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Se a oa ON Se ee coheadce PC ee, ee a We ete ge 8 ec meh ts Et AS Bb Ee peaks weave Dei VE Pe the 9 ede ds hte MIE ee ot Ties ’ tebe caret Ee edd ATT ED eee err ere ee eee re ee ee Ae) or Oe REE GA fk Veet Oeil Bde! Tay oan) whet Ve ted Pee bad tone de é TIE MCT CP er er Me Ir oe aE wee ALA CT AA de oes SN a CC er Oe ee oe re ere See eC Me ee a se Perera ete ee ee, ee TT atte ee en ¥ its ee Bleed ee Ate ee dere be Bere ani A aired Peep le ee eee RC en ee ee ee ee oe Li dsea bee PEP We wat os Pe eae te er ae ua oh is " snARihie Ub ‘ ees s BES,73 ee ae THE AMERICAN JOURNAL Or SCLENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL.D. Prof. Chem., Min., &c. in Yale Coll. ; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man. and Com.; and For. Mem. Geol. Soc., London; Mem. Geol. Soc., Paris; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., Dresden; Nat. Hist. Soc., Halle; Imp. Agric. Soc., Moscow; Hon. Mem. Lin. Soc., Paris; Nat. Hist. Soc., Belfast, Ire.; Phil. and Lit. Soc., Bristol, Eng.; Hon. Mem. Roy. Sussex Inst., Brighton, Eng.; Lit. and Hist. Soc., Quebec; Mem. of various Lit. and Scien. Soc. in America. AIDED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr., A.B. Assistant in the department of Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology in Yale College; Sec. of the Yale Nat. Hist. Soc., Mem. of the Conn. Acad. of Arts and Sci. ; Cor. Mem. of the Lyceum of Natural fistory, New York, &c. i: VOL. XXXIV.—FEE¥, 1838. NEW HAVEN: Sold by A. H. MALTBY and B. & W. NOYES.—Philadelphia, CAREY & HART and J. S. LITTELL.—Baltimore, Md., N. HICKMAN.—New York, G. & C. CARVILL & Co., No. 108 Broadway, and G. S. SILLIMAN, No. 45 William St.—Boston, C. C. LITTLE & Co.—-London, JAMES 8. HODSON, No. 112 Fleet St——Paris, CHARLES DUPERRON, Rue Mabillon. PRINTED BY B. L. HAMLEN. SS. RATIONAL 6 en Art. I. II. III. VIII. XII. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIV. NUMBER I. Seventh Meeting of the British Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, - - - = - o Memoir upon the Temperature of the solid parts of the Globe, of the Atmosphere, and of those regions of space traversed by the Earth; by M. Poisson. Translated from the French, by R. W. Hasxins, = - - Miscellaneous Remarks on certain portions of the Geol- ogy of Maine; by Dr. Cuaries T. Jackson, - - - Popular Notices of Mount Washington and the vicinity ; by G. W. Nicnoxs,—with additional remarks, by the EpitTor, - - = = 2 i E i - On the Tides; by Davin Tomttnson, - - - . Equalization of Temperature and supply of airin rooms warmed by furnaces beneath; by Jas. Bouton, A. M., M. D., - - - - - - - - - Description of an Air Pump of a very simple construc- tion, which acts both as an exhauster and condenser ; by Prof. Joun Jounsron, - - - = = Notes respecting certain Indian Mounds and Earthworks, in the form of Animal Effigies, chiefly in the Wisconsin Territory, U. S.; by Ricuarp C. Taytor, Esq. - Observations made during an excursion to the White Mountains, in July, 1837; by Prof. Otiver P. Hus- BARD, - - - - : és x z - Prof. Locxe on Magneto-Electricity, and Electro-Mag- netical Machines, - - = - E z . Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, for the year 1837, kept at Marietta, Ohio; by S. P. Hitprern, - - Geology of Upper Illinois; by Prof. Cuartes Upnam SHEPARD, - - - - - - % : Page. 1 57 84 86 88 105 125 132 134 471/07 iv CONTENTS. Page. XI. Calstronbarite, a new Mineral Species; by Prof. Cuas. Uruam SHEPARD, - < - - - - 161 XIV. New Magnetic Electrical Machine of great power, with two parallel horse-shoe magnets, and two straight ro- tating armatures, affording each, in an entire revolution, a constant current in the same direction; by Cuas. G. Pace, M. D. “ = “ = s 3 - 163 XY. On the Dry Rot; by Painenas Rainey, - - 169 XVI. Additional Observations on the Shooting Stars of August 9th and 10th, 1837; by Epwarp C. Herrick, - - 180 MISCELLANIES.—-DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. Geology. 1. Renwick’s Outlines of Geology, - - - - - 183 2. Geological Reports, - - - - - - - 185 3. Fossil Fishes, - - - - - - - - 198 4, 5, 6. Fossil Fishes in Virginia—Analysis of the scales of the fossil Gavial of Caen, in Normandy-—Interesting Fossils found in Louisiana, - - - - - - - 201 7, 8. Sienitic Granite, near Christiana, Norway——New locality of Tourmaline, - - - - - = - - 204 General Physics and Chemistry. 1. Notice of a splendid Aurora of 1789, - 2 - - 204 2. Transmission of Galvanic light through metals of different conducting powers, - = = = iB = - 205 3. On a new pyrogenic acid, - = e = s - 206 4, 5. On the non-existence of a compound of Platinum and Hy- drogen—Sixth satellite of Saturn, - - - - 207 6. Meteorological Register for 1836, kept at Montreal, Lower Canada, - - - 2 : = = t - 208 7, 8. Oil of the Tutui or Candle Nut Tree—Aerolites. - - 209 9. New Magnetical discoveries, - - = = 2 - 210 Bibliography. 1. This Journal, - - - - - t - 211 2, 3. Prof. Agassiz’ great work on Fossil Fishes—Prof. Agassiz on the Echinodermata, - - - - - - 212 4. Statistical Tables of Massachusetts, - - - - 213 as CONTENTS. Vv 5, 6. Morton’s Crania Americana—Annals of the Lyceum of . _ Natural History of New York, - - Pei ie - 214 7. Description of new species of Mollusca and Shells, with re- marks on several Polypi, é&c., found in Massachusetts Bay, 216 8, 9, 10. Third American Edition of Bakewell’s Geology—Olm- sted’s Natural ee eta: Gare Report of the Geology of Maine, - - - - - - - - 219 Inielligence. 1. Return of the Bonite from a voyage around the world, 219 Oxnituary—The Hon. Nathaniel Bowditch, - - - 220 NUMBER II. ArT. I. Description of a Crustaceous Animal, belonging to the - genus Caligus—C. Americanus; by Cuarues Picker- inc, M.D. and James D. Dana, -. 225 II. On the Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837: By Prof F. A. P. Barnarp, - - - - - 267 lil. On the Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle in different parts of the United States; by Prof. Eras Loomis, - - - - - - - 290 IV. On the Latitude and Longitude of Yale College Obrer: vatory; by Prof. Ex1as Loomis, — - - - - 309 V. Notice of Warwickite, a new mineral species; by Prof. CuarLes UpHam Sueparp, M.D. - - - = eile VI. Considerations upon the Nature of the Vegetables that have covered the surface of the Earth, at different epochs of its formation; by Mons. Apotpur Brone- NIART. ‘Translated from the French, by R. W. Has- KINS, - - - - - - = - - 315 VII. Notice of a second locality of Topaz in Connecticut, and of the Phenakite in Massachusetts; by Prof. Cuar.es Upuam Sueparp, M.D. - - - - - 329 VIII. Chemical Analysis of Meteoric Iron, from Claiborne, Clarke County, Alabama; by Cuarues T. Jackson, 332 IX. Table of Greek Correlatives, accompanied with explana- tions; by Prof. Jostan W. Gisss, - - - - 307 * Vi CONTENTS. X. First Annual Report on the Geological Survey of the State of Ohio, reviewed, me - - - XI. Researches in Magnetic Electricity and new Magnetic Electrical Instruments; by Cuartes G. Pacz, M. D. MISCELLANIES. 1. Synopsis of a Meteorological Journal kept in the city of New York for the year 1837, including the average results of the last five years; by W.C. RepFieLp, = - - - - 2, 3. Notice of a Bramah Press attached to the eyes of certain fishes—Maynard’s Catalogue of Mathematical and Philoso- phical books, - - - - - = Z 4. New Trilobites, - - ° - iu i 2 ie 5, 6. Substitute for Emery—Temperature of the Saco River, 7. Asphaltic Mastic, or Cement of Seyssel, - - - - 8. Rafinesque’s Botanical Works, - - ~ - 9. Wonders of Geology, in two Vols. ae with numerous plates and wood cuts, = - ° 455 - 10, 11, 12. Report accompanying tie Map of the extremity of Cape Cod, Mass.—Prodromus of a Practical Treatise on the Mathematical Arts--Hydrogen gas ina lead pipe, used as an aqueduct, - - - - - - = < = 13. Bituminization of peat and conversion into coal, - - 14. Denial of a charge of plagiarism, - us 2 é fi 15, 16. Gold in Georgia—Yale Natural History Society, - 17, 18. Meteoric Shower in April—Improvements in magnetical apparatus, - - - - - - - - - 19. Meteorological Society of London, - - etl - 20. London Electrical Society and Annals of Electricity, Mag- netism and Chemistry, &c., - - - - - 21, 22. Columbite and tin-ore at Beverly, Mass. —Geological and other reports, 5 - - 4 3 - ts = Page. 347 364 373 376 377 381 383 386 387 393 395 396 397 398 400 401 402 mee Ee ACY AY, Page 70, 1.12 fr. top, for Lebois read Seboois.—P. 72, 1. 5 fr. bot. for Kennebunk read Kennebeck.—P. 204, 1. 9 fr. top, for Sebertan, read Silurtan.—Iin a part of the impression, the drawing on p. 206 was accidentally inverted. The writer of the article, “‘extracted from the Diary of a Naturalist,” and pub- lished in the October number of the Journal for 1836, has since discovered several mistakes, which he wishes to correct. On page 1 it is stated, that the “first steam- boat built on the western waters was the Washington’’—he has since ascertained that a small boat was built some years before at Brownsville, and went down the river, but did not return: the Washington was built at Wheeling, Va. On page 64 it is stated, that Cols. Williamson and Crawford were engaged in the massacre of the Christian Indians at Gnadenhutten, which is a mistake as regards Col. Craw- ford, and probably arose from the fact of his being engaged with Col. Williamson in the affair at Sandusky plains in May following, where he lost his life. Colonel — Crawford was a humane and excellent man, and abhorred that wicked transaction. The “legend of Brady’s hill,” at page 20, he is sorry to say, he fears has been con- founded with some other adventure, as Capt. Brady's descendants affirm that he was never a prisoner to the Indians. Feb. 2, 1838. NOTICE. TO OUR READERS AND FRIENDS. Since the name of my son now appears for the first time, as assistant Editor of this Journal, I beg leave to mention him in that character, while I indulge a hope that he will endeavor, in that relation, as well as all others, to recommend himself to the confi- dence of the wise and good. More it is not necessary to say ; and it remains to be seen, how far he will honor the trust thus reposed in him, in reference to the editorial and professional duties to which he is now devoted. B. Smrman. New Haven, April, 1838. WABRICAN 2S” JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. hg Arr. I.—Seventh Meeting of the British Nose for the Ad- vancement of Science. [Concluded from Vou. xxxut. p. 296.] Waves.—Mr. Russell had made in September, 1836, a series of observations on the River Dee, below Chester, where that river has a form and dimensions admirably suited to the purpose. It appears, that for more than five miles in length, the banks of the - Dee are perfectly straight, quite parallel to one another, while the depth of the channel at low. water is nearly. uniform throughout the whole of that length. Now, in this river there is a tidal wave of from six to fifteen feet, lanai, in fact, a tidal canal of large dimensions. On this part of the river the first series of observa- -tions was made ; a second was made upon the River Clyde; and a third on the waves at the surface of the sea: and the series has been terminated by a course of experiments made in artificial channels of different forms, for the purpose of determining the nature of the mechanism of the generation and propagation of waves, so as to determine the identity of their nature with the tidal wave. It appears that there exists a species of wave different from all the others, and which Mr. Russell calls “The Great Primary Wave of Translation,” which is generated whenever an addition is made to the volume of a quiescent fluid, in such a manner as to affect simultaneously the whole depth of the fluid, and this species of wave is exactly of the same nature as the tide wave. In a rec- tangular channel this primary wave moves with the velocity which Vou. XXXIV.—No. 1. 1 2 British Association Jar the Advancement of Science. a heavy body would acquire in tue through half the depth of ‘the fluid, so that ‘In achannel about 4 inches deep, the velocity of the wave is nearly 2 miles an hour. | OMDNA AF WW dO Sle | o (o) > a o ic) tS LL Tt Te ete It also appears that the piecilils of the channel, when the depth is given, does not at all affect the velocity or form of the wave ; and Mr. Russell then proceeded to assign a general rule, by oe of which the velocity of the wave might be assigned a priort for a channel of any form, however irregular. ‘The manner in which the wave was observed, was by succes- sive reflections from opposite surfaces, so as to make it pass and repass a given station of observation, the interval being noted by an accurate chronometer; and it was stated, that im many cases, above sixty transits of the same wave had been observed, so as to give a high deere of accuracy to the observations. 'The instant of the wave’s transit had been observed by the reflection of a lu- minous image, thrown down by a series of mirrors, so as to cross micrometer wires with perfect precision. For a mode of deter- mining the length of the wave, Mr. Russell acknowledged him- self indebted to Prof. Stevelly, of Belfast. These observations, having determined the laws of the propa- gation of waves on a small experimental scale, were then extended to the analogous phenomena of the great tidal wave. In his observations on the River Dee, Mr. Russell found that the tide wave followed precisely the same laws as those in his experimen- tal channel; that its velocity was exactly proportioned to the square root of the depth of the fluid, that its form changed in the same manner, and the existence of the same law was sufticient to account for the different rate of propagation of different tides be- tween two given places, because a tide of fifteen feet deep would British Association for the Advancement of Science. 3 travel from one place to another at the rate of fifteen miles an hour, while one of ten feet deep would proceed at the rate of only twelve miles an hour ; so that if the places were thirty miles apart, the one would receive the former tide two hours later, and the latter tide two and a half hours later than the other. The crea- tion of a tidal Bore in some places was also accounted for on the same principles; and it was evident, that the means of improving the navigation of tidal rivers might be Bast agiony deduced pom these principles. Similar observations had been made on the tidal wave of the River Clyde, which was found to move in strict conformity with the laws of the great wave of translation, as determined by Mr. Russell’s previous experiments. Magnetical Observatory at Dublin. _The Magnetical Observa- . tory now in progress at Dublin, is situated in an open space in the gardens of Trinity College, and sufficiently remote from all dis- turbing influences. 'The building is forty feet in length, by thirty in depth. It is constructed of the dark-colored argillaceous lime- stone, which abounds in the valley of Dublin, and which has been ascertained to be perfectly devoid of any influence on the needle. This is faced with Portland stone ; and within, the walls are to be studded, to protect from cold and damp. No iron whatever will be used throughout the building. With reference to the materi- als, Prof. Lloyd mentioned, that in the course of the arrangements now making for the erection of a Magnetical Observatory at Green- wich, Mr. Airy had rejected bricks in the construction of the building, finding that they were in all cases magnetic, and some- times even polar. Mr. Lloyd has since confirmed this observation, by the examination of specimens of bricks from various localities ; and though there appeared to be great diversity in the amount of their action on the needle, he met with none entree free from such influence. The building consists of one principal room, and two smaller rooms,—one of which serves as a vestibule. The principal room is thirty-six feet in length, by sixteen in breadth, and has projec- tions in its longer sides, which increase the breadth of the central part to twenty feet. This room will contain four principal instru- ments, suitably supported on stone pillars: viz. a transit instru- ment, a theodolite, a variation instrument, and a dipping circle. The transit instrument (four feet in focal length, ) will be stationed 4 British Association for the Advancement of Science. close to the southern window of the room. In this position it will serve for the determination of the time; and a small trap-door in the ceiling will enable the observer to adjust it to the meridian. The theodolite will be situated toward the other end of the room, and its centre will be on the meridian line of the transit. The limb of the theodolite is twelve inches in diameter, and. is read off by three verniers to ten seconds. Its telescope has a focal length of twenty inches, and is furnished with a micrometer reading to a single second, for the purpose of observing the dzwrnal variation. The variation instrument will be placed in the magnetic merid- ian, with respect to the theodolite, the distance between these in- struments being about seven feet. The needle is a rectangular bar, twelve inches long, suspended by parallel silk fibres, and inclosed in a box to protect it from the agitation of the air. The magnetic bar is furnished with an achromatic lens at one end, and a cross of wires at the other, after the principle of the collimator. This will be observed with the telescope of the theodolite, in the usual manner; and the deviation of the line of collimation of the” collimator from the magnetic axis will be ascertained by reversal. The direction of the magnetic meridian being thus: found, that of the true meridian will be given by the transit. It is only neces- sary to turn over the transit telescope, and, using it also as a collimator, to make a similar reading of its central wire, by the telescope of the theodolite. 'The angle read off on the limb of the theodolite is obviously the supplement of the variation. This use of the transit has been suggested by Dr. Robinson; and it is anticipated that much advantage will result from the circumstance, that the two extremities of the arc are observed by precisely the same instrumental means. With this apparatus it is intended to make observations of the absolute variation twice each day, as is done in the observatory of Prof. Gauss, at Gottingen,—the course of the diurnal variation, and the hours of maxima and minima, having been ascertained by a series of preliminary observations with the same instrument. A dipping circle constructed by Gambey, will be placed on a pillar at the remote end of the room; and will be furnished with a needle, whose axis is formed into a knife-edge, for the purpose of observing the diurnal variations of the dip. Gauss’s large ap- paratus will also be set up in the same room, and will be used occasionally, especially in observations of the absolute intensity, British Association for the Advancement of Science. 5 made according to the method proposed by that distinguished phi- losopher. ‘The bars are too large to be cmnplonett in conjunction with other magnetical apparatus. It is intended to combine a regular series of mnbteoralosiasl ob- servations, with those on the direction and intensity of the terres- trial magnetic force just spoken of ; and every care and precaution has been adopted in the construction of the instruments. Tn conclusion, Mr. Lloyd said, that he felt it a duty to allude to the liberality and zeal in the cause of science, which had been evinced by the Board of Trinity College on this occasion. The probable expense of the building and instruments is estimated at 1000/. ; and that sum was immediately allocated to the purpose, when. it appeared that the interests of science were likely to be benefited by the outlay. Mr. Peacock congratulated the Seeniant upon the prospect held out to the scientific world, of having fixed magnetical observato- ries erected in such places as would afford the surest promise of successful co-operation, particularly when they would be placed under the superintendence of gentlemen so eminently qualified for the task as Prof. Lloyd. He informed the Section, that an obser- vatory for magnetical observations had been erected at Greenwich, and that little doubt need be entertained of the rapid advances which the interesting investigations connected with this important science would now receive.—Mr. Ettrick conceived, that bricks would be a very improper material for the construction of a mag- netical observatory. He considered the use of metals in any part of the building as highly objectionable ; even copper, as fasten- ings, or hingés to doors, would not be free from injurious effect. He made some inquiries as to the mode of reading off, proposed by Prof. Lloyd.—Prof. Stevelly said, that Mr. Ettrick was unques- tionably right in the objection urged against the use of bricks, but Prof. Lloyd had distinctly stated, that bricks were not to be used, and that experiments had been made to ascertain the precise mag- netical influence, if any there was, of the kind of stone which it was proposed to use. It was well, however, that Mr. Ettrick’s ob- servations should go abroad, for the guidance of persons not con- versant with these subjects. Bricks, when built into large edifices, such as the chimneys of factories, were well known to have ac- quired magnetic polarity: the material from which they were made must be largely impregnated with iron: the mud of rivers 6 British Association for the Advancement of Science. was the detritus from hills, whose rocks were often highly mag- netic. The engineers employed on the trigonometrical survey of Ireland, had erected a mound of stones composed of basalt, to sustain the signal-staff which they had erected on the highest hill, near Belfast: the effect of that heap of stones on the magnetic needle was so great, that in walking round it, the needle would veer round to every point of the compass. Electro-Magnetic Currents.—M. de la Rive then read. a paper ‘On the Interference of the Electro-magnetic Currents.’ This distinguished foreigner addressed the Section in the French lan- guage. After a brief réswmé of the known properties of electro- magnetic currents, he adverted to some new results at which he had arrived in studying them. He remarked, that in chemical decomposition effected by these currents, the individual force of each was greater the more rapidly they succeeded each other ; so that, to decompose a given quantity of water, it becomes neces- sary to have a number of these currents, so much the greater as the succession is less rapid- There is, however, a limit, beyond which the force of the currents is not augmented by any further augmentation of the rapidity of the succession. When plates of platina are employed, instead of wires, in the decomposition of water, the decomposition ceases to take place when the surface of contact of the metal with the liquid surpasses a certain limit. Nevertheless, the current, far from diminishing in intensity, be- comes, on the contrary, more intense,—as is shown by the indica- tions of a metallic thermometer,—the helix of which, placed in the current, furnishes a measure of its calorific energy. As soon as the surfaces of contact are of such magnitude that decomposi- tion is no longer effected, the thermometer reaches a maximum, which it does not pass, even when the surfaces of contact are aug- mented. This fact seems to prove, that chemical decomposition produced by electrical currents takes place only when these cur- rents undergo a certain resistance in their passage from the metal into the liquid; and that, when this resistance does not exist, de- composition ceases. When we employ wires of platina to trans- mit the magneto-electric currents into a solution of any kind, whether acid, saline, or alkaline, we, at first, observe an abundant evolution of gas; then this disengagement diminishes, and at the end of fifteen or twenty minutes it altogether disappears. When we examine these metallic wires, we find them covered with a British Association for the Advancement of Science. 7 very fine powder, composed of platina in the metallic state, but extremely divided. ‘The same phenomenon takes place with gold, palladium, silver, &c. All these metals are covered, in the same manner, with a very fine coating of the metal itself, in a state of extreme subdivision. 'The author has assured himself that this powder was composed of the metal itself, and not an oxide or a suboxide. He inquired whether this effect is the result of the mechanical shocks that the molecules of the metal undergo by the action of these currents, which are discontinuous, and alternately in opposite directions; and whether it would not be augmented by the succession of oxidations and deoxidations, which would occur on the surface of the wires. He concluded by stating, that he had observed that the armatures of soft iron (about which the metallic wires are coiled, in which the currents are developed by induction, ) cease to be attracted by the poles of the magnets, be- fore which they pass when the two ends of the wire in which the current is developed are united by one good metallic conductor; a fact which would seem to prove that Magnetism and Dynamical Hlectricity are, in these cases, but two different forms of the same force, one of which disappears when the other becomes apparent ; and he insisted on the advantage that we might derive from this property in the production of motion by electro-magnets. Clearness of the Air.—Prof. Lloyd said that the distinctness and vividness with which distant objects were seen in some states of the atmosphere was quite astonishing : on one occasion he had seen from the neighborhood of Dublin the Welsh hills from their very bases, and brought so near, apparently, that he could abso- lutely see the larger inequalities of the surface upon the sides of the mountains. ‘That the atmosphere was at the time very much loaded with vapor in a highly transparent state, was obvious from the fact, that immediately after a very heavy fall of rain took place, and continued for a considerable time.—Prof. Stevelly wished to confirm what had fallen from Prof. Lloyd and M. de la Rive by stating that whenever the Scotch hills appeared with peculiar vividness and distinctness, from the Lough of Belfast, the fishermen always looked upon it as a sure precursor of heavy rain and wind. A friend had informed him that on one occasion he had noticed this appearance while standing on the beach at Holly- wood, and pointed it out to an old fisherman ; the old man imme- diately gave notice to all his friends to whom he had access, who 8 British Association for the Advancement of Science. instantly set about drawing up their boats and placing their small craft in more secure places ; early the next morning a violent storm came on, which did much damage upon the coast, to those who had not been similarly forewarmed. It might perhaps be accounted for by supposing that on these occasions the intervening air be- came actually converted into a large magnifying lens. Magnetic Intensity.—Determinations of the value of the ter- restrial intensity have been obtained at between forty and fifty widely scattered stations, principally in the southern hemisphere, where such determinations had been previously a great desider- atum. The number of separate determinations collected in this Report exceeds six hundred, and the number of stations falls a little short of five hundred. They are the work of twenty-one observers, and of these the observations of seven have been hitherto unpub- lished. Beer.—Mr. Black communicated a paper ‘On the Influence of Electricity on the processes of Brewing.’ ‘According to his state- ments, a thunder-storm not only checks the fermentation of worts, but even raises the gravity of the saccharine fluid, and developes in itan acid. ‘This effect is witnessed principally when the fer- menting tun is sunk in moist earth, and may be obviated by pla- cing it upon baked wooden bearers, resting upon dry bricks or wooden piers, so as to effect its insulation. Mr. Black also stated, that during the prevalence of highly-electrified clouds, the fabri- cation of cast iron does not succeed so well as in other states of the atmosphere. : Electrical Relations.—Dr. Faraday cautioned Shes against considering electrical relations as affording, in every instance, con- clusive proofs of what is a base and what is an acid. Electrical Protection.—A letter was next read, addressed by Mr. Locke to Mr. W. W. Currie, of Liverpool, in which the latter was requested to propose as a question, to the philosophers assem- bled, whether, in the case of a monument one hundred and forty feet in height, erected on the summit of a mountain fourteen hun- dred feet high, augmented safety or danger would be the conse- quence of attaching to it a conductor or paratonnerre. The col- umn is sandstone, the mountain conglomerate, and in the vicinity of the latter there is a mountain of still greater elevation. It was resolved, that this letter should be, pro forma, put into the hands British Association for the Advancement of Science. 9 of Mr. Snow Harris, though no doubt whatever was felt as to the answer which it would be proper to give to such an inquiry. The efficacy of the protectors of Franklin in every possible situation, provided they be constructed upon proper principles, and mounted in a suitable manner, is now universally admitted. Mining.—Mr. Tarlor, jun., stated, that, in the course of his experience in practical mining, he had observed certain conditions necessary for the profitable working of metals. In the oldest, or -scar limestone, he had observed that the miner was not remuner- ated ; but in newer lead measures he had a better chance of suc- cess, as in grits and shales. The best chance was in altered rocks. In Cardiganshire he had observed a remarkable case in a slaty rock: where very schistose, the workings were poor; but where the rock was diced, as the workmen call it, they were certain to be rich: the strike of the altered rock being N. and S., and that of the veins EK. and W. He had seen remarkable proofs of the mechanical theory in North Carolina, especially in the rich veins of iron ore in that country. Mr. Sedgwick remarked, that fissures caused. by crystallization were, in general, very small; and. that joints seldom coincided with rents ;—that in districts where gran- ite approaches slate rocks, we may be certain of finding the rich- est metalliferous deposits. Catastrophe in a Mine.—Mr. Sodowick requested the attention of the meeting to an account, which he was about to submit, of the late unfortunate accident at the Workington Colleries. He pointed out, on the geological map, the rocks which occur in that neighborhood, and stated some of the phenomena of the stratifi- cation of the coal measures, which are there very much disturbed. There is an anticlinal line, on the opposite sides of which the strata dip differently, so that, in one place, very important beds of coal crop out under the sea. Workings, quite submarine, have ac- cordingly been carried on for some time: in the Isabella pit, a depth of one hundred and thirty-five fathoms under high water has been reached. A culpable want of caution has been shown by the managers of late, as they have caused the workings to reach too near the sea—even within fourteen fathoms of it; and the pillars and roof of the older works had been taken away, by which the danger was greatly increased. ‘There had been re- peated warnings from the shrinking of the ground, and from an old work having become filled with water ;—also in the new Vou. XXXIV.—No. 1. 2 10 British Association for the Advancement of Science. workings—although the pumping brought up one thousand gal- lons per minute, the miners were in such danger of being drown- ed, that several left the employment. In the latter end of July, the sea at length broke in, filling the mine in all its parts, in little more than two hours, and destroying twenty miles of railway. On one side of the Camperdown dyke, which ranges through the mine, not a soul was saved, but several escaped from other parts ; and one individual, an Irishman, called Brennagh, had not only a re- markable escape himself, but saved three others by his intrepidity. Prof. Sedgwick related to the Section this man’s story, which was so singular, and told with such a mixture of the serious and ludi- crous—often in the language of the man himself—that it is i1m- possible to convey to the reader an idea of the effect produced on the audience. A remarkable fact in the escape of one of the in- dividuals rescued by Brennagh was, that he was actually blown up the last open shaft of the mine by the enormous force of the air, the noise of which was heard at a considerable distance in the country. The first notice to Brennagh of the accident, was an unusual undulation of air in the galleries, which made him sus- pect that all was not right, and he took the precaution of moving near to an air passage in the dyke, which he had been permitted to use: he was thus enabled to save himself and his companions. At the suggestion of the Professor, a subscription was made in the Section for Brennagh, which amounted to 34. Intestinal Worms.—Dr. Richardson communicated a paper from Dr. Bellingham, on the frequency of the occurrence of Trz- chocephalus dispar in the alimentary canal. The author alluded to the difficulty of accounting for the origin of animalculee in the human body. ‘To say that they were secreted or not secreted by the tissues of the body, was premature, as we knew so little of secretion itself. Although in some instances parasitic animals produced injurious consequences to the animal they infested, yet in many others no injury was experienced. The Trichocephalus was found in the majority of human beings, but produced no ill consequences. ‘The genus belonged to the division Nematoidea of Rudolphi, and contained eight species. The T'richocephalus dispar was mostly found in the cecum, but sometimes occupied the colon and small intestines. It had been found at Gottingen in those who died of fever, and at Naples in those who died of cholera; and was there supposed to be the cause of that frightful British Association for the Advancement of Science. 11 disease. Baillie and Bostock had stated it to be rare, whilst French and German anatomists had pronounced it rege: in the generality of the human species. ‘The author states, from his own experience, that out of twenty-eight individuals he had opened, who had died of various diseases, and varied in age and sex—the youngest being fourteen—he had found the Tvichoce- phalus dispar in twenty-five. Dr. Richardson added, that in the lower -‘mammalia and in fish, the ceca were frequently found filled, in some literally crammed with Botryocephali, ranging from a yard to a yard and a half in length ; and what was remarkable, the animals appeared to be as Reage and vigorous as if they were not infested. Plants growing under Glass.—In April last, Dr. Daubeny in- troduced into globular glass vessels, their aperture being covered with bladders, three several sets of plants. In the first were Se- dum, Lobelia, &c.; m the second, Primula, Alchemilla, &c: ; in the third, Armeria, Sempervivum, &c. At the end of ten days the plants were healthy, and had grown. The air in the jars was examined, when it was found that the first had four per cent. more oxygen than the atmosphere, the second also four per cent. more, and the third one per cent. more. ‘This was the result of examination during the day, but at night the excess of oxygen had disappeared. On the eleventh day, the first jar contained two per cent., the second and third one per cent. excess of oxy- gen. At night there was less oxygen than in the atmosphere. On the 20th of June the following results were obtained : in first jar, two anda half per cent., in second jar, three and a quarter per cent., and in third jar, four per cent. less oxygen than in atmos- pheric air. . Some experiments were then made to determine the rate of access of air to the plants through the bladder, and it was found that when the jars were filled with oxygen, the average rate at which it escaped till the internal air was like that of the atmosphere, was eleven per cent. daily. Prof. Lindley then read a paper by Mr. Ward on the same sub- ject. ‘The Professor observed, that Mr. Ward, of Wellclose Square, London, had made many experiments on the subject of keeping plants in unventilated vessels, and was the original proposer of the plan for preserving plants in this manner. The discovery of their being able to be thus preserved, was of great practical importance, as it enabled us to bring plants from foreign climates, that could 12 ~~ British Association for the Advancement of Science. ‘in no other way be introduced into this country. The paper commenced, “Consider the lilies how they grow.” The atten- tion of the author was first directed to this point by accident. He had placed under an inverted jar a chrysalis, and on looking at it some time after, he found a fern and a blade or two of grass had grown under the jar, the sides of which appeared to be cov- ered with moisture. ‘Taking the hint, he introduced some plants of Hymenophyllum under a jar, which grew and flourished in this situation. "The Messrs. Loddige then enabled him to per- form some experiments on a larger scale. ‘The plants were en- closed in glass cases, or small green-houses, made tight with paint and putty, but, of course, not hermetically sealed, and were wa- tered once in five or six weeks. From his experimenis, the au- thor came to the following conclusions :—F rst, that confining the air secured a mere equable temperature for plants, as its expan- sion and contraction by change of external temperature, by its re- lation to heat in those states, prevented any great or sudden change. This was remarkably exemplified in some plants that were brought from India, which were in the course of three months success- ively exposed to 20°, 120°, and 40° of Fahrenheit. The enclo- sed plants were very frequently found surrounded by a tempera- ture higher than the external atmosphere. Secondly, that vascu- lar plants required to be grown in a greater quantity of air than cellular. Thirdly, that light must be freely admitted. Fourthly, that the enclosed air must be kept humid. ‘This can be done by occasional watering, provided any means of escape for the water is allowed, but is not necessary where the water has no means of escape. Besides the advantage of enabling us to bring plants from abroad, it would also furnish to the physiological botanist the means of observing those operations of nature in his study, for which, before, he had been obliged to resort to the forest and the plain. Asan instance, the author had been enabled to observe the rapid growth of a Phallus fetidus, by merely devoting to it a few hours of the night. The writer concluded by suggesting that this mode of preserving tropical productions might be ex- tended from the vegetable to the animal kingdom. Prof. Lindley also read a letter from the Messrs. Loddige to Mr. Ward, stating that in every case in which his instructions had been attended to, foreign plants had arrived in a state of safety. British Association for the Advancement of Science. 13° The Rev. J. Yates read a paper on the same subject. Wish- ing, he observed, to make an experiment, on a large scale, which might be exhibited at the meeting of the British Association in Liverpool, a green-house, nine feet. by eighteen in dimensions, and with a southern aspect, had been erected in the yard of the Mechanics’ Institute, in Mount-street. It was stocked with for- eign plants of all kinds, to the number of about eighty species. A list of the plants, and observations on their condition and pro- gress, accompanied the report. ‘The general result of the exper- iment was, that the plants had flourished perfectly well, being in a vigorous and healthy state, without any extraordinary growth.. Many of them had flowered, and Canna and some Ferns had ri- pened seed. ‘The green-house had no flue, and no provision for any artificial heat. It was judged best to construct it without a flue, both as least expensive, and for the purpose of trying, by a fair experiment, to what.extent plants might in this state be kept alive, even during the severity of winter, which would certainly die if fresh air were more freely admitted. It was also to be ob- served, that nothing had been done to prevent the water from es- caping through the yellow sandstone rock, on which the green- house was erected, and hence it had been necessary to give the plants occasionally a fresh supply of water. Mr. Yates further stated, that he had also grown plants under glass in London, where no plant could be made to flourish without such a protection. Nearly a year ago he planted Lycopodium denticulatum in a chem- ical preparation glass, with a ground stopper. During that time the bottle has never been opened; yet the Lycopodium continues perfectly healthy, and has grown very much, although, for want of space, the form of the plant is distorted. Seeds which hap- pened to be in the soil have germinated, and Marchantia has grown of itself within the glass. .He also obtained a hollow glass slobe of eighteen inches diameter, and with an aperture sufficient to admit the hand for planting the specimens. A variety of Fems and Lycopodiums were then set in the soil, which was properly moistened with water. 'This having been done, the aperture was covered with sheet India-rubber, its attachment to the glass being made perfectly air-tight. No change of air could take place, except by percolation through the India-rubber, which was every day forced either outwards, as the air within the glass was heated and expanded, or inwards in the reverse circumstance ; these Ferns 14. British Association for the Advancement of Science. grew probably as well as they would have done in a green-house or hot-house. They were all foreign, and some of them requir- ing a great heat. Several had ripened seed. Mr. Gray stated, that he had grown Droseras under glass jars ; one circumstance with regard to them he thought worthy of re- mark, their leaves did not turn red, as is usual when exposed to the atmosphere. Prof. Graham observed, that although in Mr. Ward’s experiments atmospheric air had been admitted, he did not think it essential to the welfare of the plant. Plants grown in this manner only required a glass large enough to contain a sufficient quantity of air, to permit of the absorption of oxygen without deteriorating the air of the vessel to such an extent as to injure the plant. The want of red in the leaves of Drosera, he thought, depended on the presence of moisture. A singular point was, that plants growing naturally in arid soils and climates, flour- ished in the humid and confined atmosphere of the closed jars. He had placed under jars completely closed some plants of Cacti, which had flourished more than those not so situated. He did not think that animals could be sustained in the same manner, as they consumed all the oxygen which they inspired.—Dr. Tra- vers remarked, that he had seen common mould, which was a species of fungus, in a tube which had been heated and hermeti- cally sealed for two years.—Mr. Bowman had observed at the Duke of Devonshire’s, Chatsworth, that Droseras did not under the jars change the color of their leaves as in open air. He wished to know of Dr. Graham, how long his Cacti had lived in a moist atmosphere ; they were naturally at certain seasons of the year exposed to heavy rains. He thought it was very possible for plants and animals to live together.—Mr. Duncan inquired if plants were healthy, and fit to be transplanted to the open air when treated in this manner.—Professor Graham stated, that the Cacti had lived without access to air eighteen months. He believed that plants and animals might live together, provided the vessel in which they were inclosed was sufficiently large to enable the plants to absorb the carbonic acid gas expired by the animals. This would be a representation in miniature of what takes place in our own world.—Prof. Lindley, in reply to Mr. Bowman’s question, stated, that plants suffered little when con- fined in carefully closed vessels. From improper treatment they may become debilitated, but he had seen them arrive from for- British Association for the Advancement of Science. 15 eign countries, when treated in this manner, in the most perfect state of health. Want of skill in the management of those brought from abroad was the most frequent cause of injury. Too . much water was frequently given to plants when just packed. They had better be placed in too dry, than in too moist an atmos- phere. He had seen this illustrated in plants from India; plants exposed to too much moisture rotted very soon. He thought the change of color in the leaves of plants depended on their free ex- posure to light; the Droseras mentioned had not been exposed to the free access of light ; this was certainly the case with the Dro- seras at Chatsworth and of Mr. Gray. The discovery of Mr. Ward was not only important in enabling us to import foreign plants, but it also rendered the ventilation of green-houses less necessary, and would enable gardeners to manage the artificial climate of their hot-houses with less difficulty. "The fact that cellular plants grow best under this mode of- treatment, was well established.—In answer to a question from Prof. Lindley, Mr. Gray and Mr. Yates stated, that plants had both flowered and fruited under this plan of treatment.—Prof. Graham stated that the order in which he had found plants to grow best, was, A Ly- copodiums; 2. Grasses; and 3. Begonias. Railway Lron.—Mr. “Mushet made some observations on Rail- way lron, founded on experiments carried on for forty years. He expressed himself much surprised, that hitherto, in contracts for iron for railway purposes, fibre and hardness were not stipulated for, but were left to the chapter of accidents. Both these quali- ties might be attained by his method, the principal characteristic of which consisted in doing away with the refining process now in general practice, and the preventing the severe decarbonization to which the iron was at present exposed. Several specimens of iron, of extremely fine fibre and hardness, were laid before the Section, and afterwards removed to the Model Room. 'The great object of his process was, to obviate the evil of lamination. On some railroads they had been obliged to lay the iron two or three times; but he had little doubt, that it would soon be possible to obtain a solid rail without any exfoliation. Mr. Cottam mentioned, that he had known a piece of iron six inches thick, and considerably bent, to be quite straightened by blows, but, at the same time, to be greatly weakened ; and that he attributed this to some of its constituent crystals being driven 16 British Association for the Advancement of Science. into it, by the force of the blows, like so many Cai thereby weakening the strength of the iron. ; Electricity.—Prof. Henry then made a communication respect- ing the Lateral Discharge in common Electricity. The primary object of these investigations was to detect, if possible, an inductive action in common electricity, analogous to that discovered in a current of galvanism. For this purpose an analysis was instituted, of the phenomena known in ordinary electricity by the name of the lateral discharge. Prof. Henry was induced to commence with this from some remarks by Dr. Roget on the subject. The method of studying the lateral spark consisted in catching it on the knob of a small Leyden phial, and presenting this to an electrometer. ‘The result of the analyses was in accordance with an opinion of Biot, that the lateral dis- charge is due only to the escape of the small quantity of redun- dant electricity which always exists on one or the other side of a jar, and not to the whole discharge. - The Professor then stated several consequences which would flow from this ; namely, that we could increase or diminish the lateral action, by the several means which would affect the quantity of redundant, or as it may be called, free electricity, such as an increase of the thick- ness of the glass, or by substituting for the small knob of the jar a large ball. But the arrangement which produces the greatest effect, is that of a long fine copper wire insulated, . parallel to the horizon, and terminated at each end by a small ball. When sparks are thrown on this from a globe of about a foot in diame- ter, the wire, at each discharge, becomes beautifully luminous from one end to the other, even if it be a hundred feet long; rays are given off on all sides perpendicular to the axis of the wire. In this arrangement the electricity of the globe may be consid- ered nearly all as free electricity ; and as the insulated wire con- tains its natural quantity, the whole spark is thrown off in the form of a lateral discharge. But to explain this phenomenon more fully, Prof. Henry remarked, that it appeared necessary to add an additional postulate to our theory of the principle of elec- tricity,—namely, a kind of momentum, or inertia, without weight; by this he would only be understood to express the classification or generalization of a number of facts, which would otherwise be insulated. 'To illustrate this, he stated that the same quantity of electricity could be made to remain on the wire if gradually British Association for the Advancement of Science. 17 communicated; but when thrown on in the form of a spark, it is dissipated as before described. Other facts of the same kind were mentioned ; and also, that we could take advantage of the princi- ple to produce a greater effect in the decomposition of water by ordinary electricity. The fact of a wire becoming luminous by a spark, was noticed by the celebrated Van Marum more than fifty years ago, but he ascribed it to the immense power of the great Haarlem machine. The effect, however, can be produced, as be- fore described, by a cylinder of Nairn’s construction, of seven inches in diameter, a globe of a foot in diameter being placed in connexion with the prime conductor to increase its capacity. Some experiments were next described, in refer- ence to the induction of the lateral action of dif- ferent discharges on each other. When the long wire is arranged in two parallel, but continuous lines, by bending the wire, the outer side of each wire only becomes luminous; when formed into ) three parallel lines by a double bend, the middle portion of the wire does not become luminous, the outer sides only of the outer lines of wire exhibit the rays. When the wire is formed into a flat spiral, the outer spiral alone exhibits the lateral discharge, but the light in this case is very brilliant ; the inner Spirals appear to increase the effect by induction. Prof. Henry then stated, that a metallic conductor, intimately connected with the earth at one end, does not silently conduct the electricity, thrown in sparks, on the other end. In one ex- periment described, a copper wire, $th of an inch in diameter, was plunged at its lower end into the water of a deep well, so as to form as perfect a connexion with the earth as possible; a small ball being attached to the upper end, and sparks passed on to this from the globe before mentioned, a lateral spark could be drawn from any part of the wire, and a pistol of Volta fired, even near the surface of the water. This effect was rendered still more striking, by attaching a ball to the middle of the perpendicular part of a lightning rod, put up according to the directions given -by Gay-Lussac, when sparks of about an inch and a half in length were thrown on the ball; corresponding lateral sparks could be drawn not only from the parts of the rod between the ground and the ball, but, from the part above, even to the top of the rod. Vout. XX XIV.—No. 1. 3 18 British Association for the Advancement of Science. Some remarks were then made on the theory of thunder-storms, as given by the French writers, in which the cloud is considered as analogous in action to one coating of a charged glass, the earth the other coating, and the air between as the non-conducting glass. One very material circumstance has been overlooked in this theory,—namely, the great thickness of the intervening stra- tum, and the consequent great quantity of free or redundant elec- tricity in the cloud. This must modify the nature of the dis- charge from the thunder-cloud, and lead to doubt, if it be per- fectly analogous to the discharge from an ordinary Leyden jar, since the great quantity of redundant electricity must produce a comparatively greater lateral action; and hence, possibly, the ram- ifications of the flash, and other similar phenomena, may be but cases of the lateral discharge. Some facts were then mentioned, on the phenomena of the spark from a long wire charged with common or atmospheric electricity. It is well known that the spark in this case is very pungent, resembling a shock from a Leyden jar. The effect does not appear to be produced, as is generally supposed, by the high ~ intensity of the electricity at the ends of the wire by mere distri- bution, since this is incompatible with the shortness of the spark. In one experiment, fifteen persons Joining hands received a severe shock, while standing on the grass, from a long wire, one of the number only touched the conductor; the spark in this case was not more than a quarter of an inch long. Mr. Sturgeon was confident a well-constructed thunder rod would never be struck by lightning, as, upon the approach of an electrical cloud, it would silently discharge it into the earth.— Mr. Stevelly said, that unquestionably when the discharge was made directly upon the thunder rod, if well constructed, it would perform its office silently; but if a lateral discharge took place near it, the effect, as Prof. Henry showed, might be flashes of light and heat from the entire length of it, capable, when on a great scale, of setting fire to buildings, firmg gunpowder, and other effects hitherto unexpected.—Mr. Snow Harris expressed his regret, that he had not been in the room during the early part of Prof. Henry’s communication. In his opinion, the pressure of the air was an element in the phenomena not sufficiently attended. to. He had produced beautiful illuminating effects by discharg- ing electricity along a wire enclosed in an exhausted glass re- British Association for the Advancement of Science. 19 eeiver.—Mr. Adams confirmed the statements made by Prof. Henry as to the illuminating effects of the lateral discharge; he had once seen upon the discharge of a large electrical battery, a wire splendidly illuminated by the lateral discharge, and exhibit- ing the coruscations spoken of by Prof. Henry. Aurora in Summer.—Prof. Christie then made a communica- tion ‘on the occurrence of the Aurora Borealis in summer.’ | The occurrence of an aurora borealis in England, in the middle of summer, was, he believed, a phenomenon hitherto unrecorded. He then gave an account of several very striking exhibitions of this phenomenon, which he had observed during the last summer. One, on the 19th of May, 1837, presenting two bands of arches, radiating from the magnetic west, and extending nearly to the opposite horizon, was unaccompanied by streamers. Another, on the 24th June, exhibited the usual appearance of coruscation from the northern horizon, but no arches were visible. This aurora, which was the most singular from being observed in the very middle of summer, lasted from 11h. 46m. until 12h. 20m. P. M. Other auroras were observed on the Ist, 2nd, and 7th of July, and 25th of August. On the last occasion, the author noticed a sin- gular phenomenon, which he had, on one occasion many years previous, observed, namely, that the darkness usually attending an aurora appeared to break into the light above it. He noticed that, on the former occasion, he observed the darkness to rush through, and finally break up, two well-defined arches of white light; and recalled to the Section, that Capt. Back had described a very striking exhibition of a similar phenomenon, which he witnessed during his wintering at Fort Reliance. He particularly called attention to these and other phenomena, of the darkness exhibited in the aurora borealis, in connexion with the arches of light and the more brilliant coruscations. After recurring to other auroras which he had observed during the last summer, he inferred that it was probable that the aurora borealis was as frequently in activity In summer as during other seasons, though it might be less frequently visible. 'The author further stated, that during the last twelve months, no period of a month had elapsed without the exhibition, in the south of England, of one or more auroras; and pointed out the importance of inquiring into the cause of the now so frequent occurrence of a phenomenon, which some years back had been very rare. He concluded by expressing a 20 British Association for the Advancement of Science. hope, that observations of the highly interesting phenomena of the aurora would be entered upon by members of the British As- sociation, who might have more time at their command than his own avocations allowed him for such observations. | Mr. Stevelly stated, that the dark cloudy appearance during the - aurora was so characteristic, that on one or two occasions, having seen, just before sunset, these scattered black clouds, he was led to anticipate that an aurora would ensue, which accordingly man- ifested itself when it grew dark; and a friend, since he came to Liverpool, had boasted that he could unfailingly predict an au- rora on the evening of the night on which it was to occur. He had mentioned this to Prof. Christie, who said that his own ex- perience had been precisely similar.—Sir David Brewster said, that, by an analysis of the light of the aurora borealis, he had proved that it was direct light, and had never suffered either re- flection or refraction.—Sir. W. Hamilton inquired, whether Mr. Christie had taken any notice of the very remarkable aurora which occurred on the 18th of last February.—Prof. Christie said he had observed it. ‘The object, however, of his present communication, was to turn attention to the occurrence of the aurora in summer.—Mr. Snow Harris trusted that a wide line of distinction would be drawn between electrified luminous clouds and the true aurora. He also wished attention to be turned to the difference between magnetic needles when suspended in vacuo and in the open air. He had exhausted a very tall glass receiver, and by electrifying it, caused a very brilliant display re- sembling the aurora. ‘This notably affected a needle suspended near it in the open air; but a needle suspended in vacuo was not at all effected.—Mr. Abram had no doubt whatever, but that the aurora was a magneto-electrical effect ; and described an appara- tus which he had contrived in order to illustrate this. Mean temperature at Plymouth, England.—The mean tem- perature of two years, from 17,520 observations, is 52.90; that of five years, from 43,800 observations, is 52.45. New property of Light.—Sir David Brewster then gave an ac- count of a new property of light discovered by him. He ob- served, that his attention had lately been drawn to a very curi- ous, and, to him, entirely inexplicable property of light. While examining the solar spectrum formed in the focus of an achro- matic telescope, after the manner of Frauenhofer, he placed a thin British Association for the Advancement of Science. 21 plate of glass before his eye, in such a manner as.to intercept and retard one half of the pencil, which was entering his eye, by placing it before one half of the pupil. He was then surprised to find, that when the edge of the retarding glass plate was turned towards the red end of the spectrum, intensely black lines made their appearance, as might be expected, at such regular intervals, _as to represent the most exact micrometrical arrangement of wires; but upon turning the plate of glass half round, (still keeping its plane perpendicular to the axis of the eye,) so as to present the edge, past which the rays entered the eye, to the violet end of the spectrum, every one of those dark bands entirely disappeared. In the intermediate positions of that edge they appeared more or less distinct, according as the edge was more presented to the red, or to the violet end of the spectrum. A glass plate, one-thirtieth of an inch thick, gave these lines ; but the thinner the glass, the more intense was the blackness, and the more distinct the lines. They were formed in any part of the spectrum; but they were best seen when the rays were intercepted which lay between the two fixed lines A and D, of Frauenhofer. An examination of these lines afforded the very best means of determining the dis- persive powers of substances, for their distance from one another increases or diminishes, exactly as the entire length of the spec- trum is increased or diminished ; and the number of them in the same part of two spectra is always the same. Comparative Composition of Cast Iron prepared with the hot and the cold blast.—Dr. Thomson observed, that the specimens of cast iron examined, were all from iron smelted from the iron- stone in the Glasgow coal-field. This iron-stone is a carbonate of iron, more or less pure. The richest is known by the name of Mushet’s black band, which occurs in the neighborhood of Air- drie ; its specific gravity is 3.0553, and it is composed of Carbonate of iron, - - - 85.44 oe hime, - - - 5.94 ‘ of magnesia, - - 3.71 Silica, - - - - ~ 1.40 Alumina, - - - - - 0.63 Peroxide of iron, - - - 0.23 Coal, - - - - - 3.03 100.38 22 British Association for the Advancement of Science. In the poorest specimens of iron-stone, the carbonate of iron, amounts to only 29 per cent., but such specimens are rejected by the iron-masters. The ore is roasted to drive off the carbonic acid ; this, at an average, reduces the weight about 31 per cent. ; it is then mixed with limestone and coal, and smelted. When the Clyde iron-works were established, above forty years ago, ten tons of coal were requisite to produce one ton of iron. This coal was previously coked, by which rather more than half its weight was driven off under the form of gas, &c. By various improvements, the quantity of coal requisite was di- minished from ten tons to seven tons thirteen cwt., and the quan- tity of limestone requisite for smelting one ton of iron was ten and a half ewt. When hot air (or air heated to above 607°9,) was blown into the furnace instead of cold air, it was found that coal could be used without being coked, and the quantity re- quisite to smelt a ton of iron was reduced to two tons nineteen ewt.; the lime was reduced to seven cwt., and the produce of iron in a given time from a furnace was more than doubled. The reason of this superiority of hot air over cold seems to be, that when the hot air enters the furnace it is immediately united to the coal, and is all consumed ; whereas, the cold air partly passes" up through the materials, and produces, as it ascends, a scattered _and useless combustion. Hence, when hot air is introduced, the heat at the point of combustion is greater than when cold air is used, and hence, the smaller quantity of limestone requisite, and the greater produce in iron in a given time. The specific gravity of cold blast iron is lower than that of hot blast, the average of the former being 6.7034, and that of the latter 7.0623. The following table shows the composition of six specimens of cold blast iron from different localities :— Iron, . ., .. | 90.98 (90.29 91.38 89.442194.010 90.824 91,154 Copper, . SRO Te ec ite a WO ReOGl Go) cel ole era ce a leanne Manganese, . . | 7.14 | 2.00). -. | 0.626) 2.458) 2.037 Sulphur, Sat en emote NT CL DAUST Gi us Carbon, . . 7.40 | 1.706) 4.88) 3.600) 3.086 2.458) 3.855 Silicon’ i 0.46 | 0.830 1.10) 3.220) 1.006 0.450, 1.177 Aluminium, | 0.48 | 0.016). . | 3.776) 1.022 4.602) 1.651 Calcium | ee | ORO PS OE Oe ila Mln: (ofa eae sy cla lialee lb oct 0.340} . Magnesium, British Association for the Advancement of Science. 23 The constant constituents were iron, carbon, silicon, and alu- minium; and manganese was a pretty frequent ingredient. The average proportions were 3% atoms of iron and manganese, 1 do. of carbon, silicon, and aluminium. The atomic proportions of the carbon, silicon, and aluminium, were 4, 1, 1, so that cold blast cast iron may be considered as composed of 21 atoms iron and manganese, | | 4 do. carbon, — 1 do. silicon, 1 do. aluminium. The following table exhibits the composition of hot blast cast iron, No. 1 :— Clyde. Carron. {Carron.| Clyde. Clyde. Mean. | Iron, . . . . . |97.096)95.422)96.09 94.966 94.345)95.58 Manganese, . . . 0.332) 0.336) 0.41) 0.160) 3.120) 0.87 Careon, ere 2.460) 2.400) 2.48) 1.560) 1.416) 2.099 Dilicoms eh Ns. 0.280) 1.820) 1.49; 1.3822, 0.520) 1.086 Aluminium, . . . 0.385) 0.488} 0.26) 1.374) 0.599, 0.422 Magnesium, . oy Set Wath oxsliesyt ete Ot OZ lines ancl ash tes These constituents are in the proportion of 64 atoms iron and manganese, 1. do. carbon, silicon, and aluminium. Tron. Carbon, &c. In the cold blast we have 34 atoms a. 1 atom. In the hot blast 64 atoms + 1 atom. Thus, it appears, that hot blast iron contains only about half the foreign matter that exists in cold blast iron. Cast steel made from the best Dannemora iron, had a specific gravity of 7.8125. Its constituents were Tron, - - - - - - 99.288 Manganese, - - - - - 0.190 Carbon, - - - - - - 0.388 99.866 or it contained 55.7 atoms iron, 1 atom carbon. In reply to questions, Dr. Thomson stated, that he had made no experiments on the comparative composition of bar iron from 24 British Association for the Advancement of Science. pigs made with the cold and hot blast, and that he had not found any phosphorus in the specimens of cast iron whose analysis he he had detailed.—Mr. Tennant stated, that. the bar iron by the hot blast was equally tough, both hot and cold.—Mr. Guest in- quired of Mr. ‘Tennant, whether in the puddling, hot blast iron did not lose more than the cold blast iron: but to this no satisfac- tory answer was given.—Dr. Clarke contended, that as the impu- rities of cold blast iron are about double those of hot blast iron, it was impossible that, as suggested by Mr. Guest, this latter should undergo a greater waste in the process of refining. If such should be proved, he would consider it a chemical miracle. In continuation, Dr. Clarke observed, that manufacturers were too much in the habit of working by what he called the Rule of Thumb, and that, in particular, as the difference of the quantity of pig iron depended materially upon the heat employed, by not attending to this essential condition, iron-masters were lable to fall into erroneous conclusions as to the value of any particular improvement. Mr. Guest being called on by the President to speak to this point, stated distinctly, that he found the hot blast iron to, lose more in puddling than the cold; and he had the im- pression that it was of inferior quality.—Dr. Thomson asked, whether the iron referred to by Mr. Guest was, or was not, made from cinder; to which Mr. Guest replied, that in some cases it was, but that his observation in reference to the greater loss ex- perienced by hot blast iron in the refining surface was applicable to varieties in the manufacture of which cinder was not employed. —Professor Johnston expressed his surprise at the absence of phosphoric acid from the Glasgow iron, the more especially, as in the Newcastle coal-fieid phosphoric acid is abundant, and the nodules of clay iron-stone, which may be considered as coprolites, always, as is well known, include phosphoric acid. He also stated, that as specimens of hot and cold iron have frequently the same physical properties, it is very difficult to pronounce upon the relative value of these processes. ‘The white and black cast iron also may have the very same composition, and therefore the quality of iron must be referred to something totally extraneous to chemical constitution. In fact, quick or slow cooling will de- termine the pig to be of the one or the other color.—The President observed, that, though generally speaking, black iron may be considered as yielding the best malleable iron, this could not, British Association for the Advancement of Science. 25 with any probability, be ‘predicated of black cast iron got by the rapid cooling of the white variety, as suggested by Prof. Johns- ton.—Dr. Thomson stated, that cinder is a mixture of silicates of iron ; and subsequently expressed his conviction, that the qual- ity of iron, notwithstanding what had been alleged to the contra- ry, is chiefly dependent on its composition, and that if phosphorus, for example, or sulphur, were present, the metal could not be good. The same gentleman, in conclusion, decried the doctrine, which would place what was called the Rule of Thumb above what he considered a much more valuable guide—the Rule of Science. The action of Water upon Lead.—Mr. Pearsall brought under consideration the action of water upon lead. He commenced by a reference to the researches of Col. Yorke and Prof. Christison, which demonstrate ‘the corrosion of lead by pure water, though saline water does not dissolve it. (This fact was first noticed by Guyton Morveau.) The great object of his communication was to show, that rain water collected in leaden cisterns will dissolve the metal in considerable quantity, probably as hydrated oxide, but that, if such water be passed through a filter, or agitated with carbonaceous matter, it is altogether removed. ‘This point he es- tablished in the course of some investigations having a reference to certain disastrous cases of poisoning which have occurred re- cently at Hull. | Mr. Mallet stated, that, according to his experience, lead alone is corroded which contains cepper. ‘This opinion was combated on the ground, that all the lead of commerce includes copper. Col. Yorke also stated, on the other hand, that he had established that perfectly pure lead is corroded by water when it contains air ; that the calx is of a crystalline nature, and composed, according to his experiments, of carbonate united to oxide of lead. A gen- tleman, whose name we could not learn, stated, that the follow- ing experiment was instituted some years ago, and is still in pro- syess. Into three bottles, filled, the first with Thames water, the second with distilled water containing air, and the third with dis- tilled water deprived of air, three slips of lead were introduced, and the bottles hermetically sealed. The lead in the first has been acted upon; that in the second has been still more exten- sively corroded ; but that in the third continues perfectly bright Vou. XX XIV.—No. 1. 4A 26 British Association for the Advancement of Science. The oxidation of the lead is therefore, he concluded, obmioualy due to the oxygen of the air. Fossils with Coal.—Mr. Williamson explained seemitieg of sec- tions of the Lancashire coal district. He exhibited a number of beautiful drawings of organic remains, some of which are very singular; including vegetable fossils, and teeth of sauroid fish; but the most interesting were of fossil fish, which Mr. Williamson conceived to have a close resemblance to the recent salmon. In mentioning the coal strata of Wigan, he pointed out a remarkable seam of impure cannel under the Smith’s coal, which seam con- tains fresh-water shells. Some of his drawings represented Gro- niatites and Pecten papyraceus. He thought it very likely, along with some other geologists, that the different coal basins of Eng- land are parts of a great whole. He showed drawings of fish scales found in the coal strata. These have a close resemblance to the scales of recent fresh-water fish, and form an additional ar- gument in favor of the formation of coal beds originally in fresh- water lakes or estuaries—perhaps the latter, as he found also some shells, evidently marine. Mr. Sedgwick having stated that he would now receive the se servations of any one present upon these several papers on the coal strata, Mr. Phillips came forward, and spoke of the regularity of the fibrous structure of coal as forming an important cause of its cleavage—this regularity of cleavage enabling the practical miner to work it with more facility.—Sir Philip Egerton was requested by the President to give his opinion respecting the fish, supposed by Mr. Williamson to resemble the recent salmon; Sir Philip re- ferred to the arrangement of fish proposed by M. Agassiz, and to their geological distribution. ‘The salmon is ranged by that emi- nent naturalist, under the division of Cycloidal fish, and remains of these have not been discovered in any system below that of the chalk. ‘The fish delineated by Mr. Williamson might be re- -ferred to the genus Colopticus, and the teeth to Diplodus gibbo- sus. Dr. W. Smith remarked, that the specimens of coal exhib- ited by Mr. Pease would point out a mode by which coals could be touched without dirtying the fingers—what are technically called the top and bottom being the soiling sides, but the cross cleft is clean. 'The President said, it was a thin layer of mineral char- -coal that caused the soiling. British Association for the Advancement of Science. 27 Changes of Level—Mr. Smith, of Jordan Hill, made some observations on the changes of ieee of land and sea, that have last taken place, instanced by the occurrence of recent marine shells and gravel at various elevations. He mentioned the shores of the Solway Frith, and of Ayrshire, the neighborhood of Pais- ley: also Portrush in the northern part of Ireland, and the late observations of Mr. Lyell, in Sweden. The alluvial clay of the Forth is elevated sixty feet, that of Essea one hundred and fifty feet; indeed, recent shells have been found by Mr. Gilbertson in some places at an elevation of three hundred feet. On the shores of the Clyde, over a deposit of erratic blocks, is a stratum of shells, which contains fourteen new species not now found in the river ; this is a singular occurrence, as in other parts of Great Britain the erratic blocks overlie the newer Pleiocene strata, to which Mr. Smith refers this stratum. Silica in Plants.—Prof. Henslow stated, that he believed the object of the author was to prove, that all plants contained more or less silica; that the silica left after burning assumed different forms, according to the species of plants, and that this process might probably be applied to the investigation of the species of fossil plants. — Goliathus Magnus.—A specimen of the Goliathus magnus, was also exhibited. This is the largest species of insect known, measuring three or four inches in length, and one and a half in breadth. It is also very rare, only three specimens existing at the present time in the cabinets of Europe.