Pet RU te ey Ah She Tih 
mie age ee at. = nh eh re 
Ma) ate “ahe Po fe nen Ae 


— 


Norn AAR nn theta 
BR tag tg Pi Mal Se 


carer tires 
A ee a 


7 ae yr {* 


os 


eee tne SPO Oe eee Pee 


aap aera a Wor we ween or 


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THE 


AMERICAN JOURNAL 


SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


CONDUCTED BY 


PROFESSOR SILLIMAN 


AND 


BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr. 


18S. 
VOL. XL.—APREL, 1841. i 


(TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY.) 


NEW HAVEN: 


Sold by A. H. MALTBY and B. & W. NOYES.—Philadelphia, CAREY & 
HART and J. S. LITTELL.—Baltimore, Md., N. HICKMAN.—.New York, 
CARVILL & Co., No. 108 Broadway, THEODORE FOSTER, Fulten St., 
and G. 8. SILLIMAN, No. 44 William St.—Boston, C. C. LITTLE & Co.— 
London and New York, WILEY & PUTNAM, No. 35 Paternoster Row, Lon- 
don and 161 Broadway, Vew York.—Paris, HECTOR BOSSANGE & Co., No. 
11, Quay Voltaire —Hamburgh, Messrs. NESTLER & MELLE. 


PRINTED BY B.L. HAMLEN. 


Art. I. 


VII. 


XII. 


XIII. 


CONTENTS -& VOLUME XL. 
——$< 
“NUMBER I. 


Notices of European Lateulba es particularly those most in- 
teresting to the North rican Botanist, 


. Fragments of Natural Hisory by Prof. J. P. ape 


M. D., 


: Dbscunien of a Halo or earna of great se shee 


ed at Greensburgh, Westmoreland County, Pa.; by At- 
FRED T. Kine, M. D., 


. Extracts from the Proceedings of the eee Phitcsople 


ical Society, 


, Additional Remarks on ne Tails of Comets: bh Wiis 


MitTcHELL, 


. Notice of a Locality of Zales ee at Been Boren 


County, New Jersey ; by Wm. Ones Bourne, 


. Notice of the Geological Survey of the State of New Vink, 


presented to the Legislature, Jan. 24, 1840; by Prof: OL- 
IvER P. Hussarp, M. D., : 


On the Magnetic che in the United Sree by Prof Bias 
Loomis, 


. Description of some new species of Fors Shells, froin the 


Eocene, at Claiborne, Alabama; by Henry C. Lea, 


. A Description of several New Electro-Magnetic and Mag- 


neto-Electric Instruments and Experiments; by Josera 
Hate Apzot, 


. Development of some interesting Propertice of N nnbens. 


by Georce R. Perkins, 

Remarks on the Geological Bentnres of the island of Oiny: 
hee or Hawaii, the largest of the group called the Sand- 
wich Islands, with an account of the condition of the 
Volcano of Kirauea, situated in the southern part of the 
Island near the foot of Mouna Roa; by Epwarp G. Ket- 
DEY) c , ; ; ; ‘ i A ; : 

The employment of Iodine as a reagent for Hydrosulphu- 
ric Acid; by M. ALpHonsE pu PasquizrR, 


Page. 


59 


69 - 


117 


123 


The 


7 


CONTENTS. 


XIV. Notice of Geological Surveys. I. Of the State of Ohio. 


I]. Of Indiana. III. Of Michigan; 2 Prof. Oxtver P. 
Huzsarp, M. D., 


XV. The Dacucrrectne and its Appicnione. oF W. EL: Goone 
XVI. Supplementary Note to the Article on the Pneumatic Par- 


adox in the last number of this Journal; by JosepH Hae 
ABBOT, 


XVII. Miscellaneous Observations on valnsecis ey : EF De Joun 


T. PLumMMeEr, 


XVIIT. On Terrestrial Macneneai iy Prof Tous ioe M. D., 


XIX. Electrography or the Electrotype ; by the Junior Editor, 
XX. Bibliographical notices :—Report on the Tea Plant of Up- 


per Assam, 165.—Report of M. Guillemin, 167.—The 
Spiritual Life of Plants, 170—The Journal of Botany, 
&c., 172.—Hooker’s Flora Boreali-Americana, or the Bo- 
tany of the Northern parts of British America, 173.—End- 
licher’s Genera Plantarum : Enumeratio Chenopodearum : 
Stendel’s Nomenclator Botanicus: Caricography: Fossil 
Infusoria in England, 174.—Chemical composition of cel- 
lular and woody tissue in Plants, 176.—Organic Chemis- 
try in its applications to Agriculture and Physiology, 177.— 
Report on the Geological and Agricultural Survey of the 
State of Rhode Island in 1839, 182.—History of Embalm- 
ing and of Preparations in Anatomy, Pathology, and Natu- 
ral History, including an account of a new process for Em- 
balming, 194.—A General Outline of the Animal King- 
dom: Boston Journal of Natural History, 196.—Supple- 
ment to the introduction to the Atomic Theory, 197. 


Miscet.Lantes.— Horticultural Experiments, 197.—Volcanic Ash- 


es, 198.—African Meteorite of Cold Bokkeveld, 199.—Fur- 
ther account of the Shooting Stars of August, 1840, 201.— 
Meteors of November, 202.—Meteoric Observations in Octo- 
ber and December, 1840, 203.—Meteorological Notes in 1741- 
1757, 204.—Galle’s Three Comets: New Comet: Manufac- 
ture of Glass for Optical Instruments, 207.—Parasite of the 
eggs of the Geometra vernata, 211.—Circular of the Royal 
Society of Northern Antiquaries, 212.—Level of the Dead 
Sea: Preservation of Timber: Preservation of Timber long 
sunken under water, 213.—New process for making Sulphu- 
ric Acid, 214.—Oxalic Ether with Chlorine: Elaterite, or Fos- 


CONTENTS. 


sil Caoutchouc, 215.—Gold in France: Artificial preparation 
of Sugar: Action of Alcohol upon Alkalies, 216.—lIodine in 
Coal: Six new species of Kangaroo, 217.—Proceedings of the 
Tenth Meeting of the British Association: Necrology, 218. 


NUMBER Il. 


Art. I. Notice of the Botanical Writings of the late C. 8S. Rafi- 
nesque, 
II. Abstract of a Detter to Baron A. Hoabolie upon the in! 
vention of the Mariner’s Compass, 

III. A Method of determining the Temperature of the Mefcusy 
in a Siphon Barometer, from the observed upper and low- 
er readings; and of testing the accuracy of the instru- 
ment; by Prof. Farranp N. Beneptcr, 

IV. Cualogne of the Mollusca of Middlebury, Vt. He vicini- 
ty, with observations; by Prof. C. B. Apams, 

V. On the Means of detecting Arsenic in the Animal Boty, 

and of counteracting its Effects; by J. Lawrence Smita, 

M. D., : : : 

VI. On the Extrication of the Alkalifiable “Metals, Barium, 

Strontium, and Calcium; by Prof, Rosrrr Hare, M. D., 

VII. Description of an Apparatus for Deflagrating Carburets, 

Phosphurets, or Cyanides, in vacuo or in an Atmosphere 

of Hydrogen, with an account of some Results obtained 

by these and by other means; especially the Isolation of 

Calcium; by Rosert Hare, M. D., 

VIII. Abstract of the Proceedings of the Tenth Meeting of the 
British Association for the advancement of Science, 

IX. Abstract of a Meteorological Journal for the year 1840, 
kept at Marietta, Ohio; by S..P. Hitpretn, M. D. 

X. Contributions towards a History of the Star-Showers of 
Tormer Times; by Epwarp C. Herrick, 5 
- XI. On Native and Meteoric Iron; by Prof. Cuarues oe 
Sueparp, M. D., 
XII. On the First, or conten Cal Field of Pennsylvania hy 
M. Carey Lea, h ; 
XIII. Proceedings of Scientific Socisies : . 
XIV. Bibliographical Notices:—Plante Javanice Baniorest 
Hooker’s Icones Plantarum, 391.—The Linnza, 392.— 
Reports on the Progress of Botany, 393. 


Page. 


221 


242 


278 


293 


vil CONTENTS. 


Misce.LAntes.—Exploring Expedition, 394.—Theory of Water 
Spouts and Tornadoes, 399.—Notice of a new variety of 
Beryl, 401.—Meteorology, 402.—Royal Society of Northern 
Antiquaries, 403.—Fossil Remains in Lenoir County, N. C.: 
Removal of Fishes, 405 —Stars missing, 406.—Ice formed at 
the bottom of a river: Depth of the Ocean: Obituary of Eb- 
enezer P. Mason, 407.—Supplementary Note to Prof. Ad- 
ams’s Catalogue of the Mollusca of Middlebury, Addison Co., 
Vt., 408. 


ERRATUM. 


P. 105, lines 26,27. The phrases ‘one of the outer bands,’ and ‘the middle 
band,’’ are to be substituted for each other. 


CIID LAESTOUUCUNIUEA VUAUIEAY UE 4aDBULEU AYUOUGI VUILTD, wy AVER . oP UATE 


M’Clelland. Read Feb. 17, 1841, to the Boston Society 

of Natural History ; by D. Humpureys Srorer, M.D., -92 
XI. Des Moulins’ General Considerations on Restricting the 

number of Species of the genera Unio and Anodonta ; 
translated from the French, by Purnie H. Nicki, A.M., 104_ 


ERRATA, VOL. XL. 


P. 388, 1. 5, dele of the hyotd bone ; 1. 22, for edentata read edentula,; 1. 23, for 
namycush read namocush. P. 389, |. 23, for Ergrinum read Erysinum. 


THE 
AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. 


Arr. L.—WNotices of European Herbaria, particularly those most 
interesting to the North American Botanist.* 


Tue vegetable productions of North America, in common with 
those of most other parts of the world, have generally been first 
described by European botanists, either from the collections of 
travellers, or from specimens communicated by residents of the — 
country, who, induced by an enlightened curiosity, the love of 
flowers, or in some instances, by no inconsiderable scientific ac- 
quirements, have thus sought to contribute, according to their op- 
portunities, to the promotion of botanical knowledge. From the 
great increase in the number of known plants, it very frequently 
happens that the brief descriptions, and even the figures, of older 
authors are found quite insufficient for the satisfactory determina- 
tion of the particular species they had in view; and hence it be- 
comes necessary to refer to the herbaria where the original speci- 
mens are preserved. In this respect, the collections of the early 
authors possess an importance far exceeding their intrinsic value, 
since they are seldom large, and the specimens often imperfect. 

With the introduction of the Linnean nomenclature, a rule 
absolutely essential to the perpetuation of its advantages was also 
established, viz. that the name under which a genus or species 
is first published shall be retained, except in certain cases of ob- 
vious and paramount necessity. An accurate determination of 
the Linnean species is therefore of the first importance; and 
this, in numerous instances, is only to be attained with certainty 
by the inspection of the herbaria of Linnzus and those authors 


* Communicated for this Journal by the author. 
Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 1 


* 
a 


hey 


2 "Notices of European Herbaria. 


upon whose descriptive phrases or figures he established many of 
his species. Our brief notices will therefore naturally commence 
with the herbarium of the immortal Linneus, the father of that 
system of nomenclature to which botany, no less than natural 
history in general, is so greatly indebted. 

This collection, it is well known, after the death of the young- 
er Linneeus, found its way to England, from whence it is not 
probable that it will ever be removed. The late Sir James Ed- 
ward Smith, then a young medical student, and a botanist of much 
promise, was one morning informed by Sir Joseph Banks that 
the heirs of the younger Linneeus had just offered him the herba- 
rium with the other collections and library of the father, for the 
sum of 1000 guineas. Sir Joseph Banks not being disposed to 
make the purchase, recommended it to Mr. Smith; the latter, it 
appears, immediately decided to risk the expectation of a moder- 
ate independence, and to secure, if possible, these treasures for 
himself and his country; and before the day closed had actually 
written to Upsal, desiring a full catalogue of the collection, and 
offering to become the purchaser at the price fixed, in ease it an- 
swered his expectations.* His success, as soon appeared, was 
entirely owing to his promptitude, for other and very pressing 
applications were almost immediately made for the collection, but 
the upright Dr. Acrel having given Mr. Smith the refusal, declin- 
ed to entertain any other proposals while this negotiation was 
pending. 'The purchase was finally made for 900 guineas, ex- 
cluding the separate herbarium of the younger Linnzeus, collected 
before his father’s death, and said to contain nothing that did not 
also exist in the original herbarium: this was assigned to Baron 


* The next day Mr. Smith wrote as follows to his father, informing him of the 
step he had taken, and entreating his assistance. 

“ Honored Sir: You may have heard that the young Linneus is lately dead: 
his father’s collections and library, and his own, are now to be sold; the whole 
consists of an immense hortus siceus, with duplicates, insects, shells, corals, mate- 
ria medica, fossils, a very fine library, all the unpublished manuscripts; in short, 
every thing they were possessed of relating to natural history and physic: the 
whole has just been offered to Sir Joseph Banks for 1000 guineas, and he has de- 
clined buying it. The offer was made to him by my friend Dr. Engelhart, at the 
desire of a Dr. Acrel of Upsal, who has charge of the collection. Now, Iam so 
ambitious as to wish to possess this treasure, with a view to settle as a physician in 
London, and read lectures on natural history. Sir Joseph Banks, and all my 
friends to whom I have entrusted my intention, approve of it highly. I have 
written to Dr. Acrel, to whom Dr. Engelhart has recommended me, for particulars 
and the refusal, telling him if it was what I expected, I would give him a very 


® 


a 


Notices of European Herbaria. cl 3 


Alstroemer, in satisfaction of a small debt. The ship which con- 
veyed these treasures to London had scarcely sailed, when the 
king of Sweden, who had been absent in France, returned home 
and despatched, it is said, an armed vessel in pursuit. ‘This story, 
though mentioned in the Memoir and Correspondence of Sir J. 
E. Smith, and generally received, has, we believe, been recently 
controverted. However this may be, no doubt the king and the 
men of science in Sweden were greatly offended, as indeed 
they had reason to be, at the conduct of the executors, in allow- 
ing these collections to leave the country ; but the disgrace should 
perhaps more justly fall upon the Swedish government itself and 
the University of Upsal, which derived its reputation almost en- 
tirely from the name of Linneus. It was however fortunate for 
science that they were transferred from such a remote situation to 
the commercial metropolis of the world, where they are certainly 
more generally accessible. 'The late Professor Schultes, in a 
very amusing journal of a botanical visit to England in the year 
1824, laments indeed that they have fallen to the lot of the “tote 
disjunctos orbe Britannos ;” yet a journey even from Landshut 
to London may perhaps be more readily performed than to Upsal. 
After the death of Sir James Edward Smith the herbarium and 
and other collections, and library of Linnzeus, as well as his own, 
were purchased by the Linnzean Society. ‘The herbarium still 
occupies the cases which contained it at Upsal, and is scrupulous- 
ly preserved in its original state, except that, for more effectual 
protection from the black and penetrating dust of London, it is 
divided into parcels of convenient size, which are closely wrap- 
ped in covers of strong paper lined with muslin. The genera 


good price for it. I hope, my dear sir, you and my good mother will look on this 
scheme in as favorable a light asmy friends here do. There is no time to be lost, 
for the affair is now talked of in all companies, and a number of people wish to 
be purchasers. ‘The Empress of Russia is said to have thoughts of it. The man- 
uscripts; letters, &c. must be invaluable, and there is, no doubt, a complete collec- 
tion of all the inaugural dissertations which have been published at Upsal, a small 
part of which has been republished under the title of Amanitates Academica; a 
very celebrated and scarce work. All these dissertations were written by Linne- 
us, and must be of prodigious value. In short, the more I think of this affair the 
more sanguine I am, and earnestly hope for your concurrence. I wish I could 
have one half hour’s conversation with you; but that is impossible.’’—Correspond- 
ence of Sir James Edward Smith, edited by Lady Smith, Vol. I, p. 93. 

The appeal to his father was not in vain; and, did our limits allow, we should 
be glad to copy, from the work above cited, the entire correspondence upon this 
subject. 5 he . 


~ 
¥ 
oi 


; ; 
4 Notices of European Herbaria. 


and covers are numbered to correspond with a complete manu-- 
script catalogue, and the collection, which is by no means large 
in comparison with modern herbaria, may be consulted with great 
facility. ; 

In the negotiation with Smith, Dr. Acrel stated the number of 
species at S000, which probably is not too low an estimate. ‘The 
specimens, which are mostly small, but in excellent preservation, 
are attached to half-sheets of very ordinary paper, of the foolscap 
size,* (which is now considered too small,) and those of each ge- 
nus covered by a double sheet, in the ordinary manner. ‘The 
names are usually written upon the sheet itself, with a mark or 
abbreviation to indicate the source from which the specimen was 
derived. Thus those from the Upsal garden are marked H. U., 
those given by Kalm, K., those received from Gronovius, Gon., 
&c. The labels are all in the handwriting of Linneus himself, 
except a few later ones by the son, and occasional notes by Smith, 
which are readily distinguished, and indeed are usually designa- 
ted by his initials. By far the greater part of the North Ameri- 
can plants which are found in the Linnean herbarium were re- 
ceived from Kalm, or raised from seeds collected by him. Under 
the patronage of the Swedish government, this enterprising pupil 
of Linnzeus remained three years in this country, travelling 
throughout New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Lower 
Canada: hence his plants are almost exclusively those of the 
Northern States. 

Governor Colden, to whom Kalm brought letters of introduc- 
tion from Linneus, was then well known as a botanist, by his 
correspondence with Peter Collinson and Gronovius, and also by 
his account of the plants growing around Coldenham, New York, 


* Upon this subject Dr. Acrel, giving an account of the Linnean collections, 
thus writes to Smith. ‘ Ut vero vir illustrissimus, dum vixit, nihil ad ostentatio- 
nem habuit, omnia vero sua in usum accommodata; ita etiam in hoc herbario, 
quod per XL. annos sedulo collegit, frustra quesiveris papyri insignia ornamenta, 
margines inauratas, et cet. que ostentationis gratia in omnibus fere herbariis nunc 
vulgaria sunt.” 

t Ex his Kalmium, nature eximium scrutatorem, itinere suo per Pennsylvaniam, 
Novum Eboracum, et Canadam, regiones Americe ad septentrionem vergentes, 
_trium annorum decursu dextre confecto, in patriam inde nuper reducem let reci- 
pimus: ingentem enim ab istis terras reportavit thesaurum non conchyliorum so- 
lum, insectorum, et amphibiorum, sed herbarum etiam diversi generis ac usus, 
quas, tam siceas quam vivas, allatis etiam seminibus eorum recentibus et incor- 
ruptis, adduxit.—Linn. Amen. Acad. Vol, Ill, p. 4. 


a ” 


“ ¥ 
Notices of Huropean Herbaria. eit 5 


which was sent to the latter, who transmitted it to Linneeus for 

publication in the Acta Upsalensia. At an early period he at- 
tempted a direct correspondence with Linneus, but the ship by 

which his specimens and notes were sent was plundered by pi- 

rates ;* and in a letter sent by Kalm, on the return of the latter 

to Sweden, he informs Linnzeus that this traveller had been such 
an industrious collector, as to leave him little hopes of being him- 

self farther useful. It is not probable therefore that Linneeus re- 

ceived any plants from Colden, nor does his herbarium afford any 

such indication.t From Gronovius, Linnzeus had received a 

very small number of Clayton’s plants, previous to the publica- 

tion of the Species Plantarum ; but most of the species of the 

Flora Virginica were adopted or referred to other plants on the 

authority of the descriptions alone. 

Linneus had another American correspondent in Dr. John 
Mitchell, who lived several years in Virginia, where he collected 


* Vid. Letter of Linneus to Haller, Sept. 24, 1746. 

t The Holostewm succulentum of Linnzus (Alsine foldis ellipticis carnosis of Col- 
den) is however marked in Linnzus’s own copy of the Species Plantarum with the 
sign employed to designate the species he at that time possessed ; but no correspond- 
ing specimen is to be found in his herbarium. This plant has long beena puzzle to 
American botanists; but it is clear from Colden’s description that Dr. Torrey 
has correctly referred it, in his Flora of the Northern and Middle States, (1824,) 
to Stellaria media, the common Chickweed. Governor Colden’s daughter seems 
fully to have deserved the praise which Collinson, Ellis, and others have bestowed 
upon her. The latter, in a letter to Linneus, (April, 1758,) says: “Mr. Colden 
of New York has sent Dr. Fothergill a new plant, described by his daughter. It 
is called Fibraurea, gold-thread. It is a small creeping plant, growing on bogs; 
the roots are used in a decoction by the country people for sore mouths and sore 
throats. The root and leaves are very bitter, &c. I shall send you the characters 
as near as I can translate them.” Then follows Miss Colden’s detailed generic 
character, prepared in a manner which would not be discreditable to a botanist of 
the present day. It isa pity that Linneus did not adopt the genus, with Miss 
Colden’s name, which is better than Salisbury’s Coptis. ‘‘ This young lady merits 
your esteem, and does honor to your system. She has drawn and described 400 
plants in your method: she uses only English terms. Her father has a plant called 
after him Coldenia; suppose you should call this [alluding to a new genus of 
which he added the characters] Coldenella, or any other name that might distin- 
guish her among your genera.’’—Ellis, letter to Linneus, l. c. 

t To him the pretty Mitchella repens was dedicated. Dr. Mitchell had sent to 
Collinson, perhaps as early as in the year 1740, a paper in which thirty new gen- 
era of Virginian plants were proposed. ‘This Collinson sent to Trew at Nuremberg, 
who published it in the Ephemerides Acad. Nature Curiosorum for 1748; but in 
the mean time most of the genera had been already published, with other names, 
by Linneus or Gronovius. Among Mitchell’s new genera was one which he 
called Chamedaphne : this Linneus referred to Loniccra, but the elder (Bernard) 


a? 


{ 


6 Notices of Huropean Herbaria. 


extensively ; but the ship in which he returned to England hav- 
ing been taken by pirates, his own collections, as well as those of 
Governor Colden, were mostly destroyed. Linneus however 
had previously received a few specimens, as, for instance, those 
on which Proserpinaca, Polypremum, Galax, and some other 
genera, were founded. . 

There were two other American botanists of this period, from 
whom Linneeus derived, either directly or indirectly, much in- 
formation respecting the plants of this country, viz. John Bar- 
tram and Dr. Alexander Garden of Charleston, South Carolina. 
The former collected seeds and living plants for Peter Collin- 
son during more than twenty years, and even at that early 
day extended his laborious researches from the frontiers of Can- 
ada to Southern Florida, and to the Mississippi. All his collec- 
tions were sent to his patron Collinson,* until the death of that 


Jussieu, in a letter dated Feb. 19, 1751, having shown him that it was very dis- 
tinct both from Lonicera and Linnea, and in fact belonged to a different natural 
order, he afterwards named it Mitchella. 

* Mr. Collinson kept up a correspondence with all the lovers of plants in this 
country, among whom were Governor Colden, Bartram, Mitchell, Clayton, and 
Dr. Garden, by whose means he procured the introduction of great numbers of 
North American plants into the English gardens. ‘‘ Your system,’’ he writes Lin- 
neus, “I can tell you obtains much in America. Mr. Clayton, and Dr. Colden at 
Albany, on Hudson’s River, in New York, are complete professors, as is Dr. 
Mitchell at Urbana, on Rapahanock River, in Virginia. It is he that has made 
many and great discoveries in the vegetable world.””—‘‘I am glad you have the 
correspondence of Dr. Colden and Mr. Bartram. They are both very indefatiga- 
ble, ingenious men. Your system is much admired in North America.” Again, 
‘1 have but lately heard from Mr. Colden. He is well, but, what is marvelous, 
his daughter is perhaps the first lady that has so perfectly studied your system. 
She deserves to be celebrated.” —“ In the second volume of Edinburgh Essays is 
published a Latin botanic dissertation by Miss Colden; perhaps the only lady that 
makes profession of the Linnzan system; of which you may be proud.” From 
all this, botany appears to have flourished in the North American colonies. But 
Dr. Garden, about this time, writes thus to his friend Ellis: ‘‘ Ever since I have 
been in Carolina, I have never been able to set my eye upon one who had barely 
a regard for botany. Indeed I have often wondered how there should be one 
place abounding with so many marks of the divine wisdom and power, and not 
one rational eye to contemplate them; or that there should be a country abound- 
ing with almost every sort of plant, and almost every species of the animal kind, 
and yet that itshould not have pleased God to raise up one botanist. Strange in- 
deed that this creature should be so rare!’ But to return to Collinson, the most 
amusing portion of whose correspondence consists of his letters to Linnzus shortly 
after the publication of the Species Plantarum, in which (with all kindness and 
sincerity) he reproves the great Swedish naturalist for his innovations, employing 
the same arguments which a strenuous Linnean might be supposed to advance 


) 


° Notices of European Herbaria. » i? 


amiable and simple-hearted man, in 1768; and by him many 
seeds, living plants, and interesting observations, were communi- 
cated to Linneeus, but few if any dried specimens. Dr. Garden, 
who wasa native of Scotland, resided at Charleston, South Caro- 
lina, from about 1745 to the commencement of the American 
Revolution, devoting all the time he could redeem from an ex- 
tensive medical practice to the zealous pursuit of botany and zo- 
ology. His chief correspondent was Ellis at London, but through 
Ellis he commenced a correspondence with Linneus; and to 
both he sent manuscript descriptions of new plants and animals, 
with many excellent critical observations. None of his speci- 
mens addressed to the latter reached their destination, the ships 
by which they were sent having been intercepted by French 
cruisers; and Linneeus complained that he was often unable to 
make out many of Dr. Garden’s genera for want of the plants 
themselves. Ellis was sometimes more fortunate; but as he 
seems usually to have contented himself with the transmission 
of descriptions alone, we find no authentic specimens from Gar- 
den in the Linnzan herbarium. 

We have now probably mentioned all the North American cor- 
respondents of Linneus; for Dr. Kuhn, who appears only to have 
brought him living specimens of the plant which bears his name, 
and Catesby, who shortly before his death sent a few living plants 
which his friend Lawson had collected in Carolina, can scarcely 
be reckoned among the number.* 


against a botanist of these latter days. ‘I have had the pleasure,” Collinson 
writes, “of reading your Species Plantarum, a very useful and laborious work. 
But, my dear friend, we that admire you are much concerned that you should per- 
plex the delightful science of botany with changing names that have been well 
received, and adding new names quite unknown to us. Thus botany, which was 
a pleasant study, and attainable by most men, is now become, by alterations and 
new names, the study of a man’s life, and none now but real professors can pre- 
tend to attain it. As I love you, I tell you our sentiments.’”’—Letter of April 20, 
1754. ‘You have begun by your Species Plantarum; but if you will be for ever 
making new names, and altering old and good ones, for such hard names that con- 
vey no idea of the plant, it will be impossible to attain to a perfect knowledge in 
the science of botany.’”’—Letter of April 10th, 1755; from Smith’s Selection of the 
Correspondence of Linneus, &c. 

*In a letter to Haller, dated Leyden, Jan. 23, 1738, Linneus writes; ‘ You 
would scarcely believe how many of the vegetable productions of Virginia are 
the same as our European ones. There are Alps in the country of New York, for 
the snow remains all summer long on the mountains there. I am now giving in- 
structions to a medical student here, who is a native of that country, and will re- 


8 Notices of European Herbaria. 


The Linnean Society also possesses the proper herbarium of 
its founder and first president, Sir James BE. Smith, which is a 
beautiful collection, and in excellent preservation. The speci- 
mens are attached to fine and strong paper, after the method now 
common in England. In North American botany, the chief con- 
iributors are Menzies, for the plants of California and the North 
West Coast; and Muhlenberg, Bigelow, Torrey, and Boott, for 
those of the United States. Here also we find the cryptogamic 
collections of Acharius, containing the authentic specimens des- _ 
cribed in his works on the Lichens, and the magnificent East In- 
dian herbarium of Wallich, presented some years since by the 
East India Company. : 

‘The collections preserved at the British Museum, are scarcely 
inferior in importance to the Linnzean herbarium itself, in aiding 
the determination of the species of Linneeus and other early 
authors. Here we meet with the authentic herbarium of the 
ffortus Clifortianus, one of the earliest works of Linneus, 
which comprises some plants that are not to be found in his own 
proper herbarium. Here also is the herbarium of Plukenet, 
which consists of a great number of small specimens crowded, 
without apparent order, upon the pages of a dozen large folio 
volumes. With due attention, the originals of many figures in 
the Almagestum and Amaltheum Botanicum, &c., may be re- 
cognized, and many Linneean species thereby authenticated. 
The herbarium of Sloane, also, is not without interest to the 
North American botanist, since many plants described in the Voy- 
age to Jamaica, &c., and the Catalogue of the plants of Jamaica, 
were united by Linneeus, in almost every instance incorrectly, 
with species peculiar to the United States and Canada. But still 
more important is the herbarium of Clayton, from whose notes 
and specimens Gronovius edited the Fiora Virginica.* Many 
Linnean species are founded on the plants here described, for 
which this herbarium is alone authentic; for Linneus, as we 
have already remarked, possessed very few of Clayton’s plants. 


turn thither in the course of a year, that he may visit those mountains, and let me 
know whether the same alpine plants are found there as in Europe.’’ Who can 
this American student have been? Kuhn did not visit Linneus until more than 
fifteen years after the date of this letter. 

* Flora Virginica, exhibens plantas quas J. Clayton in Virginia collegit. Ludg. 
Bat. 8vo. 1743.—Ed. 2. 4to. 1762. The first edition is cited in the Species Plan- 
tarum of Linneus; the second, again, quotes the specific phrases of Linnzus, 


Notices of Huropean Herbaria, 9 


The collection is nearly complete, but the specimens were not 
well prepared, and are therefore not always in perfect preserva- 
tion. A collection of Catesby’s plants exists also in the British 
Museum, but probably the larger portion remains at Oxford. 
There is besides, among the separate collections, a small but very 
interesting parcel selected by the elder Bartram, from his collec- 
tions made in Georgia and Florida almost a century ago, and pre- 
sented to Queen Charlotte, with a letter of touching simplicity. 
At the time this fasciculus was prepared, nearly all the plants it 
comprised were undescribed, and many were of entirely new 
genera; several, indeed, have only been published very recently, 
and a few are not yet recorded as natives of North America. 
Among the latter we may mention Petiveria alliacea and Ximi- 
nea Americana, which last has again recently been collected in 
the same region. ‘This small parcel contains the F/dliottia, Muhl., 
Polypteris, Nutt., Baldwinia, Nutt., Macranthera, 'Torr., Gilot- 
tidium, Mayaca, Chaptalia, Befaria, Eriogonum tomentosum, 
Polygonum polygamum, Vent., Gardoquia Hookeri, Benth., 
Satureia (Pycnothymus) rigida, Cliftonia, Hypericum aureum, 
Galactia Elliotiti, Krameria lanceolata, Torr., Waldsteinia (Co- 
maropsts ) lobata, "Torr. & Gr., the Dolichos ? multiflorus, "Torr. 
& Gr., the Chapmannia, Torr. & Gr., Psoralea Lupinellus, and 
others of almost equal interest or rarity, which it is much to be 
regretted were not long ago made known from Bartram’s discov- 
erles. 

The herbarium of Sir Joseph Banks, now in the British Mu- 
seum, is probably the oldest one prepared in the manner common- 
ly adopted in England, of which, therefore, it may serve as a 
specimen. 'The plants are glued fast to half-sheets of very thick 
and firm white paper of excellent quality, (similar to that em- 
ployed for merchants’ ledgers, &c.,) all carefully cut to the same 
size, which is usually 164 inches by 102, and the name of the 
species is written on the lower right-hand corner. All the spe- 
cies of a genus, if they be few in number, or any convenient 
subdivision of a larger genus, are enclosed in a whole sheet of 
the same quality, and labelled at the lower left-hand corner. 
These parcels, properly arrarmged, are preserved in cases or closets, 
with folding doors made to shut as closely as possible, being laid 
horizontally into compartments just wide enough to receive them, 
and of any convenient depth. In the Banksian herbarium, the 

Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 2 


en Notices of European Herbaria. 


shelves are also made to draw out like a case of drawers. This 
method is unrivalled for elegance, and the facility with which 
the specimens may be found and inspected, which to a working 
botanist with a large collection, is a matter of the greatest conse- 
quence. ‘The only objection is the expense, which becomes very 
considerable when paper worth at least ten dollars per ream is 
employed for the purpose, which is the case with the principal 
herbaria in England: but a cheaper paper, if it be only suffi- 
ciently thick and firm, will answer nearly as well. The Bank- 
sian herbarium contains authentic specimens of nearly all the 
plants of Aiton’s Hortus Kewensis, in which many North Ameri- 
can species were early established. It is hardly proper, indeed, 
that either the elder or younger Aiton should be quoted for these 
species, since the first edition was prepared by Solander, and the 
second revised by Dryander, as to vol. 1 and 2, and the remain- 
der by Mr. Brown. Many American plants from the Physic gar- 
den at Chelsea, named by Miller, are here preserved, as also from 
the gardens of Collinson, Dr. Fothergill, (who was Bartram’s cor- 
respondent after Collinson’s death,) Dr. Pitcairne, &c. ‘There 
are likewise many contributions of indigenous plants of the Uni- 
ted States, from Bartram, Dr. Mitchell, Dr. Garden, Fraser, Mar- 
shall, and other early cultivators of botany in this country. ‘The 
herbarium also comprises many plants from Labrador and New- 
foundland, a portion of which were collected by Sir Joseph 
Banks himself; and in the plants of the northern and arctic re- 
gions it is enriched by the collections of Parry, Ross, and Dr. 
Richardson. ‘lwo sets of the plants collected by the venerable 
Menzies in Vancouver’s voyage, are preserved at the British Mu- 
seum, the one incorporated with the Banksian herbarium, the 
other forming a separate collection. 'Those of this country are 
from the North West Coast, the mouth of the Oregon river, and 
from California. Many of Pursh’s species were described from 
specimens preserved in this herbarium, especially the Oregon 
plants of Menzies, and those of Bartram and others from the 
more southern United States, which Pursh had never visited, 
although he often adds the mark v. v. (vidi vivam,) to species 
which are only to be met with south of Virginia. 

The herbarium of Walter still remains in the possession of the 
Fraser family, and in the same condition as when consulted by 
Pursh. It is a small collection, occupying a single large volume. 


Notices of European Herbaria. 11 


The specimens, which are commonly mere fragments, often serve 
to identify the species of the Flora Caroliniana, although they 
are not always labelled in accordance with that work. 

The collections of Pursh, which served as the basis of his 
Flora Americe Septentrionalis, are in the possession of Mr. Lam- 
bert, and form a part of his immense herbarium. ‘These, with a 
few specimens brought by Lewis and Clark from Oregon and the 
Rocky Mountains, a set of Nuttall’s collections on the Missouri, 
and also of Bradbury’s, so far as they are extant, with a small — 
number from Fraser, Lyon, é&c., compose the most important por- 
tion ef this herbarium, so far as North American botany is con- 
cerned. ‘There is also a small Canadian collection made by 
Pursh, subsequently to the publication. of his Flora, a considera- 
ble number of Menzies’s plants, and other minor contributions. 
To the general botanist, probably the fine herbarium of Pallas, 
and the splendid collection of Ruiz and Pavon, (both acquired by 
Mr. Lambert at a great expense,) are of the highest interest ; and 
they are by no means unimportant in their relations to North 
American botany, since the former comprises several species from 
the North West Coast, and numerous allied Siberian forms, while 
our Californian plants require, in some instances, to be compared 
with the Chilian and Peruvian plants of the latter. 

Besides the herbaria already mentioned, there are two others 
in London of more recent formation, which possess the highest 
interest as well to the general as to the American botanist, viz. 
that of Prof. Lindley, and of Mr. Bentham. Both comprise very 
complete sets of the plants collected by Douglas in Oregon, Cali- 
fornia, and the Rocky Mountains, as well as those raised from 
seeds or bulbs, which he transmitted to England, of which a 
large portion have, from time to time, been published by these 
authors. Mr. Bentham’s herbarium is, probably, the richest and 
most authentic collection in the world for Labiate, and is per- 
haps nearly unrivalled for Leguminose, Scrophularinee, and the 
other tribes to which he has devoted especial attention: it is also 
particularly full and authentic in European plants. Prof. Lind- 
ley’s herbarium, which is very complete in every department, is 
wholly unrivalled in Orchidaceous plants. The genus-covers are 
made of strong and smooth hardware paper, the names being 
written on a slip of white paper pasted on the lower corner. 
This is an excellent plan, as covers of white paper in the herba- 


12 Notices of E'uropean Herbaria. 


rium of an active botanist, are apt to be soiled by frequent use. 
The paper employed by Dr. Lindley is 184 inches in length, and 
114 inches wide, which, as he has himself remarked, is rather 
larger than is necessary, and much too expensive for general use. 

The herbarium of Sir Wm. J. Hooker, at Glasgow, is not only 
the largest and most valuable collection in the world, in the pos- 
session of a private individual, but it also comprises the richest 
collection of North American plants in Europe. Here we find 
nearly complete sets of the plants collected in the Arctic voyages 
of discovery, the overland journeys of Franklin to the polar sea, 
the collections of Drummond and Douglas in the Rocky Moun- 
tains, Oregon, and California, as well as those of Prof. Scouler, 
Mr. Tolmie, Dr. Gairdner, and numerous officers of the Hudson’s 
Bay Company, from almost every part of the vast territory em- 
braced in their operations, from one side of the continent to the 
other. By an active and prolonged correspondence with nearly 
all the botanists and lovers of plants in the United States and 
Canada, as well as by the collections of travellers, this herbarium 
is rendered unusually rich in the botany of this country; while 
Drummond’s "Texan collections, and many contributions from 
Mr. Nuttall and others, very fully represent the flora of our south- 
ern and western confines. ‘That these valuable materials have 
not been buried, nor suffered to accumulate to no purpose or ad- 
vantage to science, the pages of the Flora Boreah-Americana, 
the Botanical Magazine, the Botanical Miscellany, the Journal 
of Botany, the Icones Plantarum, and other works of this in- 
dustrious botanist abundantly testify ; and no single herbarium 
will afford the student of North American botany such extensive 
aid as that of Sir Wm. Hooker. 

The herbarium of Dr. Arnott of Arlary, although more espe- 
cially rich and authentic in East Indian plants, is also interesting 
to the North American botanist, as well for the plants of the Bof- 
any of Capt. Beechey’s Voyage, &c., published by Hooker and 
himself, as the collections of Drummond and others, all of which 
have been carefully studied by this sagacious botanist. 

The most important botanical collection in Paris, and indeed, 
perhaps the largest in the world; is that of the Royal Museum, at 
the Jardin des Plantes or Jardin du Roi. We cannot now de- 
vote even a passing notice to the garden and magnificent new con- 
servatories of this noble institution, much less to the menagerie, 


a 


_ Notices of European Herbaria. 13 


7) 


the celebrated museum of zoology and anatomy, or the cabinet 
of mineralogy, geology, and fossil remains, which, newly ar- 
ranged in a building recently erected for its reception, has just 
been thrown open to the public. ‘The botanical collections occu- 
py a portion of this new building. A large room on the first 
floor, handsomely fitted up with glass cases, contains the cabinet 
of fruits, seeds, sections of stems, and curious examples of veg- 
etable structure from every part of the known world. Among 
them we find an interesting suite of specimens of the wood, and 
another comprising the fruits, or nuts, of nearly all the trees of 
this country ; both collected and prepared by the younger Mi- 
chaux. ‘The herbaria now occupy a large room or hall, immedi- 
ately over the former, perhaps 80 feet long and 30 feet wide 
above the galleries, and very conveniently lighted from the roof. 
Beneath the galleries are four or five small rooms on each side, 
lighted from the exterior, used as cabinets for study and for sep- 
arate herbaria, and above them the same number of smaller 
rooms or closets, occupied by duplicate and unarranged collec- 
tions. ‘The cases which contain the herbaria occupy the walls 
of the large hall and of the side rooms. 'Their plan may serve 
as a specimen of that generally adopted in France. The shelves 
are divided into compartments in the usual manner; but instead 
of doors, the cabinet is closed by a curtain of thick and coarse 
brown linen, kept extended by a heavy bar attached to the bot- 
tom, which is counterpoised by concealed weights, and the cur- 
tain is raised or dropped by a pulley. Paper of a very ordinary 
quality is generally used, and the specimens are attached, either 
to half sheets or to double sheets, by slips of gummed paper, or 
by pins, or sometimes the specimen itself is glued to the paper. 
Genera or other divisions are separated by interposed sheets, hav- 
ing the name written on a projecting slip. 

According to the excellent plan adopted in the arrangement of 
these collections, which is due to Desfontaines, three kinds of 
herbaria have been instituted, viz. 1. The general herbarium. 
2. 'The herbaria of particular works or celebrated authors, which 
are kept distinct, the duplicates alone being distributed in the 
general collection. 3. Separate herbaria of different countries, 
which are composed of the duplicates taken from the general her- 
barium. ‘To these, new accessions from different countries are 
added, which from time to time are assorted and examined, and 


14 Notices of European Herbaria. 


_ those required for the general herbarium are removed to that col- 
lection. The ancient herbarium of Vaillant forms the basis of 
the general collection: the specimens, which are all labelled by 
his own hand, are in excellent preservation, and among them 
plants derived from Cornuti or Dr. Sarrasin, may occasionally be 
met with. 'This collection, augmented to many times its original 
extent, by the plants of Commerson, Dombey, Poiteau, Lesche- 
nault, &c., and by the duplicates from the special herbaria, proba- 
bly contains at this time thirty or forty thousand species. Of the 
separate herbaria, the most interesting to us, is that made in this 
country by the elder Michaux, from whose specimens and notes 
the learned Richard prepared the Flora Boreali- Americana. 
Michaux himself, although an excellent and industrious collec- 
tor and observer, was by no means qualified for authorship; and 
it is to L. C. Richard that the sagacious observations, and the ele- 
-gant, terse, and highly characteristic specific phrases of this work 
are entirely due. ‘There is also the very complete Newfound- 
land collection of La Pylaie, comprising about 300 species, and a 
set of Berlandier’s Texan and Mexican plants, as well as numer- 
ous herbaria less directly connected with North American botany, 
which we have not room to enumerate. Here, however, we do 
not find the herbaria of several authors, which we should have 
expected. That of Lamarck, for instance, is in the possession of 
Prof. Roper at Rostock, on the shores of the Baltic; that of 
Poiret belongs to Moquin-T'andon of Toulouse; that of Bosc, to 
Prof. Moretti of Pavia; and the proper herbarium of the late Des- 
fontaines, which, however, still remains at Paris, now forms a 
part of the very large and valuable collections of Mr. Webb. 
The herbarium of Mr. Webb, although of recent establishment, 
is only second to that of Baron Delessert; the two being far the 
largest private collections in France, and comprising not only 
many older herbaria, but also, as far as possible, full sets of the 
plants of recent collectors. 'The former contains many of Mi- 
chaux’s plants, (derived from the herbarium of Desfontaines,) a 
North American collection, sent by Nuttall to the late Mr. Mercier 
of Geneva, a full set of Drummond’s collections in the United 
States and Texas, &c. The latter also comprises many plants of 
Michaux, derived from Ventenat’s herbarium, complete sets of 
Drummond’s collections, &c. But a more important, because 
original and perhaps complete, set of the plants of Michaux is 


‘ ‘ 
“os 


Notices of European Herbaria. - 15 
found in the herbarium of the late Richard, now in the possession 
of his son, Prof. Achille Richard, which even contains a few 
species that do not exist in the herbarium at the Royal Museum. 
The herbarium of the celebrated Jussieu, a fine collection, which 
is scrupulously preserved in its original state, by his worthy son 
and successor, Prof. Adrien Jussieu, comprises many North 
American plants of the older collectors, of which several are au- 
thentic for species of Lamarck, Poiret, Cassini, &c. 

The herbarium of De Candolle at Geneva, accumulated through- 
out the long and active career of this justly celebrated botanist, 
and enriched bya great number of correspondents, is surpassed 
by few others in size, and by none in importance. In order that 
it may remain as authentic as possible for his published works, 
especially the Prodromus, no subsequent accessions to families 
already published are admitted into the general herbarium, but 
these are arranged in a separate collection. ‘The proper herbari- 
um, therefore, accurately exhibits the materials employed in the 
preparation of the Prodromus, at least so far as these were in Prof. 
De Candolle’s own possession. As almost twenty years have 
elapsed since the commencement’ of this herculean undertaking, 
the authentic herbarium is of course much less rich in the earlier 
than in the later orders. ‘The Composite, to which seven years 
of unremitted labor have been devoted, form themselves an 
herbarium of no inconsiderable size. It is unnecessary to enu- 
merate the contributors to this collection, (which indeed would 
form an extended list,) since the author, at least in the later vol- 
umes of the Prodromus, carefully indicates, as fully as the work 
permits, the sources whence his materials have been derived. 
The paper employed is of an ordinary kind, somewhat smaller 
than the English size, perhaps about fifteen inches by ten; and 
the specimens are attached to half-sheets by loops or slips of 
paper fastened by pins, so that they may readily be detached, if 
necessary, for particular examination. Several specimens from 
different sources or localities, or exhibiting the different varieties 
of a species, are retained when practicable ; and each species has 
a separate cover, with a label affixed to the corner, containing the 
name and a reference to the volume and page of the Prodromus 
where it isdescribed. ‘The limits of genera, sections, tribes, &c. 
are marked by interposed sheets, with the name written on pro- 
jecting slips. ‘The parcels which occupy each compartment of 


16 Notices of European Herbaria. ‘ 


the well-filled shelves, are protected by pieces of binder’s board, 
and secured by a cord, which is the more Hecessary. as the cases 
are not closed by doors or curtains. 

The royal Bavarian herbarium at Munich, is chiefly valuable 
for its Brazilian plants, with which it has been enriched by the 
laborious and learned Martius. The North American botanist 
will, however, be interested in the herbarium of Schreber, which 
is here preserved, and comprises the authentic specimens descri- 
bed or figured in his work cn the grasses, the American speci- 
mens mostly communicated by Muhlenberg. The Gramineae of 
this and the general herbarium, have been revised by Nees von 
Esenbeck, and still later by Trinius. It was here that the latter, 
who for many years had devoted himself to the exclusive study 
of this tribe of plants, and had nearly finished the examination 
of the chief herbaria of the continent, preparatory to the publi- 
cation of anew Agrostographia, was suddenly struck with a pa- 
ralysis, which has probably brought his scientific labors to a close. 

The imperial herbarium at Vienna, under the superintendence 
of the accomplished Endlicher, assisted by Dr. Fenzl, is rapidly 
becoming one of the most valuable and extensive collections in 
Europe. ‘The various herbaria of which it is composed, have 
recently been incorporated into one, which is prepared nearly af- 
ter the English method. It however possesses few North Ameri- 
can plants, except a collection made by Enslin, (a collector sent 
to this country by Prince Lichtenstein, from whom Pursh ob- 
tained many specimens from the Southern States,) and some re- 
cent contributions by Hooker, &c. ‘There is also an imperfect 
set of the plants collected by Henke, (a portion of which are 
from Oregon and California,) so far as they are yet published in 
the Relique Henkeane of Presl, in whose custody, as curator 
of the Bohemian museum at Prague, the original collection re- 
mains. 

The herbarium of the late Prof. Sprengel, still remains in the 
possession of his son, Dr. Anthony Sprengel, at Halle, but is 
offered for sale. It comprises many North American plants, 
communicated by Muhlenberg and Torrey. The herbarium of 
Schkuhr was bequeathed to the university of Wittemberg, and at 
the union of this university with that of Halle, was transferred to 
the latter, where it remains under the care of Prof. Von Schlech- 
tendal. It contains a large portion of the Carices described and 


Notices of European Herbaria. Vi, 


figured in Schkuhr’s work, and is therefore interesting to the 
lovers of that large and difficult genus. The American speci- 
mens were mostly derived from Willdenow, who obtained the 
greater portion from Muhlenberg. 

The royal Prussian herbarium is deposited at Schéneberg, (a 
little village in the environs of Berlin,) opposite the royal botanic 
garden, and in the garden of the Horticultural Society. It oc- 
cupies a very convenient building erected for its reception, and is 
under the superintendence of Dr. Klotzsch, a very zealous and 
promising botanist. It comprises three separate herbaria, viz. 
the general herbarium, the herbarium of Willdenow, and the 
Brazilian herbarium of Sello. The principal contributions of the 
plants of this country to the general herbarium, garden specimens 
excepted, consist of the collections of the late Mr. Beyrich, who 
died in Western Arkansas while accompanying Col. Dodge’s dra- 
goon expedition, and a collection of the plants of Missouri and 
Arkansas, by Dr. Engelmann, now of St. Louis; to which a fine 
selection of North American plants, recently presented by Sir 
William Hooker, has been added. The botanical collections 
made by Chamisso, who accompanied Romanzoff in his voyage 
round the world, also enrich this herbarium ; many are from the 
coast of Russian America and from California; and they have 
mostly been published conjointly by the late Von Chamisso and 
Prof. Schlechtendal in the Linnea, edited by the latter. 

The late Prof. Willdenow enjoyed for many years the corre- 
spondence of Muhlenberg, from whom he received the greater 
part of his North American specimens, a considerable portion of 
which are authentic for the North American plants of his edition 
of the Species Plantarum. In addition to these, we find in his 
herbarium many of Michaux’s plants, communicated by Desfon- 
taines, several from the German collector, Kinn, and perhaps all 
the American species described by Willdenow from the Berlin 
garden. It also comprises a portion of the herbarium of Pallas, 
the Siberian plants of Stephen, and a tolerable set of Humboldt’s 
plants. This herbarium is in good preservation, and is kept in 
perfect order and extreme neatness. As left by Willdenow, the 
specimens were loose in the covers, into which additional speci- 
mens had sometimes been thrown, and the labels often mixed, so 
that much caution is requisite to ascertain which are really au- 


thentic for the Willdenovian species. 'T'o prevent farther sources 
Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 3 


18 Notices of European Herbaria. 


of error, and to secure the collection from injury, it was carefully . 
revised by Prof. Schlechtendal, while under his management, and 
the specimens attached by slips of paper to single sheets, and all 
those that Willdenow had left under one cover, as the same spe- 
cies, are enclosed in a double sheet of neat blue paper. ‘These 
covers are numbered continuously throughout the herbarium, and 
the individual sheets or specimens in each are also numbered, so 
that any plant may be referred to by quoting the number of the 
cover, and that of the sheet to which it is attached. ‘The ar- 
rangement of the herbarium is unchanged, and it precisely ac- 
cords with this author’s edition of the Species Plantarum. Like 
the general herbarium, it is kept in neat portfolios, the back of 
which consists of three pieces of broad tape, which, passing 
through slits near each edge of the covers, are tied in front: by 
this arrangement their thickness may be varied at pleasure, which, 
though of no consequence in a stationary herbarium, is a great 
convenience in a growing collection.. The portfolios are placed 
vertically on shelves protected by glass doors, and the contents of 
each are marked ona slip of paper fastened to the back. ‘The 
herbaria occupy a suite of small rooms distinct from the working 
rooms, which are kept perfectly free from dust. 

Another important herbarium at Berlin, is that of Prof. Kunth, 
which is scarcely inferior in extent to the royal collection at 
Schéneberg, but it is not rich or authentic in the plants of this 
country. It comprises the most extensive and authentic set of 
Humboldt’s plants, and a considerable number of Michaux’s, 
which were received from the younger Richard. As the new 
Enumeratio Plantarum of this industrious botanist proceeds, 
this herbarium will become still more important. 

For a detailed account of the Russian botanical collections and 
collectors, we may refer to a historical sketch of the progress of 
botany in Russia, &c., by Mr. Bongard, the superintendent of the 
Imperial Academy’s herbarium at St. Petersburgh, published in 
the Recueil des Actes of this institution for 1834. An English 
translation of this memoir is published in the first volume of 
Hooker’s Companion to the Botanical Magazine. A. G. 


Fragments of Natural History. 19 


Arr. [l—Fragments of Natural History; by J. P. Kirtuann, 
M. D., Prof. Theo. and Prac. Phys., Medical College of Ohio, 
Cincinnati. 


“TI write that which I have seen.”—Le Bawm- 


No. I.— Ornithology. 


. 


‘Tue feathered tribes of our country have been so thoroughly 
investigated by Wilson, Bonaparte, Nuttall, Audubon and Town- 
send, that the young ornithologist can hardly expect to meet with 
a hew species, unless it be some straggler or accidental visitor 
from other parts of the world. An ample field is however fur- 
nished him, in which he may successfully employ his talents. 
The habits of some of our most interesting birds are but very 
imperfectly understood. If we take for instance the migratory 
Sylvias, we can obtain but little more than their names and scien- 
tific characters from those authors—and in regard to their habits, 
less than we have been able to discover by our own observations. 

On investigating this subject, it may perhaps be discovered that 
in some instances, errors have been imbibed and perpetuated by 
mistaking the accidental movements of an individual bird under 
unusual circumstances, for the common habits of the whole spe- 
cles. 

The term of life of no one person is of sufficient duration to 
allow him to complete a full and perfect history, even of our 
American species, from his own researches and observations ; 
such a work must be the production of the joint labor of several 
ages and many individuals. Many facts remain to be supplied 
before it can be successfully completed. The opportunities for 
observing the movements, and obtaining a correct history of the 
habits and characters of the more rare birds, are only occasional and 
fortuitous, and are as likely to fall in the way of one who knows 
not how to improve them, as of one who possesses the talent for 
correct observation that distinguishes the author of the “ Birds of 
America.” 

It is not to be expected that the public generally will ever turn 
aside from their usual pursuits to make observations on matters 
relating to natural science. ‘The energies of some idle gunner 
may perhaps be aroused sufficiently by the appearance of a new 
or rare bird to induce him to destroy its life ; the carcass will be 


20 Fragments of Natural History. 


gazed upon with a momentary curiosity, and then cast under 
foot. 

In every community there are however some individuals who 
have a natural taste for matters of this kind. If they would 
improve the opportunities as they occur for making themselves 
familiar with the rarer birds, and would communicate the results 
of their observations to the public through the medium of some 
suitable publication, any deficiency in the history of our Ameri- 
can birds would soon be supplied. 

Entertaining this view, I am induced to offer for the pages of 
the Journal of Science, the following extracts from my notes and 
memorandums, made during the last three years. 


A flock of Bohemian wax-chatterers, (Bombycilla garrula,) 
consisting of fifty or sixty individuals, were frequently seen in a 
marsh at the old mouth of the Cuyahoga river, near the city of 
Cleveland, during the month of March of the present year. 
They were usually engaged in feeding on the pulps and seeds of 
the swamp-rose, and as they were mistaken by the sportsmen for 
the common cherry bird, (B. Carolinensis,) they were permitted to 
pursue their occupation without interruption. 

I procured a fine specimen, which is preserved in my cabinet ; 
another is in the cabinet of Prof. Ackley, of this city. 

We believe this to be the first instance in which this bird has 
been taken within the United States, or has been known to visit 
us in any considerable numbers ; though we learn from the ap- 
pendix to Nuttall’s Ornithology, and also from Peabody’s Report 
on the Birds of Massachusetts, that “the younger Audubon once 
pursued an individual of this species in that state.” 

Nuttall says, “the wax-chatterer, hitherto, in America, seen 
only in the vicinity of Athabasca river, near the regions of the 
Rocky Mountains in the month of March, is of common occur- 
rence as a passenger throughout the colder regions of the whole 
northern hemisphere. In spring and late in autumn, they visit 
northern Asia or Siberia, and eastern Europe in vast numbers, 
but elsewhere are only uncertain stragglers.” 

Their size, markings and habits, readily distinguish them from 
the cherry or cedar bird. Justice is by no means done to their 
colors and beauty of form, in the figure given of the species by 
Bonaparte in the third volume of his American Ornithology. 


Fragments of Natural History. 21 


An hyperborean phalarope, (Phalaropus hyperboreus,) was shot 
on Lake Erie, near the pier of Cleveland harbor, last November, 
by a young man in my employment, while pursuing a wounded 
gull. 

The phalarope was a young bird in its winter plumage. It is 
preserved in my cabinet. 

Little could be learned of its habits. It was a solitary indi- 
vidual, and when first discovered was resting on the water, where 
it seemed to be as much at home as any of the gulls with which 
it was associating. 


The yellow throated gray warbler, (Sylvia pensilis,) must be 
considered not a rare annual visitor, even to the northern parts of 
Ohio, though Mr. Audubon informs his readers that “ they con- 
fine themselves to the southern states, seldom moving farther 
towards the middle district than North Carolina,” and ‘do not 
ascend the Mississippi further than the Walnut Hills,” and Mr. 
Nuttall says, that they “very rarely venture as far north as Penn- 
sylvania.” I have in my possession a specimen that I shot on 
the banks of the Mahoning river, in Trumbull county, on the 
5th of May, 1839; and during the last week of April of the pre- 
sent year, I killed three near the Cuyahoga river, three miles 
from Lake Erie. Early in July I also saw an old one feeding 
her young on the banks of the Mahoning. They were two 
thirds of their full size, and were perched on a small bush over 
the water. A full grown individual was seen on the first of Au- 
gust on the shore of the Lake within the limits of this city. 

In every instance in which I have met with them, they seem- 
ed to have a strong predilection to the vicinity of water, and were 
generally engaged in capturing insects. 


The Sylvia rara is common in the woods about the banks of 
the Cuyahoga during the spring and summer. Its habits are ac- 
curately described by Mr. Audubon. 

The same locality is a favorite resort and breeding place for 
the purple breasted grossbeak, (F’vingilla Ludoviciana. ) 


A flock of unusual birds, which I suppose to be the willow 
wrens, (Sylvia trochilus,) was discovered in September, 1839, on 


22 Fragments of Natural History. 


the shore of the lake near this city. They made only a momen- 
tary stop, for on firing at one of their number as they were set- 
tling down upon a bunch of thistles, the remainder suddenly 
darted away over the lake and disappeared. 

The characters of the specimen taken agree with the descrip- 
tion of the willow wren. They are said to be far more common 
in Europe than in the United States. 


The Florida Gallinule, ( Gallinula chloropus,) is not described 
by ornithologists as a western bird. Mr. Audubon says, ‘‘ none 
are to be seen in the western country.” Bonaparte informs his 
readers that ‘‘in the middle and northern United States it appears 
to be quite accidental; for, although a few well authenticated 
instances are known of its having been seen and shot even as far 
north as Albany, in the State of New York, it has escaped the 
researches of Wilson, as well as my own.” 

Mr. Nuttall gives us to understand, that ‘in the middle and 
northern states it appears to be quite accidental.” 

Notwithstanding this weight of authority to the contrary, I am 
disposed to consider this bird as one of our annual visitors, and 
not as a mere accidental straggler in these parts. 

I have the best authority for asserting that several pair reared 
their young in a marsh not more than a mile from this city, du- 
ring the last summer, and I know of at least half a dozen speci- 
mens that were shot there during the last spring. Broods of the 
young have also been repeatedly seen during the summer. 

A mature male and female were recently sent me from Fairport, 
in Geauga county, by the Hon. Ralph Granger, and I am assured 
by a gentleman that one has been taken alive in the vicinity of 
Buffalo, in the State of New York. Another was taken at War- 
ren, in ‘Trumbull county, two years since, and became so far do- 
mesticated as to run about the barn yard in company with the 
fowls during the summer, but at the approach of autumn sud- 
denly disappeared. 

The late Dr. Ward informed me that he had occasionally met 
with them in the vicinity of Roscoe, Coshocton county, and Dr. 
Sager assures me that they visit Michigan. I have repeatedly 
heard of them in other sections of the western states. 

In their habits they are so retiring and secluded that they may 
escape the attention of even the most active and sagacious ob- 
server. 


Fragments of Natural History. 23 


The buff-breasted sandpiper, (Tringa rufescens,) which seems 
to be a rare species in most parts of our country, was seen in the 
vicinity of this city in three different instances during the last 
autumn. I secured two specimens, one of which I presented to 
the New York Lyceum of Natural History ; the other is retained 
in my own collection. 

This bird was unknown to Wilson and Bonaparte, and also to 
Mr. Audubon, until he received a specimen from England. It 
seems to be extremely shy and wary in its habits; and when 
watched by a gunner, will skulk behind some little hillock or 
tufts of grass. The individuals seen by myself were on a sandy 
flat not immediately contiguous to the water. In one instance 
Dr. Terry met with it in the public highway near this city. 


The dunlin, ox-bird or purre, (Tringa alpina,) visited us in 
large flocks during three or four weeks of last autumn, and it has 
again appeared in afew instances the present spring. I have 
specimens preserved both in the summer and winter plumage. 

Mr. Audubon informs his readers that he has “ never found one 
far inland.” 


The Cape May warbler, (Sylvia maritima, ) visits the northern 
parts of Ohio in small numbers every spring. A solitary indi- 
vidual may be seen here and there, busily employed in catching 
insects about the cherry and apple trees at the time they put forth 
their blossoms. 

According to Mr. Nuttall, it “has only been seen near the swamps 
of Cape May, in New Jersey, and near Philadelphia.” 

The chestnut sided warbler, (Sylvia icterocephala,) is not un- 
common with us for a few days in spring, and in one instance I 
saw a pair in a cranberry marsh in Boardman, ‘Trumbull county, 
on the first day of June. 'The male was warbling its soft notes 
from the top of a young maple, and the female skipping about 
the bushes below. Iam convinced they were preparing for nest- 
ing in that vicinity. Its note is rather loud, but soft and pleasant 
to the ear. Mr. Audubon seems to have met with it only in one 
instance. | 

The bay breasted warbler, (Sylvia castanea, ) is still more com- 
mon with us in the spring, and in some seasons protracts its visit 


24 Fragments of Natural History. 


for two or three weeks. Its favorite resort is the tops of the 
highest beach trees at the time the buds are bursting into leaves. 


The willet, (Totanus semipalmatus,) Mr. Audubon says, “are 
very seldom met with far inland,” and “TI have little doubt that 
those seen by Mr. Say on the banks of the Missouri, had acci- 
dentally visited that country.” 

This bird is a common visitor to the shores of Lake Erie, both 
in the spring and autumn. On the 3d of July, 1838, I shot an 
old specimen from a flock of more than twenty individuals that 
were in the habit of visiting the marsh in Ohio City, at the mouth 
of the Cuyahoga, for a number of days in succession. 

The young birds appeared here on the first of July of the pre- 
sent year, and considerable numbers have been shot by the sports- 
men. 

A few years since, they remained here during the whole of the 
summer, and probably reared their young in the neighborhood. 
They are very abundant about some of the upper lakes. 


The marbled goodwit, (Limosa fedoa,\ occasionally visits the 
shores of Lake Erie and the Ohio river. ‘The Hon. Mr. Granger 
has furnished me with a beautiful pair, killed near his residence 
at Fairport. Several young specimens were shot in this vicinity 
about the first of August of the present season. ‘They were 
associating with a flock of long-billed curlews, (Numenius lon- 
girostris. ) 

The Hudson curlew, (Numenius Hudsonicus,) has been taken 
in a few instances in Ohio. I have a specimen in my cabinet 
that alighted in the garden of Mr. A. Hayden, of this city, and 
was shot by him three years since. Another was taken in the 
vicinity of Cincinnati. 


The piping plover, (Charadrius melodus,) I have seen in two 
instances on the shore of Lake Erie, and have specimens in my 
cabinet both in their winter and summer plumage. 

Mr. Audubon informs his veaders that “they never proceed to 
any distance inland even along the sandy margins of our largest 
rivers.” 

Cleveland, Ohio, June 4, 1840. 


Description of a Halo or Corona. 25 


Art. IIl.—A Description of a Halo or Corona of great splendor, 
observed at Greensburgh, Westmoreland County, Pa.; by 
Aurrep T’. Kine, M. D. 


TO THE EDITORS. 


Gentlemen—If you consider the subjoined description of one 
of those meteorological phenomena, usually denominated by phi- 
losophers coronas or halos, which was observed in this town about 
eleven o’clock, A. M. on the 28th of August last, and which ex- 
cited considerable interest among the intelligent portion of the 
community, and apprehension and alarm in the minds of the 
uninformed, worthy of a place in your excellent Journal, it is 
much at your service. 


This phenomenon consisted of from three to five circular belts 
or zones of light, one of which emulated, in appearance, the splen- 
dor and magnificence of the most gorgeous rainbow. The ar- 
rangement of these rings was somewhat singular; the first or 
inner one, which had the sun in its center, was truly brilliant, 
exhibiting all the prismatic hues of the rainbow, the colors of 
which were so dazzling that the unprotected eye could scarcely 
rest upon it amoment. This, I presume, was occasioned by 
the sun being near the meridian, and consequently many of his 
rays would impinge upon the halo, without passing through the 


mass of vapor, to the existence of which I attributed the forma- 
Vol. xz, No. 1.—Oct.—Dec. 1840. 4 


26 Description of a Halo or Corona. 


tion of the halo. ‘The outer circles, however, one only of which | 
appeared to be perfect, were composed of pure white light, and 

had for their centres the circumference, or a point near it, of the 

inner ring. Consequently, their circumferences, if all the circles 

had been perfect, would necessarily have passed through the ap- 

parent situation of the sun. I mentioned, however, that one only 

of these rings was perfect, the others were concentric arcs of cir- 

cles which crossed one another, as seen in the accompanying 

diagram. 

In the centre of the inner circle and bounded by it, a bluish 
mass of dense vapor was perceptible, which gave to the whole 
an embossed appearance, and added much to the beauty and 
brilliancy of the scene. Around and within the exterior circles 
there were also. perceptible masses of vapor, though obviously 
much less dense than the mass which was nearer the sun. With 
the exception of these masses of vapor, and a large cumulus 
which lay to the south of us, and here and there a few scattered 
cirri, the sky was cloudless and the atmosphere calm and serene. 
The mercury in the thermometer stood at 86°. The weather 
continued thus for thirty six hours, when we had a smart fall of 
rain, and a descent of the mercury in the thermometer to 36°, at 
which point or near this, it has remained until about three days 
since, when it rose to 66°. 

Coronas and parhelia have frequently been observed and ac- 
curately and glowingly described, by many scientific gentlemen, 
and various and conflicting opinions have been entertained re- 
specting their causes, some attributing them to the peculiar state 
of the air consequent upon intense cold, while others, probably 
more correctly, attribute them to the refraction and reflection of 
the rays of light through masses of vapor which are formed in 
such aggregations as are not heavy enough to fall in the form of 
drops. Descartes remarks, that halos never appear when it rains. 
Coronas have frequently been observed around the moon, and 
even around Sirius and Jupiter, but, as far as my information ex- 
tends, they have been but seldom variegated, even when they 
have encircled the sun. 

I know not to what cause this phenomenon can be attributed, 
unless it be to the refraction and reflection of the sun’s rays 
through the masses of vapor.. Doubtless the first circle was thus 
formed, and if we suppose the rays of light from the circumfer- 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 27 


ence of this circle to be again refracted and reflected through an- 
other mass of vapor, an outer ring would evidently result. Again, 
if we suppose the same to take place from another point of this 
circle, a second ring would be formed which would cross the 
other in some point of its circumference, and in like manner, I 
presume, any number of rings may be formed. I offer this ex- 


planation, however, with much diffidence. 
Greensburgh, September 21, 1840. 


Art. IV.— Extracts from the Proceedings of the American Phi- 
losophical Society.* 


Jan. 3, 1840.—Mr. Du Ponceau made a verbal communication respect- 
ing the publication of the Cochin Chinese Dictionary of the late Bishop 
of Adran, and also of a Latin and Cochin Chinese Dictionary by the 
Bishop of Isauropolis, and announced that the Grammar of the Berber 
language, by M. Venture, was about to be published. 

Dr. Hare produced a remarkably beautiful specimen of potassium, in 
the globular form, assumed by falling into naphtha. 

This specimen was a part of the product of one process which yielded 
him six ounces, two hundred and sixty three grains, avoirdupois. 

The process and the apparatus by which this large amount of potassium 
was procured, had been described in the last volume of the Society’s 
Transactions. 

The quantity of materials employed, was 8 lbs. cream of tartar, redu- 
ced to 47 oz. by carbonization; and 3 oz. of coarsely powdered charcoal, 
from which the finer part had been sifted. 

Notwithstanding the employment of a tube of two inches in diameter, 
it became choked with the potassium, carbon, and other volatile products, 
which were sublimed; and in the effort to open a passage, a steel rod, 
employed for this purpose, became so firmly fastened as to render its ex- 
trication impracticable by the force of two men. 

In the effort to withdraw it, the tube was detached from the bottle. As 
the rod had been rendered smooth and cylindrical by the wire-drawing 
process, it could not have been thus held, upon any other view than that 
of its being soldered to the potassium. 


* It is our wish to present to our readers at least occasional notices of the pro- 
ceedings of our scientific societies; and to make sure of some arrearages of the 
reports of the American Philosophical Society, (the parent society,) which have 
accumulated on our hands, we now present them as an article, although the mate- 
rials properly belong to the faeces course which we have sometimes taken 
in similar cases.—Eps. 


28 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Nociety. 


The iron casing, used to protect the bottle, had been exposed to the . 
fire during three processes ; yet, excepting at the lower corner, it did not 
appear to be injured. With slight emendation, and with the protection 
of a stout disk of malleable iron, situate so as to form a basis, Dr. Hare 
had no doubt it might be used for several more operations. 

