereotype Printing. 325 times produced plates tolerably perfect, by different processes, but we may safely infer, from the art having made no great progress until the time of Didot the elder, that their endeavors had not been crowned with much success. At the begining of the French revolution great quantities of pa- per money becoming necessary to supply the, deficiency of specie either concealed or sent out of the kingdom by the rich, Didot was applied to by the National Assembly to invent some kind of assignat or bank bill, which should not easily be imitated; and at this period it was that M. Didot first directed his attention to the means of pro- ducing, an relef, a set of plates, to print on a common printing-press which were exactly fac-similes, and could not without much difficul- ty be falsified. ‘This process was termed Polytyping ;* as the mould in which the plates were cast was durable, and would produce any number of copies; the usual mode of stereotyping being, as the French term it, @ moule perdu; it being necessary to make a new mould for every plate. But as M. Didot’s views were by degrees extended to the casting of pages for book printing, he found it unnecessary to use durable moulds, and therefore, after a year’s experiment invented a compo- sition, which, like the sand used by brass-founders, might be wrought over again for different casts. ‘The elegant editions produced by M. Didot and sons, are the best proof of his success. When the fame of M. Didot’s invention reached England, Lord Stanhope, an ingenious and wealthy nobleman, whose time and for- tune are principally devoted to the advancement of the arts, made propositions to Mr. Andrew Wilson, of Wild Court, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, proprietor of the Oriental press, to assist him in such experi- ments as might bring to perfection a new mode of stereotyping, of which his lordship had obtained some ideas. Mr. Wilson, embraced the proposal; and after four or five years of incessant labor, they at- tained nearly all the advantages they had contemplated. Mr. Wil- son, in the year 1802, built his foundry in Duke street, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, and in the following year disposed of the secret for six thou- sand pounds sterling, and some future advantages to Mr. Richard Watts, for the use of the University of Cambridge. In the year * We have seen some beautiful specimens of this art produced by Mr. John Watts, of this city; of whose undertakings we shall hereafter speak more at large. Vou. XXIV.—No. 2. 42 326 The most simple means of employing dead Animals. following he disposed of it on similar terms to the University of Ox- ford.* About two years ago a brother of Mr. Watts of Cambridge, began a course of experiments in this city for a more cheap and easy man-. ner of stereotyping, than any hitherto discovered; and in spite of in- numerable disadvantages has succeeded beyond his utmost expecta- tion. We have seen plates of his casting of the greatest perfection and beauty. The chief difficulty he has experienced arose from the jealousy and illiberality of the common type founders, who refused to lend the little aid he required of them. It is agreeable to us, howev- er, from our own observation to be able to state that by uncommon per- severance through accumulated obstacles, Mr. Watts, has invented a method of casting the common types much more perfect than those made in the usual way ; and now will proceed with his plates without the assistance of other artists. The principal defects in M. Didot and Lord Stanhope’s process- es, arise from the softness of the moulds they employ, which are composed of plaster of Paris and some other ingredients. In taking them from the page, of which they are intended to cast a perfect copy, some part of the composition will always remain in the type, and leave the mould imperfect. After the plates are cast, there is consequently much work for an engraver, to make them fit for use. Mr. Watts’s mould, being of solid materials no such inconvenience can arise. . Arr. XV.—Notice of the most simple means of employing dead anvmals ; by M. Payven, Manufacturer, Professor of Chemistry. Remarks.—The translation from the French, of the following me- moir, on the use of dead animals, was sent to us by a valued cor- respondent. Our hesitation (created by some of its revolting details,) as to the propriety of publishing it was at length, overcome not only by the consideration that it presents facts, some of which may be useful in this country, but also by the very remarkable exhibition which it pre- sents, of a state of society, (so foreign from any thing existing here,) * The two Universities of England, have the exclusive right of printing Bibles and Prayer Books. Twenty or thirty presses are generally employed in that busi- mess alone; the classic departments requiring many others. The most simple means of employing dead Animals. 327 in which such employments can be regarded as desirable. The physiological facts are also very surprising, and such as we should very little expect. Who, without decisive evidence, would believe, that the flesh of an animal which can communicate a fatal infection by mere contact, can be safely eaten by man! Those of our readers, whose nerves are delicate, may as well pass over this memoir without perusing it, while to those who appreciate curious and usetul results, without regarding the pleasantness of the path by which they arrive at them, it will prove a valuable acquisition to their stock of informa- tion.— Editor. In many places, the laborious inhabitants of the country carefully gather different remains of little value, such as stubble, leaves and twigs of wood, which they collect in forests for their fuel; the ma- nure of horses, which they scrape up from the roads to increase their scanty store. ‘They often deprive themselves of part of their own food to raise dogs and cats; while they allow the greater part of their dead animals to be lost, which they might without much trouble turn to great advantage, either by applying them to their own wants, or selling them to manufactures, who, almost every where in France, are in want of animal materials necessary for their opera- tions. The value of these dead animals, according to the uses to which they may be applied will be much greater than that of many objects which they are accustomed as we have said, to glean with trouble. When an animal dies in the country either from disease or accident, they generally hasten to bury it very deeply, thus throwing away all the profit which they might obtain from it. They cherish an aver- sion to their dead carcasses, from the idea, universally prevalent, that they are unwholesome; that there is danger in approaching and handling them, if they had been ever so little affected with disease, or the flesh has commenced giving out a little bad odor. Before we point out all the uses to which dead animals may be applied it will be necessary to destroy these false ideas; we shall doubtless effect this by informing them that none of the numerous individuals em- ployed in different manufactories near large cities, where are slaughter- ed all diseased animals, where are cut up all animals that have died of diseases of any kind (one only excepted, which we shall clearly make known ;) that none of the laborers in work houses where they ma- nipulate with animal matters experience any particular indisposition, 328 The most simple means of employing dead Animals. or are subject to any disease which can be attributed to these sub- stances. It is therefore a great error to regard these professions as unwhole- some. Numerous reports of learned men; of physicians, and ad- ministrative authorities, have proved that the most infected establish- ments, where are employed animal matters often in a state of putre- faction, and especially catgut manufactories, slaughter houses for horses, and the shops of glue makers, are in general not at all unwhole- some. But we are to understand that it is entirely different with re- gard to vegetable matters (remains of plants) in fermentation, alone, or mixed with animal matter ; thus the pits in which hemp is steep- ed; muddy marshes; deposits of soap suds; clearings of ponds, gutters, or canals, may give rise to disease even at considerable distances. We have said that one distemper alone, after having caused the death of animals may be dangerous to those who flay their carcasses, independently of the accidents which happen by a puncture or wound aiding the communication of the disease. The distemper of which we speak is known by the name of Carbuncle because it often gives rise to tumors, which when they are accompanied with sores are covered ordinarily with blackish crusts. Animals attacked with carbuncle evince a deep sadness, their sides are greatly agitated ; we observe in different parts of their bodies, especially on the breast and near the sides, swellings or tumors, which cause them a great deal of pain, and which sometimes when they are touched sound like dry skin; death sometimes ensues in twenty four hours. ‘The tongue is then black, and the blood and flesh very brown. Finally, for fear that there should be any uncertainty, even when we think that carbuncle could not be recognized by the preceding indications, it will be proper always to consult a veterinary surgeon, and in case there should remain any doubts concerning the nature of the distemper, we should abstain from cutting up the animal. Jn the latter case, and if the contagious nature of the disease should be apparent we should bury the dead animal two feet under ground. In order to convey it to the grave, a hurdle or an old door should be used, and a hook fixed in the end of a long handle in order to prevent the blood and exuvie from being scattered over the soil during the passage, and to avoid touching the carcase. The place of inter- ment, should be marked in some particular manner. Grain may be conveniently sown over it in order to profit by its powerful subterranean The most simple means of employing dead Animals. 329 vapor. At the end of two years the grave may be opened, the bones will be found completely denuded of flesh, and fit for the uses which we shall point out hereafter. In the same manner may be employed animals which have be- come more or less softened by incipient putrefaction; in the lat- ter case, they may be made to serve a more useful purpose as ma- nure, by tearing off the flesh with long handled instruments as hedg- ing bills, pitch-forks, &c. then, mixing it with dry earth it is spread, alter having extracted the bones, in thin layers upon ground to be cultivated, or in small heaps among the feet or tufts of different plants at a distance from each other, such as corn, potatoes, tobacco, vines, olive trees, &c. All this manure should be covered with earth which absorbs and retains the products of the fermentation and gradually transmits them to the plants. Animals which have been bled and sold to the butchers soon after the invasion of non contagious diseases, have never caused any acci- dents either to those who have flayed them or cut them up, nor to those persons who have eaten them. We may cite as examples the oxen and cows slaughtered in great numbers during an epizootia, sheep affected with the rot (a kind of small pox,) all those animals which die rapidly after having been attacked with swellings in mead- ows of wet clover, or in consequence of excessive fatigue : this lat- ter case is besides very analogous to what happens so frequently to those animals which are driven hard in the chase. Animals killed by lightning like those destroyed by disease or fatigue should be very soon skinned and dissected; the former particularly are subject to putrefaction much more rapidly than those whose deaths may be ow- ing to other causes. As to those animals which are not commonly subservient either _ to the nourishment of man, or other animals; such as horses, dogs, cats, rats and even polecats, their flesh is not in any manner un- wholesome ; we have often seen workmen feeding upon it, merely adding to ita little more pepper and other spices, in order to dis- . guise the peculiar taste of some one of these animals. Polecats in particular have so strong an odor that few persons could be induced to taste them, whatever the seasoning; but we can bear witness that they may be eaten, without the least danger. The greater number of animals should be skinned and dissected in the same manner ; commencing by dividing the skin of the abdo- men throughout its whole length and thickness, from the lower jaw 330 The most simple means of employing dead Animals. along the neck, the breast and the belly, as far as the tail; a cross cut is then made along each leg as far as the foot: the skin is cut all around the limb, and is then detached from all parts of the ani- mal, by pulling it with one hand, at first in the middle of the belly, and making with the other hand a great number of strokes with a knife, the edge of the blade being directed more towards the flesh, for fear of cutting the skin. An acquaintance with this operation may be obtained by imitating the manner of the butcher boys, and skinners by profession. It would be better to apply to one of these, if he is to be found in the neighborhood. In places near manufactories where they work in skins (tanneries, taweries, &c.) the skins can be sent to these estab- lishments quite fresh, after which the ears, flesh and bones contain- ed inthe tail are removed; skins are sold by weight. If on the contrary the skins are to be sent to some distance, or kept some time until there is occasion to transport them, it will be necessary to remove carefully all the remaining flesh, and which may cause them to spoil: it will be proper even in this case to remove the tail. When the skin has been separated from the animal in the manner just related, all the bowels and other viscera are to be drawn from the abdomen and chest, the whole placed in a pit dug in a mound of earth as dry as possible; all the soft parts must be torn apart by two persons pulling in contrary directions by means of pitehforks or strong rakes, then to be mixed with a sufficient quantity of earth to form, not a paste, but a moist powder; the manure thus obtained may be employed immediately by being spread over the earth under culture, by being divided in small portions between the hillocks of different plants as we have before stated ; or finally by being spread in farrows dug between rows of plants sowed in lines and covered with earth. If the animal is capable of serving as nourishment for man or an- imals, as itis in the greatest number of cases, the most advan- tageous use it can be put to, it will be proper to cook it that it may be consumed before it spoils, or to salt it that it may be pre- served during the time necessary for a prolonged consumption. To this effect, we are to put up in one vessel or more, large stone pots for example, all the parts which spoil the soonest; these are the liv- er, the heart, and the spleen; if they cannot be consumed at once, they are to be put in a pot, by placing at the bottom a little salt at first, then adding successively all the pieces after rolling them over a ta- The most simple means of employing dead Ammals. 331 ble covered with salt. We then set aside, and salt in the same manner, in order to be consumed, the head cut in two, the neck di- vided into five or six pieces, and the end of the sides; all the rest of the animal is to be divided into portions that may be easily intro- duced into the stone pots, where they are to be placed in layers, be- tween which is to be strewn a bed of salt; care is to be used to cov- er the pots as tightly as possible, either with parchments, slates, or stone plates and mortar of loam mixed with cows’ hair, and to keep them in a cool place. The raw flesh of animals may likewise be easily preserved by cutting it in very small slices, and keeping it immersed for an hour in a ley of soda rendered more caustic by lime mixed with salt and a little saltpetre ; it will be sufficient to expose these slices to the air to dry them, or to keep them in a dry place. If, in killing the ani- mal, a certain quantity of blood should be collected, it may be em- ployed directly for the nourishment of hogs ;* it will suffice then to dilute it with water, and to mix it with the aliments commonly given them; there is even no inconvenience in making it serve for the nourishment of man, as is done in Sweden, by kneading it with dough, or adding it to fat hashed up and seasoning it properly to make a sort of black pudding. We know that there need be no fear of any of the affections of which the animals may have died to those who feed upon the flesh of them; we may be assured of this from very numerous examples, both in the provisioning of armies, and in the sales made by the keepers of cattle to the butchers, during the prevalence of very fatal affections among animals. These different facts prove that the food from animals dead of diseases has never occasioned the least evil to: persons who have eaten of it. The fact has even been proved, that the flesh of animals dying of contagious diseases, and which we have before advised to inter without skinning them, has done no injury to those who have been nourished by it, although these animals had * Tt is pretended that hogs, when they have been some time fed upon blood or flesh, become prone to run after children, chickens, &c.; but there need be little fear of these accidents, since hogs should always be separated from other animals of the farm yard, and, for a stronger reason, from children: besides, the animal matters will become mixed with many ordinary aliments: finally, if there is any fear of these results, it will be easy to boil the blood with water, before mixing it all with bran, potatoes, &c. 332 The most simple means of employing dead Animals. communicated a mortal affection to people who had dissected them.* Thus, then, we should never renounce the use of the flesh of those animals which have died from accident or disease, for the nourish- ment of man, from the fear of being injured by it; but it often hap- pens that the flesh will be at once tough, soft and distasteful; in this case, it should still be preserved in the manner stated above, for the nourishment of dogs, hogs, and even poultry; if stewed a sufficient length of time, and in a quantity of water nearly equal to that used in boiling, it may be very easily cut up or hashed, and mixed with five or six times the quantity of potatoes, bran, &c. ‘This mixture produces much more profitable nutriment to the domestic animals of which we have just spoken, than if there had been no mixture 5 it may be as good for them and more nourishing than the best wheat bread: we cannot, therefore, too earnestly advise the inhabitants of the country to avail themselves of their dead animals, excepting only, we repeat, those whose contagious diseases, before described, should be dangerous to the persons engaged in skinning them, and * We find, in a memoir published in the year VIII, by M. Huzard, member of the Institute, a great number of facts, conclusive on this head, and from among which we will cite the following. During the contagious disease among cattle of 1770, and of the year VI, which had a much more dangerous character than the preceding, the number of beasts sold to the butchers was very great, yes without any of the diseases having been spread among the people. The physicians charged with the care of visiting the indigent, (who would have been more exposed, if there had been any real danger from the use of these base viands,) being consulted have only been able to cite examples tending to prove the harmlessness of this food. The opening of animals killed in the chase, presents the same pathological phe- nomena, as that of animals who have died of carbunele. This disease is sometimes, indeed, occasioned by forced and violent marches. The use of game, partly putrefied, does not occasion any distemper. The chief physicians of the French armies of Sombre and Meuse, Rhine and Mo- selle, of Italy, have witnessed, as M. Huzard has, a great part of their armies nour- ished for along time on the flesh of beeves and cows, which had died of the distemper which prevailed in the year 1V, without any disease resulting to the numerous con- sumers of it. Many observations, like those related of the two butchers of the oe cited by M. Huzard, prove that diseases have been contracted, and even that death has supervened, among persons who had skinned animals affected with contagious dis- eases, while none of those who had been fed upon the flesh of these animals had been indisposed. The almost general use, among the poor inhabitants of Paris, of the flesh of horses, which died during the famine of the year VII, was not followed by any special af- fection. The most simple means of employing dead Ammals. 