- It was one of the rarest insects known. It had been offered for sale at the price of fifty guineas, and he had himself offered twenty guineas for a specimen. It belonged to the extensive family of the Cetonide. This family was one of the most extensive and best known groups of insects that we possessed, and afforded the best oppor- tunities for acquiring ideas of general arrangement. It contained six hundred species, only six of which were British. The fanny Buprestide, perbaps equalled them in numbers. Wood in the Sea.—The President then exhibited some wood from the new pier at Southampton, that had been attacked by the Limnoria terebrans. He had been applied to, by Capt. Du Cane, mayor of Southampton, for his opinion as to what was the best course to be pursued, as the existence of the pier was threatened by these devastating animals. He had recommended, that stone 28 British Association for the Advancement of Science. be substituted in the pier for wood. He believed that this was the only plan, for wherever wood was exposed to the gentle ac- tion of salt water, these crustaceous animals attacked it. They never attacked wood exposed to the more violent .action of the waves of the sea. ‘ The Rev. F. W. Hope stated, that a memoir had been publish- ed on this subject, in the last volume of the Transactions of the Entomological Society. He had recommended gas tar to be ap- plied over the wood, but as this would require renewing, it would in the end be as expensive as covering the wood with iron, he should therefore prefer the latter plan. He had heard, that Kya- nized wood was not attacked by white ants, and he thought it might be applied to prevent the attacks of these terebrating ani- mals. These remarks led to a general conversation on the sub- ject of preserving wood from the attacks of insects and crustacea, as well as the bottoms of vessels from the adhesion of plants. The President observed, that he had seen vessels with tons of algze, polypiferee, and other plants and animals, attached to their bottoms. Experiments were related, and observations made by Messrs. Francis, Hope, and Gray, and Prof. Henslow ; and Mr. Francis was requested by the President to draw up a paper on this important subject, to present to the Association at their next an- nual meeting. Mr. Francis stated, that sap-wood, exposed to the action of chloride of mercury, became as durable and fit for use as the heart-wood. Respiration.—Dr. Holland replied, that he had made cores experiments, and had invariably found that a series of deep inspi- rations did always bring to the lungs a larger quantity of blood than previously existed. The pulse, which before had only been seventy or seventy-five, became eighty-five, and in some cases ninety, and was proportionably debilitated. Setting aside all the- ory, two effects followed—change in the rapidity of the pulse, and in its force. He brought forward a theory to account for these effects. But, letting his own theory alone, it was quite clear that inspiration must have an effect on the circulation. Dr. Carson had also stated that air passed directly into the blood. He had never heard this opinion before. All they were acquainted with was, that air was so inspired that a certain change was effected by it in the blood. By chemical investigation they found that the carbonie acid gas, which was exhaled, existed as carbon pro- British Association for the Advancement of Science. 29 fusely in the blood, and united with the oxygen inspired ; hence they had carbonic acid. Dr. Carson had stated still further, that sighing improved the circulation. He had -paid considerable at- tention to this, and he could not say that it improved it except in one way, and that was, it occasionally gave freer play to the lungs. They saw persons after being interested in any story almost sus- pend their breath, or, in other words, forget to breathe ; and as soon as the interest of the story terminated there was a very deep inspiration, which relieved the blood in the chest. But he was satisfied, that a series of inspirations did not invigorate the system. Dr. Carson had also stated that the blood was not facilitated in its return by inspiration. Experiments had frequently been perform- ed which proved this. Dust in the Lungs.—Dr. Macintosh read a communication from a medical student, on a disease of the lungs caused by the deposition of particles of dust. It would contribute, he observed, towards the elucidation of that class of diseases affecting artisans, which had, in a more systematic form, been treated by Mr. 'Thack- rah. In the neighborhood of Edinburgh were many stone-quar- ries, and the workers in which not unfrequently died from con- sumption. A mason, a worker in the Craigleith-quarry, was ill; he was bled and treated for a common cold, recovered, and re- turned to his work. A short time afterwards he was again taken ill, and, two years after the first attack, he died. During his ill- ness percussion afforded a dull sound; on the right side the steth- oscope indicated no respiratory murmur; on the left a puerile rale. After death, the lungs presented a black appearance ; 20 oz. of fluid were found in the right side, and 4 oz. in the left; there was no membrane, the pleura being fibrous, which was rare. Dr. Alison stated he had only seen this state once, being on the pleura and cardiac portion of this kind of membrane ; both lungs were completely studded with black tubercles, as if they were melanotic, and cut like cartilage. Similar projections were on the pleura, and the bronchial glands were long and hard, grating when cut with the scalpel, owing to a cretaceous secretion like bone. The analysis of this cretaceous matter showed it to be principally the carbonate of lime. In the bronchial glands were carbonate of lime, silica, and alumina. He directed particular attention to this analysis, for Dr. William Gregory has published an account of the Craigleith-quarry stone, and the analysis of this stone gave 30 =©British Association for the Advancement of Sctence. the same ingredients as those found in the lungs of the workman. Dr. Gregory found in the stone carbonate of lime, silica, and alu- mina. The deduction must necessarily be, that this (pointing to a preparation of the lungs which he exhibited) must be an abso- lute deposition of the Craigleith-quarry stone, from small particles taken into the lungs during respiration, producing consamption and death. Dr. Macartney had seen many black glands at the root of the lungs, and dispersed through its substance, but they were not hard. It was stated that fibrous concretions in the chest were rare ; this did not accord with his observations. In his museum, at Trinity College, he had placed many examples’ of this disease. The inflammation gave, first, condensed lymph, changed it into fibrinous, converted it into cartilage, and finally into bone. Dr. Macintosh replied in the negative, to the question if any other part of the body contained stone. Variations of Pressure on the Human Body.—Sir James Mur- ray presented to the Section an apparatus for the purpose of with- drawing atmospheric pressure from the surface of the body, par- tially or wholly. He presented his reasons and observations to the Dublin Medical Section of the British Association, but they were not well understood, for want of apparatus and drawings. These he had now got, which, besides much labor and time, had cost upwards of 1002. ; and he trusted, since he was becoming old, some of the Members would perfect them. The first machine was for the whole body, and resembled in form a slipper-bath, with the addition of a separate part to cover the upper portion of the body, the head only being free. The upper portion was luted to the lower, by means of a composition (used in making printers’ rollers for inking the types, ) and fixed ina groove ; and, if neces- sary, the patient’s face and head could be contained ina glass case, luted to the machine in the same manner, and respiration carried on by a tube. The air from the machine was removed by means of an exhausting syringe, screwed on towards the bot- tom part of this apparatus. He had tried this machine in the col- lapsed cases of cholera, and exhausted the air from the body, ta- king off one ton of atmospheric pressure. The consequence was, that the vessels became full and turgid, and the body, pre- viously shrunk, was rounded and red. He had tried it repeatedly, and the same results followed. The process might be reversed, and pressure of air made on the body, even to the amount of British Association for the Advancement of Science. 31 100 tons, without damage; but beyond this it would not be safe. He had tried it repeatedly in asthma. The principle was applicable topically, and parts of the body could be submitted to the action of the machine, modified so as to be suitable to them. He exhibited a contrivance, of along tin tube, made air-tight, and. with a piece of wet bladder round one end, which was open ; at the other end, which was closed up, a small exhausting air- pump was placed. A patient, with a paralytic wrist, put his arm into this; the wet bladder was tied round his arm at the top, to make it air-tight, and the atmosphere was then pumped out of the tube. The atmospheric pressure being taken off, the limb be- came turgid, the circulation was increased, and the part affected was soon cured. ‘There was another adaptation of the same con- trivance to the limbs, to draw off the effect of congestion of the brain; and one to stop hemorrhage in an injured hand, limb, or other extremity. An exhausting pump was fixed to the end of a bladder, the limb was put into the bladder, and the neck then tied round to make it air-tight. ‘The air was then completely ex- hausted by means of the pump, which compressed the bladder so close to the skin as effectually to stop even the pores of the skin. The same contrivance of a bladder and exhausting pump was also applied for the cure of ulcerated legs, by preventing evapo- ration of the ulcers, by exhausting the air, and making the col- lapsed bladder adhere tightly all round. For irregular surfaces he thought the instruments of particular value, since no dry-cup- ping could be used there. If this plan had been known when those melancholy deaths from dissection cuts took place in Dub- lin, and dry-cupping could not be had recourse to, it would have been fortunate. ‘The machine would be particularly advantage- ous in withdrawing blood from particular parts to others more re- mote. Thus, in cases of congestion of blood in the head, where bleeding had been carried to such an extent that it would not be safe to carry it further, owing to the great general loss in the cir- culation, blood might be made to accumulate in other parts, as in the legs. The case of a well-known brewer in Dublin was treat- ed on this principle, and recovered. Sir James then enumerated the kinds of cases where the apparatus might be used,—asthma, defective external circulation, aneurisin, tumors, paralysis, &c. Structure of the Brain.—Mr. Carlile further adverted to the particulars of several dissections of the brain in his possession, 32 #8©British Association for the Advancement of Science. but which were too much in detail for perusal before the Sec- tion. The conclusion to be drawn from these dissections is, that in the brain of idiots the internal structure is always defective, and, in many instances, more so than the size or external form ; and that in the brains of persons not idiotic, but possessing various degrees of intellectual power, very marked differences in internal structure may be observed by those who dissect the brain in the manner first proposed by Dr. Macartney, in a paper read by him before the British Association, and published in their Transac- tions for 1833. It isa most reasonable supposition, from the facts just mentioned, and from observation of the structure of the brain in animals, that the intellectual and moral character is much in- fluenced by peculiarities in the organization of the various plex- uses or ganglia, of which the brain essentially consists. Phre- nologists have wholly neglected the internal structure of the brain, and have confined their attention to the size of certain portions at the surface; a method which is calculated to mis- lead,—amongst other reasons, because the surface of the brain is not the only part essential to the exercise of the intellectual and moral qualities, and size is a very inadequate measure of power, unless the structure of the part be also taken into consideration. As an example of an erroneous method of investigation, Mr. Car- lile quoted an elaborate paper, by the celebrated 'Tiedemann, in the Philosophical Transactions, in which he concludes, from meas- urements of the size of the cranial cavity in Negroes and in Eu- ropeans, that the faculties of both are alike ; whereas, it is well known to those who have opportunities of observing the children of Negroes and of Europeans educated together at the same school, that, as long as the perceptive faculties chiefly are employed, equal progress is made by both classes of children ; but that as soon as the reflecting and comparing powers are required, as in the learn- ing of mathematical or other inductive sciences, the inferiority of the Negro is almost uniformly made manifest. Mr. Carlile concluded, by inviting the attention of physiologists to the exam- ination of the minute structure of the brain, and stated his con- viction, that by a comparison of its peculiarities with the differ- ences of mental capacity observed during life, much light would be thrown on the functions of different parts of this organ. The Plague.—Mr. Urquhart read a paper, ‘On the Localities of the Plague in Constantinople.’ He stated, as the result of three British Association for the Advancement of Science. 33 years’ observation, that this disease, if it did not originate in lo- calities close to cemeteries, was greatly aggravated by the prox- imity of burial-grounds, especially when the towns and villages stood on a lower level than the neighboring cemeteries. It was known, that the Turks, from religious prejudices, made their graves hollow, and placed a very shallow covering of earth over the dead. The mephitic vapors arising from the putrescent bodies, tainted and polluted the surrounding atmosphere: and that this disease was connected with atmospheric influences, was a fact known to the Turks themselves ; among whom it was commonly said, that birds abandoned the localities where plague prevailed, and fruits became more abundant. Mr. Urquhart declared, that these observations were confirmed by his own experience: he regretted that he had no statistical data to offer to the Section, and hoped that, attention being now directed to the subject, it would lead to the prosecution of a more regular inquiry. Mr. Wyse said, that his personal experience in Syria, Turkey, and Egypt, enabled him to corrobérate Mr. Urquhart’s statements : he had never passed the large cemetery, near the gate of Adri- anople, without a distinct perception of noisome effluvia, which in humid weather were peculiarly offensive. He trusted that the attention of government would be directed to the subject, and a series of questions addressed to the consular agents in the Levant. —Dr. Bryce said, that he had long directed his attention to the subject of plague, and made numerous observations during his resi- dence at Constantinople ; but scarcely had he formed an hypothe- sis, when it was contradicted by some new facts. Mr. Urquhart’s remarks had first given him a ray of light to guide investigation, and from many circumstances which now occurred to his mind, he was led to place considerable reliance on Mr. Urquhart’s ac- count.—Col. Briggs stated, that the plague was unknown in India, which he attributed to the custom of burning the dead. It was anciently unknown in Egypt, where the dead were embalmed ; among the Parsis, who expose their dead in a walled cemetery, to be devoured by the birds of the air, plague rarely or never occurs. In the countries which now constituted Turkey, pesti- lential diseases were very rare in the classical ages. Statistics of Crime in Liverpool.—< 'The report gave, as the re- sult of rigid inquiry, a criminal population to this town of 4,200 females, and 4,520 males, 2,270 of the latter being professional Vor. XXXIV.—No. 1. 5 34 British Association for the Advancement of Science. thieves, and the remainder occasional thieves, living by a combi- nation of labor and plunder; and the whole was set down at up- wards of 700,000/. ‘This does, at first sight, appear incredible ; but an investigation, pursued with much labor, and not unattended with obloquy, convinced me the statement contained no sekieecet tion. “A more recent inquiry, carried on by better means, afforded by a more experienced police force, not only confirms these details, but leaves an impression that the number of criminals was under- rated. In an inquiry of this kind, an approximation to accuracy is all that can be expected; and all I purpose to do is to furnish the society with the most accurate data which are accessible. “‘T hold in my hand two or three returns, about the correctness of which there can be no doubt. They contain the number of persons brought before the magistrates, and the number commit- ted; the number of felons apprehended, and the number com- mitted ; they also give the age of the juvenile felons. In the year 1835, there were taken into custody 13,506 persons, of whom 2,138 were committed. In 1836, there were taken into custody 16,830, of whom 3,343 were committed. Up to the 13th of the present month, the number taken into custody in eight months, was 12,709, of whom 2,849 were committed. From July, 1835 to July, 1836, the number of juvenile thieves, under eighteen years of age, apprehended was 924, of whom 378 were commit- ted. From July, 1836, up to the present day, the number of ju- venile thieves taken into custody was 2,339, of whom 1,096 were committed. There were in custody, during the same period, up- wards of 1,500 well-known adult thieves. “In our report, juvenile thieves were set down at 1,270: it now seems that the number was very greatly underrated, for the most expert officer does not pretend to say that one-half were ta- ken into custody. ‘‘In the returns made by the old watchmen, the number of houses of ill-fame was set down at 300; but this return referred only to the notorious ones. A full and complete return has since been made, and the real number is 655, exclusive of private hou- ses in which girls of the town reside. In all the houses of ill- fame, females reside; and, allowing an average of four to each house, the number residing in such places only would be 2,620. British Association for the Advancement of Science. 35 “This return is further confirmed by the fact, that in the year preceding the inquiry, there were oe eg oa 1 000 females of a particular description. “ Another return has been placed Beton me, which, though not absolutely bearing on the subject, is not erlens interest. Of 419 individuals now in the gaol, 216 profess the religious creed of Church Protestants, 174 Roman Catholics, 8 are Methodists, 17 are Presbyterians, 2 are Unitarians, 1 Baptist, and 1 Independent. 141 can neither read nor write, 59 read imperfectly, 38 read well, 127 read and write imperfectly, and 56 read and write well.” Amount of property stolen, about one million sterling annually. Keels of Ships.—Mr. Lang addressed the Section’on his improve- ments in Ship-building. He fills up the floor perfectly solid, puts in a kelson and a keel in the usual way, bolting them well to- gether, and caulking all up. On each side of this keel he fixes another broad and flat one, and over these another, all secured in a peculiar way, by dovetailing, but so as one may come off with- out bringing off the other, and the whole without damaging the floor; over all he puts a false keel. ‘The depth from the inside of the floor to the bottom of the false keel is about twice the depth of the kelson, and the breadth of the three keels under the floor a little more than the depth from the top of the kelson to the bot- tom of the false keel. He caulks with Borrodaile’s felt, observing that, when the seam is caulked in the usual way, outside and inside, the oakum does not reach the centre, but leaves a hollow, where damp lodges, to the destruction of the timbers. This plan has, it appeared, been adopted by the English and by foreign governments. It was, Mr. Lang admitted, rather more expensive than that usually adopted in building merchant-ships. Safety of Steam Vessels.—Mr. Williams then offered some ob- servations, as a practical man merely, on a method for preventing accidents from the collision of steam vessels, which was in prac- tice in the vessels belonging to the city of Dublin Steam Packet Company. ‘The danger at present arose from this,—that a local injury, as in the late instance of the Apollo, admitted the water through the whole body of the vessel. ‘The improvement would confine the water to the section in which the injury took place. It consisted in dividing the vessel into five water-tight compart- ments, by iron divisions or bulk-heads, the only objection with respect to which arose from the difficulty of fixing them in a 36 ~=—s- British Association for the Advancement of Science. timber frame. This was obviated by making the side of the vessel solid for twelve inches before and aft the bulk-head, and closing up the interstices with felt. As to the number of these compartments, he had found, after several trials, four bulk-heads, forming five sections, unexceptionable. The length of these sec- tions was arbitrary ; Mr. Williams made the centre one enclose the machinery, and those at the stem and stern of comparatively small length. He had, two days before, tried several experi- ments with the Royal Adelaide, having admitted the water by boring holes, first into the foremost section, next into the second, and afterwards into the third; and in each instance very little depression had been produced in the stem, never exceding twelve inches, while there was no disturbance to the men at work. In cases of fire, too, there was a double advantage from this arrange- ment; the fire could not extend far under deck, so that the men could work easily in extinguishing it,—there would be no cur- rent of air throughout, and the water might, if necessary, be ad- mitted to the section attacked by the fire, without any general inconvenience, and without any danger. Mr. Williams intimated, in conclusion, that a vessel would be placed by the Company at the disposal of members of the Association returning to Ireland, as it had been to transport them to Liverpool—The President then closed the meetings of the Section, by a few remarks on the successive development of power apparent in it. ‘Though ori- ginally only an offset from another Section, it now rivalled, if it did not exceed any of the others, in the variety and interest of the topics discussed, the attendance of members, and the ability of the papers laid before it. He, as its original proposer, felt es- pecially interested in its progress, and hoped to see it still more distinguished. Heat of the Farth.—The sun’s heat was found to extend to vari- able depths at various places, and with many alternations of increase and diminution ; and it was in general necessary to descend from one to two hundred feet before the effect of this cause disappeared ; from thence downwards, the evidence of an increasing tempera- ture seemed to be quite satisfactory. At a colliery at Wigan, where the surface mean temperature was 50°, at 50 yards deep the temperature was constantly 53°; at 150 yards deep the tem- perature was 56.75°; at 250 yards 63°. From this set of ob- servations, it appeared that a descent of 100 yards was accompa- British Association for the Advancement of Science. 37 nied by an increase of temperature of about 6.25°, or about one degree for sixteen yards; the result of the observations made in France giving one degree for about each fifteen yards of descent. Magnetism.—Mr. Fox drew attention to the advantages con- ferred on this branch of science by Lieut. Burns. He exhibited charts drawn by him, in which the dip and variation were laid down, with extreme accuracy, in several parts of the world. He gave a curious instance of the value of a knowledge on these sub- jects; as the ship drew near a promontory of the Cape de Verd Islands, the action of the rocks became perceptible to this accurate observer, who was thereby warned of the neighborhood of land. He also was frequently able to guess at the nature of the rocks at the bottom of the sea from similar indications.—Major Sabine explained, that the Report now laid before the Section, related exclusively to observations made in Great Britain; hence he had not alluded to any of these subjects, nor to other general results which many members had urged him to bring forward.—Prof. Phillips said, that the dip changed frequently in the course of a day; in some observations which he had made at several sta- tions between Ryde and York, he had found the dip to vary so much as six or seven minutes in the course of the day. Diamond.—Sir D. Brewster now read a notice of a new struc- ture in the diamond. Sir David said, that having communicated to the Geological Society an account of certain peculiarities in the structure of the diamond, which confirm the theory of its vegetable origin, he was desirous of submitting to the consideration of this Section a new structure which he had recently detected in that gem, and which indirectly supported the same views. In consequence of the diamond having been used as the fittest substance for form- ing single microscopes of high power and small spherical aberra- tion, the attention of opticians has been drawn to the imperfec- tions of its structure. Mr. Pritchard, who first succeeded in ex- ecuting lenses of diamond, put into the hands of Sir David for examination, a plano-convex lens about the 30th of an inch in diameter, which he had found unfit for the purposes of a micro- scope in consequence of its giving double images of minute ob- jects. As Sir David had previously shown, that almost all dia- monds possessed an imperfect doubly refracting structure, as if they had been aggregated by irregular forces, compressed or 38 British Association for the Advancement of Science. kneaded together like a piece of soft gum or an indurated jelly, he had no doubt that the double images were owing to this structure, as there appeared, on an ordinary examination of the lens, to be no other cause to which it could be reasonably ascribed. ‘This was also Mr. Pritchard’s opinion, and the existence of such images prevented opticians from rashly cutting up diamonds which might turn out useless for optical purposes. As lenses of sapphire and ruby, which Sir David had long had occasion to use in very deli- eate microscopical observations, produced no duplication of the image, although the rays passed in directions in which the double refraction was much greater than in any specimen of diamond which he had examined, it occurred to him that the double im- ages might arise from some other cause. He therefore proceeded to examine the light transmitted through the diamond, by com- bining it with a concave lens of the same focal length, in order to make the rays pass in parallel directions through its substance. This experiment indicated no peculiarity of structure at all capa- ble of producing a separation of the images, and he was therefore led to examine the plane surface of the lens by reflecting from it a narrow line of light admitted into a dark room, and examining the surface with a half-inch lens. While turning round the plane surface of the diamond, he was surprised to observe the whole of its surface covered with parallel lines or veins, some of which re- flected the light more powerfully than others, so as to have the appearance of a striped ribband, somewhat : resembling the rude sketch here given, which shows that the plane surface of the diamond, in a space of less than one-thirtieth of an inch, contains many hundred veins or strata of different reflective and refractive powers, as if they had been subjected to va- riable pressures, or deposited under the influ- ence of forces of aggregation of variable intensity. If, Sir David observed, the planes of these different strata had been perpen- dicular to the axis of the diamond lens, their difference of refrac- tive power would produce no sensible effect injurious to the per- fection of the image; but if these strata are parallel to that axis, as they are in the lens under consideration, each stratum must have a different focus, and consequently produce a series of par- tially overlapping images. British Association for the Advancement of Science. 39 The results of this experiment in restoring the diamond to its value as an optical material, in so far as it enables us to cut it in a proper direction, and select proper specimens, and its connection with some delicate researches of Profs. Airy and Maccullagh, on the superficial action of diamond upon polarized light, possess considerable interest, but the fact of a mineral body consisting of layers of different refractive powers, and consequently different degrees of hardness and specific gravity, is remarkable. There were several minerals, such as Apophyllite, Chabasie, and others, in which Sir David said that he had found different degrees of extraordinary refraction in different parts of the crystal; but this variation of property depends upon a secondary law of structure ; and he believed that there was no crystal, either natural or artifi- cial, in which the properties of ordinary refraction, hardness, and specific gravity, varied throughout its mass. This peculiarity of structure, therefore, might be regarded as an indication of a pecu- liarity of origin; and as there are various strong arguments in favor of the opinion, that the diamond is a vegetable substance, the new structure which he had described might be considered as an additional argument in favor of that opinion. He had, ina former paper, placed it beyond a doubt, that the diamond must have been in a soft state, like amber or gum, and capable of hav- ing its structure modified by the expansive force of air or gaseous bodies imprisoned in its cavities; and therefore the fact of its be- ing sometimes composed of strata of different degrees of indura- tion and refractive power, was more likely to have been produced by pressures varying during the formation of the crystal, than by any change in the intensity of the forces of aggregation of its molecules. Such a change might have been supposed probable, had it been found in another crystal. Prof. Bache on Heat.—The object of this communication is to call the attention of the Section to the researches of Prof. Bache of Pennsylvania, which seem not to have been so fully apprecia- ted in this country as they deserve. That gentleman, at the out- set of his inquiries, refers to a paper of Prof. Powell, in which the difficulties unavoidably attending any comparison of radiating effects of surfaces are pointed out from the impossibility of deter- mining precisely in how many other respects besides those of color and polish of surface, the coatings applied may not differ. In contending for the necessity of equalizing the coatings com- 40 British Association for the Advancement of Science. pared, in other respects, before we can estimate the effects really due to the state of the surface, he must, of course, be understood to speak under the qualification acutely referred to by Prof. Bache, dependent on the fact noticed by Leslie, that radiation takes place not only from the surface, but from a certain minute, though sen- sible depth, which differs in different substances. Taking this into account, the general meaning, as well as im- portance of the caution, will be manifest. In the sequel, Mr. Bache gives some very precise experimental proofs of the truth of the law just noticed, and shows, by successively adding fresh coats of the pigment, the precise limit beyond which such addi- tion ceases to increase the radiating power,—which, in fact, there comes toa maximum, and with greater thicknesses decreases. When this point had been ascertained carefully for each pig- ment, their effects were observed with great accuracy, and com- pared with a standard surface under similar circumstances ; the observations include a considerable range of substances, differing both in color and other properties. The results exhibit no cor- respondence of the greatness of effect with the color. ‘The source of heat was hot water :—the author allows fully the distinction between properties of heat of this kind, and that connected with light ; in the latter case it is evident that color is an essential ele- ment; a wide field is yet open for tracing on what the effect does depend: and again, since Melloni has pointed out the existence of many kinds of heat, differing in their relations to screens, to trace also their different relations to surfaces. Uric Acid and Urea, by Prof. Liebig.—The important part which uric acid performs in the animal economy, has for a long time attracted the attention of the most distinguished physicians and chemists. Uric acid forms in one class of animals the whole of the excrement, and in another class it is its principal constitu- ent, and it is accompanied by urea, a never-failing constituent of the human urine. Its extraordinary production in that morbid state of the body, which we call a predisposition to gout, is well known to give origin to one of the most painful diseases to which mankind is liable. It may be affirmed with the utmost certainty, that urea and uric acid are products of the organization. We cannot discover their existence in any part of our food, nor do they constitute a part of any organ, as fibrine does of the blood ; but they are chemical combinations of a peculiar nature, on which British Association for the Advancement of Science. Al account they come more within the range of chemical investiga- tion than any other bodies of animal origin. Prout’s masterly analysis has long since removed every doubt respecting the com- position of urea, and the extraordinary, and, to some extent, inex- plicable, production of this substance without the assistance of the vital functions, for which we are indebted to Wohler, must be con- sidered one of the discoveries with which a new era in science has commenced. Wohler observed, that when cyanic acid is made to combine with ammonia, the product is urea; and he and I have, in a set of experiments which we made together, proved that these two bodies, when first combined, form cyanate of am- monia, a salt analogous to every other ammoniac salt; that is to say, the base can be replaced by other bases, and the acid by other acids: but that, a few minutes after the combination has taken place, all these properties disappear. We can no longer detect either ammonia or cyanic acid. A new substance has been form- ed, entirely different from every other chemical compound. 'To follow out the characters of urea, would here be quite out of place: it was, however, necessary to allude to it from its intimate relation to nitric acid. The elementary composition of uric acid has also been estab- lished beyond a doubt. We are certain that it may be expressed by the formula C NH O. We know also that this acid com- 104 4 6 bines with the different bases, and forms salts. Inorganic Chem- istry is satisfied with the determination of these properties, but it must be evident that this formula can give us no idea of the man- ner in which the elements are united together to form this sub- stance. If we admit the principle, that no ternary or quaternary compound can be formed, exccpt by the union of a binary com- pound with an element, or of two binary compounds with one another, it is clear that any further investigation of uric acid must be carried on with the intention of discovering the compound ele- ments into which it may be resolved. This investigation, which promised to yield the most important results, both for Medicine and Chemistry, Prof. Wohler and I de- termined to undertake together. In Medicine, it was evident that we might have some new method of destroying calculi in the hu- man bladder, without the application of external force. In Chem- istry, the most interesting discoveries were also to be expected, as Vou. XXXIV.—No. 1. 6 42. British Association for the Advancement of Science. we had not the slightest doubt that urea, xanthic oxide, cystic oxide, oxalic acid, (which last substance is well known to consti- tute frequently an ingredient in unary calculi, )}—that all these bo- dies are produced by the decomposition of one single substance, and that substance uric acid. Our analytical investigations of these various bodies have not yet made sufficient progress to enable me to communicate them here. My intention at present is, to point out the plan which we followed in our attempts to decompose uric acid into its proximate elements, and the singular results which we obtained. But, be- fore proceeding to do so, I should like to notice a very remarka- ble compound, which will, I think, serve greatly to illustrate the subject we are at present peenmied with. Winkler found, that when the distilled water of bitter almonds was mixed with muriatic acid, anew acid is obtained. 'The dis- tilled water of bitter almonds, in a pure state, contains nothing but prussic acid and oil of bitter almonds, (hydret of benzoyl.) When treated with muriatic acid, we obtain sal ammoniac and the new acid, and nothing else. It is evident from this, and the conclusion is corroborated by the ultimate analysis of the new acid, that the hydro-cyanic acid of the liquid is decomposed by the action of.the muriatic acid into ammonia and formic acid ; that the am- monia combines with the muriatic acid, and that the formic acid, in the nascent state, unites with the oil of bitter almonds, to form a compound acid, in which the power of saturation of the formic acid is not changed. This acid performs, in every respect, the part of asimple acid ; and its existence has rendered probable the supposition, that he same Views respecting other acids are not without foundation. Another interesting fact respecting this acid is, that when heated with hyperoxides, it is decomposed in a par- ticular manner, only one of its proximate constituents being oxi- dized, while the other suffers no change. 'The products obtained are carbonic acid and oil of bitter almonds. Now, I think it must be evident to every one, that uric acid must possess a composition similar to that of the acid just men- tioned; and, therefore, that its oxidation in the same manner would, in all probability, lead to interesting results. We obtain- ed, in fact, results which corresponded to our expectations. Uric_ acid may be considered as a compound of urea, with a peculiar acid—that is, we may view it as analogous to nitrate of urea. British Association for the Advancement of Science. 43 This acid contains the radical of oxalic acid, combined with cya- nogen. Ihave attempted to show, in some former researches, that carbonic oxide, and not carbon, constitutes the radical of carbonic acid, and of oxalic acid, and that phosgene gas might be consid- ered as containing the same radical in combination with chlorine. If we indicate carbonic oxide by R, these compounds will be as follows :-— 1. Phosgene gas R+Cl. 2. Carbonic acid R-+-O. 3. Oxalic acid 2R+0. Now, the acid which combines with urea to form uric acid, may be expressed by the formula R+Cy. Viewed inthis manner, the composition of uric acid will be 4 (R-+Cy)+Ur. Uric acid, when heated with brown hyperoxide of lead, was decomposed into three different products, oxalic acid, urea, and a peculiar substance, which we may view as acompound of cyano- gen and water, and which is identical with a body long known, called allantoic acid, from having been first found in the allantoic fluid, but which it would be better to call allantoin, as it is capa- ble of acting equally as an acid and a base. One atom of uric acid, decomposed by the action of two atoms of hyperoxide of lead, is converted (supposing three atoms of water to be present) into two atoms of oxalate of lead, one atom of allantoin, and one atom of urea. 1 atom uric acid+2 atoms hyperoxide of lead (C N H O)+Pb. e W494 6 2 gives (R-+0) oxalic acid (+2 Pb. O) oxalate of lead 2 atoms Yas (4 Cy+3 Aq.) allainton 1 atom urea. Allantoin is the second body belonging to the animal organiza- tion, which we can form. artificially in the laboratory. This sub- stance can also be directly produced by the decomposition of cy- anogen and water. It yields, when decomposed by other bodies, all the products which, from its formula, might be expected. Thus, with alkalies, it yields oxalic acid and ammonia, with strong sulphuric acid, carbonic acid, and carbonic oxide. There are many bodies similar to urea and allantoin, all of - which will probably, at a future period, be produced by artificial means ; but, in order to arrive at this, the final object of investi- 44 British Association for the Advancement of Science. gations in organic chemistry, a great deal of labor, and that labor of a combined nature, will be required. I am certain that this object will be obtained. Organic chemistry has made its first step, and already its field has been extended to a very surprising degree. We meet every day with new and unexpected discov- eries. It is, however, remarkable, that in the country in which I now am, whose hospitality I shall never cease to remember, or- ganic chemistry is only commencing to take root. We live ina time when the slightest exertion leads to valuable results ; and, if we consider the immense influence which organic chemistry exer- cises over medicine, manufactures, and: over common life, we must be sensible that there is at present no problem more impor- tant to mankind than the prosecution of the objects which organic chemistry contemplates. I trust that English men of science will participate in the general movement, and unite their efforts to those of the chemists of the continent, to further the advance of a science which, when taken in connection with the researches in Physiology, both animal and vegetable, which have been so suc- cessfully prosecuted in this country, may be expected to afford us the most important and novel conclusions respecting the functions of organization. Non-decomposition of Carbonic Acid by Plants.—Dr. Dalton communicated through a friend, a short paper ‘On the Non-de- composition of Carbonic Acid by Plants.’ He calculates, that in 5000 years, animals supposed to live upon the earth, would pro- duce but .001 of carbonic acid, so that the assistance of plants to purify our atmosphere is not necessary. By experiment, he found, that a hot-house does not contain more or less carbonic acid, by night or by day, than the external air, and the results were the same in a number of repetitions of the experiments. This paper was said to have been penned during the convales- cence of its illustrious author from a late attack of illness, and was listened to with the greatest attention. Galvanic Formation of Metallic Copper.—The present is the first occasion on which native copper has been found, actually de- tected, as it were, in the very act of formation in the mine shaft. The Cronebane mine has been wrought for a very lengthened pe- riod, and has an additional interest as connected with the present subject, from the electro-magnetic condition of the next mine to it, the Connoree, which is part of the same vein, having been de- British Association for the Advancement of Science. 45. termined by Mr. Petherick, (Philosoph. Mag. 3d Series, vol. 3.) He found it deflected the galvanometer needle 18°—that the ore was negative, and the ground positive. The lode is situated in clay slate, dipping to the S. W. The mine water is strongly cu- preous, and deposits a slimy sediment of iron, and organic matter, probably “‘Glairine.” In this slime, and adhering to the timber- ing of the mine, the crystals of pure malleable copper were found in considerable quantity. The mine water from whence these masses were formed, has a specific gravity of 1.032, at 58° Fahr. When evaporated to dryness, it leaves a horny residue, smelling of animal matter. It contains the mixed sulphates of copper and iron. Amongst the many forces in operation to produce this metallic aggregation, the author suggests the possibility of galvanic ac- tion, between the lode and the timbering of the mine; having found the galvanometer much affected by a small series of plates of grey copper ore, and of fir timber, saturated with solution of sulphate of copper under the air pump—the exciting fluid being the water of this mine. Browning of Gun Barrels.—Mtr. Ettrick submitted to the Section a paper on browning gun barrels. After various exper- iments, Mr. Ettrick discovered that the process consisted wholly in procuring a permanent peroxide of iron, and then coloring such oxide. He had procured not only all shades of brown, but a per- fect black, by mixing 1 part of nitric acid with 100 parts of wa- ter, and applying this to the barrel with a rag moistened with it. It is material that the rag should be only so much wetted as to damp the iron, for if the fluid be allowed to stream, the oxidation will be unequally performed. It is also material that the barrel should be well smoothed and polished, and all greasiness remo- ved by chalk before the browning commences, otherwise a bright brown is not attainable. The barrel, after being wet, should be placed for an hour or more in a window on which the sun shines, and when this process has been thrice repeated, the superfluous rust must be removed by a scratch brush consisting of a quantity of fine iron wire tied up into a bundle. ‘This process being re- peated eight or ten times, the barrel will have acquired as good a brown as it frequently receives from the common gunsmiths ; but to do away with the disagreeable rusty appearance, it is necessary to proceed to color the oxide, which Mr. Ettrick accomplishes by 46 British Association for the Advancement of Science. dissolving 1 grain of nitrate of silver in 500 of water, and apply- ing this solution like the browning liquid. 'The number of repe- titions of the nitrate of silver water would depend on the shade of brown required, but Mr. Ettrick found from 1 to 5 or 6 amply sufficient. The barrel is to be placed in the sunshine to obtain a dark color. ‘The last process was to apply the scratch brush freely, though lightly, and then polish the whole by bees’ wax. Mr. Et- trick had, since the date of his own invention, discovered the pro- cess used by workmen generally, and long kept secret, but by the plan described a much finer brown is attainable than that gained by the trade. Fossil Fishes—Agassiz’s great work going on.—Mr. Dawson exhibited a collection of fossils from New South Wales.—Mr. Murchison communicated some information which he had lately received from M. Agassiz, who was bringing out some new livrai- sons of his great work on fossil fishes, and he mentioned that in order to enable that gentleman to carry on his work, a further grant of money would be recommended by the Geological Com- mittee. ‘The remains of fish had been found to be the most valu- ~ able of all indexes for determining the ages of rocks, as there was a plain separation of these animals in formations of different ages. Mr. Murchison showed drawings of some of these fossils, and re- marked that in the lias and the older beds the fishes were charac- terized by a tail quite different from that belonging to those found in the newer formations, and he exhibited on a board representa- tions of some of the peculiarities of those discovered in the Silu- rian rocks. He must record the names of Drs. Lloyd and Lewis as having given him material assistance in the collection of these remains. He had found remains like the shagreen or tubercula- ted skin of some recent fishes, also extraordinary teeth belonging to a species termed Stogodus Priscodontus, and fish called Sera- phim, by the quarrymen, from their seeming to possess only head and wings, to which the name Péerigodus has been given; also many others which M. Agassiz would soon have described and published. Heat in Mines.—Mr. R. W. Fox stated, that at the Bristol Meeting of the Association he had been requested to make ex- periments on the Electricity of Mineral Veins. He had been un- able to do much since that time—he had merely to mention, that he had made experiments at Middleton Teesdale, in the county of British Association for the Advancement of Sctence. 47 Durham, and found a slight electric action in lead veins running east and west, other veins crossing these at right angles: in Gold- bury mine he found it very trifling in lead veins occurring in sand- stone. Indeed, he had generally observed, that the electric action was much more feeble in veins situated in sandstone and lime- stone than in those placed in granite and killas. He remarked a singular phenomenon in a coal-mine at Cockfield Fell :—It is well known, that coal is a bad conductor, but cinders the reverse ; and in this mine he found an altered coal, resembling a cinder, which would not conduct at all; but he was able to render it a good con- ductor, by causing it to be heated. Mr. Fox then made some ob- servations on the temperature of mines, and detailed some exper- iments. He had observed, that adventitious circumstances had the effect of reducing this temperature, so that experiments must be made independent of accident. He had accordingly placed one thermometer, in various mines, at a depth of three feet in the ground, and another upon the ground of the mine, and then marked the degrees; and he uniformly found a difference of one or more degrees between the two instruments, the imbedded one rising sometimes as high as 92°. Also, in a mine having an in- clined lode, he placed on the floor of a horizontal gallery a pair of thermometers, one instrument imbedded, the other not, and found that, at a distance from the lode of twenty-four fathoms, the deep one marked 854°, and the other 84° ; at ten fathoms off the lode they were respectively 86$° and 85°; in the lode itself, and upon it, 92° and 88°. Mr. Fox found the increase of temperature vary in different mines, and also in the rocks themselves, which he as- cribed to the percolating water—killas being more porous, becom- ing sooner heated by water filtering through, than granite, which is more compact. North American Antiquities.—Dr. Warren, of Boston, U. S., then offered remarks ‘On some Crania found in the Ancient Mounds in North America.’ Whatever related, he observed, to the lost nations of North America is interesting. The fate of a people which occupied the richest part of that country, for an ex- tent of more than a thousand miles, is involved in the deepest obscurity. Nothing remains of their history, and we can gather no ideas of what they were and what they did but from the con- structions existing in the territory they inhabited. These works are numerous, and scattered ovey the country, from the lakes of 48 British Association for the Advancement of Science. Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. They consist of regular lines, having considerable elevations and great extent, of mounds or pyramidal eminences, and of spacious platforms of earth. These different works. were adapted for fortifications, for places of wor- ship, and for cemeteries. Within the last two years, reports, he said, had reached the Atlantic States of very extensive remains of structures indicating the existence of one or more considerable cities in the territory of Ouisconsin, formerly a northwest terri- tory of the United States. The antiquity of some of the numer- ous works alluded to was great; there are circumstances which led him to refer them toa period 800 or a 1000 years back. ‘The circular and pyramidal eminences seem to have been destined for two purposes: for places of worship and for cemeteries. Some of them contain immense heaps of bones, thrown together, pro- miscuously, as after a bloody battle ; in others the bodies are reg- ularly arranged, and in some there are only one or two bodies: the bones in the last are usually accompanied by silver and cop- per ornaments, some of which are extremely well wrought. The crania found in these mounds differ from those of the existing Indians, from the Caucasian or European, and in fact from all ex- isting nations so far as they are known. The forehead is broader and more elevated than in the North American Indian, less broad and elevated than in the European ; the orbits are small and reg- ular. The jaws sensibly prominent, less so indeed than in the Indian, more so than in the European. The palatine arch is of a rounded form, and its fossa less extensive than in the Indian or African, more than in the European, owing principally to a greater breadth of the palatine plate of the os palati. But the most re- markable appearance in these heads is an irregular flatness on the occipital region, evidently produced by artificial means. These peculiarities, with others more minute, give a character to these skulls not found in any living nations. Dr. Warren also stated that he had received other crania, which at first view he believed to be of the same race and nation, for they resembled them in all their peculiarities, more nearly than one Caucasian head resembles another; and he exhibited drawings and a cast in proof of the exactness of this resemblance ; but these latter, he observed, were species of ancient Peruvian heads. Now the cemeteries of the ancient Peruvians are distant from the Ohio mounds more than 1500 miles, yet the facts stated above render- British Association for the Advancement of Science. 49 ed it certain, in his opinion, that these nations were connected by blood, and rendered it probable that the northern race, being driven from their country by the ancestors of the existing race of North American Indians, retreated, after a long resistance, to South America, and gave origin to one of the nations which founded the Peruvian empire. Anatomy, also, he observed, show- ed that there was much resemblance between the crania spoken of and those of the modern Hindoos; and instruments, orna- ments, and utensils have been discovered in the mounds, which bear a great resemblance to articles of the same description seen in Hindostan. 'The facts stated above lead him to the following inferences :—1. The race whose remains are discovered in the mounds were different from the existing North American Indian. 2. The ancient race of the mounds is identical with the ancient Peruvian. ‘To these conclusions might be added others tending to support existing opinions, but which are hypothetical :—1. That the ancient North American and the Peruvian nations were derived from the- southern part of Asia. 2. That America was peopled from at least two different parts of Asia, the ancient Americans having been derived from the south, and the existing Indian race from the northern part of the same continent. Cholera.—Dr. Mackintosh then addressed the Section on chol- era. He would state only facts, and show them, supported by a great number of preparations of parts taken from cholera patients soon after their death, mostly in the second stage,—collapse. He then spoke in favor of pursuing pathology, with a view of eluci- dating disease ; but pathology, in combination with causes, symp- toms, and treatment. He who did not pursue this method, was not a pathologist, but a mere morbid anatomist. He had dis- sected three hundred cases of cholera, in the first year of its ap- pearance in a malignant form; two hundred and eighty of these died in the collapsed stage. It was a popular error to say, as many frequently do, that medical men know nothing of cholera. In every respect their knowledge on this subject is vast, and mi- nute, and scientific, and practical. ‘Their knowledge exceeds that on scarlatina, or measles, with which popular opinion thinks them well acquainted. In India the opinion is, that in cholera there is lost balance of the circulation: it was not so; there is no rigor, and never was a rigor, which there would have been, if the - India opinion was true. There was a giving off of serum, and Vou. XX XIV.—No. 1, 7 50 British Association for the Advancement of Science. every vessel, arteries as well as veins of the body, every tissue was literally injected with black blood, which freely followed the knife on dissecting. Dr. Mackintosh now presented a great num- ber of preparations, and paintings, and drawings, of the organs of the body afflicted with cholera. Many preparations were dried with the cholera blood in them, which was effected by submit- ting them, immediately on their removal from the body, to a stream of dry hot air, from apparatus constructed for that purpose. These accumulations were greater in some organs than others, often depending on the state of the patient’s health previous to the attack,—if he had bronchitis, there would be the greatest ac- cumulation. The bloodvessels were greatly distended: in a cast of a case taken from the abdomen, which he exhibited, the abdominal aorta was one inch in diameter, vena cava three-fifths, emulgent vein eight-sixteenths. 'The general anatomical char- acters, as shown by preparations of each organ, were accumula- tions of blood, ecchymosis, called by the French apoplexy ; thus, if occurring in the lungs,—pulmonary apoplexy, petechize, and clots. In addition, we may mention some peculiarities in indi- . vidual organs, as noticed by the lecturer. In the head, even the bones were vascular, and could not be bleached, but with great difficulty : arachnitis rare, pia mater loaded with blood and effu- sion, which caused many to mistake it for arachnitis; in the sinuses clots of blood and lymph, rendering in these cases recov- ery impossible. In the spinal marrow were, in sixty out of two hundred, deposits of bone on the theca; in the chest, pleura at first dry, as if exposed to dry air; in collapse it became unctuous ; lungs very heavy, weighing 3 lb. 9 0z., to 3 lb. 11 oz. ; pulmo- nary apoplexy frequent in consecutive fever, which fully explains the number of deaths from that fever after the cholera attack. In the abdomen, the mucous membrane ulcerated and softened, not always red, sometimes even white ; the liver resembled that of dram-drinkers, the gall-bladder unusually distended with black bile ; then many galls in numerous cases, in only one was the duct rendered impervious by them; the kidneys were diseased, as recorded by Bright, and from the papille could be pressed mucus; bladder contracted. As to the blood vessels, he wished to direct the particular attention of the Section to them; he would show, by many preparations, the diseased state of their inner coat, the organization of which was completely altered, so British Association for the Advancement of Science. 51 as to render them unfit for their functions, and this disease ex- tended throughout the whole series of vessels, until it terminated in a kind of gelatinous pulp. Would this state of the vessels have considerable influence? and how far would it be concerned in producing that state of blood, always observed in cholera,— when the serum passes off, the blood becoming thick and black ? Many of the French, and some English, thought the nerves in cholera, on its appearance, were comparatively not so vascular, and not much diseased otherwise; the par vagum, as it passes the subelavian artery, was enlarged like a ganglion. Even animals were seized with cholera, and presented the same morbid appear- ance asin the human subject. Dr. Clanny could fully confirm all the observations of Dr. Mackintosh. Dr. Holland inquired, what name he would give to the affection of the bowels ushering in the cholera, and what was the nature of cholera? Dr. Mackintosh replied, watery diar- rhoea; and he would have entered into the nature of the disease, if time could have been afforded him. Bust of Mecenas.—“ It was long a cause of wonder and re- gret that no gem, medal, or statue of a man so illustrious, had ever ‘been discovered. At length the Duke of Orleans, Regent of France, early in the last century, by a happy conjecture, fixed on one of the gems in his collection, an amethyst of small size, marked with the name of the engraver, Dioscorides, as being the representation of the head of Meecenas. Another gem, bear- ing the name of Solon, the engraver, evidently representing the same person, was afterwards found in the Farnesian Museum ; and a third of the same, a sardonyx, also engraved by Solon, has since been discovered in the collection of the Prince Ludovisi. 'The features given in these gems agree so well with all that has been handed down in the Roman classics, concerning the per- sonal appearance and habits of Mzcenas, that the suggestion of the Duke of Orleans has been adopted by all subsequent anti- quaries. A few years after the recognition of the head of Meece- nas on the gems of Dioscorides and Solon, both artists coeval with Augustus, an antique fresco painting was discovered in the ruins of the palace of the Caesars on the Palatine Hill at Rome. This painting represents Augustus surrounded by his courtiers, conferring a crown on the Persian king Phraates, an event spoken of by Horace. In the front rank of the courtiers stands one, evi- 52 British Association for the Advancement of Science. dently the Prime Minister in the act of speaking, whose features strongly resemble those on the gems of Meecenas above described. Next to him is Agrippa, who is readily recognized from medals, coins, and statues of him. Horace also is found in the group. A copy of this painting was bought by Dr. Mead, and brought to England by him; and an engraving of it may be seen in Turn- bull’s Essay on ancient Painting. “This was the extent of antiquarian research and acquisition concerning Meecenas during the last preceding half century, when, in the spring of 1830, a bust was found in an excavation made by Prof. Manni, at Carsoli, the ancient Carsuli, about sev- enty miles from Rome, on the Flaminian Way. ‘This place is situated in what is esteemed the most beautiful and romantic district of the Roman territory, being near the cascades of the Nera, at Terni, and midway between the towns of Terni, Todi, and Spoleto. “The bust was of colossal size, the same as that presented to the Society, of pure Parian marble, and perfect in every feature. On being cleared of its incrustation, the modelling of the work was seen to be of that masculine firmness which characterizes the style of the epoch of Augustus, excelling in what is called a broad manner,—the execution that of a master,—with the great- est severity and grandeur; the emaciation by age of the individ- ual represented being faithfully preserved. ‘The striking resem- blance of the bust to the gems and picture of Meecenas, was at once recognized by the most eminent antiquaries and learned men at Rome. “‘It may be interesting to state, in further confirmation of the high value which has been set upon the bust, in Italy, as also because the circumstance enhances the gift of Prof. Manni, that it has been twice copied by Thorwaldsen. One copy was pre- sented to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and by him placed in the Hall of the Academy of Petrarch, at Arezzo, as being the pre- sumed birth-place of Meecenas; the other to the king of Naples, who caused it to be deposited in the Borbonico Museum at Naples.” Objects of interest in Liverpool._—tn the museums, &c., of the Royal Institution, the attention is first directed to a series of ancient paintings, from the collection of the late Mr. Roscoe, illustrating the progress of the art. The department of Natural History is remarkable, and contains some rare specimens,—to British Association for the Advancement of Science. 53 which attention was drawn in the Zoological Section,—there is also a well-arranged Geological collection, particularly rich in specimens of the coal formation.. The School for the Blind must also be specified as an institution on the largest scale, and ad- mirably managed. The manufactures executed by the pupils are (some of them) exquisite for their neatness and finish. Be- sides these, we may mention the Botanic Gardens, recently re- moved from their old site in Mount Pleasant, in consequence of the rapid growth of the town; and the Zoological Gardens, or, in other words, Mr. Atkins’ private menagerie, located and enriched by subsequent donations. 'The ground is agreeably va- ried, and the collection, which is extensive, contains, we be- lieve, an unique specimen of the mule between the lion and the tiger. But the most interesting and individual things in the town, are some of the manufactories. One of them, Messrs. Faw- cett & Preston’s Foundry and Steam Engine Manufactory, is one of the largest establishments in the world. We saw it under fa- vorable circumstances, for the proprietors were just completing the apparatus for a steam frigate, about to be launched by the French government. A stranger is most struck by seeing iron undergoing processes with which he is only familiar as connected with wood,—such as turning, planing, grooving, &c. An iron shaving, more than a yard in length, turned off as smooth and clear as if it were from a piece of wood, was a novelty which surprised most of the visitors. ‘There are more than seven hun- dred workmen employed in this establishment; and though the labor is very severe, and would appear, from the number of me- tallic particles flying about, to be very unwholesome, we remarked that several of the operatives were very old men, and that none of them looked sickly. Contrary to the general opinion, we were assured that no difference is observed between the health of those who work in brass and those who work in iron. ‘This is a grati- fying circumstance, because brass and copper are daily coming more into use in the manufacture of marine steam-engines, be- ing less injured by sea water than iron. ‘The cannon-foundry was in more active operation than we should have expected in “these piping times of peace ;” but we were informed that a large supply of artillery had been recently supplied to the Dutch government. Bury & Brancker’s Foundry is the great manufac- tory for locomotive engines. It appeared to be more economical of 54 British Association for the Advancement of Science. its power than Fawcett’s, and more ingenious in its contrivances and adaptations, though the works are not on so large a scale. With these we may mention Logan’s chain-cable manufactory. In this, the most remarkable thing is, the apparent simplicity of the contrivances. Iron bars, heated, are twisted into links over double cylinders, and each link, as formed, is cut off by powerful shears. A bar crosses the middle of every link; this is formed of cast metal, and is inserted cold, when the link is welded into the chain. A slight blow is sufficient to secure the bar, for the link contracts as it cools down from welding heat. Each chain, — when finished, is subjected to a severe trial; the chain is ex- posed, by means of a lever working on a centre, to a strain of more than twenty tons. Repeated fractures occur; and it is not until this test has been several times applied, that the chain is marked as perfect. Without the town, the botanist finds a rich treat in Mr. R. Har- rison’s collection of Orchideous and Parasitic plants at Aigburth ; and the geologist will visit Leasowe’s Castle (an inn) for the sake of the remains of its submarine forest. 'This lies near the mouth of the Mersey, on the Cheshire side. It appears like a peat-bog, over which sand had been lightly sprinkled. We found several specimens of trees nearly perfect; and it was easy to determine their species, from the distinctness with which the form of the leaf is preserved in the peat. Within the house is to be seen the carved roof of the old star-chamber, which was brought from Westminster Hall. Nor must we forget to mention, as among the objects best worth seeing in the neighborhood, Mr. Blundell’s Statue Gallery at Ince. Treasures of Knowsley, the seat of the Earl of Derby.—The whole of the extensive premises were thrown open to the inspec- tion of the visitors. In the galleries and rooms of the mansion were a fine collection of pictures; but, as our time was limited, we could not examine them with the attention they deserved. The extensive aviary contains many fine and rare birds and beasts. Some of these animals are permitted to range the grounds of the aviary unconfined, being covered in by wire-work, extending over many rods of ground. Among the Raptores we observed several fine vultures; among which were two species of Percnop- terus; also the Vultur Angolensis of authors, and all the British eagles. Of the smaller birds, the Insessores,—a species of Lam- British Association for the Advancement of Science. 55 protornis, (never before seen alive in this country, )—a group pe- culiar to Africa, excited, by its brilliant coloring, elegant. shape, and peculiar eye, the attention of all who saw it. The large eye is perhaps the most striking part of the bird, having a deep yellow iris surrounding a small and apparently black pupil, which con- trasted remarkably with its dark purple plumage. There were many other rare and beautiful species in this order, especially one of the genus Euplectes. Of the Scansores there were several fine specimens; as Nymphicus Nove-Hollandie, the Psittacus No- ve-Hollandie of Latreille, the Paleornis Barabaudie, the Pla- tycercus Stanley, (named after the noble Earl,) the Platycercus Baueru ; also a living specimen of the red-billed Toucan, Ram- phastos Erythrorhyncus. Amongst the Rasores were some red grouse—specimens of the Sand and Blackcock—which had been bred in the cage—a very rare circumstance. There were also a great variety of pigeons, and gallinaceous birds. Amongst the former was the beautiful and interesting passenger-pigeon, in great numbers, leading to the hope that it may soon become naturalized in this country. Of the Cursorial birds there were several fine specimens. Amongst the Grallatores, the Stanley crane (Anthro- poides Stanleyanus ) formed a striking object. It is a native of Africa, and has lately been brought into this country. Of the Natatores there were also numerous species. "Two very fine peli- cans were in close confinement, on account of the ravages they committed on the young of their colleagues, the Anatide, &c. Amongst the animals were several valuable species of deer and antelope; also various Marsupiata from Australia. The noble Earl accompanied the party around the aviary, and seemed to take great interest in his extensive collections. The Salt Mines at Northwich also attracted a good deal of attention, and a.party of about eighty set off on Saturday morn- ing to visit them.- According to previous arrangement, the gen- tlemen who were furnished by the President of the Geological Section with the necessary tickets, assembled at the railway sta- tion at a quarter before eight o’clock, but, owing to some misman- agement, the train appropriated to the party did not start until within a quarter of nine. A little after ten, the train, after a run of thirty miles, came to a stop, and the rest of the journey, a dis- _ tance of about four miles, was accomplished in vehicles which were 1 waiting for the party. On their arrival at the works, 56 British Association for the Advancement of Science. they were conveyed, in succession, to the bottom of the mine in a basket lowered by means of a windlass, four descending to- gether, and then conducted through the various parts of the ex- cavation. ‘There are two beds of the rock-salt, the lower one being exclusively worked, owing to its superior quality. The floor of the mine is 336 feet below the surface, and the portion of the saline mass removed is about 40 feet in height and extends over an area of 30 statute acres. A great. number of successive strata of clay, more or less indurated, occur between the upper stratum of salt and the surface, and the two saline deposits are separated by analogous formations, the portions of those next the salt being intersected with little veins of the Sal gem, exhibiting a beautiful scarlet color, no doubt due to the presence of a small quantity of sesqui-chloride of iron. After having traversed the whole of the excavation, which was lit up in a most magnificent manner—several thousand candles having been employed for the purpose—the visitors were regaled within this subterranean palace with a very elegant déjeuné. We have seldom seen a company sit down in higher spirits, or to a better entertainment ; and it is scarcely necessary to say, that when the health of the propri- etors—particularly of Mr. Worthington, who had conducted the party from Liverpool, and also through the mine, was given, it was drunk with the utmost enthusiasm. ‘The entertainment being concluded, some fireworks were exhibited, which lighting up the excavation with various shades of colors, produced effects which it is no exaggeration to describe as at once grand and ter- rific. ‘God save the Queen,” and, at the suggestion of Mr. Por- ter, a psalm, having been sung immediately beneath the shaft, the whole party ascended, and returning by the same method of con- veyance, reached the railroad station in Lime Street at five o’clock. While the party was below, Dr. Crook took occasion to make some geological remarks applicable to saliferous deposits, and drew at- tention to a peculiar appearance in several parts of the roof of the mine, from which he concluded that the salt originally soli- dified in globular masses, the crystallization proceeding from a centre. ‘The temperature of the mine, which we should conjec- ture to be about 48°, was understood to be very equable through- out the whole year,—and not a particle of moisture was any where to be seen. Temperature of the Terrestrial Gilobe, Src. 57 Arr. Il.—Memoir upon the Temperature of the solid parts of the Globe, of the Atmosphere, and of those regions of space traversed by the Earth; by M. Poisson. Communicated to the Academy of Sciences, of Paris, at the Session of that body, held on the 30th of January, 1837. Translated from the French, for this Journal, by R. W. Hasxins,” of Buffalo, N.Y. I propose to offer, in this memoir, an epitome of the principal results which are found in my work, entitled ‘“ Théorie mathe- matique de la Chaleur ;” (1) to add thereto some new remarks, and to recapitulate the principles upon which these results are founded. . Near the surface of the globe the temperature, at every point, varies with the different hours of the day, and with the different days of the year. In considering these variations, Fourier, sup- posing the temperature of the surface given, has confined himself to deduce from this the temperature of a given depth; thus leav- ing unknown the relations that should exist between the exteriour and interiour temperatures. 