In distilling the potassium from the tube, “‘ per descensum,” as descri- 
bed in his account of the process already referred to, the cap converging 
to a tapering tube was screwed on to that end of the receiver which was 
nearest the bottle; and, of course, this end was the lowermost in the dis- 
tillatory process. This arrangement was preferable, as it prevented the 
loose deposition always found at the end of the tube farthest from the 
fire, from falling into the naphtha employed together with the potassium. 

Agreeably to a provision of the by-laws, the list of surviving members 
of the Society was read. The number is 316; 216 of whom are resi- 
dents of the United States, and 100 in foreign countries. 

Feb. 6.—Mr. Saxton laid before the Society several copies of medals, 
produced by the galvanic process of Prof. Jacobi, of St. Petersburgh, and 
a small vase, obtained by a similar process, using a fusible metal matrix, 
which was removed when the form was obtained. 

Mr. Lea exhibited nearly forty specimens of representations of plants 
and shells by the photographic process of Talbot, modified by Mr. Mungo 
Ponton, of Edinburgh. They were prepared by his son, Mr. Carey Lea, 
and were entirely successful; the minute parts of the plants and the out- 
lines being perfect. 

Feb. 21.—Mr. Lea read. a paper, entitled ‘“ Description of Nineteen 
new Species of Colimacea,” from his collection. These were recently 
received, and chiefly from Mr. W. W. Wood, now of Manilla. 

Bulimus Woodianus,* Bulimus bicoloratus, Bulimus subglobosus, Buli- 
mus gracilis, Bulimus carinatus, Bulimus virido-striatus, Bulimus Virgin- 
eus, Bulimus Liberianus, Cyclostoma Woodiana, Carocolla bifasciata, 
Helix cepoides, Helix Blainvilliana, Helix Lamarckiana, Helix luteo-fas- 
ciata, Helix ferruginea, Helix Cuvieriana, Helix Blandingiana, Helix 
Humphreysiana, Helix Balesteriana. 

Dr. Hare described a mode of procuring silicon by an easy process. 
In the year 1833, Dr. Hare had published an engraving and description 
of an apparatus for evolving silicon or boron from their gaseous fluorides. 
In operating with the apparatus alluded to, a wire rendered incandescent 
by a calorimotor was made to ignite potassium while surrounded by fluo- 
silicic or fluoboric acid gas. Consequently the potassium and fluorine 
entered into combination with phenomena of combustion, while the silicon 
was deposited or left in combination with potassium and its fluoride. 


“ Want of room forces us to leave out the descriptions of these nineteen new 
species. 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 29 


Lately he had resorted with success to a much simpler process, by 
which the evolution of silicon or boron might be made easy to any person 
possessing a sufficiently large mercurial reservoir. 

A bell glass, over mercury, was filled with fluo-silicic acid, ba by 
means of a bent wire, a cage of wire gauze, containing a caine quan- 
tity of potassium, was introduced through the mercury into the cavity of 
the bell, and supported in a position nearly in the centre of it. A knob 
of iron was made at the end of the rod, so recurved as to reach the cage 
with ease. The knob, having been heated nearly white hot, was passed 
through the mercury so as to touch the cage, and cause the combustion 
of the potassium and evolution of the silicon. Of this, much remains 
attached to the cage, in combination with the fluoride of potassium, from 
which the silicon may be separated by washing in cold water and diges- 
tion in nitric acid. 

Mr. S. C. Walker communicated an extract from a letter received from 
Mr. Edmund Blunt, detailing his observations of the Solar Hclipses of 
May 14th, 1836, and September 18th, 1838. 

These were made at his private observatory, Brooklyn, New York. 
Latitude 40° 42’ 0”. Longitude 4h. 56m. Os. nearly, west of Greenwich, 
being 4.36s. east of the City Hall, New York. They are given in mean 
time of the place of observation. 


hia ia’. s. 
Begin. Solar eles, May “ss 1836, 19 10 1.30 E. Blunt. 
End 21 40 31.20 i 
Begin. is Sept. 18th, 1838, 3 17 1880 i 
Formation of Ring, “3 4 36 47.30 
End of Eclipse G 5 48 23.63 *f 
i i f 5 48 17.63 T.I. Page. 


Mr. Blunt used a five feet Dollond’s achromatic belonging to the Coast 
Survey. Mr. Page saw the end of the eclipse of 1836 with another tele- 
scope, within half a second of the time stated by Mr. Blunt. In the 
eclipse of 1838, the time noted for the formation of the ring was when 
the cusps were separated only by a few dark intervening spaces. Of 
these Mr. Blunt counted six in number. The instant of rupture of the 
ring was not noted. Mr. Blunt thinks that the luminous points connect- 
ing the cusps, continued twelve or fifteen seconds. Mr. Blunt did not 
see the dark limes described by Francis Baily, Esq. though favorably cir- 
cumstanced for such an observation. Mr. Walker had found for the lon- 
gitude of Mr. Blunt’s observatory, from the beginning of the eclipse of 
1836, 4h. 55m. 52.95s. and 4h. 56m. 2.07s, from the end :—Mean result, 
4h. 55m. 57.51s. Mr. E. O. Kendall had found from the eclipse of 1838, 
a mean result of 4h. 56m. 1.16s. The mean, by the two eclipses, was 
4h. 55m. 59.34s.; which makes the longitude of the City Hall, New 


30 §©Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 


York, 4h. 56m. 3.7s. Mr. Paine, in the American Almanac, makes the 
same 4h, 56m. 4.5s.; and Mr. E. I. Dent, by transportation of four chro- 
nometers from the Greenwich observatory to New York, and again to 
Greenwich, finds for the same 4h. 56m. 4.42s. The mean of the three 
determinations is 4h. 56m. 4.2s. ; 

March 6.—Mr. Saxton exhibited additional medals obtaimed by the 
galvanic process of Prof. Jacobi; and likewise pieces of charcoal and 
anthracite, which he had used as substitutes for the forms of fusible me- 
tal ordinarily employed. ‘These were perfectly coated with copper, a 
fact which shows it to be but necessary, that the substance at the nega- 
tive electrode should be a conductor of electricity. 

March 20.—The committee, consisting of Prof. Henry, Dr. Patterson, 
and Mr. Walker, to whom was referred a paper entitled, “Observations 
of the Magnetic Intensity at twenty one Stations in Europe, by A. D. 
Bache, LL. D., President of the Girard College for Orphans, &c.,” re- 
ported in favor of the publication of the paper in the Society’s Transac- 
tions. The report was adopted, and the publication ordered accordingly. 

The stations at which the observations recorded in this memoir were 
made, were twenty one in number: three in Great Britain, and the others 
on the continent of Europe. ‘They include Edinburgh, Dublin, London, 
Brussels, Berlin, Paris, Vienna, the Flégiére, Brientz, the Faulhorn, Ge- 
neva, Chamberi, Chamouni, Lyons, Milan, Venice, Trieste, Florence, 
Turin, Rome and Naples. The author remarks, that the magnetic dip 
and intensity are so well known at some of these places, that he produces 
his results for them in order that by comparison with those of other ob- 
servers, the value of his determinations for other places may be judged 
of. ‘The observations were of the horizontal intensity and dip, except 
in the comparison of the intensities at London and Paris, where, in addi- 
tion, the statical method devised by Prof. Lloyd was used. At three of 
the stations the dip was not observed. ‘The horizontal intensities were 
generally compared by oscillating two different needles in a rarefied me- 
dium, according to the method described by the author in a former paper, 
(Am. Philos. Society’s Transactions, Vol. V.) At London and Paris two 
additional needles were employed. ‘The dip was observed in the usual 
way, with an instrument by Robinson, by whom also the needles for 
Prof. Lloyd’s method were made. ‘The corrections required for tempera- 
ture in the horizontal needles had been previously obtained. The cor- 
rection for loss of magnetism by the needles, was ascertained from obser- 
vations at Philadelphia, London, and Paris, and curves traced represent- 
ing the loss, from which the specific correction, to be applied at any epoch, 
was readily obtained. The curve for one of the needles showed a ten- 
dency towards a permanent state, and for the other was nearly a straight 
line. Irregular changes took place in neither needle. ‘The author’s 
experience with these needles, induces him to give a preference to the 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 31 


method of placing the needles in pairs, over that which he has hitherto 
employed, of keeping each needle separate from the other. A sugges- 
tion also results in the use of the dipping needle, of the necessity of as- 
certaining that the needles have, in the reversal of the poles, been charged 
nearly, or quite, to saturation. The author takes occasion to correct his 
statement in regard to the inefficacy of heating needles in boiling water 
in producing an approach to a permanent magnetic state. The observa- 
tions at each station, with the corrections employed, are given in tables; 
and the numbers observed for the dip, or calculated for the horizontal or 
total intensities, are compared with the results of other observers. . 

The memoir concludes with the following abstract of the numerical 
results. 


Long. from Horizontal ~ Total 
No. Places. Latitude. Paris. Date. intensity. Dip. intensity. | 
a eaeY Paris =1]}, , |Paris=1 
JjEdinburgh, 55 57 N. 5 32 W.|Feb. 3, 1837) 0.841 |— —* 
2!Dublin, 53 23 | 8 41 “ |Nov. 20,1836) 0.879 j|— —* —. 
3/London, 51 31 “| 2 26 “ |June 16, 1837] 0.9391 |69 16.0) 1.021 
4\Brussels, 50 51 “| 2 02 E.|July 25,1838) 0.969 |— —* — 
5|Berlin, 52 32 “ |11 02 “ |Dec. 16, 1837}. 0.979 |68 08.5) 1.014 
6|Paris, 48 50“ | 0 00 “ |Aug. 17, 1837) 1.000 |67 20.8) 1.000 
7\Vienna, 48 13 |14 02 « |March 23, 1838) 1.090 |64 49.7) 0.989 
8|The Flegiére, | — |— — _ |Aug. 26, 1837} 1.099 64 35.8) 0.987 
9|Brientz, —-— j-—— Sept. 22) 1837; 1.078 |65 06.7) 0.987 
10/The Faulhorn,,— — |— — _ |Sept. 20,1837) 1.082 {65 01.7) 0.987 
11|Geneva, 46 12 ‘| 3 49 ** |Aug. 25, 1837; 1.086 |64 49.8} 0.984 
12|\Chamberi, —— |—— June 21,1838 1.089 64 35.6} 0.979 
13/Chamouni, |—— |—— _  |jAug. 26, 1837) 1.688 (64 38.2; 0.979 
14|Lyons, 45 46 “| 2 29 “ \June 25,1838) 1.078 {64 49.0} 0.978 
15|Milan, 45 28} 6 51 “ |June 10,1838} 1.111 |63 54.7] 0.972 
16|Venice, 45 26‘ |10 10 “ |April 11, 1838) 1.129 {63 21.9) 0.971 
17|Trieste, 45 38 “ 11 27 “ |April 4, 1838) 1.128 {63 20.5) 0.970 
18/Florence, 43 47° | 8 55 “ |May 28, 1838) 1.170 |62 05.5} 0.965 
19)Turin, 45 04 “| 5 20 * June 17, 1838) 1.094 |63 52.2) 0.959 
20/Rome, 41 54“ |10 10 “ |May 18,1838) 1.225 {60 14.0) 0.952 
211Naples, 40 52“ '11 57 «© IMay = =7, 1838! 1.249 {59 05.1) 0.938 


The committee, consisting of Mr. Nicklin, Prof. Bache, and Dr. Hays, 
to whom was referred a paper, entitled ‘‘ On the Patella Amzna of Say, 
by Isaac Lea,” reported in favor of publication, which was ordered ac- 
cordingly. 

In this paper, Mr. Lea gives a synonymy, showing that thie Patella 
Amena of Say was first described by Miiller, under the specific name of 
Testudinalis : Zool. Dan. p. 237; and Mr. Couthouy, having lately given 
an elaborate description of the animal in the Boston Journal of Natural 
Science, showing that it belongs to the new genus Patelloida, recently 
established by Quoy and Gaimard; Mr. Lea argues that it should hence- 
forth be called Patelloida Testudinalis. 


* Dip not observed. 
+ Mean of results in June, July and August, 1837, and in July and August, 1838. 


32 «Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 


Mr. Peale exhibited specimens of medals obtained by the process of 
Prof. Jacobi. He stated that Mr. Eckfeldt, of the Mint, had found the 
specific gravity of the copper thus procured, to be as high as that of “luke 
copper, that is, 8.95. 

Mr. Peale also exhibited a diaphragm of parchment, which had been 
used in the battery employed in the process; and upon which metallic 
copper had been precipitated. He farther exhibited specimens of metal- 
lic silver, reduced, by a similar process, from the chloride of silver ; but 
remarked, that it was not likely to lead to any useful analogous result, 
owing to the silver being deposited in a granular state. 

April 3.—The committee, consisting of Dr. Patterson, Dr. Hare, and 
Prof. Bache, to whom was referred a paper entitled ‘‘On a new Principle 
in regard to the Power of [luids in Motion to produce Rupture of the 
Vessels which contain them, and on the Distinction between Accumula- 
tive and Instantaneous Pressures; by Charles Bonnycastle, Professor of 
Mathematics in the University of Virginia,” reported in favor of its pub- 
‘lication in the Transactions of the Society, which was ordered accord- 
ingly. 

Mr. Bonnycastle’s investigation was suggested by a paper read by Dr. 
Hare, and printed in the Transactions of the Society, entitled “ On the 
Collapse of a Reservoir, whilst apparently subject within to great Pressure 
from a Head of Water.” Dr. Hare pointed out the circumstances at- 
tendant upon this curious occurrence, and showed how the vessel might 
have been momentarily relieved from the pressure of the water within, so 
as to make that of the surrounding air efficient in producing the collapse. 
The principal object of Mr. Bonnycastle’s paper is to investigate the pre- 
cise nature and degree of the forces brought into action in this and simi- 
lar cases. 

The results at which Mr. Bonnycastle arrived, are stated by him as 
follows :— 

1. It is convenient to distinguish between accumulative and instanta- 
neous loads, or between those which are gradually increased until the 
deflection due to the ultimate load is obtained, and those which commence 
in full efficacy from the initial position of the support. 

2. Within the limits of perfect elasticity, instantaneous pressure pro- 
duces twice the effect of that which is accumulative, whether the result 
be to produce deflection or fracture. 

3. In regard to supports perfectly elastic in one direction, and perfectly 
flexible in the other, instantaneous action, at right angles to the axis of 
elasticity, produces a deflection which is to that of accumulative action 
as »/4 to 1, whilst the tendencies to fracture are as 4 to 1. But should 
any case occur when the law of elasticity follows an extremely high power 
of the deflection, then the singular result will follow, that the deflections 
are the same, whether the force be exerted from the initial state or the 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 33 


state of load, but that the tendency to fracture will be immensely greater 
in the former case than in the latter. | 

4. In producing the fracture of natural substances, which all depart 
from the law of perfect elasticity as we approach the limit of fracture, the 
ratio of the effect of instantaneous and accumulative action will vary 
with the nature of the substance, never being less, for elastic bodies, than 
2 to 1, nor for flexible than 4 to 1, and more usually approaching 3 or 4 
to 1 for the former case, and 5 or 6 to 1 for the latter. 

5. Let a vase or conduit be acted upon by a load which is alone suffi- 
cient to break it, and let this load be partly balanced by a small exterior 
force: should the great interior force suddenly cease, the small exterior 
action may crush the vase or conduit inward; its energy in such case 
being the sum of the interior and exterior forces. 

6. Should the interior force be a vibration of the kind already explain- 
ed, and should the exterior action be extremely feeble, and act on a very 
great mass, this extremely feeble action may crush the vase inward, with 
a power that shall exceed in any degree the enormous action of the inte- 
rior or explosive vibration. The comparison of the interior and exterior 
actions is best effected in this case, by finding the modulus of elasticity 
of a material spring that shall coincide most nearly in effect with the in- 
terior tremor. For putting e and e’ respectively for the modulus of the 
spring and of the support, and o and ©’ for the deflections resulting 
from the tremor acting alone, and the reaction as it does act, we have 
a= Vi as or, in other words, the deflection produced by the reaction, 
is to the deflection that would be produced by the interior tremor alone, 
in the inverse proportion of the square roots of the moduli of tremor and 
support. 

7. Combining what is here said with the known laws of fluids moving 
in pipes, and whereby they necessarily produce hydraulic shocks, it fol- 
lows, that any vessel connected with such a train of pipes, and plunged 
at some little depth in a considerable mass of water, or other heavy fluid, 
will occasionally be subject to a crushing and exterior force vastly greater 
than the interior strain due to the constant head of fluid. 

In illustration of the principles thus developed, Mr. Bonnycastle details 
some experiments, and mentions a phenomenon which occurred under 
his own notice, and is analogous to the one described by Dr. Hare. In 
making experiments on the propagation of sound through water, he had 
occasion to cause an explosion of gunpowder within a hollow metallic 
cylinder, open at the lower end, and immersed under the liquid ; and, 
although the strength of the cylinder was abundantly sufficient to bear 
the statical pressure of the surrounding water, he found it crushed inward 


after the explosion. 
Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 5 


34 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 


Judge Hopkinson deposited with the Society, the Log Book of the first 
voyage in a steam vessel across the Atlantic, by Captain Rogers, in the 
year 1819; an account of which was given in the Proceedings of the 
Society, No. 2, p. 14. 

In a written communication, Judge Hopkinson stated, amongst other 
matters in reference to Captain Rogers’s priority, that he was on board 
the steam-ship lying at the city of Washington, after her return from the 
voyage. She was built and rigged like one of the Liverpool packets, and 
her wheels were made to fold up at her sides when the wind permitted 
her sails to be used. 

The Log Book states, among the occurrences usually noted, the days 
when the steam was used. 

April 17.—The committee, consisting of Prof. Bache, Dr. Patterson 
and Mr. Walker, to whom was referred a paper entitled “On the Storm 
which was experienced throughout the United States about the 20th of 
December, 1836, by Elias Loomis, Professor of Mathematics and Natu- 
ral Philosophy in Western Reserve College,” reported in favor of publi- 
cation in the Society’s Transactions, which was ordered accordingly.* 

The memoir of Prof. Loomis first describes the sources of information 
to which he has had access, consisting of various published or private 
meteorological journals. The principal phenomena occurred in the east- 
ern states, within the period recommended by Sir John Herschel for 
hourly meteorological observations; and were, of course, accurately no- 
ted at the stations where these observations were made. From various 
sources, Prof. Loomis has obtained observations of the barometer at 
twenty seven different stations in the United States and the neighboring 
British possessions, and records of the thermometer and weather from 
twenty eight military stations of the United States, from forty two acade- 
mies of the State of New York, and from five other stations within the 
probable limits of the storm, besides others beyond it. In some cases, 
two sets of observations were made at the same station. 

The phenomena are discussed by the author under the following heads. 
1. A remarkable oscillation of the barometer. 2. A sudden depression 
of the thermometer. 3. The amount, and the time of beginning and 
ending of the rain. 4. The direction and velocity of the wind. 

1. The observations of the barometer show that during the storm there 
was a sudden depression of the barometer immediately succeeded by a 
sudden rise; that the minimum of pressure occurred first in the western 
states, and passed in a wave over the United States, moving eastwardly. 
The curves drawn to represent the heights of the barometer illustrate this 
fact in a very striking manner. Prof. Loomis has attempted to determine, 
from the observations, the amount of depression of the barometer, the 


* We are indebted to Prof. Loomis for a copy of his elaborate paper.—Ens. 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 35 


form and velocity of the atmospheric wave, the progress of which, over 
the United States, he has represented upon a chart. 

2. A comparison of the observations of the thermometer and barome- 
ter shows, that while the pressure was diminishing the temperature was 
increasing, and vice versa. ‘The very remarkable diminution of tempe- 
rature of 48° Fah. in six hours and a half, occurred at one station in the 
N. W. of the United States. The commencement of the diminution of 
temperature is shown to coincide with the minimum of the barometer, 
and hence is used when barometric observations were not made, to point 
out the probable time of the occurrence of this minimum. The average 
of the maxima of the thermometer at the eastern stations was about 32° 
Fah. greater than at the western, and the average of the minima 14° Fah. 
greater. 

3. Rain or snow fell during the storm within the limits of about latitude 
28° N. to latitude 48° N., and from longitude 52° to96° W. The aver- 
age amount at fifty nime stations, was seven eighths of an inch. The 
author is led to remark upon the great discrepancies in the statements of 
the fall of rain at places very near each other, and upon defects in the 
registers in not stating the time of beginning and ending of the rain. 

4. The epoch of the minimum of pressure at the several places of ob- 
servation was marked by a change of wind from a southern quarter, gen- 
erally the southeast, to a northern quarter, almost uniformly the northwest. 
This southern change of wind was every where one of the most promi- 
nent features of the storm, the wind having been violent both before and 
after the change; but more violent from the northwesterly direction, ex- 
cept perhaps at New York and in the northeastern states. 

The author sums up thus the characteristic of the storm. After a cold 
and clear interval, with the barometer high, the wind commenced blow- 
ing from a southerly quarter ; the barometer fell rapidly, the thermometer 
rose, and rain fell in abundance. The wind subsequently veered sud- 
denly to the northwest, and blew with great violence; the rain was suc- 
ceeded by hail or snow, which continued but for a short time. The 
changes thus described occurred, not simultaneously, over the United 
States, but progressively from west to east. 

The author next endeavors to determine the Jimits of the storm, using 
for this purpose other meteorological registers in addition to those before 
noticed, and of which he gives a particular account. From these, and 
theoretical considerations, he places the Rocky Mountains as the western 
limit, the parallel of 25° N. latitude as the southern limit, the middle of 
the Atlantic as the eastern limit, and the northern as altogether conjectu- 
ral, but probably as remote as the arctic circle, thus extending over 70° 
of longitude and 40° of latitude. The question whether the remarkable 
sterm which occurred in Europe about the 25th of December, was a con- 
tinuation of this storm, is examined, and the author concludes, from a 


26 =©Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 


discussion of its peculiarities, that it was not—the progress of the baro- 
metric minimum in Europe being from north to south, inclining a little to 
the west. 

The author next proceeds to generalize the deductions in regard to the 
circumstances of this storm, and to apply them as tests to the different 
theories of wind, rain, &c. 

He first endeavors to show how far registered observations of the wind 
may be influenced by localities, and their accuracy affected by the mode 
of observing, and the transcribing of the registers; and concludes that it 
is indispensable to regard the average of directions at near stations, and 
not those at individual ones, and gives some examples of discrepancies at 
places near each other in support of this opinion. ‘The anomalies pre- 
sented by the stations in the State of New York are very curious. 

The causes assigned by theory for the production of winds are next 
enumerated and discussed. Recurring to the observations, the author 
traces a connection between the direction of the surface wind on the 18th 
and 19th of December, and a maximum of the barometer existing on a 
line nearly north and south, moving eastwardly, and passing on the morn- 
ing of the 20th of December nearly through the eastern extremity of the 
State of Maine. At this period a minimum of the barometer existed 
nearly on the line of the river Mississippi, and the winds blew towards 
this line. This minimum is traced in its motion eastward ; and in con- 
nection with it, the change of wind from the easterly to the westerly 
quarter. On the afternoon of the 21st, the line of minimum pressure 
had reached Boston; and on the 22d, the northwesterly wind now pre- 
vailed at nearly all the stations. ‘The direction and approximate force of 
the wind on the morning of the 21st, are represented upon a map of the 
United States, accompanying the memoir. From an examination of a 
phenomenon of the wind, Prof. Loomis concludes that the southeasterly 
current rose, so that the northwesterly wind thus became the lowermost 
current; and subsequently, from an examination of the phenomenon of 
the rain, snow and hail, that the rising current was, in part at least, de- 
flected back upon itself. The immediate cause of the southeasterly wind 
is traced to the existence of a minimum of pressure at some point north 
of the United States. 

The author next examines the various causes which have been, or may 
be, in his opinion, assigned as producing rain, and infers that the most 
common cause of rain, in these latitudes, is the sudden lifting up of 
warm air into regions about the earth’s surface, by its displacement by 
a cold current originally above it, and from an opposite direction ; and 
that such was the actual cause of the rain in question, a warm current 
from the south having been displaced, and caused to rise to a considera- 
ble elevation by a cold current from the west. ‘The mixture of the warm 
and cold air is inadequate, in the author’s opinion, to account for the phe- 
nomena. 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 37 


The author then explains the causes of the observed rise of the ther- 
mometer to be due to the warm southeast wind, and the subsequent de- 
pression to the cold northwest wind. 

The author next examines the causes which have been assigned for the 
fluctuations of the barometer during this storm, selecting, as applicable to 
the present case, the following :—‘‘ The southeast wind, which accompa- 
nied the rain, moved with an accelerated velocity. The particles, there- 
fore, of air at one extremity of the current, must have left those of the 
other extremity at an increased distance. Hence a mechanical rarefaction, 
and, of course, diminished pressure. The reverse effect must have taken 
place after the storm had passed. A northwest wind sets in with great 
violence. A vast body of air is precipitated toward the southeast. The 
partial vacuum which at first existed, is very soon supplied; yet, though 
the first impelling cause has ceased to act, the momentum of the excited 
current still urges it onward, and a condensation results, which continues 
the rise of the barometer.” 

The author concludes by remarking, that he has availed himself in 
these discussions of the suggestions of writers on meteorology, and is es- 
pecially indebted to the labors of Messrs. Redfield, Espy and Reid. 

Dr. Dunglison read a letter from the Rev. James 'T. Dickinson, of 
Singapore, to Mr. Du Ponceau, dated Nov. 25, 1839, expressing his sat- 
isfaction with the views of Mr. Du Ponceau, as contained in his “ Disser- 
tion on the Chinese system of Writing.” 

When Mr. Dickinson commenced the study of the Chinese language, 
nearly four years ago, he attempted to learn the written language by the 
eye merely, without connecting sounds with the characters. To this 
course he was led by the fact, that the Hokkien dialect, the one he stud- 
ies, differs very much as spoken, from the sounds given to the characters 
as read. His plan was to learn the colloquial language by itself, and to 
defer the learning of the sounds given to the characters in reading, while, 
in the mean time, he endeavored to learn to read the characters independ- 
ently of all sounds. In this way he would have succeeded in learning to 
read Chinese books, had the common hypothesis, that the Chinese charac- 
ters are addressed directly to the mind, and not to the mind through the 
medium of sounds, been correct. Mr. Dickinson, however, found himself 
always translating either into English or the colloquial Chinese. All his 
efforts to transfer the ideas represented in Chinese books to his own mind, 
without the help of words, either Chinese or English, were fruitless. 

Mr. Dickinson considers the work of Mr. Du Ponceau “a most valua- 
ble gift to the world, and an honor to American learning.” 

May 1.—The committee, consisting of Mr. Walker, Dr. Patterson, and 
Mr. Bache, to whom was referred a paper, entitled ‘‘ Observations on 
Nebule, with a fourteen feet Reflector, by H. L. Smith and E. P. Mason, 
during the year 1839, by E. P. Mason;” reported in favor of publication 
in the Society’s Transactions, which was directed accordingly. 


38 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 


The object of Messrs. Smith and Mason was to furnish a minute de- 
scription of some of the principal nebule in the heavens, in order that 
future changes in their appearance, should any occur, may be detected. 
The process employed was—Ist. To prepare an accurate chart of all the 
stars in and about the nebula, capable of micrometrical measurement. 
2dly. To fill im with the smaller stars down to the minimum visibile, by 
estimation. 3dly. To lay down the nebula on this chart with such care 
and precision, that the errors of its delineation may not far exceed those 
of original vision. The author, Mr. Mason, states at length the expedi- 
ents used to effect the latter purpose, viz. the drawing of lines of equal 
brightness, as a guide to the engraver ; the examination of each portion 
of the nebula by several persons; and lastly, the repeated comparison of 
the drawings with the original on successive evenings, till no further im- 
provement seemed to be practicable. 

The telescope used by Messrs. Smith and Mason, was of their own 
construction. It was fourteen feet in length, and had twelve inches clear 
aperture, being a Herschelian, mounted somewhat rudely on the plan of 
Mr. Ramage. ‘The difficulties experienced by Messrs. Smith and Mason, 
as amateur artists, in casting and polishing specula at New Haven, are 
stated in detail. The telescope was capable of separating ¢ Orionis, 
“2 Bootis, 7 Virginis in 1838, 4 Ophiuchi, and others of a distance of 
less than 1’... For such purposes, however, the use of diaphragms was 
necessary, owing to an imperfection of the casting, and the full light of 
the telescope could not be employed. This circumstance directed their 
attention to the subject of this paper. 

A cursory examination of the principal nebule described, and, in some 
instances, figured by the Herschels, pointed out discrepancies between 
their descriptions and present appearances, which must be attributed 
either to a change in the nebule themselves, or to the want of sufficient 
minuteness of examination on the part of the Herschels, whose object 
was rather the formation of a complete catalogue of the nebule in the 
heavens, than the full and perfect description of any of the individuals. 
Thus, the paper contains a drawing of the “nebula trifida,” 2. 1991: the 
triple star does not occupy the same position in the cleft as given in the 
figure in Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s paper, Phil. Trans. 1833, but rather 
adheres to the left of the three divisions; and what is more remarkable, 
the small star about 30’ north of this triple star was surrounded with a 
nebula not much inferior in size and brilliancy to the “nebula trifida.” 
A drawing is also furnished of the nebula, %. 2008, (the shape of which 
resembles the capital Greek ©,) with a critical examination of Herschel’s 
figure of the same. 

The most remarkable discovery of Messrs. Smith and Mason, was that 
of the junction of the two nebule, h. 2092 and 2098. ‘These great 
nebulz, or “milky ways,” are described on several occasions by the elder 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 39 


Herschel, and are also described and figured by the younger. They are 
distant about two thirds of a degree from each other. Messrs. Smith 
and Mason, however, distinctly saw the nebulous matter extending from 
one to the other, making the whole one conspicuous nebula of more than 
a degree in length, being among the most remarkable in the heavens, 
and inferior only to the great nebule of Orion and Andromeda. 

Mr. Mason remarks, that it is difficult to conceive how the companion 
of the nebula trifida and the junction of the two last mentioned, should 
have been overlooked by such observers as the Herschels, with instru- 
ments so far superior to his in optical capacity. The supposition that the 
nebulous space, noticed by Messrs. Smith and Mason, was not brought 
under the immediate inspection of the Herschels, seemed inadmissible. 
That the greater clearness of the atmosphere of New Haven should more 
than compensate for the inferior light of the telescope employed was 
hardly probable ; the only remaining supposition was, that the nebulous 
matter, in the space examined by all these observers, has recently under- 
gone a change in shape and brilliancy. 

In making the chart of the stars to which the nebulous space is refer- 
red, Mr. Mason used the ten feet Dollond refractor, of five inches aper- 
ture, belonging to the philosophical department of Yale College, with a 
Dollond’s illuminated line micrometer. With this he has determined the 
relative position of the stars down to the sixteenth magnitude, by repeated 
observations, and has furnished a catalogue of the correct places of fifteen 
stars in the first chart, thirty in the second, and a hundred and eighty 
two in the third. 

May 15.—Mr. Du Ponceau made a verbal communication on the sub- 
ject of the silk culture im India. 

It appears from the sixth volume of the Transactions of the Agricultu- 
ral and Horticultural Society of India, Calcutta, 1839, which is in the 
library of the Society, that the English are extending the culture of silk 
to the Deccan and the western coast of India, and have an establishment 
for that purpose under the direction of Signor Mutti, an Italian gentle- 
man, who resides at Bombay, and is styled “‘ Superintendent of the Silk 
Culture in the Deccan.” Two letters addressed by him to John Bell, 
Esq. Secretary of the Agricultural Society of India, Mr. Du Ponceau 
considered to be worthy of the attention of those who feel an interest in 
the promotion of the silk culture in this country. A treatise by that 
gentleman on the various branches of the silk culture, is subjoined to, 
and published with, his letters. The chapter or division concerning the 
art or method of reeling or winding silk from the cocoons, Mr. Du Pon-. 
ceau regards as replete with valuable practical instruction. 

On this last subject, (the art of reeling,) the correspondent at Paris of 
the National Intelligencer asserts, that an excellent treatise has been 
lately published in that capital by Mons. Ferrier, which has been repub- 


AQ = Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 


lished in the third volume of the Annals of the Sericole Society, specially 
instituted for the promotion of the culture of silk in France. 

As instruction is much wanted in this country on this particular sub- 
ject, while the culture of silk engages the‘general attention, Mr. Du Pon- 
ceau expressed a hope that M. Ferrier’s treatise would be translated and 
published for the benefit of his fellow citizens. 

Mr. Du Ponceau further stated, that from the volume of Transactions 
above cited, it appears that the English are making great exertions to in- 
troduce the culture of cotton into India. Specimens of the best soils for 
growing cotton in this country, particularly those of Georgia, have been 
sent to the Agricultural and Horticultural Society, and analyzed by them. 
The descriptions accompanying the specimens have not been found suffi- 
ciently particular, nor have their analyses yet led to any decided conclu- 
sions. ‘They seem to think, that the abundance and fineness of good 
cotton depend on the quantity of carbon in the soil, and the solubility of 
that carbon. But with this theory they do not appear to be entirely satis- 
fied. They find that all the American, the Mauritius, and the best Sin- 
gapore soils, producing the finest cotton, contain a considerable per cent- 
age of vegetable matter under the form of peat or lignite, in a state of 
exceedingly minute division, and in many of them, some part of it is 
readily soluble in cold water. They find, again, that the Indian soils 
contain very little vegetable matter, and this wholly insoluble in water, 
but that the best contain a far larger proportion of carbonate of lime, and 
some of them the iron in a different state from the others. It would 
seem, however, that the plant is somewhat indifferent about the iron; 
yet, as it is not known what part the iron plays in soils, (which may in- 
fluence their electricity as well as their tenacity and relations to moisture, ) 
they consider it a matter to be borne in mind and to be subjected to far- 
ther inquiries. ; 

The culture of the vine in India, Mr. Du Ponceau added, appears also 
to engage much of the attention of the Society; and, on the whole, the 
useful arts and sciences seem to be cultivated in that country to a degree 
which deserves to be particularly noticed. 

Mr. Walker stated the results of Prof. Loomis’s farther observations on 
the subject of Galle’s second comet, which Prof. L. intends hereafter to 
lay before the Society. He further stated, that Galle had discovered a 
third comet, which was of great interest to the astronomer, as it was likely 
to add another to the number of comets of known period. 

Mr. Walker mentioned the receipt of European observations of Galle’s 
second comet, as late as the 21st of February, and those of Prof. Loomis 
of the 1&th and 19th of March. From these, he had selected the obser- 
vations made January 25th and February 21st, at the Berlin Observatory, 
and that of Prof. Loomis at the Hudson Observatory, on the 19th of 
March, and had computed the elements of its orbit. 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Al 


The comet’s observed geocentric longitude and latitude, cleared of 
aberration and parallax, and referred to the mean equinox of January, 
1840, were as follows :-— 


M. T. Berlin. Longitude. Latitude. 
SS (a aE aa aa TARE 
25.749021 2° 57), 26:8" +75° 9! 42.1" 
52. 47442 28 44 0.6 +33 42 26.1 
79. 59679 30 «(AY 84.8 +9 2 204 


From which he had obtained for the elements of the comet :— 


Perihelion Pass. March 13.707523 Berlin mean time. 
2 236° 49' 8.0" 
be 59 WS: Wa 89 
x 80 14 828 
log. q. 0.086798 
Motion retrograde. 


Dr. Dunglison gave the particulars of a case, in which blood that flow- 
ed on dissection from the arteries of the brain coagulated, fifteen hours 
after the death of the individual. 

June 19.—The committee, consisting of Mr. Taylor, Mr. Booth, and 
Dr. Hays, to whom was referred a communication, entitled “ Notice of 
the Oolitic Formation in America, with descriptions of some of its Organic 
Remains, by Isaac Lea,” reported in favor of publication, which was or- 
dered accordingly. 

In this paper Mr. Lea describes a number of fossils from New Granada 
and Cuba, which he considers to belong properly to the forms resembling 
those well known to exist in the Oolites (Jura formation) of Europe. In 
a note Mr. Lea mentions, that after his paper was written, the work of 
the distinguished geologist, Von Buch, was received by him from the au- 
thor. In this work Von Buch describes and figures some of the fossils 
from the same formation in New Granada, taken by Humboldt nearly 
forty years since to Europe, which that learned traveller, in his “ Essay 
on the Superposition of Rocks,” considered to belong to the Jura forma- 
tion. Von Buch takes a different view, and places them higher up in 
the series; that is, in the chalk formation. After a careful perusal of 
Von Buch’s work, and a re-examination of the specimens, Mr. Lea still 
holds to his previous opinion, that these forms belong properly to the 
oolitic series, and not to the chalk. Heis the more confirmed in this 
opinion from having since been enabled to examine Captain Grant’s Me- 
moir on the Geology of Cutch, recently published in the Geological So- 
ciety’s Transactions of London, Second Series, Vol. V, Part 2; where 
the forms represented have a strong alliance to those described by Mr. 
Lea. Captain Grant states that the mineralogical character of the rock 
““ greatly resembles the English lias; but its fossils have been found, after 

Vol. xz, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 6 


42. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 


a careful examination by Mr. James Sowerby, to assimilate very closely 
to those of the oolitic beds,” &c. 

Mr. Lea’s paper contains descriptions of the following species : 

Orthocera Humboldtiana, Ammonites Tocaimaensis, Ammonites occi- 
dentalis, Ammonites Gibboniana, Ammonites Vanuxemensis, Ammonites 
Americana, Trigonia Gibboniana, Trigonia Tocaimana, Trigonia Hon- 
daana, Natica Gibboniana, Spatangus Colombianus, Terebratula Taylo- 
riana, Terebratula Poeyana, Tellina [?] Humboldtiana. 

The committee, consisting Dr. Patterson, Prof. Bache, and Mr. Walker, 
to whom was referred a paper, entitled “On the Insufficiency of Taylor’s 
Theorem as commonly investigated, with Objections to the Demonstra- 
tions of Poisson and Cauchy, and the assumed Generalization of Mr. 
Peacock ; to which is added, a New Investigation and Remarks on the 
Development and Continuity of Functions, by Charles Bonnycastle, Pro- 
fessor of Mathematics in the University of Virginia,” reported in favor of 
its publication in the Transactions of the Society, which was ordered 
accordingly. 

The paper of Prof. Bonnycastle is composed of three sections. In the 
first, which is on the “ Development of Functions,” he points out and 
discusses what he considers to be “‘ the errors and conflicting views result- 
ing from the vague manner in which mathematical writers have usually 
conceived the ultimate object of their peculiar logic.” ‘The second sec- 
tion is on the “ Continuity of Functions,” and the division of this con- 
tinuity into classes ; a subject heretofore touched upon only incidentally 
by other writers. The principal object of the paper is presented in the 
third section, which treats of “ Functions considered in the order of their 
magnitude,” and particularly of “'Taylor’s Theorem ;” and the author 
discusses this subject with the care demanded by a theorem which forms 
the basis of the differential and integral calculus, and which acts so im- 
portant a part in all the higher mathematics. 

Mr. Walker, from the committee on making and collecting observations 
of celestial phenomena, reported in part, that they had received observa- 
tions of Lunar Occultations of the fixed stars, which are given in the 
mean time of the respective places of observation, being a continuation of 
the list published in No. 6, pp. 71, 72, of the Society’s Proceedings, (Vol. 
xxxvu, p. 177, of this Journal ;) and, on motion, the report was ac- 
cepted. 

The longitudes and latitudes of the American places of observation, as 
far as they can be determined from a reduction of these and former Amer- 
ican observations, have been furnished by Messrs. Walker and Kendall, 
as follows: 


5) 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. AS 


North Longitude from |Longitude west 
Place of Observation. Latitude. Philadel. Obs’ry. from Green’ch. 

m. s. |h. m. Ss. 
Boston State House, . . . . 42 21 99 '7/E. 16 24.77/4 44 17.13 
“ Paine’s House, : 42 20 56 |E. 16 25. 10/4 44 16.80 
Dorchester, Bond’s private Obs’ ry, 42 19 15 |E. 16 24.094 44 17.81 
Southwick, Holeomb’s “ 42 041 JE. 9 24.83)4 51 17.07 
Yale College, New Haven, . . (41 17 58 JE. 8 51.004 51 50.90 
City Hall, New Worker 40 42 40 JE. 4 37.544 56 436 
Brooklyn, Blunt’s private Obs’ ry, 40 42 0 |E. 4 41.904 56 0.00 
Nassau Hall, Princeton College, 40 20 50 |E. 2 3.704 58 38.20 
Alexander’s House, me 40 20 56 |E. 2 4.00.4 58 37.90 
Philadelphia High School Obs’ ry, 39 a7 8 0. |5 0 41.90 
oi State House, . . 39 56 57.9 E. 2.865 0 39.04 
Washington, Capitolars ie. ip 38 53 23 |W. 7 24.105 8 6.00 
Marine Observatory, 38 53 81 |W. 7 24.185 8 6.08 
Hudson Observatory,. . . . AL 14 37 |W.25 5.565 25 47.46 
Dover sO hiosia. 6) veiw wesdain pi knees ‘40 30 52 |W.25 14.025 25 55.92 


The details of the computations on which these results are based, are 
too extensive for the limits of this report. The longitude of the Capitol 
at Washington is as follows : 

Marine Observatory, mean of twenty one results according h. m._ s. 

to weights, A : : : i 5 8 5.78 
Capitol, ; : D172 
Marine Obsanceonmne mean off SIX “oat by meneanatian 

of chronometers, by T. R. Paine, between Washington, 

Philadelphia and Boston, . : ‘ ; 6.32 
Whence longitude of the Capitol, . : : > 8 6.0 

July 3.—Mr. Du Ponceau announced that the Society would receive at 
their next meeting the Anamitic and Latin, and Latin and Anamitic Dic- 
tionaries, lately published by the Right Reverend Father Taberd, Bishop 
of Isauropolis, and Vicar General of Cochin China, which he had men- 
tioned to the Society at a former meeting as in course of publication. 

This valuable work was printed at Serampore, under the auspices, and, 
it is understood, at the expense of the British government in India, and 
of the East India Company, to whom the learned world are already in- 
debted for the publication of the important labors of the late Dr. Morrison, 
and other works, which have thrown considerable light on the Chinese 
language, and who are now, with the same liberality, extending the know- 
ledge of the Indo-Chinese idioms, which, until lately, were entirely un- 
known ia America and Europe. It will not be forgotten, Mr. Du Pon- 
ceau added, that this Society was the first to make known the Anamitic 
language, by the publication of Father Morrone’s French and Cochin 
Chinese Vocabulary, and of the Latin and Cochin Chinese Dictionary, 
in use among the missionaries in Cochin China, which works, though 
not so full and so complete as those published by Bishop 'Taberd, were 
the first to shed light on that branch of philological science. 


44 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 


Dr. Hare made some observations on the effect of the rarefaction of 
air, on its desiccation and refrigeration, and on other phenomena con- 
nected with the presence of aqueous vapor in the atmosphere. He also 
detailed some experiments, showing that the phenomena of air, heated 
by re-entering a receiver partially exhausted, were more consistent, in 
some respects, with the idea that a vacuum has a capacity for heat, than 
that it is destitute of any appropriate portion of caloric. 

Dr. Hare adverted to the fact, that in an essay published in this Journal 
in 1822,* he had, agreeably to the authority of Dalton and Davy, stated, 
that the cold consequent on the rarefaction of air in its ascent towards 
the upper strata of the atmosphere, was one of the causes of the forma- 
tion of clouds; and in his text-books he had soon after published an en- 
graving of an apparatus, by means of which he was accustomed to illus- 
trate, before his pupils, the transient cloud which arises from a diminution 
of pressure in air containing aqueous vapor. 

In the essay above mentioned, Dr. Hare had alleged, that as much ca- 
loric was given out by aqueous vapor during its conversion into snow, as 
would be yielded by twice the weight of red hot powdered glass. But 
Mr. Espy, he considered, had the merit of being the first to suggest, that 
the heat, thus evolved, might be an important imstrument in causing a 
buoyancy tending to accelerate any upward current of warm moist air. 

Dr. Hare had been willing to admit, that this transfer of heat might 
co-operate with other causes in the production of storms, but could not 
concur with Mr. Espy in considering it competent to give rise to thunder 
gusts, tornadoes, or hurricanes. ‘These he had considered, and still con- 
siders, to be mainly owing to electrical discharges between the earth and 
the sky, or between one mass of clouds and another. 

With a view to a more accurate estimate of the comparative influence 
of rarefaction and condensation, in causing evolution of heat in dry air, 
and in air replete with aqueous vapor, Dr. Hare had performed a number 
of experiments, of which he proceeded to give a description. 

Large globes, each containing about a cubic foot of space, furnished 
with thermometers and hygrometers, were made to communicate, respec- 
tively with reservoirs of perfectly dry air, and of air replete with aqueous 
vapor.t ‘The cold, ultimately acquired by any degree of rarefaction, ap- 
peared to be the same, whether the air was in the one state or the other, 
provided that the air replete with aqueous vapor, was not in contact with 
liquid water in the vessel subjected to exhaustion. When water was pre- 
sent, in consequence of the formation of additional vapor, and a conse- 
quent absorption of caloric, the cold produced was nearly twice as great 


* See Vol. rv, p. 142. 


t The hygrometers were constructed by means of the beard of the Avena sen- 
sitiva or wild oat, also called animated oat. 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 45 


as when the air was not in contact with liquid water; being nearly as 
nine to five. 

Under the circumstances last mentioned, the hygrometer was motion- 
less; whereas, when no liquid water was accessible, the space, although 
previously saturated with vapor, by the removal of a portion of it together 
with the air which is withdrawn by the exhaustion, acquires a capacity 
for more vapor; and hence the hygrometer, by an abstraction of one 
third of the air, revolved more than sixty degrees towards dryness. But 
when a smaller receiver (after being subjected to a diminution of pressure 
of about ten inches of mercury, so as to cause the index of the hygrome- 
ter to move about thirty five degrees towards dryness) was surrounded by 
a freezing mixture, until a thermometer in the axis of the receiver stood 
at three degrees below freezing, the hygrometer revolved towards damp- 
ness until it went about ten degrees beyond the point at which it rested 
when the process commenced. 

It appears, therefore, that the dryness produced by the degree of rare- 
faction employed is more than counterbalanced by a freezing temperature. 

As respects the heat imparted to the air above mentioned, the fact, that 
the ultimate refrigeration in the case of air replete with vapor, and in that 
of anhydrous air, was equally great, and that when water was present 
the cold was greater in the damp vessel, led to the idea that the heat 
arising under such circumstances could not have much efficacy in aug- 
menting the buoyancy of an ascending column of air: but when, by an 
appropriate mechanism, the refrigeration was measured by the difference 
of pressure at the moment when the exhaustion was arrested, and when 
the thermometer had become stationary, it was found ceteris paribus, 
that the reduction of pressure arising from cold was at least one half 
greater in the anhydrous air than in the air replete with vapor. This 
difference seems to be owing to a loan of latent heat made by the con- 
tained moisture, or transferred from the apparatus by its intervention, 
which checks the refrigeration ; yet, ultimately, the whole of the mois- 
ture being converted into vapor, the aggregate refrigeration does not differ 
in the two cases. 

Agreeably to Dalton’s tables, at 70° the quantity of moisture in 31 
grains, or 100 cubic inches of air, is 32,1; of a grain. The space allot- 
ted to this weight of vapor being doubled, it would remain uncondensed 
at 45° F., being associated with the same weight but double the volume 
of air; but at 32°, notwithstanding the doubling of the space, only 335% 
of a grain would remain in the aériform state; of course 551—3856= 
7235, or nearly 2, of a grain would be precipitated. 

The latent heat given out by the condensation of this vapor, would 
heat, as is well known, 1000 times its weight of water, or 195 grains, one 
degree; or 31 grains 1°°=6.29 degrees ; and as the capacity of air for 
heat is only one fourth of that of water, it would heat 31 grains of air 


46 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Nociety. 


6.294 = 25.16, or nearly25° F. As air at 32° F. expands 71, for each 
additional degree, the difference of bulk, arising from the heat received, 
as above calculated, would be 2,55, or 75 nearly. 

When air replete with aqueous vapor was admitted into a receiver par- 
tially exhausted, and containing liquid water, a copious precipitation of 
moisture ensued, and a rise of temperature greater than when perfectly 
dry air was allowed to enter a vessel containing rarefied air in the same 
state. In the instance first mentioned, a portion of vapor rises into the 
place of that which is withdrawn during the partial exhaustion. Hence, 
when the air, containing its full proportion of vapor, enters, there is an 
excess of vapor which must precipitate, causing a cloud, and an evolution 
of latent heat from the aqueous particles previously in the aériform state. 
Dr. Hare conceives that as the enlargement of the space occupied by a 
sponge, allows proportionably a larger quantity of any liquid to enter its 
cells, so any rarefaction of the air when in contact with water, conse- 
quent on increase of heat or diminution of pressure, permits a proportion- 
ably larger volume of vapor to associate itself with a given weight of the 
air. When, subsequently, by the afflux of wind replete with aqueous 
vapor, the density of the aggregate is increased, a portion of the vapor 
equivalent to the condensation must be condensed, giving out latent heat, 
excepting so far as the heat thus evolved, being retained by the air, raises 
the dew point. 

Hence, whenever a diminution of density of the air inland causes an 
influx of sea air to restore the equilibrium, there may result a condensa- 
tion of aqueous vapor, and evolution of heat, tending to promote an as- 
cending current. ‘This process being followed by that which Mr. Espy 
has pointed out, of the transfer of heat from vapor to air, during its ascent 
to the region of the clouds, and consequent precipitation of moisture, 
might, Dr. Hare thought, be among the efficient causes of those non- 
electrical rain storms, during which the water of the Gulf of Mexico, or 
of the Atlantic, is transferred to the soil of the United States. 

Dr. Hare proceeded to mention some additional experiments which he 
had made respecting the increase of temperature resulting from the ad- 
mission of dry air into an exhausted receiver. When the receiver was 
exhausted so as to reduce the interior pressure to one fourth of that of 
the atmosphere, and one fourth was suddenly admitted, so as to reduce a 
gage from about 222 inches to 15 inches, heat was produced; and how- 
ever the ratio of the entering air to the residual portion was varied, still 
there was a similar result. 

When the cavity of the receiver was supplied with the vapor of ether 
or with that of water, so as to form, according to the Daltonian hypothe- 
sis, a vacuum for the admitted air, still heat was produced by the latter, 
however small might be the quantity or rapid the readmission. When the 
receiver was exhausted, until the tension was less than that of aqueous 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society.  A7 


vapor at the existing temperature, so as to cause the water to boil, as in 


quantity requisite to fill the receiver caused the thermometer to rise a 
tenth of a degree. An alternate motion of the key of the cock, through 
one fourth of a circle within one third of a second of time, was adequate 
to produce the change last mentioned. 

Dr. Hare considered the fact, that heat is produced, when to air, rare- 
fied to one fourth of the atmospheric density, another fourth is added, 
irreconcilable with the idea that this result arises from the compression 
of the portion of air previously occupying the cavity, since the entering 
air must be as much expanded as the residual portion is condensed. 

As, agreeably to Dalton, a cavity occupied by a vapor acts as a vacuum 
to any air which may be introduced, Dr. Hare argued, that when a re- 
ceiver, after being supplied with ether or water, is exhausted so as to re- 
move al] the air and leave nothing besides aqueous or ethereal vapor, the 
heat, acquired by air admitted, cannot be ascribed, consistently, to the 
condensation of the vapor. 

The facts above stated, he added, are not reconcilable with the idea 
of De la Rive and Marcet, that the first portion of the entering air is 
productive of cold, although a subsequent condensation is productive of 
an opposite change. The effect upon the thermometer was too rapid, 
and the quantity of the entering air too minute, to allow it to be refrige- 
rated by rarefaction in the first place, and yet afterwards to be so much 
condensed as to become warm by the evolution of caloric. 

Notwithstanding the experiments of Gay Lussac and of those of De la 
Rive and Marcet, there appeared to Dr. Hare to be evidence in favor of 
the heat being due to the space rather than to the air which it contained. 

With respect to Gay Lussac’s celebrated experiment with the Torricel- 
lian vacuum, supposing such a vacuum to be a pre-eminently good libera- 
tor of heat, as it ought in reason to be, the caloric would be absorbed by 
the mercury as rapidly as this metal could be made to encroach upon the 
space occupied by the calorific particles. 

Admitting, that for equal weights, the specific heat of air is seven times 
as great as that of mercury, there could not have been a capacity greater 
than that of about 200 grains of the metal, whereas a very small stratum 
of this metal, equal to one fourth of an inch, would, in the apparatus 
employed, amount to more than a pound. 

The rapidity with which a mercurial thermometer is affected by the 
changes of temperature in experiments like those which he had been de- 
scribing, showed, in Dr. Hare’s opinion, that there was something not 
yet understood respecting the transfer of heat in such cases. It was 
hardly reconcilable with the process of conduction or circulation, as ordi- 
narily understood. 


48 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 


In the experiments of De la Rive and Marcet, in which the entering 
air being made to impinge ‘upon the bulb of a thermometer, was pro- 
ductive of a fall in the thermometric column, it might be inferred, he 
conceived, that the bulb interfered with the access of caloric from the 
space. It was in fact the bulk upon which the air acted previously to its 
distribution in the space where it could have encountered the due propor- 
tion of caloric. 

Prof. Bache, from the committee on magnetic observations, read an 
extract from a letter of Major Sabine, V. P. of the Royal Society of Lon- 
don, stating that the Council of the Society had, on the recommendation 
of the Committee of Physics, expressed their opinion of the importance 
to the plan of combined magnetic observations now in progress, that ob- 
servatories should be established in the United States, and had instructed 
their President to bring this expression of opinion to the knowledge of 
the government of this country. 

Prof. Bache stated that the resolution just referred to had been adopted 
with a view to aid the efforts of this Society in procuring the erection of 
observatories, as recommended in their memorial to the Secretary of War, 
which had been referred by that officer to Congress. 

He also read an extract from a subsequent letter from Major Sabine, in 
reference to the progress of the combined magnetic observations, stating 
that the Emperor of Russia had ordered the erection of nine magnetic 
and meteorological observatories in his dominions, to conform, in respect 
to instruments and times of observations, to the system recommended by 
the Royal Society. One of these observatories is to be upon the north- 
west coast of America. 

Prof. Bache stated, that the regular system of bi-hourly magnetic and 
meteorological observations was now established in the observatory at the 
Girard College, and had been in progress since the close of the month of 
May. He intended, at a future day, to present to the Society the names 
of the gentlemen, chiefly members of the American Philosophical Soci- 
ety, by whose contributions a fund had been raised to defray the expense 
of employing the assistants required for these observations. 

On the occasion of the May magnetic term-day for observations at short 
intervals, [29th,] a brilliant aurora had occurred, during which the mag- 
netic instruments were very much disturbed. The details were reserved 
for future presentation, but it was perhaps proper now to state, that an 
auroral arch had been visible here a little after ten o'clock. ‘The same 
phenomenon was observed at Southwick, Mass., by Mr. Holcomb, at a 
much earlier hour. 

July 17.—Dr. Hare made a communication respecting an extensive 
voltaic apparatus, of the form which he had designated by the name of 
galvanic deflagrator. This apparatus had been constructed for the Lowell 
Institute of Boston, under his direction, by request of Prof. Silliman. 


. 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 49 


It consists of four troughs, each containing 100 pairs within a space of 
about 30 inches in length. The pairs, severally, are of the Cruickshank 
pattern, and about 62 inches square, independently of the grooves, so as 
to expose about 42 inches of zinc surface. _ Every fifth plate is cemented 
into its groove by a compound of rosin. and suet. The plates, interme- 
diate between those thus cemented, are made to fit tightly into their 
grooves ; but in consequence of a slight obliquity in their sides, can be 
extracted by the aid of forceps, so as to be cleansed, and, when expedi- 
ent, scraped. ‘The cementing of each fifth plate tends to prevent any 
injurious retrocession of the voltaic fluid ; and yet when the intermediate 
four plates are removed, an interstice is vacated sufficiently large to allow 
the stationary metallic surfaces to be reached by a scraper. The plates 
are all amalgamated, which not only renders them less susceptible of 
wasteful reaction with acid, but more susceptible of being cleaned. A 
strip of wood 13 inches wide and 2 inches deep, is bored by a centre bit, 
so as to have eight vertical and cylindrical holes, which are all supplied 
with mercury. By means of ropes of copper wire, these holes are made 
to communicate severally with the poles of each of the troughs, so that 
every one of these has its corresponding mercurial receptacle. Arches 
of twisted copper wire are provided of such various lengths, that the re- 
ceptacles may be connected in such manner as to cause the associated 
troughs to act either as one series of 400 pairs each of 42 inches of zinc 
surface ; as a series of 200 pairs each of 84 inches of zinc surface; or 
as a series of 100 pairs each of 168 inches of zinc surface. . In the usual 
mode of constructing the voltaic apparatus, the diversities of power that 
appertain to an apparatus in which the ratio of the size of the pairs to 
their number varies, as above described, can be produced only by chan- 
ges in the arrangement, which are too inconvenient to be employed; but, 
according to the contrivance described, are attainable simply by shifting 
the connecting arches, so as to alter duly the mode in which the recep- 
tacles are connected with each other. 

By means of this apparatus, the deflagration of metals, the arched flame 
between charcoal points, the fusion of platina by contact with the aqueous 
solution of chloride of calcium, the welding of iron wire to a rod of the 
same metal under water, were all accomplished with the most striking 
success. i 

In repeating Davy’s experiment, in which the arched flame between 
charcoal points was subjected to the influence of a permanent magnet, 
the reaction between the voltaic and magnetic fluids was so violent, as to 
be productive of a noise like that of small bubbles of hydrogen inflamed 
in escaping from the generating liquid. ‘This last mentioned experiment 
was performed by request of Prof. Henry, who manipulated in the per- 


formance of it. 
Vol. xz, No. 1.—Oct.-Dee. 1840. NG 


50 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 


Dr. Hare stated, that he had for many years endeavored to draw the 
attention of men of science to the fact, that if, when a fine and a coarse 
wire of platina are made to form the electrodes or poles of a powerful 
voltaic series of not less than 300 pairs, the coarse wire, while forming 
the positive end or anode, be introduced into a concentrated solution of 
chloride of calcium, and the fine wire be made to touch the surface of 
the solution, fusion of the extremity into a globule will follow every con- 
tact. But when the polarity of the wires is reversed, the resulting igni- 
tion is comparatively feeble. 

This experiment, Dr. Hare stated, was repeated to the satisfaction of 
Professors Silliman, Henry, and James Rogers, all of whom were present 
at the trial of the apparatus. 

When the finer wire was plunged about an inch below the surface of 
the solution, it became luminous throughout, emitting rays of a brilliant 
purple “hue. : 

For the fusion of the platina wire, in the experiment above described, 
it was found necessary to use the whole series consecutively as 400 pairs; 
showing, Dr. Hare remarked, that there are effects which require a great 
number of pairs. He had, in previous experiments, found that fresh 
phosphuret of calcium was a conductor for 350 pairs of 73, but not 
for 100 pairs of 74 X14. 

The deflagration of an iron wire by contact with mercury, took place 
with phenomena which were never before witnessed by any of the spec- 
tators. At first the mercury was deflagrated with an intense silvery white 
light, after which there arose a vertical shower of red sparks, caused by 
the combustion of the iron. Lastly, a globule having accumulated at the 
end of the wire after a momentary stoppage of the reaction, an explosion 
took place, by which fragments of the globule, together with portions of 
the mercury, were projected to a great distance. 

It would seem, said Dr. Hare, as if a globule of peroxide of iron, hav- 
ing formed at the end of the wire, caused a temporary arrestation of the 
voltaic current; but that the apparatus, gaining energy in consequence 
of a transient repose, was enabled to break through the globule so as to 
disperse its particles with violence. 

August 21.—Mr. Boyé stated, that Mr. Clarke Hare and he had suc- 
ceeded in producing a perchloric ether. 

It is a colorless liquid, heavier than water, and of a sweet, but after- 
wards acid taste, resembling that of the oil of cinnamon. Its most re- 
markable property is its explosiveness. Not only by ignition, but even 
by friction or percussion, it explodes with extreme violence, and cannot 
therefore be handled without the greatest precaution. When it is borne 
in mind that perchloric acid, containing seven atoms of oxygen, loosely 
combined with chlorine, is in this substance, in contact with sufficient 
carbon and hydrogen to be converted into carbonic oxide and water, the 
violence of its explosion will easily be accounted for. 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 51 


Mr. Boyé further stated, that he hoped to be soon able to give a farther 
account of this substance; of the way in which it is obtained, and of 
some other similar reactions, which they are now engaged in studying. 

Mr. Vaughan exhibited from M. Alexandre Vattemare, a fac simile of 
an original grant by Charles of England to William Penn; and also a 
fac simile of a deed of sale, by William Penn, of 20,000 acres of land, 
for 800 pounds sterling ; the original deed being in Penn’s hand-writing. 

Mr. Walker made an oral communication on the subject of the August 
shower of meteors. 

These meteors returned this year on the 9th instant, and were observed 
at the High School Observatory, by Mr. Walker, as well as by Messrs. 
Forshey, of Louisiana, and Hamilton, of this city. ‘The evenings of the 
10th and 11th, being partly cloudy, and the moon nearly full, no obser- 
vations were made. ‘The evening of the 9th, however, was distinguished 
by all the peculiarities hitherto noticed in the August period. ‘The fol- 
lowing table exhibits a classification of the meteors from memoranda, 
concerning each meteor, made at the time of its appearance. 


Be ae ele ee Me 
Say Salhi! ellie Ss = 2 2 
See | aoe ee Be a2) = 
Meteors of August 9th, 1840. | 2.5 | 2235 | Fe Ba 8 é a : 
go ges) os se eS 
Comparative brilliancy. ae = a os oe a ie 
ge |Ses) 25°) so | & s 
Sag |e pee S i 5 
On alc Sp oue = a 
6 s. a s. 
Thrice that of Jupiter, 1 1 | 40 4.5 | 20 1.7 
Twice  “ i. 6 0 | 35 3.6 | 15 1.0 
Equal to “ 12 2: \,20 2.5 | 12 0.8 
First magnitude, 12. | 14) |-20 eh ag) 0.6 
Second % 32. |.17 | 12 £2 eS 0.5 
Third 4 5 | 33 g 09 | 4 0.4 
Below third “ none’ 36 6 0.6) 4 0.4 


From an inspection of the table, Mr. Walker remarked, it will readily 
appear, that these meteors differ from ordinary shooting stars, in their 
greater brilliancy, longer apparent paths, and the greater duration of their 
trains. ‘Their most important peculiarity, however, is the tendency of 
their apparent paths towards a common point of convergence in the celes- 
tial sphere, or in other words, their apparent divergence from a common 
radiant point near the head of Perseus. 

The existence of a common radiant point near 7 Leonis, for the great 
display of meteors, November 12th, 1833,, was noticed by Messrs. Olm- 
sted, Twining, Aiken, Riddell, and others. The same may be inferred 
from the descriptions of Humboldt and Ellicott, in 1799; of Briggs, and 
others, in 1832; and it has been manifest in every return of the Novem- 
ber shower witnessed since. 


52 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 


The attention of observers, Mr. Walker remarked, was first called to 
the August period, by Quetelet, in 1836; and in 1837, precise observa- 
tions were made at the Berlin and Breslaw observatories. ‘These were 
reduced by the formule given by Mr. Erman, in No. 385 of Schumacher’s 
Astronomische Nachrichten, and have determined with precision the com- 
mon point of convergence for August 10th, 1837. In the same year Mr. 
Forshey, then Professor of Mathematics in Jefferson College, Mississippi, 
noticed, about the middle of August, a great number of meteors, originating 
chiefly about the region of Cassiopeia. It appears, also, that Mr. Schaef- 
fer,* of New York, searching for a radiant point on the 9th of August, 
1837, placed the same near the north pole. Mr. Herrick,+ at New Haven, 
who had previously invited attention to this period, in the United States, 
on the same evening, found this point farther north than in the November 
shower; but determined nothing farther. In 1838, these meteors were 
seen by Mr. Kreil, at the Milan Observatory, but no radiant point was de- 
duced. In the United States, however, Professor Forshey, from sixty five 
meteors seen in one hour, August 9th, at Rock Island, Iowa, concluded 
the radiant to be situate within a circle of 2° radius, centering in the 
sword cluster of Perseus. In 1839, Mr. Herrick,{ with others, at New 
Haven, found the radiant point to be near the sword cluster, on the 9th 
and 10th, being nearly stationary. On the 10th, at 13h. they found it to 
be near 4 Persei. 

Mr. Forshey, in 1839, August 10th and 11th, at St. Louis, again no- 
ticed the radiant point in the same position as in 1838. But the position 
of this point, or rather the point of convergence of their apparent paths, 
has been computed with great precision from the observations at Berlin, 
August 9th, 10th, and 11th, and at Kénigsberg, August 10th and 11th. 
The mode of observation adopted at the European observatories has been 
to mark on a map the points of origin and disappearance, and, subse- 
quently, to compute, by Mr. Erman’s formule, the common point of con- 
vergence. As the August meteors become visible chiefly in the northern 
zones, it was thought that greater precision would be attained by noting, 
besides the point of origin and disappearance, also the part of Perseus or 
Cassiopeia, intersected by the apparent path of the conformable meteors, 
traced backwards through one of these constellations. -' The following ta- 
ble gives the point of convergence thus deduced from three separate 
groups of observations at Philadelphia, together with the position of this 
point, as determined at the European observatories, and the probable er- 
ror of a single result, and of the final result computed in the usual man- 
ner. The general agreement in the positions will be seen. ‘The small- 
ness of the probable errors of the Philadelphia results is attributed to the 


* Silliman’s Journal, Vol. xxx1u1, p. 134. t Ibid. pp. 176 and 359. 
{ Ibid. Vol. xxxvu1, p. 328. 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 53 


method employed in observing; by which a greater proportion of the 
meteors seen was marked unconformable, and excluded from the general 
estimate. 


Apparent; Apparent 


August meteors. R. A. of | Declin. of |No. of| Probable | Probable 

: the point |the point of,obser-| error of | error of 
Place of observation and date. of conver-| conver- | yva- single final 
i gence. gence. tions.| result. result. 


O 

1837. Berlin, August 10,.  |217.18|-57-26| 46|-+20.1|+2.96 

Breslaw,. "10; 221.76) —51.41 200 |+19.5/+-1.38 
1839. Berlin, Lene 224.86) — 50.18) 50|11.9/-+1.68 
1839. Berlin, mele 223.88) — 52.39, 48|+£13.3/-£1.92 
1839. Berlin, Soe lip 218.45) - 51.05, 43|2218.5)£2.06 
1839. Konigsberg, 10, 214.85) — 55.59, 75|=E21.0)2. 42) 
1839. Konigsberg, 11, 215.11)— 55.29) 74|==17.4|/+2.02 
1840. Philad. 9d. 10h. 57m. (216.14) - 55.76) 12|+ 2.3)/£0.67 
1840. Philad: 9. 13. -4 . (214.71|—55.43) 15|-4 4,1)=£1.05 
1840. Philad.9 15.6 (219.25)— 55.12) 29|+ 1.2)£0.22 


Mr. Walker referred to some of the analytical conclusions drawn by 
Mr. Erman* from the fact, which the Philadelphia observations of this 
year go to confirm, that these meteors appear to converge nearly to a 
common point in the heavens. 

“1st. Mr. Erman concludes, that these bodies are of a cosmical origin; 
that they move in a continuous ring-formed stream, of not Jess than 3° in 
breadth; that the plane of the center of this stream Is inclined at least 
56°, probably more than £0°, and not exceeding 124°, to the plane of the 
ecliptic,—an inclination which hitherto comets alone have been known to 
possess. 

“Od. That their least velocity in space Aug. 10.5th, is 55 hundredths 
that of the earth in its orbit, giving them a period round the sun of 128 
days; that their greatest velocity is 143 hundredths that of the earth, 
which would locate them at this time on the perihelion of a parabola or 
ellipse of period indefinitely great. 

“3d. That to remove this uncertainty of their velocity, between 55 
and 143 hundredths that of the earth, it is only necessary that two ob-. 
servers, at a distance apart, should trace with precision the apparent path 
of the same meteor, and one of them at least its duration. This condi- 
tion had not yet been fulfilled in Europe, otherwise the entire elements of 
their orbit would have been approximately determined. 

“Ath. That their perihelion-distances are not less than 2 hundredths 
nor more than 97 hundredths of the earth’s mean distance from the sun. 


* Astr. Nachr., Nos. 385, 390, and 404. 


54 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 


“5th. That they are in their descending node when visible Aug. 10.5th, 
and that their distance from the sun, in the ascending node, is not less 
than 7 hundredths, and may be several times the earth’s mean distance 
from the sun. Hence, even if they are a continuous ellipse-formed stream, 
it is only in one of these possible distances, viz. that of the earth from the 
sun; that this stream would be visible to a spectator on the earth, when 
traversing its ascending node. If, near the sun, their aggregate might 
appear as spots on the solar disc, or might intercept some of the solar 
light and heat: if far beyond the earth, no traces of them would be found. 

“6th. That the earth traverses this meteor-stream from the 5.5th to the 
7.5th of February. The fact that no such stream has of late years been 
noticed, shows that the first condition of No. 5, does not prevail. Mr. 
Erman thinks that the diminution of the normal increase of temperature 
at this date, as ascertained at several stations, for many years past, by Mr. 
Madler, of Berlin, may possibly warrant the conclusion, that the second 
condition takes place, and that the meteor-stream at this time is between 
the earth and sun. That the first condition may have prevailed in 1206, 
and the second in 1208, seems not improbable from history. This appa- 
rent change in the appearance of the meteor-stream Mr. Erman ascribes 
to the secular variations of its elements; the possibility of which is ad- 
mitted by Olbers and Bessel. 