333 those which, already in a state of putrefaction, would be useful only for manuring the earth. In whatever way the. flesh of animals is employed for nourishment, it will be proper to separate the bones, to be used as we shall point out further on. Recipe for converting dead animals to a useful purpose. The following means will permit the employment of dead animals as nourishment, in places even where there may be no person capa- ble of skinning them. Commence by opening the abdomen of the animal, and drawing out all the viscera, which may be used for manure, in the way before described ; the animal is then to be cut into pieces of such a size that each may be put into a pot or kettle, which is to be half filled with water and then heated until the water begins to boil; one of the pieces is then placed in it, and allowed to boil until the skin can easily be removed ; this scalded piece is then taken out, care being taken promptly to remove the skin by seizing it between the blade of the knife and the thumb, afterwards scraping off the hair with the same knife. Each time that a piece is removed, it will be necessary to add a little water, to replace that which has evaporated, and to keep it boiling. for the reception of another part. When all the portions have been scalded in this manner, they may be salted for preserva- tion, or stewed, in order to be employed in feeding dogs, hogs or fowls. ‘The water in which all the parts of the animal have been boiled, should be passed through thin linen, to separate the hair, and mixed afterward with bran, Nc. for feeding hogs. When the skin of an animal may have been damaged, or cannot be sold to the tanners, either on account of the distance or any other reason, we may make use of it by scalding it in the manner just re- lated, in order to separate the hair, cutting it afterward into very small portions, and cooking it by a small fire, in about six times its volume of water, (two quarts of water to a pound of skin, thus divided ;) after seven or eight hours cooking, salt and seasoning may be added; the liquor is then to be strained through a cloth; when cooled, it forms a very nutritious and agreeable jelly. We may likewise easily preserve the meat dressed for food; to this effect, place beforehand some stone pots in a good position; these are to be rinsed out, the moment before being used, with boil- ing water, and then are to be filled with the stewed meat, hot, and seasoned with salt, thyme, laurel, &c.; then reduce rapidly, over Vou. XXIV.—No.2. 43 334 The most sumple means of employing dead Animals. the fire, to one quarter of its volume, the liquor or broth in which the food has been cooked, and turn it upon each of the pots filled with the meat, well heaped up. If the cooked meat should be too jan to form a bed of fat in each pot, it will be well to add any other fat matter which may be at hand ; pot grease or any old fried meat, for example, which may be melted for this purpose. The pots thus filled must be closed with their covers, or with plates, bound around with strips of old linen, covered with a paste of flour and water. ‘These pots are to be kept in a cellar or any other . cool place, and when one of them is commenced upon it is to be consumed as quickly as possible, to avoid its being spoiled, especially if in the summer. An excellent method of preserving either the gelatinous liquor ob- tained from cooking the meat or skin, or the flesh cooked and hashed up, or finally the blood, consists in mixing these substances, suflicient- ly salted, with the dough of bread; the day following the baking, the bread is to be cut into slices of from six lines to an inch in thickness, these slices to be returned into the oven whence bread has just been taken, the door of which is to be left open to facilitate the drying. These slices, thus well dried, will keep many years, when put up in dry barrels, and stowed ina granary. We may thus form very good provisioning, either for men or animals; it is useless to add, that for these latter, we may employ, in making the dough, the cheapest flour, and even bran. In order to make use of this bread, it may be treat- ed with water, in the manner of obtaining a soup of ordinary con- sistence. As it is probable that, notwithstanding the naeeedine directions, it will not be at once determined in the country, to use the flesh of dead animals for nourishment, and besides all the parts not being ap- plicable thereto, we point out the other most simple means of deriving advantage from their remains. Skins. When the skin cannot be sent to a tanner while fresh, it will be easy to preserve it for some time by scraping off with a knife all the flesh remaining upon it, then exposing it to the air, stretched upon a line or nailed against the wall. If it be necessary to wait some months for opportunity to send them tothe tanners, it will be neces- sary to soak them two or three days in water, to which has been On the most simple means of employing dead animals. 335 added about a quarter of a pound of slacked lime for every pailfull of water, to turn them several times a day in this liquid and stretch them afterwards in order to dry them. This simple operation will answer equally well for the preservation of the tendons, (vulgarly called nerves,) the clippings of the skin, tails, &c. which may be kept to sell to the glue makers. ‘The skins of horses, oxen, cows and goats may be treated thus ; as to those whose hair is valuable, the skins of sheep, hares and rab- bits, they may be preserved by salting; for this purpose, take as much water as will suffice to soak them in, to which is added com- mon salt in the proportion of a large handfull to a pint of water; soak the skins in this mixture, turning them occasionally, for seven or eight days in winter, and two days in summer; at the end of this time, stretch them in the air to dry. Bristles, Hair, Wool and Feathers. To whatever use we may wish to put these substances, it will be necessary to dry them, that they may not spoil; for this purpose we spread them in an oven after baking bread, when it has been well swept out and we are assured that the heat is sufficiently abated that no risk will be run of burning them. In order to be still more cer- tain of preserving these matters a long time, it will be well, before ta- king them from the oven, to place in the midst of them, after separa- ting Piatt alittle, a flower pot supported between two pieces of brick, in order that the air may have access at the hole in the bottom, in which the ‘half or quarter of a sulphur match should be burned ; while the match is burning the. door of the oven should be sai and a quarter of an hour after we may remove the materials from the oven, and pack them up in boxes, cases, barrels, or any other vessel, in which they can be well closed. Horse hair may be pre- served without any preparation; the longest is usefully employed in making cords for spreading linen upon, which last a long time, and are not apt to produce spots inggyet weather, as cords of hemp or raw flax. The short hairs will . i to stuff furniture, saddles, &c. With respect to the short hair and the fur, by mixing them with an equal volume of moist earth they form an excellent manure, which acts mildly and for a long time; their mixture with a sandy earth or with good garden mould ‘is perfectly suitable for shrubberies as I have proved by many trials, they smoke and air the soil, and on this account, are proper for all vegetables. Feathers mixed with 336 On the most simple means of employing dead Animals. moist earth form likewise a good manure, and they may be used for this purpose, when they can be used for no other. Shoes and Nails. When oxen, horses, asses or mules die or are killed, their feet often remain shod with shoes and nails; these should be torn off with strong pinchers; the nails are useful to masons, to fasten stucco plaster and mortar spread upon wood. In many provinces, and es- pecially in Auvergne, these nails are kept to put in wooden’ shoes, which render them more durable; they are likewise useful to pale up fruit-trees along walls, by fastening their branches, with the aid of lit- tle strips of linen which support them. Horns, Hoofs, Spurs, &c. In order to separate these parts of the animal from the bones which fill them, it will suffice to allow them to soak in the same wa- ter, until they can be easily detached by passing between them the blade of a knife. Spurs, horns and hoofs are formed: of the same matter ; those which are sufficiently large, without defects, and of a light shade, can be sold to the toymen; as to their value, the countrymen who live in the environs of large cities, may inform themselves by apply- ing to the persons who exercise these professions ; it varies in differ- ent localities. The price of those which are of a clear color, and have defects, or may not be sufficiently large, may-be increased by reducing them by rasping, before sending them to the toymakers. Those which cannot be disposed of thus, as well as those which are very brown, and which have very prominent defects may be sold to the establishments for making prussian blue—they are worth from ten to fifteen franks for one hundred kil., or they will serve to form ex- cellent manure; but for this purpose it is necessary to divide them very fine, the best means being to rasp them with a coarse rasp; the powder thus obtained may be spread over meadows, or beds of veg- etables over all the earth under qulture, or at the feet of different plants. This manure is so powerful, that the quantity obtained from four hoofs of a horse, ordinarily produces almost as much effect as a small load of dung, and indemnifies sufficiently for a labor, very hard it is true, but which may be performed by women or children, often but little occupied in the country. ‘This powder sold as ma- nure for the colonies, is valued at about twenty francs the hundred kil.. For want of a rasp, the horns may be cut in small pieces by On the most simple means of employing dead Animals. 337 means of a knife well sharpened after softening them in boiling water ; horns, thus cut are less effective than when reduced by rasping, but their action lasts longer. . Fat. When an animal which cannot serve as aliment, is cut up, we should carefully collect, and set aside all the fat which we can find; itis to be cut up in small portions and melted, by heating it slowly over the fire, when it is entirely liquid, and does not froth any more it is to be left some minutes away from the fire, passed through a cloth which is to be strongly twisted, and then poured into very dry pots, to be kept cool and well covered. ‘The fat thus prepared is very useful for greasing the axletrees of wheels, the harness of carriages, leather of shoes, &c. - Bones. In localities at a distance of five leagues or more (unless at greater distances these transportations can be cheaply effected by return loads) from factories of ivory black and of toys, bones, collected in sufficiently large quantities, may be transported and sold advanta- geously,in these establishments ; as in many places we may be de- prived of this resource, and even of that of a mill to reduce them to a coarse powder, it will be necessary to divide them as well as pos- sible, by cutting with a hatchet on a block, all the flat bones, and the softer parts, such as the bones of the head, neck, shoulders, sides and the round ends of the large bones ; as to the large bones themselves they may be broken by means of a marline. When they have been thus all broken in pieces, as small as possible, they may be made to serve as manure, particularly on moist meadows; their good effects will be experienced five or six years afterwards. It will be necessa- ry to be careful not to spread these bones upon a sandy or very dry soil, for if they should not be. sufficiently divided to be entirely de- composed in fifteen or twenty years, their effect would scarcely be perceived. Blood and Flesh. When it should be decided not to employ by the means which we have before pointed out, these two substances for the nourishment of men and animals, an excellent manure may very easily be obtained from them. As to blood, it will be necessary to heat it in a kettle, or iron pot, stirring it incessantly with a wooden ladle, or better, with a rod of iron until it is reduced to a sort of a humid powder. Then it is taken from the fire and allowed to cool when it is to be divided by rubbing it between the hands and mixed with two or three 338 On the most simple means of employing dead Animals. times its volume of dry earth; this mixture produces an excellent ma- nure very easy to be spread very thinly upon cultivated earth, or be- tween the tufts of different plants. Relatively to flesh, it may be stewed up, without taking out the bones, in large kettles or pots in which it should be completely immersed in water and closed com- pletely with a cover well pressed down upon the edge of the pot or kettle, by means of three or four large stones. (In order to close it still better, it will be well to put between the edge and the cover some old pieces of linen.) After having thus, slowly, boiled the whole for seven or eight hours we may try whether the meat has be- come very tender by thrusting into it the blade of a knife. If it still remains tough, we should continue to heat for an hour or two; then removing the meat from the pot we can extract all the bones from it, to be employed as before said, and the meat is to be hashed up as fine as possible ; it is to be mixed with dry mould, when it will an- swer for manuring the earth, as we have just said of the blood. We may employ the raw meat as manure, by placing it near the hillocks of plants; but in this case it will be necessary, in order to spread it in small quantity at a time, to hash it or cut it up in small portions—a rather tedious operation—and it will be proper to cover it with earth, that it may not be too easily perceived and devoured by rats and other little field animals. © This latter precaution will be proper in all cases; especially as it is easily accomplished. Raw. meat is however less advantageous for manuring the earth than when it is cooked, because, in the former state, it is too quickly decompo- sed, and a great quantity of the gas which it produces is lost. ‘This observation applies equally to blood which is employed without cook- ing. The flesh, ‘as well as all interior parts, the blood, and empty bowels, may likewise be used in summer to produce maggots or little white worms; those are employed with much advantage, and sell sufficiently dear in pheasant walks, because they form a substitute . for the eggs of ants, for the nourishment of young pheasants. In Paris, a bushel (the eighth part of a hectolitre) of maggots sells for from four to six franes, for the royal and private pheasant walks. ‘The production of these little worms is so lucrative, that in order to obtain them, there is employed during the favorable seasons almost all the flesh and intestines of three or four thousand horses, which are killed at Montfaucon during this space of time. The following is the manner of obtaining the maggots. A bed of flesh and entrails, five or six inches thick, is to be spread upon the On the most simple means of employing dead Annals. 339 ground and lightly covered with eight or ten inches of straw or litter. Soon a great number of flies pass throngh the straw and deposit their eggs upon the animal matter. Some days after, the worms, hatched and developed, replace almost all the: animal maiter which they have devoured ; we find them mixed with a sort of mould and some mor- sels of flesh or tendons; these are to be separated with the hand, and all the mass of white worms and the mould with which they are mix- ed, collected with a shovel and put into sacks, to be sent either to the pheasantries or to the yards where they are employed. In the great heats of summer, it is useful to protect the bed of re- mains, where the maggots are forming, from the warmth of the sun, by means of straw matting or litter supported upon sticks a few feet above the beds. Maggots take the place very advantageously of the eggs of ants, not only for young pheasants, but likewise for raising tarlies little chickens, and divers other domestic birds.* With these little worms may be raised nightingales, linnets, and other birds which are fed upon insects. . Fishers with the line consume great numbers of them in certain localities, and often pay very high for them. . One of the most use- ful employments to which these maggots may be put, is to throw them into fish ponds, where they are quickly devoured, and the fish: fatten very quickly upon them. With this aliment, two or three times the number of fishes can be kept in the same pond, and eight or ten times the produce obtained, for the want of nourishment alone di- minishes the number of fishes, when amongst them there are not found any voracious ones, and they are besides protected from the different animals which eat them. In order better to show the profit which the inhabitants of the country may obtain from dead animals, we will give, as example, the total value of a horse, by the easy operations which we have pointed out. We have placed in the same table the indication of the value of the same parts of a horse of rather large size, and in good condition, as is often found in the country, which has perished by accident.. The weights of these dead bodies, result from a suffi- cient number of experiments which we have had occasion to make upon horses:killed by the horse killers of Paris. * It is not proper to feed hens exclusively with them, as the eggs may contract a bad taste. This inconvenience need not be feared, if we are careful to mix them with grains or other vegetable aliment. : 340 On the most simple means of employing dead Animals. The value which we have placed upon the different products which maybe obtained from them, is what they yield some leagues from Paris, consumed on the spot or sold in commerce; in a great number of places in France, which are indeed within reach of cities or sea-ports, the same prices may be obtained, and in almost all other places, the agriculturists collect from them as much and more profit for their own consuming. The dissection of these two sorts of horses, has given, in fresh materials, the following mean quantities. Horse of medium size. Horse of good condition. kil gr. kil gr. Skin, - - - - - 34 37 Blood, - - - - 18 500 20 810 Short and long hair, - - 100 220 Shoes and.nails, - - - 450 800 Hoofs, Ene ut ties haga 1 500 1 860 Viscera and appurtenances, bowels, liver, brains, 36 39 Tendons, - - - - De 2 100 Fa ey i tha ok ek ak Oe 31 500 Muscular flesh, (viande,) Spa kay 203 Bones, completely cleared after cooking, -: - - - 46 48. 500 ‘Total weight of the dead bodies, 306 700 ' 384 790 The preparation of these matters costs but little more than the combustibles. (wood, fagots, turf, &c.) which is used, in winter for heating, cooking &c. The other expense is nothing but the labor and in the country there is so much time lost by children and ‘young people during the winter evenings, and at times when there is nothing to be done in the fields, that these new occupations would not often distur) other work and would lessen the danger of idleness. The cutting up of dead animals would be more profitable than we haye supposed in the pueceeding table, if we were to employ the blood and flesh in feeding hogs ; indeed we should obtain still more profit by employing them for the nourishment of man. Country people may then obtain at least the value of 60 francs from the use of the dead body of a horse of medium size. How often are they ignorant that with so little expense they may obtain amuch greater price from an ox or a cow, whose weight often amounts to more than 450 kilogrammes. The most simple means of employing dead Animals. 