'T'o determine these relations Laplace has assumed, for the exteriour temperature, that which is indi- cated by a thermometer exposed to the air, in the shade, and which depends, in an unknown manner, upon the heat of the air in contact with the instrument, upon the radiant heat of the sun, and upon that of the atmosphere. I have exhibited this problem * To Pror. Sirtiman.—Dear Sir: In the number of your Journal for April last, you gave a translation of one of Baron Fourier’s papers upon the temperature of the Terrestrial Globe and the Planetary Spaces. A view of this subject, differ- ent from Fourier’s, has recently been taken by S. D. Poisson, in his treatise upon Heat; and of which work the author has given a condensed outline in a paper that appears in Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de Académie des Sciences, No. for 30th of January last. Of the merits of either of these theories I assume not to judge; but as it seems highly probable that those who take an interest in these investigations would be pleased to see something of M. Poisson’s views, I send, herewith, a translation of a part of the article in question. I have given but a part, as the paper is long, and much of it is devoted to mathematical demonstration, which I suppose would hardly interest the general reader, while those who wish such demonstration will, of course, seek it at length, in the author’s work, referred to. Respectfully yours, Buffalo, Nov. 3, 1837. R. W. Haskins. (1) 4to. Paris, Bachelier, 1235. Vou. XXXIV.—No. I. ea) 58 Temperature of the Terrestrial G'lobe, under another point of view, more in conformity with the nature of the question; and I have proposed to determine the tempera- ture of the earth, at a given depth, and upon a given vertical line, from the quantity of solar heat which traverses the surface at each instant. In any given place upon this surface, the quan- tity of heat varies, during the day, and the year, with that of the elevation of the sun above the horizon, and with the declination. I have considered it as a function disconnected from time, nothing while the sun is below the horizon, and expressed at ali other epochs, by means of the horary angle and the longitude of the sun; and by known formulas I have transformed this function into a series of sines and cosines of the multiples of these two angles; and by means of the formulas of my preceding memoirs, I have subsequently determined, for each term of this series, the temperature of any depth whatever—which is a complete solu- tion of the problem. Of this temperature there are series of diurnal inequalities, of which the periods are of one entire day or a sub-multiple of a day ; and annual inequalities of which the periodick times em- brace a year or a sub-multiple of a year. Upon each vertical, the maximum of each of these inequalities is propagated uniformly downward, with a velocity dependent solely upon the nature of the soil; so that the interval comprised between the epochs of this maximum, for two points separated by a given distance, is the same, and proportional to this distance, in all places of the zlobe where the soil is of the same nature. At the surface, the interval which separates the maximum of one of these inequali- ties from that of the correspondent inequality of the solar heat, is invariable, with regard to geographical position; but it depends, at all times, upon the nature of the soil and the condition of the surface. It is the same with regard to the relation between these two mazima, of which the first is always less than the second ; but the length of each vertical, the maximum of each inequality of temperature decreases in geometrical progression when the depths increase by equal differences; and the relation of this pro- eression depends only upon the nature of the soil. If we exam- ine, upon the same vertical, the inequalities of temperature, of which the periods are different, their expression will show that these which have the shortest periods are propagated with the greatest rapidity, and that they decrease, also, the most rapidly. and of the Planetary Spaces. 59 In general, the diurnal inequalities are insensible, at the depth of one metre, (2) and the annual inequalities disappear at the dis- tance of twenty métres from the surface; while at about one third that distance this is reduced to an inequality of which the period embraces the entire year. At the depth of six or eight meétres the temperature offers, then, but one maximum and one minimum during the year ; which have an interval of six months between them, corresponding to the epochs of greatest and least solar heat. Beyond a depth of about twenty metres the temper- ature no longer varies with the seasons; or, at least, it can only experience secular variations which have not yet been observed. Upon each vertical the inequalities of temperature, both daily and annual, are accompanied by an ascendant or descendant flux of heat, the quantity and direction of which varies with the time and the depth. ‘The extent of these inequalities and of this flux of heat is not the same, in all latitudes; at the equator, for ex- ample, the annual inequalities mostly disappear, and consequently the temperature should there be very nearly constant, at a much less depth than at any other place. * * * * * % * Near the surface of the earth the mean temperature due to the solar heat varies with the obliquity of the ecliptick, which enters into the function I have designated by Q. This secular inequal- ity, like those which are daily and annual, is attended with a va- riation in the direction of depth, which we are not able to deter- mine with accuracy, in default of knowing the expression of the obliquity of the ecliptick, in the function of time; but the data we have of the extreme slowness of the displacement of the ecliptick, and of the minuteness of this displacement suffice to show that the variations of terrestrial temperature, arising from this cause, are very feeble, and can therefore but slightly influ- ence the observed increase of temperature, at augmented depths. Fourier, aad afterwards Laplace, attributed this phenomenon. to the original heat which the earth has still preserved, and which they suppose to increase constantly, from the surface to the cen- tre of the globe; so that, while at the centre there is a tempera- ture excessively elevated, yet near the surface the heat, from this cause, is scarcely perceptible: that in virtue of this primitive (2) The métre is =3.2808992 English feet, 60 Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe, heat, the temperature, at this time, is more than 2000 degrees, (3) at a distance from the surface not exceeding the one hundredth of the earth’s radius; while at the centre of our globe this tem- perature surpasses 200,000 degrees, estimating it according to the ordinary formulas which relate to solid, homogeneous bodies. (4) But, although this explanation has been generally adopted, I have shown, in my work, the difficulties which it presents, and which, it appears to me, render it inadmissible. I believe I have there shown in what manner the earth must have long since lost all heat which it may primitively have had; and subsequent reflec- tion having confirmed me in this opinion, I shall present it here with more precision and assurance than at first. The almost spherical form of the earth and planets, and their depression at the poles of rotation, leave no room to doubt that these bodies were originally in a fluid state. In the problem having for its object the determination of the figure of these bodies, geometricians consider them, in fact, as liquid masses, composed of layers, each having the same density throughout all its extent ; and the whole revolving round the same axis, of con- stant direction, with a known and constant velocity. "The den- sity decreases, from one layer to another, in receding from the centre towards the surface, either because these heterogeneous layers have distinct densities, and are regarded as incompres- sible, and that the most dense have sunk towards the centre for the stability of the system; or rather because, according to the opinion of D. Bernouilli, subsequently revived by Thomas Young, all these layers were formed of one hemogeneous liquid, susceptible of a certain degree of compression, and of which the density consequently increases, in approaching the centre, by reason of the pressure, also increasing, which the liquid exercises upon itself. In either case they suppose the entire mass of liquid, (3) Centigrade division is that employed by the author, throughout his work. (4) At page 428 of the author’s Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur, he has the following passage : ‘‘ At the centre, and throughout the greater part of its mass, the materials of which the earth is composed would then be in a state of incandescent gas; yet so condensed that their mean density would surpass, five times, that of water. To contain these, at such a degree of condensation and of heat, an extraordinary force would be necessary, of which we can form little idea; and we may doubt if the solidified layers of the globe would have thickness and cohesion sufficient to resist the dilating power of these interiour, fluidelayers.” and of the Planetary Spaces. 61 after numerous oscillations, arrived at a permanent figure, which was determined in this state of fluidity, and that the liquid sub- sequently preserved this figure while passing to a solid state. The solution of this problem of hydrostaticks requires only a knowledge of the temperature of the liquid; but now, if we sup- pose that this heat was very great, and much superiour to the temperature of the regions of space surrounding the planet, we see not what exteriour pressure there could have been which pre- vented the liquid from dilating itself to a state of vapour, instead of passing from a liquid to a solid state: and if it was possible that the layers near the surface had commenced, through conden- sation, to assume the solid state, before the interiour layers had lost their primitive heat, we can no more clearly understand how these last, by their tendency to dilation, of which we understand the power, should not burst the solid, exteriour envelope as often as formed. It is farther to be observed that this high temperature of our planet, in the liquid state, is a gratuitous assumption of which it would be difficult to find an explanation. (5) It is true that when a body is at first a liquid, more or less compressible, of which the layers would augment in density, in going from the surface to the centre, and terminate by passing to a solid state, by reason of the pressure from without, this condensation and this change of condition would develope a great quantity of heat ; but it is necessary to observe that in this view of the subject the solidification would probably commence at the centre of the mass : the nucleus, thus solidified, would become a focus of heat, which would raise the temperature of the immediately surrounding layer, still in a liquid state; this layer, thus heated, and its density di- minished, would be elevated, and its place supplied by a new layer which, in passing to the solid state, would radiate heat in like manner, and so in succession, until the entire mass should have become a solid. In this manner the solid nucleus, gradually augmenting, would communicate, to the parts still liquid, the quantities of heat successively disengaged from newly solidified (5) Some interesting remarks upon central heat occur in Lyell’s Geology, Amer- ican edition, 1837, vol. 1, p. 452, and onward. The last English edition, of which this one is a copy, was published during the present year ; yet it is probable the author had not seen M. Poisson’s Theory of Heat, as he quotes both Fourier and Cordier, and controyerts their theory, but without mention of Poisson. 62 Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe, layers, while, by reason of the mobility of the liquid particles, these quantities of heat would be carried to the surface, where the whole would be dissipated, by radiation, through the sur- rounding space. While thus passing to a solid state, the liquid mass would lose all the heat developed by this change. But this may be better understood in ascending to the probable cause of the primitive fluidity of the planets. This we may illustrate by reasoning on the known hypothesis of Laplace, upon the origin of these bodies, namely, that they are portions of the sun’s atmosphere, which it has successively: aban- doned, in concentrating itself around that body. ‘The earth was, then, primitively, an aériform mass, of very great volume, rela- tively to what it now is, and formed of the different materials, solids and fluids, of which it is now composed, which were then in a state of vapour, that is of an aériform fluid, of which the density could not surpass a given maximum, proportional to its degree of heat, and which would become liquid or solid accord- ing to the augmentation of the pressure it experienced, without changing its temperature. That of the earth would depend, then, upon the point it should occupy in space, and upon its dis- tance from the sun; and might be more or less elevated. But independently of the attractions and repulsions which take place only among particles near each other, and which produce the elas- tick force of aériform fluids, equal and contrary to the pressure they sustain, the particles of the earth were also subject to their mutual attraction, in the inverse ratio of the squares of their dis- tances; and from this force there resulted, upon all the layers of the fluid mass, a pressure, nothing at its surface, increasing from the surface to the centre, and which, at the centre itself, becomes exceedingly great, surpassing 100,000 times, the weight of the present atmosphere. It is this increasing pressure, and not an ex- teriour temperature much lower than that of the fluid, which has successively reduced all the layers to a solid state, commencing with those at the centre, and continuing from one to another, until nothing remained except the matter composing the oceans and the atmosphere of the present day. But this reduction has not been instantaneous; for a certain period of time was neces- sary for each layer to approach the centre, towards which it was urged, by the pressure it experienced, and which was the exci- ting cause of this movement. Now we may readily infer, when and of the Planetary Spaces. 63 we call to mind the almost infinite velocity of radiation, that time enough has elapsed for the different layers of the earth, in passing to a solid state, to have lost all the heat developed during their change, and which escaped, by radiation, through the supe- riour layers, still in a state of vapour; so that long prior to the present period, the last trace of this heat, however great it may have been, had disappeared. An effect similar to that we are now considering would result, for example, if we produce a hori- zontal cylinder, of great length, closed at the ends, and filled with steam at the temperature of the exteriour, and at the mazi- mum of density. In this position of the cylinder, the weight of the fluid would exercise no influence, and the pressure would be the same throughout the mass; but if we place this cylinder in a. vertical position, the weight of the various layers of the fluid would produce a pressure, increasing in the direction of gravity, that of each being added to the preceding; and in this manner the several layers would become condensed to a liquid, in regu- lar succession. ‘The movement of each layer, during its descent, it would be difficult to determine, but, the time of its duration would certainly be sufficient for the latent heat of the liquefied vapour to escape, by radiation, if we suppose the sides of the cyl- inder, or even only its top to oppose no obstacle to radiation, or to be permeable to radiant heat; and in this ‘manner the water of which the vapour had been composed would not become heated, but would preserve the temperature of the exteriour. In discarding, then, the opinion that the observed increase of temperature of the earth, with the increase of depth from its surface, is attributable to the original heat our globe may have had, I have proposed another explanation of this phenomenon, founded upon a cause of which the existence is certain, and which may certainly produce an effect similar to that which we observe. ‘This cause is the inequality of heat in the regions of space traversed by the earth, in its movement therein, with the sun and all the planetary system. (6) 'The temperature of any giv- en point of space, or that which would be indicated by a thermo- meter placed at that point, is produced by the radiant heat from the stars, which traverses space in all possible directions. ‘These stars form, around each point of space, an immense circumfer- (6) Has such a movement been recognized ? 64 Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe, ence, closed on every side; since, from such point, in any direc- tion, whatever, if a right line be produced, of indefinite extent, it will terminate by encountering a star, either visible or invis- ible. Now, whatever may be its form and its dimensions, if this enclosure had, throughout, the same temperature, that of all space would be the same; but this is not the case: the heat as well as the light of each star is maintained by some peculiar cause, and these incandescent bodies tend not, therefore, to a uniformity of temperature, by the exchanges of radiant heat. ‘This admitted, it follows that the temperature of space varies, one point with another; yet by reason of the immensity of the stellary enclo- sure, it is only by comparing the temperature of points greatly distant from each other that this variation would become percep- tible. In distances no greater than that traversed by the earth, in its annual orbit, the temperature of space would be sensibly identical ; but in regions so elongated as are parts of that through which the sun and the planets are carried, in their common move- ment, this would not remain the same ; and the earth, in common with all the other bodies, would experience corresponding varia- tions of temperature. Still, from the magnitude of its mass, it may readily be seen that in passing from a heated to a colder re- gion our globe would not readily lose, in the second, all the heat it had imbibed in the first; but, like a body of considerable vol- ume that we might transport from the equator to our climate, so the earth, on arriving in a more frigid region, would present, as we see the earth really does, a temperature increasing from the surface towards the centre. ‘The opposite would take place when the earth, by continuation of its movement in space, shall pass from a cold region to one of a temperature more elevated. Both the extent and the periods of these variations are unknown to us; but, like all the inequalities of long periods, like those, for instance, arising from the secular displacement of the ecliptick, if they were sensible, these variations will extend themselves to very great depths, although not to the centre of the earth; nor, perhaps, to a distance from the surface which will bear any con- siderable proportion to the radius of our globe: still, the increase or decrease of temperature, in a vertical direction, which will ac- company them, will extend far below the utmost depths accessi- ble to us; where they will attain their mazimum, and beyond such point will disappear. We may assume, upon the inequali- and of the Planetary Spaces. 65 ties of temperature of the regions of space traversed by the earth, an infinity of hypotheses which could serve but as examples of calculations, proper only to show how these inequalities should influence the temperature of the surface of the globe ; and that this influence may be sensible it is only necessary that the con- secutive maximum and minimum of the heat of space differ widely, and that they be separated by very long intervals of time. According to the example which I have arbitrarily chosen in my work, the temperature of space, in one million of years, would pass from + 100° to — 100°, and return again from — 100° to + 100°; and if we should farther suppose that it is now at its minimum, an increase of the temperature of the earth, in a ver- tical direction, from the surface towards the centre, very nearly equal to that we observe would be the result. ‘This increase will be sensibly uniform, at.all accessible depths: it will vary beyond ; and at a depth of about 7000 metres the temperature of the globe will attain its maximum, and surpass, by about 107° that of the surface: beyond this it will diminish, so that at about 60,000 mé- tres from the surface the influence of the inequalities of the tem- perature of space will have entirely disappeared. In the same example the temperature of the surface of the globe, 5,000 cen- turies since, would have surpassed that of the present day little less than 200°, and it will again be the same when another 5,000 centuries shall have elapsed; a temperature that must have ren- dered, and will again render the earth unhabitable to the hu- man species: but 500 centuries before, and 500 centuries after the period in which we live, the temperature of the surface would not exceed, by more than about 5°, that which we now witness. Such is, in my opinion, the true cause of the augmentation of temperature which we experience upon each vertical line, from the earth’s surface, towards its centre, in proportion to the dis- tance from that surface. In this theory the mean temperature of the superficies varies with extreme lentitude, but incomparably less than the portion of temperature which might be due to prim- itive heat, if that was still sensible. Farthermore, this variation is alternative, and thus is able to concur to the explanation of the revolution to which the exteriour layers of the globe have been subject; while, on the contrary, such portion of the temperature as might be due to the other cause diminishes constantly, and this without alternation. If the increased temperature observed Vou. XX XIV.—No. 1. 9 66 Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe, in a vertical direction should really be due to the original heat of the globe, it would follow that, at the present epoch, this primi- tive heat would augment the temperature of the surface itself by a small fraction of a degree; but, that this small augmentation might reduce itself, for instance, one half, it would be necessary that more than a-thousand millions of centuries elapse ; and if we desire to retrograde to an epoch at which this may have been sufficient to produce the observed geological phenomena, it would be necessary to ascend the stream of time such an immense num- ber of centuries as would alarm the most fearless imagination, whatever idea may otherwise be entertained of the antiquity of our planet. * * * We * * % There is reason to believe that, of stellary heat, equal quanti- ties are not transmitted to us from all the various regions of the heavens. If we imagine a cone, extremely pointed, which has its summit in some point of the surface of the earth, and which is prolonged to the fixed stars; by reason of the very great dis- tance of the earth from these stars, this cone would embrace an immense number of them; and it is the mean of the quantities of heat that they thus emit which I take for the intensity of stel- lary heat in that direction. Now it is out of all probability that this intensity would remain the same, if we suppose this cone moved round its summit, and pointed, successively, in every dif- ferent direction; or if we remove its summit, and transport it, in succession, from one place to another upon the earth’s surface: still the most delicate experiments would alone be able to disclose to us those parts of the heavens from which the stellary radiation is of the greatest or least intensity ; nor has observation hitherto aided us, in the least, upon this subject—one of the most inter- esting of celestial physicks. At the different hours of the day, the total quantity of stellary heat which reaches any point of the earth, emanates from all the celestial bodies situated above the horizon of such point, and it may therefore vary, in any given time, at one place with another, and cannot be the same, for ex- ample, at the equator and at the poles. The quantity of stellary heat which comes to us in the same interval of time must also be very unequal in the two hemispheres ; and this inequality is one of the possible causes of the difference of the mean temperature of the northern and southern hemispheres. and of the Planetary Spaces. 67 Tn relation to the physical constitution of the atmosphere, the laws of the decrease of the quantity of vapour, of density, and of temperature, proportioned to elevation above the horizon are not accurately known. The decrease of one degree for 172 mé- tres of difference in vertical elevation, as drawn from the aéros- tatick experiments of M. Gay Lussac refers to the temperature indicated by the thermometer suspended in the open air, but this does not disclose to us that of the layers of air themselves, of which the actual temperature determines the radiation, and per- haps exercises an influence upon the absorbent power. All we know, in this repect, is, that the mean temperature of the air in contact with the surface of the globe should equal that of the surface itself; and that, at the superiour limit of the atmosphere, the actual temperature of the fluid cannot surpass that of its li- quefaction to such degree as that the density should be reduced. The first condition results, as previously stated, from the contin- ual contact of the inferiour layer of the atmosphere with the earth’s surface ; the second is a necessary condition to the equi- librium of the fluid mass, and independent of the general equa- tion of this equilibrium. In fact, if we divide this mass into concentrick layers so infi- nitely thin that the weight of each layer should be insensible, the weight of an interiour layer would suflice, nevertheless, to coun- terpoise the difference of pressure which would be exercised, in - opposite directions, upon these two faces, which has for its extent the elastick forces of the two adjacent layers; but, the most ele- vated layer experiencing no pressure upon its superiour face, could not, by its weight, balance the pressure exercised upon the other face, if this were appreciable ; consequently the elastick force of the air should be nothing at the limit of the atmosphere, of which the distance, from the surface of the earth, is much less than the distance at which its centrifugal force would destroy its gravity. Now, the elastick force cannot be reduced to zero, because it de- creases only in the ratio of the density, according to the law of Mariotte ; and however reduced, therefore, the density of the air may be, it will retain an elastick force by virtue of which it will be still farther dilated ; and the atmosphere thus deprived of any fixed limit, would extend through all space. It cannot be ob- jected that the atmosphere would be maintained in place by the pressure of the ether upon its superiour surface; for this ether 68 Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe, §c. would penetrate into the air, and its elastick force from within would equal that from without, so that this power would be bal- anced. It is, then, through the agency of cold that the superiour layers of the atmosphere are deprived of their elasticity. Near its superiour surface the temperature of the air should be that of the liquefaction of this fluid, and the layer of liquid air should be of such thickness as-that its weight may equal the elastick force of the inferiour air, upon which it rests. If the molecular force should disappear in this exteriour layer, in consequence of the mutual distance of the molecules, rendered very great by the ex- treme rarefaction of the fluid, this layer could not support itself upon that immediately beneath; the gravity of its molecules to- wards the earth could not be destroyed except we suppose a velo- city of rotation and a centrifugal force communicated to them greater than to those of this other layer; and this experiencing no exteriour pressure, should be considered the extreme layer of the atmosphere, which can only lose its elasticity by liquefaction. We know not, accurately, the temperature necessary to a lique- faction of atmospherick air, at its ordinary density, and still less in the rarefied state of its superiour layers ; but there can be no doubt that it is extremely low, and perhaps still more so in a case of feeble density. This ternperature, which is indispensable to a definite termination of the atmosphere, is, it appears to me, the true cause of the excessive cold of its superiour part, and of the decrease of the heat of its successive layers, in proportion as we ascend from the surface of the earth. ‘This phenomenon, then, would still take place if the atmosphere were perfectly in repose ; it is not therefore owing, as has been sometimes supposed, to an ascen- sional movement of the air, in which this fluid is dilated by the diminution of pressure, and becomes cooled in consequence. Those who have given this explanation have not observed that this upward movement is accompanied by another, in the contrary direction, and that in this double movement the masses of air mingle together, and traverse each other, mutually, so that it would be difficult to decide whether the final result should be an aug- mentation or a diminution of the density and the mean tempera- ture of the whole. But we must not lose sight of the fact that this extremely low temperature of the superiour layer of the at- mosphere is that of the air itself, and not that which would be indicated by a thermometer placed therein. This might be much t Remarks on the Geology of Maine. 69 more elevated; it would arise from the contact of the air, and from the radiant heat of the stars, sun, earth and atmosphere ; but the first of these could have little influence, from the extreme tenuity of the fluid; so that the mean temperature indicated by the thermometer would differ very little from that which it would indicate if it were removed from the atmosphere and placed a short distance above it. * * * % % % * Norre.—In the proceedings of the Academy, on the fei of April last, the following passage occurs : “‘M. Poisson presented a supplement to his work, entitled Thé- orie Mathématique de la Chaleur. This supplement is consti- tuted of the Memoir upon the Temperature of the solid parts of the Gilobe, of the Atmosphere, and of those regions of space tra- versed by the Earth, which was inserted in the Compte Rendu de la séance de l’Académie of the 30th of January last; and to which the author has added several notes, relating, principally, to the temperature of the earth and of space, at different epochs. One of these notes contains the complete determination of the laws of refrigeration of a sphere of very great diameter, as the earth, for example, which has not before been deduced from the- ory. Another contains an example of the calculation of the tem- peratures and densities of the atmospherick layers, regard being had to the propagation of heat from layer to layer, and to the con- ditions which terminate the atmosphere ; that is, to the condition of an elastic force which is nothing in the upper layer of the at- mosphere ; which can only result from a temperature of this layer proper to its liquefaction.” - Arr. IIL.—Miscellaneous Remarks on certain portions of the Gre- ology of Maine, in a letter from Dr. Cuarues 'T'. Jackson, to the E'ditor, dated Boston, Nov. 13th, 1837. TO PROF. B. SILLIMAN. Str—I nave lately returned home after spending five months in the continuation of the geological survey of Maine, two months of which time has been eee. in the forests of the public lands of that state. 70 Remarks on the Geology of Maine. The facts which we have observed are of a most interesting character, and much time and great labor will be required, in digesting and setting in order the various observations which we have collected. © My first object was to continue the outline survey of the sea coast, from Blue hill to the New Hampshire line. When this was completed, I made a sectional line across. the middle of the state inland, parallel to the sea coast. Then I made a sectional survey, from the mouth of the Penobscott to the gulf of the St. Lawrence. | After this, I followed the east branch of the Penobscott and the Lebois to their sources, and passed over to the Aroostook river, and followed it down to its confluence with the St. John’s. I also surveyed the greater portion of the New Hampshire line of Maine. By following this order, the most perfect outlines of the geological structure of the country have been obtained, and the facts are very important in relation to both science and the arts. I have had also to perform in many of my sections, the duties of geographer and topographical engineer, since the country was almost wholly unknown, and was erroneously laid down on the state maps. Difficult and laborious has been the task; but I have every reason to feel satisfied, that the work was as carefully executed as the time and means in my hands would allow. : J took great pains to ascertain accurately the altitude of every important point by barometrical levelling, and the precautions taken ensured accuracy in the results. Having procured two of the best English barometers that could be obtained, I took great eare to bring them to the exact standard, and regulated the ther- mometers by a perfect standard French instrument, made ex- pressly for me by Collardeau. I then established a line of ba- rometrical correspondence across the state ; this was done by ma- king an agreement with a number of gentlemen to keep exact registers of their instruments, the difference between theirs and mine having been carefully noted. Daniel Sewall, Esq. of Ken- nebunk, Rev. Solomon Adams, of Portland, Prof. Cleaveland, of Brunswick, Mr. R. H. Gardiner, of Gardiner, and O. Frost, Esq. of Bangor, were engaged to keep the required registers, and were very attentive and exact in their observations. Now the object in this plan you will readily understand, was to be perfectly sure that there was no local difference in the atmospheric pressure, or Remarks on the Geology of Maine. “1 if there was any, to have it noted and allowed for. When alti- tudes are taken with all these precautions, we can rely upon them with perfect confidence. The various tables will be pub- lished in my report for this year. I was more especially desirous of learning the height of the ter- tiary deposits in various parts of the state, since they will give us the elevation formerly held by the ancient ocean which made these fossiliferous deposits. I also wished to know the height of ihe land for the purpose of making sections of the state in profile. I have measured:also the altitude of the most remarkable moun- tains in the state. Ihave collected, to illustrate the geology of Maine, about sev- enty large boxes of excellent specimens of rocks and minerals, all of which, with their localities, were labeled on the spot, the mo- ment they were taken,—each assistant being supplied with a bottle of softened gum tragacanth and paper for the purpose. There are abundant proofs collected, demonstrating the valuable mineral resources of the state. Statistical information has also been obtained, where it was possible, respecting the precise amount of value received by the sale of quarry stones, lime, marble, é&c. : I also examined into the geological seein nature, distribution, chemical composition, and capabilities of the various soils of the state, and the information attained will form a chapter on agri- cultural geology, lected, but one full of instruction. We have collected a great number of observations relating to the interesting subject of diluvial transportation and diluvial fur- rows. How much I should be delighted could any of those geol- ogists in Europe, who feel sceptical on the subject, visit with me the numerous and most decided proofs which are presented in Maine, demonstrating the general direction and power of the dilu- vial current. I think that no reasonable person would venture to stand in opposition to the facts which we can present in illustra- tion of this doctrine. Ido most ardently wish, that Mr. Lyell and Dr. Boué, two excellent geologists, who do not feel disposed to admit the results adduced by our very able friend, Prof. Hitch- cock, and others, would come over to this country and see for themselves, the most tangible proofs that were ever adduced. 72 Remarks on the Geology of Maine. I have found strong diluvial marks extending across the whole state of Maine, and the transported boulders are always traced to their origin in the direction of the furrows wom on the rocks. There was never a better country than Maine, in which to settle this important question, for there are wide belts of rocks of dif- ferent kinds, dividing the’ state into distinct geological sections. I cannot take time now to enter into details, but will observe, that the direction of the diluvial current in Maine, is proved to have been from N. 10 to N. 20° W. to S. 10 to 20° E. or the mean will be N. 15° W. to S. 15° KE. This too is the uniform direction of those diluvial accumulations called ‘ horsebacks,” which abound in the state, and form long ridges like rail road embankments, frequently extending for many miles. While engaged in the survey of the Aroostook river, I discov- ered another powerful bed of rich red hematite iron ore, thirty-six feet wide, running through a thickly wooded country, where it may be advantageously wrought by means of charcoal, ito the roost valuable kinds of iron and steel. I have also discovered several valuable beds of magnetic iron ore, which -will doubtless be wrought so soon as their value is known to the people inter- ested. Limestone, marble of great beauty, granite, mica slate, and other valuable quarry stones abound. While exploring the soils of York and Oxford counties, I was surprised to find, that, although the country appeared to be com- posed wholly of granite and gneiss rocks, the soil was wonder- fully rich and produced admirable crops of wheat. "This was not to be expected from a purely granite soil, and on more minute ex- amination, I found that the gneiss on the sides of most of the granite mountains alternated with thin beds of limestone, from an inch to a foot in thickness, and resembled so closely the gneiss in color as to have at first escaped my observation. ‘This at once accounts for the fertility of the soil, for it is made up of decompo- sed gneiss and limestone as well as granite rocks, and hence is well adapted to the cultivation of wheat. The soils around the Kennebunk river are generally impreg- nated- with sulphate of iron from pyrites, and require liming to amend them and render them fertile. - But little attention has been paid to the nature of soils by our farmers, and this is the reason why they do not succeed better in amending them. Notices of Mount Washington and the vicinity. 73 The manner also in which the layers of clay, sand, and other soils are distributed is important, and comes within the province of geology. I noticed in one town a spot where this was very evident, the soil being sandy, and resting on a clay substratum. In one part of the field the corn was then four feet high, and in the other only two, although the soil was exactly alike and the manure the same in nature and amount. 'The cause was traced to the difference in the depth to a certain stratum of clay which was near the surface, where the corn was luxuriant, and deep be- low, where the corn was feeble. So the manure sank in the lat- ter case too low to be reached by the roots of plants. I have discovered the actual bituminization of peat in a bog, at Limerick, in Maine. The substance is in fibrous masses like brown coal, and burns with yellow flame and smoke. It is found ten feet from the surface of the bog. When this substance is heated in a glass tube, it gives out an abundance of coal gas, and bitumen distils off freely. This, I believe, is the first instance in which peat has been observed actually passing into bitumin- ous coal. I have also found another curious fact, viz. three beds of anthracite coal in slate that has been melted into hornstone by a@ great mass of trap rocks. Arr. 1V.—Popular Notices of Mount Washington and the vicinity; by G. W. Nicuois,—with additional remarks by the E'ditor. Bedford, N. Y., Jan. 10th, 1838. TO PROF. SILLIMAN. Dear Sir—Havine made a short tour through New England, in the summer of 1836, I now send you for the American Jour- nal, some notices of scenery and other objects, which fell under my observation while passing through the White mountains of New Hampshire. On Wednesday, August 17, 1836, I left Bath, (a neat and enterprising village on the Amonoosuck river,) for the White mountains. ‘The ride from this place was truly delightful ; for it was under a clear sky, and very agreeably diversified by beau- tiful and splendid scenery. Our road lay, a part of the time, along the picturesque banks of the Amonoosuck, and it led us also Vou. XXXIV.—No, 1. 10 74 Notices of Mount Washington and the vicinity. over hills and through dense forests of stately evergreens. The level country, which had followed us along the banks of the Con- necticut, was soon exchanged for gradual undulations, of a re~ gion with a barren soil, which continued to rise higher, and spread wider, until we reached the valley lying near the base of the mountains. A very perceptible difference in the temperature could be felt, as we gradually made our way upward; and, not- withstanding it was now not far from the middle of August, the scanty crops had nearly all been destroyed by the frost. Indeed, the weather was so cold, that blazing fires were found at most of the inns where we stopped. 'The sparse population of the moun- tains is obliged to depend upon the neighboring country for their agricultural supplies, and all that is not consumed, finds a market in Portland. Now and then, as you pass along, the eye rests upon a little strip of cleared land, composing the farm of some moun- taineer. ‘There was one which peculiarly arrested our attention. It embraced, along with a few acres of ground, a small rude hut, consisting of pine logs piled one upon the other, and made tight by means of plaster. A roof of rough boards was thrown over the logs. What a contrast between this rude habitation and the splendid mansions of our cities! Science and commerce nourish the arts, and the arts make the difference between the mountain hut and the city palace. The scenery, as you approach the mountain, increases in gran- deur and sublimity. Vast and interminable ridges of mountains rise on all sides, one above another, until they seem to be blended with the distant horizon. The white peaks of these mountain groups, appearing as if snow clad, tower above all other objects and hide themselves in the clouds. Ascent of the Mountain. On Thursday morning, August 18th, our company (consisting of three persons and the guide) left the dwelling of our host at the early hour of six. Thence we proceeded, as fast as our horses could carry us, through forests, over swamps and rugged steeps, by a path filled with mud, stones, and roots of trees. Ar- riving at some distance from the foot of Mount Washington, our horses were tied to trees and thence we proceeded on foot. The ascent was at first gradual, but soon became in the main ex- ceedingly steep, and we scrambled on over rocks, piled one upon Notices of Mount Washington and the vicinity. 75 another, and answering for rude stairs. Nearly half our journey from the foot of the mountain was through a pine forest, and the rest over rocks and barrens. 'The whole distance ascended on foot is three miles. About half way up, I discerned a small shrub adhering to the rocks in the manner of a vine, and named by our guide the dwarf spruce. This was the last appearance of vege- tation. The summit, for the distance of half a mile on all sides, is composed of immense rocks, promiscuously heaped together, while the view which it affords, is beyond what the most vivid imagination can conceive. In this elevated region, soft, silky clouds were seen floating around and beneath. And no object could be more splendidly gorgeous, than one of these clouds when ilumined by the sun. The barrenness of an unbroken winter, whose bleak winds are whistling around, rests on all the scene. Towards the west, north, and south, it might be said of the mountains, ** Like Alps on Alps they rise,” until, on the east, their summits mingle with the heavens. An immense valley stretches out before you, in which the Saco may be distinctly seen pursuing its way to the ocean. The furrows and ruins of a number of avalanches too, are visible in the sides of the mountains. These possess a melancholy interest from the fact, that one of them, about eleven years since, borne onward from the mountain top by a sudden deluge,* swept away an en- tire family, (nine in number,) into the Saco, where their bodies were found among the earth, and stones, and trees, the ruins transported by the flood. On the following day, after my re- tum from the mountain, I stopped to view the scene of this most tragical occurrence. It lies on the public road to Portland, in a stupendous defile between the mountains, commonly called the ‘Notch.’ The two mountain ridges here approach very near, and there is only room for the small river Saco and a road, with a few patches of cultivated ground. The house in which this unfortunate family resided remains, and is now as it was then, an inn. ‘Those, who at that time administered to the necessities of the traveller, are now no more! It is said that they ran out of the house during the night, supposing that the avalanche was coming * So violent was the friction of the descending masses of rocks, that streaks of light, filling the air with an electrical odor, Hashed along their paths, illuminating the palpable darkness of that dreadful night—Ep. 76 Notices of Mount Washington and the vicinity. directly upon them. Had they remained in the house they would have been safe, and in emerging, they ran to destruction; for at the distance of only a few yards from their dwelling, the fatal torrent overtook them and swept them away.* The view here presented of the mountain sides, on the right and left, is terrific in the extreme. Enormous ledges of rock hang over them, frown- ing upon the traveller below. Beautiful cascades likewise may be seen, tumbling down over these cragged steeps, and whirling in crystal eddies in the deep fountains which they have worn in the rocks. I spent some time in searching for quartz crystals, which are frequently found among the hills. They are of the brown or smoky variety, sometimes very large and beautiful, and are kept for sale at the public houses. After travelling some dis- tance amidst such scenery as this, we at length emerged from the region of mountains and plunged again intoa wide forest, which intervenes between the ‘ White hills’ and the city of Portland. Remarks by the Editor. There are many facts connected with the physical features of these mountains that are worthy of description. Among them no one is more remarkable, than the trap dykes which frequently intersect the granite mountains, cutting them from top to base, and downward, into profound and unfathomable depths; their dark massy walls form a striking contrast with the white, gray, or red granite, or granitic schists, through which they have forced their way. But we leave the description of them to Prof. Hub- bard, of Dartmouth College, whose account will be found in this number of our work. Being for the second time, among the White mountains in the last week of August, of the late season of 1837, I ascended Mount Washington on the first of September, in company with my son and two gentlemen of Boston. The day was mild, and in the main the atmosphere was clear, with occasional flying clouds, flitting over the sun, which fre- quently burst out with autumnal splendor, and illumined all the magnificent mountain groups, and valleys, and defiles, that cover this truly alpine region. The traveller who undertakes the as- cent of Mount Washington, must lay his account to severe fatigue. * Some additional particulars of the catastrophe of the Willey family, alluded to by Mr. Nichols, are mentioned by me, in Vol. XV. p. 220, of this Journal. I vis- ited this place in 1828, with some friends, two years after the event.—Ed. Notices of Mount Washington and the vicinity. im Ladies sometimes go on this adventure, but it were better, in my judgment, that they should not attempt it. It is scarcely pos- sible to afford them any material assistance; they must struggle almost unaided, first through the arduous forest-ride, where none but the practiced and wary-footed animals, that are trained to the service, can carry them in safety; and safety depends, very much, upon permitting the horses to wend their own way, un- molested by guiding, through the deep mud holes, the tangled roots, and the projecting stones and timber, which, notwithstand- ing all that has been done, (and much labor has evidently been expended here,) still obstruct no small portion of the journey through the woods. There are, however, only two or three miles that are thus anxious and fatiguing ; the rest is a plain and open road, the whole distance from the hotel to the foot of the moun- tain being six miles. When the horses are abandoned, then com- mences the severe labor. When we began our ascent, and during most of its pro- gress, I insisted that the party should halt and sit down every twelve or fifteen minutes; three or four minutes of rest was, in general, sufficient to restore a natural respiration and to equalize the circulation of the blood, both being much disturbed by an unceasing ascent, and the muscles are thus overstrained and ex- hausted ; the respiration becomes laborious and the circulation is hurried on, especially through the lungs, with oppressive and even dangerous celerity. ‘These precautions are of the utmost consequence in ascending mountains, and by the neglect of them and especially by yielding to a false pride of vigor and hardi- hood, and to an equally false shame of being thought effeminate, health is hazarded, and sometimes both health and life are de- stroyed.* If ladies insist upon making this ascent, their dress should be adapted to the service, and none should attempt it but those of firm health and sound lungs, and although this remark applies to them in a peculiar manner, it is decidedly applicable also to those of the other sex. * An eminent writer and orator, one of the brightest ornaments of this coun- try, assured me, that he never recovered from the effects of a rapid ascent in his youth, up Mount Ascutney, near Windsor, in Vermont, which is not half so high as Mount Washington. A very lovely and accomplished young lady, of fine talents, but of a spirit which only rose with the difficulties to be encountered, is said to have laid, in this very as- cent up Mount Washington, only a few years since, the foundation of an illness which cut her off prematurely in a foreign Jand. I knew her well. I may add also, 78 Notices of Mount Washington and the vicinity. Our younger friends had been persuaded to make packs of their great coats, being assured that, although the world was smil- _ ing below, they would ere long arrive in a region, where they would be glad to wrap their limbs in these seeming incumbrances ; and so it proved; for, at the distance of a mile from the top of the mountain, we were involved in winter. The dark volumes of vapor which, from the hotel whence we departed, appeared in detached masses, only as a light drapery, gracefully rolling up the breast and over the hoary peak of Mount Washington, were now congealed, and involved us in a white driving cloud that froze on our apparel, and tufted the rocks with splendid crys- tallizations of ice. Here our guide, having issued the welcome command to dine, opened at once the treasures of his pack, that we might obtain vigor for the remainder of our toil, the severest part of which was still before us. Our refreshments were indeed most acceptable and salutary ; but our hands were so benumbed with the cold, that we _——— scarcely convey the food to our mouths. From our hasty repast, we started again, as if pursuing or pur- sued, and struggled onward over immense piles of ruins frosted with the congealed vapor, and thus rendered treacherous to the feet, which were constantly in danger of sliding into the innu- merable chasms and holes that yawned around our path. Our toil grew more and more severe,—not a vestige of human foot- steps remained, and we were guided only by piles of stones erected as landmarks for the adventurer. ‘The last stunted evergreens ceased to appear, the wind blew a frozen gale, involving us in white palpable clouds, which were rather masses of flying ice than ordinary snow; they invested every object, and hung in magnificent tufts of long, slender, and perfectly white crystals, from every rock and over every chasm. Still, an occasional outburst of the sun threw a glorious flood of golden light over the enormous peaks that were grouped as an encouragement to those who have less vigor, that I have known a gentleman of a very feeble frame and still feebler health, and with lungs that had suffered alarming attacks of disease, ascend Mount Ascutney, about three thousand feet high, with safety and without excessive fatigue ; but it was done very slowly and with frequent pauses and resting to recover. I was of the party, in 182€, and was astonished to see how little he suffered. If these remarks are of any value to the young adventurer, who may thus be saved from injury, their introduction on this occasion will be excused. I am quite sure, from considerable observation among mountains and mines, that such suggestions are too little regarded. Notices of Mount Washington and the vicinity. 79 thickly around us, and disclosed the immense bosoms of the val- leys and the green forests that opened among this wild ocean of mountains; the trees on their sides, appeared minute and deli- cate as geraniums, while the deep and wide chasms produced by vast slides, presented horrid features of devastation, attesting the ravages of alpine floods, bearing down before them forest, soil, and rocks, with every movable thing, and thus gashing the solid frame work of the everlasting hills with the deep wounds of the olden and the modern time. Quite at the feet of the mountains, and along the opening vales and plains, ran in full view, silver streams, among cultivated fields, gracefully bordering the works of man—his houses,. farms, and villages. Again, the clouds of flying ice, resembling tufts of cotton, closed thickly around, and hung an impenetrable veil between us and the world below; a wintry tempest now raged around, and with sreat difficulty we mounted the last rocks, and saw that there was nothing higher than ourselves. Here the wind blew a furious gale, and the strongest man among us could not keep his stand- ing without holding fast by the rocks, while those who neglected this precaution were instantly prostrated by the storm, which, as if in exultation, roared and howled with a truly savage grandeur, over this wild alpine solitude. 'The cold was so severe and the _ pelting of the storm so violent, that a few minutes at a time was all that we could give to the mountain peak. We were glad to step under a covert, where the rocks afforded a partial shelter from the tempest, and here we finished our little remaining store of refreshments. For science there was little to survey. The piles we trod on were the ruins of the stupendous granite mountains, elevated in ancient time, lashed by the storms, cracked by frost, and mutilated for untold ages by the sure, although slow agencies of nature. The very peak of the mountain is mica slate supported by granite. There could be no doubt, that the immense masses of loose rocks, of every size, which we saw around us, were once united ina connected summit, and that these ruins are only evidence of the mighty work of demolition, which is always going on with a real although imperceptible progress. As to organic remains, it were vain to look for them in this primitive region, and almost equally vain is it to expect to find any living animal in these wild and bar- ren solitudes. It is, however, a satisfaction to have trod on the 80 Notices of Mount Washington and the vicinity. highest peak of New England, the most elevated of the United States, and of North America, until we reach the Rocky Moun- tains and the table land of Mexico. The arduous circumstances of our ascent and the absence of instruments prevented any ac- curate observations; but the height of this peak is generally sta- ted to be between six thousand and seven thousand feet, probably six thousand five hundred above the level of the sea. It nearly penetrates the region of perpetual cold—therefore winter relaxes his dominion but for a very short period, a few weeks at most, in the hottest season of the world below, and summer never smiles upon the summit of Mount Washington. On the succeeding day as we travelled, we saw this mountain quite white, from its peak a long way down and around, on every side that was within our view. The descent was of course more rapid than the ascent ; it was much less fatiguing to the lungs, but very trying to the limbs, especially to the larger muscles and to the patella, which seemed as if it would part with the strain. Great caution was requisite also, to avoid falling into the innumerable holes among the rocks, and to prevent slipping from their smooth and glazed surfaces. Arrived once more at the camp where the horses, become rest- less with hunger and now eager for their stables, remained fast bound to the trees—we quickly mounted, and twilight begin- ning to set in, we hastened through the pilgrimage of the muddy forest, till having arrived in the open ground, all dashed forward with cavalry speed, and the poorest rider on the hardest horse fares ill in a race, which he is neither able nor much disposed to resist or avoid. All hurry onward, as if from the route of disas- trous battle, and glad is the adventurer to find himself once more safe in the truly comfortable hotel, where he is regaled not only with all necessary refreshments, but with wonderfully fine echoes produced from the neighboring mountains by a long shrill horn, blown at the door of the hotel, after evening has closed in, and by the discharge of artillery, whose explosion is returned in deep and solemn reverberations from the winding hills. ‘The ascent of Mount Washington is certainly worth the toil and trouble, although probably few appreciate it justly, before they have made the trial. The pedestrian ascent occupied two and a half hours, and the entire journey about ten hours, of strenuous and constant exertion. On the Tides. 81 Art. V.—On the Tides ; by Davin Tomutrnson. Schenectady, Aug. Ist, 1837. TO PROF. SILLIMAN. Dear Sir,—I wave read with much pleasure, several ingenious Strictures on storms of wind, by W. C. Redfield, as publishedss in former numbers of your useful Journal of Secor. In your No. II, for July, 1837, in-his remarks on this supposed connection of the Gulf stream, “with opposite currents on the coast of the United States,” he says, “the Gulf stream, in its course from Florida to the banks of Newfoundland, is for the most part imbedded or stratified upon a current which is setting in the opposite direction in its progress from the polar region— that their opposite courses on the coast while in contact with each other, are no more surprising or inexplicable than the case of two opposite currents of the atmosphere, and the latter are often known to maintain opposite courses for a long period, and at high velo- cities, while thus superimposed one upon the other.” The different currents of the atmosphere are often rendered visible, by the courses of fleecy clouds; but, that contrary and rapid currents, of so dense a fluid as water, should be ‘“imbed- ded,” one in the other, appears to contradict the laws of friction, impulse, and motion. I am aware it has been said, that, at the straits of Gibral- tar, where from the Atlantic ocean a strong and regular current always flows into the Mediterranean sea, this current is caused. or balanced by an under or contra one at the bottom, flowing equally swift outward into the ocean; and that this has been proved to be true by the wreck of a vessel known to have been lost in the Mediterranean sea, having been seen in the Atlantic ocean; but a single instance is not conclusive ; for, if it were the same wreck, a strong east wind might have driven it out. I know the danger of suggesting any thing in opposition to es- tablished opinions of great and learned men; for instance, in op- position to the opinion, that the moon is the cause of the flowing and ebbing of the tides. 'That the attraction of the moon regu- lates the times of the tides caused by the Gulf stream, after their becoming into existence and being set in motion, is evident ; but that the flowing and-ebbing is wholly caused by the moon, Vout. XXXIV.—No. 1. It 82 On the Tides. appears to be contradicted by strong evidence. That the Gulf stream gives the peculiar character to the tides on the coast of North America, appears certain. Where it leaves the Gulf of Mexico, the rise and fall of the tides is said to be two or three feet only. The tides increase with that current to the east, till it rises more than twenty-five feet in Nova Scotia and Newfound- land; where that wave is wafted across the ocean to the Irish and British channels, and the Bay of Biscay, of about a similar height. But at St. Ubes it rises only one to two feet, and in the Mediterranean sea there is no rise and fall of tides. If the moon were the sole cause of the rise of tides, why is it not more evident in the south Atlantic, West Indies, and coast of South America, where her influence ought to be the greatest, in the greatest expanse of ocean? And yet the tides there are so so small they are scarcely noticed. It is said that the Gulf stream is caused by the effect of the trade wind on the Caribbean sea, by pressing the water westward, and causes the outlet at the Gulf of Mexico. That may produce some effect; but can it be the sole cause of the Gulf stream ? Although that stream may be swayed from its course (like a cable in a stream) both north and south, by long and violent winds, (as has been seen,) yet it resumes its wonted place and preserves its regular course so exactly, that in approaching it in fair and moderate weather in day light, by ascending the shrouds of a vessel, it may be seen at a great distance, and when passing it, the edge of the stream may be discerned as plainly as land from water. It appears as blue as indigo, while the adjoining water is of the usual green hue. The division is so exact, that it may be noticed as plainly as the crack between the planks in a house floor; and yet, if you dip a bucket of water from the stream, it is of similar clear and white appearance as the common ocean or other water, but warmer. Why does the ocean always run swiftly into the Mediterranean sea, as do the immense Danube, Nile, and other large rivers? No doubt to keep up the subterranean stream which passes out of the Bay of Mexico, called the Gulf stream. This sustains the usual circulation and its warm temperature and throws off an immense evaporation, as it runs towards the colder region, where it is condensed to furnish materials for watering the Atlantic coasts by frequent rains, without which, they would be vare, and the land parched by drought. - On the Tides. 83 McKenzie found a tide of about fifteen feet, when he reached the ocean, on his travels to the N. W. coast of America, near Behr- ings’ strait. It is said there is a great tide at Calcutta; yet, if we may believe the navigators, it is small at the Sandwich Is- lands, rising only one or two feet, the highest flood always at meridian, and being thus totally disobedient to the rising and setting of the moon in that immense expanse of ocean, where her influence ought to be greatest. There quote from the American Quarterly Review, No. xxxix, for September, 1836, p. 10. Art. I. Report made to the Senate of the United States, on the subject of an exploring expedition to the Pacific ocean and the South seas, by Mr. Southard, chairman of the committee, March 21st, 1836. “ We shall detain the reader but a moment longer on this branch of our subject, to mention a singular fact in relation to the tides in the Pacific ocean, and we do this, in order to draw the attention out of practical navigators and philosophical observers.” “It is stated by the intelligent Mr. Ellis, the missionary who resided several years in ‘Tahiti (Otaheite) and the Sandwich Is- lands, that the rising and falling of the tides, (in the South sea islands, ) if influenced at all by the moon, appears to be only so in a very small degree. 'The height, says he, to which the tide rises, varies but a few inches during the whole year; and at no time is it elevated more than a foot or a foot and a half. The sea, however, often rises to an unusual height; but this appears to be the effect of a strong wind blowing for some time from one quarter, or the heavy swells of the sea, which flow from different directions and prevail equally during the time of high and low water. During the year, whatever be the age or situation of the moon, the water is lowest at six in the morning and the same hour in the evening, and highest at noon and midnight. This is so well established, that the time of night is marked by the ebb- ing and flowing of the tide; and in all the islands the time of high water and for midnight is the same. ‘The same thing is stated by Messrs. Tyerman and Bennet, in their journal of voy- ages and travels: it is generally known, they observe, but may be repeated here, in connection with the aforementioned periodical but irregular inundations of the sea, that the tides throughout the Pacific ocean do not appear to obey the influence of the moon in the slightest degree. It is always high water about twelve, and 84 Equalization of Temperature, §c. low about six o’clock, day and night. The fact has also been noticed by a few British navigators. Capt. Beechy, after descri- bing the harbor of Papiete and of some other places on the north side of Otaheite, says, it is generally high water at half an hour after noon every day, and low water at six m the morning; at the same time he observes, in language which might mislead the reader if not understood with some qualifications, that the tides in all these harbors (of Otaheite) are very irregular. 'These irreg- ularities are, doubtless, what Messrs. T'yerman and Bennet call “irregular inundations” of the sea, which according to Mr. Ellis, are occasioned by the strong winds blowing for some time from one quarter, or the heavy swells of the sea coming from various directions. ‘The fact is also confirmed by an intelligent corres- pondent, Mr. John Ball, of Troy, N. Y.,* who states, that during his three weeks’ stay at Tahiti, the tide was observed to rise about one foot, and always highest at twelve o’clock, noon and midnight ; and he adds, I was informed that this is always the case. Another writer, whose remarks are published in the Journal, (from that of the Franklin Institute,) adds to the testimony on this point the following,—that Prof. Whewell states, that Lieut. Malden, who accompanied Lord Byron on his voyage to the Sandwich Islands in the British ship Blonde, in 1824-25, gives a similar account of the tides at Owyhee. But the language of Lieut. Malden is, that the tide was observed to rise about four feet, and to be high water at sunset, and low water at day light, being influenced by the sea and land breezes.” Arr. VI.— Equalization of Temperature and supply of air in rooms warmed by furnaces beneath ; in a letter to the editor, Jrom James Boiron, A. M., M. D., dated Fredericksburgh, Dec. 25, 1837. | Dear Sir,—Havine amused many of my leisure hours with investigations into the best modes of applying heat to the warm- ing of houses, I send you the following as the most important re- sults which I obtained. Our own dwelling was warmed by an ordinary hot air furnace, and to it I found the following objec- * See this Journal, Vol. xxviii, p. 8. Equalization of Temperature, §c. 85 tions. The air was admitted into the air chamber of the furnace from the basement rooms and hall where it was placed, and this air ascended into the parlors loaded with coal dust and other im- purities. ‘This evil was entirely corrected by obtaining all the air for the supply of the air chamber from without the house. A large eight inch pipe was led from the bottom of this chamber through one of the walls of the house to the open air. This, besides obviating the difficulty above stated, ventilated our rooms with a constant supply of fresh air. ‘The next objection was, that persons sitting in our rooms complained of cold feet, while in every other respect they felt comfortable. On examining the temperature of the air in the room at different heights, I found a variation of a degree for every foot. That is, at the height of six feet from the floor the thermometer stood six degrees higher than at the floor itself. ‘This, then, was a very serious objection, and I set about immediately endeavoring to remove it. On re- flection, it occurred to me, that as our rooms were very tightly closed, having double sashes to our windows, the flues of the chimneys closely stopped, and the doors (made to fit tightly) gen- erally closed, that there was no way of escape for the air already in the room, when the furnace was. set in operation, so that it could not readily receive the addition of heated air, and none for the exit of the air after it had given out to the room its share of caloric received from the furnace. This cold air settled to the floor and there lay almost stagnant. Here, then, was the root of the difficulty. 'To remove it I adopted the following expedient, which proved entirely effectual. I led a pipe from the floor of each room to the bottom of the air chamber, and cut off all other supplies of air. ‘The process of heating the air, then, was as fol- lows. 'That already in the chamber was heated and ascended to the rooms above; to supply its place the cold air of the rooms descended by the pipes which I had introduced and was in its turn heated and ascended ; thus keeping up a constant circulation of airin the rooms. I afterwards introduced a two inch pipe to supply fresh air to the chamber from without the house. This pipe had a valve, so that I could regulate the amount of air sup- plied by it. 'The effects of this improvement were, that there was a difference in temperature of only a degree and a half in six feet instead of six degrees as formerly, and we were no longer troubled with cold feet while sitting in these rooms. 86 Description of an Air Pump. After testing the utility of these improvements for about five years, being desirous that all using furnaces might avail them- selves of them, I have sent this communication for insertion in your interesting record of the daily improvements going on in the arts and sciences. Arr. VIL.—Description of an Air Pump of a very simple con- struction, which acts both as an exhauster and condenser ; by Joun Jounston, A. M., Professor of Natural Science in the Wesleyan University, Middletown. Tue last No. of this Journal* contains a description of a very ingenious air pump invented by Dr. Hare, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, which is capable of perform- ing on a much larger scale precisely the same operations as the one I am about to describe, but in quite a different manner. ‘The next day after I had contracted with Messrs. Brown & Francis, in New York, for this air pump, which is now in possession of the Wesleyan University, I had the pleasure of viewing Dr. Hare’s in his laboratory in Philadelphia. This pump, as will be seen by the figure, has two barrels, in which the pistons are worked precisely as in those in common use, and, in general, it is constructed in a similar manner. The pistons, however, are solid, and at the base of each barrel are two valves, one opening upward and the other downward. In the center of the firm piece of mahogany, which forms the base of the instrument, are two brass tubes, which are seen in the figure at A and B, by the removal of the plate of brass D. Of these tubes, A communicates with the valves—one in each barrel—that opens upward, and B with the valves that open downward. Now when either of the pistons descends, the air in the barrel below it will of course pass out through the downward opening valve and tube B connected with it; and when it is again raised, the air will pass in through the tube A and the upward opening valve. At the center of the disc F, is an aperture, as in common air pumps, into which a tube may be screwed, and directly beneath * Vol. xxxili, page 237. Description of an Air Pump. 87 it is another aperture communicating with the tube G; and the part EC is constructed in such a manner, that when E is upward, a passage is opened between the aperture F and tube A, and also between the tubes Band G. If the pump be now worked, it is evident the air will pass in at F and out at G, that is, it exhausts at F' and condenses at G. If, however, we give EC a quarter of a revolution, and bring C upward, the passages from A to F, and from B to G, are closed, and others opened from B to F’, and from A to G; and by working the pump the air will now be made to pass in at G, and out at F, or in the reverse direction from that just described. This pump, therefore, like the one described by Dr. Hare, when worked is constantly exhausting and condensing. See The uses to which this air pump may be applied, obviously include all those of a common air pump and condenser ; and also enables the operator to transfer any gas that will not corrode the metals from one vessel to another, (as does that of Dr. Hare.) To do this, it is only necessary to attach tubes at F' and G lead- 88 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. ing to the different gasometers or other vessels between which the transfer is to be made ; and by means of the part EC the gas be made to pass in either direction at pleasure. I ought to remark before closing, that previous to my applica- tion to Messrs. Brown & Francis, they had manufactured several air pumps of this description, with the exception of the tube G, which was added at my suggestion; and which adapts it in a pe- culiar manner for use in a chemical laboratory. Messrs. Brown & Francis also manufacture a much smaller air pump, with a single barrel of the same construction. Art. VIII.