“7th. That the greatest possible apparent motion of the common point 
of convergence of their apparent paths, consistent with the existence and 
observed position of this point, 1s one-tenth of a degree of a great circle 
westward, in an hour.” 

Mr. Walker remarked, that though much pains had been bestowed up- 
on determining their apparent paths and duration, at the High School Ob- 
servatory, he had as yet received no corresponding observations which 
could throw light on the third conclusion of Mr. Erman. The motion of 
the radiant—if any—according to Mr. I’orshey’s and his own observa- 
tions, would seem to be in a south-easterly direction, of about one half of 
a degree of a great circle per hour, a phenomenon not reconcilable with 
the analysis of Mr. Erman. 

In conclusion, Mr. Walker referred, for the details of the Philadelphia 
observations, to Mr. Forshey’s paper read this evening. 

Dr. Hays communicated the particulars of a case of inability to distin- 
guish certain colors, occurring in a man, a patient in Wills’s Hospital, 
under the care of Dr. Fox. 

This case, Dr. Hays remarked, presented the following points of in- 
terest. 

Ist. It confirmed the correctness of the observation made by Dr. Hays, 
in a former communication, that no reliance can be placed on the account 
of their own cases, given by those who labor under this defect; and that 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 55 


their statements should never be received as accurate, until after Geet 
and repeated examination. 

The subject of the case under notice had been admitted into the hospi- 
tal with partial amaurosis, and was not aware of his inability to distinguish 
colors until he was informed of the defect by Dr. Fox. He then main- 
tained, very confidently, that it had come on since his loss of the power 
of seeing objects, and mentioned several circumstances to prove that it 
was of recent occurrence. Nevertheless, on being minutely and closely 
questioned, it appeared beyond all doubt, and even the patient himself had 
io admit the fact, that the defect must have always existed. 

Again, after being shown various colored papers, which he was re- 
quested to name, and satisfying all who witnessed the experiment, that 
he could distinguish but two colors, viz. yellow and blue, he named 
correctly the colors of a red strawberry and green leaf, which were pre- 
sented to him. This surprised all present. It occurred, however, to Dr. 
Hays, that the patient had learned the usual colors of these objects, and 
that his answers were dictated by this knowledge, and not from a real per- 
ception of color. Experiments, made with a view of determining this 
point, most conclusively established the correctness of Dr. Hays’s sus- 
picion. 

2dly. The case tends to confirm the accuracy of the laws announced 
by Dr. Hays on a former occasion, as governing the defect of vision under 
notice. ‘This patient could perceive but two colors, yellow and blue. His 
perception of the former was perfect, of the latter somewhat less so. 

Dr. Hays stated, that the laws just alluded to, so far as ascertained by 
his investigations, were the following :— 

Ist. Entire inability of distinguishing colors may co-exist with a per- 
fect ability of perceiving the forms of objects. 

This. constitutes the highest grade of the defect. Individuals who la- 
bor under it can recognize differences of intensity of color, so that whilst 
a diversity of colors of the same intensity appears to them to be a uniform 
color, they accurately designate, as lighter or darker, different shades of 
the same color, or of various colors. ‘The rainbow appears to them as a 
band of a uniform color, darker at one side, and gradually becoming 
lighter towards the other. 

2dly. The defect may extend to all but one color, and in such case the 
color recognized is always YELLOW. 

The perception of this color may be perfect, or limited to some 
shades. 

3dly. The defect may extend-to all but two colors, and in such case the 
colors recognized are always YELLOW and BLUE. 

In some of these cases, the perception of the latter color is less perfect 
than of the former. Individuals who labor under this grade of the defect, 
though able to recognize, perfectly, yellow and blue, cannot distinguish 
them when combined, and forming green. 


56 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 


The laws which govern the other grades of this defect, Dr. Hays re- 
marked, remain to be determined. 

There are certain persons who can accurately recognize yellow and 
blue, and some who can recognize red, who cannot distinguish green ; 
but whether or not there are individuals who can recognize the three 
primitive colors accurately, and are yet unable to distinguish the second- 
ary colors, must be left, Dr. Hays remarked, to further observation to de- 
termine. 

It also remains to be ascertained, whether any person, having an im- 
perfect perception of yellow, can recognize blue; or with an imperfect 
perception of yellow and blue, or of the latter alone, can distinguish red. 

Sept. 18.—A letter from Dr. John Locke, of Cincinnati, stated the re- 
sults of two series of observations, each made-with three horizontal nee- 
dles, and concludes from the mean of them, that the relative horizontal 
intensities at Louisville and Cincinnati, are as 1 to 0.9727. The dates of 
the observations were March 7th, 10th, 11th, and 14th, 1840, at about 
noon of each day. The correction for temperature, in each of the three 
needles used, was obtained by experiments which are fully described, and 
which gave the following coefficients :—for needle No. 1, 0.000125; for 
No. 2, 0.000145 ; No. 3, 0.000058. 

The magnetic dip at Cincinnati, as determined by two series of obser- 
vations, each with two needles, in March, 1840, was 70° 25'.5, and by 
one series, in April, 70° 28/.8, and the dip at Louisville, by three series, at 
nearly the same date, in March, 69° 54/9. 

The relative total intensities thus deduced for a period corresponding 
to March 10th, 1840, are,—Cincinnati, 1.000 ; Louisville, 1.003. 

Oct. 2—The Committee, consisting of Dr. Horner and Dr. Hays, ap- 
pointed on the 3d of January last, to report to the Society a description 
of a donation of Mastodon Bones, made to the Society by a subscription 
of members, gave in their report, which was directed to be printed in the 
Transactions of the Society. 

The Committee, consisting of Dr. Hays, Mr. Peale, and Dr. Dunglison, 
to whom was referred a paper entitled “‘ Note of the Remains of the Mas- 
todon, and some other extinct animals, collected together in St. Louis, 
Missouri; by W. E. Horner, M. D., Professor of Anatomy, University of 
Pennsylvania,” recommended that an abstract of the same should be in- 
serted in the Bulletin of the Society’s Proceedings; and on motion, the 
report was accepted, and the committee discharged. 

The collection referred to, was made by Mr. Albert Koch—a German 
resident in St. Louis, for the last five years—and has been obtained prin- 
cipally from two localities, Rock Creek, twenty miles south of St. Louis, 
and Gasconade County, two hundred miles above the mouth of the Mis- 
souri river. It consists of two hundred or more teeth of the mastodon 
and of the American elephant, a dozen or more lower jaws of the 


Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 57 


mastodon, with very numerous specimens of other parts of the head and 
skeleton generally, though there is no perfect head. 

The most remarkable specimen is a head of an animal, which Mr. 
Koch calls nondescript, and considers to have been from four to six times 
the size of an elephant, though Dr. Horner esteems it extremely difficult 
to establish this. In the present mode of exhibition, the head shows a 
central oblong amorphous part, which measures six feet in length by two 
or three in width. It is furnished with enormous tusks, eleven and three- 
twelfths feet long from their roots, and nine or ten inches in diameter— 
one foot and three inches of their length being inserted into the sockets. 
These tusks are semicircular, and stand out horizontally, with the con- 
cavity backwards. Thus placed, they are fifteen feet in a straight line, 
from the tip of the one to the tip of the other. Notwithstanding they 
were found in this position, very just doubts, Dr. Horner thinks, may be 
entertained of its being the natural one, as, in a state of decay of the al- 
veolus, they might readily gravitate outwards, so as to assume that direc- 
tion, subsequent to the death of the animal. ‘This specimen was in fact 
very much decayed, when Mr. Koch found it, and appears to have been 
fractured by rocks falling on it from the bluff above. The means taken 
to preserve it, obscure the surface of the bones, as well as their configura- 
tion, and in attaching the fragments together, some have been put very 
much out of their position. For example, the glenoid cavity of the right 
side is monstrously far from the hind tooth, and is laterally much beyond 
its line: the intermaxillary bones are too long, and on comparing the po- 
sition of the posterior molar teeth of the upper jaw with that of the lower, 
the upper molar teeth are found to be ten inches or more in advance of 
the lower, a relation so false and so unsuited to mastication, that it is not 
at all probable nature formed them thus. ‘The molar teeth are four in 
number in each jaw—two on a side; the posterior one is seven inches 
long by four wide ; the anterior, four and a half inches long by four wide. 
The conformation of the teeth is exactly that of the mastodon, and the 
ridges and denticules are scarcely worn at all, a proof that the animal 
was not old. The upper part of the cranium of this animal is defective. 
The general configuration of the head is so amorphous, the fragments of 
which it is composed have their position so imperfectly regulated, and the 
whole surface is so coated with glue and paint, to preserve it, that an ex- 
act examination was impracticable. Its length is so extraordinary, that 
Dr. Horner considers it can scarcely be received as natural, and he is in- 
clined to the opinion, from its dental system, that it belongs to the mas- 
todon; that by some accident the remains of two heads were found in 
the same line; that if there be but one, it has been much fractured, and 
a large quantity of extraneous matter blended with it, which it is difficult 
to distinguish. The latter conjecture, Dr. Horner thinks, is rendered 


more probable by the admission of Mr. Koch, that these bones were ce- 
Vol. xt, No. 1.—Qct.—Dec. 1840. 8 


58 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 


mented to a layer of gravel a foot and a half in thickness, with such 
tenacity that the separation was accomplished with the greatest difficulty. 

In the same collection of fossil bones is to be found the skeleton, nearly 
complete, of a mastodon of very large size; the ribs, and the upper part 
of the cranium are wanting. The transverse diameter of the head, on 
a line with the foramen magnum, is three feet. The os femoris, in a per- 
pendicular line, stands three feet nine inches high, and all the other bones 
are in this proportion. An estimate of the altitude of the animal when 
living, founded upon careful observations, instituted with the same view 
on the skeleton from Bucyrus, Ohio, recently obtained by the Society, 
would leave the inference that the former animal has reached a height 
of from twelve to thirteen feet at the shoulders. ‘This animal, in a popu- 
lar advertisement on the subject of the museum by Mr. Koch, is rated at 
eighteen feet in height; an altitude so great as to exceed much the evi- 
dence derivable from a measurement of the longest bones of the extremi- 
ties, and the inductive and comparative estimate thence obtained. 

The internal table of the cranium, the brain case, is entire, with a small 
surface of the contiguous cellular structure of bone in another fragment 
of the mastodon. ‘This forms so complete an oval body, that, in Dr. Hor- 
ner’s opinion, it is somewhat difficult to conceive that its shape was the 
result of merely accidental causes; Dr. Horner, indeed, thinks it rather 
authorizes the inference that it had been chiselled or hammered design- 
edly into that shape by the human cotemporaries of the animal. 

There is also a small head eighteen or twenty inches long, with tusks 
ten or eleven inches long in the upper jaw, and four mastodon teeth on 
each side of each jaw. This head is somewhat broken. The os frontis 
and the face, so far as Dr. Horner could judge, are so placed in regard to 
their front surface as to form a deep circular concavity, approximating, in 
shape, a fragment in the cabinet of the Society. Whether it ought to be - 
viewed merely as a young Mastodon giganteum, or another species of the 
mastodon, Dr. Horner considers to be at present doubtful. 

There are two radii of the mastodon with the epiphyses or articular 
ends detached, owing to the youth of the animal: these pass for the arm 
bones of a giant fourteen or fifteen feet high when his skeleton was com- 
plete. A similar misapprehension exists in regard to the vertebre of a 
quadruped, probably a buffalo or young mammoth, which are strung to- 
gether in a vertical position and pass for the back bone of a giant of simi- 
lar kind. 

Another interesting relic has been denominated by the proprietor Mis- 
sourium Kochii, the first name in commemoration of its locality, the second 
of himself, its discoverer. It belongs undoubtedly, Dr. Horner states, to 
the mastodon race; was not much inferior in size to the elephant, and was 
furnished with tusks and indications of a proboscis having been attached 
to it. The tusks are four and a half feet in length, and at the roots have 


' Remarks on the Tails of Comets. 59 


a circumference of eighteen inches; they are only half an inch apart at 
the socket, and project right and lef, with the concavity forward. The 
teeth have the mammillose or mastodon shape and conformation, and are 
three and a half inches in Jength by two and a half in breadth. The lower 
jaw is wanting. 

There is an os humeri, probably of a megalonyx, which measures in 
length one foot eight inches, the ulna of the same animal, and also other 
bones, probably the radii, with some of the last phalanges. 

Dr. Horner stated, that his sketch of this rich accumulation of fossil 
remains and their examination were very imperfect, and the less instruc- 
tive to him, for the want of standards of comparison in perfect skeletons, 
and in plates, neither of which means of elucidation exist in St. Louis, 
and he expressed a hope, that “their diligent and deserving collector 
would furnish the scientific world with exact plates of such as are rare or 
unknown.” 


Ant. V.—Additional Remarks on the Tails of Comets ; by Wu. 
Mircuett, of Nantucket, Mass. 


Ir is a weakness common, I believe, to most men, to adhere 
with more or less pertinacity to first impressions ; it is manifested 
in childhood, and is often strengthened by age. From this delu- 
sive error, in the discussion in which I now engage, I can scarce- 
ly hope, though I strongly desire to be entirely free. 'The end 
of all inquiry should be truth, which is the only legitimate object. 

In Vol. xxxvu, No. 1, I was indulged with the occupancy of 
a few pages for the publication of an essay on the tails of comets. 
The object of the article and its only hope, was to invite the at- 
tention of those familiar with this and kindred subjects, to a very 
simple, and to myself, satifactory explanation of the phenome- 
non; being principally the result cof my own observations on the 
comets visible in this part of the world during the last thirty 
years ; viz. that their tails are formed by the sun’s rays, slightly 
refracted by the nucleus in traversing the envelope of the comet, 
and uniting in an infinite number of points beyond it, throwing 
a stronger than ordinary light on the ethereal medium, near to, 
or more remote from the comet, as the ray Srom its relative position 
and direction is more or less refracted. In support of this theory, 
I adduced very briefly the facts and the reasoning which had es- 
tablished it in my own mind. 


60 Remarks on the Tails of Comets. 


Productive as this subject has always been of the rudest spec- 
ulation, surrounded with absolute difficulty, and subjected as it 
still is to formidable prejudices, I had little doubt that first im- 
pressions at least, would be generally unfavorable to the theory. 
In this I have been disappointed; for whatever may have been 
the misgivings of any one who has given the subject deliber- 
ate thought, cursory readers, for the most part, have spared their 
criticisms. 

In a religious and literary Journal, published in Philadelphia, 
under the title of “The Friend,” an anonymous article made its 
appearance, denouncing the theory as unphilosophical, and the 
train of objections which the writer presented, I hope to be for- 
tunate enough to examine with candor.* ‘The first objection 
which he raises, and which he denominates the great one, is an 
unqualified declaration, ‘‘ that there cannot be any substance per- 
vading space sufficiently dense to reflect the light thus cast upon 
it, so as to be perceptible,” adding that ‘‘no one can imagine that 
the exceedingly subtle vapor which may pervade the planetary 
space can possibly reflect the strongest light which can be cast 
upon it, for if such were the case, the light coming from the fixed 
stars would also be partly (if not entirely) reflected, and in con- 
sequence it would be barely possible for a sufficient quantity of 
light to escape reflection to render them visible, considering their 
imimense distance,” &c. Now if these views can be established, 
my theory is at once void. But I would ask, not for the sake of 
those who are familiar with the subject, but for the casual reader 
of these articles, to what point of the creation the whole light of 
the firmament would be reflected by a medium occupying all 
space! We will suppose, however, the author unhappy in the 
choice of the term, and that he would have had the light of the 
stars “partly, if not entirely’? absorbed by the ethereal medium. 
To this I should say, that man having never witnessed any change 
of aspect under which he has contemplated the heavens, knows 
not, nor can he know, what degree of brightness the stars would 
have exhibited in the absence of an ethereal medium; nor does 


* In a subsequent number of the paper, I invited the writer to a discussion in 
this Journal, under his proper signature. In the hope that he would accept the in- 
vitation, I have till now deferred any further notice of the article; and, although 
he has not appeared, his objections are made the basis of this additional essay, inas- 
much as they afford an opportunity of further illustration of the theory. 


Remarks on the Tails of Comets. 61 


he know, though he may yet learn, the amount of his indebted- 
ness to this very medium for the transmission of all light. It is 
generally known that the propagation of light has received two 
different explanations. One by Newton, who supposed it to con- 
sist of minute particles projected from all bodies by an inherent 
force. Another by Huygens, the great Dutch astronomer, who 
believed light to be transmitted to the optic nerves by vibrations, 
communicated by luminous bodies to the particles of an ethereal 
medium. The Newtonian theory, it has long been acknowledg- 
ed, cannot be true, being entirely inadequate to an explanation of 
a great variety of optical phenomena.* The Huygenian hypo- 
thesis, somewhat analogous to, the theory of sound, illustrates in 
a satisfactory and beautiful manner, the general phenomena of 
light, and its propagation ; and the experiments of Fresnel and 
Young having rendered it nearly unquestionable, it has received 
the sanction of the ablest philosophers of the present age.t Assum- 
ing this theory as the true one, the ethereal medium, instead of 
an impediment, is indispensable to the transmission of light. 
Thus, in any view of the subject, this ‘‘ great objection,” as the 
writer styles it, to make the most of it, may not be the greatest. 

“We cannot suppose,” continues the writer, “that if all the 
light cast on a comet at that distance from the sun at which the 
tail begins to be formed, was concentrated into one point, its in- 
tensity would be nearly so great as that of the light received di- 
rectly from the sun in the space immediately surrounding him. 
If, therefore, the theory proposed were correct, we should expect 
to see the sun enveloped in a luminous vapor which would extend 
many thousands, if not millions of miles.” 'To this I answer, 
that neither the sun, nor the region of the sun, has ever been 
seen under any material change of circumstances, to say nothing 
of the zodiacal light, which it is to be hoped the writer has seen. 
The light of a comet’s tail is not in itself a strong light; its bril- 
hancy, as I apprehend, is mainly to be attributed to the fact of its 
shining in a region of extreme darkness; for if an object, even of 
dark color, retaining the ordinary light of the sun, could be pre- 
sented to our view in the darkness of night, its brilliancy would 


* Young’s Lectures, Vol. I. 

t In an address to the Astronomical Society of London, Sir J. F. W. Herschel 
has the following remark: ‘‘ Of the existence of such a fluid as the efficient cause 
of light, we have demonstrable evidence.” London Atheneum, for Feb. 1840. 


62 Remarks on the Tails of Comets. 


be astonishing. If the tail of a comet were a brilliant object, we. | 
might expect to witness from its radiance, at least a degree of the 
light imparted by the moon, and by the planets, it having frequent- 
ly the magnitude of many moons and planets ; but no such effect is 
witnessed. Yet in those regions far beyond the atmosphere of 
the earth, a vast combination of faintly illuminated particles, it is 
rational to conclude, would be distinctly visible, even though 
an individual point might be beyond telescopic power. 

‘Another objection,” says the writer, ‘to this theory is, that if 
the rays of the sun are refracted by the vapor of the comets, so 
as to form a luminous train, the same thing should occur to the 
planets, at least to the two inferior planets.” So many objections 
at once present themselves to this view, that it has occurred to me 
to give the summary one, that some comets have no tails. Like 
causes, it is to be admitted, should produce like effects; but not 
under unlike circumstances. I have not attempted to explain 
why some comets have no tails, a subject far more difficult than 
the one proposed. In the first place, why did the writer say, ‘at 
least, the two inferior planets.”’ It is evident that one at least 
of the many manifest points of difference between the circum- 
stances of a planet and those of acomet had presented itself to 
his mind. 'That the planets, in common with the earth, are ac- 
companied by atmospheres, I have no doubt. That of the earth 
is exceedingly limited,—that of the moon still more so; nor is 
there conclusive testimony that the atmosphere of any planet 
bears any considerable proportion to its diameter. The atmos- 
phere of the earth capable of reflecting the sun’s light, does not 
exceed the one hundred and sixtieth part of the earth’s radii, and 
a portion of this is sufficiently dense to absorb a measure of the 
sun’s light, and the want of combination in the few more vivid 
rays which escape material absorption, even assuming that the 
chemical properties of the atmosphere are identical with those of 
a comet’s envelope, would render them invisible. In the second 
place, though comets in all cases are accompanied with a shining 
envelope, in appearance analogous to an atmosphere, yet its rela- 
tive position bears no resemblance whatever to the atmosphere of 
the earth, nor to those phenomena which indicate the existence of 
atmospheres in the planets. ‘The envelope of a comet which has 
a tail, is visible only on the side of the comet next to the sun, 
and detached entirely from the nucleus, (compared by some wri- 


Remarks on the Tails of Comets. 63 


ter to a hemispherical cap,) and the zone between the nucleus 
and the envelope in the great comet of 1811, exceeded at one 
time 27,000 miles. And finally, while the analogy of comets to 
planets is acknowledged in reference to their orbital motion, it 
is evident that the general phenomena of comets are quite dissim- 
ilar. Describing, for the most part, orbits of great eccentricity, 
some of them moving hearly at right angles with the ecliptic, and 
not a few directly contrary to the order of the signs of the zodiac, 
the assumption of a chemical discrepancy between the envelope 
of a comet and planetary atmosphere, would not be an unreason- 
able one, and a very slight change in the constituents of the earth’s 
atmosphere, it it is well known, would greatly affect its refractive 
properties. According to the experiments of Biot, hydrogen gas 
has six times the refractive power of atmospheric air. In view 
of these circumstances, the fact that the planets have no tails, 
and that some comets have not this appendage, presents no objec- 
tion to the theory which I have ventured to suggest. 

The final objection offered by the writer, (though others he 
thinks might be adduced, ) is the plurality of tails of the comet of 
1744, and the secondary tail of the comet of 1823, and that of 
1835. In reference to the comet of 1744, I have no doubt of its 
plurality of tails, though great allowance is to be made for exag- 
gerated description, as well as optical illusion. ‘The great comet 
of 1811 was at one time so situated relatively to the earth and 
sun, that the tail had somewhat the appearance of a fan, and this 
was the distinguishing feature of the comet of 1744, and the tes- 
timony is worthy of credence, that there were several dark zones 
diverging from the envelope to the extremity of the tail, giving 
to the whole an appearance of a plurality or an assemblage of 
tails. ‘The comet of 1769 was also accompanied with a plurali- 
ty of tails, a particular description of which is given by Mes- 
sier. ‘I'o reconcile this with my theory, is only to assume that 
the envelope is not perfectly homogeneous, an assumption abund- 
antly confirmed by observation. The account given by Scroeter 
of the comet of 1799 and 1807, of occasional obscurity in the 
head of the comet, is a striking circumstance in proof of cloudy 
regions, and this is the explanation given by that writer. But I 
do not rely on these facts only for an explanation of the eccen- 
tricities of the comet of 1744. 'There are other and more direct 
causes of the phenomena. ‘This comet at its perihelion approach- 


64 Remarks on the Tails of Comets. 


ed so near the sun that it became very brilliant, and was more- 
over accompanied by three distinct envelopes, a condition favora- 
ble, it must be acknowledged, to the multiplication of tails, es- 
pecially when we notice that the ratio is such as to produce the 
number usually assigned, each beam of light being numbered as 
atail. ‘The diversity of circumstances exhibited in the heads of 
different comets, renders it rather a matter of surprise that so great 
a uniformity should prevail in the general circumstances of the 
tails. 

We come next to the consideration of another and a distinct 
class of phenomena, that of the secondary tail, or what Prof. Jos- 
lin denominates the ‘“‘supernumerary tail,” distinguishable in the 
comets of 1823 and 1835. ‘The former was noticed by Prof. Biela, 
at Prague, and President Day, of Yale College, and by them rep- 
resented as forming an angle of 178° with the primary tail. The 
latter was noticed by many observers in this country at various 
angles with the primary tail, a singular discrepancy prevailing in 
the various published accounts. Of this extraordinary appear- 
ance in the comet of 1823, I have only to express my conviction, 
not having myself seen it, that it proceeded from the same cause 
that produced the same phenomenon in the comet of 1835, which 
was most manifestly the image of the true tail of the comet, pro- 
jected on the spherical surface of the envelope, visible only under 
fixed angles, and changing its aspect and position with the rela- 
tive change in the position of the three bodies, aflected also by 
fluctuations in the comet’s envelope. So faithful was the delin- 
eation, that the brighter borders of the tail gave to the reflected 
image the form of a sector. 

Our writer having denounced all theories as equally unsatisfac- 
tory, recalls the expression, and acknowledges the theory of Dr. 
Hamilton, of Dublin, to ‘approach nearer the truth than any with 
which he is acquainted.” 

The theory of Hamilton supposed the tails of comets and the 
Aurora Borealis to be kindred effects of electricity. In support 
of this theory, the writer adduced a remark of Halley, “that the 
streams of light so much resemble the long tails of comets, that 
at first sight they might well be taken for such ;” and asa fur- 
ther confirmation of this theory, introduces the following quota- 
tion from Prof. Vince’s System of Astronomy, viz. ‘“'I‘he comet 
of 1607 appeared to shoot out at the end of its tail. Le P. Cy- 


Remarks on the Tails of Comets. 65 


sat remarked the undulations of the tail of the comet in 1618. 
Hevelius observed the same in the tails of the comets in 1652 
and 1661. M. Pingre took notice of the same appearance in the 
comet of 1769.” 

That the streamers of the Aurora, to the popular gaze, resem- 
ble the tails of comets, is very evident; and there ends the affin- 
ity. As well might the resemblance of stars to planets be addu- 
ced as proof of their identity. The apparent agitation in the 
light of a comet’s tail, extends through its whole length, from 
fifty to one hundred millions of miles, in a single second of time. 
Now this fact is entirely incompatible with the established and 
well known rate of the velocity of light, which gives several se- 
conds of time to its transit through a few millions of miles. This 
shooting of light is without question to be attributed to fluctua- 
tions in our own atmosphere, and is merely another form of the 
twinkling of the stars. ‘The successive changes in the planet 
Mercury, when seen by the naked eye, in a clear and bright twi- 
light, present analogous phenomena. ‘The star Capella, when 
near the northern horizon, is often noticed to change from the 
first to the fourth magnitude in regular and successive periods of 
nearly a second’s duration. ‘‘ Concerning the sudden and uncer- 
tain fluctuations of the tails,” says Newton, “I here say nothing, 
because they arise from the obscuring vapors and changes in our 
atmosphere.” An additional proof of this, is the fact that these 
streaming appearances are not to any extent visible except at low 
altitudes. In the cases alluded to by Prof. Vince, two, certainly, 
could never have been seen by the observers in their own country 
at a high altitude. ‘The others I have not investigated. 

Equally unsound is the idea that electricity has any agency in 
the matter. In reference to the tails of comets, there is not the 
slightest evidence of electrical action, ‘‘and those theories,” says 
an ingenious writer, ‘‘ which attribute this phenomenon of the Au- 
rora to electricity, are met by the following unanswerable objec- 
tions. 'The electric fluid never accumulates in visible cohesive 
masses; it is always dispersed through the earth and air, and its 
tendency is to remain in equilibrio, or nearly so, unless when col- 
lected by some medium different from the atmosphere, as in thun- 
der clouds. The electric fluid never undulates or waves to and 


fro in sinuous curves and motions, nor does it settle in banks of 
Vol. xu, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec, 1840. joo) 


66 Remarks on the Tails of Comets. 


steady light, or remain at once luminous and stationary, in any 
form in the pure air.’”* 

So much for the theory of Hamilton, and the reasoning of our 
author, whose conjectures must be established before they can be 
entitled to the character of objections. There are moreover some 
difficulties which have presented themselves to my own mind, 
and may also have been noticed by others. ‘Thus, one would 
suppose that the bending of the tail towards the region which 
the comet is leaving, might be more than adequate to answer the 
end of aberration; but in estimating this, the position of the tail 
relative to the observer, as well as its length, must be taken into 
the account. When the tail lies oblique to the line of vision, the 
extremity may be many millions of miles more remote than the 
nucleus, and some minutes of time may elapse after the arrival of 
the light from the nucleus, before that from the remoter parts of the 
tail reaches the earth; hence the interval during which the comet 
moves on in its course, is very much augmented, and the result 
is a corresponding increase of curvature in the tail. 

Again, there has sometimes been observed a general obliquity 
of the tail to the prolongation of the radius vector of the comet, 
when near its perihelion, amounting to some degrees. When we 
consider the great difficulty of obtaining a correct measure of 
this deviation, arising from the peculiar circumstances under 
which the comet is often seen when near its perihelion, this diffi- 
culty also vanishes. In the first place, when these angles have 
been measured, the unerring laws of perspective seem to have 
been wholly disregarded. The unequal effect of refraction also 
upon the nucleus and the extremity of the tail when near the ho- 
rizon and oblique to it, an effect of no small consequence, has 
been subject to similar neglect. In the second place, very many_ 
of the visible comets on which observations have been made~ 
when near their perihelia, have been visible only when near the 
horizon, from the very fact of their proximity to the sun, and like 
other heavenly bodies, have been occasionally subjected to dis- 
tortion beyond the ordinary effect of refraction, rendering accu- 
rate measurement altogether impracticable. Indeed, the whole 
train of observations on the tails of comets, seems to have been 
made with little or no reference to the ordinary influence of the 


* See this Journal, Vol. x1x, No. 2. 


Remarks on the Tals of Comets. 67 


established laws of nature, as if a mystical or spiritual nature 
were unreservedly acknowledged to belong to them. In early 
ages, it was in keeping with the prevailing superstition of the 
times to speak of a comet, that ‘it came out of an opening in 
the heavens, with blue feet like a dragon, and a head covered 
with snakes ; in its length it was a bloody color, inclining to saf- 
fron. From the top of its train appeared a bended arm, in the 
hand whereof was a huge sword, in the instant posture of stri- 
king. Atthe point of the sword was a star. From the star pro- 
ceeded dusky rays, like a hairy tail; on the side of them, other 
rays like javelins or lesser swords, as if imbrued in blood; be- 
tween which appeared human faces of the color of blackish clouds, 
with rough hair and beards.”’ But who would believe that with- 
in twelve years, a work has been published in England, the au- 
thor of which traced so direct a connection between the motion 
of the comet of 1811 and the military movements of Napoleon, 
that he denounced all persons that denied to comets the character 
of special messengers from Heaven, as insulters of Divine Wis- 
dom.* 

The several causes which I have adduced in explanation of the 
deviation of the tail from a direction exactly opposite to the sun, 
will be deemed, I think, a sufficient illustration of the phenome- 
non; indeed, recent writers have scarcely alluded to the circum- 
stance. ‘From the head,” says the younger Herschel, “and in 
a direction opposite to that in which the sun is situated from the 
comet, appear to diverge two streams of light,” &c.+ ‘“ The tails 
of comets,” says Olmsted, ‘‘ extend in a direct line from the sun, 
though they are usually more or less curved.’ 

I think it will be conceded, that if the tails of comets consist 
not of matter foreign to the medium in which they move, the the- 
ory which I have advanced must be true; at any rate, that the tails 
of comets are but augmented solar light. Let us then institute an 
inquiry relative to their materiality. ‘The period has long gone 
by since a doubt has existed in the minds of astronomers on the 
subject of Universal Gravitation. Discovered by Newton, and 
demonstrated by himself and Laplace, it is no longer an hypothe- 
sis, or a mere theory; it is truth, sublime and immutable,—not 


* Milne’s Prize Essay, p. 181. t Treatise on Ast., p. 284, 
t Introduction to Astronomy, p. 233. 


68 Remarks on the Tails of Comets. 


limited to the planetary system, but manifest also in the sidereal 
regions, affecting every particle of matter in the whole amplitude 
of nature. What, then, exempts the tail of a comet from its in- 
fluence? Where, in these immensely extended trains of attenu- 
ated matter, if they are such, is the effect of Saturn’s or of Jupi- 
ter’s attraction, to say nothing of the smaller bodies of the sys- 
tem among which they are so majestically sweeping? Where is 
that sinuous form which would necessarily result from this une- 
qual and inevitable action? If any where, it has escaped my re- 
search as well as observation; the solitary and trifling peculiarity 
noticed at one period in the extremity of the tail of the comet of 
1769, cannot be deemed an exception; and all reasonings on this 
subject, having matter for their basis, are alike futile. Thus, the 
theory of Sir Wm. Herschel, which supposed that the solar heat 
consolidated the tail and envelope on the surface of the nucleas—a 
theory supposed by Milne to be completely established by the rela- 
tive appearance and magnitude of the comet of 1811, was as com- 
pletely overthrown by the appearance and magnitude of Halley’s 
comet in 1835. Indeed, to suppose for a moment that these im- 
mense images, so to speak, consist of matter, requires a credulity 
equal to that which gave credence to the primum mobile and 
celum empyrium of Ptolemy. And if they are not matter, the 
conclusion is irresistible that they can be no other than the solar 
beams augmented by the refractive power of the envelope, and 
manifested to our vision by the medium on which they fall; a 
theory not less plausible for the explanation which it affords to 
the general phenomena of these cometary appendages, than for 
the great simplicity which distinguishes it. This, then, is the 
ignis fatwus, which, in the imagination of men, has given to the 
sun a blow so formidable as to detach from its surface the world 
we inhabit, and to that world in its turn, a shock so terrible, that 
mountains and rocks have been rent asunder, burying indiscrimi- 
nately in the ruins, animals originally the most remote from each 
other,—and no marvel so long as a wand of such enormous mag- 
nitude was admitted to be material. I trust, however, that a care- 
ful and a candid consideration of this interesting subject, will re- 
sult in the conviction that the tail of a comet is a mere sunbeam, 
as harmless as that which, by suspended dust, becomes visible from 
the puncture in the ceiling. 

Nantucket, 11th mo. 4th, 1840. 


Notice of a Locality of Zeolites. 69 


Art. VI.—WNotice of a Locality of Zeolites, &c., at Bergen, Ber- 
gen County, New Jersey; by Wiuu1am Oxanp Bourne, of 
New York. 


Bercen Hinz is the southern extremity of that long perpen- 
dicular ledge of greenstone rocks, which, rising to a considerable 
elevation on the western side of the Hudson river, is known as 
the Palisadoes, and occupies a large section of that part of the 
country. ‘The formation here is similar to that at Paterson, from 
which the datholite, &c. were obtained some years since. Dr. 
Beck, while engaged in surveying Rockland county, N. Y., observ- 
ed the minerals of the zeolite family at a number of localities, and 
mentions one at Tappan Slote, from which he obtained stellite, 
apophyllite, stilbite, d&c., inferior, however, to the New Jersey 
minerals in beauty, although “ they are sufficiently well charac- 
terized? 

In the early part of 1832, the New Jersey Rail Road Company 
began their excavations at Bergen Hill, which, however, at first 
revealed nothing to attract the attention of mineralogists, as the 
principal veins occur in the middle of the cut, which is levelled 
to about thirty feet from the surface in its deepest part, and is 
from twenty to thirty feet wide at the bottom. In numbering 
the localities, 1 have begun at the end which is entered on pro- 
ceeding from Jersey City, and about two miles from the ferry.* 

My first visit to this place was on September 6th, 1837, and 
having repeatedly visited it since, I have reason to believe that 
the collection in my possession is more extensive than any other 
from this locality, and I shall accordingly make out my catalogue 
of the minerals of this region from my own suite of specimens. 

The first locality, or No. 1, on the south side of the cut, and 
about one hundred yards from the end, is a vein of carb. lime, 
with which stilbite is associated, chiefly coating cavities of the 
limestone. It is about an inch and a half in thickness, and runs 
up the side of the cliff, but is so imbedded as to defy any attempt 
to remove it with the hammer and chisel. ‘That part from which 
the specimens were taken is low, and partly covered with stones 
and loose soil, and was completely worked out. 


* The numbers refer merely to the order.of description, and not to any guide- 
marks on the route. 


70 Notice of a Locality of Zeolites. 


No. 2, on the north side, is a continuation of this vein, as far 
as can be judged from its direction and inclination, and is per- 
fectly similar in its character, but in this place is larger, and has 
furnished several minerals which I could not find in the other, 
viz. brilliant crystals of iron pyrites, heulandite, laumonite, and 
several forms of calc-spar. 'The finest specimen of the stilbite 
of this locality was taken from this vein. It is a cavity in the 
carb. lime, finely crystallized, entirely coated with stilbite, which 
has crystals of iron pyrites scattered over its surface, forming a 
beautiful specimen of about five inches in depth, by two or two 
and a half broad. 

No. 3, on the south side, is a vein of carb. lime with prehnite, 
of which only one small specimen could be obtained. 

No. 4, on the same side, and a few feet beyond the bridge which 
overhangs the rail-road, is a cavity which did contain epistiibite, (?) 
and from which a number of specimens have been taken, some 
of which are very fine. A blast was made, and the whole effec- 
tually removed, scarce a trace being left to denote the presence of 
the mineral. A vein of calc-spar runs up the cliff, and, at the 
bottom, covered with the soil, a specimen of the spar, in large 
rhombs, was obtained. It is sometimes associated, on the same 
mass, with the epistilbite, the latter in minute crystals covering 
the spar. 

No. 5, almost opposite, is a large vein of calc-spar, from which 
handsome specimens have been obtained. Besides several of the 
common forms, I found it in thin crystalline tables. Very minute 
crystals of iron pyrites are found on some of these specimens. 

No. 6, just below No. 5, appears to have been occupied by veins 
of heulandite running along the greenstone, but which had all been 
broken up and carried away with the exception of the few speci- 
mens which we found. ‘This place and the one before mention- 
ed, are the only localities known to furnish this mineral. 

No. 7, which is a short distance beyond, isa vein of soft, earthy 
matter, through which mesotype (?) is disseminated. Higher up 
in the cliff, the same vein furnishes stilbite—rather indifferent 
however. 

No. 8, on the same side of the cut, is a vein of calc-spar, from 
which several finely crystallized specimens have been procured. 
It is in the form of large rhombs. A few specimens of very good 
datholite were also procured from this vein. 


Notice of a Locality of Zeolites. 71 


No. 9, on the north side of the cut, about ten or twelve feet 
from the ground, is a spot furnishing several species. They occur 
in veins of from half an inch to an inch in thickness, and in the 
following manner : 

I. Analcime and natrolite. 

2. Datholite, analcime, and natrolite. 

3. Apophyllite, primary and secondary forms, stilbite, and na- 
trolite. 

As the rock is very hard, and not to be reached without stand- 
ing on a ladder, it was difficult to obtain even a few small speci- 
mens. 

No. 10, on the south side, is a vein of Thomsonite, about an 
inch thick in the best part. It is lost toward the bottom, and the 
part from which the specimens were taken is about twelve feet 
from the ground. 

No. 11, a few steps farther in advance, on the same side of the 
road, at eight feet from its level, isa vein about three inches 
thick, which gradually decreases in size towards the top of the 
cliff. Five minerals are found here associated in the same mass : 
apophyllite, datholite, analcime, natrolite, and a little Thomson- 
ite, with carb. lime in handsome rhombs. All of these minerals 
except the Thomsonite are crystallized, and are of uncommon 
perfection and lustre. 

A specimen of apophyllite, taken from this vein, has several 
crystals of an inch in diameter upon it; and another piece has 
a single crystal of an inch and a half in diameter extremely per- 
fect, except where it is set in the gangue on two or three of its 
faces; another specimen shows several faces of a crystal two 
inches in diameter. 

No. 12, a few feet beyond No. 11, was a vein of Thomsonite, 
prehnite, and mesotype. Several fine specimens were obtained 
from it, one of which presents a surface about one foot square. 
The specimen which matched with it was broken into three 
pieces in splitting the rock, but they are of very good size. As- 
sociated with the three minerals just named, are some very fine 
datholite, and a little hog-tooth spar. ‘This vein was exhausted. 

No. 13, on the north side, a short distance from No. 10, isa 
vein of datholite, which is uncommonly beautiful. It is about 
three inches thick at twelve or fourteen feet from the ground, 
and is lost towards both the top and bottom of the cliff. Asso- 
ciated with the datholite is apophyllite, and a small quantity of 


72 Notice of a Locality of Zeolites. 


natrolite. The apophyllite is of a very fine quality, both as re- 
gards crystallization and lustre. A specimen or two of pseudo- 
morphous crystals was also obtained here, supposed to be all that 
were found at Bergen Hill, composed of apophyllite and the black 
matter which occurs in some of the veins of the greenstone. 
The crystals have the regular form of the apophyllite. 

No. 14, farther on, same side of the cut, is a vein of carb. lime, 
which is unworthy of notice but for the primary form of apophyl- 
lite, which is found about six feet from the top of the cliff. From 
the appearance of this vein, however, I think that a specimen in 
my collection was thrown out of it. It is about three or four 
inches thick, and eight long, presenting a fine surface, almost en- 
tire, of the secondary form of apophyllite. 

All of these localities, with but few exceptions, were examined 
by standing on a ladder which was carried about for the purpose, 
and it is possible, though not probable, that further scrutiny will 
develope others. 

Most of the specimens of this place have been found among 
the heaps of loose stones which lie on the hill near the road, as 
well as on the wharf at Jersey City, which, however, is now filled 
in, and all attempts to obtain any more from the latter source will 
be vain. Datholite I believe to have been the most common; 
massive apophyllite, from one to two inches thick ; "Thomsonite, 
commonly half an inch thick, in veins—some an inch, and a few 
specimens in my possession, two inches thick. A few specimens 
only of stilbite have been found loose, and the quantity obtained 
from its localities was not very great. All the epistilbite was 
procured at No. 4, except when associated with datholite, and, in 
these cases, the specimens are of great beauty. Some of them 
are of large size, presenting surfaces of from four to six inches 
square. ‘The natrolite is quite rare, a few specimens only having 
been taken from the cliff, at the localities before described, with 
the exception of one which was found loose. 

Brown Thomsonite, in fine masses, some of it two inches 
thick, and well crystallized, is exhausted—we could not find it 
in place, after a fruitless search. 

The chabasie of this locality is very inferior, and none of the 
crystals are perfect except very small ones. 

One of the loose masses had datholite, stilbite, analcime, cha- 
basie, apophyllite, (primary form,) and calc-spar upon it, forming 
an unusual association. 


Geological Survey of the State of New York. 73 


_ Prehnite generally accompanies the Thomsonite, and some- 
times the datholite. A vein of Thomsonite with this mineral oc- 
curs between Nos. 9 and 10, but it is difficult to procure any thing 
from it. A specimen of prehnite and Thomsonite, presenting a 
surface about three or four inches square, found loose, is of great 
beauty—the latter in long, transparent crystals, radiating through 
the former. 

Blende, imbedded in apophyllite, has been obtained here—the 
quantity very small; colors green and red. Galena, in small aa 
tals, of which only a specimen or two was found. 

Among the loose bowlders to be met with in the soil where tie 
excavations were made, was one from which some good speci- 
mens of idocrase were taken. 

Scolecite, I think, may also be included in the list of the mine- 
rals of this locality, a specimen in my collection answering the 
description by Dana in its external characters. 

Dr. Beck, in his last report on the mineralogy of New York, 
states that he visited Bergen Hill, and found stellite there. He 
also appends to his report Dr. Thomson’s description of the mine- 
ral. Since reading it, I have re-examined my own collection, 
and have little doubt that I had previously confounded the stel- 
lite with Thomsonite. 

‘The greenstone ridge, in which the veins just described occur, 
is two miles from Jersey City, the mile post being placed near 
the middle of the cut. This is the principal one of three ridges 
which are covered with soil, although they are in some places 
denuded, and the valleys between them filled with bowlders and 
sand, which, doubtless, have been deposited there by diluvial ac- 
tion; but I leave these interesting speculations for others. 


Art. VIIl.—WNotice of the Geological Survey of the State of New 
York, presented to the Legislature, Jan. 24, 1840; by Otr- 
ver P. Hupparp, M. D., Prof. of Chemistry, Mineralogy and 
Geology in Dartmouth College, N. H. 


Tue steady progress which has attended the geological survey 
of New York, must be gratifying to every friend of science and 
of popular improvement. ‘These annual reports are intended only 


as evidence to the proper authorities of the State of the advance 
Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 10 


re! Geological Survey of the State of New York. 


of the work, and to convey as early as possible, hints of valuable 
resources, that the people may avail themselves of them before 
the completion of the survey ; but the digest of all the facts, and 
the scientific reasoning and deductions based on them, will form 
the crown of the labors of the geologists, to which, no doubt, 
they may look forward with satisfaction. As to time, this survey 
was projected upon the scale of four years, to the astonishment 
of many sensible individuals, who supposed a geologist would 
only have to establish himself, for a few days, in a comfortable 
hotel near the center of a county, and the inhabitants, having 
received notice some time previous of his sojourn there at a given 
time, would all come in, bringing their tribute of rocks, minerals 
and soils, and the work for a county would thus be completed in 
a very short time, and for a small expense, very much as a land- 
lord would do with his tenants on quarter day. The estimated 
expense of the undertaking was as little understood as the time re- 
quired, and both mistakes arose manifestly from entire ignorance 
or misconception of the nature and objects of the work. We may 
point such persons to the ‘Silurian System,” by Murchison, a 
work that occupied him some seven or eight years, aided by the 
suggestions and observations of many distinguished men, in the 
survey of a region far less in extent (although its geology is more 
complicated) than the State of New York; and we may refer 
such individuals to Buckland’s Bridgewater Treatise, upon the 
plates of which alone we understand the author expended the 
whole £1000 he received from the founder of that series of works. 

The present report is the last of the fowr annual ones, and the 
attention of the geologists will now be, of course, directed to the 
preparation of the final report. Here there is an opportunity for 
the State to display a just liberality in the execution of the 
“maps, geological sections and diagrams,” in the illustrations 
of zoology, conchology, botany, é&c.; and in the convenient ar- 
rangement of the various cabinets of natural history, that will 
greatly favor the just estimation of scientific labors in our coun- 
try ; and we expect from these State collections, that are already 
formed, and will be made, a considerable influence in favor of the 
study of natural science. 

Dr. De Kay’s report consists of a “Catalogue of the Animals 
belonging to the State of New York, as far as they have been 
figured and described,” and a “ Report” on the geographical posi- 
tion of the State, which is included between the ocean and the 


Geological Survey of the State of New York. 75 


great lakes, and intimately connected with the Mississippi valley 
on the one side, as it is with the mountainous districts of the 
Eastern States on the other. Dr. De Kay observes, that with a 
variety of soil, temperature and elevation, favorable to the devel- 
opment of organic forms, he “finds the Fauna of the State em- 
bracing the great bulk of the zoology of the United States,” 
“in which the geographic range of species is conceded to be of 
greater extent than in Europe.” 

The classification in the “ Regne Animal of Cuvier,’ with 
authorized modifications, as by C. L. Bonaparte and Audubon, 
in ornithology, has been adopted for the final reports, followed 
by a description of the species, with a notice of their habits, 
geographic range, &c. If Dr. De Kay is permitted to complete 
his illustrations in as good style as some specimens we once had 
the pleasure of seeing in his hands, there is reason to expect a 
beautiful addition to the works in this department. 

Dr. Beck mentions the occurrence of plumbago in the Fish- 
kill mountains, and a second locality of Gibbsite in an iron mine 
at Unionvale. 

He reports “ specimens of oolite, at Saratoga, similar in char- 
acter to the celebrated English Bath or Portland stone.” In the 
final report we expect to be assured that this rock, with the min- 
eral structure of oolite but without its organic remains, does not 
belong to the oolite formation which forms so remarkable a fea- 
ture in the geology of England, and that like all other specimens 
of that structure found in this country, it indicates a form of rock 
not rare out of that series, and affords no evidence of the exist- 
ence of a geological equivalent to the oolite of Europe. 

The similarity in the geological associations of minerals of the 
same kind, in the northern and southern portions, is, in many 
cases, very great; in other cases there is no resemblance. 

The ‘magnetic oxide of iron” is an example of the former 
kind. It is found apparently in beds following the line of direc- 
tion and of dip where the rocks are stratified, although in some 
cases presenting a variation, and cutting off a stratum at variable 
distances. 

The specular oxide of iron, in the northern counties, is con- 
nected with sandstone,—‘‘the cavities are filled with beautiful 
crystals of quartz,’ with very short prisms, and sometimes only 
double hexahedral pyramids ;—the deposits “are flanked by 
beds of limestone, and the hematitic iron ore of the south usu- 


76 Geological Survey of the State of New York. 


ally lies near the junction of the limestone with the talcose slate 
formation.” 

The ores of dead are found in almost all the series of New York 
rocks. The galena, in the hornblendic gneiss of Rossie, is the 
most remarkable deposit. A large group of crystals, in my own 
cabinet, from this place, contains one which is three inches across, 
—all are truncated on their solid angles, and some seem almost 
octahedral. ‘‘Calcareous spar, in the most diversified and beau- 
tiful forms, constitutes the principal matrix of the ore, and white 
fluor spar, its frequent associate, is of rare occurrence.” 

Dr. Beck remarks, that the soil, in the vicinity of the serpen- 
tine rocks, seems not to be injuriously affected by the presence of 
magnesia, according to a somewhat general impression that has 
been entertained concerning the effect produced by this earth, 
when existing in soil. As additional evidence in favor of mag- 
nesia as a stimulant to vegetation, the limestone of Rochester and. 
Lockport, and all the water limes that have been analyzed, con- 
tain from twenty to thirty parts of it, in the form of a carbonate, 
and “the soils in their immediate vicinity are among the most 
fertile in the State.” An instance is within my own observa- 

‘tion, of the use of the mineral dolomite, obtained at Fairlee, Vt., 
twelve miles above Hanover, derived from large veins in the 
older slate rocks, which was ground as plaster, and used by far- 
mers upon their land, side by side with gypsum, and the im- 
provement of the crop, above the general average in the field, 
was the same in both cases. } 

The mineralogy of each county in the State is given, in which 
department, for the beauty, size, number, and rarity of the min- 
erals, Orange and St. Lawrence counties are pre-eminent. Most 
of them have been previously noticed. One crystal of phos- 
phate of lime, from the latter county, weighs eighteen pounds. 
The varieties of calcareous spar, found with the galena of Rossie, 
are very numerous, associated with cubes and dodecahedra of 
iron pyrites and fluor spar, in crystals of the octahedron and cubo- 
octahedron; and splendid specimens of sulphate of strontian are 
also found. 

Dr. Beck describes Allanite, from Warwick, Orange county, 
its first occurrence in the United States, ‘‘and Cacoxenite in an 
iron mine in Antwerp, Jefferson county, heretofore found only in 
the iron mines at Hrbeck, in Bohemia, and is chiefly composed 
of phosphoric acid and peroxide of iron.” 


Geological Survey of the State of New York. 40 


The analysis of Eupyrchroite, described by Dr. Emmons in the 


second annual report, proves it to be a phosphate of lime 92.85, 
with oxide of iron 5.26 and a trace of fluoric acid ; and Rensse- 


laerite is “‘ pyroxenic steatite ;” its crystalline form is the oblique 
rhombic prism, Mon M 94° and 86°, P on M 106° 30’; and 
resembles the steatitic pyroxenes of Sahla noticed by Beudant, 
and its composition, 59.75 silica, 32.90 magnesia, is similar to 


that of steatite. 
Dr. Torrey’s report on Botany, is the first of importance re- 


ceived from him. He is charged with the collection and preser- 
vation of seven sets of each species, and the arrangement and 
naming of the whole. From the nature of his duties, the assist- 
ance of many observers and collectors in various portions of the 
State, was indispensable, and they seem to have placed at his 
disposal, with truly scientific liberality, their catalogues and col- 
lections, for the purpose of enabling him to make out his own 
catalogue. 

“'The whole number of species, indigenous and naturalized, in 
the State, including the lower orders of the cryptogamia, proba- 
bly exceeds 2,400. Of the phenogamous, or flowering plants, 
1,350 species have been found; of ferns and plants allied to 
them, 53 species; of the mosses, 150 species; of Hepatice and 
Characez, 30 species ; lichens, more than 150; and fungi, at least 
300. Of the flowering plants, 277 are trees or shrubs; 150 are 
reputed to possess medicinal properties ; 250 are ornamental herba- 
ceous species; and 140 are plants whieh have been introduced 
‘from other countries, and are now naturalized in our soil. Of 
proper grasses, our Flora contains 150 species, twenty four of 
which are of foreign origin. In the nearly allied tribe of the 
sedges, there are 140 species, more than half of which belong to 
the genus Carex.” 

The natural method is employed in the catalogue, with the 
synonyms, locality, time of flowering, &c.; and the final report 
will contain full descriptions of all these plants, and of others 
that before its publication may be discovered and added to this 
catalogue of 81 pages, 8vo. 

Mr. Conrad’s report is short, and occupied in detailing the prog- 
ress he has made in identifying the New York strata as equiva- 
lents of Murchison’s ‘‘ Silurian System.” The view he took of 
these in his first report, has been completely confirmed by more 
careful comparison of the organic remains; and it is impossible, 


78 Geological Survey of the State of New York. 


when we consider the obscurity and confusion that have pre-. 
vailed concerning these formations, and the impediments that ex- 
isted to a proper understanding of them, not to partake of the 
enthusiasm of the palzontologist, as he approaches the conclusion 
of his labors, and the gratification he expresses that “the legisla- 
ture of New York has had the liberality to cause the organic re- 
mains of the various formations to be figured and described in 
the final report of the geologists. The plan contemplated in 
describing them, is that of a stratagraphical, or grouping of all 
the organic remains in a particular series of strata, referable to 
one geological epoch ; and a student may, with the book be- 
fore him in the field, identify at once the rocks he desires to in- 
vestigate.” ein 

“he series in New York is far more complete than that of 
Wales described by Murchison, the formations pre-eminently 
characterized by their organic contents being three times the 
number of those illustrated in the Silurian System.” 

The comparison of the two series has resulted in identifying 
the “Trenton limestone’ with the ‘Caradoc sandstone,” the 
Llandeilo flags not being represented here,—showing the impor- 
tance of organic remains, in the absence of lithological resem- 
blance. 

The ‘Salmon river sandstones and shales,” possess a distinct 
and peculiar group of fossils, and are not represented in the Silu- 
rian System. The ‘ Niagara sandstone” contains fossil remains 
peculiar to it, and is characterized in New York, Pennsylvania 
and Virginia, by the splendid Fucoides Harlani. Although this is 
not found in Wales, ‘some of the fossils in the strata above it are 
characteristic of the upper parts of the Caradoc sandstone ;” and 
all these Mr. Conrad considers its equivalent. “The Wenlock 
shale is identical with the shales at Rochester, which abound in 
the Asaphus limulurus of Green, (A. longicaudatus, Murch. )” 

“The Wenlock limestone immediately succeeds the Wenlock 
shale in Wales, but the two formations are here separated by 
the following rocks, each of considerable thickness, and with 
distinct fossil groups. 1. Lockport limestone. 2. Gypseous 
shales. 3. Water lime series. Over the latter we find a blue 
sub-crystalline limestone, and then a gray shaly limestone, which 
together appear to represent the Wenlock formation, both in fos- 
sils and mineral character.” 


Geological Survey of the State of New York. 79 


“The lower Ludlow rock has its equivalent in a grit above the 
Oriskany sandstone.” 

The full account of this extended series will prove of great value 
in investigating the formations of our northwestern States. In 
general, the reports of their surveys present but little that is avail- 
able to a scientific classification. 'The lithological character of 
the rocks may be obvious, and easily interpreted ; but it is clearly 
impossible to decide upon their geological relations or equivalent 
character, especially when comparing formations of distant coun- 
tries, without a particular knowledge of their organic remains. 
The conditions that govern the development and existence of or- 
ganic beings, are so complicated, and, if we may so say, of an order 
so much higher, that their coincidence in different localities is far 
more remarkable than that of those producing similar rocks; and 
of course the evidence based upon the resemblance or dissimi- 
larity of the fossils, should be more weighty than that derived 
from these qualities of a rock. ) 

Mr. Mather’s survey of the first district, has developed “ the 
Catskill mountain series, consisting of coarse and fine grits, gray- 
ish, greenish, and various shades of red and brown, which lie 
thick bedded with water lines of deposition, strongly marked 
where a cross fracture exhibits the structure ; conglomerates, of 
various degrees of coarseness, grayish, greenish, and red; slaty 
sandstones, with slates and shales of various colors, red, green, 
spotted, gray and black. ‘Testacea are the principal fossils of 
the lower, and plants of the upper portion of the series, with 
seams and layers of pure anthracite ;’ and probably all of them 
are below the old red sandstone ; and they have below them the 
Helderberg limestone group, No. 7, of Mr. Conrad’s synopsis, in 
his second report, which ‘“ embraces a series of limestones, with 
subordinate beds of shales, slates, and silicious grits. It skirts 
the group of rocks last described, in a parallel zone, and under- 
lies them, it is supposed, through their whole extent.” 

“The Shawangunk grit, next below, varies from a conglome- 
rate to a fine grained grit rock; it is almost entirely silicious, and 
generally white or light gray_in color, with one bed at the upper 
part that is red. ‘The mountain on which this rock abounds, has 
taken its name from the predominant color of the rock—the word 
Shawangunk (Shongum) meaning, it is said, in the language of 
the aborigines of the country, white rocks. This rock, which is 
largely developed in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, is much less 


80 Geological Survey of the State of New York. 


so in New York, and extends, in an almost unbroken range, from 
the New Jersey line, on the top of the Shawangunk mountain, 
to Rosendale, near Kingston, a distance of forty three miles, where 
it disappears beneath the water limestone and tertiary deposits of 
the Hudson valley. On the higher parts of the Shawangunk 
mountain, it generally lies in nearly horizontal strata, often thick 
bedded, and in mural escarpments, of broken ends of the strata, 
thirty to two hundred feet high; on the eastern face of the moun- 
tain the strata have a high dip to the east southeast, and on the 
western side the dip is almost uniformly to the west northwest and 
northwest, in some places from 30° to 60°. 'T'wo systems of 
fractures, more or less coincident with and transverse to the direc- 
tion, are found; and where the elevatory movement has been 
along the latter, the dip is N. N. E. or 8. S. W; where the up- 
heave has been longitudinal, the dip is W. N. W. or E. S. E. 
The same general principles hold true in the rocks lying lower in 
the series, as the Hudson slate group, and the rocks of the High- 
lands. Most of the streams follow these lines of fracture, chang- 
ing from one to the other, to produce many of their changes of 
direction. Some of these lines of fault have been traced for 
many miles across mountains and valleys. 

“In the rocks thus described, there is evidence of at least three 
elevatory movements, viz. one (at least) before the deposition of 
the Shawangunk grit strata; another after the deposition of this 
and the Helderberg and Catskill series, and before the tertiary 
epoch; and another since that period. The Hudson slate group 
consists of a series of slates, shales, grits and limestones, with si- 
licious and calcareous breccias, and hypogene and Plutonic rocks, 
which correspond in many respects with the “Cambrian system” 
of Prof. Sedgwick, and occupies most of the country between 
the Highlands on the southeast and the Shawangunk mountains 
on the northwest, and forms the mass of the latter mountains be- 
low the Shawangunk grit. From Kingston, it ranges along the 
western bank of the Hudson, to Albany, (ninety miles,) under- 
lying the superincumbent rocks, unconformably with few ex- 
ceptions. Its range on the left bank of the Hudson, as far as ex- 
amined, is detailed in the second annual report. Its fossils, ob- 
served this year, are a few impressions of shells, and some Fucoides, 
or Graptolites, from the black shale below the Shawangunk grit, 
from 500 to 700 feet above the valley.” 


Geological Survey of the State of New York. 81 


Prof. Emmons presents in his report a notice of much interest, 
in relation to the iron ores of his district. Those of Essex county, 
at McIntyre, occur in vast abundance in the hypersthene rock ; 
they are also found in the other primary rocks. They belong to 
one variety, the octahedral or magnetic oxide, and occur in veins 
of great extent. 

The peculiar connexion of trap dikes with these veins suggests 
to Prof. Emmons an igneous hypothesis as to the origin of the ore. 

These veins in Arnold Hill, are crossed by a greenstone dike, 
ten feet wide, which dislocates one of them four feet, and they 
run north and south, making an angle with the direction of the 
rock and red granite, which is northeast and southwest. The 
Palmer vein is cut by four dikes; one of them is fourteen feet 
wide, and is traceable on the surface half a mile. This dike be- 
ing pierced, a vein of ore thirty five feet wide was found, in close 
contact with the dike and cleaving readily from it. 

The Winter ore has been cut through by nine dikes. 

The amount of the several veins in the vicinity of Clintonville 
is one hundred and thirty six feet. The ores in the Sandford 
mine, town of Newcomb, are in the hypersthene rock, and it 
would appear, from the minute survey and description given, that 
this ore is very superior, and the locality possesses advantages that 
render it more available than any other works of the country. 

These ores have been wrought, and the iron made has been 
submitted to comparative experiments by Prof. Johnson* of Phil- 
adelphia, and found to be equal in strength to the best English 
iron and surpassed only by the Russian. 

Prof. Emmons contrasts the position of the specular oxide of 
iron of Jefferson and St. Lawrence counties, with the magnetic 
oxide of Essex, and describes the association of the former as 
follows: “The specular oxide may be (is) found in two geolo- 
gical positions,—in the first it is associated with primary limestone 
—in the second with gneiss, or some other primary rock beneath, 
and the Potsdam sandstone above. In addition to the limestone, 
serpentine is a common associate. It is sometimes in pure sepa- 
rate masses, and in others, it is in intimate mixture and combina- 
tion—giving in the first instance a spotted, and in the last a mot- 
tled appearance to the rock.” 


* See this Journal, Vol. xxxv1, p. 94. 
Vol. xt, No. 1.—Qct.-Dec. 1840. 11 


82 Geological Survey of the State of New York. 


The ore “is found in wedge-form masses, which thin out en-— 
tirely in the downward direction, and the quantity varying from 
120 tons to a mass of 500 lbs., which was moveable with a bar, 
in place,’—its connexion with the parent rock having been de- 
stroyed by decomposition. 

The most abundant variety of specular ore, ‘occurs of a deep 
red. color, and in red powder, or bright shining scales, which by | 
slight pressure become a red powder.” Some of the deposits 
‘are apparently inexhaustible, and others are merely a mass of 
red earth in which there are a few lumps of hard ore.” “ Their 
position is confined to the upper portion of the primary strata, and 
lower layers of the Potsdam sandstone. It is rather remarkable 
that this rock, so generally connected with this deep red ore, is 
not as highly colored throughout as it is in some places, although 
generally it is white, or pale red, with a tinge of brown or yel- 
low.” 

From the observations made by Prof. Emmons in some of these 
mines, he suggests that the ore which appears in some cases as 
‘‘a bed lying between the primitive rocks, and the oldest of the 
sandstones,” may be ‘“‘in veins, being the upward extension into 
the sandstone from the primary mass.” In support of this view, 
he mentions the following facts connected with the occurrence of 
this ore: ‘1. There are numerous places where this ore has no 
other connexion than with the primary. 2. There are strong 
reasons to suppose that at these localities the sandstone has been 
removed, and that they were formerly in the same geological re- 
lations as the range in which the Parish and Kearney beds 
are now found. ‘There are every where abraded surfaces and 
fractured strata, and it appears that the sandstone was once con- 
tinuous over wider areas than it now occupies, as we find its re- 
mains as far east asthe specular iron is known to occur. Accord- 
ing to this view the sandstone, together with the red ore, has been 
removed, and according to well known facts, the whole must 
have been carried south; and what do we find in that direction ? 
Not only beds of red oxide of iron, mixed it is true with argilla- 
ceous matter, but also silicious rocks, the red sandstone, and the 
gray band of Prof. Eaton, é&c., in connexion with this argilla- 
ceous oxide.’’* 


* See Vol. xxxix, pp. 104, 105, Am, Journal. 


Geological Survey of the State of New York. 83 


“‘ Could we establish the connexion, now supposed, between the 
rocks of St. Lawrence and Jefferson, and those of the counties 
south, it would be an important link in the chain of facts connect- 
ing the origin of those rocks, the relative period of deposits, the 
slope of the country, the direction of the valleys, in fine, it would 
be the gathering up of a mass of the history of ancient times, 
of the most interesting character and bearing generally on the 
geology of the state.” 

Mr. Vanuxem’s report is chiefly of Lewis county, with a more 
particular notice of the rocks found in his district, than he has 
before given. 

The geologists of the third and fourth districts, have made fre- 
quent reference to the agency of igneous causes, to account for 
many of the phenomena observed in their field of observation. 
Among these, none are more curious than the following, describ- 
ed by Mr. Vanuxem. 

Speaking of the rock at Middleville, near Little Falls, which 
there “rests immediately upon the primary,” he says:—“'The - 
‘calciferous sandrock’ in many localities abounds with cavities 
large and small, often containing rock crystals, and small quanti- 
ties of anthracite coal. Frequently the large cavities, which are 
in part filled with crystals, have a covering of coal, which is flat- 
tened or depressed towards the center, showing that the coal was 
in asoft or yielding state. In other cavities, the coal is sometimes 
found in the form of drops or buttons. ‘These facts show that 
the coal was once bituminous, and has by heat been changed to 
anthracite. In some of the cavities, the whole of the crystals, 
amounting to a peck or more, have their angles and edges round- 
ed from friction, either from water having entered with a circular 
motion, or that a motion of the kind had originated from either 
vapor or gas. "hat this rounding of the angles and edges of the 
crystals was anterior to the solidification of the coaly matter, is 
evident from the fact of the anthracite covering in the manner 
above mentioned, the crystals which had been rounded by rub- 
bing one against another.” 

The configuration of the surface of Lewis county, is worthy 
of remark. 'The Black river, which enters it on the southeast, 
yuns northwest, drains the whole county, divides it into two 
nearly equal portions, and is the line of separation between the 
primary rocks on the east, with its barren soil and extensive dilu- 


84 Geological Survey of the State of New York. 


vium of sand and rocks, and the rich limestone, slate, and shale - 
lands to the west, which are well known as exceedingly fertile. 
This portion of the county is celebrated for its herds of cattle 
and horses, and its production of wheat. The difficulties hereto- 
fore experienced for want of a ready communication with the 
large markets, has prevented it from advancing as rapidly in 
wealth and population as other portions of the state, but the con- 
struction of the Black river canal, will remove this obstacle to its 
prosperity ; and it is destined to compete successfully with its 
_ sister counties on the Erie canal, in its agricultural productions and 
mineral resources. ‘The rocks of the county are the primary, 
the Potsdam sandstone, the fucoidal layers, (‘which are inter- 
posed betwen the calciferous sandrock and the Mohawk limestone, 
and are so abundant in the valley of the Mohawk,’) the Mohawk 
limestone, (at Boonville, forty feet thick, and quarried for the 
locks of the canal,) which lies under the bird’s-eye limestone, 
but the latter being absent in Lewis county, the Trenton lime- 
stone succeeds, increasing in thickness from thirty feet at the Mo- 
hawk to three hundred feet, at Copenhagen, generally divided by 
cracks or fissures, that have a twofold direction; one system be- 
ing north and south, and the other east and west ; the black slate, 
the Frankfort slate, and the shales of Pulaski. All these strati- 
fied rocks except the first two, pursue a uniform north and south 
direction through the county.” 

The opinions entertained by the geologist of the fourth dis- 
trict, Mr. Hall, in his report for 1838, p. 291, and in his report of 
1840, pp. 393, 394, and 452, 453, concerning the rocks of this 
portion of the state, their age and relative position in the scale, 
are quite different from each other. 'The lithological character of 
the New York rocks has occasioned doubt and perplexity in the 
minds of many observers, and the labor expended to resolve these _ 
doubts, has heretofore resulted in no clearer view of the case, but 
served rather to increase the darkness; and where we have com- 
pared them with the rocks of foreign countries, according to 
English or French classifications, the anomalies were found too 
great to permit our regarding them as the equivalent of either sys- 
tem. Mr. Hall appeared satisfied, however, with the conclusion 
expressed in his former report, because it rested in part upon the 
evidence afforded by the “organic remains ;”’ but since then, the 
same kind of evidence has convinced him that these rocks are 


Magnetic Dip in the United States. . 85 


“not of the carboniferous,” and but slightly of “the old red sand- 
stone groups ;” but the true Silurian, of Murchison, terminated 
or capped by the old red sandstone, ‘ bordering the southern lim- 
tts of the state, and in Alleghany county (N. Y.) extending north 
of the line ;” and it appears there upon the Genesee river in a stra- 
tum about six inches thick, containing a large proportion of iron. 
The settlement of the questions that have arisen concerning the 
geology of New York, must be regarded as of the highest inter- 
est to science, and as having removed the greatest obstacle that 
existed to the successful study of our American geology. Every 
one may see how unfortunate would have been a difference of 
opinion on this subject among the geologists in their final report ; 
how much, instead of promoting the cause of science, it would 
have retarded its progress, had their energy and talent been de- 
voted to the support of conflicting conclusions and opinions. 
The candor of Mr. Hall in deferring to the new and increased 
evidence presented by the ‘ Silurian system,” is worthy of imita- 
tion ; and this great extension of that class of rocks, in this country, 
ascertained and identified solely by comparison with the work of 
Mr. Murchison, the distinguished pioneer of this geological peri- 
od, will certainly cause him a noble gratification, while it adds 
lustre and dignity to his labors. 