341 No animal, however small, should be neglected ; for even though they would not be of any other use, we may in a few minutes cut them up into small portions upon a log, with the aid of a hedging bill, run a furrow between the ranges of different plants, and deposit these portions in it at 15 or 18 inches apart, and cover them with earth ; the increase of the product of the surrounding plants, which may be remarked often many years afterwards, will indemnify very amply, for the little trouble we may have had to obtain it. Many times, at the gates of Paris, where work is very dear, the horse killers have found it advantageous to skin rats and dry the skins in the air to sell to the furriers at 3 francs, 75 cts. a hundred. Mole skins are sold as high as 10 francs the hundred. In the horse yards, the skins of cats and dogs are used in the same manner; the fat of these animals is melted, as we have said, and sold very dear; and finally the flesh of horses, dogs and cats, when it is of a fine red color, and presents no brown or livid spots, is destined, secretly, for the nourishment of men. All the industrious people who are occupied in curing these animal substances, are in want of the former materials in France, or procure them at great expence from foreign nations; in scarcely any place are these substances sufficient for manuring the earth, and every where, without exception, they may be very advantageously employed. ' Nevertheless these matters so useful, and so incompletely collected in places where there is a dense population, are totally lost in most small towns, villages, and hamlets. Let us hope that in future it will not be so; country people who know so well how to employ objects of the least value for the wants of their families, should not neglect these useful substances, the least advantage of which is to fertilize the earth, increasing thus the pro- duct of the harvest which, contributing to the supply of their particular necessites, concurs at the same time to promote the general good. Since such important results were worthy of the attention bestowed by the royal and central society of agriculture, they will doubtless excite the solicitude of the enlightened administrators of our depart- ments, who know how to encourage all the means of obtaining them.* * The memoir from which this notice is extracted points out a great number of means of a more elevated order for the employment of animal matters in various arts; it will form a part of the Memoirs of the royal and central Society of Agri- culture for 1830. Vou. XXIV.—WNo. 2. 44 342 An Essay on Gypsies. Art. XVI.—An Essay on Gypsies 3 abridged from the Revue En- cyclopedique, Nov. 1832; by J. Griscom. Tere are few questions in Anthropology or Ethnography which — have more closely engaged the attention of philologists, geographers and historians than that of the origin and character of this singular people. A race of men which presents the most extraordinary phe- nomenon in social life, has existed nearly four centuries in Europe ; and yet remains almost unknown. Neither time, climate, politics nor example have produced any change in their institutions, their manners, their language or their religious ideas. ‘The Israelites are the only people, who have preserved, like them, their primitive char- acter in foreign lands, but with far less distinctness and discrimi- nation. Names by which they are known in the different countries in which they reside——The Arabs and Moors call them Harami (robbers) ; the Hungarians, Cinganys and Pharaoh Nepek (people of Phara- oh). © The latter name is also given them in Transylvania; the Eng- lish have adopted the name of Gipsies, an alteration of the word Egyptians ; the Scotch, that of Caird ; the Spanish call them Gita- nos; the Portuguese, Ciganos; the Dutch, Heidenen (idolaters) ; the Russians, T'zengani; the Italians, Zingari; the Swedes, Spa- karing ; the Danish and Norwegians, Tatars; the Wallachians, Bessarabians, Moldavians, Servians and Sclavonians, Cigani; the Germans, Zigeuner; in France they received at first the name of Egyptians and more recently that of Bohemiens, because the earli- est of the tribe came into France from Bohemia. Historians of the middle ages, designate them by the name of Azinghans ; the mod- ern Greeks, under that of Atinghans; in Adzerbaidjan, they are called Hindou Karach, (black Hindoos); in Persia, Lourt; the Bucharians and inhabitants of Turkistan, call them Tziaghi which appears to be the root of T'chingent the term given by the Turks to this wandering race. I have been acquainted in Europe with three of their Rabers or chiefs, who assure me that they call themselves Roumna-Chal. These two words belong to the Mahratta language, and signify men who wander in the plains. 1 consider Tzengaris as their primitive name and which Js still preserved in their mother country. An Essay on Gypsies. 343 Different writers have assigned to these people a very different origin—one from the eastern part of Tunis,—another from Zan- guebar—one from Mount Caucasus;—one considers them as Ger- man Jews—and others bring them from Egypt, Colchos, the Uk- raine, &c. E We know of but three writers who have placed this question in a true point of view. ‘The two first, whose opinion is admitted by the learned generally are Grellmann and David Richardson who consider {ndia as the cradle of the Tzengaris; the Abbe Dubois places them among the Kouravers of Mahissoun, but in our opinion the country of the Mahrattas is their original position, and there they are still found united in tribes. The primitive tribes of the Tzengaris is a subdivision of different tribes of Parias or men out of caste. The origin of Parias is very ancient. ‘This sub-caste is formed by the union of individuals driven from different castes for offences committed against the religion and laws and includes a great number of tribes, among whom may be reckoned the Vallouvers, the Chakilis, the Moutchiers, &c. and lastly the T'zengaris the primitive tribe of our Bohemians and Egyp- tians or the Zingari of the nations which term still resembles the ori- ginal name. The tribe of Tzengaris, called also Vangaris on the coast of Concan and of Malabar is nomadic. i have met them often in whole bands near the ancient and magnificent city of Vasapour and in the vincinity of Bangalore and Mahissour, which we call Mysore, from a habit of disfiguring eastern names. ‘They are in general of a dark complexion which justifies the Persian appellation of black Hindoos. Their religion, institutions, manners, and language, differ from those of other tribes of Hindoos. During a war they are addicted to pil- lage, carry provisions for the armies, and fill them with spies and dancers. During peace they make coarse stuffs, and deal im rice, butter, salt, opium, &c. Their women are as handsome and agree- able as the generality of Hindoos, but are very lascivious. ‘They often carry off young girls whom they sell to natives and Euro- peans. ‘They are accused of immolating human victims to their Demons and of eating human flesh. They every where follow the trade of errand runners and procurers; the women are fortune tel- lers, a business which they practice by striking on a drum in order to invoke the Demon, then pronouncing with the air of a sibyl and with rare volubility a string of mystical words, and after having ga- 344 An Essay on Gypsies. zed at the sky and examined the lineaments of the hand of the per- son who consults them, they gravely predict the good or evil which is to be his destiny. The women also practice tatooing, and the fig- ures of stars, flowers, animals, &c. which they imprint upon the skin by puncturation and vegetable juices, are ineffaceable. ‘They live in families, and it is not rare to see father and daughter, uncle and niece, brother and sister living like beasts together. ‘They are sus- picious, liers, gamblers, drunkards, cowards, poltroons and altogeth- er illiterate ; they despise religion and have no other creed than the fear of evil genii and of fatality. They originated in the province of Mahrat among the eastern Gauts. The celebrated Cherif Eddin, assures us that Timur sullied his conquests by the massacre of 100,000 prisoners, Persians and Hin- doos. ‘The Monguls spread such terror in all parts of India, that great numbers abandoned that unhappy country. The Hindoos of the three first castes indeed, remained firm to their country ;—their religion made it a duty; but no place could retain the Soudras and Parias. They are such vagabonds that I have myself seen them in Abyssinia, in Arabia, at T'zouakem in the Persian Gulf, at Penang, at Singapore, at Malacca, at Manilla, at Celebes, at Anyer and even in China. Is it not natural to believe that the T'zengaris, who are so accus- tomed to a camp life, and excluded from Hindoo communion, should practice or feign to practice religion which offered them so many ad- vantages, that they should act as spies and purveyors to the Mongul armies, and that a portion of them should accompany Timur in his long traverse through Kandahar,’ Persia and Bukahra; and after passing through the Caspian and, Caucasian regions and leaving be- hind them a train of detached families, they should have come to a stand, some in Russia, others in Asia Minor; that a second column should have passed from Kandahar into Mekran, and Irak-Arabia, and a third strayed into Syria, Palestine, and Arabia-Petrea and should have reached Egypt by the Isthmus of Suez and thence should have» passed into Mauritania. | Is it not probable that these rude travellers landed from the Black Sea and Asia Minor in Europe by the intervention of the Turks during their wars with the Greek empire ; and it is equally probable that the first of them who came to Europe, sojourned in European Turkey as Aventine informs us and proceeded thence to Wallachia and Moldavia. In 1417, they were found in Hungary and at the conclusion of that year they were seen in Germany and Bohemia, the next yeay in Switzerland, and in 1422 in Italy. Pasquier carries their origin in An Essay on Gypsies. 345 France to 1417 and says that they styled themselves Christians from Lower Egypt, expelled thence by the Saracens, but that in reality they came from Bohemia. From France, they passed into Spain and Portugal, and afterwards under Henry VIII, into England. Their hordes commonly consist of two or three hundred persons of both sexes. Although it is difficult to explain how they acquired the name of Gypsies or Egyptians, it is certain they neither have an Egyptian ori- gin, nor came from Egypt to Europe, as Crantz and Munster have proved. Countries in which the Tzengaris are now found. These people constitute a part of the population of all the coun- tries of Europe and of a large portion of Asia. In Africa, they are found only in Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, Soudan and Barbary. They have never appeared in America. They are most numerous in Spain, Scotland, irene Turkey, and Hungary, but especially in Transylvania, Moldavia, Wallachia, Scla- vonia, Courland, Lithuania and the Caucasian provinces. In England they are still pretty numerous, but are found only in distant places, seldom coming into the towns excepting in small com- panies of two or three persons. In Germany, Sweden and Den- mark, they have become rare, as also in Switzerland and the Low Countries. In Italy, their numbers are diminished. In Spain, it is said that there are fifty or sixty thousand of them, and in Hungary, according to the best information, about fifty thousand. In 'Tran- sylvania, they are the most numerous, for in a population of 1,720,000 souls there are reckoned 104,000 Tzengaris. I have no fear of ex- aggeration in estimating the Tzengarian population of Europe at nearly a million, in Africa, at 400,000; in India, at 1,500,000 and about 2,000,000 in all the rest of Asia, for except in Asiatic Russia, China, Siam, Annan and Japan, they are every where to be found. Hence we may deem the total population of these people to be five millions. What a painful subject of reflection is it to think of so large a por- tion of the human race, thrown as it were beyond the common rights of nations; so many men wandering about without any claims which can attach them to the soil, encamping in places remote from civiliza- tion: living by theft and deception, and every where diffused, notwith- standing the persecutions and contempt which are heaped upon them. —G. Lows Domeny DeRienzi. r 346 On the Collision of two Comets. Art. XVIl.—On the Collision of two Comets, and the Comet of July, 1831; by J. J. Lirrrow. (Zeitschrift fur Physik.) _ Or all the comets which are known to astronomers, that of Biela is the only one whose orbit is such as to admit of its ever coming in contact with the Earth. ‘This is a circumstance which renders that body an object of deep and peculiar interest’to the inhabitants of our globe. Another very remarkable fact, in relation to Biela’s comet, is, that its orbit passes very near to that of Encke’s comet, so that in course of time, it will not only make its appearance in the vicinity of our Earth, but will also pass very near, perhaps even come in con- tact with the comet of Encke. This possibility of a collision be- tween two of the bodies of the solar system does not appear to have engaged the attention of astronomers hitherto, and is, so far as our knowledge extends, an anomaly in the celestial motions. The point of space at which it is possible for this encounter to happen, is situated at a distance from the nearest point of the terres- trial orbit of little more than half the semi-diameter of this orbit: it is then by no means impossible that it may fall to our lot to witness the interesting spectacle of the conflict of these two comets in the heavens, and at a distance which ts inconsiderable when compared io that of some other bodies in the solar system. Should such an event not result in the destruction of the two comets, it would at least occasion a great derangement in their motions, indeed a total change in their orbits; so that we should perhaps have little cause to fear, for the future, the long dreaded encounter of Biela’s comet with the Earth. The following calculation, founded on the elements given by Encke and Damoiseau for the year 1832, will serve to show the possibility of the event alluded to: the elements are as follows :— Encke’s comet. Biela’s. Longitude of the ascending node, 334° 32’ 5.2” 248° 12/24” Inclination to the ecliptic, 13° 22/ 12.3” 13° 13’ 13” Semi-transverse axis, 2.999912 3.53683 Angle of eccentricity, 57° 43/6.3” 48° 44’ 30.4” From these data we find, by the well known formule of spherical trigonometry, that the common intersection of the planes of the two orbits, makes with the line of the nodes of Encke’s comet on the ecliptic an angle of 47° 15/ 52.4”, and with that of Biela’s comet On the Collision of two Comets. 347 an angle of 132° 2/ 27.2”, and that these two planes are inclined to each other at an angle of 18° 6’ 10.6”. It now remains to ascertain the point in which the line of inter- section of the two planes is cut by each of the orbits respectively. For this purpose we will take for the aphelion longitude of Encke’s comet 337° 21’ 2:4”, the value determined by Encke himself, with great accuracy. ‘The aphelion longitude of Biela’s comet is not known with so great a degree of precision. Olbers gives 292° 39’, Clausen 296° 38’, Damoiseau 289° 56’. Great exactness is not necessary in this element, which is subject to considerable perturba- tions, particularly from the action of the planet Jupiter. We will take then for the aphelion longitude 293° 4’ 20”, the mean of the three values given above, and we shall then have, for the instant in which the comets pass the common intersection of the planes of their orbits, the true anomaly reckoned from the aphelion, 44° 26’ 55.2” for Encke’s comet, 87° 10/ 31.2” for Biela’s, and according to known formule, the distances from the sun’s cen- ter are : . 1.59881 for Encke’s comet, 1.59868 for Biela’s. Thus, it appears that the distance of the two comets, at the instant of their passing the common intersection of the planes of their orbits, is only 0.00013 of the semi-diameter of the terrestrial orbit, or about 12350 miles. A slight change in the elements, which, especially those of Biela’s comet, are subject to great disturbances, may greatly diminish, and even totally annihilate, this distance, in which case the collision of the two comets would take place in the direction of the line of the centers. It follows from the preceding investigation, that the point of space in which this collision might occur is determined by the following co- ordinates, referred to the center of the sun. Heliocentric longitude, J=21° 0’ 50” Latitude north, b=9° 49/ 46” Distance, 7r=1,5087 The distance of this point from the nearest point of the terrestrial orbit, is readily found to be equal to W1--r? —2rcos.b, or 0.6349 of the semi-diameter of this orbit. .Consequently, if at the moment of contact, the earth should be in the vicinity of this part of its orbit, 348 Comet of July, 1832. in other words, if this remarkable event should occur about the mid- dle of October, it would take place within such a distance as to ad- mit of its being observed by the unassisted sight. Comet of July, 1832.—Eugene Bouvard has recently calculated, at the observatory of Paris, the following elements of the parabolic orbit of this little comet, from the observations of M. Gambart at Marseilles, continued from July 19, when he discovered it, to the 27th of August. Instant of the comet’s passage of the perihelion—1832, pain 26.028058—mean time reckoned from midnight at Paris. Perihelion distance, 1.183603 Longitude of the perihelion, Dagmar ays oi Longitude of the ascending node, 72° 26’ 41.9” Inclination of the orbit, 43° 18’ 3.1” Heliocentric motion, retrograde. These elements, which have been communicated to us by Eugene Bouvard, will be inserted in the Connoissance des 'Temps for 1835. They are interesting as the first advances of this young astronomer, in a career so usefully and honorably marked out by his uncle. ‘The subjoined comparison of the positions observed by M. Gambart with those resulting from the elements of M. Bouvard, appear, in our view, by their very small differences, to justify the highest confidence in the exactness of their elements. Difference in Difference in Longitude. Latitude. Longitude. Latitude. July 20, +0.1” 0.0” Aug. 13, —17.9% —7.5” POE ga ls sl se) 16) 5.9 eo Be gO HOG 25 Opi io a ina 27 9g) "ata a’! 9.4 ! oe 8.3 ORs Aug, 1, —2.4 —30.0 HL HAA SH S Blaha est «( eo oro 10.4 Lh Mae 4 ON Ey = OD Bib. Univ. Oct. 1832. Description of the Bare Hills. 349 Arr, XVIII.—Description of the Bare Hills near Baltimore; by H. H. Haypen, M.D. In the year 1810 and at the particular request of the Editor of a Periodical Journal (“ the Baltimore Medical and Philosophical Ly- ceum’”) I undertook to give a Mineralogical and Geological descrip- tion of the country surrounding Baltimore, to the extent of about nine miles. ‘This, although an imperfect sketch, embraced that in- teresting region, commonly and very appropriately called, the Bare Hills, the description of which was subsequently republished i in De Bruce’s Journal. As my knowledge of this region was, at that time, superficial, and as I have since repeatedly visited, and carefully examined al- most every part of it and have discovered some interesting minerals, not before known to exist there; and moreover, as this district, on account of the variety and character of its minerals, has excited no small degree of interest among American mineralogists, I have ven- tured to offer you another, and I trust a much more perfect descrip- tion; in the hope, that those who may hereafter visit this district, may, with this aid, find the several localities, without fatigue and trouble. With this view I send. you a sketch of the district, as correct, | believe, as could well be made without an actual survey. Upon this sketch I have endeavored to designate all the interesting points, and should you deem it in any degree valuable, it is at your disposal. The district which I propose to describe, has, I believe, long been known as the Barrens, or Barren Fields; but, for many years past, it has been called the ‘“ Bare Hills.” Until the year 1808 or 1810, little was known of the mineralo- gical character of these hills, and little else was obvious to the trav- eler besides their repulsive aspect. About this time, the chromate of iron, in small irregular or rolled masses, was discovered in one of the deep ravines, by Mr. Henfrey, a gentleman who it is believed, was the discoverer of chrome, titanium, and several other interesting min- erals, in this part of the country. Subsequently, and particularly since the commencement of regular operations for obtaining chro- mate of iron, this district has excited, especially among mineralo- gists, a degree of interest not surpassed, perhaps, in the case of any locality in the United States. Vou. XXIV.