—WNotes respecting certain Indian Mounds and Earth- works, in the form of Animal E’figies, chiefly in the Wisconsin Territory, U. S.; by Ricuarp C. T'ayior, Esq. Durine the past year, whilst traversing, in the society of some scientific friends, that portion of Wisconsin Territory which is bounded by Illinois to the south, and the beautiful Wisconsin River to the north, we frequently found our attention attracted by the singularly formed Indian mounds, of which the elevated prairies, as well as the rich valleys and the borders of the lakes and rivers of this region, afford such numerous specimens. The existence of abundant traces, apparently monumental, of an ancient and now probably extinct nation, within the country under our present recognizance, was known long ago to its early explorers, of which the French were doubtless the first, in the seventeenth century, and has been mentioned by some of the travellers who have subsequently written concerning this country. But I was unprepared to discover in the forms of these remains, whose origin is so obscure, other than the usual simple tumuli ; such as abound on the borders of the Ohio, and throughout the great valley of the Mississippi, and upon the green plains and rich bottoms of the Missouri; which tumuli do closely resemble those which are so profusely scattered over the plains of Europe, and are especially abundant on the chalky downs of England. Rumors of the remains of an ancient city, discovered within the past year, in the eastern part of this territory, wherein the ground plans of supposed buildings and fortifications may still be Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 89 traced, had been lately circulating in the United States, and con- tributed to lead our attention towards those singular memorials which daily presented themselves on the route through this inter- esting region. Respecting the so called city of Aztalan,* I was prevented, unfortunately, when within a day’s journey, from reaching its site; and regret my inability to speak from personal knowledge on this subject. Information of a more detailed and scientific character than we now possess is much needed. As relates to a great number of other positions, it was discov- ered that the configurations of the earthworks, or moundsas they are usually termed, which at first sight appeared decidedly to re- semble the sites, or ground plan, and foundation lines of former buildings, were really designed as rude representations and out- lines of certain animals, and even of the human figure; in addi- tion to those tumuli which had been constructed in the usual circular, quadrangular, and oblong shapes. The circular tumuli of the Wisconsin prairies, are commonly about fifty feet in diameter, and are not elevated, in general, more than ten or fifteen feet above the surrounding level; but often not half so much. Those in the forms of parallelograms are seldom less than a hundred feet long, and are occasionally seen much longer, as in the example figured, [pl. . fig. 3,] which is six hundred feet in length. Perhaps in this instance it was thrown up as a defensive earthwork, as its situation seems to indicate. Above the junction of the Des Moines River with the Missis- sippi, in Missouri, in the region locally known as “ Black Hawk’s Country,” we examined a long range of the circular tumuli. These were all of the common size, and some of them contained recent graves of deceased Indians, as was afterwards observed in many other localities. 'Thus, in the present day, the burial place of the Sauks and Fox, the Winnebago, and other tribes, is very commonly chosen upon the site of the more ancient monuments ; the memorials of a people that existed in unknown times. It is scarcely necessary here to include within our notice those mounds of much larger dimensions, existing on the borders of the Ohio and Mississippi, to the south and east. On the former * The Mexicans have a tradition that they originally came from the north, from a country called Aztalan. Vout. XX XIV.—No. 1. 12 90 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. river one mound is seventy feet high, and thirty or forty rods in circumference. Even within the limits of the rapidly rising city of St. Louis, are some of great magnitude. On the American bottom, at the village of Cahokia, (Illinois, ) it is stated by a con- tributor to a Western periodical, that more than two hundred mounds are visible from one spot ; the largest being 2400 feet in circumference, and 90 feet in height; in figure approaching to a parallelogram. inthe Cherokee country an earthwork has been described, as 75 feet high and 1114 feet round. The earthworks which have been constructed in the shapes of animals, abound in the Iowa district of Wisconsin. They occur, mixed with the other varieties, in great numbers, around the high lands which skirt the “ Four Lakes,” forming a species of alto relievo, of gigantic proportions. This district appears to have been originally much resorted to by the early tribes, whose relics we here behold, mixed with those of the modern Winne- bagos. At one spot alone, probably, at least one hundred tu- muli may be counted. The Indian path, along which we passed, has, for near half a mile in length, a series of these, mixed with circular mounds, in tiers several deep, on both sides; forming a cemetery in magnitude of itself sufficient, one would imagine, for the chiefs and warriors, and their descendants, of a whole tribe, if such was the original design of these earthworks.. On the summits of some might be seen the recent graves, protected by pallisados, of the last Indian possessors of the soil. The site of the singular group of mounds exhibited in our fig- ure, [pl. 1. fig. 1,] is about eighteen miles west of the Four Lakes, and seven miles east of the two remarkable natural hills called the Blue mounds. The area comprehended in the drawing is about two thousand three hundred feet in length. The figures are traced from survey, and their dimensions and the intermedi- ate spaces, were ascertained by admeasurements. In this group there are seen the effigies of at least six quadrupeds; six mounds in parallelograms; one circular tumulus; one human figure, and one circle or ring which may have been formed by the In- dians in their dances, whether peaceful or warlike, or may have been occupied for some such purpose, in by-gone times, as the torturing and destroying their prisoners. The great Indian trail, or war-path, which leads from Lake Michigan, near Milwaukie, to the Mississippi above Prairie du Chien, passes along the edge - Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 91 of this chain of earthworks, and is now for many miles adopted as the route of the military road to the latter fort. We pursued this route for a great distance along the dividing ridge between the northern and southern waters ; and we continually saw me- morials of the character above described, along its borders. What animals are represented by these rude monuments of earth, now covered with the rank prairie grass, is not made alto- gether apparent by their designers. If of the horse, the design is somewhat doubtful. We were rather inclined, however imper- fect the representation, to attribute the intention of the construc- tors to be that of exhibiting the figure of the Buffalo; an animal which had here the finest pasturage, and an almost boundless range, within one of the most ample hunting grounds, and were exceedingly numerous at the time of the first exploration of the country by the French. It is nevertheless to be admitted, that the hump, a remarkable characteristic of the Buffalo, which it would seem unlikely to have been omitted in the representations of that animal, is never seen in these figures, which are distribu- ted over the surface of so many hundred square miles of this country. The respective dimensions of these animal effigies in our ground plan, are 90, 100, 102, 103, 120, and 126 feet in length ; all of them apparently represent the same description of animal. Figures having precisely the same proportions in their outlines, may be seen at very short intervals throughout the Territory of Wisconsin, being generally from 90 to 120 feet, and extending to 150 feet long. This form, although the most prevalent, is by no means the only one, as we shall proceed to show. In the midst of this group, represented by our sketch, and forming a very important portion of it, we have now to notice the representation of a human figure, lying in an east and west direction; the head towards the west, and the arms and legs ex- tended. Its length is one hundred and twenty five feet, and it is one hundred and forty feet from the extremity of one arm to that of the other. The body or trunk is thirty feet in breadth, the head twenty-five feet, and its elevation above the general surface of the prairie, is about six feet. Its configuration is so distinct, that there can be no possibility of a mistake in assigning it to the human figure. 92 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. There is nothing remarkable about the oblong mounds. The circular tumulus in the centre is the highest, and overlooks the whole group. Whether all or any of these earthworks contain bones, we had no opportunity of determining. 'They probably all do. . The site of this interesting series is an elevated open prairie, on the dividing ridge between the waters of the Wisconsin and Rock rivers. ‘These monuments are covered with the same green carpet of prairie grass, intermixed with bright and brilliant flow- ers, as the prairie itself. There is an intervening space near the centre of the group, now overgrown with bushes, which probably conceal some unnoticed mounds. ‘The figures marked on these and the other animal outlines in our drawings, indicate their di- mensions in feet. We twice visited these singular specimens of Indian antiquity, and consequently can speak with greater confidence as to the gen- eral accuracy of the sketch accompanying this article. Half a mile westward of this remarkable group, and on the same elevated prairie, occurs a solitary mound, about ninety feet in length, representing an animal in all respects like those we have described, but lying with the head towards the southwest. [Pl. i. fig. 2.] Along the space of twenty miles from this position, extending to the Four Lakes eastward, similar monuments, intermixed with plain tumuli, are seen at almost every mile, in the lowest situa~ tions as well as crowning the highest swells of the prairies ; and they are still more numerous all around those beautiful but almost unknown lakes. It would be a ceaseless repetition of similar forms were we to figure many of these, but the outlines of a few of the most characteristic are introduced in the plate. Had time and circumstances permitted a more leisurely investigation and survey of some of the groups of this region, there is little doubt but many drawings of a highly interesting character could have been constructed in addition to those which illustrate this com- munication. Fig. 3,'Pl. u. An effigy ninety feet long, in form resembling the animal outlines previously described, is placed nearly at the foot and at the point of a remarkable, picturesque, perpendicular bluff, of coarse, friable sandstone, fronting a rich meadow, the favorite resort, no doubt, of numerous buffalos in olden times. In Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 93 front of this bluff, and enclosing the mound or effigy, is a long earthwork in an exact straight line, about two hundred yards in length, having an opening in the centre opposite to the animal. The position of this earthwork indicates its having been designed for the purposes of defence or fortification against an enemy ; perhaps as an outwork to the strong hold in the rear, formed by the bluff itself. "The great Indian road to which we have already referred, skirts along the outer or southern side of this embank- ment. Fig. 4, Pl. um. This sketch is drawn from the admeasurement of acouple of animal-shaped mounds, between which passes the same Indian path, at the distance of six miles west of the Four Lakes. ‘These figures are selected to shew that one, if not both of them, represented a different species of animal to those we have traced in the preceding outlines. In one instance only they were depicted with the appendage of a tail; the others were tail- less; and whether in the present case this deviation from the usual configuration resulted from the caprice of the Indian artists, or really depictured some beast more favored by nature than his contemporaries, it is not easy at this period to decide. ‘They are respectively one hundred and twenty and one hundred and two feet long, and perhaps may have been intended to represent foxes. Fig. 5. Beyond the Wisconsin Territory, on the north side of the river of that name, in the region still held by the Winne- bagos, are innumerable mounds, both of the circular and most of the other forms we have figured. At one position, however, near the river, and not far from English prairie, a group of six of these appear to represent birds, probably the eagle, or perhaps the crane, which was the ancient badge of the chiefs of a branch of the once powerful tribe of Chippewas.* This sketch was communicated to the writer by the person who took the original admeasurements. The scale of these is about the same as the preceding. Pl. 1, Fig. 2 is a tracing from a sketch drawn to a larger scale, of a bird-shaped mound, in the same region ; which sketch was furnished me by an intelligent individual, but of course I am unable to vouch for its accuracy. Possibly the figures which elsewhere I had noticed as possessing the general form of the * Col. MeKenney’s History of the Indian Nations. 94 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. letter 'T, might on further inspection have been found to approach to the bird form. also. Forms supposed to represent turtles have also been seen in more than one situation, constructed on an equally large scale. Of this class I cannot speak with sufficient certainty from personal obser- vation. We know that there existed the “Turtle Tribe” of Indians, which had that animal for its badge. The “ Walking Turtle” family, according to McKenney, was one of the highest distinction in the Winnebago tribe. To the above notices may be added some memoranda of certain other points where I observed, or have knowledge of the exist- ence of tumuli or mounds in the shape of animals in this western region. At the great savanna or prairie on the south bank of the Wis- consin river, called English prairie, are earthworks having the circular, the oblong, and the usual animal forms, and also some which bear resemblance to the Roman letter T', as shown in Pl. u. Fig. 1. Animal effigies occur fifteen miles to the southwest of the last mentioned locality, along the course of an ancient trail, and also of the present military road to Prairie du Chien from Fort Winne- bago. Numerous others may be recognized between these and the Mississippi. In the vicinity of the remarkable hills called the Blue Mounds, they occur abundantly. ‘These hills were, until very lately, a great resort of the Indian inhabitants; as their existing paths, converging hither in singularly straight lines from every point of the compass, amply testify. In the centre of the territory, at sites which it would be tedious to enumerate, we repeatedly passed by similar mounds, almost invariably contiguous to Indian paths, whose deeply-worn, but narrow tracks, attest their extreme antiquity and long use. Between the interesting limestone hill, styled Sinsinnawa Mound, and the town of Galena, these animal representations are seldom out of sight, and are accompanied by earthworks of sim- pler forms. They prevail equally in the low meadow sites, as upon the higher prairie ridges. Elevated circular tumuli rise from the flats on the margin of the Mississippi, at the old French village or trading station of Prairie du Chien. Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 95 All along the borders of the beautiful Wisconsin river, extend- ing from its mouth to the Winnebago Portage, similar monuments are traceable on the high and dry lands. Occasionally they occur in groups and chains, and not solitarily, and are of various fashions. On the shores of Lac de Boeuf and Lac Apucaway, wherever the land is dry and sufficiently elevated, one may observe, even from the water, a vast number of tumuli. Upon the summits of some of these may from time to time be recognized the modern grave of some Winnebago or Menominie chief, strongly protected by pickets. 'The margins of the Fox river are remarkable for the numerous Indian remains of this description. Colonel Petitval, of the U. S. Topographical department, who was engaged during the last summer in a survey of this river, had the kindness, at my request, to give some attention to these mounds. He describes an immense assemblage of them, at a point on the river, called the Red Bank, extending far into the interior, both north and south, for an undetermined distance. 'T'welve of the mounds at this place were opened under his direction, among which was an animal mound one hundred and fifty feet long. All of them contained human bones in a very decomposed state. One of the most extensive and interesting collections of these monumental structures, exists near the eastern shore of Winne- bago lake, within the reservation made to the Stockbridge and Brotherton, commonly called the New York Indians. I am in- debted to Dr. Lyman Foote, of Fort Winnebago, for information on this and some other localities of Indian monuments. At a place named Crawfordsville, on the Fox river, a group of ancient mounds has recently been announced in the western pa- pers. ‘These structures are described as being from three to sev- enteen rods (two hundred and eighty feet) in length; generally about four feet high, and they are stated to resemble “ lizards, alligators, and flying dragons.” ‘They here all point in the same general direction, but are not precisely parallel. Among them there is one very large mound, which overlooks all the rest. A writer in the United States Gazette, during a late visit to Wisconsin, observed numerous mounds and. large embankments, spread over a space of thirty miles around the site of ‘the ancient city.” Some of them were designed, he states, to resemble “ liz- ards, turtles, buffalos, and even human forms.” The present wandering tribes of Indians are “entirely unable to give any ac- 96 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. count of these remains, or to furnish the slightest tradition re- specting the ancient possessors of the soil.” Having disposed of as much of the details in my possession, as appear necessary in relation to the localities of animal shaped earthworks, I have little to add concerning the mounds and In- dian antiquities of other parts of this continent. Ample details respecting a great many of them may be found in well known works on these subjects, such as that of Dr. McCulloch,* and the Archzologia Americana. From these and. other authorities it does appear, that the forms of these mounds elsewhere are materially different to those I have been describing in Wisconsin and to the north of it. - The animal form does not prevail in the Indian monuments within the valley of the Ohio. No allusion is made by Colonel Long, in the narrative to his second expedition, to any but the ordinary circular tumuli, in the relative positions of which the editor observes, “we could discover no order or plan.” On the banks of the Miami river, a group of one elliptical and four cir- cular mounds is described, and figured in plate 2, of the narrative. On the Fox river, of the Illinois, Colonel Long saw many mounds, counting twenty seven at one spot, arranged with a cer- tain degree of regularity, “varying from one to four and a half feet in height, and from fifteen to twenty five feet in length. Their breadth is not proportionate to their length, as it seldom exceeds from six to eight feet ;” other mounds are described of an oval form. : The square and pyramidal mounds occur most frequently in the south; and Dr. McCulloch, who is good authority on the sub- ject of Indian antiquities, observes, ‘that there seems to be a ma- terial difference in the construction and position of the mounds in Georgia and Florida, from those of Ohio, Kentucky, &c.+ Tumuli, in the form of truncated pyramids, also occur in the south. Dr. Kain has described a group of six possessing this form in Kast Tennessee. Their proportions are ten feet in height, by thirty or forty paces in diameter, in the base; the whole group being enclosed by a ditch. Mounds, having an exact rectangular form, are described by travellers as existing in Tennessee. - * Researches, Philosophical and Antiquarian, concerning the Aboriginal His- tory of America, by I. H. McCulloch, M. D. t McCulloch’s Researches, p. 503. Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 97 Mr. Bringier, describing the Indian mounds in the region of the Mississippi, states, that from Red river to St. Louis, a dis- tance of five hundred miles, and in breadth eighty to two hun- dred miles, mounds constantly occur, and for the most part are symmetrically arranged, and contain human bones and other traces of man. This writer suggests, that they may be the ruins of ancient dwellings, constructed, on the old Mexican plan, of large bricks, and were covered with earth, which, mouldering down, left mounds in such abundance that the traveller is never out of sight of them. What an immense population, he ob- serves, must have occupied these dwellings, which cover so large a portion of the surface of this region.* That some of the earthworks in the southern part of this con- tinent are attributable to such an origin, appears to be the opin- ion of other investigators. Professor Rafinesque, on the authority of M. Rhea, states, that in an ancient walled town near Columbia, in Tennessee, are ‘‘the ruinsof many houses of various sizes, from ten to thirty feet in diameter, all of circular form.” The conical form is the most prevalent in Ohio. Mr. Atwater has described many of these, and Dr. Drake, among others, has given the details of four large elliptical mounds within the limits of the city of Cincinnati. It will be seen by a glance at our diagrams, that no precise po- sition, with regard to points of the compass, determined the con- struction of the Wisconsin mounds; and that in one case a single member of a group of animals has been placed at right angles to the rest. The choice, in selecting the sites of these memorials of ancient days, appears to have been influenced mainly by the con- -tiguity to the lakes and principal rivers, and to those great lines of interior communication. which from an unknown period trav- ersed this fine country. By this arrangement the greatest publi- city was given to the burial places of the distinguished dead ; to the simple yet permanent monuments erected to commemorate their fame and rank, and perhaps with the design to perpetuate the honor, and to flatter the vanity of some of the many tribes and branches into which this great Indian family appears, from remote times, to have been subdivided. * See this Journal, Vol. m1, p. 37. Vou. XX XIV.—No. 1. 13 98 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. Learned archeologists have speculated as to what nation, in far distant times, constructed the ordinary tumuli of circular form, so abundant in the great Mississippi valley. They have not yet, I believe, commenced to descant on the origin of those other con- figurations, the recent examination of which has given rise to the present article. From that highly important contribution to North American early history, the “Antiquitates Americane,”’ lately edited by the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries of Copenhagen, little or no knowledge can be acquired respecting the mounds of North America; and the communication in the same work from the Rhode Island Historical Society, refers, for the most part, merely to the chiseled figures and hieroglyphics on the rocks of Rhode Island. There are few, if any, authentic sources at hand, from whence to draw information, and it is no doubt quite unsafe to rely upon the accuracy of Indian traditions concerning these mounds, espe- cially as the last occupiers of the soil were but comparatively in recent possession. Successive tribes have occupied, by turns, the region of country where these apparent animal and human effi- gies abound. ‘The Winnebago Indians, a branch of the great Dahcotah or Sioux family, have held possession of that part of the Wisconsin country which lies immediately south of the Wis- consin river, and east of the Mississippi, only from sixty to eighty years. Previously to this time the district was in the hands of the Sauks and Fox Indians, a branch of the Chippewas, who dug and smelted the lead ore, but were driven out by the Winneba- gos. Neither of these tribes now erect permanent monuments of this character, to the memory of their dead. We have seen them, it is true, in numerous places, excavate graves, and deposit the remains of the deceased on the summits of the ancient circu- lar tumuli, which they appear to conceive were constructed for such purposes. Some of these modern burial places are accom- panied by rude memorials, denoting the tribe and rank, and some- times by hieroglyphics, in red paint, even recording the principal achievements of distinguished individuals. But to a far different race, assuredly, and to a far distant pe- riod, must we look when seeking to trace the authors of these singular mounds, and the earthworks of such various forms, which are spread over the North American continent, from Lake Supe- rior to Mexico. The degenerate Menominees, and the slothful Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 99 Winnebagos, are retiring before the power and the intelligence of the white man of the old world, as the Sauks and Fox Indians had previously retreated from the Winnebagos, and at a still earlier period, the Illinois Indians were nearly exterminated by the Sauks and Foxes.* But who were they who have left almost imperishable memorials on the soil, attesting the superiority of their race? Nation and tribe and family succeed each other, and for a while occupy the land. They vanish in succession, and leave few or no traces. Yet of this unknown people, thousands and tens of thousands of monuments remain, which will scarcely be obliterated so long as the earth retains its present form. The result of a recent examination, by a friend of the writer, of the interior of many of the Fox river mounds, shews satisfac- torily that the animal shaped earthworks contain human bones equally with the round tumuli. These bones were found in a very brittle and decomposed state, having roots and fibres grow- ing through them, and were distributed, commonly, through every part of the mounds. ‘These researches also threw some light on the mode adopted in the construction of these monu- ments ; for it became evident that the bones or bodies of the de- ceased were originally laid upon the surface of the ground, and the earth was then heaped upon them. No appearances occur of graves being dug beneath the surface, in the first instance. Upon the summits of many of the original tumuli it is evident that the remains of other deceased persons have been subse- quently placed; and a new heaping up of soil thereon contri- buted to augment its former height. Finally, the wandering Menominee or Winnebago, the last Indian occupant of the prairie, excavates a grave upon the summit, places the body therein, in a sitting or reclining position, and strongly defends it with pickets. That the more ancient form of burial upon the surface, and of accumulating the soil over the remains of the dead, was not uni- versal among the Indian tribes of North America, appears from the examination of M. Rheat of some antiquities in Tennessee, * McKenney’s History of the Indian Tribes. t One of the animal monuments lately opened by Col. Petitval near the Red Bank, in the vicinity of Fox river, was one hundred and fifty feet long. The exca- vation was carried along the entire length, that is, from one extremity to the other, and bones were found abundantly. The number of individuals buried in some of these earthworks must have been very great. Peérhaps they each formed the cemetery of a family in those cases. ¢ Made public by Prof. Rafinesque in 1822. 100 Indian Mounds and Flarthworks. * where, within’ the ruins of an ancient town or village, fortified with walls, “graves are found in abundance, from one to three feet in depth, containing human bones. ‘The bodies seem gen- erally to have been buried in a sitting posture, with flat stones placed around and over them.” I observed a grave or sepulchre of this kind on the summit of the natural hill, of limestone, called Sinsinnawa mound, a few miles north of Galena. Whilst endeavoring to ascertain the origin of the animal forms, adopted in the Wisconsin territory for monumental purposes, the writer became early aware of the embarrassments attendant on all researches in Indian archeology. It has been suggested, that they might be designed merely to record the achievements of cer- tain chiefs in hunting. That they were sepulchral, and enclosed the remains of human beings, has been proved by the recent ex- amination of many earthworks which have the peculiar forms noticed in the preceding pages. Concerning these ancient memorials of a by-gone people, view- ing them as commemorative of the dead, it has occurred to me that they may have served in some way to designate the respect- ive tribes or branches to which the deceased, in whose honor the structures were reared, belonged. Even at the present day it is an undisputed fact, I believe, that certain, perhaps most, Indian families and even tribes or branches, are distinguished from each other by badges indicating particular animals, or objects; or by devices symbolical of some memorable national event or peculiar- ity. In the same mode, and for the same purposes, many mdi- viduals also, among the more remarkable of their warriors, assumed similar devices; commemorative of personal prowess, of success in the chase or in war; and were further distinguished among their friends and adherents, by titles equally characteristic. "Thus have Wwe seen, even within the space of a few months from the time of writing this article, the survivors of an Indian chief recording at the head of his grave, by some rude hieroglyphics, the tribe and attributes of the deceased. And this is Indian heraldry: as useful, as commemorative, as inspiriting to the red warrior and his race, as that when in the days of the crusades, the banner and the pennon, the device and the motto, the crest, the shield and the war cry, exercised their potent influence on European chivalry. In all times have nations adopted and men arranged themselves under badges and symbols, to which custom and long cherished associations endeared them. Yet were they of no higher import Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 101 . than those of the North American Indian. In the earliest periods men rallied around the sacred person of the standard bearer, with equal self-devotion, and perished in its defence with as much heroism, as after generations have perilled life to guard the con- secrated banner, or in our day have died to maintain the glory of a national flag. So far back, even, as the time of Moses, standards were employed to distinguish the different tribes of the children of Israel. There was an assigned place to each banner in the order of the march of the entire host; and all men were directed “to pitch their tents by their own Seaadanis. every one after their families, according to the houses of their cher, z Hacaie that time to the present, in nearly all stages of society, may be traced the existence of symbols which were adopted for purposes of a like kind; certain natural objects being commonly selected to designate particular races, nations, or tribes. Among many of such nations, these badges were emblazoned on their military standards, and depicted on their commercial flags ; they were sculptured upon their monuments, portrayed upon their escutcheons, incorporated with their architecture, inscribed upon their seals, and impressed upon their coinage. We are informed that the kings of the Medes bore golden eagles upon their shields ; that the Greeks, the Trojans, and other warlike nations, had de- vices painted or sculptured upon their shields and helmets ;* and that the ancient Germans bore standards before them in battle. The Roman legions planted the imperial standard over a large portion of the then known world. By turns, the shores of Albion have been invaded by the Roman eagle, the Danish raven, the white horse of Saxony, and the Norman lion. And then, when the followers of the cross led on their mar- shalled thousands to war against the crescent, what hosts of de- vices, cognizances, achievements, and symbols, were emblazoned on banner, crest, and shield ;—devices derived alike from natural and from imaginary objects, and borne in commemoration of noble * « Mutemus clypeos, Danaumque insignia nobis Amptemus :—sic fatus, deinde comantem Androgei ease clypeique insigne decorum, Induitur.” t Egyptians, Persians, Hebrews, Assyrians, and Greeks, all carried ensigns of different figures in their armies. Among the most celebrated standards was the black crowned eagle of Attila, king of the Huns. It was called Astur, and sup- posed to be the same as the Schongar of the Tartars. We might also mention the renowned Gonfalon and the sacred Oriflamme. 102 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. deeds, and indicating rank, and honor, and high resolve. Under the red cross of St. George, the lily of France, and a multitude of other standards, the leaders of the soldiers of Christendom were individually distinguished by their own proper heraldic bearings. That spirit which the olden time originated, and which was so strikingly displayed by the chivalry of the middle ages, has, it is true, been modified; and as regards individuals, has been almost obliterated under the changed aspect of the civilized world. But with regard, perhaps, to all existing nations, these symbols are yet associated with the spirit of patriotisra, with na- tional honor, or with deeply cherished remembrances of ancient grandeur. The crescent of the Ottoman empire still shines in the East; the fleur-de-lis of France, originating at least as early as the fifth century, is still her honored emblem ; the lion of Eng- land, that for ‘a thousand years has braved the battle and the breeze,”’ yet remains a cherished symbol ; and, although arising in later times, the eagle of America is no less an object of national pride and endearment. ; The foregoing remarks arise out of the obvious similarity of method by which, in all times and in all countries, men, whether barbarous or civilized, have found it convenient to distinguish and arrange themselves. If the untutored Indians have adopted, as the badge of their nation, their race, or their kindred, some sim- ple object in nature, so also have the more refined of the old world constantly pursued the same mode; and doubtless, one common motive led the people of Scotland to select the thistle, those of Wales the leek, of Ireland the shamrock, and of England the oak, for their national emblems; with each and all of which many fond recollections are associated. Thus also did the white and red roses of the rival houses of York and Lancaster, desig- nate their leaders and unite their followers; and the same feeling which gave rise to the local badges of the numerous Scottish clans,* may be traced among the North American tribes, and in like manner, suggested the insignia of numberless orders and as- sociations in the civilized world. If the mail-clad knight of old surmounted his helm with appropriate symbols of courage in the field, of devotion to the true faith, or of constancy to his ladye love, so also does the red warrior assume the attributes of fierce- * The institution of clans among the North American Indians, appears to have been general. Archeol. Am. Vol. II. Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 103 hess, of strength, revenge, or cunning—dqualities which rank among the highest in his esteem—in the trophies of the eagle, the bear, the serpent, or the fox. If among the boldest of knights and kings, Europe had her Coeur de Leon, so have the chiefs of our Indians, though far less known to fame, their appellations ; such as the Black Warrior, the Grizzly Bear, the Swift Deer, the Watchful Fox, the Rolling Thunder, and the North Wind. And if in the proudest days of romantic chivalry, amidst the gorgeous panoply of the court, the tournament, or the battle field, all eyes might recognize him of the Falcon, the Leopard, or the Bloody Hand, so also in humbler guise, yet with not less pride of heart, have the brave of our aboriginal Indians commonly been dis- tinguished. No heroes of Greece, or Rome, or the Holy Land, were prouder of the badges of victory and the trophies of con- quest, than are the natives of our western world. Within their own limited sphere; they appear to have sought distinction and to have earned characteristic titles, by the exercise of those qualities which are most estimated in savage life; and our own ears are familiar, even at the present day, with such titles as the Black Hawk, the Panther, Alligator, and Rattlesnake ; the Young Ea- gle, the Black Wolf, the White Dog. But it was not individuals, merely, by whom such appellations were borne. We have good evidence that many tribes of North America adopted, and even yet retain for their badges, the sim- ple natural objects whose names they also bear; as in the men- tioned instances of the Fox, the Turtle, and other tribes. Infor- mation on this head may be found in Colonel McKenney’s work “On the Indian Tribes of North America.’”’ Another writer, familiar with Indian history, states that “all the Indian nations are divided into tribes, after the manner of the Jews.’* The Shawanese nation was originally divided into twelve tribes, or bands, all of which tribes were subdivided, in the usual manner, into families or clans, of the Eagle, the Bear, the Turtle, é&c. These animals constitute their ‘“¢otems,”’ among which is the family or totem of the Panther, which sprung from the Kick- apoo tribe. The Crane was the badge of a branch of the Chippewa tribe, as was, doubtless, the Fox of another. The authority last * Johnston, Indian Agent. Archzologia Americana. 104 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. quoted, notices that the Winnebagos, like the Algonquin, and other tribes, are divided into bands, each designated by some ani- mal, as the bear, or by the devil, or some bad spirit.* Among the clans or bands of the Mohawks, were those of the Bear, the Wolf, and the Turtle. he Hurons also had a Bear clan. The Natches, who lived on the borders of the Mississippi, had four clans, or classes; the Sioux proper were subdivided into seven bands, and the southern Sioux into eight tribes, each being separately classed by some characteristic name.t Whether the southern Indians were similarly subdivided and distinguished does not ap- pear. From the different structure and form of their monuments, it is not improbable that there always existed a variety of races upon this continent. And if in remote times those races were classified and designated in the mode which we have seen still exists, and long has existed,—that is to say, under the denomina- tion of particular animals,—it is not altogether incompatible with probability, that the earthworks in which their dead were depos- ited, and which resemble certain animal figures, were in fact de- signed as representations of those national or family badges, and consequently pointed out the burial place of the members of those particular tribes. I confess that I am aware of no positive seidériect to show, that any existing tribes or branches, thus distinguished by a species of armorial bearings, actually did erect monuments of earth in the shape of the animals whose names they bear. In the absence of a more plausible conjecture, the idea suggested itself, perhaps on very insufficient grounds, that there might be some connection traced between the animal shaped configurations abounding in the west, and some of the tribes who assumed animals for their badges, and classed themselves under their names. If, as is perhaps the case, the foregoing views are inadequate to establish the heraldic character of some of the monuments of the aborigines, they show at least that to the same common cause may be traced, at every period in the recorded history of man, in all countries, and in every stage of civilization, the adoption of symbols and devices, derived from the simplest objects, yet char- acterizing nations, orders and classes, and even the individual members of communities. Philadelphia, Feb. 12th, 1838. * McKenney’s History of the Indian Tribes. 1 Archeologia Americana. Mineralogy and G'eology of the White Mountains. 105 Arr. [X.—Observations made during an excursion to the White Mountains, in July, 1837; by Ottver P. Hussarp, M. D., Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Geology, in Dart- mouth College. TO PROF. SELIM AN: Dear Sir—In an excursion to the White Mountains, last July, I made such observations in Mineralogy and Geology, as my lim- ited time and other circumstances permitted ; hoping to add some- thing to the little already known of this interesting country, and that the facts when known may stimulate others to farther exami- nation, they are communicated for the American Journal. The details are minute, for I have often experienced the unsatisfactory nature of meagre descriptions, and I trust they will not be use- less to others who may visit the same points. My object is to record facts, and I am happy to say they are so numerous, and so decisive that we do not seem to be in the region of theory, when we infer at once the nature of those causes that have produced the sublime and beautiful scenery that adorns the greater part of this state. Trap Dikes in Granite, in Dorchester and Canaan. In passing from Plymouth, through Dorchester and Canaan, over the high ground that separates the branches of the Merrimack and Connecticut, boulders of trap were observed one mile east of Dor- chester south meeting-house. ‘These are porphyritic, some of a light gray, containing a profusion of large crystals of glassy feld- spar, with two perfect cleavages—with a few of iron pyrites; oth- ers of a much darker ground, with feldspar and black hornblende in large and beautiful crystals, and also dark crystallized mica. ‘The mica is in smooth nodules, without lustre externally, but pre- sents cleavage surfaces of great brilliancy, half an inch in diame- ter. It also occurs in crystals penetrating the crystals of feldspar. Similar boulders occur in some places in great numbers, on both sides of the new road, from Wright’s tavern south nine miles, to Daniel Patten’s, in Canaan, near N. E. corner of Hart’s pond. Be- tween his house and the guide-board there are several trap dikes in granite. No. 1, crosses the road N. by E.—is seven feet wide, and porphyritic—resembling, in color and crystals, the boulders described above ; is uncovered in several places, and its appearance Vou. XX XIV.—No. 1. 14 106 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. varies ; it ramifies occasionally into several smaller dikes and lines, and in one place, of a few feet square, are eight cut-offs, or disloca- tions, where the small veins terminate abruptly, and commence again forward or laterally, with granite intervening, and vanish in a line or point. ‘The cracks in the granite pass through the dike, and at the same angle, and yet the dike intersects veins in the gran- ite. A hand specimen obtained here, presents a rare intermixture of trap and granite—actually exhibiting five alternations of the two, as if the fingers of one hand were alternately inserted be- tween those of the other, in the same plane. “Fyn awe. Another dike runs nearly parallel with this in the field on the west, which a little farther south, beyond the guide-board, may be observed as No. 2, crossing the EK. and W. road in two veins, twenty inches apart—eastern one four inches, and western three inches wide—the former containing imbedded fragments of granite, the latter dividing into two branches, that become mere lines. Fig. 1. North of this road, in the field, this dike is again uncovered, and appears in two veins fourteen inches apart. The eastern dike . Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 107 is one anda half inches, and the western, four to six inches wide, and they become, as suggested above, at the distance of some twenty rods north, one larger dike. Fig. 2. The occurrence of the two veins in the field, after one had seemed to terminate, and the change of the vein of greater di- mensions from the eastern to the western side, are only some of the phenomena frequently observed in trap dikes, several of which-will hereafter be mentioned. No. 3. A short distance west of No. 2, crosses the road, direc- tion N. E. and 8. W., two feet wide, color very dark, not por- phyritic. Trap Dike in Wentworth. On the road from Orford to Plymouth, one mile west of Went- worth, above the saw-mill on Baker’s creek, is a trap dike in granite, on the left hand close to the road, course north, ten feet wide, color dark gray, and even black, very fine grained and compact in some parts, and fracture smooth ; in others, amygdaloidal, and contains nodules of chalcedony, and numerous very small round white spots of zeolite, which, from its pearly lustre, foliated structure, and low degree of hardness, is, I think, sélbzte. Where the surface of the rock is weathered, the stilbite is decomposed, and the cavities are empty. Darker specimens strike fire with steel, and all give, when breathed upon, an argillaceous odor, most striking in the softer specimens. Half a mile S. E. of Wentworth, by the roadside, are frag- ments of red feldspathic granite, lying on granite im situ, with a very hard, compact trap, adhering to them, but no dike was ob- served. Tourmalines and Diluvial Scratches in Rumney. A rounded, well defined ridge of granite, terminates abruptly on the south side of the stage road to Plymouth, and is divided from top to bottom, longitudinally, by fissures, into regular masses, several feet in thickness. On the eastern side is a large vein of granite, filled with large black tourmalines in good crystals. ‘The feldspar of the vein phosphoresces very beautifully with a pale sea-green light. Diluvial Scratches, of uncommon distinctness and dimensions, are seen on the west side of this ridge, on an inclined surface, ‘near the road, running east and west. 108 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. Trap Dikes at the falls in Campton. Two miles north of Plymouth, at the falls of the Pemigewas- set, are some remarkable dikes. The whole bed of the stream is of solid rock, and the river which makes here a considerable fall, runs in several channels, separated by rugged rocks, each of which must be crossed by a dam to secure the whole power of the stream for manufacturing purposes, which is now in process of execution. The rock is granitoid, partaking in different parts of the varied character that belongs to the several members of this family, and perhaps may be called gneiss, as nearly as any specific name will apply ; course N. E.; estimated dip 30° east. ‘This is, however, quite variable, as at dike No. 6, the dip of the strata is near 60°, and the cause is apparent. There isa group of dikes half a mile or more above these falls, which I had no opportunity of examin- ing, but hope the next season to visit them. My description at present is only of that group that occurs at the falls. ‘The num- ber of dikes in this is seven, all of which may be examined very conveniently, unless it be No. 7, which, at certain heights of the water, is not quite as accessible as the others. The west bank is intersected by all these, which in some cases may be seen cut- ting the bed of the stream, the rocky island, and even the oppo- site bank; and all occur within a distance of a quarter of a mile.* No. 1. Just above the bridge; dark gray, and nearly black ; contains crystals of black hornblende and points of feldspar; erys- tals and films of iron pyrites in trap and associated rock, in small fissures extending from one to the other; some specimens fire with steel. Course E. and W., and cuts, as in Fig. 3, the island in the stream, and is seen in the eastern bank ; intersects veins of quartz. No. 2. (First below the bridge;) direction E. and W., and in upper part four feet wide; divides a few feet from the water into two branches; the upper one is seen in the island ; structure very compact, like feldspar; fracture uneven; color light greenish gray ; powder almost a clear white; weathered surface dark brown; fires with steel ; translucent on the edges; effervesces abundantly (in powder) with dilute sulphuric, hydrochloric and nitric acids; * The accompanying sketch is not intended as a correct topographical view of the falls at Campton, but only as showing the manner in which the dikes occur. The sketch was made wholly from memory. Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 109 moist litmus paper held over the solution is reddened by the car- bonic acid evolved, and the color is discharged in drying ; spe- cific gravity 2.61. From the external characters this is a true clinkstone, which Gmelin has shown (Edin. New Phil. Journal, vol. vii, p. 68,) consists of mesotype and feldspar. 110 §=Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. No. 3. Four feet wide; direction N. W. and S. E.; inclines N. E. 35°; variable in color; specimens of a yellowish brown, clouded with red; others of a handsome light gray ; structure compact; fracture flaky, with sharp edges; translucent on the edges; fires readily with steel; minute iron pyrites diffused throughout ; effervesces briskly with sulphuric acid, like No. 2. No. 4. Direction E. and W.; terminates abruptly ten feet from the water ina quartz vein, and with a disconnected lateral shoot, and intersects many quartz veins; curves at and beneath the water, and unites at the distance of five feet with No. 5. 4a. Between 3 and 4, consists of three nearly distinct portions arranged in a curve; convex northerly ; the terminations. all ab- rupt, except the lower end of the lowest portion. These are, clearly, parts of what was once a continuous dike, and the dislo- cations evince a disruption subsequent to the injection of the trap ; width of 4 and 4a variable, from six to ten inches. No. 5. Direction E. and W. and two feet wide; breaks a few feet from the water and is dislocated northerly by its whole width, so that the south side of the upper portion is ina line with the north side of the lower part ; continues up the inclined bank to the soil above, thirty or forty feet. In this and 4, and 4a, we observe the effects of one disloca- ting throw, which has displaced them all in the same direction ; whether the movement was N. or S., can be determined only by a critical examination of the rocks in place. No. 5 is exactly like fig. 89, in Lyell’s Geology, Am. edition, Vol. ii, p. 237. No. 6. ‘Terminates eight feet from the water in a blade; inter- sects humerous quartz veins; six inches wide ; nearly perpendicu- lar; but the rocks dip at an estimated angle of 60°: another re- sult coincident with the contortion of 4 and 5, and probably from the same cause. Nos. 4and 5, we have seen, are united; but all from 4 to 6, inclusive, are so similar in mineralogical characters, they may be regarded as ramifications of the same main fissure, ejected from the same focus. Characters.—Color, black; fracture very uneven; granular ; strike fire with steel ; contain iron pyrites, and a dark green min- eral diffused in small dots, which in vitreous lustre and hardness, very nearly resembles olivine. Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 111 No. 7 was not visited for want of time; but as I am informed, is similar to those last described. ; Porphyritic Granite. Proceeding E. from Plymouth, two and a half miles, we find boulders of this rock; soon the underlying rock, a decomposing pyritous mica slate crops out, and at three miles, porphyritic gran- ite appears in sifu, and continues several miles, and along the north shore of Little Squam lake. This rock seems to con- sist of crystals of white feldspar, some of which are three to four inches long and two inches wide, and held together by quartz and mica, in about the same proportion to the feldspar as the cement of a breccia to the fragments. Common granite is found in situ at the top of the hill, after crossing the outlet of the lake ; but the boulders of the porphy- ritic granite are seen, diminishing in number, quite to Centre Harbor ; distant ten miles from where they were first observed. Trap Dikes on Red Hull. Red hill or mountain, near Centre Harbor, Lake Winnipise- ogee, is usually ascended by visitors to enjoy the beautiful scenery of the numerous lakes, with their hundreds of islands, and also of several mountain ranges not very far distant from this peak. The mountain consists of reddish sienitic granite, and its sides are covered with fragments partly decomposed. Near the-path leading to the top of the mountain are two dikes. No. 1 isa few rods north of the second house; seven feet wide ; course E. by N.; dip 15° to 20° N.; granite altered at junction, appearing burned and baked; on the lower side the dike is expo- sed by the removal of the granite, and appears as an inclined wall afew feet high. The color and weight of the trap led some time ago to the supposition, that it was an iron ore, and several tons were quarried under this impression, which, upon better informa- tion, were never removed. No. 2 is one eighth to one quarter of a mile E. of No. 1. Course N. by E.; average width twenty-five feet ; dark brown ; slight lustre, owing to brown mica diffused through the mass ; pyritous, and fires with steel. Near this, but separated eighteen inches from the dike, is a mass of trap several feet in dimensions, and pasted into granite. . 112 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. Trap and Granite Boulders, and Granite Veins. East of Centre Harbor, two and a half miles, are numerous fragments of large size, of trap in granite, but no dikes appeared ; some of dark blue, others of a reddish brown; a mixture of red feldspar and hornblende, mottled with dark spots; fracture con- choidal, and edges very sharp; strike fire with steel ; and others frequently met with in this region, composed of hornblende and feldspar, with an excess of the former, such as Saussure charac- terizes, judging from description, by the name cornéene. At four miles from C. H. are immense granite boulders, strewed for miles, and the exhibition of granite veins in them is truly re- markable. ‘They are very numerous, usually fine grained, and much whiter than the rock; the regularity and parallelism of their sides is as exact as if drawn by art, seldom over a foot wide, and usually but a few inches, and less: sometimes a rock is cut from side to side by a vein, retaining the same direction and thick- ness throughout ; sometimes by two veins, which are parallel, and again by several, running in every direction, intersecting each other, the older cut by the more recent. In the present state of our knowledge of the formation of veins, and especially of veins of the same composition as that of the rock contaiming them, whose sides present none of that irregularity common in dikes, an observer might almost hesitate to record facts that may add to the obscurity of the subject, were it not, that valuable general truths can be derived only from an extensive comparison of in- ‘dividual facts. Dikes in Moultonboro’. ‘T'wo trap dikes, in sienitic granite, are found on the right of the road on the top of Rogers’ hill, one and a half miles from Moul- tonboro’ corners, towards 'Tamworth ; course W. by N.; parallel, and both contain fragments of granite of considerable size. Fig. 4. No. 1; one foot wide; sends off a lateral branch which curves southerly ; eight inches wide. No. 2; three feet from the former, is two feet wide, and por- phyritic, with crystals of feldspar. Dikes in Tamworth. At Fort Jackson, in Tamworth, about four miles west of Things’ tavern, on the right of the road at top of a hill, fifty rods from Bear Camp river, is a small trap dike in granite, six inches wide ; course k. and W. Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 113 No. 2, one quarter of a mile east of the former, crosses the bed of Bear Camp river at right angles; course N. by E.; one to two feet wide ; inclines down stream at an angle of 40° or 50°, and curves up stream like a bow ; is itself crossed in the middle of the stream by a narrow granite fault or vein; on the lower side in several places, the granite, from its greater softness has been re- moved by the water and the dike, being left prominent, presents the appearance of adam. ‘This exposes, on the side of the dike, a series of longitudinal light and dark gray stripes, never over twe inches wide, arranged horizontally in regular alternations.* ‘The river bed above, as well as below this dike, is filled with trap ruins. Dikes in Eaton. On the hill, near Mr. Eleazar Snell’s, one quarter of a mile east of the village, are two dikes from two to three feet wide and three feet apart ; course in general N. E. by E.; one containing a * T owe this notice to the kindness of a friend. VoL. XX XIV.—No. 1. 15 114 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. fragment of granite imbedded. Fig. 5. A farmer of the vicinity stated, that there are several other dikes cutting the hill in simi- lar directions, and this statement derives confirmation from the numerous boulders, or fragments of trap, scattered over the fields and laid up in the farm walls. Blende and Galena. Three miles south of Eaton is a mine wrought for lead. 'The ore is a mixture of yellowish brown blende and galena, which is abundant, and was formerly worked in a shaft fifty feet deep, with a horizontal drift, and as I understand with profit. Opera- tions are suspended at present by some legal impediment, and not through a deficiency of the ore. The specimens, with the two sulphurets intermingled, are beautiful, and will reward the min- eralogist for his labor in procuring them. Crystallized Smoky Quartz, is found near Pendexter’s in Bartlett, occupying large geodes in masses of decomposing granite on the flanks of Kearsage moun- tain. ‘The crystals are very clear and beautiful, from one to four inches long, and even one and a half to two inches in diameter. Arsenical pyrites, crystallized and massive, occurs in a large vein, in a mountainous tract, four miles north of Bartlett, belong- ing to Mr. Eastman. Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 115 The White Mountains. It is remarkable, while hundreds of travellers annually visit these mountains, attracted by the grandeur and beauty of the scenery, the salubrity of the air and the delights of the deep re- tirement from the busy world, that so little has been done to de- velope the geological character of the region. We may hope the day is not distant, when, in the geological survey of this state, proposed by our Executive, this great desideratum will be accom- plished. The labor and expense of exploring the structure of this extensive district with its associated ranges, is altogether be- yond the resources of an individual; while, if prosecuted under a liberal legislative provision, the results could not fail to promote largely the welfare of the community and bring to light valuable mineral resources, and advance very much the interests of science. These mountains will ever be memorable for the dreadful storm of August 28th, 1826, the awful effects of which, even at this period, are every where visible. The deep channels, worn by the avalanches that then de- scended from their summits, still form a striking and picturesque feature in the scenery, and the immense heaps of ruins, boulders, and large isolated masses of granite that cover their base, and are strewed in the beds of the streams, testify to the long continued action of degrading forces. In addition to the graphic accounts of this event in this Jour- nal, Vol. xv, p. 217, some facts came to my knowledge, which I do not recollect to have seen published ; and as they were com- municated by eye witnesses, and serve to illustrate the power and local character of the storm, they are worthy of record. At Bartlett, twenty miles below the Notch, the water of the Saco, which runs through it, rose on-the morning of the 29th of August, twenty-six feet in one hour, and was filled with earth, like mud, and the sulphureous odor emitted by the attrition of the rocks borne along by the torrent, was almost insupportable. Rev. Mr. Wilcox, in his account, Vol. xv., says, the water of the Amonoosuck, about ten miles from the mountains, was, at day- break on the 29th, raised from a depth of three or four feet to twenty feet, and sixty feet wide, and “as thick with earth as it could be without being changed into mud.” A gentleman of this village, Hanover, (which, by the course of the Connecticut, and 116 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. its branch the Amonoosuck, is not less than eighty or eighty-five miles from the mountains, ) observed the same fact here, under the following circumstances.—He had returned frem a ride of a few miles up the Connecticut, and along its banks, and noticed the water but slightly risen above its usual summer height, and clear. In about half an hour, he was informed, the river had suddenly assumed a very peculiar aspect, and so different from what he had just seen, that he was incredulous of the truth of the report. On going to the bridge, (half a mile,) he saw no longer a river of pure water, but the channel somewhat fuller than when he last saw it, and a semi-fluid mass, of a light brick red, descending in a sluggish current. ‘The water, in fact, was charged with as much earth as it could sustain, and retain its fluidity. Unfortunately, no mem- orandum was made, so as to recall the exact time of this oceur- rence, and thus enable us to measure the velocity, or the time ta- ken to reach this place; but it was coincident with the arrival of the news of the storm, and the river continued to flow thus for several days.* The mountains furrowed by the channels above mentioned, are in a peculiarly favorable condition to be examined, and the records of their history are written in indelible characters. There is the most abundant evidence of the prevalence of igneous agencies in elevating these mountains, and afterwards filling the fissures with intrusive rocks; and from the numerous trap dikes in the sienite and other rocks of the New England coast, and the very remark- able ones in the highlands of Essex county, N. Y., it is not im- probable the whole of this primitive region has been convulsed and elevated by the same causes. Decomposing Granite. There are many violent .causes at work to reduce the large masses of granite to fragments; but as those which are at rest and removed from the action of running water and violent concussions * The oxide of iron, arising from the decomposition of the rocks for years, seems by this storm to have been swept away, and carried down by the streams; and the inhabitants who live on the bank of the river opposite this village, speak of this ochery appearance of the water as entirely peculiar, having occurred only at this period during the last twenty years. The gentleman above mentioned has been perfectly acquainted with the river during his whole life, and he assures me nothing of this kind has been known here except on this occasion, for the last fifty years. Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 117 seemed to be undergoing this change, we must look for another and more silent cause. ‘This must be found in frost, moisture, &c., operating especially upon the large proportion of feldspar, the alkali of which is removed, and the mass is thus rapidly dis- integrated. ‘The masses exfoliate on their angles and curves, and it is not uncommon to meet with those that seem to be affected by what Dolomieu calls la maladie du granite, which, on being struck with a hammer, fall entirely in pieces or grains. 'The ex- tent of this process may be imagined from the fact, that from Bartlett to the Notch, (nearly thirty miles,) the surface of the ground (as cut by the road ditches)-seems entirely made up of decomposed feldspathic granite sometimes to the depth of two feet. Octahedral Fluor Spar. Half a mile above the tavern of the elder Crawford, in the ruins of a slide east of the Saco, this rare mineral is found, which was mentioned twenty eight years ago in Bruce’s Mineralogical Journal ;* but the difficulty of obtaining specimens is much less than formerly. 'The spar is found in masses of radiated quartz, easily broken; and occurs in pale green octahedra, from one fourth of an inch to one inch and one fourth in diameter, but is easily fractured in breaking the gangue; it phosphoresces most beau- tifully, on hot iron, with at first a yellowish light, which be- comes finally of a peach blossom color. On ascending the gorge about five hundred feet, (here about ten feet wide,) the quartz is found in place, on the south side of it, in close contact with the granite, which on the other side is removed, forming a vein or dike, (for it ts really one,) two feet wide, and continuing farther up the mountain. Its structure is drusy, and there is near the ‘middle a double serrated line, formed by the interlocking of quartz crystals. By unknown causes, the fluor has been in many cases partially or entirely removed, and the cavities thus formed are now filled with quartz in plates and crystals. Such a phenomenon in calcareous rocks and veins would be easily explained. The fissure existing, the calcareous matter in solution is deposited on either side, till the drusy surfaces unite in the middle. What greater difficulty in applying the same solution to deposits of sili- ceous matter in veins? ‘The fluor is not equally disseminated * Mineralogical notice respecting American fluates of Lime: by the Editor. Bruce’s Min. Jour., p. 33, Jan. 1810. 118 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. through the vein, but is confined to a portion of one side, three or four inches in thickness, and easily separable from the mass of the vein. Trap Dikes cutting the White Mountains. At the foot of the gorge south of the Willey house, we find in abundance fragments of altered slate, slaty trap and basalt, and I am informed by a gentleman who passed over the mountain through this gorge, that in the upper part near the top, it is crossed by several trap dikes. Ummense ruins lie at the foot of this and the gorge back of the Willey house, which appear as firm as the mountains, and are covered with grass, shrubs and trees, conceal- ing their deformity ; but those who have read ihe description in Vol. xv, of the wild devastation that reigned here, will at once penetrate the deceptive veil which vegetation throws over the whole scene. Dike in the Willey Gorge. From the melancholy associations of the last named gorge, my attention was more particularly attracted to it. The lower portion for a considerable distance is obstructed by the rocks and gravel that have rolled down from above. There is a handsome vein on the north side, of crystallized feldspar, of a pale yellowish hue, with crystallized mica in granite. In the bed of the gorge, where it is but thinly covered by debris, beautiful flesh-red feld- spar occurs, with many small cavities containing crystals of the same. Ruins of trap found here led me to ascend farther, and on passing the debris, a trap dike appears, forming part of the bed of the channel. Its width is from two to six feet, usually averaging not more than four; course N. E. and 8. W., closely embraced. by the red feldspathic granite, which is worn down to the same level with the trap. The dike is crossed about five hundred feet from the bottom, by a quartz vein or dike four feet wide, with parallel and vertical sides, at an angle of about 60°, the parts of which, on the opposite sides of the gorge, would be joined by right lines in the direction of its course, which indicates no dis- turbance or shifting. In the bed of the channel may be seen the trap, the quartz and the granite, all so interlaced, that it would seem impossible to decide whether the trap or quartz were the intersected vein ; or if they were not both contemporaneously injected, and that too Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 119 when the granite was not in a consolidated state. Above this, we may observe the dike passing in full width; then sending off branches from the main body, including apparently detached. portions of granite, or separated by long narrow and broad lines of granite; then becoming confluent into a lesser dike, to be again enlarged, and subdivided into tortuous lines, or stand in curved plates, covering concave surfaces on the side of the gorge, from which the granite has flaked off, or in shoots terminating abruptly, or in evanescent lines, every where enclosing granite, and the granite in turn enclosing trap. ‘This constantly varying appearance of the dike and granite at different elevations, forces the conclusion that the granite was fissured while a tenacious mass, and is still united by filamentous portions running in every direction, and the granite and trap both reticulated, so that if it were possible in a given spot to remove one layer after another, of only a few inches in thickness, each new face would present a varied aspect according to the size and inclination of the portions intersected. This dike was traced as far as circumstances allowed some fifteen hundred feet high, till the ascent became impeded by a perpendicular front six feet high. ‘The dike was visible above this point till a turn in the gorge, and there can be little doubt that it extends to the top of the mountain, and has completely riven itin two. ‘The gorge is from thirty to fifty feet deep, and at top twenty to thirty feet across, excavated in the rock itself; its sides very steep, vertical, and even overhanging in some places. The trap is generally of a dark or blackish gray, fine grained, crystalline, very compact, hard, fires a little with steel, and con- tains no foreign minerals; another portion is light gray, and com- pact ; and still another, light gray, seeming like a decomposing earthy sandstone, filled with smooth rounded nodules of the size of a small pea and less, very prominent on a weathered surface, occasionally containing white crystalline matter, but usually earthy throughout, and scratch glass readily. This at the time was saturated with water that runs in the gorge, and the speci- mens being disintegrated, readily parted, and required careful handling till dried, when they became more coherent. 'The junction of the dark gray trap and granite is most perfect, as if soldered together; and these specimens presenting a beautiful contrast, may be easily obtained, as a fracture seldom occurs at the line of junction more readily than through the mass. 120 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. _ Dike at the Notch. On the east side of the Notch, in the face of the cliff, quite ele- vated above the road, there is a dike four or five feet wide, that may be seen at a considerable distance, crossing several furrows in the cliff, and strongly contrasted in color with the rock. Mount Washington. This eminent peak, which is still generally acknowledged to be the highest point of land east of the Rocky Mountains, is one of very great interest to the geologist ; and here, possibly, many points in meteorology, affecting materially the history of that branch of science in our country, are to be decided. Brackett and Weeks gave a rather extended, though aenee notice of the White mountain range, in the “ Historical and Miscellaneous Collections,’ Concord, April, 1823, and took levels, in 1820, from the Connecticut river, at Lancaster, to E. A. Craw- ford’s (now Fabyan’s) Mountain house, eighteen miles, and found it 1,000 feet higher than the river; then to the top of Mount Washington, and found it 5,850 feet above the river. The facts in this account are interesting, and it would form a very convenient suide-book to any who should wish to examine the range. ‘The only particular to which I wish at present to invite attention, is the nature of the rock crowning the summit of Mount Washing- ton. The visitor, on the west side, has to encounter much less difficulty in ascending the mountain than formerly, as he can ride on horseback seven and a half miles; then commences his jour- ney on foot through the woods, from which he occasionally catches a glimpse of the mountain tops, and when he emerges from the woods, where his vision is unobstructed, the various views are very beautiful; but the object of his pursuit appears still a mile distant. The peak he sees capped with a rocky covering, destitute of vegetation, broken up into huge masses, which, as he passes from rock to rock, seem as disjecta membra in the wildest confusion ; but when he has once surmounted the peak, and re- covered from the mingled emotions of surprise, pleasure and sub- limity which fills his mind, and given his attention to nearer and minuter objects, his satisfaction, if he be a geologist, will hardly be less than when viewing the more distant and impo- sing scene. Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 121 The foundation, or mass of this mountain, as it is seen in the deep gorges cut by the slides in the western side, is granite; and the top has been stated, by those who have and by others who have not ascended it, to be granite; and Alpine travellers, who have visited Mont Blanc, have thought they saw in the vast ruins sur- rounding the summit, the remains of lofty aiguilles, that towered above the present peak; but let the observer stand at the most ele- vated point, near the rude artificial monument, as in the centre of a decapitated summit, and let him critically examine the rocks in the whole circle about him, and he will soon discover the incor- rectness of these opinions. He will find the rocks stratified, layer upon layer, and symmetrically arranged around the center he oc- cupies. The rock is mica slate, consisting of coarse mica and fine quartz, occasionally with fine grained veins of the two min- erals, with a little feldspar, and some considerable veins of white quariz. 'The uniformity of this surface, in level and appearance, is such, that a passage to the top is marked out by no ravines and eminences, but the path leads directly over the ruins, and the guide himself is directed by masses of white quartz, or collec- tions of stones raised at proper distances. Near the top are small black tourmalines, and also a small spring of water. The case is clear. .The mountain of granite was raised from the deep, bearing up on its Atlantean shoulders this huge cov- ering of mica slate, that extends a quarter of a mile below the summit, and by disruptive agencies has been fissured in every di- rection, aud reduced to ruins. ‘The granite, instead of rupturing the mica slate, and protruding at the centre of elevation, itself forming the peak, has broken it at some distance from the centre, and we ought to find the long line of disruption of the mica slate, if the rocks remain and are uncovered, very far down the moun- tain ; if not, in the low grounds of the valleys. The different zones, or belts of vegetation, are distinctly mark- ed on the flanks of the mountain—the lower forests with their varied hues—the upper belt of sombre evergreens—the highest of dwarf trees, stunted shrubs, and long grass and mosses, and terminates at the lower line of the rough weather-worn rocks that form the summit. From this height the several belts may be traced, with the eye, for a great distance each way. ‘The upper limit of vegetation indicates very definitely the comparative ele- vation of the neighboring peaks, according as it surmounts or Vou. XXXIV.—No. 1. 16 . 122 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. falls below their summits; though in the article quoted above, it is asserted, that vegetation uniformly rises higher on the western side than on the eastern of these mountains, and the difference is attributed to the greater elevation of the whole country on the western side. The Franconia Notch, . seven miles south of the village of Franconia, is approached by a very considerable ascent in the road to the summit level. Some beautiful lakes on the north of this give rise to one branch of the Amonoosuck, and another lake on the south forms one of the sources of the Pemigewasset, while lofty mountains rise on each side of the road, which on the left are almost perpendicular. The profile on the west, or La Fayette mountain,* is still in high perfection, reminding one of an ancient warrior with his grisly beard and projecting helmet, and a countenance of deter- mination and majesty ; the whole presenting, in sharp outline, a face full of expression, like the most labored. production of the chisel. The Basin. 3 Three miles south of the mountain-house, on the right of the road, is a wonderful excavation in the granite rock, called “the basin.” It is perfectly ovoidal, and its diameters (by the eye) twenty five and twenty feet, depth fifteen feet, and filled with water of a pellucid sea-green, and rounded stones in great number lying on the bottom. A small stream, the outlet of the lake above, pours through “the basin” with great vivacity, entering on the N. E. strikes against the south, and receives a circular motion westward, pro- ducing eddies and a complete revolution, and is discharged on the S. W. side. The concave above the water, which is perfect on the N. W. side, and projects over the basin at a height above the water (to the eye) of some fifteen feet, is beautifully rounded and smoothed. It is obvious that the water once flowed so as to strike the highest point, where the granite is most worn, and by its constant circular motion, aided doubtless by the stones and gravel carried round with it, has produced this astonishing cavity. The ledge of granite above, and especially below the basin, is * See a notice and sketch of this colossal profile, Vol. x1v, p. 64, of this Journal. Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 123 furrowed and rounded for a great distance in a very remarkable manner, into troughs bounded by large salient and re-entering curves, and presenting also many subordinate basins of consider- able size. The basin is of the same class with the pot-holes at the foot of cataracts, and owing to similar causes; but from the smallness of the stream, and the nature of the rock, a remarkably hard and compact granite, it is one of the most extraordinary cavities of the kind that has been described. In beauty it may justly rival the Castalian fountain; but as a chronometer it is most interesting to the geologist. Science has not yet discovered, by experiment and observation, the law of attrition of granite by running water ; and the stream that flows here seems utterly inadequate to the production of the effect within the historical period, and would seem to carry back the antiquity of the world to a remote era. Granite Veins in Granite. These are very numerous, and on a large scale. ‘There is a remarkable one of this character, on the right hand of the road, just north of the basin. The granite is fine grained, and dark, with mica or hornblende. 'The vein, on the contrary, is feld- af Fig. 6. ni eek * =e Pall aks) zhl= wah > FR bee DIN. ae eg « ie a = f Patan Pe = 1 e Os AS = ut & , = a Si Mer ete mee me Gp ie ba A Ss fa “” : = = iste Bi eny te, e a ._/ s' = = @ r A >; = =