Art. VIIl.—On the Magnetic Dip in the United States ; by 
Exias Loomis, Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philoso- 
phy in Western Reserve College. 


Messrs. E'ditors—I have read with much interest the remarks 
by Prof. Locke in the last number of- your Journal, and have in 
consequence been led to review my former magnetic article pub- 
in Vol. xxxrx, p. 41. I have carefully compared all of Prof. 
Locke’s observations with such of my own as have been made 
in Ohio and Michigan, both those which are given in my former 
article, and those which I have since made. Ihave followed the 
method adopted by Major Sabine in his magnetic survey of Scot- 
land. The first columin in the following table gives the stations 
of observation ; the second and third give their latitudes and lon- 
gitudes, taken from Mitchell’s large map of the United States, 
with the exception of places not.shown on that map. The lon- 


86 Magnetic Dip in the United States. 


gitudes have all been diminished seven minutes, which by my 
observations is the error in the assigned longitude of Hudson. 
Column fourth exhibits the observed dip, reduced to Jan. 1, 1840, 
by assuming the annual motion to be —1/.8. Adopting for the 
central position lat. 41° 22/, lon. 84° 54’, we obtain the differen- 
ces of latitude and longitude witch rath us the annexed equa- 
tions of condition. 


Longi- [Dip,Jan. Diff. of observ’d 
Stations. Latitude.} tude. 1, 1840. | Equations of condition. | & comp’d dip. 
/ 
Louisville, $8 18y.|85 37w./00 1.7/1.028—5 -1842— 32.7y| 417.1 
St. Louis, 38 37 |90 11 |69 30.8) .513=6 -165¢-247.7y| 4 2.9 
Cincinnati, 39 16, (84°23 70 34:81. 580 —5 — 13624 24 yes 
Dayton, 39 46 |84 5 71 19.6)2.327=6 —. 962+ 37.7y| +4 5.0 
Springfield, 39 55 83 42 |71 24.3)2.405=5 — 87at 55.2y| — 1.0 
Columbus, 39 57 (82 58 |71 1.8/2.030=6-— 85¢+ 88.9y| —30.6 
Urbanna, 40 5-|83 39 |71 35.812.597=6 ~ 772+ 57.4y|) + 1.2 
Tallmadge, 41 6 |81 26 |72 50.6)3.843=6 — 1624+156.7y) + 5.7 
Windham, 4115 [81 3 173 4.6/4.077=5- 724+173.7y) + 9.0 
Shalersville, 41 15 |81 13 |72 57.8)3.963=6-— 724+166.2y| 4 3.4 
Streetsboro’, 41 15 |8l 20 -|72 54.1/3.902=5- 72+160.9y) + .6 
Hudson, 41 15 |81 26 |72 50.8)3.847=0—-  72+156.4y| —- 2.0 
Warren, 41 16 |80 49 |73 1.9/4.0832=6- 62+4+184.2y) + 3.8 
Hartford, 41 20 |80 34 |73 1.0/4.017=5- 22+195.2y| —- 2.4 
Bazetta, 41 20 (80 45 |73 0.9/4.015=d- 22+187.0y) —- 1.2 
Aurora, Al 20 [81 20 172 56.7/3.945=0- 2274+160.7y| - 1.3 
Twinsburgh, 41 20 |81 26 |72 52.5/3.875=9 = 22+156.2y| - 4.8 
Bedford, 41 24 |81 32 /|72 59.33.988=O+ Q+151.5y) - .8 
Kinsman, 41 28 |80.34 |73 9.3/4.155=9+ 62+1948y| —- 1.2 
Davenport, 41 28 |90 35 |71 52.912.882=9+ G62-255.5y| — 6.7 
Sandusky, 41 29 [82 40 |72 56.63.943=0+ -774100.4y 0.0 
Cleveland, 41 30 [81 42 |73 19.6/4.317=9+ 8x+1438y| 414.7 
Maumee, 41 34 [83 32 72 47.9/3.798=5+ 1224 61.4y| —- 7.0 
Lost Grove, 41 39 [90 9 |72 1.9)3.0832=9+ 172-235. dy! -10.7 
Toledo, 41 41 |83 25 |73 4.9/4.082=0+ 192+ 66.5y| + 2.9 
Wapsipinnicon, {41 45 |90 23 |72 14.4/3.240=o+ 232-245.4y| —- 2.0 
Monroe, 41 55 (83 20 |73 31.1/4.518=0+ 332+ 69.9y] +16.1 
Brown Settlement,42 4 |91 2 |72 20.9)3.348=0+ 427-273.2y| - 8.1 
Farmer’s Creek, |42 13 |90 23 |72 32.7/3.545=0+ 512-243.6y| — 9.0 
Ypsilanti, 42 14 [83 32 |73 16.8/4.280=0+ 522+ 60.7y)  -13.8 
Mahoqueta, 42 14 |90 57 |72 43.1/3.718=9+ 527-268.8,| + 4.4 
Ann Arbor, 42 18 |83 37 73 12.7/4.212—5+ 56z+ 569y| -20.8 
Detroit, 4219 |82 56 |73 41.4|4.690=0+ 572+ 87.2y| + 22 
Dubuque, 42 29 |90 26 |73 4.6/4.077=9* 672-244.8y| + 8.7 
Mineral Point, 42 52 (89 58 |73 20.3/4.338=9T 902-222.8y| + 4 
Blue Mounds, 43 1 (89 27 73 40.6|4.677=6 + 99-199. 6y a= Yai 
Prairie du Chien, |43 4 |91 O {73 16.3/4.272=6 +102c-267.4y| - 7.3 
Madison, 43 5 |89 6 [74 3.2)5.053=5741037-184.0y|  +25.6 


'The preceding equations furnish us, by the method of minimum 
squares, with the following values: 9 =3.5747, «= + .01491, 
y=+.00262, and the direction of the isoclinal line is from N. 
80° 1’ W. to 8. 80° 1’ E. Computing from these data the dip 
at the several stations, we obtain the differences given in the last 
column above. When the observed dip is greater than the com- 


Magnetic Dip in the United States. 87 


puted, the sign + is prefixed. Hight of these differences are 
greater than 10’, four of them belonging to Prof. Locke’s obser- 
vations and the others to mine. ‘They are as follows: 


Prof. Locke’s. Prof. Loomis’ s. 
Columbus —30/’.6 | —23/ Ann Arbor — 20.8 | —19/ 
Madison +25'.6 | +27. Monroe -+16/.1} +13 > 
Louisville +1771 | +12 Cleveland -- 14.7 | +16 
Lost Grove — 10’.7 ‘i Ypsilanti —137.8 | —15 


The numbers in the second columns are the differences given 
in my former article. ‘The correspondence is certainly as good 
as could have been expected, considering that the last result is 
obtained by a comparison of nearly double the number of obser- 
vations, and by a rigorous computation, while the other results 
were measured uponamap. At Prairie du Chien the discordance 
is more considerable. The difference I now find is —7’.3; in my 
former paper —20’. The discordance is owing in part to the cur- 
vature [ ascribed to the isoclinal lines, by which most of the ob- 
servations seemed best represented, though the apparent error of 
this observation was increased. ‘The differences for the remain- 
ing thirty observations are quite moderate, and shew that the hy- 
pothesis of parallel straight and equidistant isoclinal lines, is not 
very much in error. | 

Let us now compare Prof. Locke’s observations in the neigh- 
borhood of the Mississippi river with themselves, and see how 
they accord. 'The following table is arranged like the preceding, 
the latitudes and longitudes being as furnished by Prof. Locke. 
‘The central position adopted is lat. 42° 0’ N., lon. 90° 10’ W. 


Longi- Dif. of observ’d 

Stations. Latitude.| tude. Dip. Equations of condition. | & comp’d dip. 
St. Louis, $8 36n.|69 36w.|60 31.4] .523—3 -2042+26.6y | + 34 
Davenport, 41 30 |90 18 |71 53.4) 2890=5 - 30x- 6.0y malt 
Lost Grove, 41 39 |90 9 |72 2.4) 3.040=6— 2la+ .7y — 9.7 
Wapsipinnicon, |41 45 |90 23 |72 14.9) 3.248=6 _ l5xz- 9.7y +17 
Brown’s Settlem’t,42 4 |91 2 |72 21.4) 3.357=04 42-38.6y + 2.9 
Farmer’s Creek, [42 13 |90 23 |72 33.1) 3.551=6+4 132- 9.6y — 7.0 
Mahoqueta, 42.14 |90 5% |72 43.6} 3.727=04 147-34.8y +13.8 
Dubuque, 42 29 |89 56 |73 5. | 4.083 =5+4 2927410.3y + 6 
Mineral Point, 42 50 89 54 (73 20.6] 4.343=64 50x411.7y - 4.6 
Blue Mounds, 43 1_.\89 38_ |73 40.9] 4681=54 617423.4y hel} 
Prairie du Chien, 43 3 /90 52 |73 16.6] 4.277=5 4 63x_30.7y - 2.1 
Madison, 43. 5 (189 6 |74 3.5) 5.058=54 652746.7y + 8.3 


These equations being solved in the usual manner, give z= 
.01600, y=.00745, =3,5323, and the direction of the isoclinal 


88 Magnetic Dip in the United States. 


lines is from N. 65° 1/ W. to S. 65° 1’ E. Computing the dip 
from these data we obtain the differences in the last column 
above. These differences are much less than those before found, 
and it seems highly probable that in this vicinity the isoclinal 
lines make a greater angle with the parallels of latitude than they 
do in Ohio. Yet the above observations are all embraced within 
less than two degrees of longitude, and are therefore insufficient 
to determine with much precision the dependence of the dip upon 
the longitude. 1 think it improbable that the inclination should 
be as great as 24° 59’ according to these observations; yet ad- 
mitting such to be the case, we still obtain considerable differen- 
ces between the observed and computed dip. Are these differ- 
ences to be regarded as errors of observation, or as errors of the 
hypothesis of parallel, straight and equidistant isoclinal lines? 
In order to answer this question, it is necessary to consides all 
the possible sources of errorin magnetic observations. 

The errors arising from the inclination of the magnetic axis of 
the needle to the axis of figure, and from inequality in the weight 
of the arms, as well as the zero error of the graduation, appear 
to have been provided against in Prof. Locke’s mode of observa- 
tion. ‘That arising from the excentricity of the axis of the nee- 
dle in relation to the vertical circle on which the readings are 
made, is not alluded to. This error in my instrument commonly 
amounts to one or two minutes, and sometimes even to five or 
more. It is corrected by readings at both extremities of the nee- 
dle. Prof. Locke makes no mention of having employed this 
precaution, and his language on page 321, where he says “the 
dip is determined by eight distinct readings of each needle,” 
would seem to imply that he did not attend to it. With a good 
instrument, no great error would ordinarily arise from this source, 
yet it might easily amount to 2/ or 3 

A more considerable source of error is that arising from the 
uncertainty of the readings themselves. A dipping needle will 
seldom come to rest twice in the same position. This arises, not 
from a change in the direction of the magnetic force, but from 
friction on the axis of the needle. Prof. Locke’s observations 
exhibit this fact in a striking light. The difference of the read- 
ings with the face of the instrument east and west, and in the 
same position of the needle, is equal to twice the zero error. Now 
as this error may be assumed to be constant, we obtain by a com- 


Magnetic Dip in the United States. 89 


parison of the observations eighty eight values of the same ele- 
ment, the accordance of which with each other will enable us to 
judge of the confidence which may be placed in a single obser- 
vation. It will be seen that the dip is usually the greatest when 
the face of the instrument is east. Subtract then the dip ob- 
served with the face west from that found with the face east 
with the same position of the needle. For example, in the first 
observation 72° 47’ from 72° 5’ gives — 42’, and so of the rest. 
We thus obtain the following table, which exhibits the observed 
values of twice the zero error. 


Eee vieer, Teles “+ ol4 ‘+20 ee ae, 
Sai eae Seas rel ab eater | ae 
UGE eee Te We tT Oy 5 5.5\ 25/210 
oO A 7 102i) 12/4 Ol 18 5113 |.116,5 
ee 3 Oe te Ale | aos 
ee ee ae Oe Oe 8 eo eee eS 
ee eres aah ge eee tT OlnenG 
4254 s\ 10/410 1 10} a) Big 65I4- 25 G5 


The mean of all these observations is +4/.5, which may be 
taken as equal to twice the zero error. ‘The difference between 
this and the preceding observations will show the errors of the 
observations, which when classified are as follows: 


~ 
~ 
~ 
~ 


-- 
ras 
or 
| 
© 
Or 
| 


+15.5)+8:5)+5.5)-+3:5 4.2.5 15) sees ers 
Wesel ee Sh Qok die Val) Ws) eG bok 6.5 
esha 5| esl clh i e5leiles) O51 Gol 6.5 
Pes oS es Os sh el Sl 86h. Gal iS 
IB |) Ga a Sélow lye ssieel ale Sal Gees 
OSG 5 Ws eis OR eee gin Ol Vel 7 eleiels 
SESS As) el eae BN ag or 5) 28h 17.5 
ME el Ls) a ha sl al dh eG 


By far the greatest error here is —46’.5, which was obtained 
from the first observation. The difference between the readings 
with the face of the instrument and needle both east, and that 
with the former west and the latter east, instead of being — 42’, 
should be +4/.5. This does not inform us which reading is most 
in error; if, however, we apply the correction to 72° 5’, making 
it read 729 51’.5, the resulting dip would be 71° 54/1, corre- 
sponding nearly with the other observations at the same place. 

Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 12 


90 Magnetic Dip in the United States. 


The average of all the preceding errors is +5’.5, which may be 
taken as the probable error of a single reading entirely independ- 
ent of instrumental errors, and the error frequently amounts to 
about a quarter of a degree. What then are we to understand 
by this result? Simply this, that if the instrument be properly 
adjusted, and a number of different readings be made in the same 
position of the instrument and needle, the needle each time being 
raised from its supports and allowed to come to a state of rest, 
the readings will not be identical. "They will frequently differ 
-+ 15’ from the mean, and on an average +5’.5. ‘This is the con- 
clusion derivable from Prof. Locke’s observations, and the result 
I presume coincides substantially with the experience of all who 
have undertaken similar observations. My attention has been 
particularly directed to this very annoying and almost disheart- 
ening anomaly, and it has appeared to me that when the agate 
supports and the axis of the needle are carefully wiped clean of 
moisture and dust, the discordance of the readings arises mainly 
from the needle’s slipping upon the agates to the east or west ; 
and that when the y’s which elevate the needle are so disposed 
as to allow the least possible motion in that direction, the accord- 
ance of the readings is the best. 

This uncertainty in the readings is of itself sufficient to entitle 
the dipping needle to the character of ‘one very ungrateful in- 
strument.’ Most of the other errors may be corrected by suita- 
ble precautions and reversals ; but this cannot be thus annihilated, 
and the only remedy with which I am acquainted is to multiply 
observations. Jam accustomed to make five observations in each 
position of the needle and instrument, always reading at both 
poles. I thus obtain eighty readings with each needle. 

Another error, and one which equally affects both needles, 
arises from observations being made owt of the meridian. At 
Hudson, the dip increases less than one minute from being ob-' 
served two degrees out of the magnetic meridian. Where one 
has leisure therefore to determine the magnetic meridian with ac- 
curacy, this error may be pronounced insensible; but on a tour 
where observations are usually hurried, the error from this source 
may become important. 

Another source of error is found in the imperfection of the 
axles of the needles. It has long been known that different in- 
struments would give different values of the dip at the same time 


Magnetic Dip in the United States. 91 


and place. This fact is strikingly exhibited in the observations 
by Captain Ross, contained in the fifth report of the British As- 
sociation. ‘The dip at London, as given by eight different nee- 
dles, was as follows : 


GIQILAS 69° 1879 
6/.3 19.6 
114.3 21.8 
16.1 A2’.6 


Here we have a difference of 41’ in the results of two of the 
needles. ‘This discordance was satisfactorily traced to the im- 
perfection of the axles, and its effect may be in a measure cor- 
rected by making the axle turn in the needle, thus enabling the 
points of the circumference of the axle in contact with the sup- 
porting planes to be varied in successive trials ; or it may be cor- 
rected by observations in different azimuths. 'The dip may be 
deduced from the angles of inclination observed in any two azi- 
muths 90° apart from each other, by the formula cot.20=cot.27-+ 
cot.?2’ ; or it may be derived from the formula cot.d6= cot. 7 sec. 0. 
Without some such trial or comparison with a standard instru- 
ment, no needle can be certainly relied upon. Ihave made this 
trial with my instrument, observing in every 10° of azimuth in 
the usual manner. ‘Thus one thousand three hundred and sixty 
readings were made with each needle. Ihave made in all about 
four thousand readings to determine the magnetic dip at Hudson, 
and after all should not dare to use any stronger language than 
Prof. Locke employs respecting his own results derived from six- 
teen readings, that they “are accurate within at least two or 
three minutes of a degree.” 

Other errors arise from the presence of magnetism, as for exam- 
ple, in the instrument itself, iron about the person of the observer, 
which may sometimes inadvertently happen with the most cau- 
tious, loose iron lying unperceived in the vicinity, etc.; and 
finally, local attraction sometimes causes the dip at a given place 
to differ from that due to the geographical position by several 
degrees. This will be especially noticeable in the vicinity of 
iron mines, basaltic rocks, etc. 

From the preceding remarks, I think it will be seen, that in 
magnetic observations we are not to look for the precision of as- 
tronomy. We have not sufficient data for estimating the proba- 
ble error of one of Prof. Locke’s results ; yet I should not hesi- 


92 Description of some New Species of Fossil Shells. 


tate to admit a possible error of more than 10’ independent of © 
local attraction, and this cause might easily increase the error to 
a half degree. Ido not see how Prof. Locke can refuse his assent 
to this, after publishing the dip at Cincinnati to be in Nov. 1837, 
70° 45’.7, and in April, 1840, writes, “I have lately found the dip 
at Cincinnati to vary between 70° 25’ and 70° 29',” and yet in 
his last article he assigns 0/.86 as the “mit of instrumental error. 
As for the errors of my own observations, given on page 87, I 
have twice observed the dip at Cleveland, on two opposite sides 
of the city, and in both instances have obtained a result greater 
than was to have been expected from its geographical position. 
The other three observations were in Michigan, where I was told 
iron ore was quite abundant. 


Arr. [X.—Description of some new species of Fossil Shells, from 
the Elocene, at Claiborne, Alabama; by Henry C. Lea. Phi- 
ladelphia, Oct. 17, 1840. 


Ir has long been a desideratum to the American geologist, to 
have the fossils of the widely extended beds of the tertiary forma- 
tion of this country, accurately described, and compared with 
those of a similar date in Europe. ‘The works of my father, Mr. 
Conrad, and other geologists, have done much to effect this, but 
there are, still, no doubt, many undescribed species remaining. 
The following descriptions of species, which the author presumes 
to be new, are as exact as he was able to make them, as he fre- 
quently labored under the disadvantage of having but one speci- 
men of a shell, and that one often fractured. ‘They were mostly 
obtained from a box of sand from the tertiary deposit at Claiborne, 
which my father has identified with the London clay, or calcaire 
grossiere of European geologists. ‘The author hopes that his de- 
scriptions are sufliciently clear amg: minute to determine the spe- 
cies permanently. 


FAMILY MELANIANA. 
Genus PasitrHea.—Lea. 
PL oninima. » RAS ties AC 


P. testa subulata, imperforata, polita, tenuissima ; apice obtusa; 
suturis minimis ; anfractibus , planulatis; columella levi ; 
apertura ovata. 


Description of some New Species of Fossil Shells. 93 


Shell subulate, imperforate, polished, very thin; apex obtuse ; 
sutures very small; whorls , flat; columella smooth ; mouth 
ovate. 

Length Breadth -04 of an inch. 

Remarks.—This pretty little species is the smallest of the Pa- 
sithee that I have seen. Its mouth is acutely angular above, 
rounded below, and is about -05 of an inch in length. ‘The co- 
lumella is somewhat thickened at base, and the outer lip is sharp. 
Its whiteness and polish, in which I believe it exceeds all the other 
fossils from Claiborne, give it an elegant appearance. 


Pi cancellaia.” Pl. 1, fis.2. 


P. testa turrita, subtenui, polita, imperforata, cancellata ; apice 
acuta; anfractibus , convexis; suturis profundis; columella 
leevi; apertura sub-elliptica. 

Shell turrited, somewhat thin, polished, imperforate, cancellate ; 
apex acute; whorls , convex; sutures deep; columella 
smooth ; mouth sub-elliptical. 

Length ‘3. Breadth -15 of an inch. 

Remarks.—lt is probable that this beautiful little species at- 
tains a greater size, as I have a fragment of a specimen, the 
breadth of which is ‘2 of an inch; it may therefore be regarded 
as the largest species of this genus from Claiborne. The mouth 
is rounded below and angular above, and about ‘1 of an inch in 
length. ‘The transverse striz are larger than the longitudinal 
ones, and make the whole surface of the shell beautifully can- 
cellate. 


P. elegans. Pl. 1, fig. 3. 


P. testa subulata, transverse sulcata, imperforata, subcrassa, po- 
lita; apice acuta; anfractibus nonis, planulatis; suturis minimis ; 
ultimo anfractu ad basim striato; columella levi; apertura sub- 
elliptica, sub-effusa. 

Shell subulate, transversely sulcate, imperforate, somewhat 
thick, polished ; apex acute; whorls nine, flat; sutures very 
small; last whorl striated to the base ; columella smooth ; mouth 
sub-elliptical, somewhat effuse. 

Length -3. Breadth :1 of an inch.. 

Remarks.—This pretty little shell has five striz on each whorl, 
except the last, on which there are fifteen, those near the base be- 
ing much smaller than the others; but as I have only one speci- 


? 


94 Description of some New Species of Fossil Shells. 


men, I cannot tell whether this is a constant character or not. It 
resembles the P. sudcata, Lea, in its furrows, but differs from it 
in other respects. 


FAMILY PLICACEA. 
Genus Acrmon.—Montfort. 
A. levis. Pl. 1, fig. 4 


A. testa subulata, polita, levi, tenui ; spira valde elevata; an- 
fractibus , planulatis; suturis impressis; columella unipli- 
cata; apertura quadrilaterali. 

Shell subulate, smooth, polished, thin; spire very elevated ; 
whorls , flat; sutures impressed ; columella with one fold; 
mouth quadrilateral. 

Length Breadth :05 of an inch. 

Remarks.—This interesting little species somewhat resembles 
A. elevatus, Lea, but differs from it in having but one fold on the 
columella, in the. shape of the mouth,..and in size. The fold 
on the columella is unusually large for'so small a shell. It is the 
most subulate Acteeon that I have seen. 


A. magnoplicatus. Pla few, 


= A. testa turrita, subcrassa, levi, polita; anfractibus , pla- 


ATES suturis impressis ; goles uniplicata, plica magna, 


acuta; Nabe acuto; apertura ovata, sub-effusa. 

Shell turrited, somewhat thick, smooth, polished ; whorls ; 
flat; sutures impressed ; columella with one large sharp fold ; 
outer lip sharp; mouth ovate, somewhat effuse. 

Length Breadth :07 of an inch. 

Remarks.—This little shell is remarkable for its large elevated 
fold, which is placed in the middle of the columella. The last 
whorl is angular below. ‘The mouth is .05 of an inch in length. 
I have but a single whorl of a specimen of this species, but that 
presents characters so different from those of any species that I 
have seen, that I have no hesitation in pronouncing it to have 
been hitherto undescribed. ‘This makes the eleventh Acteeon 
described from the tertiary at Claiborne. The striatus described 
by my father, has been changed by him to alveatus, the former 
name having been pre-occupied by Mr. Sowerby. 


Description of some New Species of Fossil Shells. 95 


FAMILY SCALARIANA. 
Genus Scatarta.—Lamarck. 
S. elegans. Pl. 1, fig. 6. 

S. testa turrita, imperforata, tenui, polita; spira acuta; anfrac- 
tibus senis, convexis, sessilibus; costis longitudinalibus quinde- 
cim; suturis profundis ; columella levi; apertura elliptica. 

Shell turrited, imperforate, thin, polished ; spire acute ; whorls 
six, convex, sessile ; with fifteen longitudinal ribs; sutures deep; 
columella smooth ; mouth elliptical. 

Length ‘1. Breadth ,5th of an inch. 

Remarks.—This is one of the most minute, and at the same 
time most elegant of the Scalarie which I have seen. 'The last 
whorl is ribbed only to the middle. It differs from 8. planulata, 
Lea, in having fifteen instead of twelve ribs on each whorl, in 
the mouth being elliptical, its size, &c. 


S. venusta. Pl. 1, fig. 7. 


S. testa subulata, imperforata, crassa; anfractibus , sessili- 
bus, convexis, costis tredecim; ultimo anfractu carinato, costato 
ad carinam ; suturis profundis; apertura sub-elliptica, parva. 

Shell subulate, imperforate, thick; whorls , Sessile, con- 
vex, with thirteen ribs; last whorl carinate, ribbed to the carina; 
sutures deep ; mouth sub-elliptical, small. 

Length Breadth -25 of an inch. 

Remarks.—In this species the ribs are quite thick, and there is 
a large varix on each whorl. In this character it resembles the 
S. quinquefasciata, Lea, but it differs from it in other respects. I 
have been able to obtain but two specimens of this shell, both of 
which have the spire very much fractured ; enough however re- 
mains to convince me of its differing from any species that I have 
seen. 


FAMILY TURBINACEA. 
Genus Turso.—Linneus. 
iy pares.) Pik fis.) Be 


T.. testa conica, ventricosa, umbilicata, crassissima, levi, polita ; 
umbilico parvo; anfractibus quaternis, planulatis ; suturis impres- 
sis; apertura rotunda. 


96 Description of some New Species of Fossil Shells. 


Shell conical, ventricose, umbilicate, very thick, smooth, pol- . 
ished; umbilicus small; sutures impressed ; whorls four, flat ; 
mouth round. | 

Length ‘07. Breadth -05 of an inch. 

femarks.—This little species has no remarkable characters, 
but [ cannot identify it with any described species. It some- 
what resembles 'T’. natzcotdes, Lea, but its greater elevation and 
small mouth, besides its not being so large, readily distinguish it 
from that species. J regret that from my single specimen having 
the mouth broken, I cannot determine whether it has the outer 
lip reflexed. 


Genus 'Trocnus.—Linneus. 
T. planulatus. Pl. 1, fig. 9. 


T. testa lenticulata, sub-crassa, levi, polita; anfractibus qua- 
ternis, convexis ; ultimo anfractu acute carinato; suturis parvis ; 
umbilico magno ; apertura elliptica. 

Shell lenticular, somewhat thick, smooth, polished; whorls 
four, convex ; last whorl acutely carinated ; sutures small; um- 
bilicus small ; mouth elliptical. 

Length -05. Breadth 1 of an inch. 

Remarks.—Iit is with considerable doubt that I have placed 
this shell in the genus ‘Trochus, to which it seems, however, to 
belong, from the absence of crenulations on the umbilicus, which 
is not as large as in most Solari@ to which this shell would, at 
first sight, be referred. Its mouth, however, is perfectly ellipti- 
cal, which seems to indicate a connection with the Turbo, to 
which, indeed, it bears a considerable affinity. It is remarkable 
as being the first T'rochus observed in the deposit at Claiborne. 


Genus TurriteLLa.—Lamarck. 
canna, «Piel shesnl(): 


T’. testa turrita, crassa, transverse striata et carinata; anfracti- 
bus , valde convexis, carinatis medio; suturis parvis ; aper- 
tura rotunda, sub-effusa. 

Shell turrited, thick, transversely striate and carinated ; whorls 
, very convex, carinated in the middle ; sutures small ; mouth 
round, somewhat effuse. 

Length Breadth ‘2 of an inch. 


1. Lasithed 
7) - 


“i: yn 


Fh. 
4. MO} EON 
oN r 
6. Scaluria 
Uf rs 
8. Lurbo 
LO. Lew. def 


l 


Ce. 
4 
' 
} 
' 
: i 
lg 
76. ; 
; 
I 
' 
i { 
an 
POLIOWOM. I Trochus... planulalus. 
cancellili, 170. Liurrviltella cartnale. 
CLEANS, UL Re PUOWRUYEI A. 
COUVIS. 72. Bi) GPaciles 
Magioplie als. 13. Lleurotonu cuncellate. 
ACGUNS . 14-7 ar beret Jusoites. 
PEWUSTLL . \75. » CANCE UL  PPUMCKEP PENI. 
LETV US , \46. Lrctov pyramidal. 


«be: Boyue: Lt CANAL GY L. 


V7. Bucciniume PaTviive , 


16. Terebra constricté . 
{ 79, Ate meultyplicata . 
20, Mitra Gractlts 
) al. uw COUT HEH. 
CUA WR nsec CLEYAHS . 
} 23. foluta dubia. 
\e4. Conus 


PAIVUS 5 
ES. Duval, Lith, Phils 


Description of some New Species of Fossil Shells. oF 


Remarks.—There are three stricze and a carina on each whorl, 
but as I have but a single specimen, I cannot determine whether 
this is a constant character. he striz: are very small, and are 
arranged, one near each suture and one on the under side of the 
carina, near its vertex. ‘The whorls, from the magnitude of the 
carina, resemble a double cone, truncated at both ends. My spe- 
cimen is fractured at the apex, so that the length and number of 
whorls cannot be satisfactorily determined. 


T. montlifera. Pl. 1, fig. 11. 


TT’. testa turrita, tenui, transverse striata, striis muricatis vel mo- 
niliferis ; spira acuta; anfractibus , sub-planulatis ; suturis 
impressis ; apertura sub-quadrilaterali. 

Shell turrited, thin, transversely striate, with muricate or moni- 
liferous striz; spire acute; whorls , somewhat flat; sutures 
impressed ; mouth sub-quadrilateral. 

Length Breadth ‘25 of an inch. 

Remarks.—This shell has four strize, three large and one small 
one, which is near the upper suture. ‘The sutures are very small 
from the flatness of the whorls. It bears a slight resemblance to 
some specimens of 'T’. lineata, Lea, but may easily be distin- 
guished from that species by the striz being moniliferous, and 
the less convexity of the whorls, &c. 


VY. graciiis. Pl. 1, te. 12: 


T’. testa turrita, tenui, transverse striata, striis latis; spira at- 
tenuata, acuta; anfractibus , sub-concavis ; suturis impressis ; 
apertura sub-quadrilaterali. 

Shell turrited, thin, transversely striate, with broad striz; spire 
attenuated, acute ; whorls , somewhat concave; sutures im- 
pressed ; mouth sub-quadrilateral. 

Length Breadth :1 of aninch. 

Remarks.—tIn this shell there are two broad striz, or rather 
elevations, which make the whorls convex. They are placed, 
one in the middle and the other in the upper part of the whorl. 
The sutures are distinct. ‘This species seems to be very fragile, 
for although I have seen a number of specimens, none of them 
_are perfect, most of them having the apex, and all the base, frac- 


tured. 
Vol. x1, No. 1.—Oct.—Dec. 1840. 13 


Ge. Description of some New Species of Fossil Shells. 
FAMILY CANALIFERA. 


Genus PLevrotoma.—Lamarck. 
P. cancellata. Pl. 1, fig. 13. 


P. testa sub-fusiformi, sub-crassa, cancellata, imperforata, striis 
longitudinalibus obliquis; spira acuta ; sinumagno, prope suturum ; 
anfractibus septenis, convexis; suturis impressis; columella levi, 
polita ; labro serrato, intus striato ; apertura longa; canale brevi. 

Shell sub-fusiform, somewhat thick, cancellate, longitudinal 
strie oblique, imperforate ; spire acute; sinus large, near to the 
suture; whorls seven, convex; sutures impressed; columella 
smooth, polished ; outer lip serrate, within striate ; mouth long ; 
canal short. 

Length 3. Breadth :15 of an inch. 

Remarks.—This pretty little shell is one of the most fusiform 
Pleurotome that I have seen. 'The mouth is half as long as the 
shell. ‘The transverse strize are much more elevated than the 
longitudinal ones, which on the last whorl become almost obso- 
lete. ‘The channel is shorter than in most Pleurotome, but is 
still very evident. The first and second whorls are smooth, the 
third has only longitudinal striz, and the rest are cancellate. 


Genus TursineELLA.—Lamarck. 
T. fusoides. Pl. 1, fig. 14. 


T. testa fusiformi, crassa, imperforata, transverse ac longitudi- 
naliter striata, longitudinaliter costata, costis maximis ; spira acuta ; 
anfractibus septenis, convexis ; suturis parvis, irregularibus ; colu- 
mella polita, quadriplicata; labro intus striato; apertura sub-ellip- 
tica, canaliculata. 

Shell fusiform, thick, imperforate, transversely and longitudi- 
nally striate, longitudinally costate, with very large coste ; 
whorls seven, convex ; spire acute; sutures small, irregular ; col- 
umella polished, with four folds; outer lip striate within; mouth 
sub-elliptic, channelled. 

Length -55. Breadth -35 of an inch. 

Remarks.—lIn this shell there are eight strize on the inside of 
the outer lip, but as I have but one specimen, I cannot determine 
whether this is a constant character. ‘They appear to be made in 
rows opposite every rib. The mouth is a litile over half as long 
as the shell, being 30 in length. The general form of this shell 
is more that of a Fusus, than of a Turbinella. 


Description of some New Species of Fossil Shells. 998 


Genus CanceLiarta.—Lamarck. 
C. pulcherrima. Pl. 1, fig. 15. 


C. testa sub-fusiformi, cancellata, striis longitudinalibus eequali- 
bus transversis, lineis crebrissimis parvis, transversis, sub-crassa, 
umbilicata; spira obtusa, mammillata; anfractibus senis, con- 
vexis, superne angulatis ; suturis impressis; umbilico parvo; col- 
umella duabis plicis; apertura sub-elliptica; canale brevissimo ; 
labro crassissimo. 

Shell sub-fusiform, cancellate, with the longitudinal strie 
equal to the transverse ones, with small transverse lines very near 
each other, somewhat thick, umbilicate ; spire obtuse, mammil- 
late ; whorls six, convex, angular above; sutures impressed ; um- 
bilicus small; columella with two folds; mouth sub-elliptical ; 
canal very short; outer lip very thick. 

Length -4. Breadth of an inch. 

Remarks.—This elegant little species is remarkable for the 
raised points at the intersections of the longitudinal and trans- 
verse striee, which render it muricated, and give it a beautiful ap- 
pearance. It resembles considerably C. multiplicata, Lea, but 
may easily be distinguished from that species, by its being cancel- 
late and muricate, but I cannot determine whether the shape of 
the mouth differs, as the outer lip of my only specimen is very 
much fractured. ‘The mouth is just half as long as the shell. 


Genus T'r1ron.—Lamarck. 


T. pyramidatum. Pl. 1, fig. 16. 

T.. testa turrita, crassa, polita, transverse striata; spira acuta ; 
anfractibus nonis, convexis ; suturis impressis; columella leevi ; 
apertura sub-elliptica, sub-effusa. 

Shell turrited, thick, polished, transversely striate ; spire acute ; 
whorls nine, convex; sutures impressed; columella smooth ; 
mouth sub-elliptical, somewhat effuse. 

Length Breadth °3 of an inch. 

Remarks.—It is with some hesitation that I have placed this 
shell in the genus ‘Triton, to which, however, it appears to be- 
long, from its irregular varices, of which some of the whorls have 
but one, and some two. It appears to have had a rostrum at the 
base of the mouth, but as I have only a single specimen, which 
has it broken, I cannot determine its size. It is remarkable as 


100 Deseripiion of some New Species of Fossil Shells. 


being the first Zrzion observed in the Claiborne deposit. The 
mouth is ‘2 of an inch in length. 


FAMILY PURPURIFERA. 
Genus Buccinum.—Linneus. 
B. parvum. PI. 1, fig. 17. 


B. testa sub-turrita, levi, polita, sub-crassa; spira acuta ; anfrac- 
tibus , planulatis; suturis impressis ; basi striata; labro in- 
tus striato; apertura sub-quadrilaterali, canaliculata. 

Shell sub-turrited, smooth, polished, somewhat thick; spire 
acute ; whorls , flat ; sutures impressed ; base striated ; outer 
lip striate within; mouth sub-quadrilateral, channelled. 

Length Breadth -07 of an inch. 

Remarks.—Iin this shell the outer lip has five striz, but, as I 
have only one specimen, I cannot determine whether this is a 
constant character. ‘Ihe columella appears plicate, from the con- 
tinuation of the strize of the base. ‘There is nothing very re- 
markable about this little species, although it is sufficiently mark- 
ed to characterize it as new. 


Genus Trresra.—Lamarck. 
T’. constricta. PI. 1, fig. 18. 


T.. testa subulata, attenuata, crassa, transverse striata, striis tri- 
bus, longitudinaliter lineata; spira acuta, valde elevata; anfracti- 
bus , planulatis; suturis impressis ; columella lévi; apertura 
sub-quadrilaterali; canale parvo, reflexo. 

Shell subulate, attenuate, thick, transversely striate, with three 
strie, longitudinally lined; spire very elevated, acute; whorls 
, flat; sutures impressed ; columella smooth; mouth sub- 
quadrilateral ; channel small, reflexed. 

Length Breadth -1 of an inch. 

Remarks.—But two specimens of this shell, and both with the 
spire very much fractured, have come under my observation, yet 
their shape is such as to leave no doubt in my mind that the spire 
is acute and very attenuate, in which it resembles most Terebree. 
It approaches 'T’. venwsia, Lea, but differs from it in its transverse 
striz, its want of longitudinal ribs, and in the channel being more 
reflexed. 


” 


Description of some New Species of Fossil Shells. 101 
T. multiplicata. PI. 1, fig. 19. 


T. testa sub-turrita, elongata, crassa, transverse striata, longitu- 
dinaliter costata, costis maximis; anfractibus , valde convexis; 
suturis impressis ; basi striata; columella quatuordecim plicis min- 
ins; apertura ovata; canaliculo sub-recurvo. 

Shell sub-turrited, elongated, thick, transversely striate, longi- 
tudinally costate, with very large cost ; whorls , very con- 
vex; sutures impressed ; base striate ; columella with fourteen 
very small folds; mouth ovate; channel small, somewhat recur- 
ved. 

Length Breadth -25 of an inch. 

Remarks.—This species much resembles the T. gracilis, Lea, 
but may be easily distinguished from that shell by the folds on 
the columella, its larger size, and its more strongly defined ribs. 
The mouth is ‘25 of an inch long. Its apex seems to be very 
fragile, for, although I have several specimens, that figured is the 
most perfect. 


FAMILY COLUMELLARIA. 
Genus Mrrra.—Lamarck. 
M. gracilis. Pl. 1, fig. 20. 


M. testa sub-turrita, tenui, longitudinaliter et indistincté striata, 
linea transversa prope suturas ; spira acuta, valde elevata ; suturis 
impressis ; anfractibus , planulatis; basi striata; columella 
triplicata; apertura sub-elliptica. 

Shell sub-turrited, thin, longitudinally and indistinctly striate, 
with a transverse line near the sutures; spire acute, very much 
elevated ; sutures impressed ; whorls , flat; base striated ; 
columella with three folds ; mouth sub-elliptical. 

Length Breadth -1 of an inch. 

Remarks.—This little species has the outer lip sharp and with- 
out strie. It resembles M. lineata, Lea, in having the longitu- 
dinal strice and transverse line, but differs from that species in 
other respects. As IT have met with but one specimen of this 
shell, and that with the spire fractured, I am not able to give its 
length and number of whorls. From the appearance of what I 
have, I should judge the spire to be very elevated. 


102 Description of some New Species of Fossil Shells. 
M. eburnea. PI. 1, fig. 21. 


M. testa sub-turrita, levi, sub-crassa, polita; spira sub-elevata, 
acuta; suturis impressis ; anfractibus octonis, sub-planulatis ; basi 
striata ; columella triplicata ; apertura sub-ovata. 

Shell sub-turrited, somewhat thick, smooth, polished; spire 
acute, elevated ; sutures impressed; whorls , nearly flat; base 
striated ; columella with three folds; mouth sub-ovate. 

Length ‘6. Breadth -25 of an inch. 

Remarks.—Iin this species the mouth is nearly one third as 
long as the shell. Itmuch resembles the M. mzndma, Lea, but is 
easily distinguished from that species by its superior size, the 
three folds on the columella, and the number of striz at the base, 
for this species has about twenty very fine ones, while the mznz- 
ma has only four or five large ones. Of the three folds on the 
columella the lowest one is very small. 


M. elegans. PI. 1, fig. 22. 


M. testa sub-turrita, elongata, sub-crassa, transverse striata, lon- 
gitudinaliter costata; spira acuta; anfractibus septenis, convex- 
is; suturis impressis; columella octoplicata, plicis minimis ; aper- 
tura sub-ovata, angusta. 

Shell sub-turrited, elongated, somewhat thick, transversely 
striate, longitudinally costate ; spire acute ; whorls seven, convex ; 
sutures impressed ; columella with eight very small folds; mouth 
sub-ovate, narrow. 

Length 5. Breadth -2 of an inch. 

Remarks.—This elegant Mitra has more folds on the columella 
than any other species I have met with. The M. fenestrata and 
M. crenulata, with a few others mentioned in Lamarck, having 
been separated under the name of Con@lz, to which genus, how- 
ever, this shell cannot be referred, on account of the length of 
the spire. ‘The longitudinal costes become almost obsolete on the 
last whorl. 'The mouth is nearly half as long as the shell, being 
‘2 in length. The last whorl is striated to the base. 'This shell 
may be regarded as the link between the genera Mitra and 'Tere- 
bra, as it much resembles the T. gracilis, Lea, and 'T’. multeplicata 
above described ; however, its channel is not either marked or re- 
curved enough for a Terebra. 


Description of some New Species of Fossil Shells. 103 


Genus Votuta.—Linneus. 
V. dubia. Pl. 1, fig. 23. 

V. testa fusiformi, crassa, longitudinaliter sulcata, striis trans- 
versis minimis; spira valde elevata, mammillata; anfractibus sep- 
tenis, planulatis; suturis minimis; columella quadriplicata ; pli- 
cis inferioribus eequalibus superioribus ; apertura angusta. 

Shell fusiform, thick, with very small transverse lines, longi- 
tudinally sulcate ; spire very elevated, mammillate ; whorls seven, 
flat; sutures very small; columella with four folds, the lower 
ones equal to the upper ones; mouth narrow. 

Length :7. Breadth :35 of an inch. 

Remarks.—The sulcations become more strongly marked upon 
the last whorl. It is with some doubt, that I place this singular 
shell among the Volute, to which genus, however, it seems to 
belong, from its mammillated apex ; its general form, however, is 
that of a Mitra, while the folds on the columella are between the 
two, being all equal.* ‘The mouth is only half as long as the shell, 
instead of extending nearly from the apex to the base, as in most 
Volutz. Mr. Conrad has described two species of Mitra from 
Claiborne, the M. pacitlis and M. bolaris, which, as they have 
mamunillated spires, seem to me rather to belong to the Volute. 


FAMILY CONVOLUTA. 
Genus Conus.—Linneus. 
C. parvus. Pl. 1, fig. 24. 

C. testa conica, levi, polita, crass4; anfractibus , planula- 
tis, superne et transverse striatis, longitudinaliter et oblique plica- 
tis infra angulatum ; suturis parvis ; basi striata; apertura angus- 
tissima. 

Shell conical, smooth, polished, thick ; whorls , flat, trans- 
versely striate above, longitudinally and obliquely folded below 
the angle ; sutures small; base striated; mouth very narrow. 

Length Breadth -12 of an inch. 

Remarks.—This little shell has nothing remarkable about it, 
except its folds near the shoulder, which, together with its small 
size, distinguish it from the C. sawridens of Conrad. 


* The distinction between Mitra and Voluta is thus drawn by Lamarck, Ani- 
maux sans Vert. Vol. vir, part 1, p. 328. ‘“‘ C’est avec les Mitres que les Volutes ont 
le plus de rapports; mais elles en sont eminemment distinguees : 1, par les plis de 
leur columelle dont les inferieurs sont les plus gros et les plus obliques; 2, par l’ex- 
tremité de leur spire qui est obtuse ou en mammélon.”’ 


104 New Electro-Magnetic and Magneto-Hlectric 


Art. X.—A Description of several New Electro-Magnetic and 
Magneto-Electric Instruments and Experiments ; by Joserx 
Harte Assot, Mem. Am. Acad. Arts and Sciences, &c. 


Tue following articles of apparatus, some of which have been 
invented more than a year, have not hitherto been described in 
any scientific journal. They seem to me to possess important 
advantages over all instruments of a similar kind now in use ; 
and, so far as is known to me, some of the results obtained with 
with them are new. ‘hey are all manufactured by Mr. Daniel 
Davis, Jr., a very ingenious maker of magnetical instruments of 
this city. 


Re cine 


Double Helix ey Electrotome.—This instrument is repre- 
sented by figure 1. The double helix, a, a, is nine inches long 
and two and a half inches in diameter. It forms a hollow cylin- 
der, capable of containing a round rod about three fourths of an 
inch in diameter, and is confined to a base-board by three brass 
bands. he inner helix is composed of five strands of large, 
insulated copper wire, the aggregate length of which is aoa 
one hundred feet. The similar ends of these strands at one ex- 


Instruments and Experiments. 105 


tremity of the helix, pass down through the base-board, under- 
neath which they are soldered to the cupc. The similar ends 
at the other extremity of the helix, likewise pass down through 
the base-board, underneath which they are connected with the 
middle brass band e, which is surmounted with a brass cup con- 
taining mercury. Into this cup descends a copper wire s, con- 
nected above with the wire w, w, which by means of clock-work 
set in motion by aconcealed spring, wound up at the milled head 
d, is made to vibrate rapidly, and to dip alternately into glass 
cups for containing mercury. ‘The glass cups are open at bot- 
tom, so as to allow the mercury to be in contact with the brass 
supports, into which they are cemented, and which are fastened 
to the outer brass bands b and b’. These brass bands are con- 
nected underneath the base-board with a cup c’, not seen in the 
figure and corresponding to ec. Both the cups c and c’, are fur- 
nished with binding screws to confine the wires by which the 
inner helix is connected with the battery. 

Exterior to the helix just described, enclosing it and insulated 
from it, is another composed of about two thousand feet of small 
insulated wire, the two extremities of which are soldered to the 
cups m and m/, likewise furnished with binding screws. H and 
H’ are handles for shocks, connected with the cups m and m/. If 
we now suppose the copper pole of a voltaic battery to be con- 
nected with the cup ec, and the zine pole with the corresponding 
cup ec’, the battery current will circulate unbroken through the 
several strands of wire composing the inner helix, to one of the 
outer bands; thence by the vibrating wire to the middle band, 
and thence to the cup ¢’, whenever either end of the vibrating 
wire dips into the mercury of the glass cups. As the vibrating 
wire approaches to a horizontal position, previously to the other 
end’s dipping into the mercury of the other glass cup, the battery 
current is broken, and a bright spark is seen in the cup, in which 
the rupture of the current has just taken place. If the handles 
be grasped with moistened hands, severe shocks will be felt. 
Introduce into the helix a brass tube, and the spark becomes 
quite small, and the shock feeble. Next introduce a bundle of 
soft iron wires into the brass tube, and the spark and shock are 
not sensibly increased. If the tube be now withdrawn from 
the helix without withdrawing the iron wires, the spark will be- 


come exceedingly brilliant, and the shocks so severe that they 
Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.—Dec. 1840. 14 


106 New Electro-Magnetic and Magneto-E lectric 


cannot be endured a moment even by the firmest nerves. The 
intensity of the shock may be varied at pleasure by varying the 
number of the iron wires in the helix, the addition of a single 
wire producing a very manifest effect. If the brass tube be lon- 
gitudinally divided on one side, it no longer diminishes the shock 
or spark. 

The neutralizing influence of the outer helix, when its ex- 
tremities are connected by means of a copper wire, admits of 
very satisfactory explanation on the principles discovered by Prof. 
Henry, and fully explained by him in his highly valuable paper 
published in the No. of this Journal for April last. On. breaking 
the battery circuit, a secondary current being induced in each 
helix, and flowing in the same direction with the voltaic current, 
the secondary current in the outer helix tends to produce a ter- 
tiary current in the inner one flowing against the secondary, and, 
as shown by the diminution of the spark and shock, counteract- 
ing in a great measure its effect. Secondary currents, as was 
shown by Prof. Henry ina similar case, are likewise induced in 
the undivided brass tube, and produce a similar counteracting 
effect. The closed circuits must also act asa feeble prolongation 
of the battery current, and thus prevent that sudden neutraliza- 
tion of the magnetism of the enclosed iron bar or wires, which 
is essential to the bright spark and strong shock. 

The superiority of a bundle of wires over a bar of iron, was 
discovered nearly at the same time by Dr. Page in this country, 
and by Mr. Bachhoffner in England. Dr. Page ascribes it to the 
mutual neutralizing action of similar poles, and the consequent 
greater suddenness of the change, which, at the moment the bat- 
tery current is broken, takes place in the iron wires. ‘To this 
cause must be added the absence of the closed circuits which are 
induced in the iron bar. I have not been able to perceive much 
advantage in insulating the iron wires contained in the helix, as 
was done by Mr. Bachhoffner. The effect of an iron bar in in- 
creasing the shock and spark, is very much enhanced by sawing 
it longitudinally on one side to the axis, by which the closed 
circuits, otherwise induced in it, are in a great degree prevented. 
An iron tube one eighth of an inch in thickness, produces a 
greater effect than a solid iron bar of the same diameter, though 
less than when the helix is equally filled with iron wires. The 
effect of an iron bar or of a bundle of iron wires, is not dimin- 


Instruments and E’xperiments. 107 


ished by inserting them in a tube of glass or other non-conduct- 
ing substance, before introducing them into the helix. 

When a bar of iron is contained in the helix, and a small key 
or some nails are applied to one end of it, notwithstanding its 
magnetic attraction is intermitted every time the voltaic circuit 
is broken, yet, it being almost instantaneously renewed, they do 
not cease to be sustained. This experiment succeeds best when 
the iron bar is enclosed in a brass tube previously to being intro- 
duced into the helix, the closed circuits of the tube tending to 
prolong its magnetism. | 

The double helix and electrotome, in consequence of being 
provided with a mechanical contrivance for breaking the battery 
circuit, may be used witha very small battery, although its effects 
are of course most striking, when used with a powerful one. If 
a voltaic pair, consisting of a silver dollar and a piece of rolled 
zine of the same size be used, and the helix be filled with soft 
iron wires, the shock is quite severe. 

Water may be decomposed by connecting the outer helix with 
an instrument for that purpose having very small platinum wires 
suarded with glass, as originally used by Wollaston. 'The ex- 
tremities of the platinum wires, while the decomposition is going 
on, appear in a dark room, one constantly and brightly, and the 
other intermittingly and feebly luminous. If the apparatus for 
decomposition is removed out of the noise of the double helix 
and electrotome, rapid discharges are heard in the water, produ- 
cing sharp ticking sounds, audible at the distance of eighty or 
a hundred feet, and synchronous with the ruptures of the vol- 
taic circuit. Decomposition is effected both by the initial and 
terminal secondary currents, that is to say, by the currents indu- 
ced both on completing and on breaking the battery circuit ; but 
the ticking noise and sparks accompanying the rapid discharges 
in the water, are produced only by the terminal secondary cur- 
rent. Hydrogen may be kindled and brilliant scintillations pro- 
duced by the double helix and electrotome. A Leyden jar, the 
knob of which is connected with the inside coating by a contin- 
uous wire, may be feebly charged, and slight shocks be rapidly 
received from it, by bringing the knob in contact with one of the 
cups of the outer helix, and grasping with the two hands respec- 
tively the outer coating of the jar and a handle connected with 
the other cup. ‘The instrument is likewise very convenient for 


108 New Electro-Magnetic and Magneto-Electric 


showing the spark of a magneto-electric machine, that is fur- 
nished with the contrivance, called by Dr. Page a unitrep, for 
causing the current induced by the magnet to flow in a constant 
direction. By making the proper connections, the magneto-elec- 
tric current may be made to circulate through the inner helix in 
the same way as the voltaic current, producing sparks in the glass 
cups, and, if the handles connected with the outer helix be grasp- 
ed, slight shocks. In addition to the experiments I have enume- 
rated, the double helix and electrotome may be used for most of 
the purposes of a common simple helix. 

Separable Helices and Revolving Armature.—This instru- 
ment, represented by figure 2, is similar in many respects to the 
preceding, and will require but little description. ‘The two heli- 
ces are composed of wires of about the same length and size, as 
those of the double helix and electrotome, but entirely discon- 
nected with each other, so that the outer may be removed from 
the inner one. ‘The latter is firmly secured in a vertical position 
to a base-board, underneath which one set of similar ends of its 
wires is soldered to the cup A, and the other set to the cup B. 
R-R is a steel rasp, confined in close contact with the cup B. 
-P Pisa modification of Page’s revolving armature, described in 
Vol. xxxv, p. 262, of this Journal. The extremities of the wire 
wound round the two branches of the electro-magnet, are respec- 
tively connected underneath the base-board with the cups Band C. 
The voltaic current may be transmitted in sequence through this 
instrument and the inner helix, by connecting the cups, A and C, 
with a battery. It is here used to break the battery current, 
_which it does twice during each revolution of the armature. 
_ The battery current may be broken, without including the revol- 
ving armature in the voltaic circuit, by connecting one of the 
battery wires with the cup A, and drawing the end of the other 
‘over the steel rasp, in which case brilliant scintillations will be 
produced. Sand $ are cups fastened to brass caps, longitudin- 
ally divided, which enclose the ends of the outer helix, and to 
which the ends of the wire composing it are soldered. In the 
figure there is seen, projecting from the upper end of the inner 
helix, a brass tube filled with iron wires, which may be with- 
drawn. ‘This instrument is peculiarly suited to the lecture-room 
on account of its simplicity, and the facility with which the 
powers and uses of its several parts may be separately exhibited. 


Instruments and Experiments. — 109 


Very many of the experiments before described, may be perform- 
ed with it. Both this instrument and the double helix and elec- 
trotome, readily furnishing a rapid succession of shocks of every 
degree of intensity, are highly convenient for the medical appli- 
cation of electricity. 


In September last, J. Smyth Rogers, M. D., of New York, then 
on a Visit to this city, observed a difference in the intensity of the — 
shocks received by the two arms when connected with the cups, 
S and S, of the separable helices and revolving armature. On 
his mentioning the circumstance to me, we undertook to verify 


110 New Electro-Magnetic and Magneto-Electric 


the fact by more extended experiments. -For this purpose we 
administered a succession of shocks of moderate intensity to six 
or eight individuals, several of whom were entirely unacquainted 
with the theory of the instrument. All of them perceived the 
same difference, as well when their backs were turned towards 
the instrument, as when it could be seen by them. Whenever 
the direction of the battery current was changed, or the outer 
helix was reversed, thus changing the direction of the induced 
currents, a corresponding change took place as to the arm most 
affected by the shocks ; as was manifested not only by the sen- 
sations of the individual himself, but by a difference in the vio- 
lence of the contractions produced in the two arms, visible to 
others. ‘There is a similar difference in the intensity of the 
shocks received from the double helix and electrotome, and also, 
though less striking, in those received from a magneto-electric 
machine, in which the primary current is made to flow in a con- 
stant direction. On repeating the experiment with Prof. Henry, 
during a recent visit made by him to this city, he perceived the 
same difference of intensity of which I have spoken. I have - 
ascertained by means of a galvanometer, that it is the arm con- 
nected with the negative cup, which is most convulsed, and ex- 
periences the strongest sensations. In determining the positive 
or negative character of the cups, regard was had only to the 
terminal secondary current, it being found that the initial secon- 
dary current, whether induced by means of a voltaic battery or 
a permanent steel magnet, produces comparatively feeble physio- 
logical effects, and consequently need not, in this case, be taken 
into account. Since the preceding facts were observed, I have 
met with an account in the Quarterly Journal of Science for the 
year 1830, of similar results obtained by Prof. Marianini, of Ven- 
ice, with a voltaic battery of a considerable number of pairs of 
plates. He regards the difference in the intensity of the shocks 
as a purely physiological phenomenon, the greatest effect, both as 
it respects sensation and muscular contractions, being produced 
by the electric current, when it proceeds in the direction of the 
ramification of the nerves. 

Instrument for exhibiting the simultaneous rotation of a mag- 
net and conducting wire.—It was discovered by Faraday, that in 
the well known experiment of a conducting wire revolving round 
a magnet, the circumstance of the wire and magnet being joined 


x Instruments and Experiments. 111 


together, does not affect the result. 


To show this fact, he used 


a magnet loaded at its lower extremity with platinum, and float- 
ing in a vertical position in a vessel full of mercury. ‘The instru- 


ment represented by figure 3, illus- 
trates the same fact without the in- 
convenience of using a large quan- 
tity of mercury, and, in conse- 
quence of the diminished resist- 
ance to be overcome, exhibits a 
much more rapid rotation than can 
be obtained by means of Faraday’s 
apparatus. A magnet, pointed at 
both ends, is supported on an agate 
cup A, while its upper end is kept 
in place by slightly entering a small 
cavity in the lower extremity E of 
a small brass rod passing up through 
the arched top of the sustaining 
brass frame-work, and surmounted 
with a cup for making connection 
with a voltaic battery. From one 
side of the same rod, a copper wire 
passes down into a small cistern 
for containing mercury, resting on 
the shoulder of the magnet near 
its upper end. ‘'I'wo copper wires 
projecting into this cistern, descend 
into another of ivory, supported on 
a stage, and surrounding the mid- 
dle of the magnet, but not touch- 
ing it. One end of a large bent 
copper Wire projects into the inte- 
rior of the ivory cistern, and the 
other supports a cup for making 


ui 


Fig. 3. 


communication with a battery. On putting a proper quantity 
of mercury into the cistern, and transmitting a voltaic current 
through the wires, the whole movable part of the apparatus will 


rotate with considerable velocity. 
Boston, November 7, 1840. 


112 Interesting Properties of Numbers. 


Arr. XI.— Development of some interesting Properties of Num- 
bers; by Grorce R. Perxiys. 


Ir we multiply a unit by any number N, and divide the result 
by anumber P, then multiply the remainder by N, and again 
divide by P; and thus continue to multiply the remainder by 
N, and to divide by P: we shall obtain a succession of quotients 
and remainders which we will represent by 7,, 92,93, - «+ Vz 
ANG? 4 Pde eer eee 

From the above law of operation, we readily deduce the fol- 
lowing equations : 

From the first of these equations we 


ee can find r,, which substituted in the se- 
Ne pe: Le (1) cond will make known r,, which in turn 
eee he substituted in the third will give 7, ; and 
Np : 2, te thus we may continue until we have ob- 
z= Siar 2 tained the following equations: 
r_ =N—Pq, 
No =N? — P[Nq, +q.| 
r,—N?—P([N’*q,+Nq, +q,] (2) 
aN = EN eeg, EN 2g See +Nq.-, +92] 


Since r, in the general equation of (2), is less than P, it fol- 
lows that if we divide that equation by P, the remainder on the 
left hand side of the equation will be 7, ; and consequently we 
must have the same remainder on the right. Now, since the 
term within the brackets is multiplied by P, it can leave no re- 
mainder when divided by P: hence we conclude, 

That N* divided by P will give r, for remainder. 

If in the general equation (2), we substitute M for the expres- 
sion within the brackets, we shall obtain r,—N* — PM (3), this 
being true for all values of x, we shall also have r,,=N*' — PM’ 
(4). Multiplying (3) and (4) together, we get r, Xr,,=N**7“—P 
[MN*'+M/N*—PMM’] (5). Hence we conclude, 

That r, Xr,i divided by P, will give r,..., for remainder. 

From the general equation of (1) we discover, 

That (N—R)q, divided by N, will give the same remainder as 
r, divided by N, where R ts the remainder of P divided by N. 

It is evident that the process will terminate whenever we ob- 
tain 7,=0; but when this is not the case, the quotients and re- 


Interesting Properties of Numbers. «113 


mainders must recur in periods whose number of terms cannot 
exceed P-—1; for there can be but P—1 different remainders ; 
so that if we extend the process beyond P—1 terms, we shall be 
sure to fall upon a remainder like one that has already occurred, 
and then the quotients and remainders will begin to repeat. 

Thus far our conclusions have been general, that is, they are 
correct for all values of Nand P. We will now deduce some 
properties which hold for particular values of N and P. 

When P is a prime, and N is not divisible by P, we know by 
the celebrated theorem of F'ermat, that N?-" divided by P will 
leave 1 for remainder, that isrp_,=1. Hence we conclude, that 
FeV e4P- 1 (7), also ¢.=Qz4P-y (8). 

It also follows, that when the number of terms in the periods 
of quotients and remainders is less than P —1, tt must be a sub- 
multiple of P—1. 

Suppose we should find rp te —1, then the remainder 


n 
ioe i ate be found by dividing NP—N by P, or simply by 


n 
dividing —N by P; we have already indicated the remainder of 
N divided by P, by 7, ; therefore the remainder of — N by P will 
be —r,, ormore correctly P—r,. Hence Tp_y =P—r, or 


+1 
n 


+r,=P; after the same manner we prove Tp 


+ 
=i. 


nv 11) 


From the general equation of (1) we get Pg. =Nr,_, —1., (10). 
P—1 


‘ Changing z into z 


+z we have Pap _ 1 =Nrp_ 1 
£ 


+er—1 
n n 
(11). Taking the sum of (10) and (11) and reducing 


+2, 


~"p—l 
n 
by means of (9), we getqp_y +42=N- 1, (12)... Bhere- 
+2£ 


n 
fore, whenever the remainder Tp_ iP —1, the number of terms 


2 
2(P —1) 
7 


and 


in the periods of quotients and remainders will be 


Vol.-xt, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 15 


114 Interesting Properties of Numbers. 


these quotients and remainders will satisfy the conditions of equa- 
tions (9) and (12). 
We know by the Theory of Numbers, that the remainder of 
P-1 
N 2 divided by P is either 1 or P—1. Hence, it follows that 
when the remainder is P —1, the number of terms in the periods 
will be P—1 or a submultiple of P—1. And when the remain- 


der is 1, the number of terms in the periods must be = | or else 


a submultiple of ae 

if N is a composite number of the form 2%, 6°, °, &c. when a, 
6, 7, &c. are prime factors, and a, b, c, &c. are whole numbers, 
and P is also a composite number, whose prime factors do not 
differ from those which compose N, then the process will termin- 
ate ; for x can be so taken as to make Ne divisible by P without 
a remainder. 

If P, besides containing the prime factors common to N, con- 
tains other prime factors, the process will not terminate, but must 
give periods of quotients and remainders; but in this case, other 
terms will occur before the periods commence. 

If Nand P are both primes, the one of the form 4n+1, and 
the other of the form 4n+3, we know by the law of reciprocity 
of primes, that if the remainder D4 is P—1, then also will the 


2 
remainder Tp _4 be P—1, when N and P exchange places; so 


2, 
that the number of terms in the periods in the first case, will be 


P—1; and in the second case, N —1. 
We will now illustrate these singular properties by numerical 


results. If N==20 and P=37, we shall have as follows: 
: 0,10, 16, 4, 6, 9, 14, 11,17, 16,15, 2,14, 1,-1,12) s;12 
Quotients { 49° 9, (3,15, 13°10, 5, 8) (2) 3)4. 17) 15, 18, 187 ae 


. 6 20, 30, 8, 12, 18, 27, 22, 33, 31, 28, 5,26, 2, 3, 23, 16,24, 36 
Remainders § 77? 7, 29, 25,19, 10,15, 4, 6, 9,32, 11, 35, 34, 1421-13, 1 


We have arranged the quotients in two horizontal lines, so that 
the q, is directly over the Ip_] quotient ; in this arrange- 
ee eS 
2 
ment, we more readily see that they satisfy the condition (12); 

the remainders we have arranged in a similar manner. 


Interesting Properties of Numbers. 115 


If N=16, and P=13, the quotients will be 1, 3, 11; the re- 
mainders will be 3, 9, 1. 

If N=70=2.5.7, and P=32=25, the quotients will be 2, 3,. 
8, 52, 16; the remainders will be 6, 4, 24, 16, 0. In this case the 
process terminates. 


If N=13, and P=11, the quotients will be ; ; 


1A, 10, 
PSEA SAR pacer 2, 4, 8, 5, 10 
The remainders will be ; 9) 7 3) 64 
Now exchanging the values of N and P, that is, taking N=11, 


and P=13, we get the quotients 10. : S ; : 2 the remain- 


ders $1545, 3,7, 12 
2 Seu Gael 
If N=509, and P=19, we find Tp_1 


2 
the number of terms in the periods will be P—1. And since N 


and P are both primes, the one of the-form 42-++1, and the other 
of the form 4n+3, it follows that if N=19, and P=509, the 
number of terms in the periods will be P—1L=508. 

When N =10, our process resolves itself into the usual rule for 


=18=P-1, therefore 


converting the vulgar fraction into its equivalent decimal. 


If P=7, N being supposed 10, we find the quotients to be 
; : 2 3 the remainders are ; i 2 si Hence 1=0.142857 re- 
peated in endless succession. Now it is obvious that the same 
succession of figures must represent in decimals the value of any 
vulgar fraction whose denominator is 7 and numerator less than 
7 ; it is also evident that the period will commence with that quo- 
tient which follows the remainder which is equal to the numerator 
of the fraction ; thus 2=0.285714 ; 2=0.428571 ; 4=0.571428; 
5 =—(0.714285 ; a0, 857 142. 


If P=17, the quotients will be} g , 2 
9, 


remainders will be ; m0; 2 e ie i : a we Therefore, 


8 8, 2, 3, 5, 
Lie 4 


‘, 
{1 = 0.0588235294117647 ; 2,=—0.1176470588235294 ; 
~ =0.1764705882352941 ; 4, =0.2352941176470588 ; 


17 che BE 
thus we could with the same period of figures represent in ae 


mals, the fractions 7%, 7%, 77, &c. 


116 Interesting Properties of Numbers. 


M@hie following fractiqit:, aay a so as sr lig Ae cena, 
when expressed in decimals, will give similar results. 


If P=101 the quotients will be ee 9) 9 the a aa ; a mye 


<=) 


If P=103 we find Tp a 1.°. the number of terms in 


6 
the periods is Pi t=34 ; which will satisfy equations (9) and (12). 
If P=107 we find Tp _ yl: . the number of terms is oa 


) 2 
not subject to the conditions of (9) and (12. 
If P=109 we find rp_,=P-—1.°. the number of terms is 


2 
P—1 subject to the conditions of (9) and (12). 
If P=137 we find Pp gah .". the number of terms is 


34 


8 which are subject to the conditions of (9) and (12). 
If P=139 we find rp ,=P-1.°. the number of terms is 
6 
P-1 


subject to the conditions of (9) and (12). 


—1 
2 


If P=719 we find Ae p=! .’. the number of terms is P 


2 
not subject to the conditions of (9) and (12). 
If P have the following values, 113, 131, 503, and 863, we 
shall find 7p _ ; =P —1, so that in each case the number of terms 


2 
is P—1, subject to the conditions of (9) and (12). 


If P=1019 we proceed in the ordinary way until we obtain 
the’ remainders, 7, —10; 7.100% 7 1000" 7. 328 a ye 
138; r,=361. We then multiply 7, into itself and divide the 
product by 1019, and find for remainder r,,=908; multiplying 
r,. into itself and dividing by 1019 we find r,,=93) after the 
same manner we find 7r,,—497; r,,=—411; 7,3;,=786; 7 
= 282 5 Tye o 1993 1594923; 57 = 809; 7545 


384 


="pul ats 


2 


eH 


, 
PAL FORT 229 UIUARIEIZO LOZ 


SIVIIOV I TPQ. DPIQOOIMURULILDD ISDYD 
~Beel 


CHE Hid 


no puehsny ELopex IY Ye 


ay Pp 


area dde 


eels 


L2YLD YL LOD 10 


1a Me 


H JO pue[s, 94 Tr’ 


SIY2IPYS 


Ast 


Lhe 


Md 


e 


te) 


[y 


PM. 


pina ra 


Vy, 


Fé 


VOT 


LY [0 


‘YW AO UMOAUT 


LOC) 


bh 


22a 


7 


DIMI WT BY 


eaten Features of the Island of Owyhee or Hawai. 117 


101i8=P—1. Therefore, if we convert ;,';; into a decimal frac- 
tion, the number of deoanial places before repeating will be 1018. 

Opec as in the last example, it would not be difficult to 
find the q, quotient, as well as the r, remainder, be x however 


great, for any prime value of P. 
Utica, October 21, 1840. 


Arr. XII.— Remarks on the Geological Features of the Island of 
Owyhee or Hawaiti,* the largest of the group called the Sand- 
wich Islands, with an account of ‘the condition of the Volcano 
of Kirauea, situated in the Southern part of the Island near 
the foot of Mouna Roa. Drawn up from statements made by 
Captain Chase, of the ship Charles Carroll, and Captain Par- . 
ker, of the ship Ocean, who visited it in 1838; by Epwarp G. 
Keuuey, of Nantucket. (See frontispiece. ) 


Tue Island of Owyhee, like many of the islands in the Pacific 
Ocean, is of volcanic origin. Vast streams of lava have flowed 
over its whole surface, and on every side of its lofty mountains, 
whose summits are covered with perpetual snow. Some of these 
streams have rolled on for thirty and forty miles over a great ex- 
tent of country, and plunged from the precipitous cliffs which 
skirt the island into the billows of the ocean. A single current 
which flowed from one of the large craters on the top of Mouna 
Huararai, in the year 1800, filled up an extensive bay, twenty 
miles in length, and formed the present coast. 