—No. 2. 45 350 Desciption of the Bare Hills. The district in question, lies upon the northern slope of a range of irregular hills, running a little north of east, and south of west. ‘This northern slope is composed, principally, of serpentine rocks, and is in extent from east to west, about one mile, and from north to south, or from the summit to the base of the hills, nearly half a mile. The Falls turnpike road, running north from Baltimore, passes. directly over the ridge, dividing the district into two nearly equal parts. The approach to the Bare Hills, from Baltimore, is bya gentle ascent up the southern slope of the hill, which commences a few rods - north of the passage of the Susquehannah rail road across the Falls turnpike road, six miles from Baltimore. In ascending the hill, the surface presents but little to interest the mineralogist or geologist, beside the view of the surrounding country ; this, with the exception of the narrow inter-vale upon the borders of Jones’s falls, is composed chiefly of high, bold, and picturesque hills, which, at certain seasons are covered with a luxuriant vegetation. ‘The hill under consideration, is not, however, without interest to the mineralogist. The first ap- pearance of a rock-formation is on the left hand, in rising the hill, and this was first exposed to view in making the turnpike road. It is of mica slate (or what some would call gneissoid) running in a N. W. direction (contrary to most of the leading ridges) and having a dip to the south west. The extent of this formation to the north west is not exactly known; it has, however, been traced several miles, al- though it seldom appears above the surface. The grounds, on the’ right hand, descend into a valley in which runs a small stream of water, supplied by springs which flow at the head of the valley. At, and in the neighborhood of this point, and on the slope of the hill upon the east side of the valley, we ob- serve the first appearances of the magnesian formation, viz. steatite variously modified. Arriving at the summit, we see on the right hand, the commencement of the serpentine formation, which extends northwardly to the base of the hills. On the descent, which is grad- ual, the entire district opens to view, both to the right and to the left, presenting to the eye, a series of hills of regular and pretty uni- form surfaces, but upon which sterility seems to have established its uniform and unyielding sway ; for, with the exception of a few stint- ed shrub oaks, which have taken root and derive a scanty nourish- ment from a thinly scattered soil, that in time has been formed in a few of the low depressed places, scarcely a shrub or bush of any Description of the Bare Hills. 351 kind is seen to interrupt the view, or change the barren aspect of this solitary waste. About midway from the summit to the base of the hills, on the north, an excavation was commenced in the rocks, in making the turnpike road, and which, as we descend the hill, deepens and exposes the rocks upon the right hand, to a considerable depth, thereby affording an excellent opportunity of examining their struc- ture and composition, which is, perhaps, as interesting as that of any other place, that has hitherto been exposed to view in this district. At the base of the hill, where the serpentine formation terminates, the road passes over a small stone» bridge of one arch, and under which runs a brook or small stream of water that comes from the hills to the west, constituting an auxiliary branch of Jones’s Falls, with which it unites at a short distance east of the bridge. ‘Thence the stream pursues an easterly direction, at the base of Bare Hills, and so passes around the eastern slope in a semi-circular course, un- til it crosses the turnpike road at the base of the southern slope, near the point at which the rail road intersects the turnpike. I have remarked, that on arriving at the summit of the hill, we observe the commencement of the serpentine formation. As such, it has hitherto been considered, and is uniformly well un- derstood. But, in order to avoid exceptions which may hereafter be made to the character given to these rocks, it seems necessary that I should be a little more explicit as to their true character. With this view, I venture the opinion that the aggregate formation of the rocks of Bare Hills is not strictly serpentine. It is true, that real serpentine exists in this district, and that even noble serpentine, in small specimens has been found here; but, the aggregate mass of the rocks of these hills, according to the classification of Brongniart, to which I know of no one that is preferable, fails under the denomina- tion of ophiolite, which he describes as being “a paste of serpentine enveloping oxidulous iron and other accessory minerals dissemina- ted :’—Hence Brongniart describes as ‘“ principal varieties,” ferrife- rous ophiolite, chromiferous ophiolite, diallagic ophiolite and garnetic ophiolite—all of which, with the exception of garnetic ophiolite, are found, at nearly every point of the Bare Hills. ‘The chromiferous vari- ety seems most abundant; for the rocks, in nearly the entire district, on being broken, present the granular chromate of iron, as a component part. 352 Description of the Bare Hills. Besides, there are several other kinds of ‘ accessory minerals” entering, as will appear hereafter, as constituents, into the composi- tion of almost the entire mass of these rocks, and which may be seen by a superficial observer. Having noted the general features of the Bare Hills, J shall pro- ceed to designate and point out, upon the accompanying sketch, the localities of all the different minerals which, as far as I know, have been found in this district. 'To effect this object, and to determine their relative distances, it becomes necessary to establish a certain fixed point or points of departure, from which the several admeas- urements were taken, in yards or paces. My first point of departure is at the southern extremity of the wall of the bridge on the east side at A. From this point south at the distance of twenty yards, a small foot path leads from the road down ihe hill in an easterly direction. At the distance of ninety yards from the turnpike road, and at the base of the hill by the side of the path mentioned, the rocks jut out of the hill, and present a remarka- ble instance of the admixture of “ accessory minerals,” which con- stitute ophiolite. It is composed, principally of serpentine and gran- ular felspar. At B, twenty four yards south from A, an excavation was made at the base of the rocks, as they break out of the hill, to carry away the water that descends from the hill ina trench cut by the road side. At the point where the water turns from the road to pass off down the hill, and at the bottom and sides of the excavation, we find, on removing the debris and sand that have been deposited by heavy rains, an interesting locality of the schistic ophiolite. It is composed of interrupted layers of serpentine felspar and magnesia. On removing carefully the lamine of serpentine, the surfaces both of the felspar and serpentine exhibit, upon a white ground, a very beautiful arborescence, probably of manganese. Some of these specimens are not surpassed in delicacy, and beauty of delineation, by any thing of the kind that has been found in this State. These arborescent appearances are common among the rocks of Bare Hills; but this locality furnishes the greatest number of beautiful specimens. Still ascending the hill to the south, on the east, or left hand side of the road at C, and distant from A, sixty two yards, we discover running into the hill, a vein, or almost a dyke, of beautiful white acicular asbestos, four or five feet in thickness. This locality is rendered the more interesting, as in breaking open a Description of the Bare Hills. «858 mass of the mineral, we discover occasional cavities or depressions, filled with small dendritic formations, discolored, and sometimes, rendered almost black, by manganese, and having the appearance of minute shrubbery. _ Pursuing the same course, upon the margin of the trench or ditch by the road side, at D, and distant ninety two yards from A, and so onward to E one hundred and twenty six yards, we meet with another striking example of “accessory minerals dissemina- ted” in serpentine and constituting ophiolite. ‘The rocks between these two points, appear, on a close examination, to have been perforated with innumerable holes of an acute rhombic form. At the surface of the rocks, I have never discovered any appear- ance of the mineral that once occupied these holes. But on break- ing the rock, and obtaining a fresh fracture, we observe numer- ous crystals of the above form, enveloped in the mass, and from 1 to 2, of an inch in width. It is this substance that has by ex- posure, been decomposed, and has left the cavities open. What it is, I have not been able, satisfactorily, to determine. ‘The crys- tals are often well defined, and of a pale greenish color; it resembles in a degree, some of the varieties of actynolite and epidote. But I am not aware that either of those minerals is so liable, on. expo- sure, to decomposition and total disappearance from its gangue. Proceeding south in the same line to F, two hundred and twenty seven yards from the point of departure A, we discover in the rocks upon the left hand, a vein of semi-opal, running in a S. E. direction. This mineral is often found upon the surface, in various other places in this district. But in no one have I found it so pure and trans- parent as at this place. Ascending the hill still farther to G, distant two hundred and forty yards from A, and near the point where the road-makers commenc- ed excavating the rocks upon the side of the hill, we find a small vein of very fine “ quartz rezinite” or Pitch stone, inclining to the N. E. This locality is the only one I believe, that has been dis- covered, in this district. It is highly probable, however, that the same mineral may be found at other points of the same formation. The above vein has yielded, at different times, very fine specimens, seldom however, of a greater thickness than } or 3 of an inch. The mineral is enveloped in a greenish tale chlorite, and is, in its pres-° ent state, quite thin, and appears as if running out; consequently it is not easily found. It is more than probable, however, that by 354 Deseription of the Bare Hills. breaking up the rocks, it would reappear, and afford finer and better specimens than have yet been found. Besides the minerals which I have pointed out on this line, there is scarcely one yard of the whole distance, in which something does not occur to interest an admirer of mineralogy. Returning from this locality to the bridge, we assume the second point of departure or admeasurement from the foot or foundation of the wall, at the N. W. corner at H. The measurements from this point, were traced upon the margin of the Brook, on the north side, the grounds on the south side (its course being W. S. W.) being broken. At the point J, distant from H one hundred and twenty yards, on the south or opposite side of the brook, near the edge of the water, the white Lithomarge may be found in a vein under a small ledge of rocks projecting South Westerly. At this place a little search may be requisite, as the vein is sometimes buried by the debris, that is deposited over it during the swollen state of the stream, occasioned by heavy rains. , This mineral, it is well known, absorbs a large quantity of water, and in the situation in which it is found at this point, it is usually saturated. In order to preserve the specimens entire, it is neces- sary to wrap them in several folds. of wet, or moistened paper, and, as soon as possible, to lay them in the shade, that the water may - evaporate slowly—otherwise they fall into numerous small angular pieces.* At the distance of one hundred and thirty two yards from H, we are opposite to the gorge or opening of a deep ravine that comes in from the south, and at the head of which flows a small spring of water. The commencement of this ravine is on the west side . of the Turnpike road, near, and opposite to the locality of the ° pitch stone. ‘The descent from this point to the bottom is precip- itous, but is, nevertheless, rendered interesting by the fact that the rocks are completely exposed to view, and contain a variety of the magnesian substances lying in situ. In descending this ravine still farther, we observe in the side of the hill on the right hand, numerous veins of the semi-opal cropping out upon the surface, but much weathered and fragile. ‘The cacholong is occasionally found upon the sides of this hill, and in the ravine. * For the most accurate description of this mineral, See Bergman, Vol. ii, page 161. Description of the Bare Hills. 355 Returning again to the point H and tracing off, upon the margin of the brook as before, the distance of one hundred and eighty seven yards from H to J, we discover immediately opposite, or. across the brook, and under a shelving projection of rocks near the water’s edge, a thick vein of the red Lithomarge, of a pure and beautiful quality. In obtaining specimens from this locality, the same pre- cautions are necessary as in the former instance. At the distance of two hundred and thirty yards from the point H, we come to the opening of another deep ravine that stretch- es away to the south.’ Between the bridge and this point, we ob- serve a remarkable instance of ‘accessory minerals disseminated” through the entire mass of the rocks; for, independently of the gran- ular chrome, oxidulous iron, &c. there are numerous crystals or spic- ulz, of a substance resembly hornblende intermixed with, and run- ning in all directions through the rocks. Of the gisement or geological situation of the rocks of this dis- trict I have hitherto said nothing, by reason of the ambiguity, or dif- ficulties that exist at almost every point. In general, they seem to be promiscuously thrown together in utter confusion. In some pla- ces, something more like order is manifested in their relative position, and at this place they appear to incline to the North West. Resuming again our position at the opening of the ravine, and tracing it upon the margin of the small run of water that flows from its head, we find much to interest the mineralogist, in the variously modified substances that are presented to view, as the rocks are, in many places, exposed in situ. As the particular localities upon the sides of this ravine and those to be hereafter mentioned are so readily found, and easy of ‘access, it is considered unnecessary to make any further references, to actual admeasurements or points of distance. Upon the slope of the hill on the east side of the ravine just men- tioned, and but a few rods from the brook at K, extensive operations have been carried on for the purpose of obtaining chrome, of which large quantities, of an excellent quality, were raised. The works, I believe, were carried to the depth of about eighty feet, but have, for some time, been abandoned. In the prosecution of these works, many interesting specimens of minerals were thrown upon the sur- face, such as the red and white lithomarge, green foliated tale, stea- tite, silicate of magnesia, and other magnesian substances. A little farther up the ravine on the west side at L, are extensive excava- 356 Description of the Bare Hills. tions, the result of the first attempts to obtain the chromate of iron, and the quantity here obtained was considerable. ‘The course of the vein of chrome, at this point, seemed to correspond with the slope of the hill, and was at the depth of about ten feet. The greater part of it lay between the rocks, in a gangue of indurated talc steatite, mixed with talc, and variously colored by the oxide of chrome, or, perhaps the chromic acid, as some parts were of a pale, others of a beautiful deep green, others still of a pink, or deep crim- son, variegated by, or invested, on one or more sides, with the sili- cate of magnesia. It was, from specimens obtained at this locality, that I Guseialnedy some years since, the existence of what has been called vermicular talc. ‘This curious substance is not easily detect- ed in the examination of a specimen, although, I have reason to be- lieve, it is very prevalent in the rocks of Bare Hills. Yet it was on- ly by directing the flame of the blow pipe upon the deep pink col- ored talc, that it was observed, by a kind of intumescence, similar to that of borate of soda under the blow pipe; with this difference, however, that the talc is thrown off in the form and with the mo- tions of small worms. Hence, probably, the name given it, and which appears by no means, inappropriate. Passing now over the hill to the west, or returning down the -ray- ine to the brook, and ascending it forty or fifty rods, we come to a third ravine stretching away to the south, to the skirt of a wood where it commences: Upon the brow of the hills, both upon the right and left hand, in ascending the ravine, excavations have been made at MN, and O, in search of chrome, but the prospect being unfavorable, they were abandoned. .There may be obtained, however, at these points, in abundance, beautiful specimens of the granular chromate of iron, in a compact indurated tale steatite, of a whitish or straw color, which, contrasted with the black grains of chrome, gives the specimen an - agreeable aspect. Several interesting minerals, as red and white lithomarge, white and green foliated talc steatite, silicate of magnesia, &c. were here thrown out. This ravine, in particular, has been rendered interesting, (cud is no less so at present) in other respects. In traversing up the stream from the bridge, a number of years since, and at the point at which the little run of water in the ravine forms a junction with the brooks, I found a singular piece of granite, composed of white quartz, white and flesh colored feldspar, handsome spicule of green hornblende, Deseription of the Bare Hills. 357 rhombic tables of pearly mica’(the mica binaire, of Haiiy, See fig. 206) and well defined crystals of titan silico calcaire. On breaking open the mass, I discovered a fine piece of the aventurine feldspar. As this piece of granite was evidently out of place, being surround- ed, on every side, by a magnesian formation, I thought it possible that. it might have been brought down the ravine from the heights to the south. With this view I commenced a search up the ravine, and upon the sides, and in the small run of water that winds its way down the hill, I found several pieces of the same granite, in some of which small specks of aventurine were apparent. Near the head of the ravine, at T', where the ground was less broken or but slightly excavated by the rains, I found several pieces more, one of which seven or eight inches long, and two inches thick, contained numer-. ous well defined crystals of titan silico calcaire. Another of the same kind of granite contained a substance resembling the phosphate of manganese, but which is still undetermined. Encouraged by these specimens, I pursued my course higher into the skirt of the forest trees, where I found, exposed to view by the heavy rains, the northern border or out cropping of the mica slate ridge (or gneissoid formation) before mentioned. Between the strata of these rocks, I observed small beds or veins of the same granite, from which the pie- ces, found near that point, and along the ravine, had been detached and carried by the currents: of water. 