a ty 2 o — a) 2 FI ==] a ) o ‘S) o es g & ms IS =o S 2 3 &p ae) oS & 3 2 ng EA E ap =I & ra] 9 g 5 g z =H sy ® Ed iS) = = = = Ss mM Pa 4 i] RM oO = i--) Og ' ! : : i | l A ene: i Li H H } : mi A \ 3 wae ‘ * In speaking of the boundary of the coal-field, I wish to be understood in gen- eral, as treating of its line of junction with the magnesian limestone. Whether the coal-beds run out against this rock, or are continued beneath it, no facts have yet been observed in this country sufficient to show. The extent of the magne- 144 Geology of Upper Illinois. Rockwell is situated on section fourteen, which is next to the section against which the canal terminates. 'The width of the Illinois valley varies in this vicinity from one to two miles. Its bluffs, which are generally of naked rock, and nearly perpendicu- lar, are between one hundred and one hundred and twenty feet in height. 'Their course and position with respect to the channel of the river, may be seen upon the accompanying map. The bot- tom of the river in the vicinity of Utica is solid rock, with which also the bottom-lands are underlaid at very partial depths. In- deed, the strata often attain the surface over considerable breadths of the meadows between Rockwell and Ottawa. The course of the canal, which is also traced on the map, is directly at the foot ‘of the northern bluff. sian limestone in Wisconsin, Upper Illinois, and Missouri, struck me with sur- prise. I observed it, in addition to the country already noticed between Chicago and Ottawa, as the prevailing formation about the northern extremity of Michi- gan, the islands about Michillimacinac, the mouth of Green bay, as well as near Navarino, at the head of the bay. In the last mentioned region, it abounded in a species of Producta, which I take to be undescribed, and shall therefore denomi- nate the incurvata. Specific character. Semi-circular: hinge nearly straight and the length of the shell; with fine longitudinal strie ; flattish ; edge crenated ; shal- low valve concave, basal margin incurved ; muscular impressions and hinge-pro- cess very distinct. (Figs. 1 and 2.) The space between the valves is very small in this species. Fig. 3, represents a second species of the same genus, which is also probably new. The large valve is deep and very gibbous. Its striz are distinct, and resemble the ribs of the Pec- tens. Along with these species occurs a polypifera, apparently belonging to the genus Flustra. Geology of Upper Illinois. 145 To the traveller who enters the Illinois valley at Ottawa, after having been satiated with the boundless views of rolling prairie, no scenery can be more novel and enchanting, than that which he beholds between the mouth of Fox river and the town of Rockwell. 'The first striking object he encounters after leaving Ottawa, is Buffalo-rock, an interesting plateau, whose top corres- ponds in level with the high prairie, and whose sides are equally precipitous with the main bluffs of the valley. The area of Buf- falo-rock is about one square mile. The river sweeps directly past its southeastern base; while the canal, as will appear from the map, is carried along between it and the north bluff of the valley. At a distance of about a mile from this insular elevation of prai- rie, and directly by the road-side, is situated one of those beauti- ful mineral springs (of whose chemical constitution we shall presently speak,) for which this part of Illinois is remarkable. Two springs break out within a distance of a rod, both of which occupy the same basin-like depression, whose surface is about five feet lower than that of the adjoining bottoms. The larger of these two springs discharges at least ten gallons of water per min- ute, and rising through a bed of fine white sand, (which it keeps in constant agitation,) forms a very striking object. ‘The water from the springs, after flowing a distance of fifteen rods over the bottoms, falls into a rocky channel worn out of the sand-rock, along which it rapidly descends for a couple of rods farther, where it enters the river, but not before it has received the water of an- other spring whose issue is from between the sandstone layers. Two miles after leaving the springs, the traveller is opposite the tragically famous Starved Rock.* It forms a part of the bluff on the south side of the Illinois, projecting promontory like, quite into the bed of the river, and rising twenty or thirty feet higher than the average level of the bluffs. Its face towards the river is perpendicular, and even overhanging. On some of the maps of the county its height has been stated at two hundred and fifty feet, which is certainly incorrect,—it having recently been meas- ured by Mr. O. W. Jerome, civil engineer of Rockwell, who finds its elevation one hundred and forty feet above the level of the Il- * About one hundred years since, a ferocious tribe of Indians, being driven by their enemies upon this projecting point of the Illinois bluff, were reduced to submission by actual starvation. Vou. XX XIV.—No. 1. 19 146 Geology of Upper Ilhinois. linois. The prospect from this point is inimitably fine. A long stretch of the valley, both up the river and down, is at full com- mand. ‘The river here flows over a level rocky ftoor, and the wa- ter is-so clear as to enable one to discern the large fish swimming quietly along upon its bottom ; while at no great distance, flocks of wild geese, in the most unalarmed manner, occupy the bosom of the stream. A large island, wooded with an almost tropical denseness and luxuriance, is situated in the river nearly opposite to the rock, which greatly adds to the beauty of the scene. An- ‘ other point of interest occurs in the topography of the valley just before we reach Rockwell. It is where the Consogin river cuts the bluff and enters the meadows. Its present issue is at right angles to the course of the valley; anciently, however, it did not find its exit so high up the valley, by more than half a mile, but on reaching its present mouth, it turned down the Illinois, (still within the high prairie, ) and continued nearly to Camp-rock, (X on the map.) The wearing away of the bluff, by the waters which excavated the Illinois valley, in progress of time, however, furnished a new outlet to the Consogin, in consequence of which, along ridge of prairie stands insulated upon the bottom-lands, whose shspe and contiguity to the main bluff render it a conspicu- ous object. It has been called Chimborazo, and the idea of build- ing upon it a town, as well as upon Buffalo-rock, has even been entertained by some individuals in this region; but of both these situations it may be said, that the mducements to occupy them are rather such as are connected with fine views of valley scenery, than with the actual facilities and conveniences of life. The ca- nal passes directly under the south side of Chimborazo, though it is said to have been for a time debated, whether the better route would not be in the ancient channel of the Consogin. It is, more- over, a singular circumstance relating to.the Consogin, that on entering the valley, it soon loses itself, and does not rise into view until it has passed Camp-rock, (X on the map,) when it begins to re-appear in a considerable sheet of water, especially as it enters the town of Rockwell. It here forms, directly under the bluff, a narrow lake, five or six hundred feet in length, by more than one hundred in width, which in seasons of the greatest drought has a depth of about six feet. I am the more particular in des- eribing the situation and dimensions of this strip of water, be- cause, from its particular location in relation to the Illinois river Geology of Upper Illinois. 147 and the canal, it is intended, by means of a short cut across the bottoms in the direction of the dotted lines, (v on the map,) to admit boats from the river; and thus at a trifling expense, to con- vert it into a steam-boat basin. An zmprovement of this nature will have its value greatly enhanced, arising out of the mineral re- sources so remarkably accumulated at this point, the future devel- opment of which is destined to confer upon Rockwell numerous commercial and manufacturing advantages. - It is within a few rods only of the eastern extremity of the Con- sogin basin, that the largest out-crop of coal in the valley of the Illinois occurs. By a reference to our map, a ravine will be no- ticed as descending from the high prairie, at a distance of about seventy rods from the eastern boundary of Rockwell. This is the Swanson ravine. Its bed is entirely within the coal strata, and very nearly conforms in direction to their basseting edges. ‘The slopes of the ravine consist superficially, to a considerable extent, of soil and loose materials. Slight excavations however, are all that is requisite to reveal the strata, which, on the west side at least, are uniform and continuous up the valley. Commencing at the mouth of the ravine on its western side, we have a good view of the position of the coal-bed, where it has been partially laid open, for supplying to some extent fuel to the vicinity, espe- eially for blacksmithing purposes. The following section was ta- ken.-at the locality, from the top downwards :— 50 to 60 feet of the superior slope, concealed by soil. 44 feet gray marly slate-clay. A inches argillo-calcareous iron ore. 8 “ gray marly slate. 1 foot 4 inches limestone. 1“ 4 “ black bituminous slate. 2 feet gray marly slate-clay. Gathis coal. - This brings the coal-stratum nearly to the bottom of the ravine, in which however, a well has been sunk, thereby making us ac- quainted with the strata fora depth of at least thirty feet more, but showing only alternations of blue and gray slate-clays. The dip of the coal and its associated layers is W. S. W. at an angle between 15 and 20°. As the State owns the section on which this coal opening oc- curs, no farther labor has been expended with a view to trace the 148 Geology of Upper Illinois. bed up the ravine, until we ascend to the point B, on section twelve. Here we find a layer of coal two feet in thickness, form- ing the lowest part of the ravine, and traceable by means of a little gully descending from the east slope of the ravine, quite up to the level of the high prairie, a distance of eight or ten rods. In addition to this stratum, there shows itself at B, on the western slope of the Swanson ravine, and thirty feet above its bottom, a bed of coal four feet in thickness. Both the beds here described correspond, in direction and dip, with the main bed at the mouth of the ravine, nor can it admit of areasonable doubt that the up- per bed (whose thickness is four feet) 1 is a continuation of the great deposit first mentioned. Still higher up, at C, where the ravine forks, the thick bed has been uncovered in two places, a few rods only apart. The coal here occupies the bottom of the valley, which, it must be under- stood, is situated at a level at least forty feet higher than at B. In the banks near the openings at C, occur frequent indications of the former combustion of the coal, in the abundance of brick-red slate and porcelain-jasper. Indeed it appears not improbable, that the entire ravine owes its origin to the inflammation of a body of coal near its out-crop, to which water, the exciting cause of com-~ bustion, must have found an easy access. In this way a channel may have been formed, which the spring freshets have widened and deepened, until the ravine has been brought to its present di- mensions. Among the loose materials accumulated against the edges of the strata in the upper part of the ravine, I observed an abundance of gypsum, in small white grains, resembling common salt, blended with argillo-marly soil; also frequent balls and kidney-shaped masses of argillaceous iron-ore. Both branches of the ravine are shallow at C, and in running northward, soon attain the general level of the prairie; after which, the strata of course become concealed by the soil. But by taking the direction of the out-crop to the coal-bed, which is northwesterly, and proceeding a mile and a half across section eleven upon section two, the sandstone which dips under the coal- bed of the Swanson ravine, reappears in slightly cohering strata, and still farther, by a distance of about half a mile, in the same course, at E, we strike the banks of the Little Vermilion, the east bluff of which, for some way, is composed of: the identical grit of Geology of Upper Illinois. 149 Camp-rock, whose direction and dip it likewise exactly imitates. The opposite side of the river, (at E,) moreover, offers us appa- rently the entire series of slates, shale, and coal, which overlie the sandstone in the Swanson ravine, though the coal has as yet been fairly laid open only at two spots, Dand E. At both these places, the thickness of the coal-stratum is four feet. No doubt, therefore, can reasonably be entertained of the unbroken continuity of the coal across section eleven to the Little Vermilion on sections two and thirty-four. ‘The southeast angle of the latter section touches the northwest corner of the former, as the sectional maps of the region will show. In following the river above E, no farther tra- ces of the coal-rocks, are discovered. On the contrary, the mag- nesian limestone soon takes their place and forms the bed and banks of the Little Vermilion, and of its tributary, the 'Toma- hawk. — | Having satisfied myself of the general direction of the coal north of the Illinois, it became a matter of interest with me to learn whether it obeyed the same law in an opposite direction, viz. in its extension towards the southeast. That this is the fact soon became apparent. The bluff on the-south side of the Illinois, a little east of where the Big Vermilion enters, exhibits the same formation as Camp-rock. But no rocks manifest themselves in the line of direction from this place, until we reach the banks of the Vermilion at I, near Vermilionville. Here we recover the coal in the bed of the river, presenting its characteristic thickness, dip, and leading associates, with the exception of the underlie of sandstone, which, if existing, is concealed by loose materials and soil. The coal has the same thickness as at the mouth of the Swanson ravine. As my travels were extended no farther in the direction of the outcrop, I can only state what I was able to learn from others re- specting its course beyond Vermilionville. Abundance of coal is said to occur at several points for ten or twelve miles up the river, all of which may reasonably be considered as belonging to one and the same stratum. Indeed it is not impossible that future re- searches will prove the extension of the present outcrop quite across the country, even to the Wabash, in Indiana. The coal at Vermilionville is situated directly in the bed of the river, on its west side, at the base of a very steep portion of bluff, which is at least seventy-five feet high. It consists of five or six 150 Geology of Upper Illinois. alternations of black bituminous shale, with a dark gray, friable, slaty marl, the series being surmounted by a heavy bed of encri- nal limestone. The shale is in beds of between three and four feet in thickness, while the clayey marl-strata are considerably thicker. The shale-stratum next the coal, embraces a layer of limestone about ten inches thick. Large balls of limestone also, of a very peculiar appearance, are common throughout the shale. They may be described as flattened spheroids, extremely reg- ular in shape, smooth, and of a black color. They are arranged between the layers of the slate, with their flat surfaces coinciding with the stratification. Veins of calcareous spar, tinged brown by petroleum, divide their surfaces off into quadrangular and pen- tagonal shapes, thereby imparting to the balls a tolerable resem- blance to certain tortoises, petrifactions of which animals they are considered to be, by many people of the neighborhood. In some instances, these balls, which are in reality a species of septaria, have a diameter of between two and three feet. The dip of the bed at this place, is about 10° or 12° to the W. The rock on which the coal rests, as may be seen a little higher up the river, is a light gray, highly crystalline limestone. It oc- casionally embraces small seams and irregular shaped masses of calcareous spar, and is generally so rich in bituminous matter, as to afford the odor of this substance on friction. But three fossils attracted my notice in it: these were a trilobite, (a species of Caly- mene,) a Flustra, and a Producta, which Fig. 4. so closely resembles a pecten in general fig- ure, as well as in the delicacy and distinct- ness of its ribs, (56 to 60 in number, ) that, believing it to be new, I shall call it the P. pectenoidea. (Fig. 4.) The two latter fos- suis are very common. Of the tribolite I - saw but a single sample, and that was presented me by Rev. Mr. Ex.10r, of Vermilionville. The bluffs on the east side of the river, in the vicinity of Elliot’s dam, abound in the relics of the spontaneous combustion of coal, such as hardened slate and de- tached grains and crystals of gypsum, mingled with clay and marl. It is in the bed of the river near this place, also, that sev- eral mineral springs occur, a more particular notice of which will hereafter be given. Geology of Upper Illinois. 151 Before entering into additional details respecting the coal, it will be proper to say something farther of the horizontal formation of Rockwell and the Little Vermilion river, beneath which the coal of the Swanson ravine dips. They are well understood, from an inspection of the western bluff of the Little Vermilion, at the saw- mill near the river’s mouth. We have here the following arrange- ment, from the top downwards :— 12 feet limestone. 4 “ hlue and red slaty clay. 12 ‘ limestone. 1 foot blue slaty clay. 24 feet black bituminous shale. 43“ blue slaty clay. 3 inches coal. 5 feet blue slaty clay. 30 “ limestone. : ' | In sinking wells in the town of Rockwell, fifty rods back from the bluff, where the surface is about fifty feet higher than it is immediately at the top of the bluff, a succession of clay and marzl beds is penetrated before reaching the stratum of limestone first mentioned in the foregoing arrangement. 'The marl has a dull red color, and is very friable,—falling to pieces, or slacking on a short exposure to the weather. It contains frequent impressions of a species of Pecten, (Fig. 5.) and of a second bi-valved shell, (Fig. 6.) much resembling a Unio, though it is quite possible it may be a Mya or a Tellina.* Fig. 6. The rocks, as they are seen on the face of the bluff at Rock- well, correspond in essential characters with those given above for * The blue slaty clay contains small crystals of iron pyrites, which for a time led to the opinion that gold was also present in the formation. The application of the nicest chemical tests however, fails to detect its existence. 152 Geology of Upper Illinois. the Little Vermilion. We observe, however, that the upper lime- stone strata at the former place are less fine and crystalline in their texture ; but possess, on the contrary, a tendency to rapid disintegration, separating into ovoidal or lenticular masses, from two to six inches in diameter. 'The lower bed is more compact in structure, although it still contains frequent rifts and fissures. A partial digging has been made into the bituminous shale and coal-seam of Rockwell, which fully proves the correspondence between them and those above described. 'The shale however, at this spot, afforded distinct impressions of a minute Patella, and a perfectly flat valve, (Fig. 7.) with very delicate and almost obsolete concentric strize, apparently appertaining to a species of Placuna. . Fig. 8. The limestone of the western bluff of the Little Vermilion is a tolerably compact, crystalline rock. It embraces occasionally, as well as the looser variety of Rockwell, encrinal remains, and a small species of T'erebratula, (Fig. 8.) whose surface is delicately striated, and of a silvery white color and strong pearly lustre. Should it prove to be undescribed, it may be called the 7. ar- gentea. : An interesting deposit of travertine occurs on the eastern bluff of the Little Vermilion, opposite to the point where the section above given was obtained. ‘The spring which gives rise to the formation, issues from the limestone near the top of the bluff; and the tufa, after accumulating in considerable masses, becomes detached and falls in large blocks into the valley. Among the loose masses under the bluff, I noticed several of a purely siliceous nature, proving, that the character of the water has formerly been different from what it now is, since its present deposition is en- tirely calcareous. Two miles farther west at Peru, the limestone becomes still more crystalline, and is quarried into blocks with considerable fa- cility. It here includes several very distinct fossils, among which Geology of Upper Illinois. 153 were recognized Encrinal stems, a large Spirifer, the Pholadomya elongata, (of Morron,) and a species of Producta, of which a figure is annexed, and which I shall denominate the semi- . ieaoe slightly nequilateral. Concave valve with a fold in the middle. Lower valve slightly concave. Hinge-line two thirds the length Vou. XX XIV.—No. 1. 20 154 Geology of Upper Ilinois. of the shell. Ligamental cavity deep. Flat valve marked by vertical line extending from the summit half way to the base. Lransversely banded. Minutely punctuated ; the punctules be- ing impressed, excepting when the shell is entire, the surface is _then granose or obscurely hispid. The limestone east of the sandstone formation of the Swanson. ravine, is the magnesian. It is horizontally stratified and gen- erally without fossils, though often abounding in veins and nod- ules of hornstone. ‘Ten miles north of Rockwell, near the vil- lage of Homer, it is seen to advantage in the banks of the Little Vermilion. It here almost exactly resembles the metalliferous limestone of Missouri, (which I find to be the magnesian lime- stone also, ) having its peculiar buff color, and like it, embracing siliceous seams and nodules. The only fossils I found at this spot were a distinct species of T'urbinolia, and a part of the ver- tebral column of a fish, the latter as well as the former, firmly im- bedded in the limestone. . For an illustration of the formation which adjoins the magne- sian limestone on the east, I shall give a vertical section taken at Ottawa. - Soil and diluvium. 13 feet limestone. 11 do. marly clay slates. 6 do. sandy clay. 12 do. blue slaty clay. 1 foot bituminous shale. 2 feet coal. 3 do. gray slaty clay. 30 do. sandstone. And inasmuch as borings for salt have been made to the depth of one hundred and thirty feet below the surface of the river, at a place five miles west of Ottawa, near Starved rock, we are able to say, that the coal is not repeated for a depth of at least one hun- dred and sixty feet, sandstone being the only rock for the whole of this depth. The horizontal formation last described, continues up the Fox river north from Ottawa for a number of miles, and in an oppo- site direction up the Illinois on its west side, at least to the mouth of the Kankakee. 'The coal of which I heard, as existing ina bed three feet thick near the mouth of the Mazon river, probably pertains to the same stratum as that at Ottawa. Geology of Upper Illinois. 155 We shail now treat of the economical value of the coal to this region. Bituminous coal is valuable in every part of our country ; but to a rich prairie section, where the climate in winter is se- vere, and where wood is scarcely abundant enough to supply ma- terials for fencing and building, its importance is almost incapable of being exaggerated. - The deposit, upon which main reliance is likely to be placed for coal, at least for a considerable time to come, is the stratum which crops out in the Swanson ravine. 'This bed will probably be found workable under the entire tract, bounded by the ravine on the east and the Little Vermilion on the west. At what depth below the surface it will be found, situated on the western por- tion of this tract, it is of course impossible to say ; but from what is known of coal-fields in other countries, we are authorized in believing that as the bed is worked down, its present pitch will alter, and that at no great distance from the ravine it will assume a horizontal position. The thin horizontal bed of coal which has been opened at so many points between Utica and Ottawa, and which is worked at several openings near the latter place, is undoubtedly capable of furnishing a large supply of this fuel. But the difference of ex- pense in working a thin and a thick stratum is so great, especially where the thin bed, as in the present instance, is horizontal in po- sition, and overlaid by a vast accumulation of fissile strata, that it gives to the main deposit an obvious superiority. It is plain, therefore, that the canal commissioners have judged correctly, in affixing a high valuation to the coal-mines of the state on section thirteen. The coal at Vermilionville, besides being a number of miles from navigable water, is so situated, with regard to the bed of the river in which it occurs, as to render its exploration unu- sually inconvenient and expensive. It will not, therefore, be likely to come into market, until the supply near the canal and the Illinois river has been to a degree exhausted. No coal is ob- tained from down the river short of Henry; nor even at this place within several miles of the river. * It appears quite certain therefore, that Chicago and the region bordering on the upper lakes are destined, on the completion of the canal, to receive their bituminous fuel very largely from Rock- well and its immediate vicinity, since there is little prospect of 156 Geology of Upper Illinois. the discovery of any nearer source of supply. At present, the re- gion referred to, is furnished by the coal mines of Ohio, which are situated one hundred miles from Cleveland, on the Ohio and Erie canal. It would seem however, that coal can be delivered cheaper at Chicago from Rockwell, than at Cleveland, for al- though the distance is the same, yet the dimensions of the Chi- cago canal and its smaller amount of lockage, will give it a de- cided advantage over the Erie canal in the expense of transpor- tation.* The quality of coal, so far as can be determined from the lim- ited exploration thus far made of the Illinois beds, is in no way inferior to that of the Ohio coal. It belongs to the variety of bitu- minous coal, known in Great Britain under the name of caking coal, in consequence of the property it has of breaking into a great number of pieces on the application of heat, all of which become cemented together into a solid mass or cake. Its color is grayish black. It has a lamellar or foliated structure, the layers separating from each other with great facility at various inter- vals, from an eighth to three quarters of an inch. ‘Their surfaces often present thin films of what is called mineral charcoal, con- sisting of the remains of various plants, in which the bituminizing process has not taken complete effect. The cross-fracture of these layers is generally resinous and shining, while the slaty surface is dull. It is very easily frangible. Its specific gravity is 1.273.+ It ignites with great facility, and burns with an abun- dant yellow flame. One hundred parts by weight, on being heated, so long as it burnt with a flame lost 47.5 p. c. in weight ; and the residuum after ignition until all the carbonaceous matter was removed, lost 46.5 in addition; thus leaving 6 p. c¢. of ash, which was white, and consisted of silica, oxide of iron, alumina, and lime. The ease with which it burns and the abundant flame it emits, must serve to render it a most valuable fuel. For while it will afford a warm and cheerful fuel for the grate, it is peculiarly adapted also to steam boilers, and to all the operations of heat- * Coal is raised and delivered to the boats in Ohio, at four cents the bushel. It sells in Cleveland at from fourteen to sixteen cents, and in Chicago, at fifty. t One cubic foot of this coal will, therefore, weigh 79;'2,5 pounds, which will give for a bed six feet thick in one acre, nine thousand two hundred and thirty one tons. Geology of Upper Illinois. 157 ing and evaporating fluids. It will also give rise to a coke of amedium quality, the presence of iron-pyrites not being found so considerable as to interfere with its employment by the black- smiths of the country, who prefer it indeed in their work, to charcoal. Mineral Springs and Sait. Sulphureous and saline waters appear to be of frequent occur- rence in the region of the coal-deposit above described. Copious Springs occur at and near Ottawa, particularly on the Illinois bot- toms in the vicinity of Buffalo rock. Others again exist in the bed of the Big Vermilion, at Vermilionville, and near the mouth of the Mazon river. The springs on section twenty three (H,) have alien been alluded to. ‘The two which come to the surface near together, and by the road-side, may be denominated saline waters. Their temperature was apparently above that of other springs in the vi- cinity, and decidedly superior to the mean temperature of the cli- mate. No odor of sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved from either of them, nor do they blacken a solution of acetate of lead. The application of the usual tests, proved them to contain the follow-— ing principles :— Carbonic acid. Nitrogen. Super-carbonate of lime. Bi-carbonate of soda. Chloride of sodium. ac of calcium. ‘ of magnesium. Sulphate of lime. ie of magnesia. . is of soda. The spring issuing from the sandstone layers, nearly on the bank of the Illinois, is a strong sulphureous water; and in addi- tion to the above enumerated ingredients, contains free sulphur- etted hydrogen and the hydro-sulphuret of sodium. Both these springs were tested for iodine and bromine, with- out discovering either of these substances; although the exam- ination was made on less than a gallon of water. If these prin- ciples are present therefore, their proportion must be inconsidera- ble, compared to the other ingredients. 158 Geology of Upper Mlinois. It is certainly a circumstance which considerably enhances the value of these springs, that one of them is a sulphureous water, while the other two are saline only. 'Their effects on the animal economy will undoubtedly be different, and a much larger class of invalids may therefore resort to them with advantage. As the country of the Upper Illinois has been settled only a few years, of course nothing has been ascertained from experience with re- gard to these waters; but from what is known of the constitution of the Virginia springs, it may fairly be presumed, that the use of of these waters will be attended with the same beneficial results, as are experienced at some of those celebrated resorts. The Illi- nois springs occurring, moreover, in a region distinguished for the beauty of its scenery, and lying directly on one of the greatest thoroughfares in the west, must also have their value much en- _ hanced from these considerations.* The springs in the bed of the Vermilion, at Vermilionville, (O, ) are sulphureous in their character ; and at the same time, equally rich in saline matter with the Illinois springs.t 'They are unfor- tunately so situated, however, as to make it difficult to obtain a supply of the water they afford, since their points of issue are completely overflowed at high stages of the river. ‘The spring at Ottawa is simply a saline water. I had no opportunity of test- ing its ingredients, but should judge from its taste that it will be found to resemble in constitution, the main spring on section twenty-three. A still more valuable resource to the country is fully indicated by the composition of these springs, and the circumstances under which they occur. The large and constant proportion of chloride of sodium they contain, taken along with their occurrence in a region of coal, sandstone, and red marl, leaves no room to doubt, that borings of a suitable depth will lead to the supply of a strong and pure brine well adapted to the manufacture of salt. Nor need any apprehension be felt at the detection of so many foreign substances in the waters of the existing springs, since these will be replaced by chloride of sodium, in the supply to be expected * That they were frequented in former times by the deer and the buffalo, is ap- parent from the remains of the skeletons of these animals found buried in the soil in their immediate vicinity. t I examined these waters on the spot, and subsequently a sample of them con- densed by evaporation, which was furnished me by Dr. Harcu. Geology of Upper Illinois. 159 from a greater depth. For it appears to be ascertained in respect to these ancient saline deposits, that the common salt in a state of perfect purity, forms the lowest stratum of the series, while the upper layers and members of the formation, such as marls and clays, abound in the sulphates, other more soluble chlorides, iodides and bromides.* To what depth it may be necessary to penetrate in this region, in order to obtain a supply of salt water, may perhaps be inferred from the borings in Ohio, where they work down from seven to nine hundred feet, which is several hundred feet below the level of tide-water at the mouth of the Mississippi. Now, provided the salt-stratum lies at the same level in Illinois as in Ohio, (which perhaps is not an unreasonable conjecture,) the borings in Upper Illinois would not have to be carried as deep as in Ohio, since the surface in the latter region is obviously more elevated than in the former. Iron Ores, Sand, Clay and Soitt. Argillaceous carbonate of iron in balls, tuberose masses and kidney-shaped concretions, occur in the clay and marl beds of the Swanson ravine ; but whether in such quantity as will ulti- mately lead to extensive iron manufactures, cannot at present be determined, though when the coal comes to be extensively work- ed, enough ore will perhaps be obtained to furnish the region with a full supply of iron for castings. It is not uncommon to find balls of many pounds weight; while strong indications of a con- tinuous stratum of the ore, several inches thick, exist at the coal opening on section thirteen. Its specific gravity is 3.025, and being mingled with limestone, its reduction will of course be effected with great facility. A sandstone moreover, is at hand for the construction of furnaces, while the coal will afford an ex- cellent fuel to be employed in the process. Tron-pyrites exists in the large coal stratum in two layers, each about an inch in thickness. As it is a variety strongly prone to decomposition, it can be employed to great advantage in the man- ufacture of copperas, from which salt, both sulphuric acid and col- cothar, may be obtained, should their production be found an ob- ject in that region. * Report on Mineral and Thermal Waters, by Prof. DavBEny, made to the Brit- ish Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1836, p. 18. 160 Geology of Upper Illinois. Clays, well suited to brick making, are abundant in the prairie country ; and others, adapted to the manufacture of fire brick and pottery, are found overlying the horizontal coal near Ottawa, and at the mouth of the Kankakee. Extensive beds of pure, white sand, derived from the decom- position of the sandstone, occur north of Rockwell, near the little Vermilion. It is advantageously employed in the fabrication of mortar and plaster, and will one day lead to the production of the finer qualities of glass.* The extraordinary crops of grain and potatoes every where ob- tained from the prairie lands, induced me to submit a portion of the soil to chemical analysis. The sample was taken from eight inches below the surface, and after being thoroughly dried by several weeks’ exposure to the air, it afforded the following result on one hundred parts. Water of absorption, - - - - 8.50 Organic matter, - - - - 9.50 Silica, - - - - - - 70.00 Alumina, - - - - - - 7.50 Carbonate of lime, - oe - 1.50 » Per-oxide of iron, - - - - 1.00 Carbonate of magnesia, Sulphate of potash, ; ie ADR In depth and fertility of soil, the Illinois prairies are probably unsurpassed by any tract of country in the known world. Fields near Alton have been planted with Indian corn for fourteen years in succession, without the addition of manure, and still continue to yield an abundant crop. ‘The farmer in this region, moreover, enjoys a great advantage in the boundless extent of cleared land within his reach, which permits him on the exhaustion of tracts long under tillage, to bring into cultivation fresh fields, and thus to allow those which are exhausted to recover their strength, by enjoying a fallow. Occasionally also, where the soil is light, as on the Illinois bottoms, near Buffalo rock, gypseous marls, like * A variety of limestone occurs adjoining the canal, a little east of Camp-rock, well suited to the fabrication of water-cement. The precise locality may be learned on application to Mr. Dixwexxt Laruropr, of Rockwell, a gentleman whose pub- lic spirit and intelligence render him of essential service to the region in which he resides. Description of a new Mineral Species. 161 those of the Swanson ravine and Vermilionville, may be employ- ed with great advantage. M Already an active and intelligent class of emigrants is finding its way into this most inviting region, and is beginning to reap its advantages. A population of several hundred is scattered over the prairie lying a few miles to the north of Rockwell, where but a few years ago the white man was almost a total stranger. Nor can it be doubted, that as soon as the Michigan and Illinois canal is completed, a fresh impulse will be given to the country, and a speedy development of the resources we have pointed out, ensue. Arr. XIII.—Calstronbarite, a new Mineral Species ; by Cuarves Uruam Sueparp, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Medical College of the State of South Carolina. Te mineral here described was received several years since from Messrs. GrpHarp & Bonny, of Schoharie, (N. Y.) along with specimens of Strontianite, which were noticed by me at that time in an article published in this Journal.* I then regarded the subject of the present notice as heavy spar. Having had oc- casion however, within a few days, to re-examine these minerals, and meeting with more distinctly crystallized fragments than any hitherto observed, I discover the supposed heavy spar to be anew species, and one moreover which offers in its chemical constitu- tion a very remarkable exception to any saline compound as yet known to exist in the mineral kingdom. Mineralogical Description. Massive, in broad, straight, lamellar masses. Primary form, right rhombic prism. M on M=102° 30’ to 103°. Cleavage, M on T perfect ; the latter more easily obtained than the former. Lustre, vitreous to resinous. Color white, inclining to gray, rarely exhibiting a tinge of reddish brown. Streak white. Translucent. Brittle. Hardness=3.25. Sp. gr.=4.20 to 4.22. * Vol. xxvu. p. 363. Vout. XXXIV.—No. 1. 21 162 Description of a new Mineral Species. Chemical Description and Analysis. When heated before the blow-pipe, it emits a phosphorescent light, and fuses into a white porcelainous mass, which on being laid upon moistened turmeric paper, imparts to it a brown stain. It is partly soluble in hydro-chloric acid with effervescence: and the solution, on being treated with alcohol and set on fire, burns with a scarlet-red light. The nitric solution, on evaporation to dryness, again becomes moist after a short exposure to the air. A portion of the mineral, in the state of an impalpable powder, was digested in hydro-chloric acid, so long as any matter contin- ued to be taken into solution. 'The undissolved portion was sep- arated from the fluid, and after careful washing with warm wa- ter, was dried and ignited along with powdered charcoal in a porcelain crucible, for one hour. Boiling water was affused, and the clear yellow solution of hydro-sulphuret separated by the filter from the unconsumed charcoal. Hydro-chloric acid was added to one portion of the solution, and after partial concentration by boiling, alcohol was added. It burnt without any indication of the presence of the chloride of strontium. The remainder of the hy- dro-sulphuret was decomposed by nitric acid, and the solution evaporated to dryness. A minute scale of the salt was added to a solution of sulphate of soda. It instantly produced a cloudi- ness, nor was the precipitate re-dissolved on the addition of more water. 'The solid nitrate (obtained by evaporation) moreover, re- mained exposed to the air for twenty four hours, without sensible deliquescence. It hence appears that the sulphate contained in the mineral, is neither (wholly nor in part) that of strontita, or lime. ‘The spe- cific gravity of the mineral, taken with the crystalline form it as- sumes, can leave no doubt of its being sulphate of baryta. We have seen above, that carbonic acid, lime and strontita, are also constituents of the mineral. 'The quantitative analysis was con- ducted as follows: the carbonates were dissolved out by nitric acid. ‘The insoluble sulphate was washed, heated to redness, and weighed. The nitric solution was evaporated to dryness and treated with alcohol, having a specific gravity 0.812. The alco- holic solution was evaporated to dryness, and the nitrate of lime decomposed by a white heat. The nitrate of strontita, still moist with alcohol, was introduced along with the filter into a small New Magnetic Electrical Machine. 163 platina crucible and ignited, whereby it was converted into car- bonate of strontita. 'The results obtained were these: Sulphate of baryta, . : k " 65.55 Carbonate of strontita, 4 : : 22.30 Carbonate of lime, : : : 12.15 So close is the approximation of these numbers to what would be afforded by a definite compound of two atoms of sulphate of baryta, one atom of carbonate of strontita, and one atom of car- bonate of lime, that we are fully entitled to consider this as the constitution of the mineral. The analysis, corrected by the atomic theory on such a supposition, will give the following view, as the more exact composition of the substance under consideration : Sulphate of baryta, . 3 : Fn G52 Carbonate of strontita, i ‘ : 20.61 Carbonate of lime, a é : 14.27 The chemical sign of the species al therefore be 2 Ba S+- Sr C 4+Ca GC. The trivial name alludes to the three bases entering into its composition. In the natural system, it falls to the genus Hal- baryte, and I denominate it, specifically, Polyhalous, from the number of salts it contains. {t is undoubtedly a very common mineral in the region from whence my specimens were sent; and occurs in a secondary limestone, associated. with crystallized strontianite. Charleston, (S. C.) Feb. 21, 1838. Arr. XIV.—New Magnetic Electrical Machine of great power, with two parallel horse-shoe magnets, and two straight rotating armatures, affording each, in an entire revolution, a constant current in the same direction ; by Cuas. G. Pacer, M. D. aa, Fig. 1. represent the two straight armatures, covered each with eight hundred feet of No. 20 insulated copper wire; b b, the two poles of one of the magnetic batteries. 'The other horse- shoe magnet, exactly parallel and opposite to this, is screened from view by the frame work of the machine. Its poles are the reverse of the former. c, is a strong brass strap, for securing the armatures to the shaft. At the other extremity of the armatures, is a similar one, fastened tight to the axis. 'The strap cis held 164 New Magnetic Electrical Machine. firmly in its position by a nut, but movable, so that the arma- tures may be removed at pleasure. d, is a strong brass pillar for supporting the axis, which turns on centres, secured and adjusted by nuts and milled head screws. ‘There is a similar pillar at the other end of the axis, on the opposite side, but concealed from view by the body of the machine. The magnetic batte- ries are also secured to the frame by strong brass clamps, and New Magnetic Electrical Machine. 165 adjusted by milled head screws. e, is the pulley wheel, and f, the multiplying wheel. g, the top board, is secured to the frame. by screws, and answers as a convenient table for experiment. The magnets are sixteen inches long, the armatures ten inches, so that the whole machine occupies but little room. The alter- nating currents, from the semi-revolutions of the armatures, are converted into a current of the same direction, by the application of my pole changer. 'This simple contrivance, beautifully appli- cable to the magneto-electric, as well as to the electro-magnetic machine, will be found fully described in Vol. xxxiu. No. 1. p. 190, of this Journal. It consists merely of two insulated, metallic, cylindrical segments, secured on the shaft, and two stationary metallic tangent springs for conductors. Silver, about the purity of coin, answers best. The wires from each of the armatures, pass through holes in the brass straps, and through openings in the sides of the machine, to be attached to the pole changers, one of which is seen at h. One pole changer would suffice for both armatures, but by using two, the experiments may be considera- bly varied, as the separate coils may be combined, to form a sim- ple or compound battery. 77, are the tangent springs of copper, but tipped with silver where they rest upon the silver pole chan- ger. They pass up through the top board of the machine, and are soldered respectively to the brass straps & k, into which are screwed the mercury cups, one of which is of glass for exhibiting the spark, combustion of ether, alcohol, oil, &c. These cups rep- resent the two constant poles of the revolving coils. 'The circuit is completed and broken by the rise and fall of the curved wire m, attached to the little lever 7. At J, the lever is pulled down by a spiral spring. At the other end is fastened a string, which passes down to the lower lever, n. This is worked by the re- volving pins 2 s, attached to a movable ferule on the shaft. The pins 7 s, are themselves binding screws, so that the ferule may be adjusted in any position, and the circuit broken at any required time. This electrotome, as it may be called, is removed when decompositions are performed, and the platinum wires are inserted into the mercury cups. ‘The machine works equally well, turned either way. I have not yet had opportunity to measure the rate of decomposition of pure water, but it is certainly as rapid as from one hundred pairs of galvanic plates. Pure wa- ter is rapidly decomposed when the platinum wires are ten inches 166 New Magnetic Electrical Machine. apart. A few turns of the wheel furnish mixed gases enough to make a smart explosion. A solution of sulphate of soda in cab- bage water, contained in separated glass cells, submitted to the action of the machine, gives immediately the characteristic chan- ges of color by decomposition ; reversing the motion of the wheel, the reverse change takes place. The light from charcoal points is insupportable. Plumbago gives an intense light. The metal- lic leaves burn with splendor. When a wire is suddenly with- drawn from one of the poles or brass straps, a bright spark is ob-» tained, half an inch in length. When the circuit is broken from a smooth and clean metallic surface, an entirely new and beauti- ful appearance presents itself. A diffuse, irregular, nebulous spark, darts along the surface, (as seen in fig. 2,) sometimes in sev- eral directions at once, to the dis- tance of half or three quarters of an inch. It succeeds with all the metals yet tried, but best with a piece of iron finely stri- ated with a smooth file. When the lever trip is worked, the sec- ondary current frequently plays with an intense green light, across the separations between the pole changers. The shock from the direct current is uncomfortable with dry hands; but when the secondary current is used, it is painful to touch the poles, even with the fingers. It causes the gold leaves of the elec-. troscope to diverge strongly, without the aid of a leyden jar, or ex- tended, insulated metallic surfaces. It charges a leyden jar at ev- ery touch. A charcoal point on the knob of the jar, affords a bright light at every touch. I have some time since shown, that the shocks and decompositions produced by the secondary current of flat spirals and helices in connexion with a single pair of plates, were greatly increased, if the surface of the mercury, (or solid conductor,) from which the circuit is broken, be covered with pure water or naphtha. I have since found that oil gives a far greater increase than either. The rationale is now obvious. When the battery circuit is completed, (as shown by Faraday’s discoveries of volta-electric induction, ) a feeble secondary current flows in a direction opposite to that of the battery. When the New Magnetic Electrical Machine. 167 circuit is broken, a powerful secondary rushes in the same direc- tion with the primitive battery current. Hence the bright spark is occasioned by the passage of the secondary through the heated air, occasioned by the combustion of the mercury. Now, if the surface of the metal is covered with a non-conducting liquid, such as oil, the circuit is broken with precision, while an obstacle is offered to the consequent and secondary current, and the greater part of it rushes through the body, or whatever conductor joins the extremities of.the coil. The application of this fact is of great value in the use of the magneto-electric machine. If a drop of oil be put upon the break piece of the ingenious machine of Clarke, its power will be greatly increased, while it preserves a good contact by saving the metals from oxidation. I find also, that if the stratum of oil be very thin, the spark is more brilliant than without it, being partly due to the combustion of the oil. The same is true also of charcoal points, when used with the de- flagrator or magnetic electrical machine. It will be seen at once, that the gain of power in this new magnetic electrical machine must be very great. I notice in the last No. of this Journal, that Clarke’s machine has on one armature four thousand five hundred feet of wire, whereas on one armature of this machine there are only eight hundred feet. 'The source of this superior action, is chiefly the use of the straight armature, instead of the revolving horse-shoe. There is no advantage in covering a horse-shoe (for electro-magnetic or magneto-electric purposes) beyond the straight portion. Hence the piece of iron is longer than necessary for the full and ready production, and neutraliza- tion of the magnetic forces. ‘The straight armature is covered through its entire length, and covered with ease and precision in a lathe. | On a new compound electro-magnet, for the production of the magnetic electrical spark, and also for attractive force.—The fol- lowing positions, I think, may be considered as well established by experiment. Ist. Very long and large bars of soft iron, even with a proportionate battery, acquire a comparative feebler mag- netic intensity than smaller bars. 2d. That long and large bars of soft iron, once charged by a battery, retain a greater degree of magnetic power than smaller ones. ‘The great magnet lately con- structed by Dr. King of this city, (Boston) in imitation of Prof. Cal- lan’s magnet, affords convincing proof of these facts. This magnet 168 New Magnetic Electrical Machine. is made from a bar of two and one half inch iron, and fourteen feet long. Its lifting power is about one thousand five hundred pounds, and when the battery and armature are removed, it retains a permanent lifting power of fifty pounds. Struck with this cu- rious fact, I was led to the construction of the compound electro- magnet. My first experiment was made with three separate lay- ers of coiled wire round a wooden spool ten inches long, with a bar of soft iron enclosed. 'This was connected with two pairs of plates and the spark and shock observed. 'The bar of iron was then removed, and a bundle of annealed large iron wire, intro- duced in its place. The sparks and shocks were increased toa surprising degree. I then took a bundle of smaller wires four inches long and wound them with only two layers of continuous wire. 'The spark from this was as intense as that given by the large bar in the spool. I next took seven pieces of good hoop iron, well annealed, one inch wide, one fourteenth of an inch thick and eight inches long. These were firmly-rivetted together, and the angles of the compound bar thus made, were rounded to pre- vent cutting the wire. Four layers of coiled wire were then wound upon it, and their ends attached to two connecting wires. Nothing can be imagined more intense and beautiful than the sparks produced by this little compound magnet. When a piece of iron is burned with it, the ignited particles are frequently thrown off, the distance of two feet, and occasionally fall to the floor. For its size, it is the strongest electro-magnet I have ever known, and when the battery is withdrawn, there is not magnetism enough retained, to affect a very delicate needle. From this per- fect neutralization of power, arises in great measure, the intensity of the secondary current. The neutrality is partly due to the re- duced size of the bars, but chiefly to the action of their similar poles upon each other, when the exciting cause is withdrawn. Fig. 3, represents a small elec- tro-magnetic bar, mounted for b rotation, with my pole changer attached, which is shown at a. b b, are the conducting tangent springs; ¢ ce, mercury cups for connexion with the battery. No stationary magnets are here used, the instrument being made with [ ue On the Dry Rot. 169 such delicacy as to revolve by the earth’s magnetism. Placed upon the top board of the machine, the connexions being made, it revolves rapidly by the attractions and repulsions of the upper poles of the large magnets underneath. A small electro-magnet, charged by the three inner coils of one of the armatures, sustained permanently ten pounds, while the machine was in action. Fusion of iron filings.—When a wire from one pole of the machine was placed in a heap of fine iron filings, and a bunch of these raised by a magnetic bar connected with the other pole, the connecting shreds of filings, sometimes an inch in length, be- came intensely ignited throughout, fused into a mass and fell off, leaving frequently a globule attached to one of the poles, which glowed for a time after the contact was broken, and then ex- ploded, as is seen with particles of iron burning in oxygen. This curious experiment succeeds best, when the filings are held be- tween two opposite poles of magnetic bars, connected each with the poles of the battery. Art. XV.—On the Dry Rot; by Puinenas Ratney. Middletown, (Conn.) March 22d, 1838. TO PROF. SILLIMAN. Sir—Permit me through the medium of your very valuable and widely circulating Journal, to lay before the public the fol- lowing facts and observations in relation to the dry rot in: timber. It is matter of history, that the timber of the ancients lasted some hundreds of years longer than that of the moderns, and there is no record that their timber was subjected to any artificial process to make it durable. It is therefore probable, the reason why the dry rot exists to such an alarming extent in the heart- wood of the timber of the present day, is to be found in the sea- son of cutting the trees. It is probable that the present general: practice of cutting timber in the winter was avoided by the an~ cients, and that it originated in England, when the botanical theory, that the sap of trees is in their roots at that season of the year, was first promulgated. Vou. XX XIV.—No. 1. 22 170 On the Dry Rot. It is true, that when trees are cut in the winter months, the alburnum will zo¢ be affeeted by the dry rot for a great number: of years afterwards, and indeed I do not know if it be removed from the heart-wood, that it ever would be affected by that dis- ease in its proper type; and hence the origin of the delusion, and of consequence the practice above alluded to. But in this case, the deadly disease is lurking in the heart-wood, and will, as as- suredly as time rolls on, burst forth and destroy its texture in the course of about eight years; and hence the destruction of life and property, and the annual complaint from our government ship-yards. I was once a devotee to the cutting of timber for vessels in the winter, until the following circumstances led me to renounce this ruinous practice. It was the general custom here, to cut timber for vessels in the winter, but notwithstanding, they went into decay, and wanted repairing in about seven years, or from that to eight, while some of them lasted twelve years. I ascribed this variation in their dura- bility to the fact that the cutting of the timber was often com- menced in October, and then continued through the intermedi- ate months into March. I therefore concluded that the nght season was in December, when I supposed that the sap was cer- tainly in the roots, and if cut in that season, I believed it would leave the deadly poison in the stump; of consequence, the body and branches would be entirely free from its influence, and I therefore came to the determination to carry this opinion into practice the first opportunity, and one soon occurred. In 1810, I was concerned in the building of a small freighting ship, of which I was the sole conductor, from her keel until she was completed and ready for sea. According to my previous de- termination, I commenced the cutting of the timbers for her in the early part of December, and continued it into the first week of January. By so doing, I expected to produce the very best ship for durability on the Connecticut river, where there were then numerous vessels building. The timber selected was white oak, and white chestnut. The vessel advanced, and in April it was found that three of the quarter top timbers were wanting, and (as very crooked pieces were required for these) I was obliged to go into the woods and have them cut. Some time in May, it was found that the stick designed for plank-sheers (this was very large, and intended to make the whole that was wanted) would On the Dry Rot. 171 not answer the purpose, except that it was barely sufficient to go around the bows, the other part being badly rent, and of course was rejected. I therefore went into the woods a second time, when the leaves were full grown and the bark would peel, and had two thrifty white oaks cut for the after pieces. 'These tim- bers were put in immediately, and so were the plank-sheers, without any seasoning whatever, and the room between the tim- ber above the air streak was filled with salt, which was supposed to be a preventive against the any rot. ae workmanship was of the first order. The vessel was launched, and completed in July; 1811. ‘That autumn she went to sea, andl after the declaration of the war of 1812, she came to Middletown, and was laid up here until the peace of 1815. In that spring, when she was to be fitted out again, it was found that she must be repaired in her hull; and on opening her, it was perceived that the dry rot had made such de- struction among her timbers, that it became necessary to build her anew from her middle wale up. But the three quarter- timbers spoken of, which had been cut green, were sound, and appeared new, although their neighbors on each side of them, were destroyed by the disease; and it is a remarkable fact, that the spikes, when pulled out of them, were bright, and appeared new, but those parts of them which came in contact with the outside planks, (which were made from timber cut in December, ) were badly oxidated, so much so, that they were reduced in size nearly one quarter. 'The plank-sheers forward, which, it will be remembered, were cut in December, were destroyed by the dis- ease, but the after pieces were sound and dry, and the under sides appeared like new timber seasoned in the shade ; and what is remarkable as to them is, that although some of the timbers on which they rested were so decayed that they might be picked to pieces, yet there was not the least appearance of it on them, which shows, that although surrounded by corruption, they were themselves, at least up to that period, incorruptible. Thus it can be seen, as respects this vessel, that not only the season of the year, which in the popular opinion is the best to cut timber in, for the purpose of making it last well, was strictly adhered to, but also the precautionary measure of applying salt, which is, even at this day, thought to retard the progress of the disease. 172 On the Dry Rot, Although it was not thought necessary at that time to repair this ship below the middle wale, yet I have every reason to be- lieve that the poison had begun its work in her timbers, from light-water mark to her top-side, for in 1816 or 1817, in a perfect calm she sank at sea, a poor miserable decayed hulk, a melan- choly comment on the folly of cutting timber for vessels in the winter months. By inquiry since, I have always found, that of those vessels that last the longest, the timber of which they were constructed was cut the farthest from December. The facts in this case entirely changed my opinion. Before, I thought, because it was the general practice, that the winter months were the best season to cut timber in; now I began to reason, to examine, and to compare. I fully believed that the sap was the cause of the dry rot, and wherever that was stored away, at the death of the tree, there would it make its first at- tack ; I doubted, however, the botanical theory, that it is princi- pally in its roots in the winter, and there protected from injury by the frost ; for I could not clearly see how the roots of the birch, beach and sugar maple, (although the quantity they will bleed in a season, is partly accounted for in their being supplied by the fibre roots,) could contain their sap; and if they could, how it could be protected from the frost there, any more than in any other part of the tree, when not more than one tenth part of the roots were below the frost. I was therefore determined to ascertain, if possible, where the sap reposed in nae at duicrat seasons of the year. Accordingly, having cut a small oak staddle, on or about the twentieth of June, 1815, I placed several pieces of it in the fire- place, and put fire under them; after a little while, there appear- ed at the ends of the sticks a wet circle, describing the exact thickness of the alburnum, and when they became considerably heated, the steam rushed with violence from the tubes of the al- burnum, and there was but a slight appearance of vapor over the surface of the heart-wood. On or about the same day of the month of December, of the same year, I had another small oak staddle cut, and went through with the same process with sev- eral pieces of it, and when they began to be heated, the whole surface of the heart-wood, except a small circle enclosing the pith, was wet, but the albumum was dry, and when they were fairly heated through, the steam rushed with violence from the On the Dry Rot. | 173 tubes of the heart-wood, although the whole quantity that es- caped was not so large as in the other case. The results of these experiments accord with a known fact in regard to the sugar- maple, namely, that no sap can be obtained from the tubes of the alburnum of that tree, and therefore they are obliged to bore the hole for the tube through the alburnum, into the heart-wood be- fore it will run.* _ The first experiment shows plainly, that the sap is in the tubes of the alburnum in the summer, and I believe this accords with the present theory in botany; and I believe also, that it is con- ceded by botanists that the sap is the cause of the dry rot; then why was the practice of cutting timber in the winter ever intro- duced, except for the purpose of eepnomay, in saving the alburnum from the rot ? In the second experiment it can be clearly seen, that me doc- trine of sap being principally in the roots of trees in the winter, is false, and therefore should be discarded for the mischief it has already done, and the truth should be established, which is, that in the winter the sap is in the tubes of the heart-wood of the whole tree, roots, body, and branches, and is there protected from injury by the frost. By what process it gets there, and how protected, is perhaps yet veiled in mystery ; but all must confess, that it is conveyed there by a natural law, and thus protected from injury ; the beneficent design is too obvious to be attributed to any other than Almighty power. At the period I was strenuously advocating the doctrine of cutting timber in the winter, I had a small apple-tree which had been engrafted with a choice fruit, and had been growing per- haps seven or eight years. There was one limb on it which I did not like, because it was growing in a wrong direction, and therefore I took it off in December, because of course I did be- lieve the sap to be then in the roots, and therefore at this season there would none of it be wasted or taken away with the limb, and of consequence the branches left would receive a greater pro- portion of nourishment in the spring. After the occurrence of the circumstances before detailed, I examined the tree, and found that the part or stump of the hmb which remained within the * Tt will be remembered that the sugar maple is always tapped at the close of winter, and first dawning of spring, when there are sunny days and frosty nights. —Ep. 174 On the Dry Rot. surface of the body, was affected by the dry rot in its purest type. I removed this with my knife, and found that the disease had made its attack on the body of the tree itself. The tree, after the limb was taken off, became sickly, and its fruit, after it be- gan to bear, was imperfect. I would here observe, that it is the common Apeenee. when people cut the timber of a house frame, to do it in the winter, because, as they think, it will be more durable; but they will not trim their trees at-that season because they know by experi- ence that they will contract the rot, and therefore they do it in the spring. Whatastrange oversight! But Doctor Ives, senior, of New Haven, goes even farther; he trims his trees in June, and thinks they do better at that season of the year because the wounds heal quicker. 