The recent formations of lava present a vitreous and dazzling 
surface, without a shrub or spot of grass, while those of ancient 
date have undergone decomposition, until a soil has been formed 
which is capable of bearing the most useful and beautiful veget- 
able productions. Where once the fiery torrent rolled, stretches 
the verdant forest, and the rude islander sows his seed and plants 
his roots in soil that once glowed like the burning coal. 

The natural senery of the Island of Owhyhee, is sublime and 
interesting ; having for ages, been subject to frequent and power- 
ful volcanic eruptions, and rent by the most violent earthquakes. 
In many places currents of lava have flowed over abrupt pre- 


* For notices on this subject, see this Journal, Vols. x1, p. 1; xx, p. 228. 


118 Geological Features of the Island of Owyhee or Hawaii. 


cipices, and formed beautiful stalactites, massive columns and 
striking resemblances to the mountain cascade, whilst in others 
the whole stream has been torn from its original position by some 
mighty convulsion, leaving huge blocks of lava standing erect or 
leaning against others for miles, which present a dreary and des- 
olate appearance. In the early part of 1823, an entire mountain, 
which attained an elevation of six hundred feet, was thrown into 
the sea during the shock of an earthquake, and its fragments mix- 
ed with the ruins of houses and forest trees were scattered along 
the coast for half a mile, presenting a scene of frightful desolation. 

One impressive feature of this island, is its majestic mountains, 
some of which rise fifteen or twenty thousand* feet above the 
level of the sea, and are higher than the Peak of Teneriffe, or the 
summit of Mount Blanc. For several thousand feet, they are 
beautifully decorated with extensive forests and verdant meadows, 
in which immense herds of cattle roam at large, with droves of 
swine and other animals, but at greater elevations they present a 
rugged and barren surface. 

Having given in the few remarks above, some account of the 
geological character of the island, we will proceed to describe the 
great crater of Kirauea, as it appeared on the eighth of May, 1838. 

Karly in the morning, on the seventh of May, Captains Chase 
and Parker, in company with several others, left the port at Lord 
Byron’s Bay, for the purpose of visiting the celebrated volcano 
Kirauea. After travelling a few miles through a delightful coun- 
try interspersed with hill and valley, and adorned with clusters of 
trees, hung with the richest foliage, they came to a forest several 
miles in extent, so entangled with shrubs, and interwoven with 
creeping vines, that its passage was extremely difficult. Onissu- 
ing from this, the scenery again wore a pleasing aspect, but was 
soon changed intoa dreary waste. ‘Their route was now in the 
direct course of a large stream of lava, thirty miles in length and 
four or five in breadth. 'The lava was of recent formation, witha 
surface, in some places, so slippery as to endanger falling, and in 
others, so rugged as to render it toilsome and dangerous to pass. 
Scattered around, were a few shrubs that had taken root in the 
volcanic sand and scorie, and on each side of the stream grew a 
stinted forest. Mouna Roaand Mouna Kea, were seen in the dis- 


* Probably the first number may be nearest to the truth Eps. 
J y 


Geological Features of the Island of Owyhee or Hawaii. 119 


tance, and on either side stretched the broad expanse of the ocean, 
mingling with the far horizon. 'The party had travelled nearly the 
whole extent of the current of lava before sunset ; they were, how- 
ever, much fatigued and gladly took possession of a rude hut erect- 
ed by the islanders, where they slept soundly through the night. 

Early the next morning, ere the sun rose, they resumed their 
journey, and soon a beautiful landscape broke upon their view, 
but its delightful scenery detained them only a few moments, for 
the smoke of the volcano was seen rising gracefully in the distance. 
Quickening their march, they arrived soon after nine o’clock ata 
smoking lake of sulphur and scoriz, from which they collected 
some delicate specimens of crystallized sulphur, and proceeded on. 
The next object which attracted the attention, was a great fissure 
five or six hundred feet from the crater. It was about thirty feet 
wide, five or six hundred feet long, and from all parts of it con- 
stantly issued immense bodies of steam, so hot that the guides 
cooked petatoes over it ina few minutes. The steam, on meet- 
ing the cold air, is condensed, and not far from the fissure on the 
north, is a beautiful pond formed from it, that furnishes very 
good water and is the only place where it occurs for many miles. 
The pond is surrounded with luxuriant trees, and sporting on its 
surface were seen large flocks of wild fowls. 

It was now 10 o’clock, and the whole party, since passing the 
lake of sulphur, had been walking over a rugged bed of lava, and 
standing by the side of vast chasms, of fathomless depth. They 
had now arrived at the great crater of Kirauea, eight miles in cir- 
cumference, and stood upon the very brink of a precipice, from 
which they looked down more than a thousand feet into a horrid 
gulf, where the elements of nature seemed warring against each 
other. Huge masses of fire were seen rolling and tossing like the 
billowy ocean. From its volcanic cones, continually burst lava, 
glowing with the most intense heat. Hissing, rumbling, agoni- 
zing sounds came from the very depths of the dread abyss, and 
dense clouds of smoke and steam rolled from the crater. 

Such awful, thrilling sights and sounds were almost enough to 
make the stoutest heart recoil with horror and shrink from the 
purpose of descending to the great seat of action. But men who 
had been constantly engaged in the most daring enterprise*— 


* Whale fishery. 


120 Geological Features of the Island of Owyhee or Hawait. 


whose whole lives had been spent on the stormy deep, were not 
easily deterred from the undertaking. 

Hach one of the party, with a tar to test the safety of the 
footing, now commenced a perilous journey down a deep and 
rugged precipice, sometimes almost perpendicular, and frequently 
intersected with frightful chasms. In abont forty five minutes 
they stood upon the floor of the great volcano. . 

Twenty six separate volcanic cones were seen, rising from 
twenty to sixty feet; only eight of them, however, were in ope- 
ration. Up several of those that were throwing out ashes, cin- 
ders, red hot lava, and steam, they ascended, and so near did they 
approach to the crater of one, that with their canes they dipped 
out the liquid fire. Into another they threw large masses of sco- 
riz, but they were instantly tossed high into the air. 

A striking spectacle in the crater at this time, was its lakes of 
melted lava. ‘There were six; but one, the southwest, occupied 
more space than all the others. Standing by the side of this, 
they looked down more than three hundred feet upon its surface, 
slowing with heat, and saw huge billows of fire dash themselves 
on its rocky shore—whilst columns of molten lava, sixty or 
seventy feet high, were hurled into the air, rendering it so hot 
that they were obliged immediately to retreat. Aftera few min- 
utes the violent struggle ceased, and the whole surface of the lake 
was changing to a black mass of scoriz ; but the pause was only 
to renew its exertions, for while they were gazing at the change, 
suddenly the entire crust which had been formed commenced 
cracking, and the burning lava soon rolled across the lake, heav- 
ing the coating on its surface, like cakes of ice upon the ocean- 
surge. Not far from the center of the lake there was an island 
which the lava was never seen to overflow ; but it rocked likea 
ship upon a stormy sea. ‘The whole of these phenomena were 
witnessed by the party several times, but their repetition was al- 
ways accompanied with the same eflects. 

They now crossed the black and rugged floor of the crater, which 
was frequently divided by huge fissures, and came to a ridge of 
lava, down which they descended about forty feet, and stood up- 
ona very level plain, occupying one fourth of the great floor of 
the crater. This position however was found very uncomfortable 
to the feet, for the fire was seen in the numerous cracks that in- 
tersected the plain only one inch from the surface. Capt. Chase 


Geological Features of the Island of Owyhee or Hawaii. 121 


lighted his cigar in one of them, and with their walking-sticks 
they could in almost any place pierce the crust, and penetrate the 
liquid fire. 

Sulphur abounds every where in and around the voleano; but 
here the whole side of the precipice, rising more than a thousand 
feet, was one entire mass of sulphur. They ascended several 
feet and were detaching some beautiful crystallized specimens, 
when accidentally a large body of it was thrown down and that 
rolled into a broad crack of fire and obliged them immediately 
to retreat, for the fumes that rose nearly suffocated them. 

‘They had now been in the crater more than five hours, and 
would gladly have lingered, but the last rays of the setting sun 
were gilding the cliffs above, and they commenced their journey 
upward, which occupied them about one hour and a quarter. 

They repaired to their rude hut, and while the shades of eve- 
ning were gathering, dispatched their frugal meal. Curiosity, 
however, would not allow them to sleep without revisiting the 
- great crater. Groping along, they reached the edge of the preci- 
pice and again looked down into the dread abyss, now lighted up 
by the glowing lava. 

The whole surface of the plain, where they had observed cracks 
filled with fire, appeared as though huge cables of molten lava 
had been stretched across it. While examining these splendid 
exhibitions, the entire plain, more than one fourth of the whole 
crater, was suddenly changed into a great lake of fire; its crust 
and voleanic cones melted away and mingled with the rolling 
mass. ‘They now hurried back, astonished at the sight, and 
shuddering at the recollection that only a few hours had elapsed 
since they were standing upon the very spot. 

The next morning they returned to the crater for the last time. 
Every thing was in the same condition : the new lake still glow- 
ed with heat, the volcanic cones hurled high in the air red hot 
stones mixed with ashes and cinders, and accompanied with large 
volumes of steam, hissing and cracking as it escaped, and the 
creat lake in the southwest was still in an agitated state. 

The situation of the voleano Kirauea is very remarkable, dif- 
fering from every other of which we have anaccount. It is not 
a truncated mountain, rising high above the surrounding country 
and visible from every quarter, nor is it seen until the traveller, after 


crossing an elevated plain near the foot of Mouna Roa, suddenly 
Vol. xz, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 16 


a 


122 Gob cical Features of the Island of Owyhee or Hawatt. 


arrives at a precipice from which he looks down into its — 
immensity. 

Ihe traditions of the natives furnish us with no account of its. 
origin. Centuries on centuries have probably rolled away since, 
during which vast changes may have taken place. Some suppose 
it was once a lofty mountain* that has been consumed by the de- 
vouring. element, constantly raging at its base, and emptied by 
some subterranean channel into the ocean. 

Nantucket, November 29th, 1840. 

P. S. I wish here to express my thanks to Thomas Macy, Esq., 
without whose interest in the subject, whatever is novel or valu-~ 
able in the above account might have been lost. 

I have read the preceding account to Capt. Chase, who says it 
is very good and correct, excepting that the language is in some 
places too mild, falling short of the reality, although it still seems 
to me that many who read the description, will think it exagger- 
ated. B. G. K. 


Description of the Frontispiece, presenting a view of the Volcano 
of Kirauea, as it appeared on the 8th of May, 1838. 

The spectator is supposed to be stationed at the south end of the 
voleano looking north. A portion of the floor of the crater is hid by 
the projecting rocks in front of the picture. 'The area of the vol- 
cano is in the form of an ellipse; its longest diameter is from north 
to south, being about eight miles in circumference. 'The sides of 
the crater vary from eight hundred to one thousand feet in height. 

A, A, represent fissures in the floor of the crater throngh which 
the fire approaches within one inch of the surface. ‘This portion 
of the floor is-considerably lower down in the crater than the 
general level. B,B, Streams of sulphur which have run down the 
sides of the crater, and appear in the form of cascades. ©, C, C, 
Lakes of fire, the largest two and a half miles in length, half a 

mile in sigesmh, with an island of floating lava heaving up and 
down in the liquid mass. 

Twenty six separate cones, from twenty to sixty feet in height, 
rose from the floor of the crater—eight were in action. 

Six liquid lakes of fire of various dimensions. 

The whole of that portion of the crater marked A A, in a few 
hours from the visit of the travellers, fell in aud became one vast 
field of liquid fire. 


* Collapsed or exploded.—Ebs. 


Iodine a Reagent for Hydrosulphuric Acid. 123 


Arr. XTI.— The employment of Iodine as a reagent for Hydro- 
sulphuric Acid; by M. Auryonse pu Pasquier. 


TO THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 


Gentlemen,—T ux original of this article was published in the 
March number of the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, and 
the importance of its being generally known to those who devote 

any of their time or attention to the investigation of our mineral 
waters, many of which are more or less impregnated with hydro- 
sulphuric acid and the alkaline hydrosulphates, has induced me 
to transmit to you, for publication, a translation of such parts as 
explain the method of employing the reagent in question, and 
the conclusions that M. Alphonse has arrived at by his varied ex- 
periments. 

The Tron that is described, is of easy applica- 
tion, and enables one to obtain very accurate results in a short 
space of time, particularly when use is made of a table that I 
have calculated and annexed. 

As regards the strength of the tincture of iodine, that is alto- 
gether optional with the individual who employs it; it being only 
requisite to have a knowledge of the amount of iodine contained 
in a measured portion of the liquid. I should propose, as most 
eaUveent, that each division on the sulphohydrometer should 
answer to ;'; of a grain of iodine, and a subdivision to ;1,. | 


ones respectfully, J. Lawrence Smiru, M. D. 
Paris, Sept. 20, 1840. 


"To determine the proportion of hydrosulphurie acid, either 
free or in combination in sulphureous waters, is an operation at- 
tended with considerable difficulty, and of which the results are 
far from being certain. All the methods employed to arrive at 
this end, comprising even the process of M. Grotthuz, (the em- 
ployment of arnmoniacal nitrate of silver,) adopted by M. An- 
glada, and the generality of the chemists of the present day, pre- 
sent great difficulties of detail, and are, as has been demonstrated 
in my first memoir, subject. to gross errors, particularly when we 
obtain a sulphuret more or less impure; and moreover when the 
quantity of hydrosulphuric acid is very minute they cease to act. 

“In my researches upon the waters of Allevard, the uncer- 
tainty of these methods, made me desire to discover some process 
more satisfactory, when, employing as a reagent the alcoholic 


124 Todine a Reagent for Hydrosulphurie Acid. 


tincture of iodine, (it not being among those ordinarily used ;) If 
found that the decomposition of the hydrosulphuric acid by this 
metalloid, was complete and instantaneous, and that one could 
determine, in a very easy manner, the precise point at which the 
decomposition of the hydrosulphuric acid is achieved, or when 
the iodine no longer enters into combination. I conclude, from 
this fact, that, with a tincture of which I know before hand the 
proportions, I shall be able to ascertain, by the quantity of iodine 
employed to saturate a litre of the sulhutone water, the yeas 
amount of hydrosulphuric acid which it contains. 

“Moreover, I am able to ascertain the quantity of iodine em- 
ployed, without the use of a balance, by the means of an instru- 
ment which I call a sulphohydrometer. 'This instrument is a 
eraduated tube, which allows the tincture of iodine to flow from 
an elongated extremity with a capillary opening, the other ex- 
tremity being closed by a stopper. 

““'T'o employ the sulphohydrometer, we take a certain quantity 
of the sulphurous water which we may wish to analyze, and 
placing it in a porcelain capsule, add a few drops of a very clear 
solution of starch, and then allow the tincture of iodine to fall 
upon it, drop by drop, from the instrument, previously filled to 
the point marked 0°, and continue the addition so long as no 
change takes place in the color of the water, favoring the reac- 
tion by agitation with a glass rod. So long as there remains the 
smallest trace of hydrosulphuric acid, the iodine disappears as 
fast as it is introduced, and the starch, upon which iodine in a 
state of combination does not act, gives rise to no coloration of 
the liquid until the hydrosulphuric acid is completely saturated, 
when the minutest addition of iodine at once strikes a blue color 
with it. We then examine how many degrees of tincture have 
been employed, and knowing the strength of it, we are enabled 
to calculate the quantity of hydrosulphuric acid decomposed by it. 

“This method of analysis, independent of its affording results 
of the most accurate character, has the additional advantage of 
being executed in so short a space of time, that one may make 
from fifteen to twenty experiments in less than one hour, and at 
the same time be perfectly sure of committing no error. It is 
also so easily put into practice, that.any physician or intelligent 
person may apply it, and assure themselves daily of the variation 
in the strength of the sulphurous waters caused either by atmos- 
pheric changes or an admixture with rain water. 


Todine a Reagent for Hydrosulphurie Acid. 125 


‘‘'The conclusions that I have arrived at by my experiments, 
are as follows :— 

“1st. That the best known reagents for hydrosulphuric acid are 
subject to great objections, since they do not indicate even nota- 
ble quantities of this acid, free or combined ; a circumstance that 
explains why its presence has not been demonstrated in waters 
whose physical properties rank them as sulphureous. 

“2d. That an alcoholic solution of iodine, employed along 
with starch, is a very sensible reagent for hydrosulphurie acid, 
free or in a state of combination. It can detect, in an undoubted 
manner, (by a comparative examination with common water,) a 
drop of concentrated solution of any of the alkaline hydrosul- 
phates, disseminated in one hectolitre* of water, although the 

known reagents lose their action when the same quantity is dis- 
seminated in only ten litres.+ 

“3d. That with the tincture of iodine and ean we can re- 
cognize infallibly, in the weakest sulphureous waters, in those 
where ordinary reagents are useless, not only the presence, but 
also the quantity of hydrosulphuric acid, either free or in a state 
of combination. 

‘Ath. That the known processes for determining the proportion 
of hydrosulphuric acid, free or combined, are so long and difficult 
that their result is uncertain and incorrect, especially in regard 
to waters possessing but little of the sulphureous principle.” 


Table of the quantity of cee Acid decomposed by 
quantities of Lodine from 1, to 10 grains. 


IODINE. HYDROSULPHURIC ACID. IODINE. HYDROSULPHURIC ACID. 

Weight in Bulk in cubic Weight in Weight in Bulk in cubic 
grains. |Weightin grains. inches. grains. grains. inches. 
OL .001351 .003691 .60 .08 106 22146 
.02 | .002702 | .007382 70 09457 25837 
.03 .004053 .011073 80 . 10808 29528 
04 .005404 .014764 .90 12159 33219 


05 | .006755 | .018455 1.00 .13510 36910 
.06 | .008106 | .022146 2.00 .27020 .73820 
.07 | .009457 | .025837 3.00 40530 1.10730 
.08 | .010808 | .029528 4.00 4040 1.47640 
09 | .012159 | .033219 5.00 .67550 1.84550 
10. | .013510. -| .036910 6.00. 81060 | 2.21460 
.20 | .027020 | .073820 7.00 .94570 | 2.58370 
30 | .040530 | .110730 8.00 | 1.08080 | 2.95280 
A0 | .054040 | .147640 9.00 | 1.21590 | 3.32190 
.50 | .067550 | .184550 10.00 | 1.35100 | 3.69100 


* Hectolitre, about 264 gallons. + Ten litres, about 24 gallons. 


126 Notice of Geological Surveys. 


Arr. XIV.—WNotice of Geological Surveys.* I. Of the State of 
Ohio. II. Of Indiana. Il. Of Michigan ; by Oxiver P. 
Hvsparp, M. D., Prof. of Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology, 
in Dartmouth College, N. H. 


I. Second Annual Report on the Geological Survey of the State 
of Ohio; by -W. W. Marurr, Principal Geologist, and the 
several Assistants.—Columbus, 1838. 2 


An abstract of the first report for 1837, was given in this Jour- 
nal, Vol. xxx1v, p- 196. ‘Chere existed a rumor, that the survey 
would not be continued. ‘The Legislature, however, made an- 
other appropriation, and the results of the labors of the second 
year’s survey are here presented. ‘The work has never been re-_ 
sumed, and thus has ended for the present, we trust not finally, 
an undertaking, in its nature calculated to spread innumerable 
benefits throughout the whole state. Upon whom rests the re- 
sponsibility it is not our province here to inquire. ‘That much 
dissatisfaction has existed in certain quarters is, we believe, true. 
-It is also no doubt a fact, that from the surveys heretofore made, 
very important advantages have been derived to the state, which 
are availed of in the manufacture of salt and iron, in the ex- 
ploration of coal, &c.—in pointing out the limits of the differ- 
ent formations, thus directing the applications of enterprise to 
proper fields and preventing useless. expenditure in places where 
investigation for valuable minerals would be fruitless. The de- 
velopment of the physical resources of a country—of ores and 
coal, materials for architecture and the arts, of saline and medi- 
cinal springs, excites a degree of healthy industry, whose returns 
enrich the inhabitants and at the same time improve their moral 
condition. Ohio, in its most thickly settled portions, is found to 
be richly stored with mineral wealth; and these districts being 
best known and most accessible, were the first examined by the 
geologists. ‘The results of the former examination seem to have 
excited some jealousy in other quarters, “that no part of the state 
would be benefitted by the geological survey but the coal and 
iron region ;” and ‘the geologists were directed to make surveys 
of some counties which were not expected to reap any benefit 
from the survey,” and supplies of useful materials for the arts 


* Dr. Jackson’s Survey of Rhode Island is noticed in our bibliography. 


Notice of Geilozial Surveys. 127 


and for building were found in abundance. Where these are in 
the vicinity of water carriage, they may become articles of com- 
merce, otherwise their value is only local. The abandonment 
of the survey will prevent those important results to science 
which were reasonably anticipated—except what may be yet de- 
rived from materials in the possession of the geologists; and we 
hope these may yet be digested in some form to connect in regu- 
lar continuity and system the rock formations of Ohio with those 
of all. the neighboring states where surveys have been underta- 
ken. Inthe present report is given the geological structure of 
eleven counties in different portions of the state, viz. Adams and 
Athens, on the south on the Ohio river, Butler in the southwest, 
Wood in the north, Portage and Trumbull in the northeast, and 
Crawford, Teese Mitsie um Tuscarawas, and Hocking, more 
centrally. 

Local and general sections of the strata, with particular litho- 
logical descriptions of the rocks, are given. There are a few 
ficures of organic remains, and we are constantly met with the 
deficiency of characteristic specific catalogues of the fossils so 
indispensable to a minute comparison of these with other forma- 
tions. This deficiency would, we trust, have been supplied had 
the survey been carried forward to its completion. Col. Whittle- 
sey had collected materials towards the construction of a topo- 
graphical as well as geological map. His observations upon the 
variations of the magnetic needle and the altitude of places were 
numerous, but must of course remain comparatively useless. -His 
plans and descriptions of a great number of the ancient mounds 
we trust will be given to the public, for the intrinsic value they 
possess in relation to the early history of this country, which is 
now attracting more successful research than ever before. 

Dr. Locke has appended to his report the records of the ba- 
rometer and thermometer at a great number of places. 

The zoological report of Dr. Kirtland is a very extended list 
of the Fauna of the state in the department of ‘‘ mammalia, birds, 
reptiles, fishes, testacea, and crustacea.” He gives the scientific 
term with the common name, the author of original description, 
with very instructive and interesting notes on many of the spe- 
cies. From some comparison of the mammalia and birds, the 
resemblance appears to be very great to the list given in the last 
New York report. 


128 Notice of Geological Surveys. 


The economical results of the present geological report are so 
similar to those recited from the former_one, and so full an account 
of eastern and central Ohio was given by Dr. Hildreth in Vol- 
ume xxx1x, of this Journal, that a few extracts descriptive of the 
geology of Butler and some adjacent counties, which is below 
the carboniferous series, will suffice. .The rocks in the south- 
western portion of the state are thus described by Dr. Locke: 
‘“‘'The rocks in the western states below the coal formation have 
evidently been deposited in the bed of a deep primitive ocean, 
and consist of alternations and mixtures of crystalline and sedi- 
mentary matters, mostly in thin layers, varying from one inch to 
twenty four inches. 'The crystalline strata are mostly carbonate 
of lime. The sedimentary strata are, in the lower portions, clay 
marl, and in the upper portions clay and’ sandstone, ‘The mizx- 
tures are in the lower portions, lime and clay, forming either a 
durable slate limestone, or an indurated marl which falls to pieces 
on exposure to the air; in the superior portions, of lime, clay, 
and sand, forming an arenaceous limestone. All of these forma- 
tions abound with the fossilized remains of marine animals.” 

The arrangement of the rocks is shown in the following table, 
beginning at the bottom. 

“1. Blue limestone, (coming to the surface at Cincinnati and 
all places within fifty miles of it,) in thickness at least 1000 ft. 


2. Clay marl, at West Union, Adams co. E. of Cincin., 25 
3. Flinty limestone, ‘“ ¢ ef 51 
A. Clay marl, af Bf eS 106 
5. Cliff limestone, i a * 89 
6. Slate, (black bituminous, ) at Rockville, 251 
7. Waverley sandstone, east line of Adams county, 343 


1865 ft. 

‘The country from Cincinnati to West Union, which stands 
on an escarpment of the cliff limestone one hundred feet above 
the surrounding region, is of a nearly uniform level, the various 
elevated points, as ascertained by actual barometrical measure- 
ment, differing not more than thirty six feet from each other, and 
being usually five hundred feet above low water at Cincinnati.” 
Dip.— The strata are nearly horizontal, and having a slight 
and irregular undulation, the dip is with difficulty ascertained,” 
causing it to appear ‘‘ uniform and consistent for half a mile” in 


Notice of Geological Surveys. — 129 


one locality, and then in another it would be in an opposite direc- 
tion. By examining “the several formations ona large scale, 
the dip becomes very evident ; and as one formation sinks gradu- 
ally below the surface and another superior one presents itself, it 
gives rise to those important changes in the face and productions 
of the country which we should hardly attribute to a slope so 
moderate as one inch in a rod.” 

In connexion with Dr. Owen, geologist of Indiana, Dr. hase 
found that near the boundary af the two states, there is a summit 
level and an anticlinal axis from which the strata dip in opposite 
directions—eastwardly in Ohio, and westwardly in Indiana—so 
that the “cliff limestone, which shows itself not many miles 
east and west of Richmond, Indiana, descends and comes to the 
bed of the Ohio river at the east side of Adams-county, Ohio, 
and at the falls of the Ohio, at Louisville, Ky.” ~ ‘The outcrop- 
ping edges of the strata, ee present themselves at the sur- 
face in the same order in the two states.” 

The “ blue limestone region,” is covered by the rock called the 
‘ blue limestone,” which is the lowest rock that has been pene- 
trated in this region. With its alternate layers of marl and mar- 
lite, itis the exclusive rock even to the tops of the hills from 
West Union in Adams county, to Madison in Indiana, and from 
Dayton in Montgomery county, and Haton, Preble county, Ohio, 
on the north, to a line forty or fifty miles up the Licking river, 
in Kentucky. At these places, or near them, the ‘ cliff lime- 
stone’ caps the hills; while the blue limestone is found in the 
beds of the streams, extending in some instances twenty miles 
farther, and passes under all of the other strata. 

This extensive region is a table land five hundred feet above 
the low water mark of the Ohio. Its valleys and the channels 
of the streams are ‘“‘ sometimes bounded closely by abrupt banks, 
or widening to half a mile or even four miles, present a rich ara- 
ble alluvion or bottom lands.” Where the marl is abundant and 
becomes removed by the action of the weather, the layers of rock 
(broken into irregular fragments) are undermined and slide down 
with the earth, and are never left standing out in cliffs; hence 
the banks and hills are usually rounded. 

“The soil has been formed mostly from rocks and marl, iden- 
tical with those which now lie beneath it, except where it has 
been brought and deposited by waters, and does not contain at 

Vol. xz, No. 1.—Oct.—Dec. 1840. 17 


AN 


130 ‘ gi Notice ue Geological Surveys. 


the surface so much lime as we should anticipate, and rarely, if 
ever, when undisturbed, does it effervesce with acids. On the 
tops of the hills around Cincinnati, the loam lies seven to nine 
feet deep before any stones are mingled with it, and this loam ts 
not effervescent with acids. As soon asa layer of stone has been 
passed, all below it is highly so.” By ordinary processes, the 
lime has been undoubtedly removed from the upper part of the 
soil; “‘ hence the yellow loam near the surface is more useful 
for the manufacture of bricks that that which comes from be- 
tween the layers of stone; the latter is uniformly effervescent, 
and contains from 12 to 25 per cent. of carbonate of lime.” 

The blue limestone, though classed as a transition rock by Dr. 
Locke, received no particular designation, while Mr. Conrad con- 
siders it as the ‘Trenton limestone of New York, and the equiva- 
lent of the Caradoc sandstone of Murchison.* No specific enu- 
meration of its organic remains is given, although they differ from 
those of the “cliff limestone” as below. 'There is a series of 
rocks, eight hundred feet in thickness, between this foundation 
rock and the coal formation of Ohio, and at its point of greatest 
altitude already referred to, it separates the coal basins of Ohio 
and Indiana into two distinct and well characterized formations. 

The “ chff limestone,” that lies on the “ blue’ limestone, is 
separated from it as in the section of Adams county, by extensive 
deposits of marl and intermediate limestone, which are much less 
in other places, and is not fissured like the latter, but is entire 
throughout its whole thickness of eighty feet, and where it is cut 
through by the rivers, presents mural bluffs or “ cliffs,” whence 
its name ;-or when it forms the bed of the streams it often causes 
cascades and occasions falls, as in the Ohio, at Louisville. It is 
less hard and compact than the lower limestone, often soft and 
friable like a loose sandstone, and even porous, spongy and arenace- 
ous; of various colors, yellowish, reddish gray, and almost white, 
and is highly fetid and bituminous. In some places, it is without 
fossils, in others highly fossiliferous. The organic remains of 
both limestones are marine, and consist of corallines, univalves (?) 
bivalves, and trilobites—sometimes the species are identical in 
both, although generally different. 'The Corallines of the blue 
limestone are small and branched ; those of the “ cliff” are in large 


* Vide this Journal, Vol. xxxviu, p. 87—88. 


Notice of Geological Surveys. i Pe: | 


cylinders, four inches in diameter,—Madrepores in hemispheres 
three feet over, associated with Encrini an inch in diameter, and 
much larger than those in the blue. The blue contains Ortho- 
ceratites, and the fragments of large trilobites, one of which, 
called “‘Isotelus maximus,” is figured as reconstructed from the 
proportions of the fragments, and is twenty one inches long. 
These strata are nearly horizontal, having a prevalent dip of north 
fourteen degrees east, and about six feet in a mile. 

Large areas of this rock being uncovered for the purpose of 
quarrying, it is found planished as if by the friction of some 
heavy body moving over it, and marked by parallel grooves, 
which are regarded by Dr. Locke as “‘diluvial scratches ;” they 
are found at “ Light’s quarry, east of the Miami, and seven miles 
above Dayton, thus rendered particularly interesting by the dis- 
covery in it of ‘diluvial grooves,’ a circumstance which I had 
thought probable from the fact of the planishing or grinding 
down of the strata” first observed at Col. Partridge’s quarry, 
‘“‘ where the upper surface, especially at the apex of its convexity, 
has its roughness nearly worn off, not by corrosion or by decom- 
position, nor by the attrition of sand and gravel, but by the grind- 
ing of a flat surface, making the work, so far as it went, a perfect 
plane, and leaving the pits of the deepest cavities entirely un- 
touched.’* ‘ Light’s quarry has been ‘stripped’ of soil, more or 
less, over ten acres, and the upper layer of stone is in most places 
completely ground down to a plane, as perfectly as it could have 
been by astone-cutter by polishing.” ‘ In many places, grooves 
and scratches in straight and parallel lines, are distinctly visible, 
evidently formed by the progress of some heavy mass, propelled ° 
by aregular and uniform motion. The grooves are in width 
from lines scarcely visible, to those three fourths of an inch 
wide, and from one fortieth to one eighth of an inch deep, travers- 
ing the quarry from between north 19°, to north 33° west, to the 
opposite points in lines exactly straight, and in fascicles of some- 
times ten in number, evactly parallel; clearly in compact lime- 
stone, without seam or fault of any kind—and in a surface ground 
down to a perfect plane.’”’ ‘To illustrate these appearances, a por- 


* These cavities are found, where another layer of the rock lies upon this, to an- 
swer to salient points in the upper one, and the ‘“ natural surface of the stone is 
within certain limits as rough as can be conceived, there being sharp teeth, an inch 

5 e L = . —_ . ” 
long, projecting from one layer and entering the contiguous one. 


we 


Ld ee ea ~ Notice of Geological Surveys. 


tion of the stone was taken, and by the process of ‘medal ruling,” 
a perfect engraving was made by the tracer, anda picture is given 
in the report (p. 230) of great distinctness. The blue limestone 
abounds with the Strophomena of Raf., while the cliff has few 
of them. The sheil of the fossils is often preserved in the blue, 
while in the cliff limestone only the cast is found. i 

6. The argillaceous shale, or “bituminous slate,” occurs 
next. ‘This is black and highly fissile ; in some parts very bitu- 
‘minous and fetid, and when accidentally ignited will burn for 
several days. It absorbs water freely, and then exfoliates. It 
contains spheroidal septaria of an impure blue limestone, from a 
few inches to three feet in diameter, that are filled with crystals 
of carbonate of lime, or sulphate of barytes. 

It crops out on a line from the east side of Adams county, pass- 
ing north through Columbus, and is two hundred to three hun- 
dred feet thick. Balls of iron pyrites are found in it, which de- 
compose and form copperas and alum. 

Mineral springs, charged with these and magnesian salts, abound 
in this and the bed of clay between it and the cliff limestone, and 
cause the numerous “licks,” which are now resorted to by do- 
mestic animals as they were formerly by the herds of wild ani- 
mals. . 

7. The “fine grained Waverly sandstone’ succeeds the shale. 
Itis white, yellowish, purple and blue, but more commonly drab ; 
more or/less argillaceous in some paris, and contains oxide of iron, 
that causes ready decomposition—in others exceedingly compact 
and adapted to building, and for hearth-stones in furnaces. As 
the superior rock, it occupies, in the central part of the state, a 
band running about east north east, twenty miles wide, and with 
a dip east south east thirty feet in a mile, and a thickness of near- 
ly four hundred or five hundred feet. 'The upper part abounds 
in Encrini, Ammonites, Producte, Terebratule and Spirifere, and 
in the southern part of the state, Fucoides are found. A bed of 
clay appears to separate this from 

8. A “conglomerate” or “millstone grit,” that underlies the 
coal measures, and which is generally composed of quartz peb- 
bles, and coarse-grained sand, or it assumes a fine texture and be- 
comes a hard compact sandstone with but few pebbles, and crops 
out at short intervals in its line of junction with the sandstone 
in abrupt precipitous ledges of one hundred feet high. ‘The nu- 


Notice of Geological Surveys. “f ag — 133, 


merous salt wells of this state in some cases siden to sie WL 
tion, and in others do not reach it. re 

9. The ‘coal measures” which succeed this are composed as 
usual of repeated series of limestone, sandstone, shale, iron ore and 
coal, and are particularly described in this Journal by Dr. Hildreth. 

The organic remains are of the common coal plants—Lepido- 
dendra, two feet in diameter, Calamites of great size, and Sigil- 
laria with their bristling spines perfectly preserved and standing 
out in every direction, with numerous ferns. The inclination of 
the coal measures is east south east, thirty five to forty feet ina 
mile, and the direction north north east, with a thickness in 
Muskingum county of twelve hundred to fourteen hundred feet. 

Between the blue and cliff limestone are the “great marl stra- 
tum,’’ one hundred and six feet thick, and the “flinty limestone,” 
well developed in Adams county. The former is blue and stra- 
tified—by the action of frost and weather it becomes lighter col- 
ored, and when dry is almost white. 

“Tt is earthy, highly effervescent, contains few fossils, and is 
traversed by thin layers of reddish slaty limestone, two or three 
inches thick.” 

The “ flinty limestone,” like the “blue,” lies in thin layers in- 
terstratified with marl, but differs from it in color, in fossils, and 
especially in having certain layers filled with silicious matter in 
chemical combination, (not arenaceous, ) has the sharp, conchoidal, 
flinty fracture, and fires with steel; oftentimes very much brok- 
en up in small triangular pieces—in others an excellent building 
stone, and never appears weathered.’ Cyathophylla and Crinoidea, 
of various forms, and corallines, are observed ina few strata. 
Chert, (or flint ?) in nodules, is found in Indiana and at Cincinnati, 
in the soil, and they become more numerous as we approach Ad- 
ams county, where they are found in their native bed in this 
formation. This suggests the idea that it once extended much 
farther west. 

Il. Report of a Geological Survey of Indiana, 1839, by D. D. 
Owen, M. D. 


The examination of this state, though general, has been ex- 
tended to almost every one of the old counties, and its geology is 
so like that of Ohio, that details in its description may not be ne- 


134 _ Notice of Geological Surveys. 


cessary. ‘The portionof the state north of the National Road, is 
covered by a deep deposit of diluvium, and the channels of the 
streams only afforded opportunities for studying the rocks. 

The east and north portions have the same geology as the 
neighboring part of Ohio. ‘The “blue limestone” is the lowest 
and oldest rock in Indiana, and alternates with clays and marls, as in 
Ohio. It retains its highly fossiliferous character, and in this par- 
ticular Dr. Owen thinks it greatly resembies ‘‘the mountain 
limestone” of Europe; of course, for want of the evidence, no 
one else can have an opinion, except to refer to that of Mr. Con- 
rad. ‘This forms a dividing ridge between the waters running 
into the Wabash and Ohio, in the southeast counties of Switzer- . 
land, Dearborn, Franklin, Union, and Fayette ; it forms the east- 
ern boundary of the cliff stratum, and it is found that below Union 
county, certainly, the cliff strata of the two states are not con- 
tinuous. It occupies the elevated ridges in Jefferson, Ripley, 
Decatur, and Rush, and the eastern part of Scott, Jennings, and 
Shelby counties; and from Elkhorn, Wayne county, to Fall creek, 
in Fayette county, the ‘‘cliffs” of the two states are separated 
by an interval of eighteen or twenty miles, and they are the prev- 
alent rock in the northeast, under the diluvium. 

The “black or bituminous slate,” which begins at Floyd coun- 
ty, one hundred and four feet thick, passes up through Clark, is 
seen at Delphi on the Wabash, and is the next rock in the ascend- 
ing order. A series of sandstones, limestones, clays, shales, bitu- 
minous coal, and argillaceous iron ores—in fact, a regular bitumin- 
ous coal formation, distinct from the Ohio and Michigan basins, 
succeeds these carboniferous deposits—and constitutes the latest 
rocks that have yet been observed in the state. Dr. Owen re- 
marks :—‘‘ Our bituminous coal formation is part of a great coal- 
field, which includes nearly the whole of Iowa, Illinois, and eight 
or ten counties in the northwest part of Kentucky. It occupies in 
Indiana an area of about seven thousand seven hundred and eighty 
square miles—beginning on the Chio, where the second principal 
meridian crosses it, it passes three miles east of the line, between 
Martin and Lawrence counties; crosses the National Road one 
or two miles west of Putnamville ; crosses the Upper Wabash 
near Independence, thence northwest into Illinois to the mouth of 
the Kankakee.” This coal resembles very much that of Meigs 
county, Ohio, exhibiting “spots and regular layers of absolute 
charcoal from which the woody fibre can be detached.” 


» 


Notice of Geological Surveys. 135 


Dislocations of a few inches are occasionally seen. 'The rocks 
dip very gradually toward the west. ‘“ Large quantities of argilla- 
ceous iron ore and carbonate of iron are associated with the slaty 
clays of the formation at its eastern border, where are” excel- 
lent fire clays, potter’s clay, furnace hearth-stones, and slates, 
from which copperas and alum can be manufactured on a large 
scale. Sandstones for building, for grind and whetstones, are 
very superior. 

Boring for salt water through the white sandstones at the mar- 
gin of the coal formation is encouraged, as they are regarded by 
Dr. Owen as the equivalent of the saliferous formation of the 
Muskingum and Kenawha. ‘<A brine affording a pound of salt 
from a gallon of water was procured near the mouth of Coal 
Creek, in Fountain county,” from a boring that passed through 
the coal beds themselves to the depth of seven hundred feet. 
Between the ‘soft, fine-grained, greyish or brownish grey sand- 
stone of the knobs in Floyd county, and the coal formation” is a 
series of limestones, the “‘oolitic” or ‘“ encrinital,” of Kentucky 
and of ‘Tennessee, described by Dr. 'Troost in the iron region of 
Tennessee., ‘ ‘This limestone formation is the termination of the 
true carboniferous and. saliferous rocks, and is distinguished by 
the two characteristic fossils, the Pentremite and Archimedes, 
and by its oolitic structure. It constitutes the only remarkable 
difference of the rocks of Indiana from those of Ohio, the latter 
having instead a conglomerate from forty to eighty feet thick 
succeeding the Waverly sandstone rock, and the former a series 
of limestone some two hundred or three hundred feet thick, with 
a great variety of fossil remains.” 

‘The view here presented of the rocks of Indiana and Ohio, in- 
dicates, we think, 1. That they were once continuous and un- 
broken, as the blue limestone now is, which is the base of the 
whole. If this be so—2. That they were deposited upon a base 
originally higher at about the junction of the two states, or there 
has been subsequently a local elevation at this point. 3. The in- 
clination of the strata as given by Dr. Locke, in a colored map and 
section of Adams county, would carry the top of the coal strata of 
Scioto, (the next county east,)if continued to the west line of Ad- 
ams county, toa height of eleven hundred and sixty feet above it, 
and if they be continued to the longitude of Cincinnati, say fifty 
one miles west, ‘at the rate of one-hundred feet in three miles” 


136 Notice of Geological Surveys. 


ascent, they would lie at an elevation above low water mark of 
the Ohio, of nearly three thousand four hundred feet. 4. Grant- 
ing these particulars, or that only a portion of the rocks were con- 
tinuous, the only authorized explanation of their absence, is a 
grand denudation by diluvial causes, which have operated in the 
general direction of this anticlinal axis of the blue limestone, and 
reduced this extensive area to one of a nearly uniform elevation. 
The immense diluvium on the Ohio, and in all the northern part 
of Indiana and Illinois; the bowlders of primitive rocks; the 
masses of native copper in Indiana; the buried trees of Ohio, all 
indicate a mighty current from the northward, that has modified 
most remarkably the contour of the whole country. 

The history of the agencies that have operated on this conti- 
nent to give it its present face, can never be completely written 
from a comparison of the various elevations of the different parts, 
but the evidence presented by stratification, diluvium, and other 
geological resemblances, will, on the contrary, do far more to elu- 
cidate this subject, if it do not clear it up entirely. 


III. Second Annual Report of the State Geologist of the State of 
Michigan ; made to the Legislature, Feb. 4, 1839. 


The deficiency of maps of this state is so great that it is Im- — 
possible to appreciate or understand much of the topography of 
its northern and unsettled portion, and much of the minute evi- 
dence on which the geological conclusions are based, is with- 
held for the final report. In general, the rocks of the northern 
part of the state belong to the carboniferous group, and ‘in this 
respect coincide with those heretofore described as occupying the 
southern counties, though their position in the series is very dif- 
ferent.” 

“They consist of a succession of limestones, with intervening 
shales, sandstones, and clays, and at the northern extremity of 
the peninsula, the limestone is shattered in a manner similar to 
that seen in the sandstone in the southern counties.” 

The direction of all the rocks is northeast and southwest. Sa- 
ginaw Bay, on Lake Huron, lies in the line of bearing, its south- 
ern shore being sandstone, and its northern limestone, both of 
which may be traced across southwesterly to lake Michigan. 'The 
limestone is observed at numerous points going north, at times so 


The Daguerreotype and its Applications. 137 


silicious as to render it unfit for burning, and again “ containing 
large quantities of imbedded chert,” and it constitutes the island of 
Mackinac, and several others in the vicinity, and rises from one 
hundred and fifty to two hundred and nineteen feet above the lake. 

It “consists of an irregular assemblage of angular fragments, 
united by a tufaceous cement,” and is not, as has been supposed 
by some, a “conglomerate,’’—but “‘ the rock occupies, no doubt, 
very nearly its original relative position, and its present condition 
may be ascribed to an uplift of the strata, subsequent to its com- 
plete induration, and the fragments have been imperfectly cement- 
ed together.” This rock is regarded by Prof. Shepard, (Am. Jour. 
Vol. xxxtv, p. 144,) as the magnesian limestone of Hlinois and Wis- 
consin, which near Rockwell, (p. 154,) “‘ almost exactly resembles 
the metalliferous limestone of Missouri, having its peculiar buff 
color, and like it embracing silicious seams and nodules.” 

Its inclination is northwest. In following the eastern shore of 
Lake Michigan, the limestone continues the foundation rock. In 
a future notice we hope to be able to give a more exact account 
of the geology of the state. 


Art. XV.—The Daguerreotype and its Applications ; by W. H. 
Goong, late Chem. Assist. in the Univ. of New York. 


Soon after the introduction of the Daguerreotype into this 
country, a number of persons occupied themselves with this 
method of obtaining photogenic pictures. As, however, all the 
manipulations were to be learned from the printed account of the 
process, a variety of experiments were performed with a view to 
its abridgment; some of which led to important results. ‘The 
apparatus has been improved; the process itself, changed in one 
essential particular; and important applications have been made 
of this beautiful art. A sketch of these improvements and appli- 
cations may not be uninteresting. 

Pictures of the largest size—eight inches by six—are taken 
with the French achromatic lenses, perfect throughout ; the parts 
within the shade are brought into view, distant objects are per- 
fectly delineated. A common spectacle lens, an inch in diameter, 
of fourteen inches focal length, adjusted by means of a sliding 
tube, into one end of a cigar box, answers very well to take 

Vol. xu, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 18 


138 The Daguerreotype and iis Applications. 


small pictures. In one respect, these pictures are equal to those 
obtained with the achromatics; they are, however, inferior in oth- 
ers, and in their general effect. ‘The fine lines and edges of ob- 
jects are exceedingly sharp and distinct ; but the parts within the 
shade are not copied, and objects very distant from that to which 
the focus was adjusted, are not accurately delineated. By placing 
a diaphragm before the lens, with an aperture half an inch in 
diameter, the sharpness and distinctness of the lines and edges of 
objects are increased. In using this apparatus, which recommends 
itself by its cheapness—costing about twenty-five cents—the tube 
should be pushed in #; or ;3; inch, after adjusting the lens to 
the luminous focus, to obtain that of the chemical rays. The 
exact distance the tube is to be retracted should be determined 
for each lens by trial. 

The folding doors of the French camera do not perfectly pro- 
tect the iodized plate, nor can they be always opened and closed 
with promptitude. -'T'’o obviate the inconveniences and risks oc- 
easioned by them, another contrivance, which dispenses with the 
use of doors, has been adopted for shielding the iodized surface 
from the action of light. The clean plate is placed and secured 
ina frame fitted to the back of the camera; this frame is grooved 
so as to allow a piece of tin to slide like the lid of a paint box in 
front of the silver surface. A narrow crevice is left in the camera 
when the tin is withdrawn, which may be closed bya piece of wood 
adapted to it, and attached by hinges to the side of the camera. 

Another frame, similar to that just described, carries the ground 
glass. ‘These frames should be so constructed that the ground 
glass and the plate shall occupy exactly the same position when 
one replaces the other. Instead of the deep iodine box which ac- 
companies the French apparatus, one two inches deep, but much 
larger in every direction than the plate, is now commonly used. 
Todization, however, can be effected with greater uniformity by 
placing the frame containing the plate on a board impregnated 
with iodine, than by any other arrangement. The moisture 
which collects in the box, should be removed by sulphuric acid, 
a cup of which should remain in it. If this precaution is neg- 
lected, a film of water condenses on the plate, and is fatal to the 
success of the operation. 

An inclination of 45° is ordinarily given to the plate when it 
is exposed to the vapor of mercury, to allow the proof to be ex- 
amined as it comes out. A convenient mercurializing appara- 


The Daguerreotype and its Applications. 139 


tus for small plates, may be made by covering a large capsule con- 
taining a small quantity of mercury, with a piece of paste-board, 
with an aperture in it of the size and form of the plate. The 
mercury should be raised to about 140°, and the paste-board laid 
in its place. ‘The frame containing the plate which has received 
the image, should then be placed horizontally over the aperture 
and the slide withdrawn. Ihave employed an apparatus of this 
description very successfully ; and have found it advantageous to 
separate the plate farther from the mercury than the depth of the 
capsule; for this purpose, a paste-board box, open at both ends, 
two or three inches in length, and a little larger than the aperture, 
may be placed over it to support the frame. ‘The proof will ap- 
pear in five or ten minutes.* 

Most if not all of these modifications of the Daguerreotype ap- 
paratus were first effected by Professors Draper and Morse of the 
University of New York. 

Plates for Daguerreotype purposes are either of American man- 
ufacture, or they are imported from France. American plates are 
exceedingly imperfect. The silver abounds with perforations, 
which appear as black dots in the pictures; it also assumes a yel- 
low instead of a white coat in burning. 

A method has recently been published by Dr. Garlick, of pla- 
ting brass or copper, which probably will remedy many of the 
difficulties now encountered in procuring plates of a good quality. 
In using these plates, the usual routine of cleaning, burning, &c. 
is unnecessary. 

A piece of brass, or of planished copper—brass is preferred—is 
perfectly polished and its surface made perfectly clean. A solu- 
tion of nitrate of silver, so weak that the silver is precipitated 
slowly, and of a brownish color, on the brass, is laid uniformly 
over it, ‘at least three times,” with a camel’s hair pencil. After 
each application of the nitrate, the plate should be rubbed gently 
in one direction, with moistened bitartrate of potassa, applied with 
buff. This coat of silver receives a fine polish from peroxide of 
iron and buff. Proofs are said to have been taken on it, compar- 
able with those obtained on.French plates. 


* Mr. H.L. Smith of Cleveland, Ohio, is in the habit of employing the vapor of 
mercury spontaneously given off from amalgamated copper for bringing out the 
picture. If the amalgam is evenly spread on the copper surface, the iodized plate 
may be placed within half an inch of it; but if the mercury is in a fluid state, the 
iodized plate should be separated double that distance. 


ih 
140 The Daguerreotype and its Applications. 


It has been stated that the method recommended by M. Da- 
suerre for procuring a pure silver surface, might be abridged, and 
some of the steps omitted. Any omission, however, in this re- 
spect, is attended with risk to the success of the operation. A 
new plate must be ground to an even surface, polished, burnt, re- 
polished, washed with dilute nitric acid, rubbed with some dry 
and fine powder, and finished with dry cotton. Of the polishing 
powders usually employed, fine emery is the best to bring the 
plate to an even surface, and to remove the deep scratches, tripoli 
for polishing, and whiting to succeed the dilute acid. 

In every stage, the rubbing of the plate should be -performed 
transversely, and in the direction opposite to that in which it is to 
be held to view the picture. If the longer diameter of the plate 
is to be vertical, the polishing strokes should be parallel to the 
shorter diameter; and the reverse if the shorter diameter is to be 
vertical. 

A re-application of the dilute nitric acid, and of the whiting, 
is necessary if the plate is kept an hour or two before it is iodized. 
It should also, after having been exposed to the mercurial vapor, 
be re-polished and burnt before it is again employed, to evaporate 
any mercury that may adhere to its surface, but more particularly, 
to prevent the reappearance of the first proof along with the second. 

If the iodization has been carried beyond the golden yellow, 
the coat is less sensitive ; the proof is also hable to be stained by 
the light which is refiected from the plate itself, to the lens, and 
to the sides of the camera, and which is reflected back again in- 
discriminately over the iodized surface. Light of this color ap- 
pears, after suffering these two reflections, to exert no influence 
on the sensitive coat in the period required to take a proof. Proofs 
can be obtained, if the iodization has been pushed to a reddish 
yellow, or verges to a violet tint; the shadows, however, are usu- 
ally heavy, the fine lines are wanting, and the picture, if free from 
stains, has a coarse appearance. 

Professor Draper has noticed a fact respecting iodized plates, 
which is essential to the success of the operation in this country. 
It appears that the sensibility of the iodized surface to the action 
of light, and the uniformity of that action, are increased by keep- 
ing the plate secluded from light for a certain period after iodiza- 
tion. ‘The duration of this period of seclusion depends on the 
quality of the silver; a French plate requires to be kept half an 


The Daguerreotype and its Applications. 141 


hour; one of American manufacture, an hour or longer; and if 
it assumed a yellow coat in burning, it should not be placed in 
the camera for several hours. 

The possibility of obtaining impressions on an iodized surface 
in any kind of weather, has been amply demonstrated. Gene- 
rally, however, to obtain proofs successfully, a dry atmosphere, 
a pure white light, and a clear blue sky, are required. Attempts 
made to obtain them the day after one of rain,—when snow is 
melting rapidly,—or when the sun’s light 1s of a yellowish tint, 
will generally be fruitless. The proofs taken with the light of a 
yellowish cast, are frequently black. 

In removing the sensitive coat, care should be taken not to em- 
ploy the same solution too long. If it remains unchanged, mer- 
cury is liable to be precipitated from it on the proof, producing 
unsightly spots. [he method of removing the iodine introduced 
by Prof. Draper, is now generally abandoned, in consequence of 
the tarnishing of the proof after a time. The plate being placed 
in a weak solution of common salt, becomes one of the elements 
of a galvanic pair, if it is touched under the fluid with another 
metal. ‘The iodine is apparently entirely removed by touching 
successively its corners with a clean piece of zinc. Distilled, or 
even rain water, is unnecessary in the last washing, if a little dex- 
terity is employed in the manipulations. Immediately after pour- 
ing the water on the proof, one corner is dried in the flame of a 
spirit lamp; this is seized by a pair of forceps, and the plate held 
in an inclined position over the flame, the operator at the same 
time blowing over the surface of the plate. A film of water can 
in this way be made to traverse the whole length of the proof, 
leaving it free from stains or dirt. If any stain remains it will be 
on a corner, or an edge of the plate, and can be easily concealed 
by the mounting of the frame. A process has recently been em- 
ployed in France which fixes the picture and changes its color ; 
it also removes the unpleasant reflection from the silver surface, 
and renders the use of glass protectors unnecessary. A gramme 
of neutral chloride of gold, and three grammes of hyposulphite 
of soda, are dissolved in half a litre of water, i. e. one pint. ‘The 
plate having the view on it, supported, by a wire frame, has some 
of the liquid poured evenly over its surface ; heat is then applied 
from below by a spirit lamp, with a large wick. The view pre- 
sently turns dark; it should then be removed and well washed 


142 The Daguerreotype and its Applications. 


and dried. ‘This process, it is said, has been repeated in New 
York, and found to answer these purposes. 

The most important application of which this art was suscep- 
tible—taking portraits from life, to which it owes its chief inter- 
est—was made about the same time by Prof. Draper and by Mr. 
Wolcott, a mechanician of the city of New York. Neither pos- 
sessed any knowledge of the views of the other; and results 
similar in character were obtained by each operator, but under cir- 
cumstances differing slightly. Prof. Draper employed a Daguer- 
reotype apparatus, the lens of which was four inches in aperture ; 
Mr. Wolcott substituted an elliptical mirror of seven inches aper- 
ture, in place of the lens. 

In taking Daguerreotype portraits, the camera operation should 
be concluded before the features become wearied with one mode 
of expression. Lenses of large aperture, and light as intense as 
can be borne, tempered by an interposed pane of blue glass, are 
therefore employed to accelerate this part of the process. 

The usual arrangement of lenses consists of two French achro- 
matics, of about three inches aperture, piaced a little apart in a 
tube, the united focal length of which is eight inches. A better 
combination is said to be made by employing three of these lenses. 
The barrel in which they are mounted should project three or 
four inches in front, to exclude the side lights from the camera. 

Reflecting mirrors are required to obtain light of sufficient in- 
tensity, on the face, in the proper direction for copying all the fea- 
tures. One, or if more convenient, two large looking glasses are 
employed. With one, the time of the camera operation is one 
fourth shorter; if two are requisite, the first reflects the ray in 
nearly vertical lines to the second, which directs it to the face. 
The mirror which directs the ray should be placed a little above 
the sitter. The space about the eyes will then be illuminated 
and asmall shadow cast from the nose. 

The sitter should be brought forward from the background ; 
his head being supported steadily in an easy position, by a staff 
and ring at the back of his chair, and so placed, that his shadow 
shall not be copied as a part of his person. 

Two lines, one extending from the head of the sitter to the mir- 
ror, the other from the same point to the camera, should form an 
angle of about 10°. 

The camera operation is usually completed in from 1m. to 
24m. ; portraits however, have been obtained in 10s. 


The Daguerreotype and iis Applications. 143 

In Daguerreotype miniatures, moles, freckles and even hairs are 
copied with microscopic accuracy. ‘The iris of a dark eye is 
sharp and distinct, and the white dot of light upon it, is given 
with surprising beauty. If the iris is of a light blue, it is liable 
to solarize, before the face and dress make any decided impression 
on the iodized surface. This minute accuracy is preserved in 
the very small miniatures, intended to be worn as ornaments. 
The general sharpness of the portrait is probably increased by a 
diminution of its size, and with the aid of a lens all the ‘ individ- 
ual peculiarities’ may be discovered. By enlarging the dimen- 
sions of the portrait, this character is impaired, and entirely dis- 
appears when the face becomes two inches in length. See Amer- 
ican Repertory for October, p. 209—Professor Draper’s paper on 
this subject. 

Mr. Wolcott’s external arrangements are similar to those already 
described. If the sun’s light is employed, the ray is directed by 
a looking glass to the sitter, whose eyes are defended by an inter- 
posed blue glass. 

An elliptical metallic mirror seven inches in diameter, and of 
twelve inches focal length, is secured at the back of a box open at 
one end. Within this box, and near its open end, is placed the 
movable frame which supports the plate. In operating with this 
apparatus, the sitter should be about eight feet distant from the 
open end of the box; the plate with its iodized surface facing the 
mirror is then placed in the frame previously adjusted to the focus. 

‘The time required for the camera operation varies from $m. to 
2m., if the sun’s light and the mirror are employed ; 3m. are ne- 
cessary to its completion in diffused light. 

In this apparatus the position of the plate between the sitter 
and the metallic mirror, limits its size. Originally this limit was 
two inches square; improvements however, have been made by 
Mr. Wolcott, which enable him to use them of larger dimensions. 

‘This apparatus possesses some decided advantages over that fit- 
ted with lenses. Portraits can be taken when the sun is obscur- 
ed by clouds, and the picture is not reversed; that is, the right 
and the left hand do not change places. 

Mr. Ibbotson, of London, has, succeeded in copying magnified 
images by artificial light. ‘That from lime rendered incandescent 
by the flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, is said to be suffi- 
ciently intense for this purpose,-and produces the result in a 
shorter period than solar light. 


144 On the Pneumatic Paradox. 


T have taken proofs of microscopic objects magnified six hun- 
dred times, by receiving the image from a solar microscope on the 
iodized surface. Perfect pictures of the wings of insects and oth- 
er small objects were thus obtained. 

The attempts which have hitherto been made, to transfer the 
picture to paper, have been unsuccessful. In order that it may be 
less liable to injury, Dr. Berres, of Vienna; has published a meth- 
od of etching it “ faintly” on the silver. In London, by using 
the graver, the plate with the picture on it, has been converted 
into an engraving plate. Of course, after such rude usage none 
of the peculiar beauty and delicacy of the Daguerreotype picture, 


appeared in the engraving. 
Medical College, New Haven, Dec. 17th, 1840. 


Arr. XVI.—Supplementary Note to the Article on the Pneumatic 
Parador in the last number of this Journal ; by Josrrpu Hate 
Assot, Mem. Am. Acad. Arts and Sciences, &e. 


Since my article on this subject was forwarded to the editors, 
my attention has been drawn to a paper relating to the same phe- 
nomenon, by Mr. Thomas Hopkins, in the Memoirs of the Lite- 
rary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, published in the 
year 1831; of the circumstances connected with its discovery, he 
gives the following account, undoubtedly authentic, and differing 
in some important particulars from that which [ copied from the 
London Mechanics’ Magazine :— 

‘On the 11th of October, in the year 1824, Mr. Roberts affixed 
a valve to the aperture of a pipe, used as a waste-pipe, for the pur- 
pose of regulating or equalizing the force of a blast of air, which 
was blowing a furnace. 'To his surprise, however, he found that 
the valve, instead of being readily blown off by a strong current, 
remained at a small distance from the aperture of the pipe, and 
was removed to a greater distance only by a considerable exertion 
of the power of the hand. 'This singular phenomenon was wit- 
nessed by many gentlemen belonging to this society, in the same 
week, and appeared to be viewed by them all, as equally new 
and extraordinary.”’ 

I have to regret that, from the circumstance of finding errone- 
ous explanations of the phenomenon in foreign scientific publica- 


On the Pneumatic Paradox. 145 


tions of recent date, I was led, without further inquiry, to describe 
as new, several results, which, as I have since learned, had been 
previously discovered. Mr. Hopkins, and, previously to him, 
Mons. Clément-Désormes, in a memoir presented to the French 
Academy of Sciences, have anticipated me in proving the exis- 
tence of a partial vacuum between the disks. An account of 
some experiments by Dr. Faraday, for a knowledge of which I 
am indebted to Prof. Henry, is contained in the third volume of 
the Quarterly Journal of Science, and among them are two or 
three similar to some of the less important ones described by me. 
Thus far I feel called upon to disclaim any pretensions to priority 
of discovery. 

All of these gentlemen, if I understand them aright, attribute 
the adhesion of the disks solely to what I have called the pri- 
mary rarefaction, produced by the lateral expansion of the radi- 
ating currents, in consequence of their “ passing from a smaller to 
a larger space.” From their failure to discover what I have 
termed the secondary rarefaction, the theory adopted by them 
seems to me essentially defective. It affords no explanation of 
the fact that, as the experiment is usually performed, the air is rare- 
fied inward to the very orifice of 
the tube, where no expansion of A | 
the radiating currents can have 
taken place, and, in certain cir- 
cumstances, four inches and a 
half into the tube itself. The 
latter singular result was obtain- 
ed in the following manner. 

To the perforated center of a 
plate of tinned sheet iron was 
soldered, as represented in the 
accompanying figure, a tube 
eight inches long, and a quarter 
of aninch in diameter. Holes 
were made at intervals in it, 
and to them were soldered small 
leaden tubes, a few inches long, 
to which a glass tube, bent in 
the form of a double syphon, 


could readily be adapted. Only 
Vol. x1, No. 1.—Oct.—Dec. 1840. 19 


146 Miscellaneous Observations on Insects. - 


one of them is seen in the figure. A disk of thin, varnished card, 
four inches in diameter, being placed underneath, and, by means 
of three small pins thrust through it near the edge, separated 
from the plate as far as possible without ceasing to be sustained, 
namely, feur tenths of an inch, on blowing strongly through 
the tube, the colored water rose in the branch a of the glass 
tube four inches above its level in the branch 6, showing the 
air in the tube Tat the place of junction of the leaden tube, 
four inches and a half above the tin plate, to be rarer by about a 
hundredth part, than the surrounding atmosphere. In a similar 
manner, the air in any part of the tube nearer the plate, is found to 
be rarer, and, in any part farther from it, to be denser than the 
surrounding atmosphere. ‘These results can be explained only by 
referring them to a kind of retrograde influence of the primary 
rarefaction. ‘The current in the lower part of the tube, meeting 
with diminished resistance, in consequence of the attenuated state 
of the air between the disks, rushes forward with greater velocity 
than that with which it issues from the mouth ; and this accele- 
ration of velocity, producing a secondary rarefaction, extends the 
limits of the primary inwards, as just shown, and outwards by 


increasing the momentum of the radiating currents. 
Boston, December 16, 1840. 


Arr. XVII.— Miscellaneous Observations on Insects, &c. ; by Dr. 
Joun 'T’. Ptummer, of Richmond, Indiana, in letters to the Ed- 
itors, dated Aug. 11, and Dec. 12, 1840. 


Wrruovt the advantage of systematical works, in a desultory 
way, | have long been a deeply interested observer of the habits 
and various developments of living insects, and have witnessed 
many curious phenomena pertaining to them. My botanical re- 
searches, prosecuted over hill and dale, through wet and dry, for 
the last fourteen years, have often brought me into contact with 
those diminutive specimens of creation, the insect tribes, and have 
thus, no doubt, presented some things to my view, which other- 
wise I should not have seen. Last summer I picked a dozen re- 
cently fallen plums from beneath one of my trees, and placed 
them in a glass jar, one half filled with earth, for the purpose of 


Miscellaneous Observations on Insects. 147 


learning the progress, and indeed, the character of the curculio, 
with the larve of which this fruit was obviously infested. I had 
never seen the perfect insect. Ina few days, the larve forsook 
the plums, and penetrated the contained earth. I did not expect 
to see any thing more of them till next spring; but on casually 
looking at the jar-about a month afterward I was greatly surpris- 
ed to find that my prisoners had put off their old clothes, and as- 
sumed a quite different appearance. 'They had of course retired 
below merely to change their dress; but I did not expect them to 
get through with the duties of the toilet so soon. They were now 
(eighteen or twenty of them) ready to effect their escape through 
the gauze with which I had covered the vessel. They manifest- 
ed much sagacity ; a strong light would arrest all their motions ; 
and when the jar was struck, they would instantly fold up their 
little limbs, and remain for a considerable time motionless and at- 
tached to the gauze, or drop to the earth below like an inanimate 
thing. -Ina faint light they were “nimble as a-bug,” traversing 
the jar in all directions, but especially going upwards, tumbling 
down, and returning to the top. Iseparated two of them, and pla- 
ced them with a sound plum, in another glass vessel, to witness 
the manner of their depredation upon the fruit. They lost no time 
in mounting the plum, and preying upon it; but instead of the 
usual incision for the deposit of an egg, they feasted upon it, 
making a broad area where they fed. I am trying a similar ex- 
periment with the “ fly,” which has been sadly mischievous this 
year in our neighborhood, attacking in some instances the rye 
and barley as well as the wheat. 

What a difference there is in the retentiveness of life in differ- 
ent insects! A large coleopter I could not destroy by several days 
confinement in carbonic acid gas: after this trial I subjected it for 
hours, to strong ammoniacal gas, with no perceptible effect ; and 
starvation afterward for several weeks, was not fatal to it. (It 
forcibly reminded me of some “ bots’ upon which I tried experi- 
ments many years ago: I could not succeed in killing them by 
any of the powerful agents to which I exposed them, till I cover- 
ed them with sulphur and set fire to it.) On the other hand, some 
neuroptera perished in ten hours by confinement in common air. 
A Lepisma saccharina was placed in a vessel with a small, green, 
trigonal shaped or more properly triquetrous Gryllus: the latter in 
twenty four hours was exceedingly feeble, and soon after died ; 


148 Motion of Particles on Melted Spermaceti. 


the former, after anumber of days, (six or eight,) was as much a 
flirt as ever, wriggling and flouncing at every touch. 

December 12, 1840.—In a former letter, I contrasted the vi- 
tal tenacity of a Lepidium, with that of a common fly. The 
Lepidium is still alive. It has been kept since the date of that 
letter as it had been before, in a perfectly clean cupping glass, 
covered with another cupping glass, so that to human perception, 
life has been sustained without subsistence for many months. 
The continuance of the insect’s existence is in no degree due toa 
state of torpidity during this cold weather. 

In the summer, the larve of the lady-bug, (slate-colored wings 
with sixteen black dots, the two near the neck approximate, ) were 
very numerous about my residence, and attached themselves, af- 
ter their aphidivorous career, to the trees, walls and other neigh- 
boring objects, by their posterior extremity. ‘The little birds stole 
away many of them; but others were well ensconced, and they 
fellto my share. Thus adherent, the larvee struggle by occasion- 
al jerks, for several days, to disengage themselves from their en- 
velope. At last a buff-colored, elliptical and rugose thing appears, 
the old integument having been slipped down into a dense mass ; 
and in twelve hours, the black spots appear upon its partially de- 
veloped wings. It remains firmly fastened to its original point for 
a day or two longer, when another integument is thrown off as 
before, and the perfect bug walks forth. It does not immediately 
leave the spot ; but remains a long time in the vicinity of its exu- 
vise, perambulating around them as if exulting at its escape from 
so mean a habitation. ‘These larve are covered with spines. In 
several instances, those that were so unfortunate as to have attach- 
ed themselves early, were attacked by those still at liberty, and 
destroyed: the prisoner showed by his contortions, &c., that he 
suffered from the wound. I saw one of the semi-developed bugs 
destroyed in the same manner; and one of the perfect bugs prey- 
ing upon an attached larva. Thus voracity continues through 
all the stages of its metamorphosis: the larva living upon its own 
grade, and the winged bug, upon the larvee. 


Motion of Particles on Melted Spermaceti.—tIn relation to some 
remarks in a former number of this Journal, Vol. xxxin, p. 198, on 
a singular phenomenon in a burning candle, in which a. particle 
floating upon the melted spermaceti, alternately approached to 


Terrestrial Magnetism. 149 


and was repelled from the wick, the ends being invariably re- 
versed in changing its course, I observe that having repeatedly 
examined other candles, I have not been able to discover any 
thing more than the ordinary capillary attraction in them; and 
am led to believe the repulsion in the case cited, was owing to an 
accidental evolution of minute bubbles of gas at the base of the 
exposed wick. I am strengthened in this opinion, by having ob- 
served some time ago a similar phenomenon in an ash-hopper 
while in operation, in which the cause was obvious; the calm, 
supernatant water, appeared to be very gently directed to several 
little vertices, bearing thither fragments of coal, &c.; as soon as 
they reached the center, a small bubble of air arose in that spot ; 
and bursting, caused the particles adjacent to wheel about and re- 
- treat. 


Tooth and Grinder of a Mastodon.—The grinder of a Mas- 
todon ?* and the tusk of an Elephant have been found in this 
State; the first sixteen, and the second thirty miles from this 
place. The tusk was disinterred from a bed of gravel: it must 
have been originally at least six feet in length. Both specimens 
are now in our ‘“ Atheneum.” 


Art. XVIII.—On Terrestrial Magnetism; by Joun Locke, 
M. D., Professor of Chemistry and Pharmacy in the Medical 
College of Ohio. 