1 have been thus particular in de- scribing this locality, which in my estimation possesses unusual interest, in hopes that should any excavations be made hereafter at this point, the attention of some mineralogist may be directed to it. Inde- pendently of the other minerals found in this granite, the aventurine feldspar alone (one of the most beautiful and interesting substances in the mineral kingdom, and found at no other place in America, ex- cept by Dr. Bigsby, on the borders of Lake St. Joseph,) is a suffi- cient inducement to undertake a vigorous search, where there is a prospect of obtaining it in such perfection. Passing from this ravine to the west, on the margin of the brook, and distant forty or fifty rods, we come to the opening of another ravine that stretches, like the others, to the south. At the head of this in the skirt of the wood, fine specimens of the ligniform steatite have been found, and perhaps may still be discovered upon the surface. On the brow of the hill, on the west side of the ra- vine at P, also at 2 R and S, other excavations have been made in search of chrome, but I believe without success. Vou. XXIV.—No. 2. 46 358 Description of the Bare Hills. A little to the west of this point, the serpentine formation disappears. In this neighborhood are several springs, which are evidently the sources of the small stream so. often mentioned. Several interesting minerals have been found, both in and on the margin of this brook; e. g. the beryl crystallized, and in fragments of crystals without facets; masses of quartz, containing well de- fined and large crystals of black tourmaline, and masses of rolled, or waterworn steatite, in which is a beautiful display of the asbestiform steatite running through them. ‘The masses of rocks and stones that have been hurried downwards by the swollen current of the stream, and deposited in its bed and on its banks, almost from its source to the bridge, are well worthy of an examination by those persons who are not familiar with formations of this kind. On the north side of the stream is a hill, or ridge, extending to the east and terminating almost in a point, at the turnpike road, a few rods north of the bridge, which is of the same formation as those alreadydescribed. But as there are in it no excavations or ravines, by which the minerals which it contains might be exposed to view, nothing definite is known of them. Having pointed out the most interesting localities known upon the road, and upon the hills to the west, our attention will next be directed to the eastern section of the district. sie . From the southern extremity of the stone bridge, we descend the hill, from the road side by the foot path already mentioned, and con- tinue along eastwardly at the foot of the hills. By this route, an op- portunity is afforded of examining the rocks as they are presented to view in the side of the hill facing the north. Arriving at the bend of the hill we ascend and pass over it into the valley at U. This valley or ravine (for there is usually no water in it) extends to the south and south west nearly half a mile, and has several late- val branches that fall into it from the hills at different points. These several ravines receive the water that falls upon the neighboring hills, and which passes off through the principal one to the north, where it is discharged into Jones’s Falls. The bottom of these ravines does not differ materially in appearance from that of the ravines in the western sections of the district, as they pass through a formation essentially the same. ‘They are, nevertheless, sufficiently interesting to pay for the trouble of tracing the principal ravines from their sources to their termination. The granular and crystallized chromate of iron may be obtained in all Description of the Bare Hills. 359 these ravines, but more especially above and below, or north of U, where it is deposited in abundance in the crevices, and depressions in the rocks in the bottom of the ravine. In the ravine that extends to the south west, several fruitless excavations have been made for chrome. Chrome was found at the several excavations at V W X Y Z, and in the hills on the right and left of the ravine, but not in quantities sufficient to justify a prosecution of the works. The veins of chrome are so intimately blended with the gangue, (most of which is a very compact indurated tale steatite) that it is almost impossible to sep- arate the one from the other, and hence the specimens, obtained from the surface about the pits, are traversed by veins of chrome of a green- ish color, from one half of an inch to two inches thick, which gives them a pleasing aspect. Ascending the hill on the south, to its sum- mit, we find an unfrequented road (running down the eastern slope of the Bare Hills, to the gun-powder works, and to the turnpike road) which may be said to be nearly the dividing line between the serpen- tine and steatite formation. Jn describing, thus far, the prominent features of the Bare Hills, I have embraced but a part, of the many points or objects that are interesting to the Mineralogist. My design has been to give a cor- rect sketch of the district, with such a description of the principal lo- ealities as would enable a transient visitor to avail himself of its ad- vantages, without the fatigue and trouble of what might otherwise prove, an unprofitable search. I might have extended my views to the varied features of the districts that lie contiguous to the Bare Hills, a few of which it may not be amiss to mention viz.—the two small houses on the west side of the road, are situated in a narrow valley, formed on one side by the abrupt slope of the serpentine ridge already mentioned, and on which one of the houses stands; through this valley flows a small stream of water supplied by a copious spring, or springs, that rise a short distance in the skirt of the woods. From this, onward, there is, at certain seasons, a very copious deposit of ferruginous and other substances, indicating a mineral impregnation of the wa- ter, Immediately on the north side of this run, the hills rise abruptly. The first rock formation that appears, and that too by the road side, is a coarse granite, in which the mica, that occurs in large plates, is of a beautiful emerald green. The rock, that succeeds next, is a very much contorted mica schist. A few rods further north, the rocks Description of the Bare Hills. 360 present a bold front of mica schist in which small crystals of stauro- Indeed, the entire distance of one tide and garnet are abundant mile and a half north of the bridge presents more or less of inter- est, both in a geological and mineralogical point of view. Al Sketch of the Bare Hills near Baltimore. Woods ZZ “dba LAL sydd H Low larshy Uy YY Wy ZB il 4 Ue MMW) ne Bid, Woods}, —, ey yor i ej 0 sa Mee \\, ‘ny NY MX Wien Sargag 5 — —— IN References.—1, Foot path.—2, Road leading to the gunpowder works on Jones’s Falls.—3, Small house in the woods by the side of the road.—_4, Baltimore and Susquehanna Rail road.— 5, Eastern slope of Bare Hills Note.—From the Stone Bridge to the Rail road one mile 361 Meteorological Observations. Arr. XIX.—Meteorological Table; by Gen. Martin Firip. in lat. 42° 58’ N. and lon. 4° 20! E. from Washington. > ——— (ts THERMOMETER. WEATHER. WINDS. MISCELLANEOUS. a, SNS |2 =; Maximum of | Minimum of ) + |No.of days of SS 62 ite DB a a as ss S =| temperature. | temperature. | & |diff.variation. Beh atc Ess = ola 2 “ = 2 -———| 5 Jo 2B |S ¥ Ss iS rola oS ci pial fa) -R 3 = pee? |S: ee ees 1832 4 5/5 alee & & |e S| (8) slalelete| & PEE Pao @ we wis 5S and |S-2/2318-31 8 * =| 6 Sage le| Wel ll Pl slog elsae | ao O68 lectus 1833. |= asles | . (se Se Sy eel Bee oe | Gee a 25 3 BGs . s |eclsclmels| 5 (als) 5S ie Pps] s Lele Sos acess bb rs lee ———|9 | oj% oles Sta © | e0bts } 5 alia | 2 ]'s/8 gh.aoha ap 2 8 bE |S Mths |S \% le i 8i0| B i ial mB [ele lel | yf fel bas | = - ee 214 Titanic acid, - - ~ mRNA .166 Quartz, - - - - - - .020 1.000 A specimen which produced a red powder, gave on trial .23 oxy- gen to .556 metallic iron, shewing that in this fer tatané was mixed with peroxide of iron. It would be interesting to science to have fresh trials of this min- eral made in a smelting ener, to ascertain what proportion of tita- nium would remain in a state of protoxide in the scoria and of that which might be reduced to the metallic state.—.Annales des Mines, tom. 3, p. 39. 2. Mines of Freyberg in Saxony.—The mines of Beschertgliick and Himmelfiirst, which have been for a long time, among the most important resources of Saxony, are now greatly reduced ; but, on the other hand, new mines have become flourishing. Miscellames. . Sim The execution of a great project of drainage is at present de- pending on the determination of the states, now in session. There has been discovered, a league from Freyberg, a bed of al- luvium of rutile or titanic oxide, so abundant that preparations are making to obtain it by washing, (Seisenwerck.) It is intended to employ this titanium in the dyeing of cotton fabrics. There is now obtained, near Schwarzemberg, very fine emery, (corundum,) the quality of which is as good as that of Naxos. It is now worked to a considerable extent. Note on the Emery of Saxcny.—The emery of Ochsenkopf and Morgenleithe, near Schwarzemberg, is found in grains, or small, bluish, kidney-form agglomerations, mixed with blende and other minerals, in a yellowish, taleose or jade rock, constituting a bank in a stratum of micaceous schist passing into slate. Formerly this rock was employed in mending roads; in 1714, it was found to be useful in sawing and polishing hard stones.—Jdem.. 3. Water spout on the Lake of Geneva.—M. Mayor, who resides Molard place, Geneva, in looking through his window, which faces the lake, saw, to his astonishment, on the 3rd of December last, about a quarter before eight in the morning, in the direction of Pa- quis and Sécheron, a vertical column of water, at least sixty or eighty feet high, and several feet in diameter, larger at its base than its summit, of a grey color and appearing animated with a gyratory motion. The column rested on the lake below, and was bent towards the top in the form of a bow. It remained nearly two minutes with- out any sensible change of place; and then sunk, by degrees, from above by diffusing itself ina shower of rain. At this juncture a south west wind ruffled the surface of the lake; the sky was entirely covered with thick vapors, which occupied: the upper regions, while there were, properly speaking, no clouds in the horizon. This not the first spout seen on Lake Leman. One, which oc- curred in 1741, was described in the French Academy. It lasted several minutes. Another was seen in 1764, in the month of August which continued nearly an hour. In the spout witnessed by M. Mayor, the top of the column had no communication with thick clouds, as is sometimes the case, no trace of any such cloud was to be seen, neither above the column nor in its neighborhood,—hence there were no indications of elec- trical attraction to which the effect could be attributed, and there 378 JMiscellanies. seems no means of accounting for the prodigious force then exerted to sustain a column of water of such height except that which as- cribes it to a current or whirlwind of excessive intensity.—Bub. Univ. 1833. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 1. Description of a Photometer, designed for comparing the splen- dor of the stars; by Count Xavier Dz Maistre.—This instrument is composed of two cuneiform prisms, one of blue and the other of white glass, which, when placed one on the other, form a parallelo- piped. ‘The aperture of the angle of the prisms is 11°, and their length nine English inches. ‘These dimensions admit of variation. The beak of the blue prism is so thin that it transmits the light of the smallest stars, whilst its other extremity, which is eight lines thick, is not permeable to their light. In moving it along, by degrees, the different stars will disappear at different distances from the point, according to their splendor. The refractions of the oblique surfaces of the compound prism compensate each other, which affords .the means of looking for the star by a finder in making use of large tel- escopes, the narrow end only of the blue prism being adjusted iyafore the eye glass, and the blue prism moveable on the line cd. By increasing the angle of the prism or the intensity of its hai it may be applied to more luminous objects. This photometer has an advantage rarely possessed by instruments used for this purpose; it is perfectly comparable. In taking the light of some one star of the first magnitude for a maximum, the point on the prism where it disappears must be marked, and the dis- tance between this point and the beak divided into an hundred equal parts, ‘which would of course always be proportional to each other in every prism, (as are the degrees on the scales of different ther- mometers,) and thus the exact relation of the light of any star to that of another may be determined. This instrument may be substituted for smoked glass in solar ob- servations by: the facility of altering at pleasure the intensity of the Miscellanies. 379 light, and taking the most favorable point; thus, for example, it af- fords the degree of light most advantageous for seeing at the same time the borders of the sun and the threads of the micrometer which are not yet on his disk,—an advantage not always had with uniform dark glasses, in variable states of the atmosphere, unless we have a great number of them, and even then much valuable time must be lost in the adjustment of them to the instrument.— Bb. Univ. Nov. 1832. 2. Optical properties of saccharine juices—M. Bror read, on the 10th of December, a memoir on an optical character by which those vegetable juices which produce sugar analogous to that of the sugar cane, may be immediately distinguished from those which only yield sugar similar to that of grapes. This character consist in the direction in which a polarized ray is turned, on the one hand, by the juice of grapes, pears, apples, goose- berries, and other fruits which furnish sugar that will not crystallize ; and on the other, by the juice of cane, beets, parsnips, turnips,. car- rots, &c. Liquids of the first class, turn the light to the left in every degree of concentration, until solidification takes place. It is at this point only that by a sudden change they may turn it to the right.. Juices of the second class, on the contrary, always give it the latter direction. ‘The phenomena observed by M. Biot in the juice of beets, induce him to think that ten per cent. of sugar may be obtain- ed from it, as M. Pelouze has already stated. He thinks also that it would be advantageous to cultivate parsnips to a greater extent, which, on account of the great quantity of sugar they contain, would make excellent food for cattle. He has observed certain characters which, he thinks, may serve, in a general point of view, to determine whether a substance, obtained by a chemical operation, existed prior | to that operation, or whether it results from it. Finally, the sudden. changes which he has remarked in the direction, by solidification, induce him to refer these phenomena, to molecular and dissymmet- rical forces.—Idem. 3. New air pump.—M. Turirorier has invented an air pump, without any valves or stop cocks to interrupt or complicate its action. The air of the receiver passes into a Torricellian vacuum, and by the motion of the machine, the Torricellian tube is reversed—the air escapes into the atmosphere,—a new vacuum is formed into which an additional portion of air passes from the receiver, and so on until 380 Miscellanies. the exhaustion is complete. A premium of three hundred francs was awarded to the inventor.—Rev. Encyc. Nov. 1832. DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND THE ARTS. 1. Experiments on coloring matter for the purpose of dyeing or printing. —M. Prrsoz, manipulator to the chemical courses in the College of France, announced to the Academy that he had discovered in a great number of coloring substances, such as indigo, madder, coch- ineal, lac, quercitron, Brazil wood, &e., a commom property, the knowl- edge of which, enables him to extract, by the same process, the color- ing portion of these substances. ‘Thénard, D’Arcet, and Chevreul, ap- pointed by the Academy to judge of the effect in dyeing, of the color- ing matter prepared by M. Persoz, subjected them to the following experiments. M. Persoz having taken two pieces of cotton cloth, on which designs had been impressed by a mordant, for red, rose and violet from madder, colored them for a comparative trial by his preparation and common madder. ‘The cloth, when taken from the bath, was passed through hot soap suds. ‘The specimen colored with the new preparation was incontestibly of a purer rose red color than that by the usual process. Besides this, the ground of the first specimen was almost white, while that of the second was tinctured with the reddish color which the madder had given to the portion of the eloth which had not received the mordant. M. Persoz also showed the commissioners’a blue preparation from indigo, which he applied to cotton, and which sustained the action of a boiling solution ‘of potash. Having thus proved the solidity of the colors of these specimens, the committee did not hesitate, although ignorant of the process of M. Persoz, to propose to the Academy to encourage this chemist to pursue researches which may be of great importance to manufactur- ing industry — Rev. Encyc., Nov., 1832. 2. Blowing of glass —The effort of the lungs requisite to this process is incompatible with a weak state of those organs, and the exercise is sometimes attended with injurious consequences. A workman whose name is Ismael Robinet has invented what he calls an air pump, an instrument by which air is forced through the tube with greater power than that of the lungs. ‘This has been found to be very advantageous, especially in moulding, the workmen being enabled to force the glass more perfectly into the crevices and devices of the mould, and thus not only to blow larger pieces and employ Miscellanies. 381 larger moulds, but to rival, in pauedaos the beauty of cut glass.— Rev. Encyc. Nov., 1832. 3. Pasteboard roofs.—Roofs of out buildings in Holland have been covered with pasteboard cut into squares, and dipped repeated- ly in boiling tar, until thoroughly covered and impregnated with it and then dried in the sun. ‘The pieces are then placed smoothly on the roof, lapping at the edges, and fastened with nails. It is stated that these roofs are a great security against dampness, and that they last longer than shingles.— Bib. Univ. Nov., 1832. 4. On saponaceous vegetables.—A report was made, by M. Bus sy, on a root long employed in Persia and the East for cleaning cash- mere shawls and other stuffs. Several French manufacturers have also used it for years with much advantage. ‘They call it Saponaire ad’ Egypte. It probably belongs to the genus Gypsophila, very analo- gous to Gypsophila Struthium. ‘This root, when reduced to pow- der, occasions violent sneezing, like Euphorbia and certain acrid resins. It communicates to water, by decoction or even by mixture, a particular softness and unctuosity, and the property of frothing like soap without occasioning too great viscosity. ‘This quality is ascer- tianed to reside in various degrees in several plants. It depends on the presence of a peculiar substance, which causes water to lather by agitation. The bark of Quallaia saponaria which is sold in the public markets: in Peru, as a substitute for soap, is remarkable for this property. _ When soap is added to water, there is, in addition to the solvent power of the water, the chemical action of the alkali of the soap, but this is much less important than is generally supposed, for in soap the alkaline properties of potash and soda are almost entirely neutral- ized, by the acids of the fat. Simple alkaline solutions, either caustic or carbonated, we know will not well answer asa substitute for soap. The action of alkalies or of soap, in common washing, is not there~ fore, simply to saponify the greasy or resinous matters with which the cloth is impregnated, but only to render them misczble in water, not soluble, but miscible, that is, to bring them into such a state of divis- ion as to occasion their easy and free suspension in the water as oil is suspended in milk of almonds, or butter in milk. Every substance’ which increases: the viscosity of water, produces this effeet, such as Vou. XXIV.