'This is right, for as the cause of the dis- ease is not in the heart-wood at that season, so the remaining stump, being all heart-wood, can never be attacked by the dis- ease, and therefore the wound ‘will heal quicker; but if it isdone in December, the cause of the disease zs in the heart-wood at the death of the limb, and as the stumps cannot be removed, the con- sequence is that the disease attacks and very soon destroys them, and therefore the wounds will never heal. Although trees thus situated, may, by their abundant foliage, their extended branches, and their smooth and comely bodies, appear to be in perfect health, (which is sometimes the case,) yet they are doomed trees, for the canker having entered into their organization, is preying upon their very vitals, and will sooner or later prostrate them in the dust. If any accident should happen to a limb so as to break it off in the winter, no matter how small, if it be connected with the main pith of the tree, the effect would be the same. And hence the origin of what the carpenters call punk knots, that so often appear in our most valuable white pine mast sticks, and the indications of which on the outer surface is many times so minute as to deceive the most vigilant eye, but when perceived and traced, will lead to a mass of decay around the region of the pith. When I have known the period at which certain trees have been cut, and also their locality, I have afterwards, year after year, examined their stumps, and watched their decay, and have inva- riably found, that of those of them which were cut in the winter, the disease first made its appearance in the heart-wood, and con- tinued its ravages until that was destroyed, and up to that period the alburnum was comparatively sound. And of those that were On the Dry Rot. 175 cut in the summer, the disease first made its appearance in the alburnum, which, in many cases, after a few years, entirely dis- appeared, but the heart-wood remained sound and dry. And here let me observe, that in the examination of this description of timber, I have always found it sound and dry, which leads me to believe that this is owing to the peculiar state of the heart- wood at the time of the death of the tree, and therefore it is more impervious to water, which of itself, waving every other consid- eration, would make it more durable. Our woods afford many facts which, if rightly examined, would go to show that the doctrine I have advanced is the true one. ‘Trees may be found uprooted and lying prostrate, from which the alburnum has disappeared in consequence of dry rot, and yet the heart-wood remains sound; stumps of dry limbs are observed projecting from aged living trees, which from appearance have been in that situation for ages, and from which the alburnum has also disappeared, yet the heart-wood will be firm and sound; trees are seen standing erect, on the alburnum of which the dry rot seems to have exhausted all its power, and caused it also to disappear, but it had no power to act on the heart-wood ; and by their dusky and ragged appearance such trees seem to have been in that situation for a great number of years, and thus it appears that time only was slowly decomposing their outer surfaces, for if examined, it will be found that they are sound and dry within, and much harder than the same kind of timber seasoned in any. other way. Can there be any doubt as to the fact that these limbs and these trees received their death in the summer ? Others also are found lying prostrate, with the heart-wood entirely de- stroyed by the disease, yet the alburnum is in a tolerable state of preservation ; others present nothing but masses of decay, and in the bodies and limbs of others, holes will be perceived from which once projected healthy branches; and to one that is experienced in timber, these are sure signs that death has entered into their composition, however otherwise their appearance might indicate a healthy state. These trees and these limbs received their death wounds in the winter. There are numerous facts in the most common transactions of life that will sustain me in my position. I believe that the gen- eral practice throughout the northern and middle states is to peel such trees as are to be manufactured into ship plank; by saving the bark, this probably makes the business more profitable than 176 On the Dry Rot. it would otherwise be. It is invariably the case, that by the time the planks become thoroughly seasoned the alburnum be- comes so injured by the dry rot as to be unfit to be used ; and for my own part I never saw any timber of this sort where the heart- wood was affected at all, unless the tree had contracted the dis- ease before its death. Now I appeal, for the truth of these asser- tions, to all the experienced ship-carpenters who are in the least acquainted with this kind of timber. The season of peeling is from the third week in May to the second week in June. It is not probable that all the timbers required for a seventy-four, or indeed any other public vessel, are cut in the compass of any one month, but that they commence perhaps in October, and continue the cutting into April, and sometimes into May, and in cases of great emergency, into June. Then, if I am right in my views, various periods must elapse before all the timbers will have been attacked by the disease ; and when the planks are taken off from any one of them preparatory to their being repaired, do not the timbers present that appearance? Are there not those on which the dry rot has exhausted all its power and finished their destruction, and others which are less decayed, others not so much? Indeed, the disease can be traced until you find those which seem to defy and continue to defy its energy, even after the vessel has under- gone repeated repairs, and these circumstances occur too, even after the timbers have been subjected to some artificial process to make them more durable. The following is a case in point. In the North American Re- view, No. xcv. for April, 1837, pp. 343-44, in the article on the Sylva Americana, the following passage occurs. ‘'The white oak was largely employed in the frame of our favorite frigate (the Constitution) which was built forty years ago. In the course of the very thorough repair to which this vessel was lately subjected, many of the white oak timbers of her frame were found in ex- cellent condition ; and it is stated on the best authority, that in several instances the timbers of this description were sound, while others by their sides, of the southern live oak, had decayed. Now the superiority of the live oak, in point of durability, over the oak of any other country, has never been doubted.” Why did not all the white oak timber last forty years, if there had not been some variation of the season of cutting them? and so with the live oaks. On the Dry Rot. VW7 It is a well known fact, that the building of the Constitution commenced when we were on the eve of a maritime war with France, or it had already commenced, and therefore we may sup- pose that the completion of the ship was hurried; and that her frame did not all arrive from the south in time, so that they were compelled to employ the white oak in her construction: probably the season in which it was cut was not much regarded, and there- fore some of her white oak timber lasted forty years. I saw in one of the Reviews of the day a circumstance of this kind, although I cannot now give the reference. In a mine, I believe in one of the German states, the timbers made use of to support the roofs of the galleries, were in a few months destroyed by the dry rot, and this could not be obviated by every experi- ment that was tried, until they made use of the locust. 'The effect was accounted for in this way: the dry rot, it is true, destroyed the alburnum immediately ; but the decayed alburnum answered for a coating to defend the heart-wood from its influ- ence. If this be the fact, why did not the decayed alburnum of the other timber answer the same purpose? But however, if the histories of those locusts were reverted to, it would most probably be found that they were killed some time in the summer ; and it will also be found that if the decayed alburnum be not removed it will generate another disease, which in some respects resembles and is very often taken for the dry rot. Numerous other instances can be brought to bear in this case. Farmers cut their rails in the summer, when the bark will peel, and they last from fifty toa hundred years. They account for the fact in this way: if they cut them in the winter, the bark will stick to the rails, and after a little while, the water gets under it and causes them to decay sooner. On the contrary, they cut their posts in the winter; probably this is done for the convenience of cutting holes in them at that season, and although their rails last so long, yet their posts begin to decay in about seven or eight years, according to the soil in which they are placed. When from necessity they are obliged to cut a few posts in the summer, (with the expectation however that they will soon decay, ) if they last thirty or forty years, (and there are instances of this kind,) they speak of it as a very extraordinary circumstance, but never inquire into the natural cause, nor alter their practice. There are other instances of the extraordinary longevity of timber; wooden Vout. XXXIV.—No. 1. 23 178 On the Dry Rot. abutments to bridges, pumps, piles, foundations of wharves, coffer- dams, &c., a full notice of which would fill a volume, all go to show that there is a season in which to cut timber that will cause it to last for years beyond what it now lasts; and that there is a season in which to cut it, when it will not last over eight years, notwithstanding any artificial process through which the timber may pass. Immersion in water was one process, that was thought good to make timber more durable, and which was practiced by the Brit- . ish government for a great number of years, and followed by that of the United States, until it was exploded ; and according to the English writers on the subject, the life of their oaks averaged only about nine years, and that of our own favorite live oaks about the same period. Salt is one of those substances that in the popular opinion is good to make timber more durable, and hence the room between the timbers of every new vessel built by the govern- ment, is filled with it. But notwithstanding this, they have to undergo repairs in their hulls in about eight or nine years. So it has been with every artificial process, and so it will be until na- ture is more consulted, and her dictates more regarded. Nature no doubt was the preceptor of the ancients, and particu- larly the Romans, who, it is said, girdled their trees, and let them stand until they were seasoned. Is not this more in accordance with the dictates of nature, than to place timber under water, and let it lie there for eight or ten years, to have its tubular fibres swollen and distended to such a degree as to destroy its elasticity and its firmness, and thereby prepare it for a more rapid decay? And what was gained by that practice? Truly nothing; for, eight or ten years was its life, before immersion, and it is no more than eight or ten years, after its immersion ; and in what consists the value of salt, which only cools the outside surface, and therefore keeps it sound, but within, the disease is raging with redoubled violence. 'The only question is, when did the ancients girdle their trees? Was it in the winter? If any other proof is want- ing, to show that they did not do it at that season, it may be found in the practice of the pioneers of our western hard wood forests: there, as I have been informed, they used to girdle their trees in the winter, for the very purpose of having them rot and fall down, and thereby save the necessity of cutting them. I think therefore, that we may fairly conclude that the Romans gir- On the Dry Rot. | 179 dled their trees in the summer; and further, that they let them stand until the dry rot developed itself,in the alburnum. If the timbers in ancient, buildings were examined closely, the season in which the trees were killed may be pretty correctly as- certained, for if cut in the summer, the powder-post will invaria- bly be found on the alburnum, and if that has disappeared, there will be always some appearance on the heart-wood, that will show that the disease has been there, but never within its surface, and the same is true as regards the dry rot. The result of the fol- lowing experiments will prove these facts. Cut two saplings, (no matter how small, if there be any heart-wood in them, ) one in June, and the other in December. ‘Take one piece of a conven- ient length from each, and put them into the garret, and one from each and put them into the cellar. In about three years it will be perceived that the powder-post has appeared. on the alburnum of the one cut in June; and in the heart-wood of the one cut in December, of those in the garret ; and that the dry rot has made its appearance on the alburnum of the one cut in June, and in the heart-wood of the one cut in December, of those in the cellar. By these experiments it can also be seen, that the cause which pro- duces dry rot, under other circumstances will produce powder- post. ; Although it is my opinion that June is the best time to cut timber to make it last the longest, yet it is probable that there would not be much difference in its lasting, if it be cut in either of the summer months. But there is a period in which, if timber is cut, the dry rot, or under other circumstances the powder-post, -will appear both in the heart-wood and the alburnum, at the same time, although I have seen but few cases of it, and in those cases I had no knowledge of the time of the death of the trees; but I judge it is either late in the fall, or early in the spring, from the circumstance of the bark being closely attached to the alburnum. It would be satisfactory to know the exact period when the tree was killed, from which the block was taken that is now un- dergoing the severe ordeal of the fungus pit at Woolwich, Eng- land; and if that cannot be ascertained, whether the dry rot first made its appearance in the alburnum or the heart-wood, of its fellow that was destroyed by it; and also to have a block taken from a perfectly healthy tree killed in June, with the alburnum removed and the surface of the heart-wood left perfectly smooth, and. without any seasoning put into the pit. 180 On the Shooting Stars of Aug. 9th and 10th, 1837. Arr. XVI.—Additional Observations on the Shooting Stars of August 9th and 10th, 1837; communicated by Epwarp C. Herrick. ‘ shi | Since the last number of this Journal was printed, circumstan- ces have prevented me from making any further search for August meteoric showers. Many more doubtless remain to be discov- ered, but the work of bringing them to light must be left to those who have access to libraries more extensive than this city con- tains. : este In a postscript on p. 364 of the last volume, reference was made to Mr. R. W. Haskins’s translation of the Report of M. Arago, (given in the Comptes Rendus,) concerning the meteors seen in August in various parts of Europe. The following is an abstract of that part of the Report which relates to the year 1837. ‘‘ Paris.—M. Arago’s eldest son and one of his friends, counted in one hour, beginning 11h. 15m. P. M. of August 10, one hun- dred and seven meteors. From 0h. 57m. to 3h. 26m. A. M. of the next morning, (August 11,) MM. Bouvard and Laugier saw one hundred and eighty four meteors. The majority of all these radiated from the constellation Taurus. : “ Chateauroux, France, N. lat. 46° 48’, E. long. 1° 40’.—M. de la Tremblais, travelling in an open carriage, from 10h. to 10h. 35m. August 9, saw thirty meteors. He noted but a small por- tion of the whole number visible. About 10h. P. M. August 10, he saw five or six meteors in fifteen minutes.” To the foregoing facts, I am happy to add the following impor- ‘tant document, which was given me by my friend Mr. Samuel St. John, soon after his recent return from Europe. It will be noticed, that the observations which it contains, (made by himself and Dr. Parker,) relate to the night of the 9th of August. As M. Arago makes no mention of any meteoric display at Paris on that night, it may be presumed that the sky there was overcast at the time. “While travelling in Switzerland, in August last, (1837,) in company with Dr. Willard Parker, of Pittsfield, Mass., I had the pleasure of witnessing a remarkable exhibition of shooting stars. The phenomenon excited in us unusual interest, but our situation rendered it impossible to observe with as much accuracy and full- On the Shooting Stars of Aug. 9th and 10th, 1837. 181 ness, as we desired. The following is a brief account of our ob- servations.—On Wednesday, the ninth of August, we started from the town of Sion, (Canton of Vallais,) about eight in the evening, seated with the conducteur, at the rear of the Diligence, on the outside. On leaving the town, we found the sky entirely clear, and meteors falling in very unusual numbers. Our attention was much attracted by the display, and at five minutes before nine, (by my watch,) we began to count the meteors as they appeared, and continued counting until we had enumerated three hundred, when I found the time to be fifteen minutes before eleven, P. M. Here we ceased to count; but from this hour until our arrival at Martigny, at five minutes before 2 A. M. of the next morning, (August 10,) the meteors were apparently no less abundant than while we were counting. Both of us commonly looked at one and the same quarter of the heavens, and I think that we did not in the whole, see a greater number of meteors than a single obser- ver, directing his attention to one and the same quarter of the sky, during that period, would have noted. 'The part of the heavens towards which we looked, was chiefly the N. N. E., taking in about 30° on each side of that point, but occasionally we included some of uncommon splendor, falling in other quarters of the sky. We remarked that many more appeared on the eastern than on the wes-- tern side of this point. About one third of the meteors exceeded in apparent size, stars of the first magnitude, and most of the lar- ger sort left behind them trains of sparks. ‘The meteors were mostly of a brilliant white color; many however, were of a red- dish hue and some showed a slight tinge of green. “ On our arrival at Martigny, we went to bed, and saw no more. The night of Thursday, 10th—11th August, when according to the report of M. Arago, unusual numbers of meteors were seen at Paris, we spent at the village of Chamonix, (Chamouni.) During © the evening, the sky was much clouded, and a severe thunder- storm passed over ;—of course no observations on shooting stars could be made. We retired as early as 10 P.M., and I do not know whether at a later hour any observations on meteors were made at that place.” It appears from the above, that in Europe, at least, the meteoric shower of August, 1837, was more abundant on the night of the 9th, than on the night of the 10th. At Paris on the 10th, two observers saw 107 meteors in an hour; while on the 9th, in the 182 On the Shooting Stars of Aug. 9th and 10th, 1837. Canton of Vallais, (Switzerland, ) two observers, in circumstances much less favorable, saw 160 per hour. The evidence at present before the public is scarcely saffievenit to decide whether in general the August meteoric shower occurs on the night of the 9th or of the 10th of that month ;—the date being reckoned according to the time of Western Europe or of the United States. During the present period, the night of the 9th will probably be found to be nearest the maximum. On leap-year, for obvious reasons, the meteoric showers may be expected to happen at a date somewhat earlier than on the common years succeeding. The paper on ancient meteoric ieee aroraieadl on p. 358, of the last volume, will be completed as soon as practicable. -It now comprises ffieen instances, viz. Ante C. 25, 29, A. D. 531, 744 or 747, 764, 901, 902, 935, 1094, 1095, 1096, 1099, 1122, 1202, 1243. 'T’o determine the precise dates of all these, according to the Gregorian or any other Calendar, requires much time. It ap- pears certain, that some centuries since, the April and the August meteoric showers occurred at a date several days earlier, and the November shower several days Ae! than they do during the pres- ent period. Since the preceding was written, I have received from Mr. R. W. Haskins, of Buffalo, (to whom the public are much indebted for his frequent communications through the Daily Commercial Advertiser of that city, of the earliest French intelligence regard- ing meteors, ) his translation of M. Arago’s Report to the Academy of Sciences, Oct. 16, 1837, on the meteors of November and of August. The details of the latter there given, in a letter from M. Wartmann, of Geneva, do not materially disagree with the facts above stated. I have space only for the following particulars. On the night of Aug. 9, 1837, two persons on an excursion to Chamonix, saw from 9h. 30m. to 10h., more than forty meteors of great brilliancy. At Geneva, on the same night, from 9h. to 12h., eighty two me- teors were seen. At 10h. they fell rapidly, and seemed to radiate from a point between 6 Bootis and « Draconis. ‘Twenty miles from Geneva, the meteors were seen in much greater numbers. New Haven, Conn., March 16, 1838. Miscellanies. 183 MISCELLANIES. « GEOLOGY. sit A. Outlines of Geology, prepared for the use of the Junior Class of Columbia College; by Jas. Renwick, LL. D. Prof. of Nat. and Exp. Philos. and Chem.: large 12mo. pa. 96. Printed by Henry Ludwig, 1838. The author divides his subject under, I. Physical Geography—which inquires into the form and ex- ternal characters of our globe. II. Geognosy—which examines the nature and relative posi- tion of the materials which compose its external crust. III. Geogeny—which investigates the manner and order in which these materials have assumed their present position. Physical Geography is treated under the following heads : 1. Of the figure and density of the earth. 2. Of the temperature of the crust of the earth. 3. Of the distribution of land and water on the surface of the globe. : 5G 4. Of the inequalities of the land. 5. Description of the two great continents. 6. Of rocks and fossils. Geognosy.—The formations are divided as follows: Modern formations, under six orders. JI. Alluvial. IL Chem- ical. Il. Diluvial. IV. Volcanic. Ancient formations are either stratified or not. Stratified for- mations are included under five orders: I. Superior. . IT. Super- medial. III. Medial. IV. Submedial. V. Inferior.—Ancient rocks not stratified are included under six orders: I. Granitoid. IJ. Porphyritic. II. Ophiolitic. IV. Trachytic. V. Trap. VI. Voleanic, Geogeny is not divided, except under paragraphs and pages. Of the latter there are 18; of the former, 20. Physical Geography occupies 25 pages, and 54 paragraphs. Geognosy, 53 pages, and 139 paragraphs. It will be seen that the above scheme covers the whole sub- ject. 'To give even its outlines within the limits of 100 pages, re- quires of course great condensation. ‘This has been effected by 184 Miscellanies. Prof. Renwick, whose established character would lead us to ex-. pect what we actually find, not only precision and perspicuity, but also a graduated reduction of this great subject to a proportional scale, so as to preserve the harmony and distinctness of the parts, while there are citations of well ascertained facts sufficient to ex- cite interest, and create conviction. In connexion with a course of lectures, properly illustrated by specimens and drawings, this elegant little work must prove extremely useful, as it may be said to be truly classical in its character; and we have no doubt that, for the classes of other institutions than the one for which it was prepared, and even for intelligent popular audiences, it may prove a valuable substitute for the larger geological treatises. In relation to a work in which we find so much to approve, we have no disposition, as there is no occasion, to criticise ; but we will state a few queries and suggestions, that have occurred to us during the perusal, and should the respected author see fit to answer them, the pages of this Journal are at his service. | With respect to the heights of mountains, we would inquire for the authorities that give an elevation to Nevado de Serata in Peru of 25,250 feet, and of Illimani 24,000; and more especially, we inquire in relation to the height of the “TINS near the sources of Columbia, which are stated to yield very little to those of the Himmalaya peaks. This last statement is based upon the obser- vations of the surveyors of the Hudson’s Bay Company, but not having seen the details, we are not informed whether they are trigonometrical or barometrical, or if accurate observations have not been made, we should like to know upon what probabilities the conclusions are founded, and we are persuaded it would be gratifying to the public to be more fully informed. It has been heretofore supposed that Mount Washington, in New Hampshire, is the highest land in North America this side of the Rocky Mountains, and of Mexico; and in a recent ascent up the former mountain we have supposed this to be true, (see pa. 80 of this No.) We are not informed by Prof. Renwick what mountain in North Carolina is 7000 feet high, and on what evidence the conclusion rests. In relation to iron, which is mentioned as the only metal found in quantity in alluvial formations, it may be asked whether the alluvial gold of Africa, and of the middle geological region of the southern States, as well as of other auriferous regions, and the deep beds of stream tin of Cornwall, do not form an exception to the Miscellanies. 185 universality of this statement? With respect to extinct volcanoes, the word is not, it is true, used by writers very definitely ; but we have been accustomed, with Dr. Daubeny, to regard all vol- canoes as active which have been eruptive within the limits of history, or of credible tradition ; neither of which will apply, for example, to Auvergne. With respect to the coal formations, we believe that the ex- istence in certain situations of marine shells, if not of marine plants, is admitted, implying perhaps only an estuary or occasional flooded or sea shore communication with salt water, while all agree that terrestrial organic forms are almost the exclusive ones in these deposits. 2. Geological Reports. To those of us who were among the pioneers in American Geology, who began to observe and enquire when there were few or none to lead and direct; who looked out on the solid world with inquisitive, but with almost despairing gaze, since none could tell us what we saw, and there scarcely existed even the rudiments of cabinets to aid our enquiries—it is raost gratify- ing to see, that the first third of the present century has brought into the field a phalanx of explorers in geology and natural his- tory, respectable indeed for numbers, but still more respectable for knowledge, zeal, perseverance and success. The general government has prompted various explorations in its unappro- priated wilds; companies and individuals are appealing to ge- ologists to examine their mines and various supposed or real treasures, and several of the States have, by law, provided for an accurate reconnaissance, or a detailed and generalized survey of their respective territories. From the Canadas we have many interesting observations, chiefly by gentlemen connected with the British army, or in the civil service ; Nova Scotia was explor- ed some years ago by Dr. Jackson and Mr. Alger; Dr. Jackson is now executing the geological survey of Maine ; Massachusetts has been fully described and delineated by Prof. Hitchcock, and Connecticut by Prof. C. U. Shepard and Dr. Percival.* Ver- * The report of the latter, although drawn up, is not yet published ; that of the former was cited in our October No. (1837.) Vout. XX XIV.—No. 1. 24 186 Miscellanies. mont, New Hampshire and Rhode Island,* among the New Eng- land States, have not yet acted; but we trust they will ere long follow the example of their immediate neighbors, as well as of the more remote sister States. New York, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, Virginia, Maryland, Tennessee, Michigan and Indiana, are now in the full career of successful investigation under able corps, or able individuals, whom we have either already named, or expect to name in appropriate notices. Kentucky has taken the first step in authorizing a reconnaissance, and making a com- mencing appropriation of money, while the movements and demonstrations by colleges and other institutions, and the current of remark in the prints and in conversation, indicate a state of ‘public feeling which almost assures an extension of geological exploration, as well as of kindred research in other departments of natural history, which we may confidently expect will eventually pervade the American Union. The popular sentiment, influ- enced by individual cupidity, or more enlarged views of public advantage as regards physical resources, is raising this subject almost above the contentions of party, and is almost a solitary point of agreement among those who can agree on nothing else. Almost half the States in the Union have authorized surveys by law, and the number will doubtless be yearly augmented. In this view, science (not regardless however, of positive ad- vantage to individuals or the community in gainful discoveries) still exults more peculiarly, in the extension of her sway, and in the discoveries that are constantly made, thus extending or cor- recting our elementary knowledge. The outlines,+ once ably and correctly drawn, the fillings up will be always in progress, until detailed descriptions of particular districts, and even of individual mines and quarries, will accumulate in the treasuries of local and economical geology. * Notwithstanding many valuable observations made in each of these States, and published by various individuals. Prof. Olmsted, now of Yale College, then of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, deserves to be mentioned with honor, for having several years ago, brought to light many very interesting and valuable facts respecting that State. We have also various reports on the Gold Regions of the southern and southwestern States, and many other detached facts and observations from States and Territories not hitherto explored by public au- thority ; and of these, not a few may be found recorded in the various volumes of this Journal. + The services of William Maclure on this subject, will never be forgotten. Miscellanies. 187 Drawing near to the limits of our time and space, when very recently most.of the geological reports of the season came in, we shall give them such notice as may be in our power. In Vol. xxxii. No. 1, several of the geological reports were mentioned one year since. We have not received the continuation of all of them ; those of Maine* and New York, of Maryland and of Vir- ginia, for the present season, have not been received, while those of Ohio, of Pennsylvania, of Indiana, of Michigan, and of 'Ten- nessee, are before us. Tennessee—Ath Report, by G. Troost, M. D., Geologist to the State, Prof. of Chem. Min. and Geol. Nashville University, Mem- ber of the Geological Societies of France and Pennsylvania. This report is confined chiefly to the rock formations of the district of Ocoee, of which a colored map and section are given on a scale of 21 inches by 19. This district lies in the S. E. an- gle of Tennessee, touching Georgia on the S., North Carolina on the N. W., the Tennessee river, the Hiwassee river and ranges of mountains. Dr. Troost gives a preliminary sketch of elementary geology, with occasional illustrations from local facts, which occupies about half the report. He informs us, that in Tennessee there are no strata between the coal and the marl or green sand of Eu- rope ; all the intermediate sandstones, oolites, &c., which make so great a figure in England, are wanting in Tennessee, and it is not certain that they have been found any where on this conti- nent. The order of arrangement exhibited in the section pre- sented by Dr. Troost, is, beginning below, primordial rocks, grauwacke, mountain limestone, coal measures. It appears that in Tennessee ‘“‘the grauwacke series is overlaid by an immense deposit of sandstone, which forms isolated ridges and mountains,”’ unstratified so far as appears, color gray, and no organic remains ; this rock he regards as equivalent to the old red sandstone of Ku- ropean geologists. The carboniferous or mountain limestone is the most extensive of the rocks of the western country, and the most replete with organic remains; there are many varieties of rocks connected with it, and next above lie the coal measures, composed chiefly of strata of coal, sandstone and shale, with large deposits of ar- gillaceous iron ore. * A partial report of some important facts in Maine, is given by Dr, Jackson in our last number. 188 Miscellanies. - The rocks in the Ocoee district are arranged in the order named above. ‘The glossy aluminous slate it was found had been mis- taken for plumbago; but near the same place (Citico creek) there is a bloomery for iron, and decisive indications of iron ore ; the bloomery is supplied chiefly from banks about two miles off. Tellico river rolls in constant rapids, in its course towards the Tennessee, and forms a cataract about two hundred feet high, and bears along gold and other valuable minerals. Dr. Troost was present in 1831, when gold was found there for the first time; the quantity hitherto found is small, quantities being de- rived as is supposed, from the primary mountains of North Caro- lina, whence the Tellico comes. Dr. Troost thinks there is much less gold in the Ocoee district than has been generally imagined ; still there were parties of diggers that sustained their rights by force, and the usual delusion prevailed of inferring ores from Jack with the lanthern and other lights being seen, and from explosions being heard ; and the divining rod (a forked twig of hazel or peach tree, which, as they assert, turns in the hand of the adept when he approaches the hidden treasure) was much relied upon. Carnelian has been found among the transported ruins of the Tellico, and good roofing slate and ornamental mar- bles abound in East Tennessee. Dr. Troost has made a valuable collection of organic remains, and his report contains in a note an important catalogue of them. His name is sufficient authority for their accuracy. Pennsylvania.—The second annual report, by Prof. Henry D. Rogers, State Geologist, presents the following divisions of the subject: Of the seat of the operations of the survey—Mode of conducting the geological observations—An outline of the ge- ological structure and mineral resources of the north-eastern half of the Appalachian region of the State. ‘Formation No. I.—Sandstone of the South Mountain. II.—Limestone of the Kittatinny Valley. III.—Slate of the same valley. IV.—Sandstones and conglomerates of the Kittatinny or Blue Mountain. V.—Red and variegated sandstones and shales of the valley N. W. of the Kitta- tinny mountain, and of Montour’s ridge. VI.—Blue limestone along the northern base of the Kittatinny mountain, and along both sides of Montour’s ridge. VII.—Sandstone of the first ridge north of the Kittatinny mountain. VIII.—Of the olive colored slate of the valley between the Kittatinny and sec- ond mountains. Miscellanies. 189 IX.—Red sandstones and shales of the 8. E. slope and base of the Alleghany mountain. ; X.—Sandstones and conglomerates of the Second mountain, and of the 8. E. summit of the Alleghany. XI.—Red shale of the anthracite coal regions. XII.—Conglomerates and sandstones immediately below the coal measures of the anthracite, the Broad Top and the Alleghany coal region. XI1.—The anthracite coal measures. General observations and concluding remarks. This survey is detailed, both topographically and geologically, and we doubt not it is exact. Prof. Rogers has, in the main, avoided theoretical speculations, and comparisons with European systems and equivalents, wisely reserving these things for his general digest when his labor is through. Still, his remarks upon the anthracite coal beds furnish some bold and decisive speecula- tions as to elevations and other movements, which, however start- ling they may appear to an uninitiated mind, are without doubt founded in sound principles of geological dynamics, and we believe are substantially true. Having had some opportunity to examine parts of those vast coal fields, we have seen enough of the evi- dence of the exertion of irresistible, elevatory, disrupting and compressing or sliding forces, to convince us that no assumptions of that nature are in this region in the smallest danger of being extravagant ; and it remains only to infer by just induction from the phenomena, the particular modus operandi in which the power has acted to produce its indubitable effects. Prof. Rogers has been zealously and efficiently assisted in his labors by Messrs. Samuel S. Haldeman, Alexander M’Kinley, Charles B. Trego, and. James D. Whelpley, and in the chemical department by his brother, Dr. Robert E. Rogers. 'The sub-assistants were Messrs. Alfred EF. Darley, Edwin Haldeman, Horace Moses, and Peter W. Scheeffer. This able report is comprised within ninety three pages, and is furnished with a glossary, and a shaded sectional arrangement of the strata, in the following ascending order, be- ginning upon the common basis of the primary rocks. ‘The con- tents of each particular formation are given in the descending order. J.—Compact white sandstone—1000 feet. II.—Blue limestone, with beds of chert, and a few fossils—6000 ? feet. I11.—Roofing slates, dark slates, and argillaceous sandstones, a few fossils, bed of limestone—6000 feet. IV.— White sandstone, fucoides—1800 feet. 190 Miscellanies. - V.—Red and variegated (fossiliferous iron ore,) shales and sandstones (fu- coides)—3000 feet. VI.—Blue argillaceous limestone (fossils) —900 feet. VII.—Coarse white sandstone (cavities of fossils) —700 feet. VIII.—Olive colored slate, and gray argillaceous sandstones—5000 feet. IX.—Red shales, and red, gray and buff colored argillaceous sandstones, a few marine fossils—6000 feet. X.—Sandstone and conglomerate—20U00 feet. XI.—Red shale, thin caleareous conglomerate—3000 feet. XII.—Siliceous conglomerate—1400 feet. XIII.—Coal measures, consisting of seams of coal, dark shales, argillaceous sandstones, and siliceous conglomerates; vegetable fossils—6750 ? feet. Total thickness in feet—42,550, or over eight miles of exterior crust, stratified on the primary. Michigan.—Report of Dr. Houghton, 37 pages. This young State has set a laudable example, in ordering a geological survey, under Dr. Douglass Houghton, which he has carried on with peculiar zeal, considering especially the great physical difficulties of a country, much of which is still ina state of nature. The State is in its infancy, and although rapidly filling with an intelligent population, it is still, with the excep- tion of a few counties, only sparsely peopled by those who have been too much occupied with more urgent necessities, to give even a moderate degree of attention to the mineral objects around © them ; for this reason, the amount of local information imparted by the people was limited, and not always free from error. Dr. Houghton remarks, that there are on the peninsula no mountain chains, no lofty mural precipices, or deep valleys, where a glance will reveal the structure, and even quarries of stone (for there are very few on the surface) have been scarcely opened. 'To those parts of the State which are geologically the most impor- tant, there are no avenues, except by the streams and the trails of the Indians. “The ascent of a rapid stream by a canoe (the only feasible mode of travelling, and the only manner by which examinations can be satisfactorily conducted,) is attended by fa- tigue, labor and hardships, of the most severe kind. Wading the streams by day, and annoyed by musquetoes at night, separated for weeks together from all society, were it not (he remarks) that the mind is completely occupied in the contemplation of objects, which, from their symmetry and beauty, furnish a constant men- tal feast, there would be nothing which could possibly compen- sate for the hardships endured.” In addition to these difficulties, which are not easily conceived of by those who explore a coun- Miscellanies. - 19L try full of conveniences and comforts, we are sorry to learn, that “‘the appropriation for the past year has not been sufficient to cover the travelling expences of those engaged in these arduous duties.” This ought not so to be, and if we had cause, on a for- mer occasion, to enter our protest against the narrow provision made for a similar duty in the most powerful and opulent State in the Union, we need not so much wonder at the caution of a young State, which however, we trust will prove by an enlarged appropriation, that she is not behind in liberality and justice, es- pecially where they are so well deserved as in the present instance. The rocks of the peninsula of Michigan consist, ‘“ for the most part, of nearly horizontal strata of limestones, sandstone, and shales, giving character to a beautifully varied succession of hills and valleys, as also to a soil admirably adapted to agriculture.” That part of the State bordering on Lake Superior, presents occa- sionally primary and trap rocks, forming mountain chains, with strong marks of disturbance since the deposition of the red sand- stone. : é The divisions of his subject, stated by Dr. Houghton, are as follows :—Upper sandstone of the peninsula; gray limestone ; lower sandstone, or grauwacke group; coal; gypsum; brine springs; clay; sand; bog iron ore; mineral springs. ‘The sand- stone belongs to the carboniferous series; the rocks appear to have been shattered, as if by convulsions, their ruins forming deep loose masses, and being mixed with the soil. Shale is found mixed with fragments of coal, and eee containing thin seams of it. In the counties of Ingham and Eaton there are thin beds of coal from half an inch to three inches, and even one foot in thick- ness, and near Corunna were seen numerous indistinct impres- sions of plants, with small pieces of coal, retaining the ligniform structure, but perfectly carbonized. Loose pieces of coal are found quite universally in excavating around most of the coun- ties bounding the coal formation ; and on Grindstone creek there is found a bed, having an average thickness of eighteen inches, and not exceeding two feet at any point. It is expected that a canal will cross the coal formation at a point where there is rea- son to hope that beds of coal will be brought to light. In the carboniferous limestone underlying the coal, are found sulphate of strontia and sulphate of baryta, brown spar, hog-tooth spar, 192 Miscellanies. gypsum, &c. The red sandstone of the graywacke group rises at the pictured rocks on Lake Superior, in a mural precipice of two hundred to three hundred feet high. Gypsum appears above the surface, and probably exists in large masses in Kent county. There are numerous salines and salt springs in Michigan, and a copious table is annexed, exhibiting their contents, and com- paring them with those of salt waters in New York, Ohio and the Atlantic ; it is obvious from this comparison, that the salines of Michigan may hereafter prove very valuable, but as yet they have been little developed. 'The temperature of the different springs was from 48° to 51° Fah.,* while that of fresh water in the vicinity was usually about 50°. In Michigan, as elsewhere in the west, the Indians were acquainted with the salines, and extracted the salt in a rude manner. The wild animals also found their way to these licks, (as they were called,) and their paths often gave the first information of the existence of the springs. Nearly the whole western coast of the peninsula next to the lake, is bordered by a succession of sand dunes or hills of loose sand, not unfrequently attaining a considerable altitude, partly naked, and in part covered by dwarf pines and cedar, and should these be thoughtlessly removed, the sands might drift, and prove a serious evil. Marls are common, especially in the northern parts of St. Jo- seph’s, and the adjoining counties. Bog iron ore exists in vast quantities near Kalamazoo and Detroit, and other places. ‘There are sulphureous springs in Monroe county ; and near Havre there - is a spring of this description, whose circumference is one hun- dred and fifty feet, its depth thirty five, and the stream is suffi- ciently copious to turn a mill. ‘Topographical maps of the several counties are in the course of preparation, and the geological survey will be prosecuted, we trust, with vigor and success. In addition to Dr. Houghton, the corps consists of Ab’m. Sager, principal assistant in Zoology and Botany ; S. W. Higgins, To- pographer and Draftsman ; Columbus C. Douglass, Sub-Assistant ; Bela Hubbard, Sub-Assistant ; William P. Smith, Sub-Assistant, in charge of Mechanical Zoology. * In one case, 46°. Miscellanies: 193 Indiana.—Report, by David Dale Owen, M. D., Geologist of the State, 34 pages. Divisions of the subject.—An introductory Address to the itt gislature of Indiana—Leading principles of Geology—Plan of conducting the Survey—Summer Survey south of the national road—F'all Survey north of the national road—Remarks on the: mineral deposits, soil and growth, peculiar to the different strata, south of the national road ; north of the national road—Practical inferences—A ppendix. : The survey, hitherto made, has been general, the object being to gain a clear and connected idea of the whole, before examin- ing particular places, in detail. It was ascertained that the order of superposition of the strata was the same as in many other and distant parts of the western States, and that the characteristic fos- sils of each series of strata agree in a remarkable manner with those found in the corresponding strata throughout the western States. Mr. Owen finds that the entire western portion of Indiana is rich in coal, which, as the forests are fast disappearing, must be- come of the greatest importance. This fact cannot fail to arrest the attention of the legislature, and of the people; and as a proof of the importance of geological knowledge, he cites the instance of an expensive, but fruitless, exploration for coal near Baltimore, in a situation where a well instructed geologist would never have looked for it, as the formation was too recent, and the substance discovered and mistaken for coal, was lignite. As evidence of the importance of correct geological knowledge, he justly cites other instances of the natural associations of minerals; for example, of the oxide of tin, with primary rocks, and its absence from more recent rocks. 'The dip of the strata in Indiana is such, being to the east, as to place the coal on the top of the formations towards the western part of the State, and down the Ohio; except the diluvium, it is the newest formation ; while up the Ohio, or east; we constantly arrive at older and eldee strata. Mr. Owen gives a clear statement of the sub-carboniferous rocks, among which he names a limestone, having an oolitic structure, “composed of egg-shaped grains, like the roe of fishes ;” this is of course, geologically, a very different rock from the oolite of Europe, whose position is far above the coal formation. Next below, is a siliceo-calcareous rock, containing marine re- Vou. XX XIV.—No, 1, 25 194 Miscellanies.. mains of the coralline family. Lower down, is a bituminous alu- minous slate, sometimes mistaken for a part of the coal series, but no coal is ever found beneath it. Still lower down, the rocks are very fossiliferous, and among these rocks is a good hydraulic lime. There is a very good burr stone, almost entirely made up of a series of fossil corallines, of- ten cased in.a sheath of drusy crystals of quartz. These burr stones have served well as mill stones. 'The lowest limestone beds are exceedingly rich in fossil shells and corallines ; the rock is of a gray color, and when polished, forms a marble, adorned by the organic remains. Near Indianapolis, and the great na- tional road in that vicinity, the rock formations are covered by diluvium, so thick that the deepest wells have not penetrated through it: the same is the fact on the north side of the national road. . It appears that bowlder stones of primitive rocks are numerous in Indiana, especially in the northern and prairie region of the State; they are called by the expressive name of lost rocks, also gray heads, and negro heads. _ The northwest corner of Indiana is bounded by Lake Michi- gan, which in this part has for its bed a stiff tenacious clay, and still the water is so clear, that the fish, as in Lake George, can be seen, in calm weather, at a great depth. The southern boundary of the lake is composed of rolling ridges of siliceo-calcareous sand, and it is remarkable that this sand, taken from thirty or forty feet deep, will produce excellent potatoes, water-melons and pumpkins: wild rye, six feet in height, and rank grass, are said to have formerly grown at the top of the sand knobs, sixty or sev- enty feet high: the mixture of the lime with the sand accounts for this fertility. South of the national road, is found the com- pact hydrated brown oxide of iron, of good quality: some of it is in a conglomerate state, made up of fragments of the ore. ‘There is also carbonate of iron. . At'Troy is found a valuable material for pottery—the potters call it marl—Mr. Owen, clay slate (slaty clay? Ep.) It is hard when first dug, but crumbles on exposure to the air. This furnishes the raw material for the fire-brick, and saggers for a manufactory of queen’s ware and porcelain ; the clay for the latter is brought from the clay banks on the Mississippi, (erroneously called the chalk banks, ) and near to the manufactory, there are good beds of pot- Miscellanies. ) 195 ter’s clay for the more common ware. Coal exists abundantly in ; the vicinity in several places, and some of it (on Deer creek, near Troy) is cannel coal. A party of forty potters from Stafford- shire, under Mr. Clue, and a company formed in Louisville, have already begun this important manufacture of stone ware, and the first kiln was burning in June, 1837. Carbonic acid exists abundantly in the waters of this country; much iron and lime are held in solution by it, and again deposited as the carbonic acid evaporates, the former as bog iron, which in one place (Misha- wakee) is fifty or sixty yards wide, and from seven inches to three feet deep, and so firm as to require an iron bar to raise it. The lime is deposited as tufa, and it is a curious fact, that, as the limestone rocks are buried deep under diluvium, and are there- fore in a great measure inaccessible, the inhabitants resort to the calcareous tufa and calcareous bowlders, for materials to afford quick lime by burning. Mr. Owen justly concludes that three geological formations ex- ist in Indiana. 1. A bituminous coal formation, occupying that portion of the State west of the second principal meridian. 2. A limestone formation, (similar to the mountain limestone of European geologists,) prevailing in the counties east of that meridian. 3. A diluvium, consisting of deposits of clay, sand, gravel and bowlders, overlying, and in many places covering up, the two other formations, to a greater or less depth, particularly in the northern part of the State. He infers on unanswerable grounds, that Indiana was long un- der an ocean, which furnished the innumerable marine organ- ized bodies, found in such profusion enclosed in the solid rocks, especially the lower limestone. There are some very judicious remarks on the useful materials found in the State, and on the nature of its soils, and the causes of their great fertility. This is attributed to the position of Indi- ana, near the middle of the great valley of North America, which has been the receptacle of a vast variety of the ruins of rocks, of many formations, thus affording the requisite materials for the best soil, among which lime, clay and sand, are conspicuous, with a portion of iron, and abundance of carbonated calcareous waters, and better materials could not be desired, especially for the growth 196 Miscellanies. of wheat, and of other grasses. The report is concluded with suggestions as to a future detailed survey, which, as they are (like the entire report) marked by much good sense and correct knowledge, ought to command, and we trust will secure, the at- tention of the legislature and fae of Indiana. : Ohio.—First annual report on the Geological Survey of the State of Ohio, by W. W. Mather, principal Geologist, and the several assistants; 134 pages with a map and sections. Columbia. The extent of this exploration and the diversity of objects which it has embraced, will be best understood from the divisions of the subject which we annex, made up from the contents and index; and the names of the gentlemen who acted as assistants, will appear in connexion with the contents of their several reports. Prof. Mather’s Report.—General considerations.—Coal, quan- tity, its practical value compared with Charcoal for furnaces, an- nual prospective consumption of it, means of motive power inex- haustible.—Iron Ore, extent.—Iron trade, reduction of iron ores. Limestones, extent and uses, marbles, galena and fossils.—Sand- stones, importance for public works, uses and export.—Clays, uses for bricks, pottery, &c.—Peat, varieties and uses.—Soils, produc- tiveness, texture, substrata, drainage, and composition.—Mineral manures, limestone, gypsum, marls and lime.—Mineral springs, salt springs, petroleum.—Alluvial action on the Muskingum and Ohio, on the Lake coast, at Fairport, Chagrin, Cleveland, &¢.— Analysis of coal and ores, coal for smelting, manufacture of coke in Ohio, used in high furnaces.—Importances of determining the dip. Dr. Hildreth’s Report.—Introductory remarks, coal fields of Great Britain, extent of coal in Ohio.—Rock strata above the buhr- stone.—Buhr-stone, range and extent, value and importance, qual- ity and character, French buhr compared with the Ohio buhr, mineral contents of the calcareo-silicious rock, agricultural charac- ter of the Buhr-stone region, iron ore with the buhr-stone, strata between the buhr and upper fossiliferous limestone.—Upper fos- siliferous limestone, range and extent.—Strata between the lime- stone and Pomeroy coal beds.—Pomeroy coal beds, range and ex- tent, fossils which accompany them, agricultural character of the region.—Strata between the Pomeroy coal and limestone coal.— Limestone coal, range and extent.—Limerock, non-fossiliferous.— Stone mars, range and extent of lime and marls, agricultural char- Miscellanies. 197 ‘acter of the region.—F ossil fresh water shells, fossil contents of red shales.—Upper bed of coal.—Coarse sandrock and conglome- rate, their grottoes and caverns.—Upper series of sandrocks.— Salt springs and their early history, salt manufacture, remarks on the salt producing rocks.—Quartz or calcareo-silicious rock.—The Scioto salines, early legislation on the Ohio salines, Muskingum salines, Gallipolis salines, leading creek salines, Hocking valley sa- line, Muskingum valley saline.-—Number of salt wells and manu- facture.—Petroleum.and carb. hydrogen gas. Prof. Kirtland’s Report.—Introductory remarks.—Advantages of the survey and from the study of botany.—Economical impor- tance of zoological knowledge.—Coloring materials from vegeta- bles.—Importance of our native plants. Prof. Briggs’s Report.—Reconnaissance of country between the Scioto and Hocking rivers.—Geological sections.—Aspect of the country.—Importance of the hilly character of the country.— Mineral deposits and dip, mode of determining the dip.—Groups or sub-divisions of rocks.—Limestone district, uses for marbles, building, &c.—Slate described by Mr. Foster, minerals in the slate, alum, copperas, gypsum, &c., mineral springs and. bog-iron. —Waverly sandstone series. —Conglomerate.—Lower coal forma- tion, sandstone, shales, limestone.—Coal of Hocking valley, Jack- son, and adjoining counties, its quality in the lower series, between Scioto and Hocking.—Iron ore, ftirnaces of Scioto and Lawrence, construction of furnaces, roasting and smelting ore, iron ore of Jackson county, prospective iron manufacture, lead and zinc ores, salt wells, their geological position.—Fossil bones. Col. Whittlesey’s Report.—Original surveys, highways, char- acter of the country, Ohio and Scioto rivers, streams, Jackson county, salt springs, timber, ancient works, change of names, Vir- ginia military reservation, untaxed lands, military bounty lands. Western reserve, unsurveyed shore, geological queries, glossary of geological terms. As in the case of Pennsylvania, the very extent and variety of the research, almost preclude the attempt to give even a general notice of the principal facts, and if we seem to give greater prom- inence to the newer states, it is because they are less known, and also because copious details concerning the geology of Pennsylva- nia and Ohio, have been already given, in former volumes of this work; of the coal and salines of Ohio, by Dr. Hildreth, and of the 198 Miscellanies. coal in two principal districts of Pennsylvania, by the Editor of this Journal, and the Rev. George Jones. Our limits, also, warn us to be brief, and we may expect a better consummation from the gentlemen themselves, when their labor is accomplished. We have also another reason for brevity in the case of the Ohio report ; for just as this number of the Journal is about closing, we have received an analysis and review of that report—too long and too late for the present number, but which will appear in our next. If we have any thing to add to the review, we shall not there- fore anticipate it now. In concluding, we have only to say, that both Pennsylvania and Ohio, are states whose territories are stored in abundance with the principal substances most necessary to man; coal in its most important varieties, salt, limestone, iron ore and many other things. Ohio, is eminently a vast region of organic remains, and even its human antiquities, arrest the at- tention of the geologist as well as of the antiquary. Both States are in the course of survey by very able men, but we are extreme- ly sorry to see that Dr. Hildreth, who worked early and almost alone—who worked hard, and who worked well, has withdrawn from the survey, and we are still more sorry to observe that ill health is the cause; for his country’s sake and his own, may he soon be well again! Dr. Locke, by reason of absence in Europe, did not perform the duty assigned to him. By a letter from Columbus, we regret to learn, that the survey is Just suspended, and party grounds are assigned as the cause! On such a subject, there should be but one party. The noble State of Ohio, must and will vindicate her honor and her interest by resuming and finishing this great work, so ably begun and car- ried forward with so much spirit and success! 3. Fossil Fishes.—It is very generally known at the present day, that fossil fishes abound in the sandstone formation of the Connecticut river valley. As the study of these fossils, in connection with the rocks in which they are imbedded, has become a science of daily increasing inter- est and importance, it seems desirable that every one should contribute what local and practical information he may possess, in aid of this impor- tant object. ; ; Prof. Hitchcock has particularly described localities in several towns of Massachusetts; but, so far as I know, he has only occasionally alluded in general terms to the occurrence of ichthyolites at Middletown, Ct. One Miscellanies. | 199 of the earlier numbers of this Journal contains a brief account of some specimens procured at Westfield, the western parish of Middletown, from a pit excavated some years ago, with the delusive expectation of finding coal. But the notice states that they were taken up many feet below the surface, and in such a si.uation as would render it impossible to obtain more, unless the mining operations should be resumed. Fortunately for science, a much more favorable locality has since been opened in the vi- cinity, from which the fish impressions may be obtained in almost any quantity, with but little exertion. Fossils of the same kind are also pro- cured in Middlefield, the adjoining parish, at a locality which’ has been known for several years. Having in the past year visited both these places repeatedly, I Ble the following remarks, which may be interesting to geologists. The Westfield locality is situated about three quarters of a mile in a north direction from the Congregational church, in the bed of a small stream, which becomes nearly dry in the autumnal months,—the most fa- vorable season for procuring the fossils. The operations of previous ex- plorers are observable for several rods down the stream; but the peculiar site which seems to afford specimens the best defined, in the greatest abun- dance, and with the least labor, is just west of a large spring, in the chan- nel of the brook. The impressions found here are usually so indistinct as to render it difficult to recognize the minute characters by which spe- cies are usually distinguished. In a paper recently read before the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, Mr. J. H. Redfield has offered names for two varieties, common to this place and Middlefield: one of these he calls Catopterus gracilis, and-the other, Palgoniscus latus. Without doubt, other species, if not genera, will hereafter be recognized. - - 46.25 se ee north ie - - - 65.85 We ef south “ - - - 55.66 Number of days observed, - - 357.00 N. B. The instruments used are all of the first description. The barometer, a standard mountain, by Newman. The register ther- mometers by the same, and compared with a standard by Adie & Son, Edinburgh. The rain gage by Newman, after the one used by the Royal Society, London. Every precaution is used in the placing of the instruments, which a residence in a city will admit of. 7. Oil of the Tutut or Candle Nut Tree-—From Mr. French of Hon- olulu, through the Rev. Jon Die1t, Seaman’s Chaplain, we received in August 1835, a bottle of the oilnamed above. Mr. French at that time had a mill and press, employed several native hands, and manufactured from one hundred to one hundred and fifty barrels annually. Mr. Diell remarks that “it is found when dried to answer an excellent purpose for paint oil, and that it might be manufactured to any extent, as the trees are found in abundance upon all the islands. The greatest difficulty appears to be in” drying it properly—for if it is not boiled very carefully, and to just such a point, it never dries.” We are not informed whether varnish has been mixed with it, and whether boiled upon litharge, as is common with flax seed oil. 8. Aerolites—An account has been received from Brazil, of the ap- pearance of a meteor of extraordinary brightness, and as large as the bal- loons used by aéronauts. It was seen for more than sixty leagues in the Vou. XX XIV.—No. 1. 27 210 Miscellanies. province of Ceara, and over the village of Macao, at the entrance of the Rio Assu; it burst with a noise like thunder, and an immense quantity of stones fell from it, in a line extending more than ten leagues. The largest portion fell at the entrance of the river, and in various places they pierced through several dwellings, and buried themselves several feet deep in the sand. No human life was lost, but many oxen were killed, ~ and others severely hurt. The weight of those taken out of the sand varied from one to eighty pounds.— The Atheneum, (London,) Dec. 16, © 1837, p. 915. 9. New Magnetical discoveries——We have been favored with an op- portunity of inspecting some proof sheets of a work by Dr. Henry Hall Sherwood, of New York, which will shortly be published, containing dis- coveries in magnetism of a very extraordinary kind, and probably of great importance. ‘They include apparently unexceptionable demonstrations of the latitude, longitude, rate of motion, and periodical revolution of the magnetic poles, or “ vortices” of magnetism, round the terrestrial poles ; of the angles of the magnetic with the terrestrial meridians in every part of the earth, at any given time ; together with a universal method of de- termining latitude, longitude, and variation, under all possible circum- stances, by the dipping needle alone. The perfect regularity of the lines of no variation, and the value of their angles with the terrestrial axis in every parallel of latitude, also seem to be demonstrated ; and this, in con- nection with the relative position of the nodes of the magnetic with the terrestrial equator, which is found with the utmost facility and precision, forms the basis of calculations for determining the past, present, and fu- ture variation of the compass needle, at any given place on the globe. These calculations are tested by numerous observations made in various countries, and the agreement is most strikingly exact in all the examples adduced. One of the most interesting facts seemingly established in this work, is that the magnetic poles revolve in the latitude of the arctic and ant-arc- tic circles, or 23° 28’ from the terrestrial poles; and this coincidence is ascribed to the solar origin of these magnetic vortices, and to the correla- tive fact that the inclination of the earth’s axis to the plane of the eclip- tic is 23° 28’. In short, these discoveries, (here only partially and cur- sorily mentioned, ) sustained as they are by extremely simple calculations, which evidently harmonize with all the recorded and original observa- tions to which they have been applied, seem to warrant the expectation that terrestrial magnetism, at least, will soon be rescued from its present state of uncertainty and confusion, and elevated to a distinguished station among the exact sciences. We await the publication of Dr. Sherwood’s work with an unusual degree of interest—Communicated. Miscellanies. 211 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. This Journal.—Notice forwarded to the Editor from a distant city in the South. Remark: Were not this Journal principally the production of others, it might appear improper for the editor to publish the following communication, which was wholly unlooked for. The writer, who is not a New England man, is a gentleman well and advantageously known in the literary world, and of a profession in no way connected with the di- rect cultivation of the sciences which the Journal sustains. It is his particular request that the notice may appear, and we know not that we are precluded by considerations of delicacy. The writer of the notice possesses a complete copy of the Journal in all its volumes.— Epitor.—April 3, 1838. To the Editor,—Dear Sir,—Having some leisure, in the evenings, during the past year, I took up the American Journal of Science for read- ing, and I soon found it such an interesting and valuable companion that Tread it through zm course, omitting the articles on mathematics, and oc- casionally on some other branches. Praise would be out of place here, as I am addressing this note through the Editor himself; but I can, at least, say to you that we owe you a debt of gratitude for having persevered as you have done for twenty years, with this valuable publication. But gratitude alone, though I believe it is widely felt, is a poor recompense for such labors as these. The Journal of Science ought to be extensively taken throughout our country. ‘This publication is as large as most of our own “quarterly reviews,” and has a great number of expensive plates, and not a little difficult composition, and yet the price per annum is only a dollar more than other quarterly journals of popular litera- ture. When bound, it makes a handsome and creditable addition to any library: and a more valuable mass of matter than its 33 or 34 volumes contains, I have never met with in the same number of pages. A great portion of itis readable, or may easily be made so, in a family circle, and certainly it would be a more profitable kind of reading than is often se- lected for such occasions. 'To scientific men, or to one who like myself is only a lagging inquirer in the ways of science, it is truly useful not only as condensing a valuable portion of the successful scientific labors of other countries, but also as affording a clear exhibition of much that is doing in our own ; and to our adventurers in the scrutiny into nature, it is a happy and valuable stimulus as well as guide and assistant. What a change has occurred in our country, since a few individuals, who were then the solitary collectors of minerals, could find no one even to give their specimens names. Now almost every principal town (not to mention smaller ones,) has its Lyceum with a good cabinet: private cabinets are to be met with every where ; and many of the states have sent forth their public geologists to explore their territories and to search out the 212 Miscellanies. concealed wealth, that richly repays them for the expense. We have to thank you and your Journal for a large part of this rapid improvement : and it is a poor compliment for the intrinsic merit of your publication, for the public spirit which you have shown in_ persevering amid many dis- couragements, and for the aid and stimulus which you have afforded to seientific research in our land, and what I have to suggest is this. Near- ly all the colleges in our country, I presume already take the Journal: every one ought to have a complete set, for it affords us a good exhibition of many of the most important facts attending the advancement of sci- ence in our country, and independent of its present utility, its value in years to come will be very great from this consideration alone. City and town lyceums ought also to possess the Journal of Science. They can well afford the expense and they will hardly find such a condensed mass of valu- able matter any where else. We should encourage it as a book for reading in our families: the mind will be informed and the taste improved. Much of it would be intelligible, at the outset; and by conversation and a lit- tle study we could easily make more of it so, even to families. If it is too expensive for individual subscription, two or three gentlemen might easily unite, and in this way a number of govd subscribers might be procured in every town. Lastly and especially, let those who take it, be punctual in paying for it. A more valuable publication, I am satisfied, cannot be found in the whole range of periodicals in our land. With sincere respect, Your friend and servant, H. is. 2: 2. Prof. Agassiz’ Great Work on Fossil Fishes.*—We are happy to learn, by a letter dated Nov. 12, 1837, from this distinguished and indefati- gable naturalist, that he had then veryrecently published the Sth and 9th livraisons of his magnificent work. - We are thus assured that it is going forward towards, we trust, a happy completion, and that the rumor of its discontinuance was unfounded. Prof. Agassiz speaks in terms of warm commendation of the labors of Mr. Redfield, Jr., on the fossil fishes of Durham, Ct., &c., as they appear in a memoir presented last winter to the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, with drawings. M. Agas- siz remarks, that these fossil fishes are described and determined by Mr. Redfield “ with rare talent, and that it is much to be desired for the in- terest of science, that this expert (habile) naturalist should continue his researches, which appear to be destined to throw, at a future day, great light upon the geological relations of America and Europe.” 3. Prof. Agassiz on the Echinodermata.—We are informed by Prof. Agassiz, that he is now occupied upon a detailed description of the Echi- nodermata, the prodrome of this work having appeared some years ago. * See this No., page 46, under the doings of the British Association. Miscellanies. 213 In the prosecution of this work, he is exceedingly desirous to obtain specimens of any remarkable species not hitherto described, of these ani- mals, either dead or living ; that is, either existing or fossil. __ We beg leave, therefore, in behalf of this eminent and very meri- torious naturalist, and of the common cause, to call the attention of men of science and of collectors to this subject, and with it to that of fossil fishes, that M. Agassiz may be enabled to include within his works as many American species as possible. Our fossil fishes, (or good drawings of them,) our corals, echini, alcyonia, crinoidea, &c., will be accept- able, and reference may be had to a friend of Prof. Agassiz now resident in New York, M. August Mayor, care of Meyrat Nagath, in the same city, who will transmit specimens to Neufchatel, Switzerland, the resi- dence of the author. It is exceedingly to be desired that the small list of American subscri- bers to Prof. Agassiz’ great work on fossil fishes should be augmented. While we have had the pleasure of forwarding a few names of individuals or institutions, we should be much gratified to be instrumental in aug- menting the number, and now again call upon opulent individuals, and upon all institutions for the promotion of science and good learning, to aid in sustaining this undertaking. A notice of the work and of the terms may be found in Vol. xxviu, p. 193, and a full analysis of the first four livraisons, by Prof. Jameson, in Vol. xxx, p. 33. 4. Statistical Tables, exhibiting the condition and products of certain branches of industry in Massachusetts, for the year ending April 1, 1837; prepared from the returns of the Assessors, by Joun P. BiceLow, Secre- tary of the Commonwealth: Boston, 1838, pp. 209. Statistics have as yet occupied but a small part of the attention of the legislatures of our several states, and it is certain that nothing but legisla- tive enactment can ever give us a full view of the varied statistics of so vast a country as this. Mr. Worcester, in the preface to the American Almanac for 1838, remarks justly: “‘ The statistics of the whole coun- try can never be collected by one individual, nor by a society formed for the purpose. If the work is ever accomplished in a suitable manner, it must be done under the direction of the government of the United States. And if the national government should connect this object with the taking of the next census, the design would certainly commend itself to every man of enlightened views, and it would redound to the lasting honor of the administration that should first introduce the system.” The beautifully printed and correct tables under consideration, sent to us by the kindness of the Secretary of the State, present accurate returns from about seventy distinct branches of industry practiced in the Common- wealth of Massachusetts, from which it appears, that the value of her va- rious manufactures for the year ending April 1, 1837, was $91,765,315 ; 214 Miscellanies. the number of hands employed, 117,852; and the capital invested, $54,851,643. The population of the State is 701,331. Thus it seems that more than a seventh of the whole population are engaged in some branch of manufactures; that the annual value of the industry of each laborer is more than seven hundred dollars; and that their united labor produces a yearly sum nearly double the capital invested. 5. Crania Americana: Or a comparative view of the skulls of various Aboriginal nations of North and South America; to which is prefixed an Essay on the varieties of the human species, and on the American race in particular : illustrated by sixty plates, anda colored map. By Samuen Grorce Morton, M. D. Phila., for the author, by J. Fuller. 1838. Folio. An announcement of the proposed publication of this great work, was contained in the 82d volume of this Journal, (page 207,) although we did not then expect that any part of it would be laid before the public so soon. ‘The part now on our table comprises the prospectus and eighteen beautiful plates. ‘The American press has rarely issued a book in so libe- ral a style. ‘The figures of the skulls are drawn on stone, with much fidelity and elegance, and of the natural size, one head only being placed on each plate, instead of two, as at first proposed. We are told in the prospectus, that the introductory essay will embrace a brief illustrative view of the human species; the strictly American portion of the work will contain lithographic illustrations of more than forty Indian nations, with a particularly extended series from North America. ‘The extraordi- nary distortions of the crania of some of the tribes will be illustrated, and those from the mounds and caves of our western territory will form a sep- arate division of the work. The author’s materials for the successful com- pletion of his great undertaking, are more ample, probably, than those of any other individual; and as he has no favorite hypothesis to support, we may expect a candid exposition of facts, and a strict adherence to them. Many interesting developments respecting the natural history of man,will doubtless arise from these investigations. ‘The work is in such a state of forwardness, that it is proposed to deliver it to subscribers by the first of October, 1838. We trust that the author may receive sufficient encour- agement, especially as he has, single-handed, shouldered the expense of this great undertaking. The work is to be obtained from the publisher by subscription,—the price, $20. 6. Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York.—The first four numbers of the fourth volume, under the same covers, of the An- nals of this Society, have recently appeared. The article by Mr. J. H. Redfield, on the fossil fishes of Connecticut, has already excited much at- tention among those interested in that subject, as may be seen by a refer- ence to the remarks of Professor Agassiz, contained in thisnumber. The Miscellanies. 