Medical College of Ohio, Noy. 20, 1840. 


TO THE EDITORS. 


You are already apprised that there was an erratum in my last 
manuscript, published in Vol. xxx1x, p. 319, of this Journal, mak- 
ing an apparent disagreement in the results by the two dipping 
needles at Davenport, in lowa, amounting to 6’.75. As the object 
of that communication was to show that the separate results ob- 


* Dr. Plummer’s mark of interrogation, implies a doubt which we presume will 
be easily removed by an examination of the tooth; if ofan elephant, it should 
have low processes and the enamel bounding them should extend vertically through 
from top to bottom ; if of the mastodon, the processes will be high and strong, and 
the enamel only superficial over the entire tooth Sen. Ep. 


150 Terrestrial Magnetism. 


tained by the two needles seldom differed more than one minute, 
I deem it essential to correct the error by copying below the en- 
tire minutes of the observation at that_place. 


Davenport, Iowa Territory, Sept. 15, 1839. _ Lat. 41° 30! N., Lon. 90° 18) W. 


Needle No. 1. B North. Needle No. 2. B North. 
Face of in-| Face of Face of in-; Face of 
strument. _ needle. | Dip indicated. strument.| needle. Dip indicated. 
10 E. 12°55 E. E. (1256) 
Ww. w. 70 47 Ww. Ww. 72 02 
w. E. 72 AZ Ww. E. 71 54 
E. w. 71 06 E. Ww. 72 03 
A North. A North. 
E. E. 70 59 E. E. 72:16 
w. w. 72 52 Ww. w. 71 26 
Ww. E. 70 53 Ww. E 72 12.5 
E. w. C2 Or E. Ww. (i 28° 
8)575 16 8)575 20 


Mean, 71 54.5 Mean, 71 55 


I will here add some observations made on the dip in Ohio, 
Indiana and Kentucky, within the last three months. 'The re- 
gion over which these observations have been extended, embra- 
ces rather more than two degrees of latitude and three degrees of 
longitude. Dip, intensity, and declination, were all made the 
objects of inquiry, but I here communicate only what relates to 
the dip, especially to show the close agreement of the results of 
the two different needles. 


No.1. Piqua, Ohio, Lat. 40° 06! N., Lon. 84° 10! W. Aug. 22, 1849. 


“Needle No. 1. A North. Needle No. 2. B North. 
Face of in-) Face of Face of in-; Face of 
strument.| needle. Dip indicated. strument. | needle. Dip indicated. 
E. E. 70°40’ E. E. LLoA7? 
Ww. W. 72.34 Ww (ile Sap) 
w. E. 70 43 Ww E 71 46 
E. Ww. 72 30 E Ww (Goes 
B North. A North 

E. E. 72 AA E E. 71 38.5 
Ww. Ww. 10) 30:5 Ww Ww ~7F1- 23.5 
Ww. E. 72 A2 Ww E 71 39.5 
E. Ww. 70 24 E. W. 71 23.5 

| 8)572 50.5 8)572 43 


hoe * Mean, 71) 36.31 Mean, 71 35.375 


Terrestrial Magnetism. 151 


No. 2. Dayton, Ohio, Lat. 39° 44! N., Lon. 84°07! W. Aug. 21, 1840. 


Needle No. 1. B North. ' Needle No. 2. A North. 
Face of in-; Face of Face of in-| Face of 
strument.} needle. Dip indicated. strument. needle. Dip indicated. 
aT a 72034! zeae 7 1923.5 
w. w. 70 12 Ww w. 71 11 
Ww. E. 72 28 Ww E 71 25.5 
E. W. 70 05 E. W. 71 O7 
A North. B North. 
E. E. 70 25 E E 71 29 
Ww. W. 72 19 w Ww 71 29 
Ww. E. 70 20 Ww E 1 25 
E. Ww. 72 32.5 E. W. 71 26 
8)570 55.5 8)570 56 
Mean, 71 21.937 Mean, 71 22* 
No. 3. Hamilton, Ohio, Lat. 39° 23! N., Lon. 84° 32' W. Aug. 20, 1840. 
Needle No.1. A North. Needle No. 2, B North. 
Face of in-{ Face of Face of in-; Face of 
strument. | needle. ___Dip indicated. strument.| needle. | Dip indicated. 
E. E. 70°15/ E. Be 71°08/.5 
‘ Ww. wl S45 w Ww 70 59 
Ww. E. 70 06.5 W. iy, 71 12.5 
E w. 71 53.5 E Ww. 70 59 
B North. A North 
E. E. 72 00 05 E. 70 56.5 
WwW. Ww. 70 00 Ww. w. 70 51 
Ww. E. 71 50 Ww. E. 70 59 
E. Ww. 69 58 E. Ww. 70 51.5 
8)567 57.5 | 8)567 57 
Mean, 70 59.687 Mean, 70 59.625 
No. 4. Lebanon, Ohio, Lat. 39° 26! N., Lon. 84° 6! WW. Aug. 24, 1840. 
f Needle No. 1. A North. Needle No.2. A North,  _ 
Face of in-; Face of Face of in-; Face of 
strument.}| needle. Dip indicated. strument.| needle. Dip indicated. 
E. E. 7O°LL E. E. 71°06/.5 
Ww. Ww. 72 OF Ww. W. 70 38.5 
W. Ee 70 05.5 W. E. | 71 OL.5 
E. Ww. 72 08 E. W. 70. 52 
B North. B North. 
E. abc 72. 02.5 E. E. 71 25 
w. Ww. 70 00 Ww. w. 71 04.5 
Ww E. Gl (oe. Ww. E 7L 10 
E Ww. 70 OL E. w. 71 07.5 
8)568 27.5 8)568 25.5 
Mean, 71 03.437 Mean, 71 03.187 


* Dip at Dayton, in March, 1888, 71° 22/.75. 


152 Terrestrial Magnetism. 


No. 5. Mason, Ohio, Lat. 39° 22! .V., Lon. 84° 13! W. Aug. 25, 1840. 


Mean, 70 28.25 


Needle No.1. 8B North. Needle No. 2. B North. 
Face of in-| Face of Face of in-|* Face of j 
strument.| needle. Dip indicated. strument.| needle. Dip indicated. 
E. E. P2203" E. E 71°04’ 
W. W. 69 40.5 w. Ww 70 57 
w. E. 71 49° Ww. E 71 05 
E. Ww. 69 48 E. W. 70 55 
A North. A North. 
E. E. 70 00 E ay 71 05 
W.. Ww. > ak ok Ww Ww. 70 38.5 
Ww. E. 69 56.5 Ww E. 70 51.5 
E. w. Wl 59 E. w. a 0 S38 Ome 
Se a ee Be 
Mean, 70 54.125 Mean, 70 54.312 
No. 6. Cincinnati, Ohio, Lat. 39° 6! N., Lon. 84° 27! W. Aug. 26, 1840. 
Needle No.1. A North. Needle No. 2. A North. 
Face of in-| Face of Face of in-| Face of is 
strument.| needle. Dip indicated. strument.} needle. Dip indicated. 
E. E. 69°25/ E E. 70°314.5 
Ww. W. 71. 29.5 Ww W. 70 11.5 
w. E. 69 26.5 Ww | E. | 70 33 
E. Ww. TA: 33 E. Ww. 70 13 
B North. B North. 
E. E. 71 AO E E. 70 32.5 
Ww. Ww. 69 16 Ww wW. | 70.35 
w. E. 71 27 Ww E 70 32.5 
E Ww. 69 23.5 E Ww 70 37 
| 8)563 40.5 | 8)563 46 
Mean, 70 27.56 


No. 7. Williamstown, Kentucky, Lat. 38° 36! V.? Lon. 84° 30! W.2 Sept. 1, 1840. 


| Needle No. 1. B North. Needle No. 2. B North. 

Face of in-| Face of Face of in-| Face of 

strument.| needle. Dip indicated. strument. | needle. Dip indicated. 
E. E. TS SY E. E. 70° 127.5 
Ww Ww. 68 55.5 W. W. 70 14.5 
w. E. 71 09.5 w. E. | £0 at 
E w. 68 55 E. Ww. 70 15 

A North. A North. 

E. E. 68 58 E. E. 69 53 
w. w. TL 10.5 Ww. Ww. | 69 58.5 
w. E. 68 59 W. E. 69 53 
E. w. 71 11.5 E. w. 69 56.5 


8)560 32 


| 8)560 34 — 
Mean, 70 04 


Mean, 70 04.25 


Terrestrial Magnetism. 153 
No. 8., Lexington, Kentucky, Lat. 38° 6! N., Lon. 849 18' W. Sept. 2, 1840. 
Needle No. 1. B North. Needle No. 2. A North. 
Face of in-| Face of Face of in-| Face of 
strument.| needle. Dip indicated. strument.| needle. Dip indicated. 
E. E. 71°05! E. E. 69°40'.5 
w. W. 68 40 Ww. Ww. 69. 53.5 
WwW. E. 71 «05 W. E. 69 46 
E. Ww. 68 38 E. Ww | 69 49.5 
A North. B North. 
E. E. 68 55 E E. 69 65.5 
W. WwW. 70 58 We ob Ww. | 69 53.5 
w. E. 69 06 Ww. E. 69 68.5 
E. Ww. 70 AQ E. Ww. 69 59.5 
8)559 16 | 8)559 16.5 
Mean, 69 54.5 Mean, 69 54.562 


No. 9. Clay’s Ferry, Kentucky River, Lat. 37° 53' N., Lon, 84° 18! ? W. Sept. 3, 
1840. 


Needle No. 1. B North. Needle No. 2. A North. 
Face of in-) Faceof | ace of in-) Face of 
strument.| needle. | Dip indicated. strument.) needle. | Dip indicated. 
1 E. 70°48’ E. E. 69°47/.5 
Ww. WwW. 68 45 W. W. 69 38.5 
Ww. | E. 70 47 W. | E. : 69 52.5 
1 alae aN 68 41 Eva ai WE 69 38.5 — 
A North. B North. 
E. E. 68 49 1p E. 69 44 
WwW. W. 70 53 WwW. Ww. | 69 56.5 
Ww. E. 68 48 W. E. 69 46.5 
E. W. 70 53.5 E. W. 69 59.5. 
8)558 24.5 | 8)558 23.5 
Mean,-69 48.06 _ Mean, 69 47.937 


At the above locality, Professors Peter and Alvord, of the Transylvania Uni- 
versity, were present and read the indications with me. 


No. 10. Frankfort, Kentucky, Lat. 38° 14' N., Lon. 84° 40! W. Sent. 4, 1840. 


Needle No. 1. A North. Needle No. 2. A North. 
Face of in-| Face of Face of in-|. Face of 
strument.| needle. Dip indicated. strument. | needle. Dip indicated. 
E Be cl 68°48’ E. E. 69°58'.5 
Ww Ww. 7L 02 Ww. Ww 69 34 
Ww. E. 69 00 w. | E. | 70 04 
E W. 70 58.5 E. w. | 69 35.5 
B North. B North. 
E. E. 71 03 E E. 70 04.5 
W. | Ww. 68 43 Ww. Ww. | 69 48.5 
Vie ie whale 71 06 Witte. latch 70 05.5 
E. | a ae Ger ales ae: W. 70 03.5 
, | 8)559 22 | 8)559 14 


Mean, 69 55.25 
Vol. xz, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 20 


Mean, 69 54.25 


154 Terrestrial Magnetism. 


No. 11. Louisville,* Kentucky, Lat. 38° 3! N., Lon. 85° 30! W. Sept. 7, 1840. 


Needle No.1. A North. Needle No. 2. \B North. 
Face of in-| Faceof !} Face of in-| Face of 
strument. | needle. Dip indicated. strument.| needle. Dip indicated. 
an. Bs oe 68°56’ E. E. COON Za 
W. yet 71 23 Ww. Ww. 70 06.5 
W. E 68 52 W. E. | 70 14.5 
E. Ww. 71 22 E. Ww 70 10 
B North A North 
E. E fet B25 E. E 70 03.5 
w. Ww. 68 40 w. W | 69 48.5 
Ww. E 71 20 Ww. E 70 06.5 
E. Ww. 68 42 E. Ww 69 47.5 
8)560 33.5 8)560 34.5 
Mean, 70 04.19 Mean, 70 04.31 
No. 12. Mount Vernon, Indiana, Lat. 37° 59’ N., Lon. 87° 47! W. Sept. 10, 1840. 
Needle No.1. A North. Needle No. 2. A North. 
Face of in-| Face of Face of-in-| Faceof j 
strument. | needle. Dip indicated. Strument.) needle. Dip indicated. 
E. E. 67°58’ E. E. 68°59’ 
Ww. w. 70 05.5 Ww. w. - 68 36 
Ww. | E. 67 56.5 Ww. E | 68 56 
E. Ww. 70 09 E. w. 68 38 
B North. B North. 
E. E. 70 04 E. E 69 04.5 
w. W. 67 38.5 w. Ww | 69 03 
w. E. 70 04 W. E 69 13.5 
E. WwW. 67 35 E. Ww. 69 00 
| 8)551 30.5 8)551 30 
Mean, 68 56.31 Mean, 68 56.25 


* The above observations were made on Corn Island, in the Ohio. At Jacob’s 
Woods, two miles south of the island, the dip was 69° 5 57! 1 
On August 31, 1339, the dip on Corn Island was _ . : 70° 08! 


Sept. 7, 1840, Ks 95 Ly - » #02 04! 
March 11, 1840, the dip at Jacob’s Woods was c 69° 57! 
Sept. 7, 1840, eG et te SOS aay 


The above exhibits the greatest change of dip which I have ever noticed in so 
short a distance as two miles. 


Terrestrial Magnetism. 155 


No. 13. New Harmony, Indiana, Lat. 38° 11! N., Lon. 87° 48! W. Sept. ie 1840. 


Needle No.l. B North. Needle No. 2. B North. 
Face of in-| Face of Face of in-} Face of 
| strument.] needle. Dip indicated. strument.| needle. | _ Dip indicated. 
E. E. TAU E. E. 69°15’ 
Ww. W. 67 43 Ww. WwW. 69 11.5 
Ww. E! 70 19.5 Ww. E. | 69 13.5 
E. Ww. 67 40 E. W. 69 23.5 
A North. A North. 
E. E. 67 58 E. E. 69 02 
Ww. Ww. 70 18.5 Ww. Ww. | 68 56.5 
WwW. E. 67 55 W. E. 69 00 
E. W. 70 18 E. W. 68 53 
8)552 29.0 8)552 55 
Mean, 69 03.62 Mean, 69 06.87 
2d observation, 69 02.3 — 2d observation, 69 06.8 
3d do. 69 03.62. 3d do. 69 06.8 
3) oat 3). « DET 


Mean of 24 obs. 69 03.18 Mean of 24 obs. 69 06.82 


In the above observations, it appears that each needle, while it 
gave by repeated observations results consistent with itself, dif- 
fered obstinately from the other to the amount of near four min- 
utes. 


No. 14. Princeton, Indiana, Lat. 38° 23! N., Lon. 87° 30! W. Sept. 16, 1840. 


Needle No.1. A North. Needle No. 2. B North. 
Face of in-| Faceof Face of in-| Face of i 
strument.| needle. | Dip indicated. strument.}] needle. Dip indicated. 
E. E 68°07’.5 E. E. 69°35’ 
Ww. w. | 70 45.5 w. Ww 69 25.5 
w. E. | 68 04 w. | E | 69 29.5 
E. Ww. 70 39.5 E. Ww 69 30.5 
B North. A North. 
E. E 70 40 E. E. 69. 27 
WwW. W. 68 00 W. W. | 69 05 
WwW. E 70. 35 WwW. E 69 27 
mal) fe | 68 07 einai ee 69 03 
8)554 58.5 | 8)555 02.5 
Mean, 69 22.31 


Mean, 69 22.81 


156 Terrestrial Magnetism. 


No. 15. Vincennes, Indiana, Lat. 38° 43! N., Lon. 87° 25! W. Sept. 18, 1840. 


Needle No.1. B North, | —sNeedle No.2. A North, 
Face of in-| Face of Face of in-| Face of 
strument. | needle. Dip indicated. strument. | needle. Dip indicated. 
E. E. 71°104.5 E. E 69°52’ 
Ww Ww. 68 25 w. Ww | 69 40.5 
Ww | B. 71 06 w. | z | 69 52.5 
E > Ww. 68 31.5 E. Ww 69 50 
A North. B North 
E. | E. 68 46.5 E. E. 69 56.5 
W. Ww. 1.08 Ww. W. | 69 56 
w. | E. 68 36 W. | E. 69. 50 
E. Ww. Gl 5: E. Ww. 69 63 
| 8)558 50 | 8)559 00.5 
Mean, 69 51.25 


Mean, 69 52.56 


JVo. 16. Paoli, Indiana, Lat. 38° 35! N., Lon. 86° 25! W. . Sept. 20, 1840. 


Needle No.1. A North. j Needle No. 2. ‘A North. 
Face of in-| Face of Face of in-| Face of 

strument.} needle. Dip indicated. strument.| needle. Dip indicated. 

E. E. 68°30’ E. E. 69°30/ 
W. Ww. 70 47.5 W. w. 69 26.5 
W. E. 68 30 Ww. E. 69 34.5 

E. W. 70 45.5 E. Ww. 69 25 

B North. B North. 

E. E. 70 AZ E. E. 69 37 
Ww. w. 68 12 Ww WwW. 69 41.5 
Ww. E. 70 49 Ww E. 69 39.5 
E. Ww. 68 21 E. Ww. 69 51.5 
8)556 42 8)556 45.5 
Mean, 69 35.25 Mean, 69 35.68 


_ The close agreement of the results of these two needles, will 
undoubtedly surprise experimenters on magnetism. 'They are 
much nearer to identity than at first I had hoped to bring them. 
The desirable object has been accomplished partly by a fine in- 
strument, and partly by peculiar manipulations, which, when I 
have perfected, I shall communicate to the public. 


Hlectrography. 157 


Art. XIX.—Electrography or the Electrotype.* 


Instructions for the Multiplication of Works of Art in Metal 
by Voltaic Electricity; by Tuomas Spencer. (Part IV of 
Griffin’s Scientific Miscellany: Glasgow, 1840, pp. 62.) — 


Ir is now about three years since we were first informed in the 
public prints, that Prof. Jacobi, of St. Petersburg, had succeeded 
in producing lines of metallic copper in relief, upon plates of the 
same metal, by precipitation from the solutions of the sulphate of 
that metal, by aid of Voltaic electricity. 

Since that time very many experiments have been instituted 
on the subject, all having the same object in view, viz. the pro- 
duction of perfect metallic casts or copies of medals, copper-plates, 
and other works of art. But no one has attained the object more 
perfectly or by more simple means than Mr. Spencer, of Liverpool, 
whose attention was called to this subject before any thing was 
known by him of what Prof. Jacobi had done. We do not pre- 
tend to give an opinion as to the priority of claim which either 
of these gentlemen may have to the process in question, since we 
deem it quite possible that each may have pursued his own re- 
searches, both leading to the same result, without any knowledge 
of what was doing by the other; and without the slightest inten- 
tion of interference. : 

The conditions necessary to the success of this process are the 
following. 1. Two fluids, one of which must be a saturated so- 
lution of the salt, on the negative side of a Voltaic series ; the oth- 
er may be, either water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid, 
or a weak saline solution, as sulphate of soda. 

2. These two fluids must be in contact without mixture; this 
is effected by placing them in a vessel provided with a porous di- 
vision, such as plaster of Paris, unglazed earthen ware, brown 
paper, bladder, calf-skin, or other animal membrane. ig 


* Some of our readers may have been surprised, that we have not sooner given 
an account of this important art. We should have done so, but preferred to wait 
until we had time to go through ourselves with the process in all its details. We 
were reminded of our backwardness by receiving, through the kindness of the 
author, the work whose tiile stands at the head of this article, and have revised 
our experiments made many months since on this subject, and instituted others. 
Our experience will be found in the above notice of Mr. Spencer’s pamphlet. 

t In a Liverpool paper, we find an ardent vindication of Mr. Spencer’s claim to 
priority and superior excellence in the results. 


158 Electrography. 


3. A connection must also be established between the two fluids 
by means of a metallic strap or wire; to the end of this strap 
which is in the metallic salt, must be soldered the object to be 
copied, which must also be a metal or at least have a metallic sur- 
face; to the other end of this metallic connection, which is in the 
acidulated water, a piece of zinc must be attached by soldering. 

The accompanying figure taken from Mr. Fig. 1. 
Spencer’s pamphlet, will render the forego- 
ing conditions of the experiment quite plain. 
A, is a glass vessel, (a common drinking tum- 
'bler answers very well;) B, is a straight tube 
of glass, in this case an argand lamp chim- 
ney, having the lower end closed by a dia- 
phragm of plaster, brown paper, or animal 
membrane; C, the object to be copied; EH, 
a piece of zinc; F, the copper connecting 
wire soldered to C and E;; D, acover of any 
convenient material, (a cork or piece of wood,) 
fitting A, and provided with two holes, one in the center for hold- 
ing the glass B in its place and another to permit the wire EF’ to 
pass. ‘‘he apparatus being thus arranged, pour into A, a satura- 
ted solution of sulphate of copper warmed to 100° or 120° F., 
and into B, a warm weak acid water to the same level as the so- 
lution in the outer vessel.* 

A more simple form of apparatus, 
and one which we have used with good 
success, is shown in the following fig- 
ure ; we describe it because we believe 
it is much better adapted to the means 
of the inexperienced experimenter than 
the foregoing, and its manipulation is’ 
also much simpler. 

A, is an earthen ware pot of any requi- 
site capacity ; B, b, the porous division, 
which may be made by casting plaster 
of Paris across from side to side, and 


* Mr. Spencer objects to the use of an apparatus where the plates are vertical, 
because the deposition is of unequal thickness; but we have found no difficulty 
if the solution is kept saturated. 


Hlectrography. 159 


its position and thickness may be regulated at pleasure, by two 
boards fitting the sides of the vessel and leaving the desired space 
between them; after the plaster has become firm, the boards may 
be withdrawn. Any of the substances before named will answer 
to form this division. C, D, the two chambers formed by the divis- 
ion B, 6. Either of these may be devoted to the cupreous solu- 
tion, and the other to the saline or acid water. The connecting 
wire will then form an arch between the two, supported by a strip 
of wood laid over the division. Mr. Joseph Saxton, of the Uni- 
ted States Mint, showed us one of these little pots which had been 
sawn down by a stone-cutter’s saw, in the line B, 6, and into the 
slit so formed, a piece of calf-skin was inserted and the joint se- 
cured from leakage by a hoop of iron, fitted with a binding screw.* 
These two forms of apparatus will be found quite sufficient to 
copy most objects of art except large engraved plates, which must 
be provided with a box suited to their form and dimensions.+ 
~ Being provided with such an apparatus as has been: described, 
the next question is, how to make use of it in copying any ob- 
ject of art; to accomplish this, the experimenter must proceed 
as follows :—First, of metallic medals. A concave copy of the 
medal must be first obtained, either by fusible metal, or by im- 
pressing it on soft and bright sheet lead, in a press of sufficient 
power to strike up its most delicate lines boldly. ‘This prelimi- 
nary step is not indispensable, because the object to be copied 
may be at once immersed in the cupreous solution, and a deposit 
obtained on it, which must subsequently be removed, and used 
as a mould, in which to cast the relief; but it is obvious that 
twice the time is required in this way, to obtain the final copy, 
beside the danger of injuring the beauty of the medal by solder- 
ing the connection on it, however adroitly that operation may be 
performed ; and the deposited copper is much more difficult to re- 
move froma bed of the same metal, particularly if the matrix 
was itself the result of Voltaic casting. But in whatever manner 
the intaglio copy may have been obtained, before immersing it in 
the cupreous solution, all those parts of the surface not intended 
to be copied, must be covered with bees’ wax or varnish, applied 


* Mr, Saxton has by this mode, copied a Daguerreotype plate ; the picture being 
visible by the difference of polish in the deposit. This is the strongest proof of 
the great delicacy of this process which has come to our knowledge. 

+ See Mr. Spencer’s book, p. 47, for a good form of apparatus for this purpose. 


160 Electrography. 


with a brush, the mould being previously warmed slightly, so that 
the wax may be more evenly distributed. 'The wire connecting 
the mould with the zinc, must be soldered to the back of the lead- 
en impress. No sooner are the poles of this small battery con- 
nected and placed in their respective solutions, than the deposit 
of metallic copper commences on the mould, copying with in- 
conceivable delicacy, all the most minute lines and even the 
shades of polish which may be on the face of the matrix. Great 
care is necessary to see that the surface to be deposited upon, is 
clean and bright, for the least grease or foreign matter, even such 
as would come from the fingers, will prove an impediment to the 
uniformity and beauty of the result. From one day to three days 
are necessary, to obtain a copy of a medal or of any object of similar 
size, according to the required thickness of the deposit. During 
this time, the apparatus should be placed in a situation where the 
temperature can be maintained at about 100° or 120°, and the 
saturation of the cupreous solution should be carefully insured, by 
suspending in it a gauze bag containing crystals of the salt, which 
will be dissolved as the strength of the solution declines. If this 
latter precaution be neglected, the free acid resulting from the 
constant decomposition of the sulphate of copper will interfere 
' materially with the success of the result, and the tenacity of the 
deposited copper, as well as the rapidity with which the process 
proceeds seems to depend in some measure, on the temperature 
being moderately elevated. 

After the deposit has gained sufficient thickness, it may be ea- 
sily removed by immersing the united metals in boiling water, or 
better by holding the matrix for a moment over a spirit lamp, or 
if large and heavy, over a chaffeur of burning coals, when the 
different expansibility of the two metals will cause an instant sepa- 
ration, with a smart crackling sound. The separation of the depos- 
it, where it has fallen on a matrix of copper, is not however, so ea- 
sy, but it may generally be effected without serious difficulty, if 
previously to placing the matrix in the solution, its warmed surface 
be slightly covered with fine bees’ wax, which must then be re- 
moved with great care from all parts of it, while still warm, rub- 
bing it briskly with a clean fine cloth, all the wax seems to be re- 
moved, but in fact, a film remains which is sufficient to prevent 
chemical union between the surfaces, although if carefully done, 
not interfering with the deposition of the metal. The casts thus 


Hlectrography. 161 


obtained, have all the sharpness of the original, and may be bronz- 
ed in the usual way, to any color which may suit the taste of 
the experimenter.* 

Engraved plates of copper may be copied with equal success 
by this method, and already this has become an important branch 
of the engraver’s art,t and we hear of large and elaborate plates 
being thus multiplied to any desired extent. We should suppose 
that by availing ourselves of this advantage, the great expense 
of steel nates might be avoided. Such copies may be fur- 
nished at a price but little exceeding that of ordinary engraver’s 
copper. Mr. Spencer says, that copies of engraved plates may 
be taken in lead, by pressure as before described, but we should 
doubt if large plates could be thus treated with success; and that 
the first copy ought to be in copper, which when once obtained 
will answer any number of times. 

But the usefulness of this process would be much abridged 
were it applicable only to metallic bodies. Such however is not 
the case. Almost any non-conducting surface may be rendered 
a conductor by the following ingenious process, proposed by Mr. 
Spencer. Wash the surface to be metallized with nitrate of silver, 
by a camel’s hair pencil, and then expose this surface thus treated 
to the vapors of phosphorus dissolved in alcohol or spirits of tur- 
pentine, which for this purpose should be placed in a capsule, 
and gently warmed by a spirit lamp, or over a sand-bath. In- 
stantly the silver is reduced to a phosphuret, and covers the whole 


* A bronzing solution may be made by taking two parts of acetate of copper, and 
one of muriate of ammonia, and dissolving them in acetic acid (or vinegar ;) boil the 
solution and add water until no longer any white precipitate falls, and only a slight 
metallic taste remains: filter it, and place the medal to be bronzed in a copper ba- 
sin ; pour the solution, while boiling, on the object, and keep up the ebullition for 
some time; examine the medal frequently, and when the desired shade of oxida- 
tion has been attained, remove it and wash it most carefully in several waters ; oth- 
erwise a whitish film will subsequently come over it, injuring its appearance. The 
article to be bronzed must be previously cleaned bright, and be free from all greas- 
iness. 

{ Beautiful examples of engravings thus obtained, appeared in the Westminster 
Review, for Septemper last, and side by side with them, impressions from the orig- 
inal plate. No difference could be perceived on the closest examination. Dr. Chil- 
ton, of New York, has also obtained equally good results, an example of which 
was given in the July number of Prof. Mapes’ American Repertory. We may also 
add, that we have succeeded in copying a plate, (a head of John Bunyan,) six by 
nine inches, and that insome future number, we may give some examples, as occa- 
sion may require. The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and New- 
ton’s Journal, have also contained examples ee this art. 

Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. PAL 


162 Electrography. 


surface, however delicate or intricate, with a thin metallic film, 
which will be found a good conductor. We have in this way 
obtained deposits on plaster, and even paper, and any one by 
availing himself of this fact may procure perfect fac-similes in 
copper of those beautiful reliefs of animals and plants, &c., on 
Bristol paper, by Dobbs of London. In doing this it is neces- 
sary to protect the back and sides of the plaster or paper by var- 
nish, to prevent its absorbing water, and thereby injuring the 
sharpness of the copy. 

We have thought that with proper care in the details, this 
mode might be with great advantage, applied to the production 
of copper busts and statues. For this purpose let a plaster mould 
be obtained, such as is used in the production of common plaster 
casts ; let the individual parts of this mould be carefully treated, 
in the manner just described, to render their surfaces conductors ; 
the mould may then be united, and all requisite care being taken 
to see that the joints are properly secured and closed, so as not 
to interrupt the conducting surfaces, let it be placed in a vessel 
of suitable form, and completely immersed in a solution of sul- 
phate of copper, and treated in a manner similar to any other ob- 
ject under such circumstances. We regret that it is not in our 
power to say that we have done this, and we are not aware that 
any experiments on this point have been published.* If it can 
be done successfully, its value to the arts will be very great; fur- 
nishing the artist at-once with the means of perpetuating his 
fame by a literal monumentum @re perennius. 

This art has sprung up and grown to great perfection almost in 
a day ; and we hear from every quarter, accounts of its application 
to new and valuable purposes. 'The art of printing seems likely 
to profit greatly by this new coadjutor. The type-founder can 
now fill his moulds with copper and thus obtain plates which will 
outlast their owners, while their superior hardness and durability 
will warrant the expenditure of much greater care and labor in 
finishing all their details.+ 


* A plaster bust may, after proper preparation, be inclosed in copper by this 
mode ; but the surface of the deposit, after aitaining the thickness of stout paper, 
manifests, according to our observations, a tendency to rise up in grains like shot, 
and after a little, the sharpness of the inclosed plaster is lost; we doubt therefore if 
this modification of the process can ever be pursued with much hope of success. 

t Mr. Spencer sent us with his pamphlet, a handsomely printed table in 8yo. 
from type thus produced. 


Elecirography. 163 


The wood-engraver can now furnish blocks which will admit 
of much greater delicacy of finish, although it is doubtful if any 
material can endure the common press for a longer time than well 
prepared wood is stated to have done. But the ease and accuracy 
with which the most elaborate designs may be multiplied, will 
give this mode the preference. 

The question very naturally arises, to what metals is this pro- 
cess applicable? We believe we are warranted by the present 
state of our knowledge, in stating that it has hitherto been applied 
successfully to copper alone, although no reasonable doubt can be 
entertained that modes will yet be discovered by which it can be 
profitably used with other metals. Platinum has been thus pre- 
cipitated from its chloride, not in a useful form, but in the state 
of minute division, in a black powder, resembling spongy plati- 
num. ‘This result is the more to be regretted, since we are in 
great need of new and economical modes of working this invalu- 
able metal. Gold and silver may be also thrown down from their 
respective chloride, and nitrate; but the film deposited is very 
thin, and may be removed by rubbing with the finger, and 
ceases to be deposited when the surface on which it is produced 
is entirely covered. We were indeed informed, a few months 
since, that M. De La Rive had furnished the artists of Geneva 
with a modification of this process, whereby they were able to 
gild spoons and other articles of silver successfully. But we un- 
derstand that more was expected from it than has been realized. 
Lead may be treated in this way, but it is so readily worked in 
other modes, that it presents no object. 

We have observed in numerous experiments on this subject, 
that not only the thickness of the porous diaphragm, but also the 
nature of its surface, influences the rapidity and character of the 
deposited copper. ‘Thus in using a plaster division, formed in 
a stone pot, as shewn in fig. 2, by casting between two boards, 
the surfaces of the division became perpendicularly striated by the 
grain of the wood, and by little prominences on the lower end, 
as left by the saw. ‘These striae were apparent on the deposit, 
giving it the appearance which metals receive from the rolling 
cylinder—and they were very bold when the copper had attained 
the thickness of a dollar. Calf-skin gave no such result; on 
the contrary, the surfaces of deposits obtained with that sub- 
stance as a division were quite smooth. Bladder-skin, undressed, 
causes the deposit to be pitted with little hollows and correspond- 


164 Electrography. 


ing granulations over its whole surface, each inequality answer- 
ing to a similar one on the membrane. 

These facts may be important in the practical use of this art, 
where success depends on the beauty of the result. 

Mr. Spencer remarks, that in these experiments the zinc should 
never be amalgamated, notwithstanding the great advantage of 
that mode of treating zinc in other Voltaic arrangements. Our 
experience, on the other hand, has shewn us that there are advan- 
tages in adopting this method, and the results which we have 
obtained with amalgamated zinc, have been very good. 

The phenomena attending this process are interesting. It has 
been long known that in the electrolysis of a metallic salt, both 
the salt and the water of the solution are decomposed. In this 
case the sulphate of copper is at first resolved into sulphuric acid 
and oxide of copper, and the water also into its elements. 
‘The sulphuric acid being electro-negative goes over to the zinc- 
ode, whither the oxygen of the decomposed water has also gone. 
Here the oxygen unites with the zinc to form the oxide of that 
metal, which is instantly dissolved by the free sulphuric acid, 
forming sulphate of zinc. But the hydrogen liberated from the de- 
composed water all goes to the platinode, where, finding the oxide 
of copper, it unites with its oxygen to form water, and the metal- 
lic copper is deposited, according to its own laws of crystallization, 
on the nearest metallic surface in the Voltaic circuits. Hence the 
art which forms the subject of this article. It must also be re- 
membered that the same phenomena attend the zincode of this 
series that we have described as belonging to the copper or plati- 
node, namely, water is there decomposed, the oxygen forms ox- 
ide of zinc, and the hydrogen goes to reduce the oxide of cop- 
per, unless indeed, there is an excess of sulphuric acid in the 
zine cell, in which case, free hydrogen will be evolved from 
that cell. ‘The deposit of metallic copper is an exact equivalent 
for the oxidation of the zinc. Indeed no deposit can take place 
until the zine is oxidized, and hence the necessity of a free acid 
or saline fluid in the zinc cell, to commence the decomposition. 

Much light has been thrown by these experiments and those of 
Mr. Fox on the mode in which metallic deposits occur in nature. 
But at this time we can only mention the subject; to treat of it 
would require more space than we can at present command; we 
postpone it therefore to some other occasion. B.S. in! 

Yale College Laboratory, Dec. 23d, 1840. 


Bibliography. 165 


Art. X X.— Bibliographical Notices. 


1. Report on the Tea Plant of Upper Assam; by Wm. GrirFiTH, 
Assistant Surgeon Madras Establishment, late member of the Assam 
Deputation.* (From the Transactions of the Agricultural Society 
of Calcutta,) pp. §5, 8vo. With two plates and four maps or charts.— 
The important discovery that the genuine tea-plant is indigenous to 
Upper Assam, which was made in the year 1834, excited, as might be 
expected, a high degree of interest; and the East India Company, who 
were already attempting the cultivation of the tea in their possessions, 
by its introduction from China, appointed a deputation to examine the 
country in which the plant had been discovered. ‘The officers se- 
lected for this duty were Dr. Wallich and Mr. Griffith as botanists, 
and Mr. McClelland as geologist, who set out upon their mission in 
the autumn of 1835.. The pamphlet before us is said to be a second 
or revised report: we cannot determine the date of its publication, 
and we have not seen the volume of the Transactions of the Agricul- 
tural Society of Calcutta, of which it is said to form a part, but it 
probably appeared as early as the year 1838. Owing to the present 
relations of China with England, the subject of which it treats never 
possessed so great an importance as at the present time, unless in- 
deed (as is not very improbable) the future experiments of the East 
India Company in the cultivation of the tea-plant are to be prosecuted 
on Chinese soil ! 

The report contains a good deal of merely local or personal mat- 
ter, and is so extensive that we can give nothing like an analysis of 
its contents. The first part is occupied with the Movements of the 
Deputation, enumeration of the tea localities, and the appearance 
of the Tea-plants. The plant, it appears, occurs in patches of very 
limited extent, but the localities are said to be numerous. It is a 
shrub of ordinary size, or rarely reaching the altitude of a small tree, 
growing in low situations, in a very light and porous soil, which is al- 
ways yellowish or reddish-yellow; and the climate is remarkable for 
its humidity. The second part consists of Remarks on the Vegeta- 
tion associated with the Tea-plantin Assam andin China. The third 
is a Comparison between the Flora of Upper Assam and that of Chi- 
na, in somewhat similar latitudes ; a subject of great difficulty, owing 
to the slight knowledge we possess of the vegetation of China, but 
which is very ably investigated by Mr. Griffith, especially as to the 
indications which the presence or predominance of particular tribes or 


* Received from the author. 


166 Bibliography. 


genera afford respecting the nature of the climate. Part IV is occu- 
pied with a Comparison between the climate of Upper Assam and 
that of the Tea Provinces of Central China, compiled from the im- 
perfect observations that have been made. Part V, is an Examina- 
tion into the nature of the stations of the Tea-plant in the Province 
Kiang-nan and Kiang-see, in which Mr. Griffith contradicts the opin- 
ion introduced by Abeel, and for a long time prevalent, that the plant 
is a native of, or at least better adapted to, places of considerable ele- 
vation, or of such a nature that snow and frost are of common occur- 
rence in the winter months. In Part VI, Remarks on the genus to 
which the Tea-plant belongs, and on the geographical distribution of 
the Indian plants of the same natural order, the author comes to the 
conclusion that the tea-plant and the Camellia belong to the same ge- 
nus. Part VIL, which is occupied with Remarks on the plans of Tea 
culture adopted by the Tea Commitice, and on a proposed new and 
improved mode of cultivation ; it contains a brief history of the at- 
tempts which have been made to introduce and cultivate the tea-plant 
in India, and of the alleged mistakes which have been committed ; it 
is very controversial in its character. 'The author also takes up the 
question whether the green and black teas of commerce are the pro- 
duce of the same species, modified by culture, soil, and mode of pre- 
paration; or whether they are derived from two distinct species. But 
after enumerating the various opinions which have been advanced, he 
leaves this long controverted question exactly where he foundit. The 
remainder of the report is chiefly devoted to a detailed consideration 
of the steps which should be followed in the cultivation of the plant, 
whether indigenous or imported, and which, in his opinion, would 
render its success certain. ‘This conclusion is adopted on the follow- 
ing grounds, viz :— 

1. That the tea-plant is indigenous to, and distributed extensively 
over, large portions of Upper Assam. 

2. That there is a similarity in configuration between the valley of 
Assam and two of the best known tea provinces of China. 

3. That there is a similarity between the climates of the two coun- 
tries, both with regard to temperature and humidity. 

4, That there is a precise similarity between the stations of the 
tea-plant in Upper Assam, and its stations in those parts of the prov- 
inces of Kiang-nan and Kiang-see that have been traversed by Eu- 
ropeans. 

5. That there is a similarity both in the associated and the general 
vegetation of both Assam and those parts of Chinese tea provinces 
situated in or about the same latitude. 


Bibliography. 167 


2. Report of M. GuitteMiN, Botanical Assistant at the Museum 
of Natural History, presented to the Minister of Agriculture and 
Commerce, on the subject of the Expedition to Brazil, undertaken 
principally with the view to obtain information respecting the culture 
and preparation of the Tea-plant, and the introduction of this shrub 
into France. (Revue Agricole, 16me livraison.)—An abridged trans- 
Jation of this report is published in the seventeenth number of Hook- 
er’s Journal of Botany, for October, 1840. Mr. Guillemin returned 
from his important expedition in July, 1839, bringing with him fifteen 
hundred living tea-plants, about one third of the number with which 
he left Rio Janeiro, and having collected much information respect- 
ing the cultivation and preparation of tea in Brazil. The following 
extract is copied from the translation mentioned above. 

“In the middle of November I had an opportunity of observing the 
method pursued when culling the tea, which is performed by black 
slaves, chiefly women and children. They carefully selected the ten- 
derest and pale green leaves, nipping off with their nails the young 
leaf bud, just below where the first or second leaf was unfolded. One 
whole field had already undergone this operation; nothing but tea 
shrubs stripped of their foliage remained. The inspector assured me 
that the plant receives no injury from this process, and that the har- 
vest of leaves was to become permanent by carefully regulating it, so 
that the foliage should have grown again on the first stripped shrubs, 
at the period when the leaves of the last plants were pulled off. About 
twelve thousand tea shrubs are grown in this garden; they are regu- 
larly planted in quincunxes, and stand about one metre distant from 
each other ; the greater number are stunted and shabby looking, pro- 
bably owing to the aspect of the ground, which lies low, on the level 
of the sea, and exposed to the full rays of a burning sun; perhaps the 
quality of the soil may have something to do with it, though this is 
apparently similar to the prevailing soil in the province of Rio Janéiro. 
This soil, which is highly argillaceous, and strongly tinged with trit- 
oxide of iron, is formed by the decomposition of gneiss or granite 
rocks. The flat situation of this tea ground is unfavorable to the im- 
provement of the soil, for the heavy rains which wash away the su- 
perfluous sand from slanting situations, of course only consolidate 
more strongly the remaining component parts, where the land lies 
perfectly level, and thus the tea plants suffer from this state of soil. 

‘‘ The kindness of M. de Brandao, Director of the botanic garden, 
induced him to invite me, shortly after I had seen this above described 
tea ground, that I might inspect all the operations for the preparation 
of tea. I found that the picking of the leaves had been commenced 
very early in the morning, and two kilogrammes were pulled that were 


168 Bibliography. 


still wet with dew. These were deposited in a well polished iron 
vase, the shape being that of a very broad flat pan, and set on a brick 
furnace, where a brisk wooden fire kept the temperature nearly up to 
that of boiling water. A negro, after carefully washing his hands, 
kept continually stirring the tea leaves in all directions, till their ex- 
ternal dampness was quite evaporated, and the leaves acquired the 
softness of linen rag, and a small pinch of them, when rolled in the 
hollow of the hand, became a little ball that would not unroll. In 
this state the mass of tea was divided into two portions, and a negro 
took each and set them on a hurdle formed of strips of bamboo, laid 
at right angles, where they shook and kneaded the leaves in all direc- 
tions for a quarter of an hour, an operation on which much of the beau- 
ty of the product depends, and which requires habit in order to be pro- 
perly performed. Itis impossible to describe this process: the motion 
of the hands is rapid and very irregular, and the degree of pressure 
requisite varies according to circumstances; generally speaking, the 
young negro women are considered more clever at this part of the work 
than older persons. As this process of rolling and twisting the leaves 
goes on, their green juice is drained off through the hurdle, and it is es- 
sential that the tea be perfectly divested of the moisture, which is acrid, 
and even corrosive, the bruising and kneading being specially designed 
to break the parenchyme of the leaf, and permit the escape of the sap. 

‘* When the leaves have been thus twisted and roiled, they are re- 
placed in the great iron pan, and the temperature raised till the hand 
can no longer bear the heat at the bottom. For upwards of an hour 
the negroes are then constantly employed in separating, shaking, and 
throwing the foliage up and down, in order to facilitate the desicca- 
tion, and much neatness and quickness of hand were requisite, that | 
the manipulators might neither burn themselves nor allow the masses 
of leaves to adhere to the hot bottom ef the pan. It is easy to see 
that, if the pan were placed within another pan filled with boiling 
water, and the leaves were stirred with an iron spatula, much trouble 
might be obviated. Still, the rolling and drying of the leaves were 
successfully performed; they became more and more crisp, and pre- 
served their twisted shape, except some few which seemed too old and 
coriaceous to submit to be rolled up. The tea was then placed ona 
sieve, with wide apertures of regular sizes, and formed of flat strips 
of bamboo. The best rolled leaves, produced by the tips of the buds 
and the tenderest leaves, passed through this sieve, and were subse- 
quently fanned, in order to separate any unrolled fragments which 
might have passed through with them; this produce was called Jm- 
perial, or Uchim Tea. It was again laid in the pan, till it acquired 
the leaden gray tint, which proved its perfect dryness, and any defec- 


Bibliography. — 169 


tive leaf which had escaped the winnowing and sifting was picked out 
by hand. The residue, which was left from the first fanning, was sub- 
mitted to all the operations of winnowing, sifting, and scorching, and 
it then afforded the Fine Hyson Tea of commerce; while the same 
operations performed on the residuum of it, yielded the Common Hy- 
son; and the refuse of the third quality again, afforded the Coarse 
Hyson. Finally, the broken and unrolled foliage, which was rejected 
in the last siftings, furnish what is called Family Tea, the better kind 
of which is called Chato, and the inferior Chuto. The latter sort is 
never sold, but kept for consumption in the families of the growers. 

“Such is the mode of preparation pursued at Rio Janeiro, though 
I must add, that the process employed at the botanic garden being 
most carefully performed, in order to serve as a model for private 
cultivators of tea, the produce is superior to the generality, so that 
we dare not judge of all Brazilian tea by what is raised at the garden 
of Rio.” 

Mr. Guillemin recommends the western extremity of the depart- 
ment of Finisterre, as having a soil and climate more suitable to the 
culture of tea, than any other part of France. 

‘And now to come to the important question, whether the growth 
and preparation of tea can furnish an advantageous branch of agricul- 
ture in France,—the decision rests on so many contingencies, of the 
quantity of respective produce from a given portion of soil, and the 
price to be realized by the article when produced, that it is very diffi- 
cult to arrive at a satisfactory and correct answer. In Brazil, where, 
as Ihave stated above, the culture of the shrub succeeds perfectly well; 
where the gathering of the foliage proceeds with hardly any interrup- 
tion during the entire year ; where the quality (setting aside the aroma 
which is believed to be artificially added) is not inferior to that of the 
finest tea from China, still the growers have not realized any large 
profits. They have assuredly manufactured an immense quantity of 
tea, to judge by what I saw in the warehouses at St. Paul, but they 
cannot afford to sell it under six francs for the half kilogramme, a lb. 
weight, which is higher than Chinese tea of equally good quality. 
Indeed, the trade of tea is still in great activity between China and 
Brazil, partly by ships which come straight from the former country 
to Rio Janeiro, and partly through the United States. Could we in- 
sure France a similar modicum of success in rearing the plants, as in 
Brazil, it may be fairly calculated that considerable improvements 
would take place; the lower price of labor would diminish the cost of 
its produce; more economical and expeditious plans for preparing the 
leaf might easily be invented; and finally, if we could succeed in im- 
parting the perfume which distinguishes the Chinese tea, there can 

Vol. xz, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 22 


170 Exbhography. 


exist little doubt that our home-grown article might compete advan- 
tageously with the foreign one, especially in the event of a war with 
China, or other interruption of our maritime intercourse with the 
East. Whatever be the tenor of future public affairs, the cultivation 
of the tea-plant should, under every circumstance, be carefully essayed 
in France; a fair trial should be given to it, and as it could not be 
prejudicial to other agricultural interests, requiring such a locality as 
is little adapted to other productions, I.am the more disposed to think 
that it merits the encouragement and favor of government.” 

Mr. Guillemin’s attention was also directed to the cultivation of 
coffee in Brazil, but no details are given. 


3. The Spiritual Life of Plants.—We extract the following from 
Meyen’s Report on the Progress of Vegetable Philosophy, for the 
year 1837, (published late in 1838,) as translated by Mr. Francis. It 
affords a good idea of that tendency to transcendentalism which thor- 
oughly pervades the German mind, and has found its way into physi- 
eal as well as psychological science. 

«© M. v. Martius* has published his views on the soul of plants, with 
which I may commence the present year’s report. Itappears, observes 
M. v. Martius, as if natural philosophers were in general not inclined 
to admit, in the essence of the plant, these two spheres, body and 
soul, as if they would concede a soul only to animals and man. It is 
usual to regard as the essential predicate of the soul, perception such 
as it appears in animal life; and, as in the vegetable kingdom, we are 
acquainted with very few phenomena which admit of our concluding. 
upon a power of perception in plants, they have been declared not to 
possess a soul. Von Martius points out, that even animal forms sink 
so low in the scale of organization, that all the characteristics of ani- 
mal life disappear in them; on the other hand, indications of vegeta- 
ble life display themselves; whilst in the more highly developed vege- 
table forms, phenomena occur which belong to animal life, such, for 
instance, as the manifold various motions which have been observed 
in_plants: in fact, that animal life and vegetable life appear in no way 
to be so decidedly separated from each other, and for that reason, 
therefore, a soul cannot be admitted in animals alone, and denied to 
vegetables. Even the predominant growth and the propagation of 
plants appear to indicate that they are not confined to the circle of 
rigid necessity ; and we must recognize in them a kind of predeter- 
mination, a tendency to the ideal, consequently a higher vital princi- 


* Reden und Beitraige tiber Gegenstinde aus dem Gebiete der Naturforschung, 
Stuttgard und Tiibingen, 1838. 


Bibliography. 171 


ple, a soul. The soul of plants is much less complex than that of ani- 
mals; it is, in fact, in itself, of a more obscure and undefined nature. 
Perception, imagination, consciousness, sensation, desire, volition, ap- 
pear here to have sunk inte the night of a gloomy, confined existence, 
and the narrow path of analogy and induction towards this subject, 
unattainable by our inquiries, is open to us but for a short distance. 
The vegetabie soul must not, however, be compared with the soul of 
man, or with that of the higher animals, but rather with the nucleus, 
or that point of the axis only, arcund which the life of the lowest and 
most simple animals revclves. Von Martius thinks that we can ad- 
mit of no organ of soul in plants; yet we may probably succeed, as I 
think, in our time, in discovering this organ even in plants; the ner- 
vous system has, as is well known, been already observed in vegeta- 
bles, by some learned botanists, although others, it is true, have not 
been able to convince themselves of the fact. 

‘““A series of phenomena are moreover enumerated, such as the spe- 
cific susceptibility of plants for the actions of light, heat, air, mois- 
ture, &c., which, without a certain degree of sympathy and of per- 
ception, without a kind of internal consciousness, could not possibly 
have effect. Perhaps in them all the various grades of spiritual action 
combine to produce one single obscure idea. 'The more general and 
intense the irritation which acts upon plants, the more powerful is 
the perception. ‘The sleeping and waking of plants, as also their hy- 
bernation, correspond exactly to the similar phenomena in animals, 
only that these states in plants are involuntary. The soul of the 
plant is diffused throughout it; in so far, however, as the vegetable 
soul acts according to its nature, formatively, plastically, one might 
say that it is situated in the more highly organized plants, principally 
in the node, in which the vegetable powers slumber. 

‘‘ This latter opinion might however be disputed, as might generally 
the entire current doctrine of the composition of plants of internodes, 
on which subject we shall subsequently have occasion to speak more 
in detail. With respect to the rest I agree perfectly with M. von Mar- 
tius; nay, it is to me inconceivable how all those phenomena of the 
vita sensitiva of plants can be thought to be explained by the indefi- 
nite expression of irritability. 

‘‘Von Martius next enumerates the other manifold processes which 
the vegetable soul has to superintend when the plant is propagating 
by sexual intercourse, and concludes these observations with the fol- 
lowing words: ‘ Among intricate perceptions and ideas, a dark sensi- 
bility and consciousness, a sympathy, a stimulus, an increase of this 
to affection, probably also a kind of memory in the repetition of cer- 
tain physical actions; all this we may deduce from the various habits 


172 Bibliegraphy. 


of plants, if we compare them with analogous relations in animal life. 
We are not, however, able to trace in them a higher sense, under- 
standing, or free will.’ 

‘With the preceding is immediately connected a memoir by M. v. 
Martius,* which treats of the immortality of plants. The idea of the 
immortality of plants is the next step to the proof of the existence of 
a vegetable soul; but M. v. Martius himself observes, in the introduc- 
tion, that it is true that many scientific men, to whom the power of * 
comprehending the transcendental has been imparted in a lower de- 
gree, will regard the consideration of such a subject as a digression ; 
he however believes that the greater part of mankind are so organ- 
ized, that they will adopt conclusions, and acquiesce in consequences, 
which rise above the world of sensible contemplations and percep- 
tions into the higher world of the spirit. The conviction of the im- 
mortality of plants can however in no case be deduced from any proof . 
derived from the nature of plants, but it must be peculiarly the con- 
ception of the individual mind. 

«Tn the corporeal life of the plant there exist intention, tendency, 
and means for their attainment; nay, we even see this controlled by 
the fitness of time, in the same way as in more highly endowed man. 
The plant, like the animal, has inward intentions to fufil outwardly, 
fulfils them like the latter, and indeed in the same way, more or less 
perfectly, according to the various conditions of which they consist. 
There is therefore only a difference of degree between the unknown 
unity which predominates over all this activity, and which in man is 
termed his soul, and the spontaneous power analogous to this soul, 
which the plant exhibits in action during its whole life. We do there- 
fore an injustice to the plant when we consider it as not being, like 
the animal, endowed with a common primary force, penetrating through 
all parts, and directing them all to certain actions. From these views, 
however, it would result, that all inorganic bodies are also endowed 
with a soul, a thought which has been already asserted in the most 
ancient times; nay, Von Martius arrives at the conclusion, that every 
thing earthly, and therefore also the plant, possesses a soul, and the 
numberless fraternity of similar creatures, which act so prominent a 
part in the universal life of our planet, are, according to their seale, 
governed by a soft, peaceful spirit, an Anima blandula trepidula.” 


4. The Journal of Botany, &c.; by Sir Wm. J. Hooxer, LL. D., 
é&c.—We some time since noticed the resumption of this periodical 
Journal, and gave a list of the contents of the first two numbers, viz. 


~ * ZL. ce. p. 261—286. 


Bibliography. 173 


Nos. 9 and 10 of the second volume, the publication of which was 
suspended in the year 1835. The Companion to the Botanical Maga- 
zine took its place for two years, but this, the cheapest botanical pe- 
riodical ever published in Great Britain, was then discontinued, (for 
the want of adequate support,) or rather was merged in the Annals 
of Natural History, and there was no longer an exclusively botani- 
cal periodical in the English language. The Botanical Magazine 
and the Botanical Register cannot be considered to form exceptions 
to this statement, for they are occupied with figures and descriptions 
of plants interesting to the floriculturist, and newly introduced into 
the gardens or conservatories of Great Britain. About this time, how- 
ever, Dr. Lindley changed the plan of the Botanical Register, a por- 
tion of which is now devoted to botanical information, notices of new 
works, &c., which the talents and opportunities of its learned editor 
render very interesting. ‘The Journal of Botany takes a wider range, 
consisting of extended botanical notices, letters from botanists who 
are making collections in different parts of the world, occasional me- 
moirs and portraits of deceased botanists, descriptions and figures of 
interesting plants, (of the latter there are two in each number,) and 
original articles from the pen of the indefatigable editor, and from 
other botanists, particularly Mr. Bentham and Dr. Arnott. It is pub- 
lished regularly on the first of each month, and the number for Octo- 
ber (the seventeenth) commences the third volume of the series. We 
trust that the work will receive the support it so richly merits, and 
which will ensure its continuation. 


5. Hooker’s Flora Boreali-Americana, or the Botany of the Nor- 
thern parts of British America, 2 vols. 4to. 1829-40.—The twelfth 
part, which contains the remainder of the grasses, the ferns, and the 
small orders allied to the latter, brings this important work to a con- 
clusion within the limits originally prescribed. ‘The botanists of this 
country especially will regret that the work was not extended so as 
to include the mosses and the Hepaticez, the field of the distinguished 
author’s early fame. This fasciculus contains twenty plates, (making 
the whole number 238,) among which are the following species of 
Carex, viz. C.aperta, C. Hoppneri, C. Sitchensis, C. recta, C. Rich- 
ardsonii, C. podocarpa, C. eburnea, (C. alba var. setifolia, Dewey,) 
and C. amplifolia, the greater portion of which are new species de- 
scribed by Dr. Boott. ‘The remaining plates represent grasses, one 
fern, and a species of Lycopodium, all natives of high northern and 
western regions. The lovers of natural science in this country are 
under the highest obligations to Sir Wm. Hooker, for his unwearied 
labors upon North American botany. 


174 Bibliography. 


6. Endlicher’s Genera Plantarum.—Since our notice of this in- 
valuable work in the number of this Journal for July last, we have 
received the 12th, 13th, 14th and 15th numbers. The latter, pub- 
lished in June Jast, reaches to the 1200th page. It contains a part of 
his class Calyciflore, and breaks off in the middle of his 267th order, 
Lythrariee. Two, or perhaps three, additional numbers, will appa- 
rently bring the work to a conclusion, as the Rosacee and the Legu- 
minose are the chief remaining orders. 


7. Enumeratio Chenopodearum.—Mr. Moquin-Tandon, of Tou- 
louse, who has long made the Chenopodiacez and the related families 
his peculiar study, has published a complete monograph of the order. 
We have not yet seen the work, but are informed that it is a small 
octavo volume, published at Paris. 


8. Stendel’s Nomenclator Botanicus.—A new edition of this well 
known work, which has been so long a desideratum, is now in the 
course of publication at Leipsic. If we are rightly informed it will 
follow the classification of De Candolle, and that a complete index of 
genera, species, and synonyms, for all the orders yet published in the 
Prodromus, will very shortly be in the hands of botanists. 


9. Caricography.—Prof. Kunze, of Leipsic, has commenced to 
publish, in occasional numbers, a continuation of Schkuhr’s Carico- 
graphy, in which he intends to give figures of all the species which 
are not represented in that well known work. It is said, also, that 
Prof. Kunze will publish a continuation of Schkuhr’s similar work on 
the ferns. 


10. Fossil Infusoria in England.—The Journal of Botany, for 
June, 1840, contains a paper “‘ On a white fossil powder found under 
a bog in Lincolnshire, composed of the silicious frag ments of micro- 
scopical parasitical Conferve; by J. E. Bowman, Esq., F. L. S.”— 
He gives a history of their discovery by Prof. Ehrenberg, and a no- 
tice of the article of Prof. Bailey, (who first detected them in this 
country,)* which ‘ stimulated scientific men to examine similar depo- 
sitions wherever they might occur, for as yet it was not suspected that 
any thing of a like nature existed in Great Britain.” Dr. Drummond, 
of Belfast, announced their discovery in Ireland, in the Magazine of 
Natural History for July, 1839, in the form of an earthy powder, 
brownish when wet, but of the whiteness of chalk when dry, and as 


* See Vol. xxxy, p. 118, of this Journal. 


Bibliography. 175 


light as carbonate of magnesia, which it much resembles; on lower- 
ing the waters of a small lake this was found under the covering of a 
boggy soil, and in other similar situations. The substance was proved 
to consist almost wholly of the silicious skeletons of infusorial vege- 
tables, if they may be so called, or of those equivocal beings which 
occupy the borders of the two kingdoms, and render it difficult, not 
to say impossible, to draw the line between them. Their discovery 
in England is due to Mr. Binney of Manchester, and we extract the 
following from Mr. Bowman’s account. 

‘He [Mr. Binney] informs me that so long ago as 1836, being then 
on a visit in Lincolnshire, he observed a whitish pulverulent substance 
on the sides of a deep ditch, which he at first took to be lime, but on 
examination, finding it to be quite different in its properties from that 
body, he supposed it to be of animal origin. ‘The place where it was 
found is a portion of a reclaimed peat bog, about four feet in thick- 
ness, lying on the upper red marls, one mile east of the escarpment of 
Lias limestone, in the valley of the Trent, in Blyton Car, near Gains- 
borough. The peat was ina high state of decomposition, and had 
been under cultivation for some years. ‘The white substance in ques- 
tion had been thrown out in widening the ditch, and originally occu- 
pied a bed varying in thickness from four to six inches, at the depth 
of about a foot under the surface of the peat, and extending over an 
area of several acres of Jand. In some places the powder was mixed 
with portions of peat; but in others it was quite free from such ad- 
mixture. When first dug up, it was of a yellowish color, and ina 
state of paste; but on becoming dry it changed to a beautiful white 
powder, that floated in the atmosphere on the slightest agitation, was 
tasteless, and bore a great resemblance to calcined carbonate of mag- 
nesia. Conceiving thatit might be fatty matter in a state of adipocire, 
he successively treated it with sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids, 
and afterwards submitted it to the action of heat, by all which pro- 
cesses it remained unchanged; and he was thence led to believe it 
was silica in an extremely minute state of subdivision. He had sub- 
sequently subjected it, under the action of the blowpipe, to an intense 
white heat fur fifteen minutes, and he had treated it with the carbon- 
ates of potash and of soda, and thus formed silicates of these sub- 
stances. Te afterwards learned that a similar substance was found in 
considerable abundance near Haxey, in the peat deposit of the neigh- 
boring level of Hatfield Chase, and was informed by the farmers there 
that wherever it occurred, the soil above it was very poor and unpro- 
ductive. This fact is a strong confirmation of its being silica, such 
soils being proverbially sterile. In this stage of his knowledge, Mr. 
Binney saw Dr. Drummond’s account of the powder from Lough Isl- 


176 Bibliography. - 


and Reary, to which I have referred, and immediately recognized the 
deposit of Blyton Car to be analogous. Indeed, it is remarkable how 
closely the two descriptions coincide ; and it will be observed, that in 
both these cases, as well as in that from the United States, the pow- 
der was found wnder peat, and resisted the action of acids and of heat. 
He shortly afterwards procured a fresh supply from Lincolnshire, and 
submitted it to several friends; among others he requested me to ex- 
amine it closely, and communicate the result. The little acquaintance 
Thad with the obscure, neglected, but pre-eminently beautiful and ex- 
traordinary tribe of the Conferve, showed me, on the first inspection 
of the powder, the high probability of its connexion with them; and 
a reference to some specimens in my own herbarium, and to magnified 
figures of others in the works of Greville, Sowerby, &c., soon con- 
vinced me that it was indeed the accumulated remains of myriads of 
these minute aquatic plants, purified by the decomposition of all 
their original vegetable matter, and effectually secured from contact 
with other impurities, by the superincumbent peat.” 

The article is concluded by an interesting account of the character 
and habits of the minute Conferve. 'The specimens described and 
figured by Mr. Bowman, are species of Diatoma, or allied genera.— 
It has been somewhere remarked, or conjectured, that these deposits 
are perhaps confined to the region of primitive rocks, although it is 
not easy to conceive any relation or connexion between these bodies 
and the nature of the soil or rock where they are accumulated ; and 
the manner of their occurrence in this case, and indeed on the Euro- 
pean continent generally, contradicts that supposition.* 


11. Chemical composition of cellular and woody tissue in plants.— 
That most accomplished vegetable anatomist, Mohl, of Tubingen, 
has the merit of having satisfactorily ascertained that what is called 
woody tissue is not simple and homogeneous, but consists of elemen- 
tary membrane, or cells, and a thickening or encrusting matter that 
possesses different properties. The subject has recently been taken 
up in France by M. Payen, whose memoir, said to be a beautiful spe- 
cimen of chemico-physiological investigation, was read before the 
Academy of Sciences in December, 1838, and January, 1839. An 
abstract of this memoir, and the report of M. Dumas on the subject, 
are published in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, for January, 


* 'This silicious deposit has been found under nearly every peat bog in this coun- 
try which has yet been examined. Numerous specimens from various parts of this 
State (Conn.) have been brought to us. When it is calcined and washed it forms a 
very good polishing powder for metals; and is now, under various feigned names, ex- 
tensively used for this purpose.—Eps. 


Bibliography. 77 


1839. The principal results which M. Payen has established very 
satisfactorily are, that the organic membrane and the matter deposited 
upon it, or the lignine, properly so called, have a different composi- 
tion, and are differently affected by chemical agents. The latter is 
attacked by alkalies and by strong acids, the former resists their ac- 
tion. ‘The former exactly accords with starch in chemical composi- 
tion, the carbon being 44 per cent., and the oxygen and hydrogen in 
the proportions to constitute water; the latter consists of 54 carbon, 
6.2 of hydrogen, and 39.8 of oxygen, containing therefore more hy- 
drogen than is required to convert its oxygen into water. ‘This phe- 
nomenon accords perfectly with the recent experiments of Colin and 
Edwards, which have demonstrated that plants possess the power of 
decomposing water; and with those of Boussingault, which have 
proved that a quantity of hydrogen is fixed in the plant during vege- 
tation.”” The researches of Payen in this department of science, are 
noticed in Meyen’s Report on the Progress of Physiological Botany, 
for 1839, a translation of which is commenced in the October number 
of the Annals of Natural History. Prof. Meyen seems to think the gen- 
eral results may be relied upon, but points out some sources of error. 


12. Organic Chemistry in its applications to Agriculture and 
Physiology; by Justus Lizzie, M. D., Ph. D., F. R.S., M. RT. A, 
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Geissen, &c.; edited 
from the manuscript of the author, by Lyon Puayrair, Ph. D. Lon- 
don, 1840, Taylor & Walton.* During the last twenty years, no sci- 
ence has had more ardent devotees, or more industriously accumulated 
facts, than organic chemistry ; and the name of the author of this 
treatise stands pre-eminent among its European cultivators. Expecta- 
tion has long been awakened, in the hope that some generalizations 
and practical truths would be drawn from the vast mass of facts in this 
science, applicable to the wants of the times, and to the advancement 
of our knowledge of agriculture. Whenever this time should arrive, 
it was confidently believed that the profession of agriculture would 
receive great and permanent advancement. It is not too much to say, 
that the publication of Prof. Liebig’s Organic Chemistry of Agricul- 
ture, constitutes an era of great importance in the history of agricul- 
tural science. Its acceptance as a standard is unavoidable, for follow- 
ing closely in the straight path of inductive philosophy, the conclu- 
sions which are drawn from its data are incontrovertible. Confined 
to the limits of a short notice, we cannot more than glance at the new 
views of the author on subjects of the highest importance to the agri- 


* This work is about to be republished in this country, by Messrs. Wiley & Put- 
nam, New York and London, under the charge of the junior Editor of this Journal. 
Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.—Dec. 1840. 23 


178 Bibliography. 


culturist and physiologist. Since the time of Sir Humphry Davy 
no champion of agricultural chemistry has before appeared, and this 
science, without which no rational system of agriculture can be hoped 
for, has been apparently neglected. 

Great stress has been laid, by chemists and vegetable physiologists, 
on that constituent of soils which they have variously designated as hu- 
mus, humin, coal of humus, humic acid, ulmin, extractive matter, geine, 
soluble and insoluble, and apotheme. The modifications of humus, 
which are soluble in alkalies, have been called humic acid, while those 
which are insoluble have been described as humin, and coal of humus. 
Berzelius, in 1833, published, in the memoirs of the Stockholm Acad- 
emy,* an account of two new acids, the crenic and the apocrenic, found 
in the waters of Porla well, in Sweden, and which he had previously 
(1807)t designated in his examination of those waters, under the appel- 
lation of extractive matter; and it will be seen by our notice of Dr. 
Jackson’s geological survey of Rhode Island, in this number, that he 
has proved extensively the existence of these two acids in the soils of 
that State, as well as in certain natural waters. It is this substance, 
“we repeat, by whatever name it is called, to which so much impor- 
tance has been attached by writers on vegetable physiology, and by 
agricultural chemists, as probably constituting an important part of 
the food of plants. 

“‘The opinion that this substance is extracted from the soil by the 
roots of plants, and that the carbon entering into its composition, 
serves in some form or other to nourish their tissues, is so general, 
and so firmly established, that hitherto any new argument in its favor 
has been considered as superfluous; the obvious difference in the 
growth of plants, according to the known abundance or scarcity of 
humus in the soil, seemed to afford incontestable proof of its correct- 
ness. Yet this position, when submitted to a strict examination, is 
found to be untenable, and it becomes evident, from the most conclu- 
sive proofs, that humus, in the form in which it exists in the soil, does 
not yield the smallest nourishment to plants.” 

‘The names given te these substances might lead to the supposi- 
tion that their composition is identical. But a more erroneous notion 
could not be entertained. Thus, humic acid, obtained by the action 
of hydrate of potash on saw-dust, contains, according to the accurate 
analysis of Peligot, 72 per cent. of carbon, while that from turf and 
brown coal contains, according to Sprengel, only 58 per cent.; that 
produced by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on sugar, 57 per cent. ; 
and that lastly which is obtained from sugar or from starch, by means 


* Kong. Vet. Acad. Had. 1883, p. 18. Poggendorff’s Annalen, xxrx. 1, and 238. 
Also, Thomson’s Chemistry of Organic Vegetable Bodies, pp. 146, 1838. 
+ Afhandlingar, p. 145. 


Bibliography. Ge) 


of muriatic acid, according to the analysis of Stein, 64 per cent. It 
is quite evident, therefore, that chemists have been in the habit of de- 
signating all products of the decomposition of organic bodies, which 
had a brown or brownish black color, by the names of humic acid or 
humin, according as they were soluble or insoluble in alkalies; al- 
though in their composition and mode of origin, the substances thus 
confounded might be in no way allied. Not the slightest ground ex- 
ists for the belief that one or other of these artificial products of the 
decomposition of vegetable matter exists in nature, endowed with the 
properties of the vegetable constituents of mould; there is nota shad- 
ow of proof that one of them exerts any influence on the growth of 
plants, either in the way of nourishment or otherwise.” 