—No. 2. 49 382 Miscellanies. soap, gum, and mucilage of all kinds, and of course plants. which contain them. In the washing of woollens, shawls, and other animal matters, which become stiff and hard by the action of alkalies, mucilaginous matters are preferable to soap. In dyeing, also, mucilages have the property of preventing the precipitation of calcareous salt and ter- rene matters, so important often to the shade, beauty and splendor of colors.— Bull. D’Encour. Nov. 1832. ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. Montyon premiums for discoveries in physiology.—The committee appointed by the French Academy to adjudge the premiums, having received this year, no work which appears to have merited the prize, and considering also that there are other works, not addressed to them, but which have come to their knowledge, which comprehend discoveries either im anatomy or microscopic researches on intimate structure, and the development of organs, that cannot fail, indepen- dently of their particular objects, to enlighten physiology by their re- sults, concluded it right, by way of encouragement, to grant a gold medal of the value of three hundred francs to the following persons : 1. M. Carus, for his work on the motion of the blood in the larve of certain species of neuropterous insects. 2. M. Muuuer, for his researches on the structure of secretory glands. 3. M. Eurensere, for his work on the organization, and system- atic and geographic distribution of infusory animals. 4, MM. Detreecnu and Costs, for their anatomical researches on the evolution of embryos. 5, M. Lauru, for his anatomy of the human testicle. 6. M. Margin Sarnr-Aveer, for his researches on the circulation of blood in the embryo and fcetus of maa. The line of conduct pursued by the committee, was approved by ihe Academy, although the sum necessary for the medals is double that mentioned in the programme.—Rev. Encyc. Nov. 1832. DOMESTIC. 1. Extract from the MS. of an unpublished narrative of travels and observations in South America, furnished by the author, at the Editor’s request.—Galloping over the arid and dusty plain of Guachi, we suddenly arrived at the edge of the almost perpendicular hill as Miscellanes. 383 which overlooks the valley of Hambato. The view of the valley from this elevation, (about seven hundred feet,) is extremely beautiful, and the eye, fatigued and half blinded by the glare and heat thrown from the parched soil, rests with pleasure on the fresh and luxuriant green of this beautiful spot; the valley is narrow and shut in on all sides by dark, barren hills; it is not dependent on the clouds for the water that nourishes the eternal verdure in which it is clothed, for it scarcely ever rains here; a considerable stream runs through it, the water of which is carried in numberless channels to irrigate the fields; these fields are divided by rows of a very graceful kind of willow, whose feathery branches and light green foliage are strongly contrasted with the rich carpet of “alfalfa,” or lucern, with which a large portion of the valley is covered. ‘The climate of Hambate is said to be finer than any other in Ecuador, notwithstanding the al- most endless variety to be found at different elevations from the sea ; it is an eternal spring, no frost nips, and in the hottest season the air is tempered by cool breezes from the mountains. No very severe earthquakes are recorded to have happened ;’ the same convulsions, which have laid in ruins the towns in the vicinity on every side, have been slightly felt at Hambato, and have passed without doing any serious injury; possibly this may arise from some peculiar formation of the valley. The variety of the productions of this extraordinary spot is such as might be expected from its climate and situation ; elevated about six thousand feet above the level of the sea, enjoying almost continual sunshine, and supplied with abundance of water, tropical and temperate climes seem to have united in giving it the fruits peculiar to each; wheat, barley, pease, potatoes, maize, sugar cane, and coffee growing side by side, while apples, pears, plums, peaches, cherries, grapes, figs, olives, oranges and lemons are pro- duced in the same garden. ‘The climate is so healthy, that invalids from all parts of the country come to profit by its salubrity. I have mentioned that it scarcely ever rains at Hambato; at Mocha, where: we slept the night before, about five leagues to the southward, it rains more or less almost every day in the year; and at La Tacunga, somewhat more than that distance to the northward, there is a stated rainy season, as in most parts of the Ecuador; such a total diversity of climate, in places so near each other, and not differing materially in elevation, is a very curious meteorological phenomenon ; can it have any connection with the fact of the non-occurrence of severe earthquakes at Hambato? A very intelligent gentleman, a native of 384 MMiscellanies. Guayaquil, infotmed me that a heavy shower, incidentally occurring during the dry season, was almost invariably followed by an earth- quake at that place. We were detained in Hambato until noon of the next day, (July 13, 1832,) by the rise of the river of the same name which had carried away all the bridges; the river is a mountain torrent, subject to very rapid swelling from the melting of the snows of the Cordilleras; it as rapidly subsides when cold and dry weather diminishes its supplies. At noon we received information that the bridges had been repaired so that we might cross, and we hastily mounted our horses, anxious to arrive at La Tacunga before nightfall. On arriving at the river, we found the only bridge to consist of three or four trunks of trees not squared, elevated about forty feet above the river, on the abutments of the bridge which had been carried away ; these were laid paral- lel to each other, but at sufficient distances, one from another, for a person easily to slip between them into the river which was roaring and foaming below. A number of people, with their horses and mules, were collected on each bank, disappointed, as I supposed, in the ex- pectation of finding a bridge. Where is the new bridge? said I to our muleteer; there, sir, said he, pointing to the precarious footing af- forded by the the trunks of trees; but how are our horses to cross? they cannot walk over on those round logs; no, sir, they cross by swimming; swimming! exclaimed I, in astonishment, they may swim but it will be down the stream to be dashed to pieces among the rocks; ‘ verémos,” we shall see, was the only reply. We now dismounted, and our muleteer, with the assistance of some Indians, unloaded our beasts, took the saddles and bridles from our horses and carried all across the bridge; we next followed and crossed safely, notwithstanding the narrowness of the path, and the slight nervousness occasioned by seeing the deep and rapid stream below. Our horses and mules were next to be got over, which was accom- plished in the following manner; the river is about twenty yards wide very deep, and darts along with inconceivable rapidity ; a long rope of twisted hide was tied round the neck of the beast to be conveyed across, and carried to the opposite side by the bridge, two men then pull at it and others drive the animal into the water and by the help of ihe rope, itis enabled to stem the current and reach the other bank. A number of people were waiting to get across their beasts by this singular ferry ; the horses and mules generally went boldly into the water, and arrived, without much difficulty, at the other side, but the /Miscellanies. 385 poor asses made all the resistance in their power, holding back, lying down, and roaring most piteously, and when at last forced into the water, they were seemingly incapacitated by fear from making any exertion, rolling over and over, and arriving at the bank half drown- ed; however, no accident happened and we recommenced our jour- ney through a country formed of the materials thrown from Cotopaxi, toward which mountain we were now travelling ; the quantity of lava thrown from the burning bosom of this terrific mountain is almost be- yond belief; as far as the eye can reach, the whole country appears to be a mass of lava and volcanic sand, and although in some places there are patches of cultivation it has a sickly hue, and the whole bears the appearance of a spot on which a withering curse has fallen. A short time before sunset, we arrived at La Tacunga, after a fa- tiguing ride through fine sand which every wind raised im blinding clouds, and over bare hills of lava, heated almost to scorching by the rays of a nearly vertical sun. La Tacunga is the very picture of desolation and ruin, being a sad monument of the effects occa- sioned by the terrible convulsions of nature to which this country is subject; it has, perhaps, suffered more frequenly than any town in South America; in the year 1698, it was almost totally destroyed by an earthquake ; in the year 1743 and 1744 it was much injured by eruptions of Cotopaxi; in 1756, another earthquake happened which destroyed the Jesuits’ church, an enormous stone building, at the time, full of people ; five thousand persons are said to have perished in it;* many other houses were ruined and many people lost their lives, beside those who were in the church. The last earthquake, which caused much injury, happened in 1800 and although it destroyed the church of San Francisco and many houses; comparatively few persons lost their lives. La Tacunga is built wholly of the dark colored spongy lava of Cotopaxi, which is easily worked and forms very handsome walls; whole streets are in ruins, but the most curious and appalling proof of the tremendous and irresistible force of the earth’s throes, is pre- sented by the ruined church of the Jesuits; its arched roof of solid stone has fallen in, burying thousands in its ruins; its walls, six feet in thickness, are cracked in every direction, and huge masses are torn off as if by the agency of some violent explosion; one mass, of * For the accuracy of this, perhaps, exaggerated statement, I cannot vouch: | had it from different persons in La Tacunga, AN 386 /Miscellanies. many tons weight, appears to have been twisted round after it was detached from the wall, and now rests on one corner, its upper end leaning against the wall; the strength of fifty men, unaided by ma- chinery, would not serve to move it from its present position. On parts of the wails are fragments of fresco paintings, the colors of which are still quite fresh. We also visited the convent belonging to the same order, of which all except the lower story is destroyed ; the “‘ patio,” or courtyard, is surrounded by a very handsome set of ornamented arches built of the same spongy lava of which the town Is composed. The church of San Francisco, which was partially de- stroyed in 1800, has been rebuilt, or rather repaired ; evident traces remain init of the effects of the earthquake. Scarcely a month passes at La Tacunga without the shock of an earthquake. P: 2. Details of a chemical analysis of Danaite, a new ore of ron and cobalt; by Avueustus A. Haves.—The ore which was the sub- ject of this analysis, was discovered some years since at Franconia, N. H.* and from its crystallographic and pyrognostic characters, it was considered as a new variety of arsenical cobalt; but as these would not enable us to determine whether the cobalt was present in an atomic or variable quantity, an analysis was attempted. It was, however, found difficult to effect so complete a separation of the constituents, as to give a true statement of its composition. The specimen examined was in the form of brilliant and perfect crystals, having a specific gravity of 6.214. _I. A portion which had been crushed in paper, was washed, dried, and reduced to a fine powder in a mortar of porcelain; the fine pow- der was exposed in warm air, and then cooled in a desiccated atmos- phere. II. 1000 parts of the powder were introduced into a flask, hav- ing a curved neck, with 6000 parts of strong muriatic acid. A few drops of nitric acid were added, and the flask connected with a large receiver, containing nitrous acid; as the action became less active, | more nitric acid was added, and heat applied to the flask; the sul- phurous acid being converted into sulphuric, and the hyposulphurous depositing sulphur in the receiver ; by the cautious addition of nitric acid, the whole of the arsenic was taken up by the muriatic acid, leaving a portion of sulphur undissolved. 'The fluid was decanted ph earns Js eet 3 * Am. Jour. Vol. VIIT, p: 30 no /Miscellanies. 387 and boiled in another flask, the contents of the receiver were added to the sulphur and a portion of the acid distilled from it, tll its solu- tion and entire conversion into sulphuric acid was insured. There remains a white insoluble powder, which, after ignition, weighed 10.1 and was composed of silica and alumina, derived from the mortar. Ii. The fluid and washings from the powder in II. were evapora- ted, with a slight excess of muriate of baryta; when much reduced, water was added, and the precipitated sulphate collected on a double prepared filter, was washed im muriatic acid, and then with water, until all traces of foreign matter were removed; dried and calcined with the upper filter, there were 1294.1 parts, containing .8 ashes, leaving 1293.3 sulphate of baryta, equal to 178.4 of sulphur. It was white, and contained no arsenic. IV. When the washings were mixed with the fluid from the sul- phate of baryta of III. an acid, pale yellow liquid resulted; this was divided into two equal parts by weight, one being used for the analysis, the other as a check on the results by different processes. The quantity of fluid equal to 500 parts of the mineral, being, in the usual way, decomposed by an excess of hydrosulphuric acid gas, the yellow sulphuret of arsenic, when dry, weighed 488.8; by nitric acid and muriate of baryta, it was decomposed into 281.6 sulphur and 207.2 arsenic, or 414.4 for 1000 parts. V. After separating the sulphuret of arsenic, the liquor of IV. was of a pale pink color; it was evaporated at 120° in dry air; when much reduced, nitric acid was boiled with it to render the oxides peroxides; while warm, it was rendered brown and neutral, by pure ammonia, the last drop slightly impairing its transparency ; the ox- ides were then precipitated by pure ammonia, and lastly by hydro- sulphate of ammonia, collected as before, dried and ignited. It was found, from repeated trials, that the weight of the mixture suffered no alteration by exposure to heat, for a longer or shorter time; its true weight was 278.6. It was a soft, cinnamon brown powder. VI. The dry oxides were dissolved in muriatic acid; by adding ammonia, the solution was neutralized, and succinate of ammonia separated the iron, without precipitating a trace of cobalt; after ecal- cination, it weighed 237.6, equivalent to 164.7 of iron, or 329.4 in 1000 parts. ‘The difference between 237.6 and 275.6 is 41. which is the weight of the protoxide of cobalt, representing 32.25 cobalt, or 64.5 in 1000: it was free from nickel. 388 Miscellanies. ‘Thus determined, the quantities of the constituents of this ore are, Sulphur, = - do) AED ial = a = 178.4 Arsenic, = - 2 Vu ie - = 414.4 Tron, - - VI. - - - 329.4 Cobalt, - = (AWes sy 3 - - 64.5 Derived from mortar, II. = - - - 10.1 996.8 Loss, partly iron, - - ANE 3.2 1000. As arsenic, when sulphur is present, combines, in preference, with iron to form a binarseniuret, we therefore conclude that such a com- pound exists in this ore, and this opinion derives some support from the fact, that muriatic acid dissolves iron from the mineral, without a trace of arsenic being thrown out of combination. By dividing the loss among all the constituents, its composition may be thus expressed, in accordance with definite proportions. Binarseniuret of iron, - - - - 571.3 Sulphuret of iron, - - - - 290.6 Bisulphuret of cobalt, - - = - - 136.5 998.4 The employment of short trivial names in mineralogy having re- ceived the sanction of the most eminent naturalists, I propose the name of Danaite for this mineral, in honor of the late Professor James F’. Dana, to whose skill in minute chemical research, we are indebted for our knowledge of the existence of cobalt in this mineral.. Roxbury Laboratory, May 27, 1833. 3. Note to remarks on the Guaco.*—Since the remarks address ed to the Editor on this subject, the notice of the writer has been directed, by him, to a paper in the Journal of the Royal Institution, (for 1830,) touching the same plant; but it appears obvious that the writer, (Dr. Hancock,) does not, in that paper, understand by the name guaco, the same plant which has been sent from Mexico to Philadelphia and of which a specimen was forwarded to Professor Silliman. * This note came too late to be'inserted in connexion with Prof. Johnson’s com- munication on the Guaco.—Ep. ‘ sr ea ———— Miscellanies. 389 The following observation of Dr. H. is, perhaps, sufficient to es- tablish the supposition above made. “On the subject of Alexipharmics, I may observe, that those plants which are regarded as antidotes or counterpoisons, are chiefly those eminently bitter, aromatic, and piquant,—being the most powerful warm sudorifics.” ; “We know that the Corymbifere afford many examples of this ‘sort; but the Guaco, although of this natural order, is almost entirely destitute of the forenamed sensible properties!!” If any one could take into his mouth a portion, however small, of the Mexican Guaco sent hither, and especially could swallow a teacupful of the infusion, he would be impelled to give a different account of its sensible prop- erties. Dr. H., moreover, cites some cases in which the Guaco, or what he understood to be such, was tried ineffectually in the case of rattlesnake bite. This may be very possible, without derogating in the least degree from the credibility of Mutis, Chabert, his Mexican au- thorities and correspondents, or the statements from Venezuela, al- ready presented in this number. W.R. J. 4. Optics.—A treatise on optics, by Sir David Brewster, has been published by Carey & Lea. It is from the “hand of a master,” and has been adapted to the use of colleges in this country, by an appen- dix from Professor Bache, of Philadelphia. The work presents the results of experiment and theory, applied to the investigation of different branches of optical science. The phenomena of double refraction, and the polarization of light are treated of, and explained much at length. ‘The author suggests new views on some points which had received the sanction of Sir Isaac Newton, particularly his theory of the colors of natural bodies, one of the most interesting branches of natural science. It is Sir D. Brewster’s opinion, that although Sir Isaac ineontrovertibly proved “that the colors of material nature are not inherent in colored bodies; that yet, the rules by which he supposes the combinations of light. produce transparency, opacity, and the varied tints which embellish the different forms of matter are insufficient and unfounded. He deems the “ Newtonian theory of colors, applicable only to a small class of phenomena, such as the colors of the wings of insects, the plumage of birds, the oxidized films on metal and glass, and certain opalescencies ; while it leaves unexplained, the colors of fluids and transparent solids, and all the beautiful hues of the vegetable king- Vou. XXIV.—No. 2. 