215 other articles are a new mineralogical nomenclature by J. D. Dana. On the structure and Affinities of Ceratophyllace, by AsaGray. Notice of the appearance of the Pine Grosbeak in the vicinity of New York, by J. F. Ward. Descriptions of five species of Vespertilio, by Wm. Cooper. On two species of Molossus inhabiting the United States, by the same. On two species of American Plecotus, idem. Discovery of Vauquelinite in the United States, by John Torrey. Account of several new Genera and species of North American plants, by the same. Observations on the Genus Sarracenia, including a new species, by H. B. Croom. Me- lanthacearum Am. Septentrionalis Revisio, Auct. Asa Gray. It is due to the Lyceum to give circulation to the following notice. “The object of the Lyceum, in publishing its Annals, is to record new and valuable facts in Natural History; and to advance the public good by the diffusion of useful knowledge. The importance of this sci- ence is, at present, every where acknowledged ; and the attention be- stowed on it, in our own country, has already been amply repaid. A great variety of new, useful, and elegant productions have been discov- ered; and important facts connected with the agricultural, commercial, and manufacturing interests, have been elucidated. In our attempts to bring to light the hidden riches of our country, we solicit the assistance of the public. We ask no emolument, we expect no gain. We cherish the hope that our exertions will be encouraged; that we shall be enabled to proceed in the course which we have now commenced. In conformity with the usages of similar institutions, we shall not hold ourselves responsible for the facts or opinions of those who favor us with their communications. The proof of the one, and the defence of the other, will rest with the authors, whose proper signatures will in all cases be prefixed. : The Annals consist at present of three Volumes, and four Nos. of Vol. IV. The Publication having been suspended for some time, will now be resumed. A number consists of 82 pages, exclusive of plates. Price 25 cents per number. Vol. I. price $4 00. Vol. II. price $3 50. Vol. TIT. price $3 50. Vol. IV. four Nos. published, price $1 00.—The work thus far is illus- trated by 48 plates. e All communications to be addressed to the committee of publications of the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History in the city of New York, No. 563 Broadway. The Annals are published by the Lyceum, and can only be obtained of them, for cash. Persons at a distance wishing to subscribe for the future Nos. will please make arrangements.with some person in the city to receive, for- ward, and pay for them. Odd numbers to complete sets may also be ob- tained in the same way.” 216 Miscellanies. 7. Description of new species of Mollusca and Shells, with re- marks on several Polypi, &c., found in Massachusetts Bay ; by Jo- sepH P. Cournovy. From the Journal of the Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. If. _ We are pleased to see so much critical knowledge and laborious re- search brought to bear on the shells and polyps of our coast, as is, evinced in the article before us. Its zealous author has discovered nearly all the shells herein described, in the entrails of the sea fish, brought to the Boston market. The following are the short specific descriptions of the new species; we have not space to copy the remarks or figures which accompany them. Massachusetts Bay is the locality of the species, when not otherwise stated. ; TUBULIFERA STELLIFERA. T. tubulis brevibus, simplicibus, aggre- gatis, carnosis, stellis parvulis purpureis coronatis. Hab. Boston har- bor ; grows about the bottom of the piles at Craigie’s bridge. HoLoruuRiaA CHRYSACANTHOPHORA. H. tentaculis—? corpore molli, cylindrico, cinereo-lutescente, spinis aureis, exilibus, frequenti- bus instructo. TELLINA SORDIDA. Test& ovali, compressa, albid&, epidermide cornea tect&; dentibus cardinalibus valva dextra duobus, altero sim- plici, altero bifido, sinistra plerumque obsoletis; lateralibus posticis remotis; intus alba. Hab. Boston Bay. CarpiIUM PUBESCENS. ‘Testa mediocri, obliqué rotundata, sub- wequilaterali, cinerescente; costellis 36, ciliatis; umbonibus tumidis ; natibus approximatis; margine crenato; intus albo-lutescente. Nucvuia myauis. Test& ovata, sub-equilaterali, levi, concentricé zonata; latere postico longiore et latiore, rotundato, antico sub-ros- trato; natibus approximatis ; dentibus rectis; epidermide olivaceo- nigricante. N. TenuiscuntatTa. T. elongata, inequilaterali; latere antico lon- giore attenuato, rostrato, postico rotundato ; umbonibus prominulis, concentricé confertimque striatis, tenuissiméque sulcatis; colore vi- rescente. TEREBRATULA SEPTENTRIONALIS. ‘I. obovata, tenui, albidé, valva majore apud apicem coarctata, radiatim creberrimé striata, nate emar- ginataé foramine magno semi-elliptico, margine non inflexo, denticu- lato. . Eouis BostoniEensts. Corpore oblongo, capite brevi, tentaculis quatuor, branchiis cirriformibus, purpureis, apicibus albis, utrinque fasciculis quinis; pede amplo, posticé per-acuto; tentacularum cau- deeque extremitatibus cyaneo tinctis. Hab. Tide water of Charles River, Mass. Miscellanies. 217 Eouis (Cavolina, Brug.) satmonacea. Corpore oblongo, capite lato, tentaculis quatuor, branchiis numerosis, salmonaceis, lineis longi- tudinalibus dorso dispositis, pede amplo, supra lacinulato, posticé acuto. Hab. Tide water of Charles River, Mass. Eouts (Tergipes, Cuv.) cymnota. Corpore elongato, albido, capite brevi, orbiculato-depresso, tentaculis quatuor, branchiis fulvo-rufes- centibus ; utrinque fasciculis septem, medio dorsi nudo. Hab. Tide water of Charles River, Mass. Tritonia Reynoupsit. Corpore elongato, postice attenuato, pa- pilloso seu verrucoso rubro-fuscescente, maculis albidis notato ; tenta- culis duabus serratis, vaginulis lacinulatis retractilibus ; branchiis ar- boreis, utrinque quinis, posticé gradatim minuentibus; ore corrugato, branchiis vel ramulis branchiiformibus senis instructo, papillisque numerosis circumdato. Hab. Tide waters of Charles River, Mass. CuiTon FuLMINATUS. Testa oblongo-ovali, anticé sub-attenuata, plerumque rufo-flavescente aut virescente, lineis albis angulatis et flammulatis picté; valvis sub-carinatis, minutissimé granulatis, margi- nibus posterioribus albo punctatis, areis lateralibus indistinctis; mar- gine pubescente, rufescente, albo maculato. C. sacrinatTus. Testa parvula; elongato-ovali, nigricante; valvis sub-carinatis, tenuissimé et concentricé striatis, minutissimé sagrina- tis; areis lateralibus indistinctis; valvis terminalibus semilunatis ; margine granulato. C. Emersonit. Testa ovali, anticé paulum compressa, albida, membrana squalida pubescente tecta, valvis posticé arcuatis, lateribus rotundatis, areis centralibus cordiformibus et granulatis, valva antica divaricatim lineata, posticé emarginata et valdé arcuata; valvis inter- mediis, linea bicarinata ab apice ad latus posticum obliqué decurrente ; margine fasciculis crinitis ordinibus binis dispositis. PATELLA CANDIDA. Test& parvula, ovali, sub-diaphanaé, candida concentricé striata, costis scabris, exiguis, radiantibus; intus nitida. Butta Triricea. Testa parvula, cylindrica, albida, nitida, epi- dermide ferruginea tecta; spira depressiusculé imperforaté; colu- mella basi sinuosa, leviter reflexd, alba. NaTICA CONSOLIDATA. ‘Testa subglobosa, levi, rufescente, inter- dum albida; spira brevissima; umbilico parvo, consolidato ; apertura ovata, operculo calcareo levi; epidermide fusco-virescente. OxinoE!? cLaBRA. ‘Testa ovali, parva, ventricosa, sub-umbilicata alba, fragili, spira brevi, laterali, labro integro, columella arcuata, apertura valde effusa. JAMINIA ExIGuA. Testa parvula, conicd, albido-pellucida; an- fractibus convexis; suturis impressis; apertura ovali; basi effusa; columella reflexa, uniplicata ; epidermide fuscescente. Vou. XX XIV.—No. 1. 28 218 Miscellanies. ScaLaRIA suUBULATA. An. Corpore spirali, griseo, albo-macu- lato; pede brevi, crasso, oblongo ; tentaculis duabus; oculis parvulis, nigris; ore orbiculato, corrugato; proboscide nulla; operculo cor- neo. Sc. test&é acuto-turrita, obscuro-albida, interdim fuscescente, im- perforata; anfractibus sub-convexis, contiguis ; costis sub-equalibus, depressis, superné angulatis; apertura ovali; labro basi emarginato, intus albo. Scararia Novanettaz. Testd elongato-turrita, sub-perforata, al- ba, maculis fuscescentibus notat&; costis parvulis inequalibus, inters- titiis tennissimé striatis, anfractibus convexis, vix contiguis; apertura ovata; labro integro. TurBo INCARNATUs. ‘Test&a sub-conica, rubra, anfractibus con- vexis, transversim creberrimé striatis; basi convexa, laté profundé- que perforata; labro tenui, levi, intus fulgido; operculo corneo. TuRBO CINEREUS. Testa pyramidali, tenui, cinerea; anfractibus convexiusculis costellis numerosis cinctis, longitudinaliter tenuissimé striatis; basi subconvexa perforata; labro tenui, crenulato; intus margaritacea; operculo corneo. T. opscurus. ‘Testa subconica, perforata, fusco-rubente ; anfracti- bus convexis, superné leviter angulatis; basi convexa, apertura ro- tunda, labro tenui, levi, intis iridescente; operculo corneo. PyRAMIs sTRIATULUS. Testa parva, subulata, albida, transversim tenuissimé striata suturis impressis, apertura ovata, basi leviter effusa. TURRITELLA EROSA. ‘Testa turrita, fusco-rufescente, apice acuto; anfractibus sub-convexis, transversé sulcatis; apertura orbiculata, Jabro tenui, sub-crenulato; columella leviter callosa, epidermide viri- di-cornea. PLEUROTOMA BICARINATA. Test& perparva, fusiformi, turrita, fusco-nigricante, transversé striata et sulcata; suturis impressis; an- fractibus convexis, medio bicarinatis ; apertura elliptica ; labro crenu- lato, cauda brevi, sinu minimo. CANCELLARIA BUCCINOIDES. Testa ovato-conica, lactea apice acuto; anfractibus convexis, transversé sulcatis, ]ongitudinaliter stri- atis; labro intus candido, denticulato; columella leviter callosa, arcu- ata, triplicata ; epidermide olivacea. Fusus HARPULARIUS. Testa fusiformi, turritaé, fulvo-lutescente ; anfractibus superné planulatis, costis obliquis numerosis instructis, transverse tenuissimé striatis ; apertura obovata, labro levi, cauda per- brevi. Fusus PLEUROTOMARIUs. Test acutissimé elongata, fusc4; an- fractibus convexis, plicis longitudinalibus instructis; apertura ovata, labro intis levi; columella arcuata, cauda brevi. Miscellanies. 219 TRICHOTROPIS COSTELLATUS. Testa ovata, turrito-acuta, fusces- cente, epidermide foliacea luteo-albida tecta ; spir4 canaliculata; an- fractibus costis 5-rotundatis instructis; apertura ovali, lutescente ; labro costis indentato ; columella arcuatd, albescente. The Polyps Tubularia indivisa, Ellis, T. coronata, Muller, Ophiura lacertosa, Lam., Actinia plumosa, Mul. Actinia, senilis, Linn., have also been observed by the author in the Massachusetts Bay. 8. Third American Edition of Bakewell’s Geology, from the fifth and last of the author in London.—Professor Silliman is particularly charged by Mr. Bakewell, with the care of a third American edition of his Geology, to be printed from the fifth of the author. Mr. Bakewell writes to Professor Silliman, under date of February, 1838, that the new edition of his work would be out, in England early in March, and conse- quently it may be daily expected in this country. It is enlarged by about 80 pages of new matter, has from 15 to 20 new cuts, and contains a chapter on a new topic, relating to coal, hitherto overlooked by all geolo- gists. This work will be printed with all convenient speed by B. & W. Noyes, booksellers and publishers in New Haven, and successors of Her- rick & Noyes, and of Hezekiah Howe. The edition will be superin- tended by Professor Silliman, and by Mr. Robert Bakewell, Junior, son of the author.* 9. Olmsted's Natural Philosophy, 2 vols. 8vo.—A new and improv- ed edition of this work, is in press, and will shortly be ready for delivery. 10. Second report of the Geology of Maine.—Since the notices of the geological reports were written, this has come to hand, but too late for mention in our present number. INTELLIGENCE. 1. Return of the Bonite, from a voyage around the world.—We are happy to see it announced from the French papers, that the Bonite sloop of war, which left Toulon on the 8th of Feb., 1836, has arrived at Brest, after an absence of twenty-one months. The crew consisted of 151 men, under the command of M. Auguste Vaillant, Capitaine de Corvette. The return of this vessel was anxiously looked for by the scientific world, in the belief, as well from the character of the scientific corps, as from the specific instructions of M. Arago, and others of the Academy of Sciences, that many important discoveries would be made, going far to- ward the elucidation of interesting questions in magnetism, meteorology, and other branches of science. Tor a knowledge of what has been ac- complished we must await the published account of the voyage, which the French government, with their former liberality, will no doubt soon place inour hands. The scientific corps were, in botany, M. Gaudichaud, * For a notice of this gentleman see Vol. XXXI, No. 1, of this Journal. 220 Miscellanies. who has before circumnavigated the world in L’Uranie; in zoology, M. Eydoux, naval surgeon of the first class, who sailed round the world in L’Favourite ; in geology, M. Chevalier Enseigne de Vaisseau; in astron- omy, M. Chevalier ouchard ; in hydrography and observations on terres- trial magnetism, in connection with the other officers of the ship, M. Dar- ondeau. M. Lauvergne, the same artist who has twice before been around the world in the Astrolabe and the Favourite, was draftsman to the ex- pedition. What is most singular, is the fact, that not one person died out of the whole crew and numerous passengers ; nor did any serious ill- ness appear, except a few cases of scurvy, towards the close of the voy- age. This extraordinary exemption is to be attributed to the watchful care of the captain, in airing the vessel, and enforcing exact cleanliness among his men, and making them suit their dress to the climate they were in, and to the diurnal variations of the temperature. No accident occur- red to the vessel herself. OBITUARY.—THE HON. NATHANIEL BOWDITCH. The death of this excellent and illustrious man has left a void in the American scientific world, which it will be very difficult to fill. His reputation was not merely American—it was European—it belonged to his fellow-men of every enlightened and christian land. We heard of his extreme and hopeless illness, and almost immediately after, of his death, with acute pain, and with a sense of hopeless bereavement—hopeless, as regards the prospect of looking upon his like again. The following able obituary from the pen of an eminent scholar, and one inti- mately acquainted with Dr. Bowditch and his history, appeared in the Boston Daily Advertiser and Patriot of March 17, 1838, and we, without hesitation, adopt it, as better and fuller than any thing which our more limited acquaintance with Dr. Bowditch would enable us to prepare. We are happy, however, to learn that a more ample biography will be written by the same able hand, and will appear in the Memoirs of the American Academy of Boston. While waiting for this full portrait of one of the most distinguished men of his age, we will venture only to add, that from opportunities which we were so fortunate as to enjoy, of familiar interviews with Dr. Bowditch, in the bosom of his amiable and happy family, we were not less delighted with the warm and generous expression of his private affec- tions, and the frank assuring impress of his manly manners, than we had been, before knowing him, with the splendor of his public reputation. Of the latter, he appeared to be almost the only person who was unconscious; and if he was great to the world of mathematicians and astronomers, he was delightful in the hours and scenes of the domestic and evening circle.*—Ep. It gives us pain to announce the decease of our distinguished townsman, Dr. Bownitcn, which took place yesterday, at 1 o’clock, after an illness of several weeks. The death of this eminent man will be felt in America as a national loss. His name was identified with the science of his native country ; and our national char- * The President and faculty of Yale College, where Dr. Bowditch’s character was much honored, on hearing of his death, transmitted to his children, resolutions ex- pressive of their high veneration for the deceased—of their deep sense of the loss to the nation and the world, and of their sympathy with his bereaved family. MigaccHenses | 221 acter, with men of science abroad, is indebted to no one individual—with the ex- ception, perhaps, of Dr. Franklin—so much as to him. Dr. Bowditch was born on the 26th of March, 1773, at Salem, in the State of Massachusetts. In his education, he had no other advantages than those afforded by the common town schools, which at that period were comparatively meagre, and inadequate to the great purposes of disciplining and storing the mind with knowledge. At the usual age, he was placed as a clerk, or apprentice, in the store of a mer- chant in Salem; and while in that situation, it is said, he used to employ his leisure time in his favorite science of Mathematics, and various practical subjects connected with it. His attention was directed, at an early age, to the Principia of his great master, Newton. But, as this work was published in the Latin language, which he had not then learned, he was obliged to begin his reading of it, by asking some of the Cambridge students, during their vacations at Salem, to explain it to him in Eng- lish. He soon discovered, however, that his own knowledge of the subject, with the aid of the mathematical processes and diagrams on the pages of the Principia, enabled him to comprehend the reasoning contained in the modern and technical Latin of the work, more readily than he could do with the help of the superior knowledge which the University students possessed of the Latin of Cicero and Vir- gil; and he was soon convinced that his shortest course would be to acquire a knowledge of the language for himself; which by great perseverance he accom- plished, and was enabled to read any work of science in it. And thus he was an- other instance, like that of the ancient Greek writer, who relates of himself that during his residence at Rome, he obtained a knowledge of the language of the Romans, by his knowledge of the subjects which they discussed in it. He after- wards learned French, for the purpose of having access to the treasures of French mathematical science ; and, at a late period of his life, he acquired some knowledge of the German language. A little circumstance connected with his study of Newton’s Principia, will not be uninteresting to the learned and the unlearned. The Latin copy of it, which Dr. Bowditch used, was presented to him by a mercantile friend in Salem, who made no pretension to science, and would never have thought of opening the work ; but he had preserved it, in his little library of popular works, as a book, that pos- sibly might one day be of use to some person. By a remarkable coincidence of circumstances, the volume came to the knowledge of Dr. Bowditch ; and his friend, upon being requested to lend it, with great liberality presented it to him—the man who, above all others in the country, was the best able to make the most advanta- geous use of it. So far as great effects may be justly said to flow from small causes, what important consequences may have followed from the preservation of this single and apparently worthless volume, by an individual who could make no use of it! Dr. Bowditch sometimes alluded to this occurrence ; and, on the occasion of present- ing a copy of his La Place to a friend, who declined taking it because he was no bet- ter able to read it than his mercantile friend could the Principia, delicately insisted upon its acceptance ; and, in the last resort, reminded his friend, that if not useful to him personally, it might, perhaps, be placed in the hands of some one, to whom it might be valuable, as the copy of the Principia had been to himself. Dr. Bowditch did not remain long in the situation of a merchant’s clerk. His mathematical talent, in a town eminently distinguished for nautical enterprise, could not fail of being called into exercise, in connection with the art of naviga- tion; and a large portion of the well known skill of the navigators of Salem may justly be considered as the fruits of the instruction which may be traced, directly or indirectly, to his scientific acquirements. He was, besides, a practical naviga- 222 Miscellanies. tor himself for a few years, principally, if not exclusively, in East India voyages, which gave him the most favorable opportunities of rendéring his mathematical stu- dies practically useful to the nautical interests of his country. At that period, the common treatise on navigation was the well known work of Hamilton Moore, which has occasioned many a shipwreck, but which Dr. Bow- ditch, like other navigators, was obliged to use. Upon examining it, however, in his daily operations, he found it abounding with blunders and overrun with typo- graphical errors, particularly in the Nautical Tables, in which, above all parts of the work, great accuracy was indispensable; of these last errors, many thousands, of more or less importance, were corrected in his early revisions of the work. He published several editions of Moore’s work under that author’s name; but the whole fabric at length underwent so many changes and radical improvements by the addition of new, and the rejection of old and worthless matter, as to-warrant his publishing it under his own name; and the work of Moore is now only remem- bered from its having been superseded by ‘‘ Bowditch’s Navigator.” It may be added, that he was enabled to give the greater accuracy to his work by means of a collection of manuscript Journals of his seafaring townsmen, preserved in the valuable East India Society’s Museum, in Salem. By a rule of that associ- ation—which is believed to hate been proposed by Dr. Bowditch—each member was required to carry with him on every voyage, a blank book, methodically ar- ranged, for the porpose of keeping a journal of observations and remarkable occur- rences; these journals (now amounting to many volumes) at the end of the voyage were returned to the Museum ; and they form a repository of innumerable observa- tions in nautical and geographical science not to be found in any other sources. In connection with this part of the subject, it should be further observed, that Dr. Bowditch also employed himself during several seasons (1805, ’6, "7,) in ma- king an elaborate hydrographical survey of the harbor of Salem, with the adjacent harbors of Marblehead, Beverly, and Manchester; of which he published an admi- rable chart of surpassing beauty and accuracy. With such extraordinary exactness was this laborious work performed, that the pilots of the port discovered, and were the first to observe to the author, that many of their landmarks—which, however, Dr. B. did not know to be such—were in fact laid down with such perfect accu- racy in the survey, that the various ranges on the chart corresponded with the ut- most possible precision to those of the natural objects. The ardor and perseverance which distinguished Dr. B. through life, were very early conspicuous in the prosecution of his mathematical and philosophical studies. While his pecuniary means were very limited, he used to make copious abstracts of the scientific papers in that immense repository, the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London: this labor was continued through many years; and the numerous large volumes of these manuscript abstracts in his library, embracing a great portion of that whole work, still remain the testimonials of his untiring in- dustry and zeal in the cause of science. During a large part of his life he was a principal contributor to the Memoirs of the American Academy ; and it is unnecessary to add, that his communications are among the most important in that work. He is also the author of a few reviews in the leading journals of the time.* In the year 1806, at the particular instance, as it was said, of the late Chief Jus- tice Parsons—whose extraordinary attainments included a knowledge of the higher branches of mathematics—Dr. Bowditch was elected Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. He could not, however, be persuaded to accept the office; principally, it is believed, if not wholly, from an apprehension that the circumstance of his not having been educated at that univer- * In the Monthly Anthology and North American Review. Miscellanies. 223 sity might render the discharge of his duties less satisfactory to himself than he could wish. 'Those who knew him best, however, often remarked upon his extra- ordinary power of communicating instruction in the clearest manner ; and Chief Justice Parsons, as competent a judge in the case as could be found in any country, has said to the writer of this notice, that of all the men he had known, he had never found one who could make any mathematical proposition so transparently clear and intelligible by mere oral statement, without a diagram or figures, as Dr. Bowditch. It may also here be added, that Dr. B. had the highest respect for the great mathematical attainments of Chief Justice Parsons; and it may be interesting to many persons to know, that under the Rules for Lunar Observations in the “ Practical Navigator,’”’ Dr. B. has introduced an improved method of cor- recting the apparent distance of the moon from the sun or a star, which was sug- gested by that great man, whom he justly characterizes as ‘‘ eminently distinguished for his mathematical acquirements.’’* It should have been before stated, that after quitting the life of a navigator, Dr. B. held the office of president of a marine insurance company in his native town for several years ; until, upon the establishment of that well known and invaluable institution, the Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company, in Boston, his tal- ents were deemed indispensable in its organization and management ; and he was _ invited to take charge of it, under the title of its Actuary. The great exactness of calculation and the order and precision introduced by him into that institution, will long attest the comprehensiveness of his views and his facility in the practical man- agement of its affairs. On the occasion of leaving his native town to enter upon his new office, his townsmen spontaneously united in a public dinner, as a testimonial of their re- spect and grateful recollection of his eminent services to his country and of his great private worth. While he resided in Salem he undertook his well known translation of La Place’s Mécanique Céleste, accompanied with his invaluable Commentary upon it. This truly gigantic task was begun in the year 1815, and has been the steady occupation of his leisure hours to the time of his death. His elucidations and commentaries, while they show him to have been as thoroughly master of that mighty subject as La Place himself, will make that great work—the most profound of modern times —accessible to innumerable students, who without such aid would be compelled to forego the use of it. The labor of translating and commenting on the whole of that work had defied the zeal and industry.of the scientific men of Great Britain ; and one of their lead= ing journals gives due credit to America for this extraordinary and honorable achievement in the cause of Science, which had not been accomplished by any in- dividual among the numerous scientific associations of Great Britain. ** The idea,” says the journal alluded to, “ of undertaking a translation of the whole Mécanique Céleste, accompanied throughout with acopious running com- mentary, is one which savors, at first sight, of the gigantesque ; and is certainly one which, from what we have hitherto had reason to conceive of the popularity and diffusion of mathematical knowledge on the opposite shores of the Atlantic, we should never have expected to have found originated—or, at least, carried into execution in that quarter. The part actually completed [the first volume,] is, with few and slight exceptions, just what we could have wished to see—an exact and careful translation into very good English—exceedingly well printed, and accom- panied with Notes appended to each page ; which leave no step in the text, of mo- * Bowditch’s Navigator, p. 161, edit. 1811. 224 Miscellanies. ment, unsupplied, and hardly any material difficulty either of conception or rea- soning unelucidated.’’* The progress of Dr. Bowditch’s last illness was so unremitting, that he was not able to complete the final revision of the whole of this great work. He had, how- ever, corrected the last sheets of the fourth volume a few days before his death, and while his physical powers were scarcely capable of executing what his clear and unclouded intellect dictated. The fifth, and only remaining volume is, com- paratively, of little importance, and it would probably have had but slight revis- ions, even if he had survived. On this great work Dr. Bowditch’s fame, throughout the scientific world will ultimately rest. And, surely, the most lofty ambition could not desire a more sol- id and lasting monument—a monument, which will endure until that day of deso- lation shall arrive, when no one of the human family shall remain to contemplate the mighty fabric of those heavenly systems, whose structure and laws are inscrib- ed upon it. 4 The long study of the French mathematicians, in connection with Dr. B.’s la- bors on La Place’s work, had given him a well founded partiality for the French, or Continental mathematical school, so far as that may be said to differ from the English. And on one great question, which in the age of Newton raised such a furious tempest of altercation between the English and Continental mathemati- cians—the quarrel between Newton and Leibnitz for the immortal invention of the differential calculus—Dr. Bowditch did not consider Newton as the exclusive dis- coverer, but, as the more candid of all parties now generally agree, that he and Leibnitz were both original discoverers of that wonderful method of analysis, and that neither of them was a plagiarist from the other, as each had been illiberally called while the controversy was raging. The reputation of Dr. Bowditch was such, that he had for many years been a member of various learned societies in Europe and America; and he was one of the few Americans who have been Fellows of the Royal Society of London. In his native State he has been for some years the President of the American Acade- my of Arts and Sciences, which is indebted to him for a large share of the reputa- tion it has enjoyed. Such is a brief outline of the intellectual character and scientific labors of this eminent man. It need only be added, that in social life he was distinguished for rigid integrity, extraordinary energy of character, and unremitting zeal and perse- verance in whatever he undertook to accomplish; his manner was ardent, and in- dicative of that warm heart which has now ceased to throb for those friends who enjoyed the happiness of his society ; his deportment was, in an extraordinary de- gree, unaffected and simple; and he had a frankness in expressing his opinions, which an age of artificial civility would feel to be a standing reproof of its own heartlessness, and would hardly consent to rank among the virtues. How saddening is the reflection, that these high intellectual and moral endow- ments, from which we had fondly, perhaps unreasonably, hoped for still further benefits to the world, should now lie powerless, prostrate, and in ruins before us! Never has there been an individual in our country, solely devoted to the pursuits of science and the tranquil walks of private life, and shunning the allurements of that political notoriety which is the distempered and all-absorbing passion of the day, whose death has been more generally and deeply lamented— *‘ Multis ille bonis flebilis occidit’’— ‘“‘ We read his history in a nation’s eyes ;” and the demonstrations of sorrow in every face are at once a spontaneous homage to science, and a heart-felt tribute to eminent private worth. *London Quarterly Review, vol. 47, July, 18382. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. Art. I.—Description of a Crustaceous Animal, belonging to the genus Caligus—C. Americanus ; by Cares Picxerine, M. D. and James D. Dana, Members of the Yale Natural History So- ciety. Read before the Yale Nat. Hist. Soc., Feb. 20, 1838. Tue species of the genus Caligus, and of other allied genera, are commonly called fish-lice, in allusion to their parasitic mode of life. 'The individuals which are the subject of the following remarks, infest the Common Cod* of this part of the American coast. During the fall of the year, when the shoal fish are brought to the New York market,} the Caligi are exceedingly abundant. Oc- casionally, forty or more individuals may be taken from a single fish. As the season advances, the fish are taken in fewer num- bers off Sandy Hook and Long Island, and afford a much smaller proportion of parasites. The Caligi are most numerous on the half- grown fish ; they are found indiscriminately on the head or different parts of the body, but never within the gill-covers. A European species has been said to live under the scales: we have never ob- served this peculiarity in the species on this coast; indeed, the closeness of the small scales of the cod, renders it impossible. * It has not been satisfactorily ascertained whether the cod of this coast is iden- tical with the European species, Morrhua vulgaris ; this, however, is the common opinion. t These investigations were made ai the city of New York, and occupied the latter part of November last, together with the following months, December and January. Vou. XX XIV.—No. 2. 29 226 Deser iption of a Species of Caligus. his hy When disturbed, they move with rapidity over the fish, and either backward or Ova with nearly equal facility. In swimming, — their motion is equally rapid. They thus travel over the body of the fish at will, and, we doubt not, occasionally leave one fish for another. Both sexes frequently occur on the same fish, though the fe- males (during the months of November, December, and January ) have been far the most abundant. ‘The latter are, in general, readily distinguished by the two filiform appendages to the body, which are the external ovarian tubes; or, if these are wanting — as often happens—by the larger abdomen, whose greater size is owing to the eggs it contains. If destitute of eggs, it does not present this peculiarity. 'The sexes differ, moreover, in the form of the first and third pair of feet, as will be particularly noticed when speaking of these members. The sizes of the individuals which have come under our no- tice, have been very various. 'The adult males frequently attain a length of five ninths or nearly two thirds of an inch, (fig. 2, Pl. II.) ‘The females are always smaller than the males, and sel- dom exceed a half inch, exclusive of the ovarian tubes, (fig. 3.) The smallest individual seen, was one tenth of an inch long. Its legs had less slender proportions than usual; otherwise, it did not differ from the adults. ‘The Caligi live several hours on the body of the cod taken from the water; but generally die soon after the death of the fish. When taken from the fish and confined, they exhibit a strong in- clination to leave the water. We have often observed, after the introduction of fifteen or twenty into a glass of salt water, that the greater portion of them seek the surface, where they attach themselves to the glass; and quite a number leave the water en- tirely, crawling up the glass an inch or two above the surface. The water they confine under their broad shell, which is closely attached at its margin, supports them fora while; but, unless as- sisted again to their element, they remain, without any apparent attempt to return, and in a few hours die. These animals, like the cod, on which they live, require a low temperature, and have been observed to swim, with scarcely di- minished activity, in water that was freezing. In some instan- ces, when the water had evidently reached a temperature below 32° F., without congelation, they have been rendered torpid, and Description of a Species of Caligus. 227 apparently dead; but on bringing them into a room not above A5° F., they have soon resumed their usual activity. When the temperature has been as high as 60° F’., they have generally died in the course of a short time. 'This may be owing in part to the deterioration of the air in the water, arising from the decomposi- ton of the animal matter contained in it. They die almost im- mediately when thrown into fresh water. Although the imperfect descriptions of the European Caligi, by early authors, have been improved by subsequent investigators, still, in consequence of the obscure structure of these animals, their characters are yet very inaccurately described. We have therefore been unable to satisfy ourselves fully, that the species of this coast is distinct from the European. Yet, as many of the characters stated respecting the foreign species, do not apply to ours, we have ventured to propose it as new, under the name given at the head of this article.* 'The following description, to- gether with the accompanying plates, it is hoped, will enable the future investigator of the European individuals to decide in regard to their identity. The results of our investigations have shown, that many of the errors of authors are of the most fundamental character. Among the principal of them, we find that a front pair of cups, serving for the attachment of the animal, have been mistaken for its eyes ;—the exserted ovarian tubes have of late been considered the respiratory apparatus ;—and what is still more essential, as it affects the late classification of the Crustacea, the mouth is sup- posed to be a sucker, whereas it contains large dentated mandi- bles, and other manducatory organs, appertaining to the maxillated species. ‘his last character has been proved to belong also to the Argulus, another of the Szphonostoma, or Crustacés Suceurs, in an article on that animal, in this Journal, Vol. xxx1, 1837. * We find in a folio volume by M. Duhamel du Monceau, entitled Traité Géné- rale des Pesches, MpccLxxi11, Parts, at page 294, a description of the Caligus found on the Salmon, accompanied by drawings, which, if at all accurate, show that the species are not identical. The same conclusion may be drawn from Desmarest’s figures in his Gén. Consid. des Crustacés, if they can be relied on. Other figures that we have seen are so evidently inaccurate, or so destitute of details, that we would not venture to form an opinion from them. 228 Description of a Species of Caligus. I. TrGumMentTary System. ° a. Segments of the Body. The body of the Caligus is provided witha flexible, subcorne- ous, and perfectly transparent covering. By dissection, we were able to distinguish only two coats. The internal is a thin, moist membrane, easily separable from the exterior, and often present- ing, especially in old individuals, numerous dendritic delineations of an ochre-yellow color. Occasionally, they are so abundant as to give the animal an ochreous tinge. ‘The exterior coat or shell is pellucid, very flexible, and somewhat elastic, and does not ex- hibit a fibrous structure. In some portions of the shell, and par- ticularly about the eyes, it is divided into areas, as represented in fig. 8, Pl. IV. The shaded subtransparent area in this figure passes longitudinally over the space between the eyes. When the animal dies, it assumes, after some time, a rose-red tint. Under the microscope, this color is found to be disposed in dendritic delineations, like the yellow color above noticed, and apparently in the same membrane with it ; and in a few instances, we are confident that the dendrites which before were yellow, have this reddish hue. We cannot say that this is true of all these delineations. The body is composed of four distinct segments, (fig. 7,) of which the first two include the head and thorax, and the third and fourth, the abdomen. The anterior of these segments, which we may designate the cephalo-thoracic, is divided into four por- tions, by imperfect articulations. 'Two of these articulations are longitudinal, and separate the lateral portions of this segment from the central. ‘The other articulation connects the centre of the two longitudinal articulations, like the cross-line in the letter H, and thus divides the central part of this segment into an anterior and posterior portion. ‘The two lateral portions correspond to the united epimere of the higher crustacea, and may be called the epimeral segments; the anterior of the two central, may be called the cephalic portion, and the posterior forms the anterior portion of the thorax. 'The anterior or cephalic segment presents an imperfect articulation near its front margin, which separates a narrow segment; this segment we shall hereafter designate the anterior or first cephalic segment, and the remaining portion the posterior, or second cephalic segment. Description of a Species of Caligus. - 229 Viewed as a whole, the cephalo-thoracic segment is slightly con- vex, and has an obtuse ovate form, a little broader posteriorly, with an emargination in front, (A, fig. 7,) and a deep sinus on each side in the posterior margin, (B.) It is bounded, both ante- riorly and laterally, by a thin transparent margin, which appears transversely striated, when highly magnified. The lateral mar- gin is about four times as wide as the anterior. A row of ex- tremely minute curved spines project above the junction of the membranous margin, as is exhibited in figs. 1 and 19. Similar spines are scattered over the back; but a very high magnifying power and the most favorable light are required to discover them. The articulation of the first with the second cephalic segment, though mostly imperfect, approaches a perfect joint towards each side, (C, fig. 7,) where there is an osseous process in the two seg- ments, with opposite articulating surfaces. 'The process on the first segment is narrow, and transversely oblong. That on the second is long and slender, and extends to a point laterally in ad- vance of the eyes; it is much enlarged at the articulation, and at that place resembles the process on the anterior segment. The articulation of the cephalic with the thoracic portion of the cephalo-thoracic segment of the body is curved parallel with the anterior margin of the animal, and terminates on each side, near the centre of each lateral half of the cephalo-thoracic seg- ment, (D, fig. 7.) From this point the articulation of the epime- ral with the central segments commences. A thin semi-corneous margin extends from the cephalic segment, and covers its articu- lation with the adjacent parts. The junction of the epimeral and cephalic segments is directed towards the anterior portion of the lateral margin, but becomes obliterated before reaching it; the junction with the thoracic segment is continuous in a curve, con- cave inward, to the posterior margin just outside of the sinuses in the latter segment. An osseous articulation, similar to that be- tween the two cephalic segments, unites the epimeral and ce- phalic segments, (E, fig. 7;) the process on the former is long and slender, and curves backward, giving firmness to that portion of the shell. The thoracic portion of the cephalo-thoracic segment approxi- mates to a circular form. The sinuses before referred to, (B, fig. 7,) are situated in its outer posterior margin. Between each sinus and the articulation of the epimeral segment, there is a narrow 230 Description of a Species of Caligus. lobe, which is provided, on its interior margin, with a folded mem- brane. The lobe is slightly movable upon a joint at its base, and the membrane has a very free motion, and serves to close the sinus. The posterior thoracic segment (F, fig. 7,) is quite short; its breadth nearly equals one third of the greatest breadth of the an- terior portion of the body. Laterally it terminates in an angle, from the posterior side of which, the legs arise which belong to this segment. The first abdominal segment (G,) differs in form in the two sexes. In both, the length and breadth are nearly equal, though in general the former is somewhat greater in the female, and the latter in the male. 'The sides are much curved in the male, (fig. 7,) and the whole is narrower anteriorly. In the female, (fig. 18,) the form approaches a square with rounded angles. 'The poste- rior angles in the male are projecting, and furnished with three short hairy sete; the same in the female are provided with the same sete, but they scarcely project beyond the adjoining parts. ‘These peculiarities only exist in the gravid females When the abdomen is destitute of eggs, it resembles that of the male. The remaining abdominal joint, (H, fig. 7,) has a flattened subovate form, and is about two thirds the breadth of the prece- ding. ‘T'wo short leaf-like appendages are obliquely articulated with its posterior extremity. These leaflets are furnished with three terminal plumose set or pinnule, the ciliz of which have a length equal to three times the breadth of the seta. There are two short sete exterior to the pinnule, and one interior. 'These leaflets are ciliated on their internal margin. b. Organs appertaining to the several segments. 1. Anterior Cephalic Segment.—This segment presents, in its front emargination, (A, fig. 1,) two minute rounded papilla, cov- ered on their inner surface with very short hairs, which appear to correspond to the inner antennz of other crustacea. Below and just behind their insertion we observe a small semicircular process convex outward, which projects a short distance beyond the sur- rounding surface. Toward the lateral extremity of this segment, on its lower sur- face, there is a remarkable organ, which the animal employs in attaching itself, (I, fig. 1 and fig. 19,) but which has heretofore been considered its eyes. It consists of a thin nearly circular 5s Description of a Species of Caligus. 231 membrane, attached by its central portions. Its surface is finely marked with lines running towards the outer margin; on the inner margin, these lines, though possessing the same general direction, freely anastomose. We have often tested the use of these organs by applying the blade of a knife to the front margin below, while the animal was on its back, when in numerous in- stances it has adhered with sufficient force to be lifted from the fish and carried some distance. The membrane of the segment extends beyond the cup and curves around over the base of the antenna adjoining, (fig. 7, Pl. IV.) These antenne have no connection with the cup. About two fifths of the distance from the cup to the centre of the front margin, we find, on the back, a single slender naked | seta. (K, fig. 1.) The antenne which terminate laterally this first cephalic seg- ment, (L, fig. 1, and fig. 19, Pl. V,) are articulated with it by a joint passing obliquely upwards and inwards, towards the cup. They are two-jointed. The first joint is broad and large at base, and somewhat triangular in form. Its anterior and apical portions are covered with soft ciliated oblong papille, (fig. 19,) each of which receives a distinct branch of the large nerve that passes to this organ. They shrink up and become obliterated on drying, and in this respect differ from similar appendages to other parts of the body, and even from the naked setz that terminate the apical joint of the antenne. This apical joint is nearly cylin- drical in form and is about two thirds the length of the basal. The terminal sete are of two kinds; those at the inferior part of the apex are slender and acute, and those at the superior part, short and somewhat obtuse. A single naked slender seta, usually curved or bent, may be observed near the middle of the posterior margin of this joint. ; 2. Posterior Cephalic Segment.—The mouth, (figs. 1 and 12,) is situated in an oblong mass, which lies entirely external, along the under surface of the body, near the centre of the posterior cephalic segment. This buccal mass is in part a hollow organ, (fig. 12, Pl. IV,) bounded above and below by distinct membranes, a portion of which represent the upper and under lip. It hasa lunate opening between the approximating lips, (aa and b, fig. 12,) and contains a pair of strong mandibles and other organs, which we shall soon describe. It is articulated with the cephalic segment by its broad posterior portion. 232 Description of a Species of Caligus. The lateral and anterior margin of the buccal mass is formed by aslender bone, (c b, fig. 12,) which forms a projection posteri- orly where it suddenly curves around inward, and runs backward a short distance nearly parallel with the margin. ‘These bones form the sides to the lower membrane of the cavity of the mouth. At the anterior extremity of the buccal mass within, they are connected with several small bones which run to the medial line of the mouth, and constitute part of its manducatory apparatus, (m, 1, and n, fig. 13, r, s, t, fig. 17, an under view ;) these bones lie either on or in the lower membrane of the mouth. No portion of the wpper membrane of the buccal mass is connected with the bones of the lateral margin except a small subtriangular piece near the anterior angle, (dae, fig. 12.) These pieces leave be- tween them and the anterior margin of the buccal mass a semi- circular opening ; the edges of this. opening are furnished with ciliz, and constitute the lower margin of the lunar opening, or the lower lip. 'This lower lip is divided at its centre, (b, fig. 12,) and the edges thus formed are curved inward, so that in a vertical view several ciliz are projected together, and have the appearance of one branching cilia. The whole membrane forming the upper portion of the buccal mass may be called the upper lip. It.is represented separate in fig. 15. It is united with the lower portions, at its posterior ex- tremity, (pp, figs. 12 and 15.) It may be viewed as consisting of two parts, an anterior movable, and a posterior, apparently immovable. The movable portion, which is very much the smallest, is an elliptical, nearly circular, membrane, inserted in a semicircular concavity (aa) in the anterior margin of the ammova- ble portion. Its front edge is coarsely subcrenated and furnished with cilie. The large immovable portion of the upper lip is bounded by a bony edge, on all sides except posteriorly. At f, (figs. 12, 15,) there is a curved process elongated outward, serv- ing for the attachment of a muscle. Through the opening between the lips, (fig. 12,) we may ob- serve the two slender bones 1, (fig. 13,) and just within these, there are visible, through the membranes, two dentated organs, which, when the membranes above are removed, appear as represented in fig. 14. These organs are the mandibles. They are long slender organs with a falciform termination, curved inward and dentated on the interior edge; the number of teeth is about Description of a Species of Cahigus. 233 twelve. The outer margin of the dentated portion is provided With a narrow corneous transparent edge. ‘These mandibles ex- tend backward and pass out of the buccal mass just anterior to the lateral projection, c, (figs. 12 and 13,) and behind the process, f. Here they are connected with a bony tendon, to which the large muscles are attached which move the mandible. ‘The mandibles have no appendages, and are very slightly connected at their base with the membranes of the buccal mass. When the buccal mass is separated from the body by force applied below, the mandibles invariably remain attached to their muscles. The remaining corneous organs at the extremity of the mouth have been already described as connected with the lower mem- brane ; the two pairs m, 1, on the surface of this membrane, and the remaining, in its texture. The pair 1, have just been referred to as seen through the opening between the lips. 'These bones approximate at their apices; at the other extremity they curve backward and terminate under the junction of the two lips, (fig. 13, and a a, fig. 12;) the bones; m, which are situated under the mandibles, are very finely pectinated on their outer margin ; they terminate at the same place with the preceding pair. The remaining bones form a kind of frame work for the lower membrane. Three slender bones r, s, t, (fig. 17,) occupy the extremity of this membrane, and the bones, 0, its inner portion. The bones, 0, extend backward and enlarge at the posterior part of the buccal mass, (g, fig. 17,) where they serve for the attach- ment of the muscles elevating the buccal mass. ‘They appear to form by their union at their anterior extremity, (figs. 17 and 13,) a short, oblong process (k,) which is situated between the apices of the pectinated bones, m. The piece, n (figs. 13 and 17,) passes directly outward from this process, and is gradually lost in the membrane. This complicated apparatus, the buccal mass, appears to be composed of the upper and lower lips, united with the different parts of a pair of maxille. We have often observed through the upper membranes of the buccal mass, and just in advance of the bony arch a, a, fig. 12, an obscure curved line nearly concentric with the anterior mar- gin of the buccal mass, (fig. 12,) which is frequently in motion. From the peculiarities of its action we suppose that there is here an internal opening to the esophagus. Within this inner mouth, Vou. XXXIV.—No. 2. 30 234 Description of a Species of Caligus. if we may so call it, there are several folds seen below, (fig. 17,) | which may be the seat of the sense of taste. Above we observe, (fig. 12,) four fleshy oblong organs extending from a point deeply situated near the base of the esophagus, obliquely upwards to the upper part of the buccal mass. At their lower extremity, they are connected by a slender ligament with the bone, g. ‘These organs appear to close the esophagus. 'They often open and close in consequence of the similar action of the processes, g, with which they are connected. The articulation of the buccal mass with the surrounding parts is formed by means of a bony process situated in it below f, and another slender process (h, figs. 12 and 17,) extending backward and outward in the adjacent teguments. A curved bony process, (i, fig. 13,) connects the projection c (figs. 17, 13,) with the pro- cess below f, uniting the two portions of the buccal mass. The remaining organs of the cephalic segment consist of four pair of feet, corresponding to the second pair of maxille and the three pairs of maxillipeds in the decapodous crustacea. The first pair are three-jointed. ‘The basal joint is broad and oblong, and is connected with the body by its long posterior side. At its inner extremity, which is directed outward nearly parallel with the basal, it curves upward and receives the following joint. The two terminal joints are very different in the two sexes. In the male, (fig. 1,) the second joint is large and subconical, with an obliquely truncated apex. It appears to be composed of two joints, but there is no articulation. 'The terminal joint is obliquely articulated with the preceding; it is small and short, and terminates in two strong curved spines, occupying like horns the lateral portions of the apex. A slender seta is situated on the outer margin, and another on the inner surface near the articula- tion. 'The exterior of the apical spines is often brought in con- tact with a prominence on the apex of the preceding joint. In the female, (fig. 18 and 18 a, ) the second joint is large, but scarcely longer than its breadth. The terminal joint gradually tapers with an irregular curve to a pointed corneous extremity, which is bent downward at right angles with the preceding part. The basal joint is peculiar in having a stout Spine directed backwards, on its posterior margin. Exterior to the.outer portion of the basal joint of this leg, iihile is a large hooked spine, arising from a broad base, and having an Description of a Species of Caligus. 235. oblique position. ‘This may be considered an appendage to the maxilliped just described. It is similar in the two sexes. The second pair of maxillipeds are rudimentary. 'They are situated along side of the buccal mass. ‘The basal joint is a large fleshy mass, having a strong spine directed backward on its poste- rior side, (fig. 4, a.) Upon this mass near its anterior part, there is a very short cylindrical leg, of a single joint, which bears at its apex a long slender spine, and three or foursmall seta. It moves in every direction, and the spine is as frequently pointed inward or backward, as in the manner given in the figure. The legs of the third pair are situated each on a fleshy base, just exterior to the spine of the preceding pair. They are long and slender, and composed of three joints. The basal joint is rather longer. than the two terminal joints of the first pair, and diminishes very gradually to its apex. The second joint is one third longer than the basal, and about one fourth as large, and is of uniform size throughout. At its apex, below, it has a slender ensiform extension, which is doubly edged with a finely pectina- ted membrane, (fig. 4, b.) The terminal joint, is very similar to the process just described, but is much longer. A single short Spine is situated on the second joint, a short distance from the ar- ticulation of the terminal joint. The fourth pair, the last of those on the cephalic segment, is very dissimilar in the two sexes. In the male (fig. 1,) it consists of a very large basal joint, articulated at its extremity with astout terminal claw, which curves inward and is usually brought in con- tact with a strong spine near the apex of the basal joint. ‘The breadth of the basal joint is nearly one half its length, except at its insertion, where it is quite small. Between the strong spine just noticed, and the apex of this joint, there is a small fleshy promin- ence, and astout spine. 'The terminal claw has a small seta near its apex. In the female, (figs. 18 and 18b,) the greatest breadth of the basal joint is scarcely one fourth its length, and it is destitute of the strong spine, near the apex; in some young females we see traces of it, and the leg has more bulky proportions than here stated. 'The terminal joint is much longer and larger, and more fleshy than in the male; it has a short spine at its apex, and three or four short setze. The remaining pairs of legs are four in number ; three pertain to the anterior thoracic segment and one to the posterior. 236 Description of a Species of Caligus. 3. Anterior Thoracic Segment.—The first two pairs of legs on this segment are natatory, the third is expanded into a broad apron. Preceding the first pair of these legs, there is, on the medial line, a broad furcate corneous process, directed backward, and capable of being elevated or depressed. The articulations of the two pairs of natatories with the body are very remarkable. These organs not only move on their respec- tive sternums, with which they are articulated, but the sternums have a hinge motion on their posterior margin, in which the legs participate. For this purpose the basa] joints are attached to the adjoining parts of the venter by the greater part of their anterior side. 'The whole distance between the apices of the basal joints in the first pair of natatories, forms thus a single hinge on which the legs revolve ; and in the second pair of natatories, the greater portion of the second joint is similarly attached, and for the same purpose. . Several of these joints are provided with long, finely ciliated sete, or pinnulee, similar to those terminating the abdomen, which renders them well adapted for swimming. The ciliz, though very long, are exceedingly slender. 'The pinnule appear to be mostly hollow. They contain a central longitudinal line, which appears on the first view to divide them into two portions ; further examination has led us to believe that this is not the case. The first pair, are composed of three nearly cylindrical joints, the first two of which are very similar in size, and the third about one half the length of the preceding. The basal joint has a short movable hairy seta at its apex, and another on its posterior margin ; also a very short jointed appendage on the same margin near its extremity. 'The second joint has a similar seta near its apex and is ciliated on its posterior margin. The terminal joint is fur- nished on its posterior margin with three long finely ciliated sete, or pinnulz, whose length about equals the preceding joint of the leg. The ciliz are very short on the outer side of these pinnule ; but of the usual length on the inner. At the apex there are four short obtuse naked sete. The sternum to which this pair of legs is articulated, is very narrow and terminates on each side ina process lengthened posteriorly for articulation with the legs. The second pair of natatories are composed of five stout com- pressed joints, with a large tri-articulate appendage to the second joint. The basal is very short, and has on its posterior margin a Description of a Species of Calicus. 237 curved pinnula, which extends over the median line. 'The sec- ond joint is very large and increases in size from its base to its apex. There isashort seta near its posterior margin, and another near its apex. On its posterior edge there is a broad membrane, exceedingly thin and transparent, and finely striated like the mar- . gin of the shell. The appendage to this joint arises from the inner part of its ex- tremity, and curves backward and inward. It is provided with seven long pinnule, which in general, extend with a curve to the median line of the body ; the first joint has one of these pinnule, the second two, and the third four. These joints are mostly very flat. The first joint is short and very similar in form to the basal joint of the leg. Itis furnished exteriorly with a broad plate, which is ciliated at its apex. ‘The second joint of this appendage, is smallest at its base, and increases with a curve to its apex, which is rounded. Its outer margin is ciliated. A shallow concavity receives the apical joint, which is small and nearly semicircular. The remaining joints of this leg, are also furnished with seven long natatory pinnule, of which one appertains to the third joint of the leg, one to the fourth, and five to the fifth. The third joint is broad and oblong, and is ciliated on its inner margin. A large stout spine, with a thin corneous expansion on two opposite sides, is articulated with the apex of this joint. The fourth joint is short- er than broad, and has a small spine at its apex. ‘The terminal has nearly equal length and breadth, and is obliquely truncated at its extremity. There are two short spines at its apex. ‘The pin- nula terminating this joint, is provided with cilie only on its inner margin. ‘The other margin is furnished with a thin membrane, which extends from the apex, to an enlargement in the seta near its base. The sternum uniting the legs of this pair, is quite large; its breadth is one third its length. The posterior margin is some- what fleshy and thin, and provided with a delicate membrane, whose breadth is nearly as great as that of the sternum. The anterior articulating margin of this sternum is firm and osseous. The adjacent teguments with which it is articulated are similarly ossified, and supported both before and behind by two strong os- _ seous processes, situated in the teguments. ‘The anterior processes are short, and terminate in a curve between the two sternums. The posterior are nearly three times the length of the sternum ; 238 Description of a Species of Caligus. they diverge from their insertion and extend to the base of the apron, (fig. 18.) Here they are united by a slender osseous process, which forms the upper limits of the sternum of the apron. They continue on, making at first one or two irregular curves, and form also the lateral boundaries of this sternum. By this remarkable arrangement, the articulation of the sternum of the large natatory legs is rendered sufficiently firm for their powerful action in the motions of the animal. - The third pair of legs has been already stated to be expanded into the form of an apron, forming a broad lamellar appendage to the cephalo-thoracic portion of the body. This apron is composed of the same parts as the natatory last described, and there is an almost perfect coincidence in the number and nature of the ap- pendages. | The sternal piece is very wide and lamellar. On its posterior margin there isa broad membranous expansion, identical in struc- ture and position with that appended to the preceding sternum. ‘The portion of the apron corresponding to the small first joint of the natatory leg, is very narrow, and has very imperfectly defined limits ; we see an indication of its presence in the single pinnula, behind, adjacent to the sternum.* The second joint is expanded into a broad, irregular trapezoidal figure, with concave sides ex- cepting its posterior margin. Like the same joint in the natatory, it is furnished with a broad thin membrane posteriorly, and a jointed appendage provided with pinnule. The first joint of this appendage is quite small, and bears a single pinnula as in the per- fect leg; the remaining portion is circular and is furnished with six pinnule. We find the analogue of the third joint of the natatory in a broad nearly circular plate, which is the lateral termi- nation of the apron; it is connected with the basal portion by an indistinct suture. 'The posterior margin of this joint, like the same joint above, bears a ciliated leaf-like expansion. The anal- ogy of the parts is still farther apparent in the strong articulated spine and pinnula attached to this joint, and in the two small termi- nal joints, furnished with pinnule ; the first with a single pinnula and a spine at its apex, and the second with four pinnule, and two short apical spines. * The corresponding parts of the apron, and the second pair of natatories, are in- dicated in the figure by the similar numbers in them. Description of a Species of Caligus. 239 4, Posterior Thoracic Segment.—The legs attached to this segment arise from the posterior part of the lateral surface. They are composed of four joints, which gradually diminish from the _base to the apex. The basal joint is large, nearly cylindrical, and ~ irregularly rounded at each extremity ; there is a short hairy seta at its apex. The second joint is scarcely half the diameter of the preceding. It gradually diminishes to a pointed apex, furnished with acurved spine. 'The third joint is flat, and is articulated, by its obliquely truncated base, with the inner side of the preceding joint. There are two long sete on its inner apex, which are edged on two opposite sides with a pectinated membrane. ‘There is a short pectinated appendage, projecting like an epaulette over the base of each of these setee, and also over the articulation of the following joint. This terminal joint is long, slender, and setiform. It has a row of short spines along its inner edge. _ §. Abdominal Segments.—The anterior abdominal segment is entirely destitute of any articulated appendages. Posteriorly, on each side, there is a broad lamellar sub-triangular organ, which, in the male, is much elongated, while in the female, excepting young individuals, it is very short. — The appendages to the terminal joint have already been des- ceribed. Change of Skin.—But few facts have come under our obser- vation respecting the change of skin; these few, however, appear quite peculiar and worthy of remark. When the time for shedding the old skin approaches, the inter- nal membrane, which is to form its new envelop, is very vari- ously folded into ridges throughout the whole body. In some parts, the ridges or folds are situated around the bases of the mus- cles, and enclose regular areas. ‘These folds continue increasing in size, till the time of moulting. ‘This process produces a sin- gular arrangement of the anterior portions of the inner shell, or, We may say, inner animal, as it affects the form of the included parts. The centre of the front margin of the internal shell is drawn inward and backward, as represented in fig. 23, Pl. V, in which ¢ d represents the outer margin, and ce’ n d’ the correspond- ing edge of the inner shell, ef the articulation in the old shell, and e’m f’ the corresponding articulation in the inner. These folds undoubtedly result from an increase of the animal within a shell too small to admit of its expansion. 'The internal 240 _ Description of a Species of Caligus. members, like those of animals having a soft skin, appear to in- crease in actual quantity of matter, as rapidly when enveloped in their unyielding corneous covering, as in their new membranous envelop. | There is a remarkable fleshy appendage to the anterior portion of the soft internal animal, the importance or functions of which we are unable to explain. It is represented at mn, fig. 23, in its natural position. It lies wholly external to the inner shell, and is attached only at o, its anterior extremity. Figure 24 isa profile view of this appendage; similar letters mark the corresponding parts in the two figures. After separating the outer skin, it may be drawn forward into the position in fig.25. In one instance, we found an animal with this singular appendage, in front, presenting very much the appearance in fig. 25. It was, however, composed of three of these appendages, mn, placed end to end, and ap- peared to have undergone three successive moultings. In external appearance, this organ very much resembles a mus- cle, as it is striated, like them, though very coarsely. It is proba- bly attached, by its large extremity, to the outer shell. II. Muscutar System. The muscles moving the several members, may, in general, be distinctly seen and traced to their insertions through the pellucid covering of the body. Yet, under a magnifying power of five hundred diameters, we have not succeeded in detecting the ulti- mate fibres as given by Straus. With a much lower power, how- ever, we have observed that all the muscles appear transversely striated, and by means of this important character, have been ena- bled to distinguish the nerves from the muscles, which, without this aid, would in many instances have been difficult or even im- possible. ‘These striations are most distinctly seen in the flat, sim- ple muscles; those composed of several bundles of fibres, which is the case with many of the large muscles on the back, exhibit it, but less perfectly. We have examined the muscles of the common lobster, (Astacus marinus,) and have found these stria in some instances, though with less distinctness. ‘These stria- tions vary much in their fineness. In general, they are from aaa tO ga5—5 Of an inch apart. In some muscles, among which we may mention those elevating the buccal mass, we found them as coarse as =;!;, of an inch. We have conjectured that they are Description of a Species of Caligus. 241 the result of minute folds in the muscular fibres; but we have been unable to detect an approximation of these strie, or any al- teration in their appearance, during the contraction of the muscle: this, however, may be owing to their extreme minuteness.* On account of the very peculiar forms and motions of some of the organs in this animal, it contains several muscles of very unu- sual character. We reserve the description of them till these or- gans come under consideration. a. Muscles of the Segments of the Body. The first cephalic segment is flexed by two short slender mus- cles on each side, (R, R’,) situated just exterior to the process which forms the articulation of this segment, (figs. 1 and 7,) and di- rected backward and outward. 'They unite in a common short tendon. They act in depressing this segment, and assist in at- taching its cup’and anterior margin. ‘This margin is provided with a narrow ridge, which is striated or wrinkled transversely, like the cup, and is apparently intended to produce a closer at- tachment of this margin. For the mutual motions of the cephalic and thoracic segments, there are three pairs of muscles situated in the former, two at- tached near the median line, and one pair laterally. TORE 7: 0 (55 40 144} 5 45 | 76 observations. [The instrument employed was the variation compass, described by Professor Loomis, at p. 221, vol. xxx. of this Journal. It is not strictly on the meridian ; but the usual position of the needle at this period, at its station in the room, at this hour of night, is about 5° 50! west. The next morning (15th) from 7 to 9, the needle was at its usual place.] The foregoing table will be examined with interest. It corres- ponds with the results of numerous observations made by the same gentlemen on other occasions, in shewing that the influence of the Aurora Borealis upon the magnetic needle is not uniform in producing a deflection in the same direction. In the London Phi- losophical 'Transactions, for 1832, Mr. Faraday has demonstrated the fact of a necessary tendency of electricity from the equator of the earth towards the poles, in consequence of the diurnal rota- tion. Without an escape of the electric fluid from the northern latitudes, it is obvious that such a tendency, however great, would be a tendency only ; without producing any actual flow of elec- * Splendor fading. + Going east rapidly. t Going west rapidly, Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. 