This position is maintained at length, by a series of close arguments 
and calculations, made with the object of ascertaining the quantity of 
carbon contained in a given quantity of fir, pine and birch wood, of 
grain, of beet roots, and of hay, growing upon forty thousand square 
feet (Hessian) of land,* either furest, arable, or meadow, according to 
the produce. These estimates are made with great care, from the 
best analyses, and show that forty thousand square feet of wood and 
meadow land produce annually 1007 Ibs.t carbon, while the same ex- 
tent of arable land yields in beet roots, without leaves, 936 Ibs., or in 
corn 1020 lbs.—from which it appears that equal surfaces of culti- 
vated land, of average fertility, produce equal quantities of carbon. 
Now supposing this carbon to be supplied from humic acid, dissolved 
in the form of humate of lime, (the most soluble of its salts,) and con- 
veyed into the plants by means of rain water; under the most fa- 
vorable circumstances which can be supposed to exist, even allowing 
that potash, soda, and the oxides of iron and manganese, have the 
same capacity of saturation as lime, by humic acid, the quantity of 
wood on the above named surface of land sufficient to account for the 
absorption of humic acid supposed to take place, would be 91 lbs. 
only, while it is proved that the same superficies actually produces 
annually 2650 Ibs. of fir wood. Whence, then, do plants obtain their 
carbon! Undoubtedly from the atmosphere, by decomposing the 
carbonic acid which is its constant constituent. Prof. Liebig shows 
that the aggregate weight of carbon in the atmosphere exceeds 3000 
billion lbs. Hessian, equal in the form of carbonic acid to ,,,, of the 
volume of the atmosphere. The value of humus in the soil (and it 
must be remembered that as humus is entirely due to organic life, no 
humus could have existed previous to the existence of vegetables) con- 


* One Hessian acre, equal to 26,917 English square feet. 
t One pound Hessian is equal to about eleven tenths English, and consequently 
1000 Ibs. equal 1102 Ibs. English. ; 


180 Bibliography. 


sists merely in its furnishing a slow and lasting source of carbonic 
acid, during its decomposition, which is absorbed by their roots, and 
constitutes the principal aliment of young plants, at a time when, be- 
ing destitute of leaves, they are unable to extract food from the atmos- 
phere. 

The existence of ammonia as a constant constituent of the atmos- 
phere, had never been proved, or even suspected, before the re- 
searches of Prof. Liebig, and the great importance of the discovery, 
in a practical point of view, can be justly appreciated only by a careful 
perusal of the present treatise. In what manner ammonia is produced 
in quantity sufficient to be the chief, indeed the only means of convey- 
ing to plants all the nitrogen they contain, is fully elucidated. It is 
shown that rain water and snow always contain ammonia, and it may 
be proved to the satisfaction of any person, by adding a little sulphuric 
or muriatic acid to rain water, and evaporating it in a clean porcelain 
capsule nearly to dryness, when theammonia may be detected by add- 
ing to the residuum a little powdered lime, which will liberate the am- 
monia. ‘Thus produced, it always has an offensive animal odor, fully 
indicating its origin. tis a most interesting thing, that in the discov- 
ery of ammonia in the atmosphere we have also discovered the true 
cause of the great fertilizing effects of sypsum, or plaster of Paris, 
a key to which has been so long sought in vain. 

This fertility arises exclusively from the fact that the sulphate of 
lime fixes in the soil the ammonia dissolved in the atmosphere, which 
would otherwise be volatilized with the water as it evaporates. ‘The 
carbonate of ammonia contained in rain water is decomposed by gyp- 
sum, in precisely the same manner as in the manufacture of sal am- 
moniac. Soluble sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime are form- 
ed, and this salt of ammonia possessing no volatility, is consequently 
retained in the soil. The action of gypsum, or chloride of calcium, 
(muriate of lime,) really consists in giving a fixed condition to the 
nitrogen or ammonia which is brought into the soil, and which is in- 
dispensable to the nutrition of plants. The decomposition of gypsum 
by carbonate of ammonia, does not take place, however, instantane- 
ously; on the contrary, it proceeds very gradually, and this explains 
why the action ef gypsum lasts for several years. ‘The reason why 
the fact that ammonia is always present in the atmosphere has hereto- 
fore escaped observation, is, that the quantity in any portion of at- 
mospheric air which is usually employed for analysis, is so exceed- 
ingly small that it might most naturally be overlooked, or classed 
among the errors of observation. But the detection of ammonia must 
be much more easy when a pound of rain water is examined, which con- 
tains all the gas diffused through 20,800 cubic feet of air. Ifa pound 


Bibliography. 181 


of rain water contains only 1 grain of ammonia, then a field of 40,000 
square feet (one Hessian acre, or 26,917 English square feet) receives 
annually upwards of 80 Ibs. of ammonia, or 65 Ibs. of nitrogen. This 
is much more nitrogen than is contained in the form of vegetable al- 
bumen in 2650 Ibs. of wood, or 2800 Ibs. of hay, which are the an- 
nual products of sucha field; but it is less than the straw, roots and 
grain of corn, which might grow on the same surface, would contain. 
As nitrogen is always present in considerable quantity, in some part 
or other of plants, the importance of food containing it can scarcely 
be overrated, especially as, according to the view of Prof. Liebig, the 
assimilation of substances generated in the leaves will (ceteris pari- 
bus) depend on the quantity of nitrogen contained in the food. The 
great efficacy of animal manures is shown to depend mainly on the 
nitrogen and carbonic acid which they furnish. 

But we must hasten to close this very imperfect notice, passing al- 
most in silence the author’s remarks on the mineral constitution of 
soil, and on culture and rotation of crops, which are as important and 
original as the foregoing parts. Speaking of the composition of soils, 
he cites the neighborhood of Vesuvius as the type of a fertile soil, and 
as it is formed entirely from the disintegration of lava, it cannot 
possibly, on account of its origin, contain the smallest trace of vegeta- 
ble matter ; yet it is well known that when volcanic ashes have been 
exposed for some time to the influence of air and moisture, a soil is 
gradually formed in which all kinds of plants grow with the greatest 
luxuriance. This fertility is owing to the alkalies contained in the lava, 
and which, by exposure to the weather, are rendered capable of being 
absorbed by plants. [tis the greatest possible mistake to suppose that 
the temporary diminution of fertility in a soil is owing to the loss of hu- 
mus; it is the mere consequence of the exhaustion of the alkalies. The 
fallow time is that period of culture during which land is exposed to a 
progressive disintegration, by means of the influence of the atmos- 
phere, for the purpose of rendering a certain quantity of alkalies ca- 
pable of being appropriated by plants. Now it is evident that the 
careful tilling of fallow land must increase and accelerate this disinte- 
gration. For the purpose of agriculture it is quite indifferent whether 
the land is covered with weeds, or with a plant which does not abstract 
the potash enclosed init. Hence the secret of the success of that 
greatest of all improvements in modern agriculture, the rotation of 
crops; especially if we consider, in connexion with it, the fact that 
many plants excrete from their roots those matters not fit for assimi- 
lation to form their organs, and the accumulation of which soon ren- 
ders the soil unfit to support a succession of the same plants, although 
the matter thus rejected may be salutary, or at least innoxious to plants 


182 Bibliography. 


of other orders. There follow most important chapters on manure, 
the composition of animal manure, the essential elements of manure, 
bone manure, the supply of nitrogen by animal manures, mode of ap- 
plying urine, value of human excrements, which, with some conclu- 
ding remarks, finish the first part of this unique volume. We must 
here conclude our remarks, without attempting the least analysis of 
the second part, which is devoted to a discussion on the chemical pro- 
cesses of fermentation, decay, and putrefaction. 

To some, the style of this work may seem somewhat obscure; but 
it will be found, on a re-perusal, that great condensation, brevity and 
terseness have been mistaken for obscurity. It presupposes a good 
degree of chemical knowledge on the part of the reader, and for that 
reason needs elucidation by notes, for the advantage of those who do 
not possess that knowledge. But we can truly say, that we have never 
risen from the perusal of a book with a more thorough conviction of 
the profound knowledge, extensive reading, and practical research of 
its author, and of the invincible power and importance of its reason- 
ings and conclusions, than we have gained from the present volume. 


13. Report on the Geological and Agricultural Survey of the State 
of Rhode Island, in 1839; by Dr. Cuartes T. Jackson, Mem. Geol. 
Soc. of France, &c. Providence, 1840. B. Cranston & Co. 


1. Some notice of the Geological portion of Dr. Jackson’s Report. 


The labors of Dr. Jackson in other years have been favorably no- 
ticed in our reviews of his reports on the geology of Maine and Mas- 
sachusetts in previous volumes of this Journal. The territory which 
is the subject of the present memoir, is the smallest but one, of the 
twenty six states of our federal union, and we cannot therefore ex- 
pect to find in it all that variety which characterized the reports of 
the same author previously alluded to. ‘This report is naturally divi- 
ded into two parts, the geological and the agricultural. We will be- 
gin with the consideration of the former. 

It is introduced by a sketch of scientific geology, which, with offi- 
cial correspondence, occupies 45 pages; the general and local geology 
of the State fills 140 pages; the account of the analysis of soils and 
manures, 64; the farm reports, 40: there are fourteen wood cuts in 
the text, seven in distinct pages, a folded geological map of the State, 
colored for the formations, and a second folded sheet containing four 
colored cross sections; besides ample tables, exhibiting in a condens- 
ed form the results of the analyses of soils.* 


* The typography is good, and the paper white, but far too thin,—a common fault 
with American books, especially as the paper is made chiefly of cotton. 


Bibliography. 183 


This able report exhibits, as we might expect from the high charac- 
ter of its author, abundant proof of laborious, careful and skillful in- 
vestigation, and, both in its scientific and practical bearings, forms al- 
together a valuable document. In determining the geological age of 
rocks, Dr. Jackson gives a preference to ‘‘ superposition of strata and 
the mineralogical composition” over ‘zoological and botanical char- 
acteristics,” which however he allows to be “of great value.” He 
prefers also the Wernerian division of transition rocks to the ‘names 
Cambrian and Silurian, proposed for certain groups in England,” 
which he thinks ‘“ will never be regarded in this country as appropri- 
ate terms for our rocks.” 

While we agree with Dr. Jackson that a successful substitute for 
the transition division has never yet been made, we are inclined to 
think that Mr. Conrad, Mr. Vanuxem, and their associates, have so far 
identified our great western fossiliferous formations with the Silurian 
and Cambrian of Mr. Murchison, that his names will be found to be 
convenient appellatives for vast regions of our country, subordinate to 
the more extensive class of transition.* 

Dr. Jackson has justly magnified the importance of the fusion of 
chalk under immense pressure, by Sir James Hall, and its conversion 
into crystallized limestone without the loss of its carbonic acid, and he 
has found in the intrusive greenstone and other trap dykes among the 
sandstone strata of Maine and Nova Scotia, the same results that vol- 
canic injections are known to produce, namely, vesicular scorie, in- 
creased hardness, and moreover in particular places the separation of 
metallic copper, evidently by fusion and reduction from its ores. 

We wish we could feel satisfied with the author’s ingenious sugges- 
tion that “‘ gneiss is the mere crust of rapidly cooling granite.” How 
can this be reconciled with the immense thickness as well as extent of 
its strata in the mountains of New England and in other parts of the 
world, and with the extremely limited and slow conduction of heat 
through masses of rock? The cooling, it is true, would begin on the 
surface, and would travel inward, through no matter how long an ex- 
tent of time; but how would the laminar arrangements arise, thousands 
of feet from the surface, any more than in the subjacent granite nu- 
cleus or substratum? Granites, it appears, differ very much from each 
other in fusibility, and minerals still more infusible are produced by 
segregation both in granites and lavas. 


* Our author, however, justly remarks, “ that new classifications may be pro- 
posed by the scientific men now engaged in collecting facts, but that none of those 
local appellations so frequently put forth by geological writers ought to be univer- 
sally adopted, until opportunities for a general discussion take place, which will 
ere long be effected by the union of the transatlantic geological societies and those 
of this country.” 


184 Bibhography. 


Dr. Jackson has furnished a lucid account of the minerals that are 
essential to the constitution of rocks. He remarks that silex, the 
most abundant substance in the globe, enters into the composition of 
all plants, and Prof. Liebig, in his recent work on the Chemistry of 
Agriculture, has shown that the silex is always taken up by plants in 
the form of silicate of potash; for, the decomposition of the primary 
rocks to form the basis of our soils, furnishes both materials in abun- 
dance. Silex is also, in vast quantities, the petrifying material of my- 
riads of animalcules* beneath peat bogs and in marshes and swamps. 

The fixed alkalies, potash and soda, found in the proportion of 10 
to 17 per cent. in the feldspar of granite, have not yet been extrica- 
ted from the feldspar by any process for the use of the arts, but they 
are constantly evolved by the natural decomposition of the mineral, 
probably in a great measure by the action of the carbonic acid of the 
atmosphere and by the vegetable acids. 

The granular quartz or firestone of Woonsocket, a member of the 
mica slate formation, is used by all furnaces in the Atlantic States. 
The mica fuses, and thus agglutinates the grains more firmly together. 

Dr. Jackson is decidedly of opinion that the hornblende rock is of 
igneous origin ; it sometimes passes into serpentine, and is associated 
with soapstone and magnesian carbonate of lime, (dolomite,) whose 
origin it is supposed may he from the transfer of magnesia from the 
hornblende rock to the limestone, *‘ by some unknown chemical pro- 
cess,” in accordance with the theory of Von Buch. Is not this a case 
where the proposed explanation presents a greater difficulty than the 
one it proposes to solve? ‘* Hornblende rocks yield by their decom- 
position an admirable soil, warm and of good texture.” 

The magnesian limes of Rhode Island are much esteemed “ for the 
quickness of their setting when converted into mortar, as also for the 
beautiful whiteness of the lime.’’ Hence the lime made from the Smith- 
field ‘‘ hard jointer” rock, commands a higher price than any other. 

In Rhode Island, the transition slates, instead of being filled, as is 
usual elsewhere, “with fossil trilobites and marine shells, contain an — 
immense number and variety of cryptogamous and cellular plants,” 
the usual attendants of coal strata; “and in this deposit occur all the 
beds of anthracite of Rhode Island and Massachusetts.” 

“At the junction of the slates and granite rocks, various remarka- 
ble metamorphoses are seen, and the clay slate is either cemented into 
mica slate, flinty slate, or even scorie filled with epidote, as may be 
seen on Newport Neck.” 

Dr. Jackson is of the opinion that both on the eastern and western 
continents, a great deluge of waters has rushed from the north south- 


* Or Conferve, see notice in this No, p. 174. 


Bibliography. 185 


wardly, bearing before it immense masses of debris, and depositing 
them far to the south of their original places. Around the city of 
Providence and on the island of Rhode Island are found bowlders of 
porphyritic iron ore, that have been transported many miles from their 
native bed in the iron mine hill in Cumberland; the bowlders near 
Providence being two or three feet in diameter, decreasing in size as 
we go south, until they are not larger than a cannon ball. ‘The width 
of the line of deposition is about eight or ten miles.” None of the 
bowlders of the Cumberland iron are found to the north of the iron 
mine hill, while to the south they are so abundantly scattered in the 
soil that most of the fences are constructed of them. Diluvial 
scratches and striae are very numerous, and the direction is generally 
N. 5° E., S. 5° W.—the variation being about 7° 30’ W.—so that the 
direction is very nearly in the meridional line, thus indicating the 
course of the ancient current which has polished the hard rocks more 
or less. 


Dr. Jackson carefully collected and analyzed the useful minerals, 
and their extent was measured or estimated with great care. ‘The ex- 
ploration for coal in Cumberland has been abandoned, after penetra- 
ting twenty eight feet through Joose materials, and the entire shaft 
was sixty seven feet deep. - 

Diamond hill is composed of quartz rock, partially agatized, and 
containing jasper, druses of quartz crystals, phosphate of lime, and 
veins of red hematite iron ore, and is much visited by mineralogists 
on account of the beautiful specimens of agate, chalcedony, and quartz 
crystals, that abound in it, ‘‘and which are especially beautiful at its 
summit, where they can be easily broken off from the huge detached 
masses of rock,” as we had occasion many years ago to observe. 

The iron mine hill is a mass of porphyritic magnetic iron ore, 462 
feet in length, 132 feet in width, and 104 feet in height, above the ad- 
joining meadow; containing, at the rate of 2404 lbs. to the cubic foot, 
6,342,336 lbs., and composed of oxides of iron 40 per cent., silex 23, 
titanium 15, alumina 13.10, magnesia 4, manganese 2. This hill of 
ore seems to have been protruded through the granite and gneiss con- 
temporaneously with the serpentine veins in the vicinity. Its origin 
would appear to have been the same with that of the iron mines of 
Missouri. 

Near Sneech pond is a remarkable bed of manganese, whose com- 
position is silex 26.4, protoxide of iron 35.9, protoxide of manganese 
32.8, carbonic acid 5.2. 

Beacon hill, in Cumberland, so called from its displaying a beacon 
light in the American revolution, is composed of granite. 

Vol. xz, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 24 


186 _ Bibliography. 


Much limestone is burned in Smithfield ; the kilns contain 500 casks 
of lime, and by the wearing away of the walls they become so large 
as to contain 550 or 600 casks, which are worth about 1300 dollars. 
The calcined lime is very nearly as bulky as the limestone, and is said 
to lose only one third of its weight in burning, instead of 44 per cent. 
of carbonic acid, which it contains if pure. The lime made from the 
magnesian or hard variety is preferred by masons, as the mortar har- 
dens sooner than if made of pure lime, as the magnesia renders it 
somewhat hydraulic. Dr. Jackson is of the opinion that lime, prop- 
erly burned by anthracite, is equal in whiteness and strength to that 
burned by wood. The kilns connected with the Dexter rock have 
been wrought for more than eighty years, and during the last forty 
they have produced not less than 10,000 casks per annum. 

The mineral called rhomb spar is said by our author to be errone- 
ously named, for it is not a magnesian carbonate of lime, but contains 
a considerable proportion of carbonate of manganese. 

On Moshassuc stream, there is a bed of soapstone or talcose rock, 
twelve feet wide, included between walls of chlorite slate; it is very 
useful as a lining to the lime kilns. 

On page 70 of the report there is a section exhibiting, very palpably, 
the passage of a conglomerate into a mica slate, the fine grained va- 
rieties of which have afforded from 5 to 17,000 dozen whetstones an- 
nually—the last year 10,000 dozen, or 120,000 stones. 

The beautiful crystals of amethyst formerly found near Bristol ferry, 
are exhausted. 

Mount Hope, the seat of the celebrated Indian warrior Philip, king 
of the Pequots, is 193.6 feet high: it is composed of granite and 
quartz, anda clear spring of water still flows near the site of the an- 
cient wigwam. 

‘Warwick neck is entirely underlaid by the rocks belonging to 
the Rhode Island coal formation, the fine grained graywacke and the 
carbonaceous clay-slates, charged with numerous impressions of fos- 
sil plants and with narrow seams of anthracite and plumbago.” The 
upper surface is here tertiary. 

In the town of Natic, there are bowlders containing a new mineral, 
which Dr. Jackson has called Masonite.* There are no similar rocks 
in place nearer than the town of Ward, in Worcester county, 
Mass. One of these rocks weighs 64 tons, answering to 600 cubic 
feet, being 15 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 4 feet thick. The new 
mineral is a silicate of alumina and protoxide of iron, plus silicate of 
manganese, plus water—or water 4, silex 33.2, alumina 29, magnesia 
.24, protoxide of iron 25.93, oxide of manganese 6. 


* In honor of Mr. Owen Mason, of Providence. 


Bibliography. 187 


Near Newport, on the sea shore, there is a large vein of quartz 
thirty feet wide, cutting through slaty rocks. In this vicinity are nu- 
merous beds of anthracite from one foot to three feet in thickness, 
and the slate rocks of carbonaceous clay containing them are charged 
with myriads of fossil plants. ‘The intrusion of granite has here 
produced the usual appearances of hardening—vitrification and sco- 
riz, and there are beds of intruded serpentine at Willow Grove, near 
Fort Adams. : 

With the geology of this island we were early familiar, and trav- 
ersed it many times with the late Col. Gibbs, in 1807, and we are much 
impressed with the correctness of Dr. Jackson’s views of the conglome- 
rate at Purgatory, two miles east of Newport. ‘The pebbles of hard 
quartzare from an inch toa yard long; they are all ovoidal, and lie with 
their longest diameters parallel to each other, as if swung around by 
a strong current, like ships at anchor; the surfaces of the pebbles 
are polished as if by long abrasion of water and sand, and they are 
firmly cemented by a finer paste of a similar nature, but apparently 
fused, their surfaces being often covered with an infinity of minute 
crystals of magnetic iron ore, which often also forms a part of the 
cement. We have remarked also that the slaty graywacke in the 
same vicinity, has similar crystals, often distinctly octahedral, and if 
with Dr. Jackson, we attribute the one to the operation of fire, we 
must assign the same origin to the other. There isa rent in this 
conglomerate from eight to ten feet wide, and from thirty six to forty 
four feet deep. -This fissure was once occupied by a trap dyke, most 
of which has been washed away by the sea, which, especially in eas- 
terly storms, roars and dashes into this fissure. The power that up- 
hove the rock, has cracked the pebbles accurately in two, like plumbs 
divided by a knife in a pudding.* In Portsmouth, near the north 
end of Rhode Island, there are important strata of anthracite which 
were once extensively wrought, but the exploration was given up about 
fifteen years ago. The strata were stated to be three in number, and 
varying from two to twelve feet in thickness. 

By Dr. Jackson’s analysis, a clean specimen of this coal gave wa- 
ter and volatile matter 10, carbon 84.5, dark red ashes 5.5. A spe- 
cimen of the rusty coal, gave water and volatile matter 7, carbon 
77.0, dark purple red ashes 16—consisting of silex 7.4, oxide of iron, 
alumina, manganese, and a little lime, 8.0. This is a valuable coal, 
as we have had occasion to know from experience ; and we siated in 
Vol. x11, p. 78, of this Journal, the quantity of inflammable gas 


* The name Purgatory, popularly applied to this fissure, is said to have arisen 
from a lover’s leap having been made across the gulf to please and win a faiy 
maiden ; and the fortunate lover at once declared his transit from purgatory to par- 
adise. 


188 Bibliography. 


obtained from it; when moist, it yields a large quantity ; when dry, 
very little. Dr. Jackson considers the 10 per cent. of water, as wa- 
ter of composition; but we have found that this coal, after lying a 
long time in a hot and dry garret, afforded very little gas at ignition, 
but gave abundance when moistened. The author is of the opinion 
that this coal will answer well for furnaces but not for parlor grates, 
as the ashes will form slag; but he does not donbt that the mines 
may be sinh Wile aoe, and that the coal exists in sufficient quan- 
titiy to justify thorough working of the mines. He has given very 
valuable comparative statements respecting the properties of the va- 
rious anthracites of our country, and has described particularly the 
mines of Mansfield, in Massachusetts, which are in the same geolo- 
gical formation, but our space does not permit us to quote these valu- 
able remarks. We trust the time is not distant when the mines of 
Rhode island and of Mansfield will be again explored, and with de- 
cisive advantage. 

Block Island, twenty five miles from Newport, and fifteen from 
Point Judith, is a very small territory with tertiary surface of granitic 
origin, and presents little that is interesting in geology beyond nume- 
rous peat beds, bog-iron ore, clays, sand and bowlders: the latter are 
of granite, and are identical with those on Point Judith and at Kings- 
ton, on the continent, while they rest on a substratum of blue clay, 
upon which they must have been deposited by diluvial causes—water 
and ice, aided by winds and currents. ‘There are no shells in the clays 
of this island, which sometimes form cliffs of seventy to one hundred 
feet perpendicular, while the hills rarely exceed one hundred and fifty 
feet above the sea level. ‘There is no harbor—the boats are drawn 
on shore by oxen when a storm is at hand; the sea washes away the 
land in some places, and the best defense is the long line of bowlders 
which fortify the coast, and repel the buffeting of the waves; to re- 
move them would therefore be very injudicious. 

This island, with fifteen hundred industrious inhalvitamtes is fairly 
entitled to a breakwater, or artificial harbor, to be erected at the ex- 
pense of the general government. 


2. Some notice of the Agricultural part of Dr. Jackson’s Report. 


This report is characterized by the extent of its agricultural obser- 
vations, and by the great number and accuracy of chemical analyses 
of soils, peats, limestones, and other substances of interest to the 
practical agriculturalist. Nearly two hundred of these analyses are 
given, which have been performed chiefly on the soils, &c. from Rhode 
Island. Dr. Jackson has not however in this report confined his re- 
searches exclusively to that state, but has sought for facts and infor- 
mation from the practical farmers of Massachusetts, and examined 
soils from various and widely different parts of the world, whenever 


Bibliography. 189 


he thought the information thus obtained would elucidate the general 
subject. We cannot here enter into the details of farm reports, how- 
ever interesting it may be to know the history of individual experi- 
ence in relation to matters so important as the routine and results 
of agricultural practice. Much has been written, especially in this 
country, on the analysis of soils and the possibility of adopting some 
short-hand method, whereby every man may become his own analyst. 
When we consider however the very small difference which exists 
between barren and productive soils in the proportion and number of 
their constituents, we must agree with Dr. Jackson in concluding, 
that ‘‘ nothing ‘short of a thorough and complete analysis can prove 
serviceable to agriculture.”’ p. 189. 

The mode adopted in these analyses in order to ascertain the znor- 
ganic constituents of the soil was substantially as follows: 1. A giv- 
en quantity, say 100 grs., is dried on glazed paper at a temperature a 
little above 212°; the loss of weight it thus sustains is noted as hy- 
grometric moisture. 2. Placed ina platina crucible, first over a Jamp, 
and then in a muffle, and gradually heated to full redness, the loss 
‘sustained is set down as answering to all the organic matter. 3. Place 
this burned soil (2) in a green glass flask and cover it with pure wa- 
ter; drop in muriatic acid, and note if there is any effervescence ; 
if so, there is a carbonate (probably of lime) in the soil. Add more 
acid, and boil until all that is soluble in the acid is taken up. Di- 
lute, filter, wash, dry, and weigh the remainder—the loss is all 
that could_be taken up by vegetation, and consists of salts of lime,, 
iron, alumina, potash, manganese, magnesia, &c. The residuum is 
the insoluble silicates, which weigh. 4. Boil the solution (3) ina 
green glass flask, having previously added nitric acid to peroxidize 
theiron. While warm, precipitate the iron and alumina by caustic 
-ammonia; simmer the whole for a few minutes to condense the bulky 
precipitate ; filter and wash for twelve hours with hot water, place 
the precipitate in a silver crucible and boil it with caustic potash till 
all the alumina is taken up; dilute, filter, and wash again. 5. The 
alumina is thrown down by carbonate of ammonia in water, added to 
the alkaline solution previously acidulated by muriatic acid. Wash 
it for twenty four hours with hot water, burn the filter, and note the 
weight.* "The ammoniacal solution (4) from which the iron and alu- 
mina lave been removed, is now treated with oxalate of ammonia, 
which will precipitate the lime as oxalate of lime. Collect and wash 
this precipitate and expose it to a dull red heat in a platina crucible, 
letting fall on it a few drops of carbonate of ammonia to convert the 


* All the foregoing and subsequent precipitates are collected on double filters, 
which are burnt afterwards and weighed against each other, the difference of weight 
being credited to the precipitates. 


190 Bibliography. 


oxalate of lime into carbonate; note its weight. 6. Add to the am- 
moniacal solution (4) from which the lime has been thrown down, 
phosphate of soda—if any precipitate occurs it will be magnesia, in 
the state of bi-phosphate, 40 per cent. of which may be set down as 
magnesia. 7% Now lastly run a current of sulphuretted hydrogen 
through the remaining solution; if manganese is present it will fall, 
and may be reduced to black oxide. 

In order to ascertain the existence of alkaline salts, burn off the 
vegetable matter from another 100 grains, and digest in a little nitric 
acid; dilute and filter, and evaporate to entire dryness; fuse the re- 
sulting salts and add a trifle of prepared charcoal—if any nitrates are 
present, deflagration will ensue, and the alkaline bases will be con- 
verted into carbonates.* Such is the method pursued in the analysis 
of the inorganic constituents of the soil; and we can, from having 
personally spent several weeks in Dr. Jackson’s laboratory, confi- 
dently assert, that no labor or pains was spared in carrying it out in 
every detail, both on the part of himself and his assistants. 

As an example elucidating the foregoing, we quote—‘‘ The follow- 
ing analysis of the rich alluvium of the Nile in Egypt, a soil cele- 
brated from the remotest antiquity for its luxuriant vegetation, will 
serve as a good example. The analysis was made in my laboratory, 
and under my supervision, by my highly esteemed friend, Benjamin 
Silliman, Jr., who received the soil from Rev. George Jones, U.S. N., 
who took it himself during a visit to Egypt in 1835. I shall give the 
process of analysis, as an example of our methods. 

‘The soil consisted of the annual layers deposited by the Nile du- 
ring its periodical overflowings. It contained some fine particles of 
mica, deposited between its layers, but was destitute of any pebbles 
or sand. Itis of a deep brownish yellow color, and splits readily 
into thin leaves when dry. The soil having been. crushed fine, was 
sifted through a gauze sieve, and no sticks or fragments of rocks were 
found, excepting the fine particles of mica above mentioned. One 
hundred grains of the soil dried at 300° F., lost 7.05 grains, which 
was water. : 

“Its vegetable matter was then burned out in the platina crucible, 
placed ina red hot muffle, and the loss was 6.9 grains, which was 
vegetable matter. Digested in muriatic acid 23.432 grains were dis- 
solved, and 68.7 consisted of the insoluble silicates. The analysis 
having been at this stage Jost by accident, was renewed, and 100 
grains of the soil previously dried at a temperature above that of boil- 


* It will be seen by reference to the analysis of the Nile soil that this method 
is not always conclusive, and we cannot doubt if Dr. Jackson had practiced the 
method of Mitscherlich, he would have found more proofs of the existence of 
potash in the soils of Rhode Island than he has given them credit for. 


Bibliography. 191 


ing water, but not sufficient to brown the glazed paper on which the 
operation was performed, lost on being burned, 6.90 grains of vege- 
table matter. . 

“The soil was then mixed with four times its weight of carbonate 
of potash, and was fused at a full red heat in the platina crucible, so as 
to render the whole soluble in water. The mass was then dissolved 
out from the crucible by means of boiling water, and was acidulated 
with muriatic acid, and then evaporated to entire dryness, so as to 
render the silica insoluble. The whole mass was then rubbed toa 
fine powder with an agate pestle, and moistened with muriatic acid. 
Then all the matters soluble in acidulated water were taken up by 
means of distilled water. The whole was then poured on a double 
filter, and the silex was collected, washed until pure, dried and igni- 
ted ; the second filter being burned and counterpoised against it. The 
silex weighed while warm amounted to 47.39 grains. The solution 
that had passed the filter was then treated with a little nitric acid, and 
boiled to peroxidize the iron. Ammonia being then added in slight 
excess, the alumina and peroxide of iron being precipitated together 
were collected, and washed thoroughly for several days with boiling 
water, until the water came through the filter pure. The alumina 
and peroxide of iron were then separated by means of a boiling so- 
lution of pure potash, in a silver crucible. When all the alumina 
was taken up by the potash, and the iron had subsided, it was filtered 
in a double filter, and the peroxide of iron being collected, washed, 
dried, ignited, and weighed, amounted to 11.20 grains. ‘The alumina 
was separated by neutralizing the alkaline solution, and was then pre- 
cipitated by means of a solution of carbonate of ammonia. When 
collected ona filter, washed, dried, ignited, and weighed, it amounted 
to 32.10 grains. 

“The solution from which the alumina and iron had been separa- 
ted, was then treated with a solution of oxalate of ammonia, and the 
lime was precipitated in the state of an oxalate, and when collected, 
washed, dried, ignited, and converted into a carbonate, weighed 2.85 
grains. The remaining solution being tested for magnesia, gave no 
trace, but a little manganese was detected by hydrosulphate of am- 
monia. 

“Results of this analysis of the dry soil: 

Vegetable matter, ; ; ‘ : : 6.90 
Silex, : : c : é : : 47.39 
Alumina, . f : ; ‘ é : 32.10 
Peroxide of iron, eek heb : : 11.20 
Phosphate and crenate of lime, . : : 2.02 
Manganese, traces, 


99.61 


192 Bibliography. 


“The amount of vegetable matter soluble in a solution of carbon- 
ate of ammonia, is 1.25 grains, and a solution oh carbonate of potash 
takes up 1.8 grains. 

«The vegetable soluble matters analyzed, were ascertained to be 
the erenic and apocrenic acids, with a little crenate of lime.” 

We would add, that the method by which this analysis was per- 
formed, seems defective in not testing for the presence of carbonic 
acid in the soil before heating to full redness, whereby, in all proba- 
bility, the carbonic acid is expelled ; for we have since obtained sat- 
isfactory proof of the existence of carbonic acid in the Nile soil.* 
This soil was judged to contain no potassa on the evidence yielded 
by the trial prescribed in the present plan of analysis, (by diges- 
tion with nitric acid and deflagration with charcoal.) But Professor 
Mitscherlich has shown that the existence of potassa in aluminous 
soils may be much more satisfactorily proved by digesting them with 
sulphuric acid, when if any potash is present alum will be found. 
We accordingly digested 200 grains of Nile soil in dilute sulphuric 
acid, filtered it, and evaporated the solution to entire dryness, redis- 

solved in distilled water, and on concentrating the solution, (which 
had a very strong taste of alum,) obtained distinct crystals of sul- 
phate of alumina and potassa. This result is satisfactory, inasmuch 
-as it makes the analysis coincide more nearly with those which have 
been before published from the same country, all of which Teprese ne 
the soil as containing potash. 

The method pursued in estimating the organic constituents of soils, 
was different from that which has been generally followed in similar 
cases, and entitled tomuch confidence. So far as we are informed, Dr. 
Jackson is the first who has proved by reiterated trials, that the so 
called humus, geine, apotheme, &c. of previous authors, is mainly 
composed of two acids, first discovered by Berzeliust in the waters of 
Porla Well, in Sweden, and called by him (from «9777, a fountain) 
erenic and apocrenic acids. They communicate to that water a bitter 
taste and slightly brown color, and have been fully described by him 
in the memoir before the Stockholm Academy in 1833, before cited. 
We cannot here give any account of the properties of these acids, 
nor is it necessary, since their history may be found detailed in the 
standard works. (See Thomson’s Chemistry of Organic Bodies, 
Vegetables, 1838, p. 153 et seq.) 

Whoever will read with attention the profound work of M. Liebig, 
noticed in this number, will feel, if his conclusions are to become the 


* Consequently the 2.02 of phosphate of lime in the above analysis, would pro- 
bably be nearer the truth if it read carbonate instead of phosphate of lime. 
t L. c. p. 178. 


Bibliography. 193 


standard of our present belief on this subject, that we are hencefor- 
ward to consider humus as playing a much less important part in the 
nutrition of vegetables than has heretofore been attributed to it. We 
are to consider it rather as a slow and inexhaustible source of car-_ 
bonie acid, which is continually given out by it in its various stages 
of decay until it attains the condition of perfect mould ; still it can- 
not be divested of a certain degree of importance, since, as a general 
rule, it is a usual constituent of fertile soils. But the instances addu- 
ced by Prof. Liebig as to its solubility in water, even in its most so- 
luble form, the crenate of lime, go far to prove, that water alone is 
never the means of conveying it into the animal organism. Yet it 
must ever be allowed to be a proof of discernment and analytical 
skill on the part of Dr. Jackson, to have proved so conclusively as 
his numerous experiments seem to do, the identity of the principal 
mass of the substance called humus with crenie and apocrenic acids. 
The methods followed by Berzelius, in his analysis of the ochre 
from Porla water, were found inadmissible in the ease of soils, for 
caustic potassa takes upa considerable portion of alumina and silica, 
and decomposes several saline combinations occurring in soils. The 
alkaline carbonates are decomposed by the crenic and apocrenie acids, 
the alkali combining with them. Carbonate of potash was accordingly 
at first employed, in accordance with the recommendation of Dr. Da- 
na; but it cannot by washing be entirely removed from the soil; and 
the subcarbonate takes up a portion of the alumina. Carbonate of 
ammonia was accordingly tried, and with perfectly good success, for 
it can be entirely washed from the soil, and takes up all the organic 
matter which can be supposed to be useful in vegetation, offering there- 
fore the best means for comparative experiments. In practice, a giv- 
en weight of the pulverized and dry soil to be examined, is placed in 
a glass flask and covered with a solution of carbonate of ammonia in 
pure water, saturated at 60°; this is then placed in a situation where 
the temperature is about 170°, or the solution may be gently boiled. 
When it is judged that the carb. ammonia has taken up all it can, 
turn off the dark brown solution upon double filters previously coun- 
terpoised. Repeat the digestion with the ammoniacal carbonate as 
long as the soil imparts toitany color. After washing well the filters 
and drying them with the insoluble matter in the drying closet, coun- 
terpoise the filters against each other and ascertain the difference of 
weight; the loss is soluble organic matter taken up by the ammonia. 
The soil may then be burned in a platina crucible, and the loss is in- 
soluble vegetable matter. Acidulate now the ammoniacal solution 
with acetic acid, and drop in gradually a solution of acetate of copper. 


The brown flocculent precipitate which falls is apocrenate of copper. 
Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 25 


194 Bibliography. 


Let the whole stand in a warm situation over night, and when the pre- 
cipitate has all subsided, filter on double equal filters, collect and wash 
the precipitate with distilled water. After carefully collecting and 
weighing the residuum, it may be decomposed by deflagration with 
nitre, solution in nitric acid, and precipitation of the deutoxide of cop- 
per by boiling potassa ; or otherwise by a current of hydrosulphuric 
acid gas, passed through distilled water, in which the apocrenate is 
previously suspended. Either of these methods gives a brown solution, 
after filtering, which is apocrenic acid, and may be evaporated on the 
air-pump, ina capsule of thin glass of known weight, and subsequently 
weighed, subtracting the weight of the capsule. The crenic acid still 
remains in the mother'water; to obtain it, render the solution alkaline 
by carbonate of ammonia; heat it to expel all carbonic acid, and then 
drop in acetate of copper; the crenate of copper falls as a greenish 
white precipitate; treat it like the foregoing, and decompose it by 
hydrosulphuric acid gas; filter and evaporate as before in a thin glass 
capsule ; a brownish yellow substance adheres to the sides and bot- 
tom of the glass, and on drying, scales up in brilliant chips. These 
substances, when tested as Berzelius directs, for the discovery of cre- 
nic and apocrenic acids, give results identical with those which he ob- 
tained. 

There are many practical and very important observations on ma- 
nures and composts, and the use of peat in particular as a prominent 
ingredient of composts. But we have already exceeded the space we 
proposed to devote to this notice,—and we congratulate the State of 
Rhode Island, as well as the author, on the great amount of valuable 
and interesting information which well directed industry has accumu- 
lated, in so short a time as one year. ‘The best earnest for the con- 
tinuance of governmental patronage to labors of this class, is found 


in the zeal, fidelity, and usefulness of the performance. B.S. Jr. 
Yale College Laboratory, Jan. 1, 1841. 


14. History of Embalming and of Preparations in Anatomy, 
Pathology, and Natural History, including an account of a new 
process for Embalming ; by J. N. Gannat, Paris, 1838. Trans- 
lated from the French, with notes and additions, by R. Harlan, M. D. 
Philadelphia, Judah Dobson, 8vo. pp. 264. 

The art of embalming, as practiced by the Egyptians, has, like 
many other-arts of that ancient people, fallen into oblivion, and the 
progress of enlightened civilization has rendered this loss of compara- 
tively little consequence, if we view the practice only asa mode of 
complying with the requisitions of heathen superstition. But the sci- 
ence of anatomy has long stood in need of some mode, more effectual 
than any heretofore used, of preserving from speedy decay the subjects 


Bibliography. 195 


of dissection, and avoiding the miasmata incident to the decomposition 
of animal matter; and not unfrequently affection seeks to prolong the 
period between the death and burial of some relative or friend, espe- 
cially when this event has occurred at a distance from the residence 
of the deceased. : “ 

This desideratum is fulfilled by the process of M. Gannal, which 
has received the sanction of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, and 
the Royal Academy of Medicine, whose commissioners have satis- 
factorily demonstrated the great utility and novelty of this mode of 
preserving dead bodies for dissection, without materially altering the 
organic tissues, or offering any injury to the instruments of the ope- 
rator. 

M. Gannal’s plan is to inject through the carotid artery, upwards 
and downwards, a solution of acetate of alumina in water. The ace- 
tate of alumina is prepared by the acetate of lead and the sulphate of 
alumina and potass. This acetate of alumina, at 18° of Baume’s 
areometer, and in the quantity of five or six quarts, is sufficient to 
preserve a body for five or six months, with scarce any alteration in 
color or appearance; after which time it desiccates, and the body 
becomes mummified and stiff. During this time putrefaction is com- 
pletely arrested, and it is the testimony of M. Serres, of the School 
of Practical Medicine, that by means of M. Gannal’s process they are 
enabled to prosecute anatomical demonstrations during the summer 
months the same as in winter, and that with thirty bodies at a time on 
the tables, no unpleasant odors arose, and seventy pupils could go 
through with all the operations in August and September, a thing be- 
fore quite impossible. 

The powerful preservative properties of aluminous salts, have been 
long known, and were not unfrequently resorted to by the ancients. 
Some remarkable instances of preservation by such a medium have 
accidentally occurred in our own country. That distinguished officer 
of the American revolution, General Wayne, died thirty or forty years 
ago, at Erie, Pa., and was buried in the vicinity of the lake; the body 
was not long since disinterred and removed by his son, who was as- 
tonished to find it in so perfect a state of preservation, and on exami- 
nation it was discovered 1o have been deposited in argillaceous soil 
strongly impregnated with a solution of alum.* 

The translator, Dr. Harlan, has done a service to the medical pro- 
fession, and to all naturalists engaged in zoological investigations and 
collections, in placing this book before them. Whoever reads it can- 
not fail to observe that M. Gannal has made a great advance in this 
branch of knowledge beyond the unmeaning empirical balms of his 


* The features were recognized by those who had known Gen. Wayne. 


Boe d 


196 Bibliography. 


_ predecessors ; and he will likewise gain much instruction and enter- 


tainment from the history of embalming among the ancient Egyptians 


and Guanches, as well as in more modern times. 


15. A General Outline of the Animal Kingdom, by T. R. Jonzs, 
B. 1. S.4 London, 8vo. parts 1 to 10, pp. 480; to be continued ; price 
2s. 6d. per No. —This work is confined to the physiological and struc- 
tural peculiarities of the great groups, classes, and orders of the animal 
kingdom; and, from being lucidly written and beautifully illustrated, it 
cannot fail to become a manual of comparative anatomy and animal 
physiology, extended through all the classes of the animal kingdom. 
This, it is well known, has long been a desideratum in our literature; 
and we are, accordingly, the better pleased to see it so well executed. 
The inferior tribes of animals, whose structure and economy, and 
even existence, are almost unknown to the majority of English 
readers, are treated in a manner which will, we trust, gain for them 
numerous observers in this country, affording as they do such singular 
materials for investigation London Atheneum. 


16. Boston Journal of Natural History, containing papers and com- 
munications read before the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. 11, 
No. 3. Boston, 1840; C. C. Little and J. Brown. 

Our readers have for two or three years past been familiar with all that 
has been done by this active Society, as far as it has been published in 
the reports of their weekly meetings. One of the papers contained in 
this part of their Journal, appeared at length in our last number, viz. 
that by Mr. F. Alger, on the minerals of N. Holland. ‘The contents of 
the present number are as follows: 

Art. VI. A further examination of some N. England Lichens; by Ed- 
ward Tuckerman, LL. B. 

Art. VII. Notice of Minerals from N. Holland; by F. Alger. 

Art. VIII. Descriptions of eleven new species of N. England Shells ; 
by Prof. C. B. Adams. 

Art. IX. Description of Tellina tenta, Say, and of Helix serpuloides, 
Montague, with remarks on other marine shells of Massachusetts; by C. 
B. Adams. 

Art. X. Description of the Fishes of Ohio river and its tributaries; by 
Jared P. Kirtland. 

Art. XI. A Monograph of the Helices inhabiting the United States ; 
continued, by Amos Binney, M. D. 

Art. XII. Description of two new species of Anculotus; by J. G. An- 
thony. 

Art. XII. Monograph of the species of Pupa found in the United 
States, with figures; by Augustus A. Gould, M. D. 


Miscellanies. 197 


17. Supplement to the Introduction to the Atomic Theory ; comprehen- 
ding a sketch of certain opinions and discoveries bearing upon the general 
principles of Chemical Philosophy ; prefaced by some remarks on the pro- . 
jected reforms in academical education. By Cuartns Dauseny, M. D., 
F.R.S., L.S., G.S., M.R. 1. A., Professor of Chemistry and Botany 
in the Dnincrsiey of Oem 

This work has many claims to attention. The remarks “on the pro. 
jected reforms in academical education” are appropriate, and are applica- 
cable to academical education in this country as well as in England. Re- 
garded as a brief exposition of the leading doctrines of chemistry, divested 
of their technicalities, and embracing the points of general scientific inte- 
rest, this essay possesses great merit. Those who may desire to obtain a 
knowledge of only the general principles of chemical philosophy, will find 
them ably developed in Dr. Daubeny’s sixty two pages. 


MISCELLANIES. 
DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. 


1. Horticultural Experiments; extracted from a letter from Dr. 
J.T. Puummer.—For some years past I have been experimenting in 
a horticultural way. If till my garden with my own hands, and take 
great delight init. It not only furnishes a wholesome exercise, but 
it affords me a much relished mental recreation, in watching the curi- 
ous developments of the vegetable world, its recuperative powers, and 
indeed its pathology and physiology generally. Part of the experi- 
ments which I have made are intended to show at what average tem- 
perature at noon various seeds will germinate, and how many days 
are requisite for them to vegetate at any given temperature. Thus | 
find that the Lima bean, at a temperature of 88°, (in the shade,) will 
eppear above ground in seven days; at a temperature of 62°, it re- 
quires twenty days. The marrowfat pea, at 51°, requires ninetcen 
days; and at 74°, only eleven days.. Radishes vary with the tem- 
perature from six to twelve days. Thus the average temperature of 
any country, other things being equal, may be inferred with consid- 
erable accuracy, from the periods of vegetation ; for in looking over 
my long list of recorded experiments, I find a great degree of uni- 
formity in the process of germination, in ordinary circumstances. 

After various experiments, I have succeeded in ridding my peas of 
the bug, (Bruchus pisi.) Immediately after gathering the seed, I sub- 
ject them to the action of boiling water one minute; by this means I 
destroy the little grubs, or Jarve, which at this time are just below 
the integuments of the pea, without destroying the vitality of the 


& 
q- 
€ 


198 Miscellanies. 


seeds. If the peas remain in the boiling water four minutes, most 
of them will be killed, but not all; of about forty peas thus treated 
last year, three vegetated and are now growing. The corcle I find is 
more tenacious of life than the cotyledons. 

I have recently analyzed some of the soil of our woodlands, and I 
find in 100 grs. of the dried earth, 4.5 grs. of geine, 7 grs. of insoluble 
geine, 2.25 gers. of salts of lime, (principally carbonate,) 12.5 ers. 
aluminous matter, and 74 grs. siliceous matter. A hundred grains of 
earth yield about half a ovain of phosphate of lime, but not the least 
trace of sulphate of mes and yet the soil produces plants which 
contain this salt. I should mistrust my means of delicate analysis, 
did not the sulphate generally exist in larger quantities than the phos- 
phate. <A protracted decoction of several hundred grains of earth 
yielded no precipitate with barytic solutions.* 

Richmond, Indiana, April, 1840. 


2. Volcanic Ashes.—The following memorandum has been hand- 
ed to us by Rev. Peter Parker, M. D., who was a passenger in the 
Niantic from Canton to New York.—Ebs. 

Ship Niantic, L. F. Doty, master, April 5th, 1840, being in lat. 
7° 05’ north, lon. 121° 10/ east, at 2h. A. M. sixty miles west from 
Mindanao, one of the Phillipine islands, came up a fine breeze from 
the northeast, which was attended with a shower of dust resembling 
that of ashes. It came so thick that it obscured the moon and stars, 
which were all out very clear before; it filled the sailors’ eyes so full 
that they were obliged to retreat from the deck below; it lasted about 
one hour, and cleared away. At daylight, the Niantic looked like an 
old furnace, completely covered from the royal-mast-head down to 
the water’s edge. The decks I should judge one quarter of an inch 
thick with the ashes; we took up one half bushel, and might have 
saved three or four. It fell in small quantities at different times for 
two or three days after. On the 14th of April, spoke the English 
barque Margaret, whaler; reported likewise on the 5th of April had 
a similar shower of ashes, being at the time three hundred miles north 
northeast from us; he informed me that on the 12th of April, he vis- 
ited several villages on the island of Madura entirely deserted by the 
people, from one of which he had taken two brass cannon and seve- 
ral other articles. ‘This led us to think that some volcanic eruption 
had Jately happened in that neighborhood. After the 9th, perceived 
no more in proceeding northward. 

July 23d, 1840. 


* We conceive that this is not conclusive, for in all probability the sulphate of 
lime, if it exists in the soil, is converted into carbonate by the alkaline carbonate 
with which the soil is diced —Iips. 


Miscellanies. 199 


3. African Meteorite of Cold Bokkeveld—A notice of this me- 
teorite was given in this Journal, Vol. xxxvu1, p. 190. By the kind- 
ness of the Rev. G. Champion, late missionary in South Africa, we 
have recently received the South African Commercial Advertiser of 
Dec. 11, and another of Nov. 27, (of themselves interesting curiosi- 
ties,) from which we extract the following particulars. 

It is stated in the paper of Nov. 27, that the event occurred on the 
morning of Oct. 12, 1838. There was a cloudless sky without wind, 
when, say the Hottentots Kieviet and Rattray, both under oath be- 
fore a magistrate, about 9 o’clock we heard a strange noise in the air, 
resembling the loudest thunder we had ever heard; and on looking 
up we perceived a stream passing over our head, issuing a noise 
which petrified us with terror: a burst took place close to the wag- 
gon,” when something fell and a smoke arose from the grass. My 
master sent me to look what it was that had fallen; when I found a 
stone quite warm, so much so that I could not hold it in my hands. 
it might have been then of the weight of seven or eight pounds. In 
the paper of Dec. 11th, is a detailed statement signed Thos. Maclear, 
at the Royal Observatory, Dec. 7, 1839, a principal object of which is 
to correct the date of the fall of the stones, making it the 13th instead 
of the 12th of Octeber, 1838. From this statement we select the 
following particulars. 

The Cold Bokkeveld is an irregular valley or bason, bounded by 
high rugged mountains, as is also the case with the basons of Wor- 
cester and Tullogh. ‘The report was heard fifty miles from the Bok- 
keveld: of the two reports heard at Worcester, it is probable that 
the second was an echo from the mountains,} as only one report was 
heard in the Bokkeveld. To Judge Menzies and Mr. George Thomp- 
son, who were travelling ninety miles east of Cold Bokkeveld, the 
meteor appeared to explode nearly over their heads—a decisive proof 
that it was much elevated at the time. Mr. Maclear visited the Bok- 
Kkeveld on purpose to examine the eye-witnesses in person. Mr. 
Thompson states that at about 9 o’clock, A. M. October 13, the me- 
teor appeared to approach from the west with great velocity and pre- 
cisely similar to a large congreve rocket; it expanded (exploded 2) 
nearly over head, apparently not more than three hundred to four 
hundred feet high, dispersing in large globes, the size of forty two 


* With which they were getting wood. 

+ A very fine series of echoes is heard from the door of the Mountain House 
among the White Mountains of New Hampshire, when at the hour of retiring for 
the repose of night a horn is vigorously sounded or a piece of artillery discharged ; 
the reverberations are very distinct, and prolonged until they die away insensibly 
in the distance. 


200 Miscellanies. 


pound shot, of quicksilvery appearance, then fell for a few seconds 
towards the north and vanished. No report was heard by Mr. Men- 
zies and Mr. Thompson, (a sufficient proof of the great distance,) for 
on reaching the Bokkeveld, almost one hundred miles, they ascer- 
tained that the meteor had exploded and stones fallen there about the 
time they witnessed the phenomenon. 

The Rev. Mr. Zahn, of Tubogh, sent in to Mr. Watermeyer a stone 
broken by the fall into two pieces, the same stone that was analyzed 
by Mr. Faraday ; it weighed twenty seven ounces—another weighed 
four pounds two ounces avoirdupois. 

Several stones fell on the place of Rudolph Van Heerden, one of 
which was broken to pieces by falling on the hard road; another 
sunk a few inches into the ground ona ploughed field, and a third 
penetrated several feet in a moist place near the water. The first 
stone named above, fell at an hour’s distance (five to six miles) from 
the others; and in the same direction in which the agitation was per- 
ceptible, i. e. from northwest to southeast, more stones were found. 
Mr. Zahn states that he had one piece too large to be carried on horse- 
back. 

Dr. Truter, civil commissioner of Worcester, at the time of the 
fall observed the windows of his oflice to shake as if by an earth- 
quake, and the mercury in his barometer was found to be depressed 
to the lowest point of its range throughout the year. Dr. Truter 
sent in several specimens of the meteorite seen to fall by the Hotten- 
tot Kieviet. 

Attention was first excited by a violent explosion, followed by a 
rumbling noise, like that from heavy wagons passing over siony 
ground; when, on looking up, they saw a blue stream of smoke, as 
if from fired gunpowder, passing over from S. W. to N. E.; at the 
same instant the son of Van Heerden saw something fall, which he 
picked up; and another stone, which plunged into a marsh about a 
mile off, was afterwards discovered. 

A servant of Priter du Tort, saw a stone fall in the brush-wood, a 
mile below the garden; he ran to the place and brought it to his mas- 
ter. All assert that the sky was clear and ¢alm, and that the stones 
were so hot that they could not be taken up. 

All the instances cited above, are those of stones that were seen to 
fall. 

The people being excited, farther search was made, and many other 
pieces were discovered within a zone of one mile broad and sixteen 
miles long, only a small portion of which is cultivated, and the re- 
mainder is covered with brush-wood as on waste land, and therefore 
it is highly probable that many other pieces have escaped observation ; 


- 


Miscellanies. » DO 


especially as only six persons chanced to be within this tract at the 
time—two of them within a mile of each other—three close together, 
but about six miles from the first named, and one eight miles further 
on. ve 

All that was obtained amounted to about twenty pounds avoirdupois, 
and the analysis has been already given in this Journal, (Vol. xxxvit, 
p- 190.) Weare much impressed with the similarity of this occur- 
rence to the famous Weston case, of Dec. 1807, of which a full ac- 
count was published by Profs. Kingsley and Silliman, and which may 
perhaps be republished in this Journal, as the facts were exceedingly 
remarkable. 

We are so fortunate as to possess a good specimen of the African 
meteorite, through the kindness of a friend in Boston. It corres- 
ponds with Sir M. Faraday’s description, and is very different in ap- 
pearance from any meteorite which we have seen. _ 

Mr. Maclear concludes his account by saying that he has seen a fine 
meteorite in the hands of a farmer in the country ; it was picked up 
nearly sixty years ago, by a Hottentot, who saw it fall, and by him it 
was given to his master, the grandfather of the present possessor. 
This man has refused fifty dollars for it, as the captain of a ship said 
it would secure the possessor against the effects of a thunder storm. 


4. Further account of the Shooting Stars of August, 1840.—Dr. 
M. D. Benedict writes to me the following: “I was called at 11 P. M. 
on the night of Aug. 11, to ride about twelve miles from Skaneateles, 
N. Y. The person in company with me remarked that he had never 
seen so many falling stars, and my attention being thus drawn to the 
subject, I soon noticed quite an unusual number. As we rode along, 
we concluded to count, and in the course of two hours or a little more, 
I counted one hundred and twenty, and my companion about the same 
number. I had occasion to ride more or less every night in the month 
of August, and think that during most of that time these erratic visit- 
ors were more numerous than ordinary.” 

2. Rochester, N. Y. A friend has sent me the following observa- 
tions. ‘On the morning of Aug. 10, 1840, I looked for an hour, com- 
mencing at 2h. 30m., chiefly toward the northwest. In this period, I 
counted fifty eight meteors, thirteen of them being quite large and 
leaving trains. Besides these, I saw indirectly about twenty,—either 
just as they disappeared, or merely the trains they left.” 

3. M. Quetelet informs me that at Brussels the sky was too cloudy 
for observation. ‘The observations in other places given below are 
communicated by him. At Parma, in Italy, M. Colla with two other 

Vol. xz, No. 1.—Oct.—Dec. 1840. 26 


202 Miscellanies. 


persons, on the night of Aug. 10-11, (?) 1840, observed three hundred 
and fifty six shooting stars, as follows :— 


From 8h. 23m. to 8h 56m. - - - 10 
Ou he tee 590 ke RT 

s10e Bean SSH Mmiianie lac vienag woes 
e411 PPB 59 Coyne ae iol Bie 

Or Die tie 59 eel (aes ae 01/48 

1 ull 39 <= - - - 38 
PRONE ig 220 5 em ns TC) 

3 Dees Se 55 |= - - - 73 


During the night of Aug. 9-10, (?) 1840, the same observers saw 
one hundred and eighty shooting stars, as follows :— : 


From 8h. 49m. to 10h. 56m. - - - 2 
TS eae 14829 22 - - - 4 
On OM ees 2.0) 69.022 - - - 34 
Tee es jog a Lae dal Me 59 a - - - 47 
PAPA WaT. ious eM a - - - 69 
Sh a eee gales TS 233 - - 24 


At Ghent, on the night of Aug. 9-10, 1840, Prof. Duprez ohserved 
alone, ninety seven shooting stars, as follows :— 


From 9h. 30m. to 10h. - - - - 5 
10 “ 1] - - - - 11 
1 “12 AS of) Wy ning Nate 
12 i : - - - 19 
1 66 2 i = - - 49 


Sir J. F. W. Herschel states, that of twenty six considerable me- 
teors, which he observed at Collingwood, Eng., between 13h. 25m. and 
14h. 20m., on the morning of Aug. 10, 1840, twenty four radiated 
very precisely from 7 Persei. On the 10th Aug. 1839, the radiant 
point, according to his observations, was  Camelopardali. 


E. C. H. 


5. Meteors of November.—The year 1838 appears to have been the last 
of the late annual series of the November meteoric showers. None was 
observed here, or elsewhere so far as we have learned, in 1839; and such 
is also the result of observations for the present year. On the night of the 
11th I was on the look-out, but the sky was constantly overcast. On the 
night of the 12-13th, in company with a friend, [ watched until 4 o’clock. 
Tt was cloudy the greater part of the night, but clear about half an hour 
between 3 and 4,—at the very time when, according to former observa- 
tions, the meteors might have been expected in greatest frequency; yet 
we saw but a single shooting star. On the morning of the 14th I was up 
at4 o'clock. ‘The sky was clear, but no meteors were seen. ' 


Miscellanies. 203 


Mr. Herrick and two of his friends were on the look-out on the evening 
of the 13th, from 6h. to 6h. 30m., in which time they saw ten shooting 
stars ; but on the morning of the 14th, from 3h. 15m. to 4h. 15m., he saw 
(watching alone) only five. These, however, emanated from the usual 
point in the constellation Leo, and moved with extreme velocity. 

Dr. Parker, then on his return from Canton, on board of ship in the At~ 
lantic, observed the heavens frequently during this period, with particular 
reference to this phenomenon. The sky was favorable, but he saw no 
signs of a meteoric shower. | 

The foregoing facts induce us to believe that this remarkable visitation 
of meteors has passed by, after a recurrence for ten or eleven successive 
years. We have indeed no records of it before the year 1830; but sup- 
posing that the extraordinary exhibition of 1833 was the middle of the 
whole series, when the phenomenon reached its maximum, and knowing 
as we do, that from this time it rapidly declined until 1838, after which 
it ceased altogether; we have reason to infer that it commenced the same 
number of years before 1833, namely, in 1828, although it did not arrest 
attention, so far as we have learned, until 1830. 

As 1799 was the maximum of its previous return, we might infer that 
the cycle is thirty four years ; but, on the supposition that the phenomenon 
arises from a conjunction of a nebulous body with the earth, near the node 
of that body, the intervals of such conjunctions may be very various, like 
the transits of Venus; and hence ages may pass before the return of an- 
other period of the meteoric showers of November, like that which we 
have seen. ‘That such a termination of the present period is entirely in 
accordance with the expectations entertained by me from the first, will be 
seen by reference to my papers on this subject, in the different volumes of 
this Journal. Denison OLMSTED. 

Yale College, Dec. 31, 1840. 


6. Meteoric Observations in October and December, 1840.—As 
there was some expectation that an unusual frequency of meteors 
might be detected in the early part of October, I watched a while on 
the mornings of the 7th and 8th, between 4 and 5 A. M., but saw no- 
thing uncommon, the number of meteors noted being at the rate of 12 
an hour, (for one observer.) The sky was cloudy on the 9th and 10th. 

On the evening of the 6th of December, 1840, a snow storm pre- 
vented all observation for shooting stars. The nights of the 4th and 
Sth were also entirely overcast. The evening of the 7th was clear, 
but the moon was nearly full." Three observers watched from 6h. to 
7h. P. M., and only one meteor was seen. The evenings of the 8th 
and 9th were too cloudy for observation. On the 10th, which was 
clear, I watched from 5h. 55m. to 6h. 10m. P. M., and saw but a sin- 
gle meteor. It seems probable, then, that the meteors of December 
6th-7th, have this year failed. Ki. C. H. 


204 Miscellanies. 


7. Meteorological Notes in 1741-1757; by Professor Joun W1n- 
THROP, F. R. S. *—The following memoranda are copied from some 
old interleaved Boston almanacks of the years 1741-1757. They ap- 
pear to have been ‘made by John Winthrop, Esq., F. R.S., who was 
graduated at Cambridge in 1732, and became Hollis Professor of 
Mathematics and Natural Philosophy i in 1738. It was thought that 
they were at least worth preserving, although the diary, to which re- 
ference is made in them, must (if yet in existence) be of far greater 
value. The astronomical parts are mostly omitted ; there are besides, 
tables of mortality i in Boston for several years, and some other obser- 
vations of more transient interest. Should these notes prove of any 
value to meteorologists, the writer’s trouble in copying them will be 


amply rewarded. E. T., Jr. 
Cambridge, December 8, 1840. 


“©1741. January 10, noon. The greatest number of spots in the 
sun I ever saw. One I discovered with my naked eye, (using only a 
colored glass to saveit.) ‘Through telescope appeared to be a cluster 
of spots exceedingly black, and in company on all sides with a neb- 
ula; and besides these there were five or six in other parts of the 
sun. In the evening a considerable aurora, which about 9 o’clock 
was covered by the clouds. Till now the winter has been very se- 
vere, Boston harbor quite froze up—loaded sleds drive over Charles- 
town ferry, &c. 11. Snow. 12. A great thaw. 13. Cloudy, warm. 
About noon had a sight of the great spot in the sun with only the red 
glass. 

‘‘ March. As hard a winter as was ever known. 5. An extraor- 
dinary aurora borealis. 6. Fair. 26. A very considerable aurora in 
the evening. 27. A fine day. 

“ September 25, 26, 27. Three charming days. 27. At night an 
extraordinary aurora, reaching from northwest to almost east: the 
eastern part often tinged with a bright scarlet, the bottom a very dark 
cloud, but so thin that the stars shined very brightly through it; the 
strie changing every moment, and often reaching above the pole. 
The center seemed to the eastward of the north. I watched it till 
almost 1 o’clock. 28. A pleasant day; wind pretty fresh at south- 
west; at night a small aurora. Next morning a little rain. 29. An- 
other aurora at night. 30. A great dew in the morning. 

‘* November 4. A fine fall hitherto. 

“« December 6. A small earthquake felt at Boston, Roxbury, Ded- 
ham, Walpole, &c. about 8h. A. M. 


* These extracts have at our suggestion been kindly forwarded to us by Mr. Ed- 
ward Tuckerman, Jr. of Boston, in whose hands are the original notes of Prof. 
Winthrop. We doubt not they will be justly appreciated by meteorologists.—Eps. 


Miscellanies. 205° 


“ ['742. February 10. Aconsiderable spot appeared near the sun’s 
eastern limb, which seemed to have entered since yesterday. 12d. 
5h. I saw it with only the red glass. Through | the @eicstope it ap- 
pears very black, surrounded with a nebula, but. is. ; only one spot. 
14, 15. Snow and some rain. 

“ April 11. - A considerable aurora Flite evening. 

“ October 12. At night a considerable aurora. 

“1744. | ] 23. A small earthquake about Newbury at noon.* 

“1745. August 4. A hurricane at Mansfield in Connecticut. 

“1746, Rats 2. Asmall conthtaee hetween and 10, P.M. 
I perceived it not. me 

‘«The aurora borealis on the Ist of March, 1746, was the greatest 
I have seen since the 5th of March, 1741. The evening was very 
fair and calm till about 9 o’clock, when a fresh gale sprang up at 
northwest by north, and then the meteor first began to appear in the 
north. I had no notice of it till 11 o’clock, at which time I acciden- 
tally discovered it. There was then the appearance of a black cloud 
in the north, about 5° high in the middle, and extending from about 
north northwest to near east by north. The fixed stars appeared very 
plainly through it. Immediately above it was a lucid are considera- 
bly broader, very bright, but colorless, from which issued striz tinged 
with a pretty vivid red, chiefly from its two extremities; and those 
from the western end, arose above the pole. The scene continued 
with short intermissions till midnight, and then the streaming ended, 
the meteor after this resembling a very str’g [ |. About one 
in the morning f left it, finding no alteration in it nor any likelihood 
of new phenomena. ‘The rest of the heavens appeared hazy, and the 
wind blew very fresh the whole time. ‘The barometer was very 
low the whole month of February, and the last ten days was very 
cold, dry, blustering weather. The moon came to her last quarter 
the following night, which I should not have mentioned had not the 
judicious Dr. Halley, &c. It may not be amiss to subjoin a journal 
of the most remarkable auroras for seven years last past. ‘That on 
the 22d of October, 1730, Phil. Trans., on the very night of the last 
quarter. Sept. 12, 1739, a very remarkable one, the striz very red, 
exceeding the last, the night before the last quarter. Jan. 10, 1741, 
a considerable aurora, two days before first quarter ; weather very 
severe. March 5, 1741, an extraordinary one, night before new moon. 
26, a considerable one, two days before last quarter. Sept. 27, extra- 
ordinary, see almanack, night before new moon. April 11, 1742, 
considerable, three days before full moon. 


* The month does not appear. 


206 Miscellanies. 


“1746. June 1. A considerable aurora; began about 10, P. M. 
I watched it till 12. A uniform brightness (without any black cloud 
for a base) from northwest to northeast, about 30° high. Striz reach- 
ed up to the pole; those that were more permanent moved very sen- 
sibly to the west; a great many appeared and disappeared in two or 
three hours, only of a pale whiteness without any colors. At mid- 
night it seemed to be almost over. This was seen in Canada. See 
Mem. Acad. 1747, p. 473. 

“1751. January 22. From 10 A. M. till noon, very heavy storm 
of wind and rain. The wind about southeast, as high as ever I knew 
it; it did great damage at Cambridge, blowing down fences, barns, 

‘roofs of houses, &c. The barometer lower than I ever saw it—viz. 
28.7 in. It was lowest at noon, and then the storm began to abate, 
and it presently cleared up. They had a violent storm at southwest 
the night before in South Carolina.* 

“1755. Nov. 18. <A violent earthquake. It began 11’ after 4 in 
the morning ; [my clock, which was set right the noon before, was 
stopped by it at 11’ 35”.] It lasted at least four minutes. At 5h. 
29’ the same morning, was another small shock. Evening, ye 22d, 
at Sh. 271’, another. 

“1756. Dec. 19. Another small earthquake exactly at 10, P. M. 

“¢ July 4. At 6, P.M. a violent hurricane at Jamaica on Long Isl- 
and. ‘The barometer was then lower than it had been for five weeks 
before, and the day before it was higher; the fall in about 36h. being 
the range in the whole month of July, and greater than in the month 
of June. See the weather in the diary. 

** Nov. 16. About 4, A. M. a small earthquake, which seemed not 
to last above 2”. All I perceived was the rattling of the window 
shutters by my bed’s head. The sky was covered. Little or no wind. 
The weather moderate. It was more sensibly perceived in some 
other towns. 

“1757. Aurora borealis 13th August, 7th, 13th, 14th of Septem- 
ber, small ones ; 12th November, a great one, very bright from north- 
west to northeast. I saw streamers up to the pole, and heard of some 
up to the zenith. It lasted bright all night. 13. Next night a small 
one. So that it probably lasted all Sunday. 

“July 8. Exactly at 21h. P. M. a considerable earthquake, though 
but of short duration. The day was fair and hot, and there was a 
brisk gale at southwest. July 29, noon, a violent shock at Barba- 
does, but no damage.t 

* Aug. 13. Evening, Aurora borealis. None for a great while 
before.”’ 