50 390 Miscellanies. dom, which cannot be produced by the mere vibrations of an etherial medium.” He thinks, that certain rays are absorbed by material bodies, and that by entering into combination with their particles, chemical and physical results are produced, establishing specific colors, although the manner in which the combination takes effect is unknown. This theory is ably sustained, but the limits of this notice, do not permit any details of the reasoning. A satisfactory explanation of the cause of erect vision, is among the most interesting solutions of the phenomena of ‘that master piece of divine mechanism, the human eye.” ‘It has long been a problem with the learned,” how objects could appear erect to the observer, when the images of those objects were inverted on the retina. It has been supposed by some that “infants, literally, see every thing up- side down,” and that, by subsequent experience, comparing the ac- curate information acquired by touch, with the erroneous impressions made upon the retina, they gradually learn to see objects in an erect position. In explanation, Sir D. Brewster says, that the lines of vis- ible direction are always perpendicular to the retina; and all pass through one single point in the centre of its spherical surface; that they cross each other at this centre, so that those from the lower part of the image.go to the upper part of the object, and those from the up- per part of the image to the lower part of the object. Hence, the ob- ject is seen in an erect position “ in virtue of the lines of visible direc- tion being in all cases perpendicular tothe impressed part of the retina.” This small volume is replete with exhibitions of the beautiful and surptising laws of light, which extends its influence from the smallest spire of grass, to the remotest orb in the heavens. It is a work in which theory rests, in almost every case, on the sure basis of math- ematical demonstration. The appendix of Professor Bache has added seriously to its value. 5. Note on certain experiments on the inflammation of phospho- rus ina rarefied medium; communicated by Prof. A. D: Bache, of the University of Pennsylvania, in a letter to the Editor dated Philadelphia, March 25, 1833.—An error of the printer in the note _ of my experiments on the inflammation of phosphorus in a rarefied medium* having procured for me a rough remark from Professor " American Journal of Science, Vol. xviii, p. 372. Miscellanies. 391 Moll, of Utrecht, I wish you would call his attention to the list of errata in No. 1 of the subsequent volume to that just referred to, in which the line beginning “ Its inflammation occurs when phosphorus alone is placed,” &c. is directed to be changed to “Wo inflamma- tion occurs,” &c. The word “ Its” was substituted by the printer for “No,” which was in my MS. I was so much struck with the influence that this typographical error would have in throwing the experiments into disrepute, should they be noticed and their repetition attempted, that on finding the note copied into Brewster’s Edinburgh Journal of Science, I wrote to request a formal correction of the mistake. ‘The letter, perhaps, did not reach him, or his known cour- tesy would have prevented the neglect of the request, and the subse- quent insertion of a stricture upon the very passage, in which Prof. Moll supposes me to contradict the Holland experimenters. I have not published the entire results of those experiments, from a wish to see how far they might have been anticipated, in a memoir contained in the transactions of the Zealand Society of Arts; the existence of which was made known to me by Prof. Moll’s commu- nication. ‘These transactions I have in vain attempted to procure, and having no desire to reproduce any experiments already made abroad, I have thought it most prudent, for the present, to withhold my paper. 6. On the growth of timber.—Extract of a letter from Mr. Alexan- der C. Twining, to the Editor, dated Albany, April 9, 1833. Dear Sir—I take this opportunity to mention a fact, which I once observed, and which may, perhaps, prove interesting to the readers of your Journal and lovers of natural science. In the year 1827, a large lot of hemlock timber was cut from the north eastern slope of East Rock, near New Haven, for the purpose of forming a founda- tion for the wharf which bounds the basin of the Farmington Canal on the East. While inspecting and measuring that timber, at the time of its delivery, I took particular notice of the successive layers, each of which constitutes a year’s growth of the tree; and which, in that kind of wood, are very distinct. ‘These layers were of various breadth, indicating a growth five or six times as full in some years as in others, preceding or following. ‘Thus, every tree had preserv- ed arecord of the seasons, for the whole period of its growth, wheth- er thirty years or two hundred,—and what is worthy of observation, every tree told the same story. ‘Thus, if you began at the outer layer 392 JViscellanies. of two trees, one young and the other old, and counted back twenty years, if the young tree indicated, by a full layer, a growing season for that kind of timber, the older tree indicated the same. My next observation was, that the growing seasons clustered to- gether, and also the meagre seasons came in companies. Thus, it was rare to find a meagre season immediately preceding or following a season of full growth,—but, if you commenced in a cluster of thin and meagre layers, and proceeded on, it gradually enlarged and swelled to the maximum, after which a decrease began and went on, until it terminated in a minimum.. A third observation was, that there appeared nothing like periodi- city in the return of the full years or the meagre, but the clusters alternated at irregular intervals; neither could there be observed, in comparing the clusters, any law by which the number of years was regulated. I had then before me, therefore, two or three hundred meteoro- logical tables, all of them as unerring as nature; and by selecting one tree from the oldest, and sawing out a thin section from its trunk, I might have preserved one of the number to be referred to after- wards. It might have been smoothed on one side by the plane, so as to exhibit its record, to the eye, with all the distinctness and neat- ness of adrawing. On the opposite side, might have been minuted in indelible writing, the locality of the tree, the kind of timber, the year and the month when cut, the soil where it grew, the side and point which faced the north, and every other circumstance which can possibly be supposed ever to have the most remote relation to the value of the table in hand. The lover of science will not be backward to incur such trouble, for he knows how often, in the progress of human knowledge, an observation or an experiment has lost its value by the disregard of some circumstance connected with it, which, at the time, was not thought worthy of notice. Lastly, there might be attached to the same section, a written meteorological ta- ble compiled from the observations of some scientific person, if such observations had been made in the vicinity. ‘This being done, why, in the eye of science, might not this natural, unerring, graphical record of seasons past, deserve as careful preservation as a curious mineral or a new form of crystals? If you should think fit to make such a suggestion, it might lead, in fact, to the preservation of sections from aged trees in different parts of the country, and a comparison of their les of growth with the Jiscellantes. 393 history of the weather as far back as our knowledge extends. If the observations just related, with respect to a particular lot of timber should be found to hold true of trees, in general, drawings of these sections, on a reduced scale, would soon find their way to the pages of scientific journals. It would be interesting, then, to make com- parisons of one with another,—to compare the sections of one kind of tree with that of another kind from the same locality,—or to com- pare sections of the same kind of tree from different parts of the country. Such a comparison would elicit a mass of facts, both with respect to the progress of the seasons, and their relation to the growth of timber, and might prove, hereafter, the means of carrying back our knowledge of the seasons, through a period coeval with the age of the oldest forest trees, and in regions of country where scientific observation has never yet penetrated, nor a civilized population dwelt. 7. Barometer.—We have lately received from Mr. Hudson, Sec- retary and Librarian of the Royal Society, a series of “ Experimen- tal investigations on the Barometer,” made by him, in order to de- termine, if possible, the laws which regulate its periodical changes, and to furnish data for explaining the anomalies of its daily and hour- ly oscillations. ‘The observations, amounting to three thousand in number, were made during the months of April, May, June and July, 1831, and January and February, 1832. To insure the great- est accuracy, the experiments were conducted with the most perfect instruments, and with unexampled perseverance. For sixty days, the observations were consecutive, through day and night, fifteen times in each hour; and the remainder were made for sixteen or eighteen hours each day. It is well known, that the periodical rise and fall of the barometer is marked with great regularity in tropical climates, but the law which prescribes and regulates those changes, has not been ascertained. As we recede from the equator, to our own extra-tropical regions, no constant law is apparent; and the movements of the mercurial column become irregular and violent. By examining, however, the variations for several days, and classing the observations made at the same hours on each successive day, and thus deriving from their union the hours of one mean day, Mr. Hudson found that these accidental variations neutralize each other—thus allowing the constant or equa- torial oscillation to become appreciable. The following are some of the results of Mr. Hudson’s experi- ments and observations. 394 Miscellanies. “That there is a striking connection between the barometrical changes, and the variations of temperature. “That a relation appears to subsist between the variations before noon, and those before midnight; a great amount of variation before noon being followed, in the same mean day, by a corresponding small variation before midnight, and the contrary. “'That the season of the year, or the temperature of such season, appears to exercise an influence over the hours of maximum and minimum, and over the amount of mean variations. ‘The minimum and maximum of the morning are earlier, and of the evening later, in summer than in winter. ‘The variations in summer are small at noon, and great about midnight; those in winter, the reverse. ‘The greatest mean variation occurs in the afternoon, minimum height of the barometer at four o’clock; and the next greatest, in the forenoon, maximum at ten o’clock. “That the general relation between the barometrica! changes and the variations of temperature, appears to be direct, during the morn- ing hours, and inverse, during the day and evening.” These observations have been made with a thermometer attached, and the variations of temperature simultaneously registered with those of the barometrical changes. Mr. Hudson considers the variations of atmospheric pressure to be dependent on temperature, but has not stated any precise ratio by which the changes are regulated ; nor has he explained any of those circumstances which accelerate or retard the uniform operation of the laws which cause its periodical oscillations. The changes of temperature alone appear to be insufficient to ac- count for the phenomena of the barometer. There can be no doubt that, comprehending the whole atmos- phere, there is a constant rise and fall, or a great semi-diurnal mo- tion of the air, whereby it is subject to a regular elevation and de- pression twice in twenty four hours, analogous to the tides of the ocean ; and it is well ascertained, that its movements are uniform at the equator, and nearly so through the tropics, while it is subject to great variations and irregularities within the temperate regions. These changes might be ascribed to the extremes of temperature in extra-tropical climates, were it not that barometers, which have been simultaneously observed in various and distant countries, rise and fall together; and it is seen, by Mr. Hudson’s observations, that temper- ature cannot be the only disturbing influence, because the barometri- ——— Miscellanies. 395 cal changes do not precisely coincide with the thermometer. If the effect of heat and cold were alone the cause of the greater or less density of the air, the effect should be strikingly obvious and uniform near the Pole, where the mercury of the barometer should be much higher than at any other place. But that is not the case. ‘The maximum at 66° and 74° N. lat. has never been seen, many lines higher than thirty inches, which is the barometrical indication esti- mated by Kirwan as the natural state of the atmosphere at the level of the sea, over the whole globe. Mr. Hudson intends to pursue his researches into collateral branch- es of the subject, and a much more full development may be expect- ed from his additional investigations. He professes to be guided by, the results alone, without reference to any previous theory or opinion. Among other points, he will endeavor to ascertain whether any con- nexion exists between the variations of the barometer and those of ihe magnetic needle, which will of course lead to an examination of electrical influences; and he will also make a further and complete estimate of the effect of temperature on the barometrical changes. In aid of his views, Mr. Henderson, Astronomer Royal at the Cape of Good Hope, Mr. Dunlop, Astronomer Royal at Paramatta, and Mr. Forbes, now on a scientific tour through Italy and Greece, have promised to undertake a series of observations, to be made simulta- neously with those of Mr. Hudson in London. 8. Propositions, stated by Isaac Orr. TO THE EDITOR. Dear Sir—Will you do me the favor to publish, in your Journal, the three following propositions, addressed to the mathematicians of this country, and also, through your work, to the leading ones in Europe. To the mathematicians of the United States and of Europe. All mathematicians are respectfully invited to answer or demon- strate the following propositions. 1. Supposing the attractive power of the particles belonging to the material universe, to be, inversely as the square of the distance from their centres; and their repulsive power, or rather the excess of the ratio of the repulsive power, over the attractive, to be, as Newton has made it, inversely as the distance from their centres ; and supposing both powers to be limited by and to the actual sur- 396 Miscellanies. faces of the particles; then, a solid body, in free space, will arrange the particles of an elastic homogeneous atmosphere about it, so that they will be in regular columns, having their centres in right lines, drawn from the centre of the solid body; they will be all of the same form; the distances between their centres will be as their dis- tances from the centre of the solid body; their magnitudes will be as the cubes of those distances; and their acting attractive forces, will be inversely as the squares of those distances. And if two such solid bodies, with similar elastic atmospheres, are made to approach each other, in free space, they will gravitate toward each other, by means of their elastic atmospheres alone, with forces inversely as ihe squares of the distances between their centres. What is the proof? | 2. With the same elements, there is a condition, by which the particles may be easily movable among themselves, and around their centres, in any required degree, so that the resistance which they will present to a solid body moving among them, may be reduced to any required degree of smallness. How is this demonstrated ? 3. Supposing the two powers of the particles to be limited by and to their own actual surfaces, and their repulsive power to be such as Newton has made it, then there is a condition, or rather a supposed property of the particles, entirely consistent with all ther known properties, which will give to them all the attributes of ubiquity, which they really possess in nature, although their own powers are confined to and within their own actual surfaces. What is that property, and how is the proposition demonstrated ? To all these propositions, I already have answers or demonstra- tions, which appear to me decisive. Perhaps some other persons may furnish better. Washington, March 15, 1833. X¢-Editors friendly to science, are respectfully requested to re- publish the above. 9. Prof. Hitchcock’s Report on the Geology of Massachusetts.— The first part of this report, with a geological map, was published in Vol. XXII of this Journal. We understand that the MS. of the re- mainder is now nearly prepared, and that it will be published in the autumn, by the government of Massachusetts, with a reprint of the first part. Miscellanies. 397 it is understood that it will make a volume of from six to seven hundred pages, 8vo. illustrated by quarto maps and drawings, and numerous wood cuts. From the ability displayed in the first part, as well as from the well known character of Professor Hitchcock, it cannot be doubted that this volume will be one of great interest and importance, and will do credit, not only to the author, but to the en- lightened government of Massachusetts. Prof. Hitchcock has recently discovered chromate of iron, in con- siderable quantity, in serpentine, in Blanford; also finely crystallized sphene, in augitic gneiss, in Lee; and rotten stone, in connection with fetid limestone, in West Springfield. Native alum also occurs in the gneiss of Barre, as well as in that of Leominster. 10. Manual of Mineralogy and Geology; by Esnnnzer Emmons, M. D., Lecturer on Chemistry and Natural History in Williams Col- lege. Second edition. Albany, Webster and Skinners: 1832. 12mo. pp: 299.—(Communicated.)—A manual, short, comprehensive, sim- ple and accurate, and neither cumbrous nor expensive, has long been adesideratum. The work of Professor Cleaveland, although invalu- able for reference or study in the cabinet, is much too large for a pocket companion in mineralogical rambles, and is moreover too cost= ly for many who wish to engage in the study of mineralogy. Under these circumstances the work in question has been published ; and it appears happily adapted to the object proposed. Dr. E. has adopted the classification of Mohs, but owing to the abstruseness of Mohs’s sys- tem of crystallography, he has substituted, in its stead, that of Brooke. The introduction is clear, full and comprehensive, while the notes, in the form of an appendix, containing articles on the use of the blow- pipe, &c. will in practice be found highly useful. The characters: are copious and judiciously selected, and what is most interesting in the localities of minerals and their uses in the arts, is condensed into a small compass. Mohs’s system of nomenclature is likewise adopted, but the trivzal (or common) names are subjoined in a smaller type, thus obviating the necessity of committing a new system to memory; in the case of those already acquainted with the one generally in use. On the whole, we think this work creditable both to the author and the publishers, although the typographical execution is hardly what. might have been desired; and we doubt not that he who examines it will coincide with us in the opinion, that it will prove a valuable acquisition to the mineralogical student. Vou. XXIV.—No. 2. 5] 398 MMiscellanies. 11. Manual of Botany for North America; by Prof. Amos Ea- ron. Sixth edition, Albany, 1833.’ 12mo.—It is surely a happy token of the wide spread taste for the scientific study of plants, that six editions of Mr. Eaton’s Register of American and common gar- den plants have been called for in this country ; in addition to seve- ral other works of the same nature. The plan of his work is too well known to require any remark; it is only necessary to allude to the alterations made in the present edition. ‘To quote from the pre- face, ‘* Nothing new is presented either in the text, or in the cata- logue, excepting what ought to have been discovered in this pro- gressive science, since the fifth edition of this manual was printed ; and not so much of real wnprovement, has been added, as between the. fourth and fifth editions.” A few terms of modern invention have been adopted, some genera have been modified, and the natural orders of Jussieu have been farther subdivided, in accordance with the best authorities for these innovations. ‘I'he new generic names of DeCandolle are given as synonyms. ‘The author professes to have engrafted upon this edition, all the improvements relative to American Botany to be derived from the recent writings of Lindley, Hooker, Loudon, and the four published volumes of DeCandolle. The etymologies of the genera are also given, apparently, with con- siderable attention, and will undoubtedly enhance the value of the work; but the copious glossary of terms published in the last edition, we are sorry to see, has been reduced within very unsatisfactory limits and confounded with the general index. This, surely, is to be regretted, as the student will still have to provide himself with a sep- arate work for obtaining terminological information. ‘‘ This edition presents a North American Flora, as full as the present state of the sci- ence will admit. It not only includes all the well defined plants of the United States; but those of the Canadas, Nova Scotia, &c. The number of genera descrided is 1228, the number of species is 5267.” 