271 trical currents. Mr. Faraday suggested, that such an escape might possibly take place occasionally, thereby producing the phenomena of the Aurora Borealis. Were this the case, there would exist below the needle a flow of electricity northward, and above it, southward. According to the laws of electro-magnet- ism it should seem, therefore, that the disturbance observed should, in every part of the northern hemisphere, take place invariably to- wards the east. During the great aurora of July 1, 1837, the gen- eral deflection, according to a statement inserted by Mr. Herrick in the New Haven Herald, was observed to be in that direction. The fact that it is not uniformly so, however, proves us to be still in ignorance of some, at least, of the causes by which it is produced. There yet exists a necessity for much careful obser- vation. Observations too, on the variation of the intensity of terrestrial magnetism, and on the disturbance of the dipping nee- dle, during the existence of auroral action, are much to be desired. Observations made in other places. The aurora of Nov. 14, was observed in the city of New York by the writer of this article, in company with Mr. John H. Pet- tingell of that city. The position of the observers was three and a half miles north of the City Hall, and one and a half beyond the limits of the city proper; being upon an eminence which commands an unobstructed view of the horizon in every direction. At about a quarter before six, their attention was attracted by a very unusual appearance of the heavens. The sky was wholly overcast, as in New Haven, at the same hour; but the cloud was not sufficiently dense, absolutely to obscure all the stars; of which quite a number were observed from time to time, faintly glimmering through. A few light flakes of snow continued, also, still to fall. At the time of the first observation, the whole heen was suffused with a lovely carnation, ightest, apparently, at the commencement in the zenith, but s afterward rather toward the northeast. This tint, reflected of the snow, clothed all na- ture with a roseate flush, beautiful beyond description. It grad- ually faded; but at the end of an hour was still slightly per- ceptible. The sky then rapidly cleared, and all traces of the aurora passed away. But at about half past seven, the north and east being still overcast, and some stratified clouds extending themselves 272 Aurora Borealhs of November 14, 1837. along the horizon around toward the west, a brightness began to appear in the northwest, which, in a very short time, extended itself upward forty five degrees, in a column of diffused light, quite broad at the base, and tapering to a point. This column moved very slowly southward, and at length became divided into two of similar character. But in the mean time, in all the north, and especially in the northwest, numerous streamers began to make their appearance. ‘They became faintly red at the height of about 30°, and the redness of the whole blended itself into one general cloud, while the columns continued distinct and white below. ‘The changes were rapid, as is usual; but the red tint covered the heavens nearly to the zenith for along time. No corona was formed. ‘The moon, emerging from the clouds a little before eight, detracted from the brightness of the display, which was at no time very intense. ‘The whole subsided, or nearly so, shortly after eight, and observations were discontinued. But, at a few minutes before nine, the writer was summoned to witness a new exhibition of auroral magnificence, the glories of which no tongue can tell. The heavens were at this time wholly unclouded, with the exception of a single very small and faint cirrus high in the northwest. Innumerable bright arches shot up from the whole northern semicircle of the horizon, and from even farther south; all converging to the zenith with great ra- pidity. ‘Their upper extremities were of the most brilliant scarlet, while below they were intensely white. At the formation of the corona, the appearance of the columns below, which were exceed- ingly numerous and brilliant, resembled what we may conceive would be that of bright cotton of long fibre, drawn out at full length. The comparison though humble, is more strikingly de- scriptive than any other the observer could invent. 'T’o attempt in language, a picture ofthe magnificence of the corona, would be utterly idle. It surpassed that of every other, that the writer has ever had an opportunityof observing. The intermingled hues afforded each other a mutual strong relief; and exhibited the most brilliant contrasts ever beheld. 'The stellar form was won- derfully perfect and regular. Toward the west, there was a sec- tor of more than twenty degrees of unmingled scarlet, exceedingly magnificent. The duration of this display was quite remarkable. For three quarters of an hour after its formation, which took place about Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. 273 nine o’clock, the corona continued, with variable brightness, to maintain its position a little to the south of the zenith. At about half past nine, the northern columns had become disconnected from it, and had subsided very low, the heavens being clear be- tween. But long before this, and indeed, within a few minutes after nine, the south was as completely filled with corresponding columns as the north. For atime, therefore, we were over-arched by a perfect canopy of glory. The southern columns, which seemed to proceed downward from the corona, rested on an arch of diffused light, extending in a great circle from east to west, or nearly so, and being about twenty degrees, or a little more, above the horizon, in the centre. All below the arch was of the strange darkness so usual at such times in the north. The southern col- umns were at no time so bright as the northern, but they main- tained their position, after these last had retired; extending still from the corona to the arch which formed their base. The ap- pearance was at this time that of an Aurora Australis ; and this continued for more than a quarter of an hour. Streamers, for a while, continued to shoot upirregularly in the north, but they did not again reach the zenith. By half past ten, the whole was over, and the charmed observers reluctantly abandoned the watch. The numerous observations of Mr. Herrick, have demonstrated the probability, if not the certainty of a return, after midnight, of an Aurora occurring before. Although, therefore, three distinct and strongly marked fits of the phenomenon had already occurred on the evening of which we are speaking, the writer was curious to ascertain whether there was not another yet to come. Accor- dingly a watch was kept, and at about half past one, the north was observed to be illuminated with a strong diffused light, like the dawn, from which occasional streamers shot up faintly, so high as forty degrees. Before half past two these appearances gave place to a flickering light, which ascended in broad waves half way to the zenith. At a quarter before three, this began to subside, and observations were discontinued. The presence of the moon detracted, undoubtedly, very much from the splendor of these successive exhibitions of celestial mag- nificence. But for this circumstance, it is believed that the dis- play at nine o’clock would have been gorgeous, beyond any yet recorded by observers in this latitude. Indeed, the writer is dis- posed to believe that it was such, notwithstanding this disadvan- Vou. XX XIV.—No. 2. 35 274 Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. tage. None, at any rate, of the magnificent exhibitions of this nature, by which the past few years have been distinguished, have produced upon his mind an impression of so unmingled admira- tion and delight. | It is a fact not a little remarkable, and one which may serve to show how little the negative testimony of persons, not system- atically observers, can be depended on, in regard to the occur- rence even of the most magnificent and striking celestial phe- nomena, that of all the daily papers in the city of New York, amounting to nearly or quite twenty, the Commercial Adverti- ser alone, contained a notice of the later and more splendid ap- pearances of this Aurora, while almost every one explicitly stated the fact of the flush which overspread the face of nature early in the evening. We quote afew sentences from the Commercial :— “The glories of the Aurora have been so often displayed to us of late, that we scarcely think of mentioning each nightly exhi- bition; but that of last night was so eminently lovely, that we cannot let it pass unnoticed. = zs ~ % ‘‘Our news collector, Capt. Siscoe, who resides at Staten Island, says that he never beheld so magnificent a spectacle. During the continuance of the auroral light, he could see as distinctly outside of Sandy Hook, as at mid-day—a circumstance he never knew before, and he believes that the oldest men on the island are of the same opinion. ‘The illumination was so great, he says, that, at one time, the city of New York appeared to be within a mile or two of Staten Island.” The display at nine o’clock was observed in the town of Fonda, Montgomery Co., N. Y.. by Mr. Oran W. Morris of New York City. His account of its general appearance accords very well with that which has just been given. At one time, however, Mr. Morris observed two arches of diffused light in the south, be- low that on which the columns rested. Mr. Morris noticed par- ticularly a bright red sector, similar to that already mentioned, on the west side of the corona. His position was at least one hun- dred and sixty miles, a little west of north, from that of the writer. By a letter addressed to Mr. Herrick by Mr. Azariah Smith, Jr., from Geneva, N. Y., it appears that the first approach of the Aurora was at that place, unobscured by clouds. The following 1s an extract :— Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. 275 * At 5h. 45m. a purple bow or streamer appeared in the W. N. W.., at first, rising but about 10°. At about the same time anoth- er rose in the N. N. E. Both gradually increased in height: until they reached the zenith, and at 5h. 55m., a complete corona was formed. The eastern beam, soon after its appearance, extended in breadth at its base, assuming a triangular form of a purple or carnation hue, with a golden colored streamer passing up through its centre. Streamers were general at this time in the north ; but directly north, as well as nearly over head, the heavens were of a light greenish tinge. Soon after this, a purple cloud in the E. was peculiarly brilliant, and at 5h. 57m. a bright white streamer passed the north star, on its way to the west. At 5h. 59m. the whole appearance began to decline in brilliancy, especially the radiating point, and, at this time scarcely any light was observa- ble 20° E. of N. . = : At 6h. 7m. bright carna- tion clouds appeared each side of the radiating point, which con- tinued nearly fixed for three or four minutes, and gradually fa- ded away—the radiating point having now nearly disappeared.” Time in Geneva is about 164m. earlier than in New Haven. Mr. Smith gives very minute observations on the phases of the Aurora, continued until 8h. 8m., when clouds for the most part, obstructed the view of the heavens, and no auroral phenomena were visible. Faint appearances of the Aurora, seem, from his notes, to have continued until nearly half past seven; when they subsided only to re-appear almost immediately. A faint corona was formed at 7h. 35m. Mr. Smith seems, also, for about five minutes, to have had a glimpse of our splendid exhibition at a later hour, though not suf- ficient to inform him of its magnificence. - From a communication inserted in the Daily Commercial Ad- vertiser, of Buffalo, by Mr..R. W. Haskins, it appears that the Aurora was observable also at that place, at its first approach. Mr. Haskins states that, at 5h. 15m., the heavens being clear in the north, and for 50° both east and west of that point, an unusual ruddy appearance was noticed, not in this region, but still farther toward the east and west. Mr. Haskins continues as follows: ‘his soon faded, leaving barely a perceptible tinge; and in- stantly, when nearly all color had disappeared elsewhere, a space of some 15° in diameter, immediately west of Cassiopeia and Andromeda, and north of Pegasus, was lighted up with red of a 276 Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. deeper hue than any we had yet seen. 'This was entirely discon- nected, on every side, from any auroral light or appearance what- ever ; and, from its centre, pencils of white radiated to the periph- ery on every side. ; “‘ This continued some five minutes, when, the white lines dis- appearing, the whole space in question assumed an uniform red color, which was almost instantly thereafter extended, in an arch of the same width, through our zenith, and down to the horizon about 60° W. of N. On the east, this light did not extend itself. During all this time, the clear space in the north which has been mentioned, retained its usual color and appearance.” Deep red streams, pencilled with white, then began to appear and fade in the north, but without the tremulous motion of merry dancers. ‘Those in the N. E. maintained their brightness longest, and moved slowly toward the eastern point of the horizon, near which they disappeared at a given vertical line. 'The usual ha- ziness in the north began first to appear at 5h. 43m. Difference of time between Buffalo and New Haven, 23m. 48s. Mr. Haskins proceeds: ‘At 5h. 47m. the clouds had become more dense and dark, (though still in detached masses, ) particu- larly throughout that portion of the heavens which had been oc- cupied by the red arch above mentioned, and these isolated clouds now assumed an appearance at once novel and striking. Those west of our zenith, and lying within the track of the crimson arch already described, suddenly exhibited the most vivid red along their entire southern borders ; while the like clouds east of our zenith, and following the same track, and prolonging it quite down to the eastern horizon, assumed the same vivid color upon their northern borders; while no other portion of these clouds exhibited the least appearance of auroral light, in any of their parts. South of this line, there was-at no time any auroral light whatever ; and at the moment in question, there was very little in any other parts of the heavens, save on the borders of these clouds. At 5h. 51m. the red edgings of these clouds began to fade, and immediately a wide space in the N. E. that was still free from clouds, was most brilliantly hghted up. ‘The color was of the same deep red, but it did not extend down to the horizon; and this had scarcely endured four minutes, when the whole re- gion N. of our zenith, to within about 8° of the horizon, was again reddened and glowing: while, beyond these limits, either Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. 277 N. or §., no vestige of the Aurora was visible. At 5h. 58m. the moon appeared above the horizon, and as it was only two days past the full, its beams soon surpassed in brightness those of the Aurora, and farther observation of these last became impossible.” It is to be regretted that Mr. Haskins did not repeat his obser- vations at a later hour, as it is hardly to be doubted that the sub- sequent displays observed at Geneva, and at Hudson, as well as elsewhere, would have been at least partially visible to him. Mr. Haskins says, that he was unable to detect any disturbance of the magnetic needle. 'The instrument used, was a common survey- or’s compass ; which was, moreover, compared with another, both being considered good instruments. The apparatus was, undoubt- edly, not sufficiently delicate ; but it is a fact which has led to much discussion, that the needle is often greatly disturbed in one place by an Aurora, when in another, it is scarcely affected at all. ‘Thus it is stated in the second Report of the British Association, for 1832, that during the great Aurora of the 7th Jan., 1831, M. Arago observed the magnetic needle to be powerfully affected, while Mr. Sturgeon of Woolwich, could not observe it at all. At the Western Reserve College, Hudson, Ohio, some of the earlier displays of the phenomenon were noticed by Professor Elias Loomis, but the exhibition at nine o’clock, and after, (in New York,) was concealed by clouds. Professor Loomis says: ‘This evening at about five minutes after six, I observed the commence- ment of an Aurora. A small pile of light, of a reddish hue, lay upon the horizon, in a direction a little north of N. W., anda similar pile in the E. N. E. Between these there was a low faint cloud, bounded by a somewhat ill defined arch, rising in its cen- tre about ten degrees from the horizon. Above this arch, a dif- fused light streamed upward toward the zenith, in one or two places, being somewhat more condensed, forming beams. This light increased rapidly in brightness, it became of a more decided crimson color, extended up to the zenith, and at the same time, light began to shoot up from several points in the east, and some- what south of east. Ata quarter past six, mean time, a pretty reg- ular arch was formed, extending from the above-mentioned pile of light in the N. W., a little north of alpha Lyrae, south of alpha Cygni, about half way between Markab and Scheat, and about 15° S. of alpha Arietis. This arch was rather irregular in its outline, and had a slightly crimson color. In about five min- 278 Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. utes another arch of white light partially formed in the southern sky, rising about 10° above Fomalhaut, and having nearly the same direction with the preceding. 'This arch was never com- plete, and soon vanished entirely. The great arch I have before described, brightened up again, in very nearly the same position as before, being perhaps a little more regular in its outline. * * * * About half past eight, light of a crimson color was ob- served to shoot from the eastern horizon toward and beyond the zenith, nearly in the position of the former arch. 'The heavens were now nearly covered with thin cirro-cumulus clouds, and the contrast of the ordinary clouds with this crimson auroral light, produced avery singular effect. The sky remained cloudy during the night, and the next morning there fell a few flakes of snow.” The time at Hudson, is about thirty-four minutes earlier than at New Haven. From the accounts given by Mr. Smith, Mr. Haskins, and Professor Loomis, it seems impossible to identify any particular phases as having been noticed by any two of the observers. Professor Loomis was probably mistaken in supposing that he saw the commencement of the Aurora. At the time of his first observation, a corona had already formed itself, and faded away at Geneva. ‘The accounts just given, hardly satisfy us in regard to the splendor of the first auroral display. We are forced to believe that, but for the clouds, it would have been much more magnificent in the cities of New Haven and New York, than it is here represented to have been. The Aurora, (to go still farther west, ) was observed in the éiby of St. Louis, Mo. -The Republican ef that city remarks: “This beautiful ie interesting phenomenon, was visible during nearly the whole night, and was particularly brilliant between the hours of twelve and one, when the moon was near its zenith.” Time in St. Louis being rather more than an hour earlier than in New York, this last display was contemporaneous with the latest re- turn of the Aurora in our longitude: but this, which was the least energetic here, appears there to have been the most remark- able. From places north of New Haven, we should, of course, anti- cipate accounts of the appearance of this phenomenon. A letter from Professor A. W. Smith, of the Wesleyan University at Mid- dletown, Conn., to Mr. Herrick, describes the heavens as they ap- peared, from half past five till half past six, in terms very nearly Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. . 279 corresponding to those used by Professor Olmsted, and already quoted. Professor Smith adds: “ About nine o’clock there was a corona formed a little south of the zenith, highly colored, as on the 17th November, 1835. Streams of auroral light were also faintly visible at the same time in the north.” It is very obvi- ous that the magnificence of the exhibition at nine was by no means so great in Middletown as in New York. Professor O. P. Hubbard, of Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H., in a letter to Professor Silliman, also mentions the appearance of the Aurora at that place; but without giving a particular de- scription. East of New Haven, the snow storm seems to have been more protracted than in this city. The rosy flush observed here at six o’clock, was nevertheless seen in New London, in this state, though the snow was falling copiously at the time. A letter to Professor Olmsted, from Mr. J. Hurlbut, of the latter place, dated Nov. 14, says: ‘The snow has fallen incessantly since five o’clock this morning, and up to this hour (eight o’clock, P. M.) the storm has not in the least abated. But, at about six o’clock, it seemed as if the heavens were on fire. A lurid light on all sides, from the zenith to the horizon, cast a most vulcanean hue on the fallen snow. This lasted about half an hour, and then disappeared. The light seemed the same in every portion of the heavens, but without any apparent cause.” South of us, the distance to which this beautiful exhibition was visible, at one time or another, during the course of the evening, was very unusual. From a large number of notices we select a few of the more circumstantial, and present them in the geo- graphical order of the places from which they come, proceeding southward. The United States Gazette, published at Philadel- phia, after noticing the early appearance of the heavens, which was not dissimilar to that observed at New York, continues: ** At a later period, the lights were again visible, and between nine and ten o’clock, exceeded in extent and brilliancy, any thing of the kind ever before witnessed in this latitude. A broad field of crimson flame, stretching from nearly a western course, and reaching the eastern hemisphere, encompassed the heavens with a brilliant glory, of indescribable beauty and magnificence, hang- ing, as it were, suspended from the blue vault above, like an im- mense curtain over the earth—while, from almost every point of 280 Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. _ the compass, shot up rays of rich and gorgeous light, spreading and intermingling with a wavy tremulous motion, and exhibiting every hue which the rain-bow can boast. The richness, variety, and delicacy of the colors, were surprisingly beautiful, as was their prismatic brilliancy. “'The sky itself was remarkably clear and cloudless—and through the celestial. phenomena, a full moon and innumerable stars were, all the while, distinctly visible. We never had the satisfaction of witnessing a display so truly grand and magnificent, and only regret our inability of conveying even a faint idea of the sublime wonder, and beauty of the scene.” Other persons seem to have observed a greater variety of col- ors. than were visible to us. Red, orange and golden yellow, with sometimes a shade of pale green, doubtless an optical illu- sion, as being the color complementary to the first, were all that were remarked in New York. Professor L. Obermeyer, of Mt. St. Mary’s College, Emmitts- burg, Md., writes to Professor Olmsted, under date, Nov. 18, as follows: “‘On the evening of the 14th inst., a brilliant display of an Aurora Borealis was witnessed. The first indication of its ap- proach was given as soon as it became dark, by the singular red- ness of the cumulo-stratus clouds, now entirely covering the sky. Those in the north, south, east and west, all partook of the red- ness; and the reflection from them was strong enough to givea -red tinge to the snow, still several inches deep. 'The heaviest clouds retained their dark color in the centre, but they were bor- dered with red. During the hour in which this state of things existed, there were no streamers, streaks of light, nor merry dan- cers. Indeed, where the sky could be seen between the clouds, there were no signs of an Aurora, but rather a deep, green sky. By seven, the moon being risen, and the clouds having vanished, nothing remained to show that there had been any unusual oc- currence. A little after nine, however, the sky being perfectly clear, an Aurora suddenly sprung up, which, for magnificence has seldom been equalled in this latitude. The streamers from the east, west and north, converged a few degrees south of the ze- nith, forming a beautiful auroral crown, red as scarlet, but inter- mingled with streaks of pale light. 'There were no merry dan- cers. All the other appearances usually witnessed on such occa- sions were noticed. In little more than half an hour, the grand Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. 281 display was over. A few traces were seen fora little time longer, when every vestige disappeared.” 'The time at Emmittsburg is 184m. earlier than at New Haven. A letter from President Humphreys, of St. John’s College, Annapolis, Md., to Professor Olmsted, speaks of the Aurora of Nov. 14, as “more magnificent than any that has ever before occur- red” there. Mr. Humphreys proceeds: “It [the Aurora] extended many degrees farther south than the great one in January. It came on in waves, as before, at about a quarter before six, and re- turned at seven, at eight,and at nine. The first arch was formed suddenly, and became vertical in a very few minutes, from the first appearance of the columns at the N. W. and S. E. It was crimson, traversed by white pencils. 'The magnetic variation was diminished 1° 5’. It is here, west.” A communication al- so appears in the Republican, of Nov. 18, published at Annapolis, proceeding, likewise, probably from President Humphreys, and giving a more particular account of the returns at eight and nine. It is remarked that, “the color of the ight at 8h. was not red, but dusky, and formed from the N. W. point to the pole star, a broad column, which kept its position for half an hour. A suc- cession of fine cirrous clouds floated off from the lower parts of the column to the south. At 9h. the recurrence of the crimson light was more in patches, and of intense brightness, accompanied by cirro-cumulous clouds, which were formed suddenly over the whole sky, and were borne swiftly to the east by the wind, and at apparently a greater elevation in the atmosphere than that of the Aurora.” The latter opinion of President Humphreys, in regard to the comparative altitude of the auroral and the ordinary clouds, is un- doubtedly a mistaken one. But for the presence of these latter, he would unquestionably have observed something more than patches of crimson light, since the corona was seen by persons in almost every direction from Annapolis. Difference of time be- tween New Haven and Annapolis, 15m. From Fairfax Co., Va., near Alexandria, Professor R. Tolefree writes, of the early display: “From E. 8. E. to W. S. W., was exhibited a rich orange red color, extending even to the zenith, and covering all the heavens north of these points.” Professor Tolefree observed the return, in a brilliant and fiery form, toward nine o’clock ; but he observes that, “by a quarter past nine, the Vout. XXXIV.—No. 2. 36 282 _Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. Aurora was no longer visible.” It is probable that the clouds of which he previously speaks, obstructed the view. The time at Alexandria is about 163 minutes earlier than at New Haven. At Richmond, Va., the. magnificent corona formed between eight and nine o’clock, was observed by many persons, but from that place, no statements in detail have reached us. We come now to two communications from points much far- ther south than any of the preceding, and situated in latitudes so low, that the occurrence of an Aurora Borealis is there a phenom- enon of exceedingly rare occurrence. ‘The first of these is a let- ter to Mr. Herrick, from Mr. W. A. Sparks of Society Hill, 8. C., in latitude 34° 35’ N., nearly. Mr. Sparks observes: “ My attention was directed towards the north early in the evening, (about six o’clock,) by an unusual luminous appearance, and after gazing intently for a while, I distinctly recognized what I had long and earnestly sought for without success, a ‘ bank or store- house” of auroral vapor. is 8 2 When I first ob- served it, a space of about 15° above the horizon was strongly marked by a pale white light, above which the crimson hue pe- culiar to this phenomenon began to be distinctly visible. At this time, the greatest degree of brightness was to the east of north, assuming no very definite form, but extending, as well as I could judge, about eight or ten degrees east, and reaching in height to the constellation of Cassiopeia’s chair, the lower portion of which was enveloped in its reddening glow.” 'The action then subsided, but at about eight o’clock, another bright crimson column ascend- ed due north, attaining an altitude some degrees greater than that of the polar star, and maintaining its place about half an hour. Af- ter this had faded away, no return was observed till about half past nine, when Mr. Sparks observes, ‘(I again perceived another broad arch of crimson light, ascending several degrees to the west of north. ‘The altitude of this latter column was greater than that of any of the preceding, but I regret to say that my ardent desires to see it ‘scan the blue vault, and in the zenith slow,’ were not fully realized.” -'Time at Society Hill is about. 274m. earlier than at New Haven. At the moment of this last mentioned return observed by Mr. Sparks, the crisis of the action in our longitude was past. The other communication just alluded to, is a letter addressed to Professor Silliman by Mr. J. Darby of Culloden, Geo., latitude Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. 283 about 32° 45’, N. Mr. Darby writes: “Immediately after dark, or at about six o’clock, the sky a little to the north of the star Ca- pella, began to appear luminous, and a luminous arch was soon formed, of about 6° or 8° in breadth, and extending over to the north-western horizon, having the pole-star in its highest point. Soon after the arch was formed, that part of it in the N. E. hori- zon became much brighter, and somewhat broader than the rest ; and this luminous portion gradually rose, and passed on in the arch ; its densest part culminating a little below the north star. It con- tinued its motion to the western horizon. “The passage of the luminous part of the arch occupied an hour and a half. It became somewhat fainter, after it had passed the meridian. The arch gradually passed off, beginning first to disappear in the east, so that not a vestige remained at nine o’clock, three hours from its first appearance. % a fe The color of the arch was that of light scarlet, and the most lumin- ous part a little darker, and much more intense. It appeared to be a semicircle, having for its base about 60° of the horizon. It differed from the Aurora in its regular outline, and its regular mo- tion from east to west. It was observed with wonder by many in this region, and was such as no one had ever witnessed before.” Time at Culloden, 45m. earlier than at New Haven, nearly. At the date of this letter, Mr. Darby was not aware of the con- temporaneous occurrence of the Aurora at the north. The ap- pearances he describes are certainly very unusual; but must, of course, be attributed to the phenomenon which was at the time exciting so great admiration and astonishment, throughout all the northern states. We learn from some of the English journals, that this Aurora was seen in Great Britain. It is mentioned in a number of the Cambridge Chronicle, published in November, and also in Lou- don’s Magazine of Natural History, No. XII, Dec. 1837. Its splendors seem to have been in a great measure concealed by clouds, and the Aurora of Nov. 12, two days previous, attracted a much higher degree of attention. A notice of this latter phe- nomenon, by J. H. Stanway, Esq., of Brookfield, near Manches- ter, dated Nov. 15, and published in Loudon’s Magazine, contains this incidental mention of the Aurora under consideration : “My attention was also last night directed, by the oscillations of the needle, to the existence of an Aurora Borealis; but, by 284 _ Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. reason of the interference of clouds, it was not long visible. The variations noted, were as follows :— he m. he. m. ADs UB yeh ia .ce¢ ZEA n B54 12; 30 yee 1282: 30/ PAD wre icieeioted (i AG » done oruy Boe? The mean variation for the month of November, had been determined to be 26° 48’ 45”. The writer continues :— “ At half past twelve, a patch of the most intense blood red colors which I have ever seen, was visible, free from the interpo- sition of clouds. The whole of the sky had an awful appear- ance; for the tinge of red which pervaded the whole expanse, as- sumed, in many points, from the depth of colors above, and the density of the clouds below, the dark copper tint, which is seen on the disk of the moon during a lunar eclipse.” The time here mentioned ould correspond nearly to a qumaet before eight in New Haven ; and the display which seems to have been observed at its height, must have been almost contempo- raneous with some of the earlier appearances noticed in this country. The time included between the earliest and latest ob- servations on the needle, is equivalent to that from half past six to eight, here. None of the scientific periodicals published on the continent of Europe, of a date sufficiently recent to contain notices of this Aurora, have yet reached us. Considering the intensity of the auroral action in England, as observed by Mr. Stanway, we can- not doubt that the phenomenon manifested itself over a great part, if not the whole, of the continent. General Remarks. In considering the various accounts, not only of this, but of all great Auroras, we are not the least astonished at their vast extent. There can hardly be a doubt that often, at the same moment, the auroral action is going on in every longitude of our hemisphere ; and possibly, at the same time, quite as extensively in the south- ern hemisphere also. ‘True, there is commonly believed to be some mysterious connection between this phenomenon and the absence of the sun, or, in other words, the night; but to what can this be owing, save to the fact, that, during the day, the light of the Aurora, like that of the stars, is necessarily swallowed up in the overpowering radiance of the sun? On one occasion du- Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837, 285 ring the last autumn, the writer, being on Manhattan Island, a little north of New York city, was fully persuaded that a power- ful auroral action was going on, between the hours of eleven and twelve, A.M. ‘'The sun was, in the mean time, shining, without the slightest cloud to obscure his lustre; but along the north there lay a heavy bank of haze, above which a flickering or wavy light was obvious to the eye for more than half an hour. The same appearance was also noticed by Mr. J. H. Pettingell, of New York, who continued to observe it after the writer’s attention was withdrawn. No magnetic needle was at the time accessible ; and accordingly it was impossible to verify the truth of the observa- tion, by an appeal to that instrument. In a paper appended to a Report of the Regents of the Univer- sity of the State of New York, for 1836, it is stated by Professor Joslin, that, on the day following the great Aurora of Nov. 17, 1835, “there was such a display of auroral clouds as almost to justify us in considering it a proper Aurora seen in the day-time.” But if the Aurora be exclusively a nocturnal phenomenon, it is desirable that the fact should be established. This will be one step, at least, toward the development of its causes. By a series of observations, the truth can be ascertained, either positively or negatively ; but the needle must, from the nature of the case, be the chief means of bringing it to light. The agitation of the needle during the existence of an Aurora, unobserved at the time, in consequence of clouds, but subse- quently ascertained by observations elsewhere made, has been repeatedly noticed. An extract of a letter from M. Humboldt to M. Arago, contained in the Comptes Rendus of the French Acad- emy of Sciences, No. 1, Jan. 1837, cites a statement of M. Gauss, inserted in the Journal Astronomique de Schumacher, No. 276, that the disturbance of the needle at Gottingen, on the seventh of February, 1835, was greater than ever before known; and adds that, at the same time, a beautiful Aurora was observed by M. Feld, Professor of Natural Philosophy, at Braunsberg, in East- tern Prussia. It is stated also in the Comptes Rendus of April 17, 1837, that, on the sixth of the same month, an Aurora was observed by M. Morren, of the College Royal d’Angers; and that, at Paris, in the mean time, the sky was covered with clouds, but the needle violently disturbed. 286 Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. It is stated by M. Wartmann, of Geneva, in the Bibliotheque Universelle for October, 1836, that “an illustrious philosopher, M. Arago, has often announced in advance, the early appearance of an Aurora Borealis; being apprised of its approach by the ex- traordinary oscillations of the magnetic needle, which is regularly observed every day at the Royal Observatory of Paris; and that the event has confirmed his prediction on the same day, though frequently the phenomenon has occurred at such a distance as not to be observable at Paris.” It would hence appear, that auroral action has been detected during the day, by the aid of the needle: and it is quite probable that the light would also have been observed in the absence of the sun. Although the Aurora undoubtedly manifests itself, on many occasions, contemporaneously in places situated in every direction from the pole, there is no reason to believe that its intensity is, in the same latitude, every where the same at any given moment; nor that its successive fits come on, or reach their height, in dif- ferent longitudes precisely at the same time. There is great rea- son, however, for the contrary opinion ; as is manifest, indeed, from the various accounts which we have condensed in the pres- ent article. | Nor does it seem that the disturbing influence of the Aurora upon the magnetic needle is similar in different longitudes. There are three observations, of the four recorded in the extract above cited from Loudon’s Magazine, which we are able to compare with corresponding observations made in New Haven. After ma- king ample allowance both ways, for possible errors in time, we are able nevertheless to say with positiveness, that, while the nee- dle in New Haven was deflected to the east ; in Brookfield, near Manchester, its disturbance was in the contrary direction; the ordinary variation in both places being westward. Not only are the causes of the Aurora as yet a sealed book to us, but we have not been able to ascertain, otherwise than con- jecturally, the altitude of the illuminated substance above the earth’s surface. It is even a question whether this substance is within or beyond the limits of the atmosphere. ‘The question is one which it is exceedingly difficult to settle. 'To identify posi- tively, particular beams seen from different situations, is not so simple a matter as it may seem. ‘The same beams observed from different points of view, may present very different phases; while Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. 287 their fleeting existence and their mutability while they do exist, the great numbers which, in every striking display, commonly spring up and fade incessantly, and finally, the restlessness with which they are momentarily changing their positions, till at length they vanish, are all circumstances precisely suited to con- found all simultaneous observation, and to render it next to im- possible to obtain a parallax. ‘These remarks apply to columns seen laterally. If to both the observers, the Aurora is coronal or vertical, the difficulty becomes still greater. Since the corona seems, every where, to settle itself at a point in the heavens in the line of the dipping needle, it follows that every place, during a vertical Aurora, must have its own corona, which can be seen from no other position. Were it not so, the distance of the Au- rora might be determined at once; since the corona, if its appa- rent form were real, would present a most striking object, visible at the same time to a multitude of observers; while the steadi- ness of its position would afford abundant time for accurate ob- servation. ; There is one mode, and, as it seems to the writer, only one, in which the question admits of being settled. It may, after all, lead only to an approximation to the true altitude of the Aurora; still it may unquestionably determine the limit, beyond which the luminous vapor cannot be. ‘This is to institute a series of obser- vations along the same meridian, in order to determine, as accu- rately as possible, the lowest latitude at which the auroral columns, on a given occasion, reach the zenith. Let an observer, then, situ- ated at any given distance due south, observe the greatest altitude at any time attained by the columns directly north of him, and a parallax may be obtained, by means of which the problem may be solved. For instance, on the occasion we have been consid- ering, a corona was formed at Richmond, Va., and perhaps even farther south. At Culloden, Geo., the greatest altitude observed during the evening, was about equal to that of the pole star. Were these two places on the same meridian, we should be able to say, from knowing their difference of latitude to be 4° 47’ 17” very nearly, that the height of the Aurora could not be much greater than two hundred geographical miles. At Society Hill, the greatest observed altitude appears to have been about 40°. A similar calculation founded on this observa- tion, would reduce the extreme height of the Aurora at its sum- 288 Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. mit, to about one hundred and sixty geographical miles. It must be observed, however, that we know not how far south of Rich- mond the Aurora was vertical. If it extended a single degree farther south, we should infer an altitude of but very little more than one hundred miles. The result of a calculation similar to the foregoing, made in Europe upon the Aurora of Oct. 18, 1836, by M. Wartmann of Geneva, is stated in the Comptes Rendus of April 17, 1837, to give an altitude of two hundred leagues, or about six hundred miles. Two observers may obtain a parallax of the summit of the highest column observed due north, or of the extreme altitude in that direction of the general mass of illuminated vapor, when the Aurora is vertical to neither. 'This will give the distance of the Aurora from either observer, and by consequence its perpendicu- lar height at the point where it is vertical. ‘The mode of caleu- lation, it must, after all, be confessed, is far from being so accurate as could be desired. Mr. Dalton, in his Meteorological Essays, estimates the altitude of the summits of the auroral columns, at about one hundred and fifty English miles. Mr. Dalton’s observations were made upon an auroral arch, at right angles to the magnetic equator, and he assumes this arch, and all others similar, without proof, to have an altitude equal to that of the highest extremities of the ordinary columns. Mr. Dalton supposes the auroral columns to be cylin- drical, to stand nearly parallel to each other, in the line of the dip, and to have a length about ten times as great as their diameter, and about equal to the height of their bases above the surface of the earth. Allowing the auroral columns to be all of equal di- mensions, a concession, however, which we cannot possibly make, Mr. Dalton’s conclusions are pretty well sustained by observation, and by mathematical demonstration. Mairan supposes the mean altitude of the Aurora to be one hun- dred and seventy-five leagues, or about five hundred miles; while Euler places it more than one thousand miles above the surface of the earth. On the other hand, we have estimates which give it an elevation no greater than that of the ordinary upper clouds, or confine it within the limit of a few miles. Such is that of Mr. Farquharson, of Scotland, who supposes the ordinary elevation of the Aurora to be 2000 feet at the base, and 4000 or 5000 at the Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. > _ 289 summit. Such also is that of Professor Joslin, who supposes an intimate connection to exist between clouds of certain forms, and auroral phenomena. But these seem to find little support in mathematical computation, founded on the observation of par- allax. Ld gttes During the expedition of Capt. Frantdin to the pola: zesions, Rees, in 1820, contemporaneous observations were | made . three Auroras, by Lieutenant Hood and Dr. Richardson, in Tatimide: 64° 2/ 24”, from points eighteen leagues’ distant from each other; — and from the parallactic angles obtained by them, an altitude was” deduced of two or two and a quarter leagues—equal to six or seven English miles. It is possible that the height may diminish as we approach the poles. According to the theory of M. Hansteen, the auroral cloud is an emanation from the earth, which rises directly upward, but becomes luminous only on escaping from the ateieephere, at a height of forty five or fifty miles. But there have been differences of opinion in regard to the ori- gin of the auroral vapor, as to whether it is terrestrial or celestial. That it partakes of the motion of the earth, in its diurnal revolu- tion, issufficiently evident. Whether this fact alone will demon- strate it to be a terrestrial emanation, may possibly be disputed ; but it is certainly an argument in favor of that belief. ‘The Aurora has been represented to be attended with rustling or crackling noises. In our latitude we have no very good evi- dence of the occurrence of these: and, indeed, if the auroral va- por be, in truth situated as far above the earth as our computations as yet compel us to place it, we know not how such audible evi- dences of its action can reasonably be expected. The case would be somewhat different, if the sounds described were heavy peals or explosions, like the reverberations of thunder. 'These sounds are represented as being more remarkable, and of more frequent oc- currence in the higher latitudes. This circumstance might result from the more violent action of the Aurora, as we approach the poles; but it may, also, be in part, a consequence of the greater proximity of the phenomenon to the earth’s surface. M. Mairan, believing the auroral matter to ascend from the earth, and during a coronal Aurora, from the immediate region of the observer, sup- poses these sounds to be occasioned by its upward passage through the lower regions of the atmosphere. Vou. XX XIV.—No. 2. BY 290 —- Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. Thus far, however, the reality of such sounds, in any latitude, is seriously questioned. The Aurora is a phenomenon well suited to terrify the ignorant, and thus predispose them to connect with ita thousand marvels, which have no existence: and it may even so far excite the imaginations of the better informed, as to inca- pacitate them fairly to judge of the fact; since for the most part, their impressions are previously formed. The world is, after all, very much in the dark, in regard to all that relates to this wonderful phenomenon. It is perhaps some- what doubtful, whether, in our day, this darkness is to be enlight- ened. We certainly live in a remarkable era, as it respects the frequency and the splendor of auroral exhibitions; and the phi- losophers of the present time will grievously neglect their duty, if they fail to take every possible advantage of the opportunities of observation, which they are so happy as-to enjoy. New Haven, Conn., Feb. 22, 1838. Art. Ul.—On the Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle in different parts of the United States; by Extras Loomis, Pro- fessor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Western Re- serve College. Axsout three years ago, I formed the design of collecting as far as possible all the observations which had ever been made on the variation of the magnetic needle within the limits of the United States. I was of opinion that such a work would contribute something to the cause of science, and might also be of practical utility to public surveyors, who very generally in this country make use of the magnetic needle in their surveys. The Connec- ticut Academy of Artsand Sciences, gave me permission to write in their name to gentlemen in different parts of the country re- questing information on the subject. A great number of letters Were written, and to most of them, answers have been received. The amount of information they embodied was not so great as ~had been expected. I therefore hesitated about prosecuting my original plan, and this, together with an absence of more than a year from the country, is the reason that those observations have not sooner been made public. Although the article which is here presented is very imperfect, being deficient in the number, and Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. 291 frequently in the accuracy of the observations, still it is thought that its publication may prove useful at least in two respects if in no others. First, some do not seem to regard it as settled beyond dispute, that the magnetic needle has at present a retrograde move- ment compared with its motion the last century. I trust the ob- servations I have here brought together, may be considered as fi- nally settling this important question. And secondly, it is hoped. that this article may remind men of science of the importance of observations of this kind, and of the need there is of multiply- ing them toa much greater extent than has been hitherto done. And itis hoped moreover that they will not be content with sim- ply making their observations, but that they will see to their pub- lication. Probably many individuals who have taken observa- tions sufficient to determine the magnetic variation in their re- spective places, have deferred publishing them because they did not regard the observations as of suflicient consequence. But al- though it is of little importance to the theory of magnetism to be informed of the variation of the needle at one place alone, yet when like observations are collected from every part of the coun- try, their united value is immense. It is hoped then, that who- ever has accurate magnetic observations which have not been published, will see that they are recorded in this or some other public journal. Such a record may be made within the space of two or three lines, and if the practice were extensively followed, we should have the materials for laying down with considerable accuracy the lines of equal variation throughout the United States. The substance of the letters which I have received, may be gathered from the following observations. Mr. John Johnson, Surveyor General for Vermont, thus writes from Burlington: “In the year 1817 I determined the latitude of the source of the St. Croix, 45° 55’ N., and longitude about 67° 55’ W. The va- riation of the magnetic needle washere 14° W. Proceeding due north to latitude 48° 1’ N. I found the variation 17° 45’ W. In 1818, near Timiscuata Lake, latitude 47° 38’, longitude about 699 W., the variation was 16° 31’. In 1818 at the Matwaska settle- ment, on the river St. John, latitude 47° 12’, longitude about 68° 10’, the variation was 16° 45’ W. “At the University of Vermont, in Burlington, near where I re- side, lat. 44° 28’, long. about 73° 14’, I found in 1818, the varia- tion 7° 30’ W.; in 1822, 7° 42’ W.; 1830, 8° 10’; 1831, 8° 157: 292 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. 1832, 8° 25’; in 1834, 8° 50/W. The town lines north of Onion river, Vermont, were run from 1784 to 1787 at N. 36° E. About twenty years after, the same lines were N. 35° E., and the last summer I tried and found the same lines N. 37° 50’ E..” Prof. Farrar, of Harvard University, Massachusetts, writes thus : ‘IT endeavored in 1810 to ascertain the variation of the needle in this place as accurately as I could. I made it 7° 30’ W., at 10 o'clock, A.M. Ihave now (July, 1835) observed the needle with great care almost every day for the last two months. ‘The mean of my ten o’clock observations gives 8° 51’ W.” Prof. Hitchcock of Amherst College, determined the variation of the needle at Deerfield, Mass., in 1811, to be 5° 28’ W. Mr. George Gillet, Surveyor for the state of Connecticut, de- termined the variation of the needle at Hebron, Conn., to be in 1805, 4° 50’ W., andin 1835, 6° 10’ W. Prof. R. M. Patterson of Virginia University, lat. 38°.2/ N. ene 78° 31’ W., states that the needle there, in 1835, had no sensible ae clinaien. Mr. John Bethune, surveyor for the state of Georgia, gives the variation at Milledgeville, lat. 33° 7’ in 1805 at 5° 30’ E., and in 1835 at 4° 40’ E. Prof. James Hamilton of Nashville University, Tennessee, states the variation at that place to have been 7° 7’ E. in 1835, and adds, ‘‘I have lost the record of observations made several times since the year 1827, and have forgotten what the variation has been heretofore. The city surveyor however assures me that in the year 1829 I gave him the variation 6° 50’ E., and that he has it on record.” Mr. James H. Weakly, surveyor for the state of Alabama, writes from Florence ; ‘‘'The variation of the needle is here 6° 28’ E. Dur- ing the years 1817, 8, 9, it was about 6° 35’ E. About the year 1809, it was 8° 10’ E. at Mobile; at this time it is about 7° 12/ E. During the survey of the Creek Territory in 1832, which lies on the eastern border of the state, it was found in some places in the northern part of the survey 5° 25’ E., and in the southern part about 6° 30/ E.” In addition to the preceding, the Hon. Timothy Pitkin, of Con- necticut, has kindly put into my hands a collection of documents containing many very valuable observations. In 1810, a represen- tation on the subject of the variation of the magnetic needle was Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. 293 laid before congress, by Mr. Shaw of Maryland. 'This represen- tation was referred to the consideration of a committee of the House of Representatives, of which Mr. .Pitkin was chairman. The committee deemed the subject of sufficient importance to merit investigation, and accordingly directed circular letters to men of science in different parts of the country, requesting infor- mation on the present declination of the magnetic needle. ‘The answers to these circulars embodied considerable information of which the following is a summary. President Wheelock of Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, states that in 1765, the declination of the needle was at Hanover about 7° W.; at present (1810) 4° 15’ W. James Whitlaw, a surveyor in Ryegate, Vermont, lat. 44° 10’ N. and long. 72° 10’ W., states the declination at that place in 1801 to have been nearly 7° W. President Messer of Brown University, Rhode Island, states the variation there in 1769 at 64° W.; but in 1790 it was, if the variation compass made use of could be relied on, only 3° 46’ W. [I have myself italicised the above clause to intimate my convic- tion that there must have been some error in this observation, or else that the compass did not in both instances occupy the same spot. It is not credible that the needle had changed 2° in twenty one years.—E. L. | Mr. Asher Miller of Middletown, Conn., states the variation at Danbury for 1810, at 5° 41’ W.; at Lyme 4° 30’; Pomfret 5° 5’; Hebron 4° 50’; East Hartford 4° 46’. President Smith of Princeton College, New Jersey, gives the variation at that place for 1810 at 7° W. Andrew Ellicott, surveyor of the United States, gives the va- riation of the needle at various points on the western boundary of Pennsylvania. But as these observations are published in the Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, they are not here repeated. Mr. Ellicott adds however, “ the line of no variation in the United States at present, (1810,) crosses the west boundary of Pennsylvania, about thirty miles south of Lake Erie, and enters that lake near to Presque Isle.” Nicholas King, public surveyor, states the variation at Wash- ington, Dec. 23, 1809, to have been 52’ W. Bishop Madison of William and Mary’s College, Williamsburg, Virginia, lat, 37° 15’, long. 76° 39’, states the variation there to 294 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. have been 43’ F. 1809. Other observations about the same time made it 23’ E. In 1694, the variation was 5° W. At Norfolk, lat. 86° 51’, long. 76°, he found no variation in 1809. At Rich- mond, lat. 37° 27’, long. 77° 25’, nearly 57’ E. In 1728, cn the boundary between Virginia and North Carolina, lat. 36° 31’, long. 76°, nearly, the variation was settled at 3° W. In 1732, at Cape Henry, lat. 37°, long. 754°, the variation was 4° 40’ W. Jonathan Price, of Newbern, N. C., lat. 35° 7’ N., states the va- riation of the needle to have been there, in 1796, 2° 40’ E.; in 1806, it was less than 2° E., and in 1809, he found it 1° 45’ B. Jared Mansfield, Surveyor General of the United States, gives the following observations: “S. E. corner of Western Reserve, lat. 41° N., lonee S02 374 We variation,. 1°21’. 10 miles west on the same parallel of latitude, “ 1 37 20 66 6¢ (74 be 1 A8 33 66 66 (3 66 2 4. 43 6s 66 66 66 2, QD 57 66 74 6% 4 @) 30 123 (95 66 4 66 3 57 In latitude 40° 55/ and longitude 81° 48, “ 2 36 Marietta, lat. 39° 25’, long. 81° 26’ W. on 2 36 Detroit, lat. 42° 30’, long. 82° 56’, ts 2 A8 Rapids of the Miami, lat. 41° 30’, long. . 83° 30%, es 3 ert Detianceslat. All 157 Jong. 84° 23/40. 7% A 30 Cincinnati, lat. 39° 7’, long. 84° 277, % 5 Mouth of Miami River, lat. 39° 8’, long. 84° 45’, ot 5 10 Latitude 38° 45’ N., longitude 85° 15’ W., “ 5 25 Latitude 58° 10’, longitude 86° 30/, ee 6 30 Near the Falls of the Ohio, lat. 838° 20/ N., long. 85° 40’ W., OREM e sa) Vincennes, lat. 38° 42’, long. 87° 20’, 8 6 45 11 miles north of the mouth of the Wabash River, tf GAQs Mouth of the Ohio River, lat. 37° 4/, long. S92 Wes . 7 20 Cahokia, Ill., lat. 38° 36’, long. 90° 9, es Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. 295 ~ Nearly all of the foregoing observations have been made within the four or five last years (from 1810.) 'They go to the estab- lishment of a principle which will be found of considerable use to surveyors, viz. that the quantity of variation easterly in the same parallel, increases gradually and nearly equally in advancing westward at the rate of a degree in about 60 English miles.” _ Mr. Edward Livingston states that the first observation made in Louisiana by Father Laval, in 1720, determined the variation at New Orleans to be 2° E.; and that by sixty-two observations made by Lason in 1806, who employed in each six different nee- dles, which made 372 observations, he had found a mean of 8° 2/ 39” Hast variation. | The following were copied from the returns made to the 'T'rea- sury department by the public surveyors. Mouth of the Scioto, ~ - variation 5° KE. in 1805. Augusta, on the Ohio, —- - ie Bon Hae ee Oa: Jeffersonville, - - et 6 45’ Ei. Natchez, - - eH gale ecu 9.) 1802. In Louisiana, lat. 31°, long. 92° 10’ W.., varia. 9 20 E. 1807. On the Washita river, lat. 34°, lon. about 92° W.8 20 E. *I1804. Amelia Island, lat. 30° 44’, long. 81°20’ W. 2 WW. 1775. Mouth of St. Croix, lat. 45° 5’, long. 67° 12’, 12 19W. = 1797. Pensacola, lat. 30° 25’, long. 87° 12’ W. 4°30; E, Acso, Port Royal, 5. C. long. 79° 30’ - Shed) A We ne tea celg ed Charleston, S. C. - - - 3 A8E. Lar erA Nantucket, - - - “ie 6, SOW. eay6. Plymouth, - - - re Pn faatne \'\\fegawer aa ear GY Boston Harbor, - - = hth te OWE LO. Penobscot Bay, | - - - Se Oh aN Besides the preceding observations, few of which have ever been published, I have endeavored to collect together all the pub- lished observations I could find. In Douglass’ History of the British Settlements in America, Vol. I, pages 270-2, is given the variation for several places in the United States; and in Kalm’s Travels in North America, Vol. I, page 43, are given some more observations. In Samuel Williams’s History of Vermont, 2d edition, 1809, is given a table of all the magnetic observations *By William Dunbar. 296 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. in the Eastern States with which he was acquainted ; and in the Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, as well as in those of the American Academy, various observations are recorded. ‘The substance of all of these is given in the general table which follows. In the Aurora, a paper published at Philadelphia, July 27, 1813, is a communication from David M’Clure, stating the variation in Philadelphia at that time to be 2° 25’ W. In the same paper for Sept. 12th, is a communication from Thomas Whitney, mathe- matical instrument maker, stating the following facts. It ap- pears that the variation was here 8° 30/ W.in 1710. In 1793, it was observed by R. Brooks to be 1° 30’ W. In 1804, it was ob- served by several men of science to be 2° W. An anonymous communication in the same Journal for Sept. 15th, states the va- riation at Lewis, in Delaware, in 1795, to have been 55’ west. The following facts I have learned from various sources. Mr. N. Goodwin, surveyor in Hartford, Ct., determined the variation at that place in 1824, to be 5° 45’ W.; in 1828, 6° 3’ W.; and in 1829, 6° 3’ W. He also deterrained the variation in New Ha- ven for 1828 to be 5° 17’ W. The variation at Pensacola, Florida, was stated to me in 1835, by an officer of the navy, to be 6° E. The variation for New York is given at 4° 40/ W. in 1824, on Blunt’s map of that year. The variation at New Haven is also given at 5° 10’ W. in 1811, on a map of that city. The variation at Montpelier, Vt., in 1829, was 12°25’ W., as given in Executive Documents, Vol. IV, No. 190, page 23. Variation at Kaskaskia,“Ill., in 1809, 7° 20’ E., according to American State Papers—Public Lands, Vol. II, page 195. Variation at Alton, Ill., was given me at 8° E. in 1835. Variation at Athens, Ga., in 1837, 4° 31’ E., as determined by Prof. McCay. Variation at South Hanover, Indiana, in 1837, 4° 35’ E., as de- termined by Prof. Dunn. Variation at West Chester, Pa., in 1832, was 3° 25’ W., as ob- served by Prof. Bache. The Annual Report of the Regents of the University of the State of New York for 1837, contains the observations made at eleven different places in the State. These are all to be found in our general table. Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. . 297 Dr. H. H. Sherwood, of New York city, has politely furnished me with several statements of the declination in different parts of the country, which are also incorporated in the table. Besides the preceding, I have been furnished with various additional observations, by the kind assistance of Mr. E. C. Her- rick, of New Haven. Some of these are extracted from ‘‘ Long’s Expedition to the Rocky Mountains,” and “ Long’s Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River.”? These are all to be found in our general table, and need not be repeated here. 'The remain- ing observations are as follows: Mr. Jedediah Herrick, of Hamp- den, Penobscot county, Maine, in a letter of April, 1837, says: “Thirty-two years ago, I found the declination at this place, by an ordinary semicircle, 114° W., and, during the past month, have made a series of observations with a better instrument and much care. Declination 138° 4’W. In 1825, at the Forks of the Penobscot, lat. 45° 30’, found the declination 14° 45’ W.” An almanac, by Nathan Wilde, for 1836, published at Keene, N. H., contains the declination of the needle for each year, from 1812 to 1836. ‘The observations were made by Mr. Wilde with a needle two feet long, at Chesterfield, lat. 42° 53’, long. 72° 20’. They are all shown in our table. In June, 1837, the variation at the same place was determined, by Mr. A. C. Twining, to be 8° 5. The variation at Barton, Vt., was determined July 8, 1837, in the evening, at 10° 51’ W., by Mr. Twining; and at St. Johns- bury, July 22, 1837, at 11 P. M., 9° 16’ W. At Burlington, Vt., the variation is stated by Prof. Benedict at 9° 45’, or 9° 50’ W. The Gazette and Mercury, published at Greenfield, Mass., Dec: 19, 1837, states: ‘It has recently been determined in Deerfield, Mass., by a number of observations with accurate instruments, that the variation of the needle is at present 7° 57’ W.” At New York city, about three years ago, the variation was 4° 50’ W., as stated by Mr. W. C. Redfield. Mr. G. C. Schaeffer, of New York city, states that Prof. Ren- wick, of Columbia College, determined the magnetic variation in the summer of 1837 at Constable’s Point, about five miles 8S. W. of the City Hall, under favorable circumstances, being on a sandy point, far away from local attraction. Variation, 5° 40’ W. At Philadelphia, Sept. 1837, variation 3° 52’ W., as stated by Mr. Walter R. Johnson. Vou. XXXIV.—No. 2. 38 298 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. In the preceding enumeration, I have not included a table of magnetic variations which is given in Vol. xvi, page 63, of this Journal. This table professes to give the variation of the needle at intervals generally of five years, from 1673 to 1800, for Bos- ton, Falmouth, and Penobscot. I have rejected the table, be- cause I am satisfied it is a calculated table. 'This assertion will sound strange to some, for | have more than once been referred to it by men of science, as a repository of exceedingly valuable ob- servations, and they seem never to have suspected that the obser- vations were not genuine. But there is no room for the shadow of a doubt, that those numbers were mostly calculated. The evi- dence is as follows: The table is a very old one, being found in the Almanac for 1771, by Nathaniel Ames. A copy of this al- manac is in possession of Mr. William Lyon, of New Haven. There is also in the possession of Mr. Adam Winthrop, of Lou- isiana, grandson of Prof. Winthrop of Harvard University, a small printed sheet, in the form of a handbill, containing the same table. It is without date, but bears marks of age, and was found among the papers of Prof. Winthrop. It is my opinion that this is the original from which the table in the almanac was copied, and as it is a document to which circumstances have given considerable consequence, I have here transcribed it verbatim. ‘A table, exhibiting the variation of the compass in Boston and the parts adjacent, from the earliest accounts of it to the end of the 18th century; agreeable to the actual Observations distin- guished by Obs. By John Winthrop, Esq., Hollisian Professor of Mathematics at Harvard College, in Cambridge, in New England. Years. Variation at Boston. Falmouth. Penobscot. 1673 TEES Miss 12° 00’ 12° 08’ 1678 OB 0) Il 45 11-53 1689 10 30 11 15 11 23 1700 10 ,0;0bs.,..10, 45 10 53 1705 9 46 10 31 10 39 1710 | 9 32 10 17 10 25 1715 9 18 LO: 43 10... 1720 Dio 9 50 9.58 1725 8 51 9 36 9 44 1730 8. 37 9 22 9 30 1735 BigP Biceity OAK B ioral ane aig 1742 8 O Obs. 8 As 8 53 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. 299 Years. Variation at Boston. Falmouth. Penobscot. 1745 7° 56! 8° Al’ 8°) 49" 1750 WAZ 8 27 8 35 1757 7 20 Obs. So 8 13 1761 (eT 7 52 8 O Obs 1763 7 0 Obs. 7 45 Obs C158 1770 6 46 ek @. 39 1775 6 32 (aon W Uke. 1780 6 18 ; Goo 8 CT 1785 6 A 6 A9 6 57 1790 5 50 6 35 6 4 1795 5) 36 6 21 6 29 1800 5. 22 BV ark 6 - 15” The table which is given in Ames’s Almanac for 1771, is ex- actly like the preceding, with six exceptions, viz. the variations for Boston are given 9° 45/ for 9° 46’; 8° 57’ for 8° 51’; 6° 45’ for 6° 46’; and 5° 35’ for 5° 36’. In the column for Falmouth is given 10° 12/ for 10° 17’, and in the column for Penobscot 8° 32’ for 8° 35’. I have no doubt that these were typographical errors in the almanac, and that the sheet in the possession of Mr. Adam Winthrop, which was doubtless printed under the eye of Prof. Winthrop, is the correct copy. It is evident that the prece- ding table was entirely computed, with the exception of those numbers marked Obs.. For (1.) the table was published before 1771. One quarter of the numbers were then certainly compu- ted. (2.) The variations for Falmouth are constantly 45’ greater than those for Boston, and those for Penobscot 8’ greater than those for Falmouth. 'T’o one who has ever made magnetic ob- servations, this will amount to an absolute demonstration that those numbers were never observed. (3.) The observations from 1700 to 1800, with the exception of those marked Obs., all occur at intervals of five years, and the change of declination for this period is constantly 14’ or 15’. The observations of 1742 and 1763, showing a change of one degree in 21 years, or somewhat more than 14’ in five years, doubtless furnished the data for the table. (4.) Penobscot and Falmouth, during the first years con- tained in the table, were small settlements. Penobscot was little more than a military post, and Falmouth was devastated by the Indians in 1692, and the town entirely broken up. ‘The inhabit- ants did not return until about 1708. Who then is this indefati- 300 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. gable observer, that, with clock-like regularity, at the expiration of every five years, returns to measure the magnetic variation ; and how dees his zeal reprove the sluggishness of the scientific institutions in our country, at many of which the variation of the needle has not been even once observed? (5.) The table does not purport to be a table of observations, but to be “ agreeable to the actual observations distinguished by Obs.” The numbers marked Obs. were then observed, and the others were computed from them, so that six observations were the foundation of the whole table. The matter appears to me so plain, that it seems useless to argue the question further. The table which is given in volume sixteenth of this Journal, has copied the errors of Ames’s almanac, and thus, by introducing a little irregularity into the numbers, has given them more the air of actual observations. The table is still further disguised, by omitting the Obs. which marks certain numbers in the original table. If now I have suc- ceeded in showing that this “interesting document,’ as Mr. De Witt terms it, contains but six actual observations, I shall consider that I have effected no small object ; for it certainly is a fact not very creditable to American science, that a table which Prof. Win- throp, nearly three quarters of a century ago, computed for his own amusement, should now be referred to as composed of genu- ine observations. I have taken the more pains to expose this imposition, (for imposition I think it may be called, although a perfectly honest one on the part of Prof. Winthrop,) because it is necessary to be particularly on our guard against confounding cal- culations with observations, and because in the progress of my investigations, I have met with other tables similar to the prece- ding one of Prof. Winthrop. I have now mentioned all the new magnetic observations which I have been able to collect, and have also stated where other pub- lished observations are recorded. The results of all these are- embraced in the following general table: Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. 301 Table, exhibiting the Variation of the Magnetic Needle in different parts of the Uni- ted States, from the first settlement of the country. Place. Lat. N.|Lon. W. Variation. © Date. Authority. MAINE. CS SR er ie ee N. boundary of State, |48 1/67 55,17 45 w./1818,Mr. John Johnson. Timiscuata Lake, 47 38/69 O16 31 {1818 fs Be _|Matwaska, 47 12/68 10/16 45 {1818 oe suas Sourceof the St.Croix,|45 55/67 55/14 O |1817) * $s Forks of Penobscot, |45 30)68 30/14 45 |1825/Mr. J. Herrick. Mouth of the St. Croix,|45 5/67 12/12 19 |1797\Chart. Hampden, 44 40/68 55)11 15 =| 1805|Mr. J. Herrick. 66 66 66 | 66 6G 13 4 1837 66 66 Pownal, 43 51/70 10} 8 O |1761|Prof. Winthrop. Falmouth, 43 39'70 19| 7 45 11763) “ Be Kittery, 43 670 35) 7 46 = |1771)Holland. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Hanover, 43 41/72 10| 7 O |1765/Pres. Wheelock. 66 66 66 | 66 OGG 4 15 1810 66 66 Portsmouth, 43 5/70 45| 7 48 |1771|Holland. Chesterfield, 42 53/72 20) 6 26 |1812\Nathan Wilde. ; 66 66 66 | 66 66 6 25 1813 66 66 66 66 66 | 66 GT G& FY 1814 66 66 66 66 ee | 66 ee | G oe 1815 66 66 66 66 666 | 66 be 6 3 1816 66 66 66 6 6} 66 ol G QB 1817 66 66 66 66 66 | 66 66 6 0 1818 66 66 (73 66 66 | 66 66 6 3 1819 66 66 6c s ce lse 61 G@ OQ 1820 66 66 66 66 66 66 66 6 7 {821 66 66 66 @6 66} 66 66 6 12 1822 66 66 66 66 66 | 66 OS 6 30 1823 66 66 66 66 66 | 6 OG 40 1824 66 66 66 66 66 | 66 «66 6 3D 1825 66 66 66 66 66 | 66 GG 6 35 1826 66 66 66 66 66 | 66 66 6 45 1827 66 66 66 66 66 (74 66 6 52 1828 66 66 66 66 66 66 66 af 0 1829 66 66 66 66 66 | 66 66 7 6 1830 66 66 T4 66 66 66 66 Th 10 1831 66 66 66 66 66 | 66 66 7 15 1832 66 66 (73 66 66 | 66 CG af 30 1833 66 66 66 66 66 | oe oe | OY BH 1834 66 3 66 66 66 | 66 GG > 40 1835 66 66 66 66 66 66 66 qT 45 1836 6é 66 ae oo) ee ee) 8 6B 6(1837/Mr. A. C. Twining: Hinsdale, 42 46\72 17, 6 O |1772 Wright. VERMONT. Barton, 44 44/72 3/10 51 |1837|\Mr. A. C. Twining. Burlington, 44 28/73 14) 7 38 |1793|Dr. Williams. = see fe 1 OY B00) OL L818/Mr. John Johnson. 302 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. Place. VERMONT. Pownal, Newburyport, Williamstown, Deerfield, 66 Plymouth, Nantucket, RHODE ISLAND. Providence, Newport, CONNECTICUT. Pomfret, East Hartford, Hartford, ew Haven, 66 66 MASSACHUSETTS. Lat. N.|Lon.-W.; Variation. , Date. oO 66 ‘10 66 6s / (e) 44 2ni73 14| 7 42 w. / 7 Austenatd A) “1 8 15 “1 8 26 «1 8 50 “1 9 45 55| 9 16 36/12 25 10; 7 +O 46, 7 3 1 6G 4 6é 6 1 59} 5 52 52) 7 18 15) 5 52 29) 5. 28 Sd OM. 541 7 2 Sl On OM “| & 20 1 6 22 7| 7 30 iS ok 4,9 0 66 8 0) “1 7 20 17 14 66 WE O “1 6 46 Oy os 41,7 0 6| 6 30 26] 6 30 21; 6 0 57| 5 5 48} 4 46 40) 5 25 1 & 45 1 6S 66 6 3 18| 4 50 “16-10 23) 5 41 17| 4 30 58| 5 47 oO (5) 245) 1822 1830 1831 1832 1834 1837 1837 1829 1801 1789 1810 1811 1786 1781 1786 S11 1837 i781 1805 1808 1810 1810 1835 1708 1742 1757 1761 1763 1782 1788 1776 1776 1769 1776 1810 1810 1786 1824 1828 1829 1805 1835 1810 1810 1761 Authority. Mr. John Johnson. 66 66 66 66 66 66 ‘Prof. Benedict. ‘Mr. A. C. Twining. ‘Executive Doc’ts. James Whitlaw. Dr. Williams. . 66 66 66 66 66 66 66 66 66 66 ‘Prof. Hitchcock. Gaz, and Mercury. iPres. Willard. ‘Dr. Bowditch. 66 66 iProf. Farrar. ‘Mr. Brattle. Prof. Winthrop. Dr. Williams. Prof. Winthrop. Dr. Williams. Chart. 66 | Dr. West. ‘Chant Asher Miller. Dr. Williams. N. Goodwin. 66 66 66 oe George Gillet. 46 ‘ Asher Miller. T4 66 Pres. Stiles. 1775 Prof. Strong. Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. 303 Place. _ . CONNECTICUT. New Haven, : 66. 66 NEW YORK. Potsdam, Utica, 66 Johnstown, Cazenovia, Auburn, Buffalo, Geneva, Albany, 66 Oxford, Ithaca, Oblong, West Point, East Hampton, New York City, 66 66 Jamaica, Flatbush, 66 NEW JERSEY. | Princeton, { 66 66 6eé 66 66 66 Norriton, Philadelphia, PENNSYLVANIA. W. boundary of state,|41 66 66 Lat. N.|Lon. W.) Variation. _ @) ! Oo t (@) 14 18|72 58) 5 lbw. 66 (66 | 66 66 5 10 (ee a ee 4 35 66 66 | 6G OS 5 17 66 66 | 66 6G 5 52 66 66 | 66 GG 5 55 44 40\75 1, 7 265 43 6/75 13, 4 10 66 666 | 66 6G 3 35 43 074 23,6 2 42 59)75 51) 3 25 42. 55,76 28 3 43 42 53,78 55, 1 25 42 52:77 +5) 3 49 42 39,73 44, 5 44 66 66 | 66 66 5 45 66 66 | 66 66 6 i$) 66 666 | 66 66 6 40 66 666 | C6 6G 6 Aq 42 2875 33) 3 52 66 66 | 66 66 4 9 42 27/76 30) 2 51 42 3173 30/5 38 4] 25\73 56) 6 32 41 072 19'6 8 40 43\74 1) 8 45 66 66 | 66 be 7 930 6 Oo] ee | GB BD” CS 0) 66 666 | 66 (6G 4 aA) 66 66 | 66. 66 4 40 66 66 | 66 66 4 50 66 66 | 6G OGG 5 40 40 41/73 56) 4 O 40 37/73 58 4 25 66 66 | 6G 8G 4 45 40 22'74 357 O 8|80 27, 255 Ad. Qi