12. Botany of the Northern and Middle States; by.Luwis C. Beex. Albany, 1833. pp. 471, 12mo.—This is the first descrip- tive catalogue of our plants, arranged according to the natural system. The attempt certainly will not fail of being received with approbation by all botanical students; and the more especially as the treatise embraces a synopsis of the genera, after the analytical system of Linnzeus, by means of which the advantages of both systems are placed together in the hands ofthe learner. The orders are arrang- Miscellanies. 399 ed according to Jussieu, as modified by DeCandolle; and the author, has followed, with few exceptions, the arrangement and characters given in the article Botany, in the new edition of the Encyclopedia Brittannica. The work contains a sketch of the rudiments of Bot- any, a glossary of terms, and a table of the Linnean classes and orders. It is confined to the description of indigenous plants growing north of Virginia; and describes 641 genera and 2105 species. 13. Notices of text-books of the Rensselaer School, [or Institute, | an Troy, New York.—We have received copies of four of the text- books of Rensselaer School. As they are composed upon the pe- culiarly practical plan of that school, a few short notices of them may be acceptable. 1. ArT witHoUT Scrence; second edition.—This book is made up entirely of practical directions for the Surveyor and Engineer. As Prof. Eaton, the author, was, for a long time, a practical surveyor ; and held a land agency of between two and three hundred thousand acres of land for ten years, the surveying part is necessarily a prac- tical system. ‘The engineering part furnishes elementary and prac- tical views of minor value. Cost 75 cts. 2. Cuemicau Instructor; fourth edition. This is truly a sim- ple and practical little treatise. It contains 324 pages, 12mo., and is made up almost wholly of directions for experiments, short ration- ale, and applications. The experiments are the result of Prof. Eaton’s own trials, performed with the most cheap and simple appa- ratus. He has given minute directions, and the cost, for procuring every thing required for a course of experiments (which he brings under one hundred dollars) sufficient to illustrate the general outlines of the science experimentally. He refers to other books for the reading part, as he calls it. Cost $1. 3. Grotocicat TEext-Boox; second edition. This work may be considered as more nearly original than any other work of the author, (Prof. Eaton.) It consists of a general summary of all his discoveries and observations, made at the expense of that distinguished patron of science, the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer, of Albany, with the synonyms, and most important theories of foreign geologists. ft contains sixty eight lithographic figures of organic remains, exam- ined in place by the author; and a geological map of the State of New ¥ork, and of the proximate parts of the adjoming States. Cost $1 25. 400 Miscellanies. We understand that a small work is promised by a female pupil of Prof. Eaton, (which is to be under his supervision,) entitled Boray- rcaL TEacHER; which may be of great use, especially in French Seminaries. It is almost ready for the press. It will contain short descriptions of every genus in North America, and descriptions of all the species by a set of figures; also the natural and artificial methods, physiology, and vegetable chemistry, combined in the same series of arrangement. Cost 75 cts. Chester County Cabinet of Natural History.—We observe with pleasure, that this Institution, under the patronage of zealous and en- lightened men, is proceeding with diligence and perseverance, in the promotion of its objects; the details of its progress are contained in the sixth report, published in the present year, 1833. Hezexian Hows & Co., New Haven, have in press, to be pub- lished in August next, Narurat Puirospuy ror Hien ScHoots anp AcapEmies, designed to hold an intermediate place between the smaller elementary works, and the larger treatises used in Colleges ; in one volume, 8vo., of about 300 pages. By Denison Otmstep, A.M,, Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Yale College. H. H. & Co. have in preparation, and will shortly publish, under the revision of Prof. Silliman, An Inrropuction To GroLoey, in- tended to convey a practical knowledge of the science, and com- prising the most important discoveries, with explanations of the Facts and Phenomena, which serve to confirm or invalidate various Geo- logical Theories; by Ropert Baxeweiu. The second American from the fourth London edition, greatly enlarged, with new plates, and numerous cuts. New Haven, June, 1833. s- Various communications for this No. came too late for mser- tion, and others are under consideration, most, or all of which will appear in a future number. INDEX TO VOLUME XXIV. « A. Address of Mr. Schoolcraft on the condition of the North American Indians, 190. Prof. E. Wright on Tobacco, 190. 190. Air pump, new, 279. Amalgamation of silver ores, 220. Analysis of Am. spathic iron and bronzite, 170. : Oliver on .Temperance, ‘Danaite, 386. —— Fer Titané, 375. the water of Rio Vinagre, 149. Animal physiology, 382. Anthracite, vegetable origin of, 172. Apparatus, chemical, of Dr. Hare, 247. philosophical, 175. Architecture by Daniel Wadsworth, Esq. 257. s¢ Art without science,”’ notice of, 399. Atmospheric pressure, 174. Azote, its combinations, 374. B. Babbage’s Economy of Machinery and Manufactures, analysis of, 105. Bare Hills, description of, by Dr. Hayden, 349. Barometer, experimental investigations on, by Mr. Hudson, 393. —— of water, 198. Bellows, explosion of, by inflammable gas, 182. Bismuth, sulphurets of, 189. Blind, New England Asylum for the, 175. Blowing of glass, 380. Bonnycastle, Capt., on the transition rocks of the Cataraqui, 97. Boron, process for, 249. Botany of the Northern and Middle States, by L. C. Beck, M.D., 1st edition, 398. for North America, Eaton’s Man- uel, 6th edition, 398. Boussingault, M., analysis of the water of Rio Vinagre, 149. Brewster's, Dr., treatise on Optics, 389. Bronzite, analysis of, 170. Bunker, J. M., on vegetable origin of An- thracite, 172. Butter, depuration of, 200. C. Canal surveys in the State of New York, 19. Carbonic oxide, separation of, from car- bonic acid gas, 252. Carburetted hydrogen, 61. Carnelian, vegetable matter in, 200. Casting of horns, 366. Cast iron, 215. ‘Chemical action by electrical induction, 142. of magneto-electric cur- rents, 197. jl apparatus and operations of Dr. Hare, 247. instructor, by Prof. Eaton, 399. Chloride of silver, decomposition of, 370. Chromate of potash, test of, 372. Clay for scuiptors, 200. Clemens, J. W., notice of Wheeling, Va. 186. Colden, Lieut. Gov., on stereotype print- ing, 319. Coloring matter for dyes, &c., 380. Comet of July 1832, 348. Comets, collision of two, 346. Crotalus durissus, J. Peck on, 176. Curves for arches, mode of describing, 73. D. Dahlias, 208. Danaite, analysis of, 386. Dead animals, use of, 326. Decomposition of water by electrical in- duction 142. Delaware Academy of Natural Science, 177. Depuration of oils and butter, 200. DeWitt, S., on drawing ellipses, 369. Dispensatory of the United States, notice of, 151. Dropsy, milk a remedy in, 209. 402 Dunglison’s Human Physiolog y, notice of, "165. E. Eaton’s, Prof., Art without Science, 2nd edition, 399. Chemical Instructor, 4th edition, 399. Geological Text-Book, 2nd edition, 399. Manual of Botany for North America, 6th edition, 398. Economy of Machinery and Manufac- tures, Babbage’s, 105. Electrical machines, 253. Electro-magnetic apparatus of M. Pixii, and experiments with, 142, 144, 146, 196. Electro-magnetic currents by the rotation of a magnet, 146, 197. ——— disc of M. Arago, 143. ———_— experiments in Yale Col- lege laboratory, 147. Ellipses, mode of drawing, 369. Emmet, Prof. J. P., on a new mode of de- veloping magnetic galvanism, 78. Emmons, Dr., Manual of Mineralogy and Geology, 397. England and Scotland, population of, 211. Epistilbite from Elba, 194. Ether, action on sulphate of indigo, 371. Eupatorium Huaco, by Prof. W. R. John- son, 279, 388. Explosion of bellows by inflammable gas, 182. F. Family Cabinet Atlas, notice of, 191. Febrifuge, 375. Herruginous sand formation of the United States, 128. Fer Titané, analysis of, 375. Ferussac’s, Baron, new work on Seals, 193. Ficld, Gen. M., meteorological table and observations from April 30, 1832, to May 1, 1833, 361. Flight of pigeons, &c., 134. Flint’s History and Geography of the Val- ley of the Mississippi, &c., notice of, 179. Flood in the valley of the ‘Ohio in 1882, 133. Fluxes, 214. Fluxional ratio, application of, by E. Wright, Esq., 298. Fr reyberg, mines of, 376. G. Geography and History of the valley of the Mississippi, by Rev. T. Flint. no- tice of, 179. INDEX. Geological notices of Greene Co., Ala., by Dr. Withers, 187. ———— society of france, notice of, 192 MAMAS Text-book, Prof. Eaton’s, 2nd edition, 399. Geology, 203. ——_—— Emmon’s manual of mineralogy, and, 397. —— of Massachusetts, Prof. Hitch- cock’s report on, 896. Georgia gold mines, 1. Gibbons, coe H., address, 177. Gibbs, Prof. J. W., on the ae of Hebrew words, 87. Glass blowing, 380. cutting of, 206. Gold mines of Georgia, 1. Granite, artificial, 205. Grotto del Cane, 244. Guaco, 279, 388. Guanaxato silver mines, 228. Guillemin, Dr., on the bitterness of vege- tables, 273. Gypsies, 3-42. H. Hare Dr., new chemical apparatus and processes by, 247, 313. on electrical machines, 253. Hayden, Dr. on the Bare Hills, 349. Hayes, A. A., analysis of Danaite by, 386. Hebrew words, orthography of, by Prof. Gibbs, 87. Henry, Dr., on the philosophical charac- ter of Dr. Priestley, 28. Hildreth, Dr. S. P., meteorological obser- vations for 1832, at Marietta, O., 132. on the saliferous rock formation in the valley of the Ohio, 46. Hiteheock’s, Prof., report on the Geology of Massachusetts, 396. Hybernation of the bat, 364. racoon and wood- chuck, 367. ——_——_._—— —— swallow, 368. 1. Incubation, 367. indelible coloring, 375. Indiana Historical Society, 181. Indigo, ae ane of, action of ether on, 371. ie Jackson, Dr. C.T., on the revolving elec- tric magnet of M. Pixii, 146. Johnson, E..F., on the canal surveys in New York, 19. Prof. W. R., Huaco, 279, 388. on Kupatorium ne INDEX. L. Lapham, D., plan of the locks at Cincin- nati, 71. Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company, 173. Liberia, seminary for education in, 177. Locks at Cincinnati, plan of, 71. Lute for bottling wine, 205. M. Machine and its model, 264. Machinery and manufactures, Babbage’s economy of, 105. Madeira, notice of, 238. Magnetic galvanism, Prof. Emmet on, 78. Massachusetts, Prof. Hitchcock’s report on the geology of, 397. Mathematical propositions, 395. Mather, Lieut., on the reduction of iron and silver ores, and the silver mines of Mexico and South America, 213. ———— on the sulphurets of bis- muth, 189. Mercury, on the elastic force of the va- por of, 286. Meteorological journal at New Bedford, for 1832, 184. —— observations at Marietta, Ohio, 132. table and observations at Fayetteville, Vt. from April 30, 1832, to May 1, 1833, 361. Mica, a support in blowpipe experiments, 373. Mill in dropsy, 209. Mineralogy and geology, Dr. Emmons’ manual of, 397. 405 Optical properties of saccharine juices, 379. Optics, notice of Dr. Brewster’s treatise on, 389. Organic remains of the ferruginous sand formation of the United States, 128. Orr, Isaac, mathematical propositions by, 395. 1 Pachuca silver mines, 231. Pasco silver mines, 232. Pasteboard roofs, 381. Payen, Prof., on the means of employing dead animals, 326. Petroleum, 63. Phillips, William, on the Georgia gold mines, 1. Philosophical apparatus, 175. Phosphorus, inflammation of, in a rarefied medium, 390. Mines of Freyberg, 376. gold in Georgia, 1. silver, in Mexico and South Amer- ica, 213. Morton, Dr., on the organic remains of the ferruginous sand formation of the United States, 128. Motions of a system of bodies, by Prof. Strong, 40. Moulting of birds, 366. N. Necrology of Baron de Zach, 194, New England asylum for the blind, 175. New Universal Gazetteer, by H. Williams, notice of, 179. Nitrate of silver, pure, preparation of, 370. O. Oils, depuration of, 200. Opium, 374. Photometer of De Maistre, 378. Physiology, animal, 382. -Dunglison’s human, notice of, 165. Polytechnic Society of Paris, 191. Population of England and Scotland, 211. Potash acting on organic matters, 372. Potassium, new process for, by Dr. Hare, 312. and naptha, explosive com- pound of, 315. filling tubes with, 316. Potosi silver mines, 233. Potter, C. E., notice of a rocking stone by, 185. Premiums, scientific, 210. Pressure, atmospheric, 174. Priestley, Dr., philosophical character. of, 29. R. Rats, destruction of, 205. Rattlesnake, Crotalus durissus, 176. Reduction of iron and silver ores, 213. Rice paper, 207. Right angled triangles, expressions for sides of, 68. Roasting of iron ores, 218. Rocking stone, notice of, by C. E. Potter, 185. + Roofs of pasteboard, 381. Rotation of the planet Venus, 204. s. Saliferous rock formation: in the valley of the Ohio, 46. Salt region on the Big Kenhawa, 51. -—— Muskingum, 50, 57. 404 Salt water, strength and analysis of, 65. Sang, Bawand. on the relation between a machine and its model, 264. Saponaceous vegetables, ‘381. Savings bank of Geneva 209. Schoolcrait’s, Mr., address on the North American Indians, 190. Scientific premiums, 210. Shells, Baron Ferussac’s new work on, 193. Siliceous glass, from the burning of hay, 174. Silicon, process for 247. Silver mines of Mexico and South Amer- ica, notice of, 213. Smelting of silver ores, 218. Society, Geological, of France, 192. — Historical, of Indiana, 181. — Polytechnic, of Paris, 191. South America, extract from travels in, 383. Spathic iren, analysis of, 170. Spots on the sun, 204. Starch, 371. Stereotype printing, 319. Strong, Prof., on the motions of a system of bodies, 40. Stucco for walls, 206. Sun, spots on the, 204. Surveys, canal, in New York, 19. Syphons, improved, 317. T. Temperance, Prof. Oliver’s address on, 190. Thermal spring in the bed of the Rhone, 201. Thomson, J., on describing curves for arches, 73. Timber, A. C. Twining on the growth of, 391. Tobacco, Prof. Wright’s lecture on, 190. INDEX. Transition rocks of the Cataraqui, 97. Twining, A.C., on the growth of timber, 391. U. Ultramarine, artificial, 373. Vv. Vegetables, bitterness of, 273. saponaceous, 381. Venus, rotation of, 204. Vesuvius, 243. Vines, to prevent their bleeding, 205. W. Wadsworth, Daniel, Esq., on architec- ture, 257. Walks and alleys, valuable material for, 206. Water spout on the lake of Geneva, 377. Wheeling, Va., notice of, 186. ‘ Wilkie, Rev. D., on expressions for sides of right angled triangles, 68. Wines of Madeira, 240. Withers, Dr., geological notices of Greene County, Alabama, 187. Woodruff, Judge 8., on hybernation, &c. 363. Wool, cleansing of, 205. Wright, Elizur, Esq., on the fuxional ra- tio, 298. Prof. E., on temperance, 190. Ne Xavier, Francois, necrology of, 194. Z. Zacatecas, mines of, 230. rae Ppsgeh se BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, ‘M.D. LL. D. “Prof. ae Min., ge in Yale Coll.; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man. and Com.; and For, “Mem. Geol. Soc,, London; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., Dresden; Nat. Hist. “Soe., Halle; Imp. Agric. dine Moscow; Hon, Mem. Lin. Soc., Paris; _ Nat. Hist. Soc, Belfast, Ire.; Phil. and Lit, Soc. Bristol, Eng. ; Mem. of various Lit. 3 Scien. Soc. in America. VOL. XXIV.—No. 1.—APRIL, 1833. FOR JANUARY, FEBRUARY, AND MARCH, 1833. NEW HAVEN: Published ssid Sold by HEZEKIAH HOWE & Co. and A. H. MALTBY. Baltimore, E. J. COALE & Co. —Philadelphia, EF. LITTELL and CAREY & HART.—Wew York, G. & C.& H. CARVILL.— Boston, HILLIARD, GRAY, » LITTLE & WILKIN S: PRINTED BY HEZEKIAH HOWE & CO. By ae ee) - THRE . _ AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED FY <%, BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL.D. Prof. Chem., Min., &c. in Yale Coll.; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man, and Com.; and | For. Mem. Geol, Soc,, London; Mem."Roy. Min. Soc., Dresden; Nat. Hist. Soc., Halle; Imp. Agric. Soc., Moscow; Hon. Mem. Lin. Soe., Paris; Nat. Hist. Soc. Belfast, Ire.; Phil. and Lit. Soc. Bristol, Eng. ; Mem. of various Lit. and Scien, Soc, in America. VOL. XXIV No: 2.—JULY,-1838; «. FOR APRIL, MAY, AND JUNE, 1833. 1 ie S = ee a4 NEW HAVEN: ef ; io. ae Published and Sold by HEZEKIAH HOWE & Co. and A. H. MALTBY. - Baltimore, E. J. COALE & Co.—Philadelphia, J. S. LITTELL and CAREY & HART.—Wew York, G. & C.& H. CARVILL,.—Boston, HILLIARD, GRAY, LITTLE & WILKINS. b oa PRINTED BY HEZEKIAH HOWE & CO. eee Se i i > THE AMERIC AN JOURNAL, &o-—AGENTS. ‘ MAINE, Han.owenn, Glazier, Masters & Co. PorRTLAND, VERMONT. Bratrurporo’, G. H. Peck. MASSACHUSETTS. Newsuryveort, Charles Whippie. és SaLem, Whipple & Lawrence. NorrHampron, 8. Butler & Sons. AMHERST, J.S. & Cy Adams. RHODE ISLAND... PRovIDENCE, Hutchins & Shepard. CONNECTICUT. HARtrForD, F. J. Huntington. Norwicu, Thomas Robinson, Mippierown, Luke C. Lyman. NEW YORK. A. T. Goodrich. John DeWitt. ~ H. P. Benham. W.C. Little. New Yorx, West Pornt, NewsurGs, ) ALBANY, Troy, Cananpareua, Morse & Har vey. Utica, + . William Williams. Rocurster, ’ Hoyt, Porter & Co. -BUFFALO, .O. G. Steele & Co. NEW JERSEY. PATTERSON, David Burnett. PRINCETON, W. D’ Hart. -TRENTON, D. Fenton. New Bruyswicr, Terhune & Leta, PENNSYLVANIA. Colman, Holden, & Co.|} WASHINGTON, MARYLAND. Parrots. EF. 3. Coale & Co.. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, Thompson & Homans. NORTH CAROLINA. |Cuspen-Hinn, Prof. i, Mitchell. SOUTH CAROLINA. CoLUMBIA, B. D. Plant. CuHarteston, Ebenezer Thayer. VIRGINIA. > Win. S. Parker & Son... R. I. Smith & Go. J. Fisher & Sons, RicHMOND, WHEELING, KENTUCKY. Oe eee Silas W. Robbins. OHIO. CD; Brauer & Co. Truman, Smith & Co. I. N. Whiting. GEORGIA. a Wm. T. Williams. CINCINNATI, ConumBus, TENNESSEE. NASHVILLE Beene? 2 Wm. A. Eichbaum. © ALABAMA. ToscanLoosa, Di Woodruff: HuwrsvinuE; Irby & Smith. LOUISIANA. |New ORLEANS, Mary Carroll. ANADA. Neilson & Cowan. GREAT BRITAIN. QuEeEC, “ |Lonbor, O. Rich. “FRANCE. \ SO J Ce Barnet, PITTSBURGH, Luke Loomis. PARIs; ; M. Le Vasseur, TERMS. Six dgiiars per annum; published in four quarterly numbers, doleae two vol- umes a year, of from eight to nine hundred pages for both voiumes, which are fully. illustrated by plates. Terms of credit to gener al agents, six months from the publication of No. %, of each volume. _ The Editor will draw semi-annually on the agents, in all cases, where pay- ment 1s not otherwise provided for... Complete sets furnished to individuals, and to the trade, ata -suitabde discount. The price of this Journal, on account of a limited patronage, and the expense of numerous plates, i is, necessarily, more than,that of the quarterly Literary Reviews. At five dollars, it would not pay for the materiel and the mechanical labor. me YAS 5 —-O-—— * TO CORRESPONDENTS. : ‘The titles of pieces and persons, must be fully given, or the Editor will not be re- sponsible for mistakes or omissions. It must be specified to the Editor, whep payment is desired for communications, or they will be considered as gratuitous. “In that case, extra copies of their pieces, — will, i. desived, be furnished gratis to contributors. fgets TO THE PUBLIC: 3 ala Advertisements will be epmeee on extra ape and char se for at the established rates. SEBO a Lill ' 3 9088 01298 Beal