* The last sentence is an after note. t Ib. 


Miscellanies. 207 


8. Galle’s Three Comets.—Mr. Galle, assistant observer at the 
Royal Observatory of Berlin, has discovered three comets in the short 
space of three months. 

The jirst was discovered Dec. 2, 1839; it passed its perihelion Jan. 
4, 1840, and was visible to the naked eye fora few nights in January 
as a nebulous star of the fifth magnitude. 

The second comet was discovered Jan. 25, 1840; it passed its per- 
ihelion March 12, 1840. It was seen at several places in the United 
States, without, however, being visible to the naked eye. 

These two comets are considered as new discoveries. Their ele- 
ments do not agree with those of any that have yet been observed. 
Their motions may be perfectly represented by supposing them to 
move in a parabola, a curve which does not return into itself: so that 
no plausible conjecture can be formed respecting the time of their 
past or future appearances, except that the period of their revolutions 
cannot be much short of a thousand years. 

The third comet was discovered March 6, 1840, it passed its peri- 
helion April 2, 1840; its tail (visible only in a telescope) might be 
traced through several degrees. Its elements, compared by its dis- 
coverer in connection with Encke, show that it is the same as that 
which appeared in 1097 and 1468, and that its period is about 370 
years. Its two last appearances occurred in the autumn, when it 
passed much nearer the earth, and hence its greater brilliancy.—Jour. 
of Franklin Institute, May, 1840, p. 358. 


9. New Comet.—The third comet of A. D. 1840, was discovered at 
Berlin, Oct. 26, 1840, by Dr. Bremicker. It was then near 0 Draconis, 
and appeared as a faint nebula. Its elements, as computed by Mr. Peter- 
sen, Assistant Observer at the Altona Observatory, from observations 
taken Oct. 27, 28 and 31, are as follows: 

Passage of Perihelion, 1840, Nov. 15.9154, m. t. Altona. 


Perihelion distance, - - - - 1.44805 
Longitude of Perihelion, - - - 25° 17 

‘ “ Ascending Node, 4 = 2489 SN ba! 
Inclination, . - - - - 57° 29° 50" 


Motion direct. 
Astr. Nachr. 412, quoted by S. C. Walker, Esq. in Phil. Nat. Gaz. 
Dec. 24, 1840. 


10. Manufacture of Glass for Optical Instruments. 
To the Editors of the American Journal of Science and Arts. 


GENTLEMEN,—Glass is a well known substance, which has been 
made and used from remote antiquity, and the manufacture, like most 


208 Miscellanies. 


others, has been gradually improving; and for common purposes of 
life, the best flint glass now made, exhibits a transparency and beauty 
which leaves little to be expected from future improvement. But the 
present state of the arts and sciences requires the greatest attainable 
perfection in optical instruments, and their glass lenses should possess 
not only perfect transparency, but perfect homogeneity, so as to 
produce the least possible irregularity of refraction and dispersion. 
The invention of the achromatic object-glass, composed of two or 
more lenses of different kinds of glass, probably induced the English 
glass-makers to make experiments to improve the manufacture ; but 
it has since declined, or at least has not improved in proportion to the 
progress of the other arts in England, and Mr. Dollond acknowledged 
that he had not, for ten years, been able to procure flint glass fit fora 
good lens five inches in diameter, while it is well known that the con- 
tinental artists have made fine object-glasses from ten to fifteen inches 
in diameter, and that orders are now sent from England to the conti- 
nent for the largest and finest instruments used in astronomical obser- 
vations. ‘This apparent decline in one of the most useful arts, induced 
the Royal Society of London, in the year 1824, to appoint a commit- 
tee of its members and the members of the Board of Longitude, for 
the improvement of glass for optical purposes. This committee ap- 
pointed a sub-committee, consisting of Sir John Herschel, Mr. Dol- 
lond, and Dr. Faraday. These gentlemen, most eminent in science, 
conducted all the experiments, and in the year 1834 reported prog- 
ress, and that they had succeeded in making glass plates seven inches 
square and eight tenths of an inch thick, tolerably free from bubbles 
and strie. ‘Their glass was a silicated borate of lead, composed of 
10423 parts of nitrate of lead, 24 parts of silicated lead, and 42 parts 
of borax ; specific gravity 5.44, refractive index 1.8735, dispersive in- 
dex 0.0703; and was not free from color. ‘This result does not ap- 
pear to have been very satisfactory, and I have not heard of any fur- 
ther experiments or results. 

This branch of physical science has been comparatively neglected, 
and it is now necessary to revive it, because other branches require 
the aid of improved telescopes and microscopes, to explore the im- 
mensity of space for unseen material systems, and to examine the mi- 
nute recesses of matter and its living forms. Our own country will 
furnish all the materials in abundance for making the finest glass, and 
our philosophers and chemists may as well acquire honor and distine- 
tion in that direction as in any other. May we not, then, with pro- 
priety and confidence, appeal to the acknowledged genius and perse- 
verance of our citizens, for a share of their attention to this subject ; 
and in this view of it I beg leave to submit a few desultory remarks, 


Miscellanies. 209 


which may possibly invite the attention of those who are much better 
qualified to suggest the proper course to be pursued; and these re- 
marks must necessarily include much that is well known to chemists 
and opticians, that I may be clearly understood ia the sequel. 

Crown glass is composed, essentially, of silex and soda; flint glass 
of silex, potash, and oxide of lead. The proportions of these compo- 
nents are not very definite, and some other materials are sometimes 
used in small quantities, for the purpose of promoting the fusion, or 
correcting the accidental color resulting from the impurity of the ma- 
terials. Crown glass has a light green color, varying from yellowish 
to bluish; and as the specific gravity of the different materials is 
nearly equal, and their affinities considerable, it is generally quite ho- 

-mogeneous, even in large masses; but in consequence of the different 
specific gravities of the materials of flint glass, or of their weak affini- 
ties, or of some other cause, it is diflicult to procure any considerable 
mass of it, with the same density, and consequent refractive and dis- 
persive powers in different parts of it. As this imperfection prubably 
results from the natural constitution of the materials, there is but a 
faint hope of removing it by the counteracting influence of some other 
material in addition to those which are generally used. As the two 
kinds of glass, crown and flint, have each a specific action on the solar 
light, differing in quality as well as in quantity, their combined action 
in optical instruments is productive of anomalies and imperfections, 
which, though somewhat reduced by scientific investigation and ex- 
perimental analysis, have been but partially obviated. 

_ The solar spectrum produced by a crown glass prism exhibits the 
various colors occupying certain parts of the whole length of the spec- 
trum. The spectrum produced bya flint glass prism also exhibits the 
various colors occupying certain parts of its whole length; but the 
proportions of the different colored spaces are not the same in both 
spectra; the spaces at the red end of the spectrum produced by the 
flint glass prism being longer, and at the blue end shorter, than those 
produced by the crown glass prism ; and the colored spaces are said 
to be irrational. This irrationality is the cause of the greatest imper- 
fection of a telescope well made of the best glass. Sir John Her- 
schel has proposed to give the lenses such curvatures as will unite 
the colors at the points where the brightest red borders on the orange, 
and where the brightest blue borders on the green. This arrange- 
ment will doubtless produce the best image with the glass now 
used; but I think it is possible to make two kinds of glass that will 
have the same proportional specific action on light, as to the sev- 
eral colors, each to each, but different in degree, so that the contrary 
refractions and dispersions will unite all the colors; and Dr. Blair, of 

Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 27 


210 Miscellanies. 


Edinburgh, has actually obtained this result, by using a certain liquid 
in place of one of the kinds of glass. 

The achromatic object-glass is usually composed of a convex crown 
glass lens and a concavo-convex flint glass lens, of such curvatures 
that the crown lens will produce a refraction greater than the flint 
lens, sufficient to produce a positive focus at the proper point, while 
the dispersions of the two lenses are equal. These conditions require 
the refractive power of the flint glass to be considerably greater than 
that of the crown glass, and the dispersive power of the flint to be 
still greater in proportion to that of the crown, than the refractive 
power. This requisite property of flint glass is produced by the ox- 
ide of lead, which probably increases the dispersive power, nearly in 
the duplicate proportion of the quantities added to the other materials. 

Having now stated the premises, as far as my limited knowledge 
extends, I beg leave to submit the following inquiries: 

1. If we add a small quantity of lead to the materials of crown 
glass, so as to answer the purpose of a common crown glass lens of 
an object-glass, and also add a larger portion of lead to the same ma- 
terials, so as to answer the purpose of the common flint glass lens, 
will not these two kinds of glass have the same character, and pro- 
duce spectra in which the several colors will be proportional, each to 
each? 

2. If we add a very small quantity of lead to the other materials of 
flint glass, so as to answer the purpose of the crown glass Jens, and 
also add a larger portion of lead to the same materials, so as to an- 
swer the purpose of the common flint glass lens, will not these two 
kinds of flint glass have the same character, and produce spectra in 
which the several colors will be proportional, each to each? 

3. Can we use bismuth, or some metal other than lead, in the man- 
ufacture of transparent and colorless glass ?* 

4. As the inflexion of light by angular projections, produces nearly 
the same dispersion that refraction does, and as the best of our polish- 
ing probably leaves the surface of glass rough and uneven, which 
would be obvious if we could see the ultimate atoms, may not a con- 
siderable part of the dispersion be derived from the inflexion by the 
irregularly situated particles at the surface ? 

5. As the combination of bismuth with some other metals adds 
much to their fluidity in the melted state, would not the oxide of bis- 
muth probably add much to the fluidity of glass in the melted state ? 


* We should presume that oxide of bismuth would give a yellow color to glass, 
and it is quite doubtful whether we could impart any portion of the fluidity which 
belongs to the alloys of metallic bismuth to the compounds of its oxide with alka- 
line and earthy bases.—Eps. 


MMiscellanies. 211 


6. If we can render glass very fluid in the melted state, and cast 
Tenses in finely polished moulds, is it not highly probable that the sepa- 
rate particles will arrange themselves by mutual attraction, much more 
regularly than the grinding and polishing can possibly leave them ? 
and may we notin this way hope to lessen the dispersion, or at least 
its irregularity ? 

It is said that the alkalies render glass liable to a slow decomposi- 
tion. If we could make transparent glass of alumina and bismuth, I 
have reason to believe that we should obtain great refractive power, 
very little dispersion, and great fluidity in the melted state, which are 
important desiderata; but it is highly probable that any combination 
with alumina would produce an opake enamel. I have not heard of 
any experiments made for these specific purposes. I have no chemi- 
cal apparatus, and my circumstances will not permit me to make the 
necessary experiments; I therefore hope that some of the scientific 
readers of the Journal of Science, who have leisure and fortune, will 
feel so far interested in the subject, as to ascertain the facts in relation 
to these inquiries, as well as such others as experience may suggest, 
and finally inform us all of the results. A. Bourne. 

Chillicothe, Ohio, Dec. 17, 1840. 


11. Parasite of the eggs of the Geomeira vernaia.—iIn Volume 
XXXVIII, (p- 385) of this Journal, was given some account of a spe- 
cies of Piatygaster which attacks the eggs of the moth (Geometra 
vernata, Peck,) whose larves have so often devastated our apple trees 
and elms. At the time that accuunt was communicated, I knew no- 
thing of the metamorphoses of the insect. On the 13th of June last, 
after this year’s brood of canker-worms (as they are popularly called) 
had passed into the earth, I noticed on the fences several clusters of 
eggs still unopened. Knowing that many of these very eggs had, 
during November, 1839, been visited by the parasites above men- 
tioned, IT examined them carefully. The one which I first opened, 
contained a single parasite in the perfect state, and ready to come 
forth. The insect was evidently glad to be released, and after going 
through with the usual adjustments, walked away. In each of seve- 
ral other eggs which I opened, I found a single parasite. ‘They were 
in various stages of development, but most of them so far advanced 
as to show the features of the perfect insect. Most of the remaining 
eggs, which I laid aside, were, a few days after, found open. A few 
weeks later, I observed that nearly all the eggs on the fences, most of 
which were whole on the 13th of June, were now perforated at the 
top, doubtless by the parasites eating their way out. 


212 Miscellanies. 


it may therefore be inferred, that one egg only is implanted by the 
parasite in an egg of the canker-worm moth. The latter egg, which 
is a rude cylinder, one thirty-fifth of an inch long and one sixtieth of 
an inch in diameter, supplies sufficient food for the sustenance of the 
parasitic larve, and sufficient room for its habitation, until it assumes 
the final state. The perfect insects are evolved in June and July, and 
live probably until the severe cold of the succeeding winter. 
- These parasites have been abundant during November and Decem- 
ber of this year. It seems probable that nearly all the eggs of the 
canker-worm moth, which are laid from October to December inclu- 
sive, (perhaps a third or a quarter of the whole,) are in this manner 
destroyed. Isaw none of the parasites in the spring. I have not yet 
satished myself whether this species of Platygaster is or is not unde- 
scribed. KB. C. Herrick. 

New Haven, Dec. 28, 1840. 


12. Circular of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries; transla- 
ted from the French, and communicated by Dr. Jacos Porrer, of Plain- 
field, Mass.—The Society invites its members and all the friends of arche- 
ological studies to send them whatever can facilitate their researches, and 
aid them in illustrating the obscure times of antiquity. The following are 


the principal things which the Society desires to receive : 
1. Communications showing the relations which the ancient Scandina- 


yians or Normans had, in remote times, with the other countries of Europe, 
and making known the residences or establishments that they had there. 
They here refer principally to Russia, Germany, the Netherlands, the 
British Isles, France, and the Iberian Peninsula. 

2. Researches illustrating the Asiatic origin of the inhabitants of the 
North, and especially the conformity of the mythology of the Edda to the 
mythological systems and religious opinions of the Persians, Hindoos, and 
other people of Asia. 

3. Communications relating to the Ante-Columbian times of America, 
as well as to the archeology, history, geography and languages of this part 
of the world, 

4. For the public library of the Society: Books in all the sciences and 
in all branches of literature, ancient and modern, particularly charts and 
engravings representing ancient monuments or views of remarkable places; 
journals and reviews containing articles on northern archeology, especially 
notices and criticisms of works published by this Society. 

5. For the museum of northern antiquities: Antiquities resembling 
those of the north, and suitable for making comparisons, so as to ascertain 
their use. ‘They desire especially to receive implements of stone or bone 
belonging to savage nations, to whom the use of metals is but little known. 
These will be of still greater value, if they can be procured in connection 


Miscellanies. 213 


with the handles of wood or bone, to which the savages fastened them 
for their use. They are also desirous of receiving patterns of the tools 
employed in fabricating their arms, with information concerning their 
manner of using them. 

The Society has made arrangements that the books presented to its 
library shall be accessible not only to the members, but also to all. the 
friends of science, and thus be rendered as extensively useful as possible. 
In the case of duplicates, one copy of such works as the managing com- 
mittee may find suited for that purpose, will be sent to the public library of 
Iceland, founded in 1818. 

All communications are to be addressed to Professor Charles C. Rafn, 
40 Crown Prince street, Copenhagen. 


13. Level of the Dead Sea.—We learn that among other travellers 
lately arrived in London, is Mr. Russegger, who went on account of 
the Pasha of Egypt to Fazoglo, and to whom we are indebted for a 
barometrical observation on the remarkable depression of the Red 
Sea, which he states at upwards of thirteen hundred feet below the 
Mediterranean. Mr. Isenberg, also from Shoa, has reached London, 
and brings a very favorable account of the prospects of the mission to 
Ankobar, to which place he journeyed in company with M. Krapf— 
London Atheneum, May, 1840. 


14. Preservation of Timber.—At a recent sitting of the Academy, 
M. Boucherie presented a memoir ‘‘ On the Preservation of Timber, 
by a method peculiar to himself.” That method consists in intro- 
ducing pyrolignite of iron by absorption into the tissue of the wood, 
immediately after the fall of the tree, or even while it is yet standing. 
This simple operation is said to be remarkably efficacious: Ist, in 
protecting the tree against rot, dry or humid; 2d, in increasing its 
hardness ; 3d, in developing and preserving its flexibility and elas- 
ticity ; 4th, in preventing the cracks which result from variations of 
the atmosphere when brought into use; 5th, in reducing its inflam- 
mable and combustible characters; and, 6th, in giving it colors and 
odors at once varied and enduring. M. Boucherie laid before the 
Academy several specimens prepared by this method, the examination 
of which was referred to a committee.—Jbzd. 


15. Preservation of timber long sunken under water.—‘ Remarks 
on the structure of the Royal George, and on the condition of the 
timber and other materials brought up during the operations of Col. 
Pasley, in 1839,” by Mr. Creuze. The Royal George was the first 
ship built on the improved dimensions, recommended in consequence 


214 | Miscellanies. 


of an inquiry into the superior sailing qualities of the vessels of war 
in the French and Spanish services. She was commenced at Wool- 
wich in 1746, launched in 1756, and, after bearing a very high char- 
acter as a ship of war for twenty six years, was accidentally sunk at 
Spithead on the 29th of August, 1782. From an examination of the 
various portions of the wreck recovered by the operations of Colonel 
Pasley, Mr. Creuze states, that the great agent in the work of destruc- 
tion, during the fifty seven years since the loss of the Royal George, 
has been ‘¢ the worm,” which has, gradually, by its innumerable per- 
forations on every exposed portion of the wood work, reduced it to 
such a state as to enable the constant wash of the tides to abrade it 
layer by layer. The portion of the ship which has been thus re- 
moved, is considered to be the whole of the upper part, including the 
topsides above the line of the middle deck ports. The portions of 
the recovered timbers which had been buried in the mud were per- 
fectly sound; and Mr. Creuze is of opinion, that the bottom of the 
ship, which is thus protected, and too deeply inhumed to be affected 
by the explosions, will last for ages. Some portions of the cop- 
per have undergone so little change, that several whole sheets aver- 
age the same weight per square fvot as those now used in the Royal 
Navy. This state of preservation, Mr. Creuze is of opinion, may be 
accounted for on the principle applied by Sir Humphry Davy to the 
protection of the sheathing of ships. ‘The cast iron guns which have 
been recovered, were so much softened as to be easily abrarled by the 
finger-nail, to the depth of one-sixteenth and one-eighth of an inch 3 
but they gradually hardened on exposure to the atmosphere. The 
brass guns are as sharp in their ornamental castings, and apparently 
as sound, as at their first immersion. A piece of two and a half inch 
cable layed cordage, made from a specimen of tarred rope, possibly 
part of the ship’s old junk for sea store, or of one of the cables used 
in an attempt to weigh ber soon after she sunk, was found to bear 21 
ewt., 3qrs., 7 |lbs.; while a similar cable, made from yarn spun in 
1830, bore only 20 cwt., I qr., 7 lbs. Mr. Creuze then states some 
peculiarities in the structure of the Royal George, and concludes with 
a descriptive catalugue of a series of specimens which accompanied 
the paper.—Zbid. 


16. New process for making Sulphuric Acid.—M. Provostaye, of 
Paris, has proposed the following process: He recommends introdu- 
cing into the leaden chamber sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and the va-~ 
por of water. To understand what takes place under these circum- 
stances, a current of sulphurous acid may be passed into a flask con- 
taining nitric acid; this should be made, by means of a bent tube, to 


Miscellanies. 215 


communicate successively with a flask containing sulphuric acid, a 
globular vessel moistened with water, and a dry globe. The nitric 
acid is completely decomposed. ‘The first flask contains pure sulphu- 
ric acid alone. Red vapors pass from the first vessel into the second ; 
this is filled with sulphurous acid also, for it is formed of solid white 
crystals, in the two last experiments, as in the first. In the latter, all 
the sulphuric acid of the second flask exists ina solid crystallized 
mass, of a greenish yellow color. The re-actions are, therefore, 
similar to those of the old process. In the new process, the nitric 
acid yields a portion of its oxygen to the sulphurous acid, in order to 
convert itinto sulphuric acid. Hyponitric acid is thus formed, which 
acts like the hyponitric acid in the old process, which is formed from 
the binoxide of azote and oxygen of. the atmosphere ; that is to say, 
successively it yields oxygen to the sulphurous acid, and borrows it 
from the air; but the discharge requires the intervention of sulphurie 
acid and water. The water has two very distinct functions; it acts 
directly, by bringing into more intimate contact the sulphurous acid 
and hyponitric acid, and this favors the oxidation of the first by the 
oxygen of the second; it acts also by decomposing the white crystals 
immediately, and changing them into sulphuric acid and oxide of 
azote.—London Atheneum, Aug. 1540. 


17. Oxalic Ether with Chlorine.—Malaguti has succeeded, by means 
of the action of heat, (212°,) direct light, and chlorine, in converting 
oxalic ether into a crystallized substance, in which all the hydrogen 
has been driven off and replaced by chlorine. Its formula is— 
C,0,,C,Cl,0. It is neutral and destitute of taste and smell. It 
melts at 335°, and congeals in rectangular plates. All fluids which 
have an affinity for chlorine decompose it, such as alcohol, simple and 
compound ethers, essential oils, &c. Among the products of the de- 
composition is an oil corresponding to anhydrous oxalovinic acid, 
containing chlorine instead of hydrogen. .When ammonia is added 
to this oil, needleform crystals are produced, which are volatile, fusi- 
ble, neutral, represented by oxamethane, which only contains two 
atoms of the hydrogen of the amide, the rest being replaced by elilo- 
rine—thence it is a compound of one atom of oxamide with one of 
chloretted oxalic ether.—Jbid. 


18. Elateriie, or Fossil Caoutchouc.—FPelouse has ascertained that 
this substance, which occurs in La Vendee, has the same composition 
as Indian Rubber, viz.C,H,. In this country itis accompanied by a 
sort of gum resin, which is sometimes red, sometimes yellow, and 
even greenish; transparent, insoluble in water, and corresponds in its 
characters with amber.—London Atheneum, Aug. 1840. 


216 Miscellanies. 


19. Gold in France.—Becquerel has found a considerable quantity 
of gold in the sand of Cantal, near Aurillac. The rock in which it 
occurs is mica slate. The matrix contains lead: 268 lbs. troy con- 
tain about 261 grains of gold.—Jbid. 


20. Artificial Preparation of Sugar.—1. Sugar similar to that of 
grapes may be prepared by boiling one part of the starch of potatoes 
or flour, with from zi, to j, of sulphuric acid, and four parts of wa- 
ter, for thirty six or forty hours, care being taken to renew the water 
as it evaporates. Ata higher pressure and temperature, the change 
may be effected more rapidly with a smaller quantity of acid. The 
excess of acid is then to be saturated with lime, the sulphate of lime 
separated, and the liquid concentrated by suflicient evaporation. 2. 
The starch of flour soon loses its gelatinous consistence, when moist- 
ened with an extract of sprouted barley ; it is transformed into a li- 
quid, and if the barley is in sufficient quantity it is changed in the 
course of a few hours into sugar of grapes, provided the temperature 
be maintained at 158° to 167°. Six parts of barley which has ger- 
minated produce twenty five parts of sugar of grapes. 3. Grape su- 
gar may also be prepared from wood sawings; it may also be pro- 
cured by taking twelve parts of linen rags, or paper cut into small 
pieces, mixing them intimately and gradually with seventeen parts of 
concentrated sulphuric acid, or with five parts of sulphuric acid and 
one part of water: the temperature must be kept moderate. After 
twenty four hours the mass is to be dissolved in a quantity of water, 
and boiled for ten hours; it is then to be neutralized with chalk, fil- 
tered and evaporated to the consistence of syrup, and crystallized. 
Chemists have not yet been able to obtain sugar prepared by these 
artificial methods in regular crystals like cane sugar, although there 
is little doubt that these two species differ from each other merely in 
the quantity of water with which they are combined.—Jodid. 


21. Action of Alcohol upon Alkalies—Dumas and Stass have 
found that alcohol, when acted on by hydrate of potash and heat, is 
converted into pure hydrogen and pure acetic acid :— 

C,H,0+HO alcohol. 

C,H,0,+HO-+86 acetic acid and hydrogen. 
Pyroxylic spirit, under the same circumstances, furnishes formic acid 
and pure hydrogen. Ethal, by the same reaction, is converted into a 
new acid—cthalic acid and pure hydrogen :— 

C,,H,,0, ethal. 

C,,H,,0, ethalic acid. 
From these facts it would appear that all kinds of alcohol are con- 
verted, by the influence of hydrate of alkalies, into an acid, which is 


Miscellanies. 217 


produced by losing four volumes of hydrogen and gaining two vol- 
umes of oxygen, conformably to the theory of types and the law of 
substitutions.—Jdzd. 


22. Iodine in Coal.—M. Bussy has recently procured iodine in the 
form of hydriodate of ammonia, in different specimens of coal from 
Commentry, (Allier. )—Jdid. 


23. Six new species of Kangaroo.—Mr. Gould, who has just re- 
turned from Australia, after an absence of two years and a half spent 
in the investigation of the habits and economy of the animals of that 
continent, brought before the notice of the Zoological Society six 
new species of kangaroo, which he had discovered principally in the 
interior of that country. ‘The first to which he drew attention was a 
large species, but inferior in size to the Macropus major, discovered 
on the summits of the mountain ranges. Mr. Gould observed that 
it was a most powerful animal, and very dangerous to approach. The 
general color of the male is slate gray, slightly intermixed with brown 
on the back, and the feet are black; the female is much paler than 
the male: the fur is somewhat harsh and shaggy. The unusual 
strength and size of the limbs suggested the specific name robustus, 
which Mr. Gould gave to this animal. ‘The second species of kan- 
garoo has a remarkably elegant appearance ; being of a slender, deli- 
cate form, and adorned with two white stripes, which, commencing at 
the occiput, run down the back of the neck on to the shoulders, where 
they are recurved ; the general color of the upper partis gray; of the 
neck, pale fawn color; and of the under parts, white. Mr. Gould 
proposed to designate this species by the name frenatus. The third 
species is about the same size as the last, being about two feet in 
height, and of a yellowish fawn color, becoming whitish about the 
head ; its tail is very long; but the most remarkable character of this 
animal consists in its having a nail at the tip of the tail; this nail is 
hidden by the tuft of hair with which the end of the tail is furnished, 
and greatly resembles a finger nail, both in texture and form, but is of 
a black color. The name unguifer was proposed for this species. 
In the M. frenatus Mr. Gould had found a horny nail at the tip of the 
tail, but less developed than the last mentioned species. ‘To the fourth 
species Mr. Gould gave the name dunatus ; this name being suggested 
by two crescent-shaped white marks observable on the shoulders of 
the animal, which is about the size of a rabbit, of a gray color, and has 
a short head and large ears. The fifth species, Mr. Gould observed, 
is nearly allied to the Macropus penecillatus, but differs, it being ra- 
ther smaller, in having the tail less bushy, the under parts of the body 

Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1840. 28 


218 Miscellanies. 


of buff color, in wanting the white spot on the chest, and some other 
characters; two distinct black marks, margined above with white, are 
observable on the sides of the body. The name lateralis was given 
to this animal, and to the last species Mr. Gould gave the name psi/o- 
pus, on account of the smallness of its fore feet and legs; this animal 
resembles the common hare in size, and also in the coloring and tex- 
ture of the fur; so much so, indeed, that a portion of its skin could 
not be distinguished from that of a hare: its fore legs are black. 
Macropus frenatus was discovered in the interior of New South 
Wales; M. unguifer on the northwest coast; M. lateralis and M. 
lunatus on the west coast; and M. psilopus in the interior of Austra- 
lia. Mr. Gould also exhibited a remarkable spring lizard, allied to 
the Agamus, which he had procured from Swan River. He then called 
the attention of the members to an extraordinary piece of bird-archi- 
tecture, which he had ascertained to be constructed by the satin bird, 
Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus, and another, of similar structure, but 
still larger, by the Chlamydera maculata. These constructions, Mr. 
Gould states, are perfectly anomalous in the architecture of birds, and 
consist in a collection of pieces of stick and grass formed into a 
bower; or one of them (that of the Chlamydera) might be called an 
avenue, being about three feet in length, and seven or eight inches 
broad inside; a transverse section, giving the figure of a horse-shoe, 
the round part being downwards. They are used by the birds asa _ 
playing-house, or “run,” as it is termed, and the male birds use them 
to attract the females. The ‘run’ of the satin bird is much smaller, 
being less than one foot in length, and moreover differs from that just 
described, in being decorated with the highly colored feathers of the 
Parr tribe: the Chlamydera, on the other hand, collects around its 
“run” a quantity of stones, shells, bleached bones, &c. ; they are also 
strewed down the center within. Mr. Gould spent much time in ob- 
serving the habits of those birds, and was fully satisfied that the runs 
were actually formed by them, and constructed for the purposes de- 
scribed.—Jbid. 


24. Proceedings of the Tenth Meeting of the British Association.— 
This meeting was held at Glasgow, in Sept. 1840. Our abstract of its 
proceedings is unavoidably postponed to the next number. 


25. Necrology.—At the last anniversary meeting of the Linnean 
Society of London, held May 25th, 1840, (the anniversary of the 
birth of Linneus,) the President, according to the usual custom, 
opened the business of the meeting by stating the number of mem- 
bers which the Society had lost by death during the past year, with 


Miscellanies. 219 


short notices of each. We find among the fellows the names of 
John, Duke of Bedford, who was not only a most munificent pat- 
ron of botanical science, but an author of several splendid works; 
of William Cristy, Esq., an excellent botanist and universally be- 
loved, who was removed atanearly age; of Allan Cunningham, the 
celebrated traveller and botanist, who, after the melancholy death of 
his brother Richard, was appointed to succeed him as colonial botanist 
at New South Wales, where he died in about a year after his arrival; 
Davies Gilbert, Esq., late President of the Royal Society, aged 73; 
Rev. Patrick Keith, the well known physiological botanist, aged 71. 
Among the foreign members we find the name of Don Mariano La- 
gasca, of Spain, a distinguished botanist, who had spent many years 
in England, having been obliged to take refuge there at the over- 
throw of the constitutional government in 1822: also the profound 
John Frederick Blumenbach, so long a celebrated name in anatomy 
and physiology ; he was Professor of Medicine in the University of 
Gottingen, where he died on the 22d of January last, at the advanced 
age of 88: also, Buron Jacquin, of Vienna, Professor of Botany and 
Chemistry in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden of 
Vienna, which situations he has held for many years, having succeeded 
his celebrated father; he published the Ecloge Plantarum, in the 
same style with the large and splendid series of works of the elder 
Jacquin. 

From another source we learn that natural science has recently 
sustained another severe loss, in the death of Prof. Meyen, of Berlin, 
the distinguished vegetable anatomist. ‘The November number of 
the Annals of Natural History announces the death of Prof. Wieg- 
mann, also of the University of Berlin, a well known zoologist, and 
the editor of the Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, in which Prof. Meyen’s 
smaller memoirs have generally appeared. ‘The same journal also 
announces the decease of Mr. Vigors, the distinguished English or- 
nithologist. 

Dr. Buckland, in his anniversary address, Feb. 21, 1840, before the 
Geological Society of London, continues the melancholy catalogue. 
Mr. William Smith, of Scarborough, England, aged 71, after a few 
days illness, in August, 1839, on his way to the meeting of the British 
Association at Birmingham. He was justly styled the father of Eng- 
lish geology, since to his discoveries we owe the first diffusion of ex- 
act knowledge as to the order of superposition of the secondary for- 
mations which occupy so large a portion of that island, and the first 
demonstration of that constancy of the organic remains, which he 
proved to be characteristic of the component strata of each different 
formation. It was the especial merit of Mr. William Smith to estab- 


220 Miscellanies. 


lish a series of types of these groups, many of which have been adopt- 
ed as classical, in such a manner as will perpetuate his name among 
the original discoverers of the age in which he lived. He was born 
on the oolite formation at Churchill, in the county of Oxford, in 
1769. When a child, he was in the habit of collecting terebratule 
from the oolite rocks in the fields of his native village, which he used 
as substitutes for marbles. He had often expressed a wish to be buried 
in this formation, on which he was born and educated, and the his- 
tory of which he had so much elucidated. He was interred in the 
church-yard of the beautiful Norman church of St. Peter, in Northamp- 
ton, which stands on the oolite formation. 

Sir John Si. Aubyn, who died in 1840, was one of the founders and 
early vice-presidents of the Geological Society. 

Brigadier Charles Silveriop, F. G. S., died at Rennes, in June, 
1840, on his way to the Pyrenees and Italy. He did much to elucidate 
the geology of Spain. 

Jeus Esmark, Professor of Mineralogy in the University of Chris- 
tiana, was one of the many disciples of the School of Freyberg, and 
became deeply imbued with the doctrines of Werner. He published 
his tour through Hungary, 1 vol. Svo. 1798; also, 1829, his tour in 
Norway ; also, many detached memoirs on mineralogy. He discov- 
ered the chromate of iron in Norway, also the Norwegian datholite in 
1806, which was then called Esmarkite. 

Frederick Mohs, Professor of Mineralogy in Vienna, was born at 
Gernrode, in the Hartz mountains, about 1770. He was a pupil of 
Werner, and succeeded to his chair of mineralogy in the Mining 
Academy at Freyberg, but in 1826 went to reside at Vienna, as Prof. 
of Mineralogy and Superintendent of the Imperial Cabinet. In 1804 
he published ‘‘a detached account illustrated with a ground plan of 
the mines and mining operations at Himmelsfirst, near Freyberg.” 
His great work on Mineralogy, or the Natural History of the Mineral 
Kingdom, is best known in this country by its translation, published at 
Edinburgh, with considerable additions by his pupil, Mr. William Hai- 
dinger, in 1825, 3 vols. 8vo. He died in Italy, 20th Sept. 1839, at 
Agardo, near Belluno, having undertaken a tour into that country for 
the purpose of studying the phenomena of volcanoes. 

Death of Littrow.—Science has suffered a severe loss in the recent 
death of the celebrated astronomer, Von Littrow, Director of the Ob. 
servatory and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Vienna,— 
Vienna, Dec. 3, 1840. N. Y. Jour. of Com. 

Death of Poisson.—M. Poisson, universally known as an eminent 
mathematician and philosopher, died at Paris, April 25, 1840, aged 58. 


ee 


THE 
AMERICAWN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. 


Art. I.—Notice of the Botanical Writings of the late C. SW. 
Rafinesque. 


Constantine S. Rarinesque-Scumattz, a Sicilian by birth, 
first arrived in this country in the year 1802, where he remained 
for three years ; and returning from his native land in 1815, con- 
tinued to reside in the United States until his decease in Septem- 
ber last, (1840.) The name of this eccentric, but certainly gifted 
person, has been connected with the natural history of this country 
for the last thirty-five years; yet, from the manner of their publi- 
cation, many of his scattered writings are little known to men of 
science. It is chiefly as a naturalist that Rafinesque is known, 
although his attention has by no means been restricted to Natu- 
ral History ; since works on Antiquities, Civil History, Philology, 
Political Economy, Philosophy, and even a poem of nearly six 
thousand lines, have proceeded from his pen. Botany, however, 
was his favorite pursuit, and the subject of a large portion of his 
writings; and to these we purpose to confine ourselves in the 
present article. Our task, although necessary, as it appears to us, 
is not altogether pleasing ; for while we would do full justice to 
an author, who, in his early days, was in some respects greatly 
in advance of the other writers on the botany of this country, 
and whose labors have been disregarded or undervalued on ac- 
count of his peculiarities, we are obliged, at the same time, to 
protest against all of his later and one of his earlier botanical works. 

A. few years ago, Mr. Rafinesque published his autobiography, 
entitled, A Life of Travels and Researches, (Philadelphia, 1836 ;) 

Vol. xz, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 29 


222 | Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 


a characteristic and interesting pamphlet, which is not at present 
in our possession. An abridged account of his travels and re- 
searches in this country, is also given in the introduction to his 
New Flora of North America, which we extract with slight con- 
densation. 


“T came to North America in 1802, and travelled chiefly on foot until 
1804, over New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, 
_ from the Juniata to the sea shore, and from the Alleghany Mountains be- 
yond Easton to the Potomac beyond Washington and Alexandria. In 
1805 I left America for Europe, where I remained till 1815. On my re- 
turn to this country in that year, I was shipwrecked on the shores of Con- 
necticut, and lost all my former herbals and collections, both American 
and European. I had to begin again my researches and collections, 
which I pursued ever since with renewed zeal, and always at my own 
sole expense. I spent 1815 and 1816 in the States of New York, New 
Jersey, and Pennsylvania chiefly. In 1816 I went to explore as far as 
Lake Champlain, Vermont, and the Saranac Mountains near the sources 
of the Hudson River. In 1817 I went to the Matteawan or Catskill 
Mountains, and explored Long Island, where I dwelt awhile. But my 
great travels in the West began in 1818; I made a tour of 2000 miles, 
as far as the Wabash River, crossing twice the Alleghany Mountains on 
foot, and exploring Ohio, Indiana, [llinois, Kentucky, &c. Having 
been appointed Professor of Natural Sciences in the University of Lex- 
ington, in Kentucky, I went there in 1819, crossing a third time the AI- 
leghany Mountains, through the Cumberland road of Maryland, still on 
foot, as I never would cross these beautiful mountains in any other way, 
in order to botanize all the while, and I was rewarded by many new 
plants. I spent seven years in Kentucky, exploring that State thorough- 
ly, and making excursions to Ohio, &c.: my longest journeys were in 
1823, when I went west as far as the rivers Cumberland and Tennessee 
near their mouths, and next east to the falls of the Cumberland River, 
and the Wasioto or Cumberland Mountains. In 1825 I undertook a long 
journey through Ohio and Virginia, crossing the Alleghany Mountains of 
Virginia, and returning by the Alleghanies of Pennsylvania, always on 
foot. Next year, 1826, I left Kentucky and settled in Philadelphia; but 
took a very long botanical journey in the way, going through Ohio to San- 
dusky on Lake Erie; thence to Buffalo, Niagara, Canada, the New York 
Canal, &c.” 


His excursions from 1827 to 1830, were confined to Pennsyl- 
vania, New Jersey, New York, Massachusetts, &c. 


“‘ Several botanical excursions and journeys were undertaken in 1831, 
in Delaware, New Jersey, and the Taconick Mountains. While in 1882 


Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 223 


I visited Maryland twice; the second time I explored the Cotocton Moun- 
tains of Maryland, and the Alleghany Mountains as far as Sherman Val- 
ley and the Juniata, quite at leisure, residing sometimes at the top of the 
mountains. In the year 1833 I proposed to visit the Apalachian Moun- 
tains as far as Alabama, but was prevented by an accident and heavy 
rains. I only went as far as those of Virginia, and again in the Cotoc- 
ton Mountains. In a second journey I undertook to visit the sources of 
the Delaware and Susquehannah. The year 1834 saw me twice in 
the Alleghany Mountains of the North, once by following the course of 
the Delaware, the second time westward by the Welsh Mountains, Cone- 
wago Mountains, Albany Mountains, Locust Mountains, to the Pottsville 
mines and sources of the Schuylkill River, returning by Mauchchunk 
and Allentown. My travels of 1835 were in the central Alleghanies, up 
the rivers Juniata and Susquehannah, exploring the mountains of Peters, 
Buffalo, Wisconisco, Mahantango, Tuscarora, Jack, Seven-mountains, 
&c., with their valleys. Since then I have chiefly explored South 
New Jersey and the pine barrens.” 


He draws a lively picture of the discomforts, as well as the 
enjoyments of a travelling naturalist. 


“During so many years of active and arduous explorations, I have met 
of course all kinds of adventures, fares and treatment. I have been wel- 
comed under the hospitable roof of friends of knowledge and enterprise, 
else laughed at as a mad botanist by scornful ignorance. Such a life 
of travels and exertions has its pleasures and its pains, its sudden delights 
and deep joys mixed with dangers, trials, difficulties and troubles. No 
one could better paint them than myself, who has experienced them all. 
Let the practical botanist, who wishes like myself to be a pioneer of sci- 
ence, and to increase the knowledge of plants, be fully prepared to meet 
dangers of all sorts in the wild groves and mountains of America. The 
mere fatigue of a pedestrian journey is nothing compared to the gloom of 
solitary forests, when not a human being is met for many miles, and if 
met he may be mistrusted; when the food and collections must be car- 
ried in your pocket or knapsack from day to day; when the fare is not 
only scanty but sometimes worse; when you must live on corn bread and 
salt pork, be burned and steamed by a hot sun at noon, or drenched by 
rain, even with an umbrella in hand, as I always had. Musquitoes and 
flies will often annoy you or suck your blood if you stop or leave a hur- 
ried step. Gnats dance before the eyes, and often fall in unless you shut 
them; insects creep on you and into your ears. Ants crawl on you 
whenever you rest on the ground; wasps will assail you like furies if you 
touch their nests. But ticks, the worst of all, are unavoidable whenever 
you go among bushes, and stick to you in crowds, filling your skin with 
pimples and sores. Spiders, gallineps, horse-flies, and other obnoxious 


224 Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 


insects, will often beset you, or sorely hurt you. Hateful snakes are met, 
and if poisonous are very dangerous; some do rot warn you off like the 
Rattle-snakes. You meet rough or muddy roads to vex you, and blind 
paths to perplex you, rocks, mountains and steep ascents. You may of- 
ten lose your way, and must always have a compass with you as I had. 
You may be lamed in climbing rocks for plants, or break your limbs by a 
fall. You must cross and wade through brooks, creeks, rivers and swamps. 
In deep fords or in swift streams you may lose your footing and be drown- 
ed. You may be overtaken by a storm; the trees fall around you, the 
thunder roars and strikes before you. The winds may annoy you; the 
fire of heaven or of men sets fire to the grass or forest, and you may be 
surrounded by it unless you fly for your life.”* 


Now for the other side of the picture. 


“The pleasures of a botanical exploration fully compensate for these 
miseries and dangers; else no one would be a travelling botanist, nor 
spend his time and money in vain. Many fair days and fair roads are 
met with, a clear sky or a bracing breeze inspires delight and ease, you 
breathe the pure air of the country, every rill and brook offers a draught 
of limpid fluid. What delight to meet with a spring, after a thirsty walk, 
or a bowl of cool milk out of the dairy! What sound sleep at night af- 
ter along day’s walk; what soothing naps at noon under a shaded tree 
near a purling brook. Every step taken into the fields, groves and hills, 
appears to afford new enjoyments. Landscapes and plants jointly meet 
in your sight. Here is an old acquaintance seen again; there a novelty, 
a rare plant, perhaps a new one, greets your view; you hasten to pluck it, 
examine it, admire, and put it in your book. Then you walk on think- 
ing what it might be, or may be made by you hereafter. You feel an 
exultation, you are a conqueror, you have made a conquest over Nature, 
you are going to add a new object or a page to science. To these bo- 
tanical pleasures may be added the anticipation of the future names, pla- 
ces, uses, history, &c. of the plants you discover. For the winter, or 
season of rest, are reserved the sedentary pleasures of comparing, study- 
ing, naming, describing, and publishing.”’t 

The following list comprises, we believe, all the botanical wri- 
tings of Mr. Rafinesque which appeared previous to his return to 
this country in 1815. 'Those which relate to American botany 
have reference to his discoveries between 1802 and 1805. 

1. Prospectus of Mr. Rafinesque Schmaltz’s two intended 
works on North American Botany; the first on the new genera 
and species of plants discovered by himself; and the second on 


* New Flora of North America, Part I, Introduction, p. 11, et seq. 
t New Flora, l.c., Part I, p. 14. 


Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 225 


the natural history of the Funguses or Mushroom tribe of Amer- 
ica.—Published in the Medical Repository, New York, (edited 
by Dr. Mitchiil,) 2d hexade, vol. 2, 1808. 

2. Essential generic and specific characters of some new ge- 
nuses and species of plants observed in the United States of 
America, in 1803 and 1804. In a communication to Dr. Mitch- 
ill, dated Palermo, Sept. 1st, 1807.—Published in the same work 
and volume. 

3. Notice on the medical properties of some North American — 
plants. —Published in the same work and volume, p. 423. 

A. Enumeration of the species of Callitriche, and the Ameri- 
can species of Potamogeton.—Published in the same work, A. 
DD 18ht. 

5. An essay on the Exotic Plants which have been naturali- 
zed and now grow spontaneously in the middle region of the 
United States.—Published in the work and volume last cited. 

6. Caratteri di alcuni nuovi generi e nuove specie di animali e 
piante della Sicilia, &c. Palermo, 1810. 8vo., 20 plates. 

7. Précis de decouvertes et travaux somiologiques de Mr. C. S. 
Rafinesque-Schmaltz, entre 1800 and 1814, é&c. Palermo, 1814. 
—A small pamphlet, 24mo. pp. 55.: 

8. Principes Fondamentaux de Somiologie, ou les loix de la 
nomenclature et de la classification des corps organisés. Paler- 
mo, 1814.—An 8vo. pamphlet of 50 pages. 

9. Chloris Etnensis, 0 le quattro Florule del M. Etna. In the 
Natural History of Mt. Etna by Recupero. Catania, 1814. 

10. Specchio delli Scienze Enciclopedico di Sicilia. Palermo, 
1814.—A periodical, of which two volumes were published. 
The following botanical articles are stated to be published in the 
work, (which we have not seen, ) viz :—Plan of the natural meth- 
od of Somiology ; Description of 20 new genera of plants; of 
15 new species of Sicilian plants; of a new genus of Conferva ; 
three new genera of marine plants; and a new genus of F'ung?. 

We do not include the following tracts, which Rafinesque has 
enumerated among his works, since they have never been pub- 
lished, viz:—Forula Delawarica, a Catalogue of plants found in 
Delaware; and Florula Columbica, or a Catalogue of plants 
found in the District of Columbia; both sent in 1804 to the 
Medical and Physical Journal, edited by Prof. Barton. A Mo- 
nography of the genus Beriolonia, sent to the Linnzean Society 


226 Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 


of London in 1810; and Monography of the genus Callitriche, 
increased to sixteen species, sent in 1812 to the Linnean Society. 

The two first named articles comprise nearly all that Rafinesque 
published on North American botany previous to 1815, and cou- 
sequently anterior to Pursh; and justice to the author perhaps 
requires that they should be noticed somewhat in detail. He 
states that his first proposed work, to be entitled Nova Genera et 
Species Plantarum Boreali-Americanum, will comprise, in addi- 
tion to all the new genera and species discovered since the time of 
Linneus, the ten new genera which are indicated in the annexed 
essay, [No. 2,] and fourteen more which he mentions as follows. 
[The remarks in brackets are of course our own.] 

“ Geanthia (colchicoides, ) differs from Colchicum merely in the 
number of the stamens, which are only three in Pennsylvania.” 
[There is little risk in asserting that no such plant exists in the 
United States. The name again occurs in the list of twenty new 
genera published in the Specchio delle Scienze, &c., which we 
have not seen. | 

‘‘ Micrampelis (echinata, ) differs from Momordica in the fruit, 
which is inflated, muricated, 2-3 locular, 2-3 spermous; in Penn- 
sylvania.” [We have in vain searched the subsequent works of 
Rafinesque for any farther notice of this genus. Perhaps the 
Eichinocystis, 'Torr. & Gr. was intended, but the fruit of that 
plant has four seeds, two in each cell. ] 

‘“ Phemeranthus (teretifolius) is very similar to Talinum, and 
is known by some botanists under the name of Y'alinum teretifo- 
lium. Penn. and Carol.” 

‘“‘ Merasperma (dichotoma, bifurcata, cylindral., §c.) belongs to 
the tribe of Conferva, is tubular, inarticulated, with the seeds ad- 
hering to the interior of the tubes. Pennsylvania, &c.” [He 
elsewhere calls this genus Mesasperma.| 

‘“ Heterodon (bryoides, ) small moss with peristome eight denta- 
ted, dentatures unequal. It grows in the waters of New Jersey.” 

‘« Leptuberia (amorpha,) small crustaceous lichen. Penn.” 

“‘ Heptaria (erecta, cuneata, &*c.,) very like to the T'vremella.” 

“ Catenaria (arenaria, vagabunda, concatenata, §*c.,) interme- 
diary between some Conferve and F'uci. On the sea shores.” 

‘« Atheropogon (apludoides, ) genus of gramens, near akin to the 
Apludo. I found it in Pennsylvania; the name is of Willdenow 
in MSS.” 


Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 227 


“« Leptopyrum (tenellum,) it belongs to the tribe of gramens, 
and is akin to the Avena. Found in Virginia.” [We have met 
with no subsequent notice of this genus. | 

“ Florkea (palustris, ) was discovered by Messrs. Marshall and 
Muhlenberg, in Pennsylvania, and named by Willdenow. Hex- 
andria, Digynia: natural order doubtful.” 

“« Forrestia (thyroides,) near akin to Ceanothus, but tri-gynous ; 
was found by Mr. Forrest in the northern part of the State of 
New York.” [From a brief communication in an earlier volume 
of the Medical Repository, the third of the same series, 1806, 
p. 422, which escaped our notice in making the above cited enu- — 
meration, the locality of this plant, (Ballston Spring, ) and a good 
description are given, which leaves no doubt that this new genus, 
the earliest of the long series published by this author, is founded 
upon Ceanothus Americanus. | 

‘ Hexorima (dichotoma,) is very near to Uvularia and Strep- 
topus ; was found by Mr. Marshall, in the Alleghany Mountains 
of Pennsylvania.” ['The close alliance of this genus to Strepto- 
pus may be inferred from the subsequent reference of S. roseus 
to the same genus. Vid. Journal de Physique, 1819, 8. p. 262. ] 

“‘ Gaissenia (verna,) akin to Trollius ; was communicated to 
me by Drs. Muhlenberg and Gaissenheimer, who named it 7". 
Americanus. It is found in Pennsylvania.” 

Then follows a list of genera, which he proposes to establish 
upon known species. ‘This we introduce entire, on account of 
the evidence it affords of Mr. Rafinesque’s sagacity at that early 
period. Several of these proposed genera had indeed been long 
established, two of them even by Linneus himself; but we have 
no reason to suppose that Rafinesque was aware of their publica- 
tion. 

“ Adlumia (cirrhosa,) which is the Fumaria fungosa, Ait. 

Cucularia (bulbosa,) is Fumaria Cucullaria, Linn. 

Calistachya (alba,) is the Veronica Virginica, Linn. 

Diarina (festucoides,) from the Festuca diandra, Michz. 

Kampmania (fraxinifolia,) Zanthoxylum tricarpum, Miche. 

Negundium (fraxinifolium,) Acer Negundo, Linn. 

Jacksonia (trifoliata,) Cleome dodecandra, Linn. 

Cuttera [misprint for Cudlera,] (saponaria and ochroleuca, ) Gen- 
tiana, Willd. 


228 Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 


Denckea (crinita,) Gentiana crinita, Wedld. 

Persea (macrocarpa, ) Laurus persea, Linn. 

Heteryta (polemonioides, ) Polemonium dubium, Linn. 

Scoria [doubtless misprint for Hicorza, | (tomentosa, mucronata, 
alba, pyriformis, globosa, &c.,) the Hickory. 

Vleckia (nepetoides,) the Hyssopus nepetoides, Linn. 

Chryza (borealis,) Helleborus trifolius, Linn. 

Platonia (nudiflora,) Verbena nudiflora, Liwn., [misprint for no- 
diflora. | 

Turpinia (pubescens and glabra,) Rhus aromaticum and sua- 
veolens, Walld. and Miche. 

Umsema [misprint for Unisema,]| (obtusifolia and mucronata, ) 
Pontederia cordata, Linn. 

Macrotrys (actzoides,) Acteearacemosa, Linn. 

Spathyema (foetida,) Dracontium foetidum, Linn. 

Caullinia (hippuroides, ) Hippuris Europeeus, 7. Michz. 

Achroanthes (unifolia,) Malaxis unifolia, Michz. 

Kraunhia (frutescens, ) Glycine frutescens, Linn. 

Savia (volubilis,) Glycine monoica, Linn. 

Apios (tuberosus, ) Glycine apios, Linn. 

Triadenium (purpurascens, ) Hypericum Virginicum, Linn. 

Hingstonia (exaltata,) Siegesbeckia occidentalis, Linn. 

Gonotheca (helianthoides,) Polymnia Tetragonotheca, Linn. 

Trachysperma (natans,) Menyanthes trachysperma, Michz.” 

Nearly all the genera of this list, with the exception of those 
formed from Gentiana, are admitted by botanists, although most- 
ly under different names.* In the next paragraph, Rafinesque 


* Adlumia, adopted by De Candolle, is doubtless a good genus. Cucularia had 
been long anticipated by Borkhausen, under the name of Dielytra or Dicentra. 
Calistachya, Raf. is of later date than Callistachys of Ventenat; Leptandra, Nuit. 
is the next in order of publication, but the genus is not considered a good one. Di- 
arina is adopted with a change in the orthography. Kampmania is typical Zanthox- 
ylum, that genus having been founded upon the Southern species, as a distinguished 
botanist has recenily informed us. Negundium, or Negundo, was proposed by 
Meench. Jacksonia, Rafinesque changed in 1819 to Polanisia, probably on account 
of the Jacksonia of Brown, 1812, by which General Jackson has losta genus. The 
genera founded upon Gentiana, are of no account. Persea was founded by Gert- 
ner. Heteryta isa Phacelia. Hicoria, or Hicorius, was ten years later called Ca- 
rya by Nuttall. Vleckia is the recent Lophanthus of Bentham. Chrysa is the 
Coptis of Salisbury. Platonia, (which Rafinesque afterwards changed to Bertolo- 
nia,) = Zapania of Jussieu, &c. = Lippia, Linn. “Turpinia forms a good genus or 
section ; but the name being pre-occupied, the author changed it to Lobadium, and 
Desvaux to Schmalzia. Unisema may be well distinguished from the other species 


Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 229 


proposes to reestablish the genus Sarotha “and to compose it of 
all the Hypericums, which have few stamens and an unilocular 
capsule, ... . and todivide the genus Monoiropa into two, re- 
establishing the old genus Hypopythis ; and both shall form a 
separate natural order or tribe, under the name of Monotropeous.” 
Here we havesthe order or sub-order Monotropee, indicated ten 
years before its publication by Nuttall. Ina short list of some 
species to be distinguished from allied ones of Europe, he proposes 
Hrythronium angustatum, for the H. Dens-canis of early Amer- 
ican authors; Trientalis borealis, for T. Eburopeus, of the same ; 
Lysimachia capitellata, for L. thyrsiflora, Michx.; and Vibur- 
num edulum for V. opulus, Michx.; in which cases, except per- 
haps the first, he has anticipated other botanists. In other in- 
stances he has made mistakes ; he proposed V. lentagoides for the 
American V. Lentago, forgetting that Linneus established the 
Species on an exclusively American plant; and his Asclepias fra- 
grans for the American A. Syriaca is in the same predicament. 
The second part of the essay is occupied with Fungi, and sev- 
eral new genera are proposed ; upon which we have no observa- 
tions to offer. 

Ten new genera are proposed and characterized in the second 
essay, which follows the former. 1. Phyllepidiwm (squarrosum, ) 
said to be an Amaranthaceous plant, found near Baltimore; we 
do not recognize it.—2. Schultzia (obolarioides, ) said to be ‘‘ very 
near akin to Obolaria,” is undoubtedly the plant itself.—3. Bur- 
shia (humilis,) which is Myriophyllum ambiguum. 'The ge- 
nus is dedicated to Pursh, but the orthography is incorrect.—4. 
Diphryllum (bifolium,) is the same as Listera, of Brown, and 
much older; but in a later memoir the author insists that it is 


of Pontederia, but it is the original species of that genus. Macrotys (here written 
Macrotrys,) which afterwards Rafinesque changed, without reason, to Botrophis, al- 
though still adopted by some good botanists, is too near Cimicifuga. Spathyema= 
Symplocarpus, of Salisbury. Achroanthes is long anterior to Nuttall’s Microstylis. 
Kraunhia is also anterior to Wistaria, or Thyrsanthus ; but Rafinesque seems ever 
after to have overlooked the name ; and in the Journal de Physique, he states that 
he had called it Savia, forgetting, probably, that his Savia (posterior to Willde- 
now’s) is the same with Elliott’s Amphicarpea. Apios forms the third instance, in 
this list, in which Rafinesque has proposed new genera upon the same plants and 
under the same names as Mench had done fourteen years before! Triadenium= 
Elodca of Adanson. Hingstonia—=Verbesina, Linn. Gonotheca=Tetragonotheca, 
Linn. 'Trachysperma—Limnanthemum, Gmel. 1769. 


Vol. xz, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 30 


230 Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 


different from Listera.—5. Isotria, and 6. Odonectis, are apparent-_ 
ly both founded upon Pogonia verticillata.—7. Carpanthus (az- 

illaris,) is said to be a submersed fern, growing in Pennsylvania 

and New Jersey.—The three remaining genera belong to Fung. 

Sixty new species are also described, many of which may be 

identified, and should not be overlooked.—The few notes on the 

properties of some North American plants, [No. 3,] contain noth- 

ing worthy of particular notice. 

The plants described in the Precis des découvertes, are chiefly 
Sicilian: there are, however, several new American genera and 
species of Alew and Fungi, and one new phanerogamous genus, 
viz. Tussaca, which is the Goodyera of Brown; the latter pub- 
lished, not in the same year with his own, as Rafinesque else- 
where states, but one year previous, viz.in 1813. We have nev- 
er seen the Specchio delle Scienze; but learn from a list given by 
Rafinesque in an advertisement, that several of the new genera 
of plants it contains, are republished from the Medical Repository : 
but here Psycanthus and Triclisperma first appear, (both founded 
on Polygala, the latter equivalent to Chameburus ;) also Cra- 
fordia, which is still a puzzle, and Bivonea, which is founded on 
Jatropha sttimulosa. 'The remainder, so far as they are noticed 
by succeeding botanists, are referred as synonyms to different 
exotic genera; but of several we find no subsequent mention, ei- 
ther by Rafinesque or others. Among these are Kznia and Wilso- 
nia, which, being doubtless dedicated, the one to a German col- 
lector in this country, who corresponded with Muhlenberg, and 
the other to the well known ornithologist, were probably founded 
on plants of the United States. 

We have thus noticed, somewhat in detail, the earlier labors of 
Mr. Rafinesque, in North American botany.* In these, he had 
certainly shown no little sagacity ; and, considering his limited 
advantages, he must be deemed a botanist of unusual promise for 
that period, notwithstanding the defects which, increasing in after 
life, have obscured his real merits, and caused even his early wri- 


* As early as 1808, Rafinesque had commenced the practice, (not uncommon at 
that day) of changing generic names when they were not conformable to the Lin- 
nzan canons, or even when they were too long or too short. Thus Calinux was 
proposed for Pyrularia, Michx. (Hamiltonia, Willd.,) Lyontafor Polygonella, Michz., 
Osmodium for Onosmodium, Michx. &c.—Most of the new genera, &c., published 
in the Medical Repository, were republished by Desvaux, in his Journal of Bota- 
ny, vol. 2, 1809. 


Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 231 


tings to be in a great measure disregarded. 'The botany of the 
United States offered, at that time, a fine field to a botanist ac- 
quainted with natural affinities; and Rafinesque was the only 
person in this country, who had any pretensions to that kind of 
knowledge. All we can justly say is, that he possessed talents 
which, properly applied, would have raised him to a high rank in 
the science, and that he early apprehended the advantages of the 
natural classification, although he was by no means well grounded 
in structural and systematic botany. As early as 1814, indeed, he 
sketched a general classification of organized beings, to which he 
continued to attach great importance ; but there is nothing new in 
it except the names, the botanical portion being merely an ana- 
gram of Jussieu’s leading divisions. His fuller developments of 
this system certainly contain much that is novel, but at the same 
time very absurd.* 

Rafinesque’s botanical writings between 1815 and 1818, (from 
his return to the United States, until the publication of Nuttall’s 
Genera of North American Plants,) consist of some reviews of 
the works of Pursh, Eaton, Bigelow, &c. (some of which appear- 
ed early in 1818,) communicated to the American Monthly Mag- 
azine ; one or two small papers describing plants or animals in 
the same magazine; and the MVorula Ludoviciana,t upon which 
we feel compelled to make some animadversions. ‘The history of 
this singular production is briefly this. 

A Mr. Robin, who traveled in Louisiana soon after the com- 
mencement of the present century, appended to his book of trav- 
els { a popular account of the plants he had observed, under the 


* Vide Flora Telluriana, 1836, part 1st, p. 26, et seg. We have not seen the 
“ Analysis of Nature, 1815,” from which the ‘“‘ Table of New Natural Families,” a 
curious mass of nonsense, is said to be substantially taken. 

t Florula Ludoviciana ; or a Flora of the State of Louisiana ; translated, revised, 
and improved from the French of C. C. Robin. By C. 8S. Rafinesque, &c. &c. 
New York, 1817, 12mo. pp. 178, (including the supplement.)—-Perhaps we should 
also include among the published works of this period, a “ Florula Missurica, Man- 
danensis et Oregonensis,”’ asa pamphlet under this name is mentioned ina “ Chrono- 
logical Index of the principal Botanical works and discoveries published by C. S. 
Rafinesque,” (Herbarium Rafinesquianum, second part ;) but this index comprises 
several works which we elsewhere learn have never been published, and we suspect 
the above mentioned work is in the same condition. 

{ Voyages dans Vinterieur de la Louisiane, dela Floride Occidentale, et dans les 
iles de la Martinique, et de Saint Domingue, pendant les années 1802--1806, &c. 
&c.—Paris, 1807, 3 vols. 8vo. 


232 Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 


title of Flore Louisiane. This account, as Robin informs us, 
was prepared from notes made on the living plants, and it is evi- 
dent (although there is no direct statement on the subject,) that 
he brought no collection of specimens to Europe, excepting a few 
seeds for the Jardin des Plantes. It is written in French; and 
the characters of the orders and genera are translated from Jus- 
sieu, which gives the work an appearance of scientific precision 
much beyond its just pretensions. Its value of course depends 
altogether upon Robin’s botanical knowledge and his success in 
referring the plants he notices to their proper orders and genera ; 
and we remark that the work itself affords no evidence of his 
competency to the task. Indeed, on Rafinesque’s own showing, 
we can place little confidence in Robin’s determinations ; for, ac- 
cording to the former, he mistook the leaf of a Sarracenia for the 
spathe of an Arwm, and described a species of Podophyllum as a 
second species of Arum ; he took two species of something near 
Commelina for Orchideous plants; described a Celtis as an un- 
known Proteaceous plant, a plant of the Cherry tribe for a true 
Laurel, anew genus(?) of Ranunculacee for a Polygonaceous 
plant, and the common Ceanothus for Polygonum frutescens ; he 
mistook Amsonia and Dichondra for species of Menyanthes, a 
new genus (?) of Scrophularinee for a Polygala, a Phlox fora 
Manulea, a Justicia for an Amethystea, an Hydrolea for an Apo- 
cynum, anew genus (?) intermediate between Oxrycoccus and Vac- 
cintum for a Campanula, and a species of Hryngium for a this- 
tle. On the sole authority of the descriptions and determinations 
of such a botanist, Rafinesque has established thirty new genera 
and one hundred and ninety-six new species ; and professes to 
reduce all his plants to their proper orders and genera, correcting 
Robin’s mistakes by his own descriptions. It is worth noticing 
that a large portion of the one hundred and four plants which 
are referred to old species, are merely enumerated, and scarcely if 
at all described by Robin ; but in almost every instance in which 
Robin has given a somewhat detailed description, Rafinesque 
has not been able to recognize the plant, but has considered it a 
new genus or species. From this fact, one may forma good idea 
of the value of Robin’s account, and of Rafinesque’s new genera 
and species. We do not pretend to say that Robin really made 
the blunders which Rafinesque charges upon him, (of which the 
specimens we have given are only some of the most striking ;) 


Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 233 


for upon the whole, we place quite as much confidence in his de- 
terminations as in Rafinesque’s corrections. But we do say, that 
‘there is no reason for supposing that Robin has been more suc- 
cessful in the instances which Rafinesque has adopted, and upon 
which his new species of existing genera rest; and we confi- 
dently state, that it is impossible, with all the knowledge we now 
possess of the botany of that region, to recognize one species out 
of fifty, with tolerable satisfaction, from Robin’s descriptions, 
which must nevertheless have been drawn from the more com- 
mon plants of Louisiania; and we never heard of the re-discov- 
ery of any one of these new genera and species, although many 
intelligent botanists and diligent collectors reside in, or have since 
visited that region. 'The Fiore Lowisiane, in the state Robin 
left it, could do no harm, and whatever information it contained 
was quite as available as at present. As wnproved by a botanist 
who had never been within a thousand miles of Louisiana, and 
who at that period, could scarcely have seen a dozen Louisianian 
plants, the only result has been to burthen our botany with a list 
of nearly two hundred species semper incognita. 'There can, we 
think, be but one opinion as to the consideration which is due to 
these new genera and species: they must be regarded as ficti- 
tious, and unworthy of the slightest notice.* 

As the works of Nuttall, Elliott, Barton, and others appeared, 
Mr. Rafinesque published critical notices of them in the American 
Monthly Magazine. He soon after collected and condensed these 
criticisms, and republished them, with some additions, in the 
Journal de Physique for 1819, with the title of Remarques cri- 
tiques et synonomiques sur les Ouvragesde MM. Pursh, Nuttall, 
Elliott, etc. In these many suggestions of more or less impor- 


* We are constrained, by the length to which this article has extended, to omit 
a series of extracts we had prepared in fuller confirmation of our remarks.—We 
are bound to mention the excuse Rafinesque offers for this production. In the 
Herbarium Rafinesquianum, p. 17, he says: “I have been reproached wrongly to 
have published my Florula Louisiana out of Robin, without specimens; but Grono- 
vius did so with Clayton, and Willdenow with Loureiro. Robin’s herbarium may 
be seen in France as well as Michaux’s,”’ etc.—The case of Loureiro’s Flora Co- 
chin-Chinensis may perhaps be something to the purpose; but every botanist 
knows, or may easily know, that the assertion is altogether untrue as regards the 
Flora Virginica of Gronovius, who had the specimens as well as the notes of Clay- 
ton in his possession. We find no evidence that Robin brought back a single dri- 
ed specimen to France: he professes to have drawn his descriptions from the living 
plants. 


234 Botanical Writings of Reafinesque. 


tance are thrown out, new genera are proposed, and many genera 
and species reclaimed on the ground of priority in publication. It 
is indeed a subject of regret, that the courtesy which prevails 
among the botanists of the present day, (who are careful to adopt 
the names proposed by those who even suggest a new genus,) was 
not more usual with us some twenty years ago. Many of Rafi- 
nesque’s names should have been adopted; some as matter of 
courtesy, and others in accordance with strict rule. But it 
must be remembered, that the rule of priority in publication 
was not then universally recognized among botanists, at least as 
in present practice, (the prevalence of which is chiefly to be 
ascribed to the influence of De Candolle ;) the older name being 
preferred ceteris paribus, but not otherwise. It is also true, that 
many of the scattered papers of Rafinesque were overlooked by 
those who would have been fully disposed to do justice to his la- 
bors, had they been acquainted with them ; and a large portion of 
the genera proposed in his reviews of Pursh, Nutiall, Bigelow, 
&c., were founded on their characters of plants which were 
doubtfully referred to the genera in which they were placed, or 
were stated to disagree in some particular from the other species. 
One who, like Rafinesque, followed the easy rule of founding new 
genera upon all these species, could not fail to make now and 
then an excellent hit; but as he very seldom knew the plants 
themselves, he was unable to characterize his proposed genera, or 
to advance our knowledge respecting them in the slightest degree. 
In his later publications, this practice is carried to so absurd an 
extent as entirely to defeat its object. 

The Journal de Physique for 1819, also contains a memoir en- 
titled Prodrome des nouveaux genres de plantes observées en 1817 
et 1818, dans Vinterieur des Etats-Unis d’ Amérique, which is 
probably one of Rafinesque’s most creditable productions. — It 
comprises fifty genera, founded mostly, but not entirely, upon 
plants which he had seen, many of which, however, he had previ- 
ously proposed, under the same or different names. ‘The most 
favorable specimens are the following, viz. Nemopanthes, Po- 
lanisia, Lobadium, Blephilia, Agroseris, Stylimnus, Ratibida 
and Lepachys (taken together,) Cymopterus, Marathrum, Clin- 
tonia, Styrandra, Peltandra, Diarina, and Neuroloma. Nearly 
half of these are not here proposed for the first time: in some 
cases he had been anticipated ; and in others the names were pre- 


Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 235 


occupied.* ‘The following have never been identified, viz. Dzs- 
covium, Leptrina, Flerularia, Anthipsimus, and the five acoty- 
ledonous genera. In the same year (1819,) he again published 
three of these genera, viz. Cylactis, Nemopanthes, and Polani- 
sia, in the first volume of the American Journal of Science, to 
which he also contributed several short botanical and zoological, 
or miscellaneous articles.t His botanical writings between the 
years 1820 and 1830, inclusive, as far as we can ascertain them, 
are the following, viz. 

Annals of Nature, or an Annual Synopsis of New Genera 
and Species of Animals, Plants, &c., discovered in North Amer- 
ica, 1820. A pamphlet of sixteen pages, printed at Lexington, 
Kentucky: it is chiefly occupied with zoology ; but it contains 
brief characters of about fifty proposed species of plants, three or 
four of which are possibly new; but we can only vouch for a 
single species of the number. 'The four new genera proposed, 
are no better than the species. 


*'The worst are Cylactis (which isa Rubus,) Cyphorima (Lithospermum,) Endi- 
plus 2 (Phacelia,) Dacistoma (Gerardia,) Dasanthera (founded on the figure and de- 
scription of Pursh’s Gerardia fruticosa—Pentstemon,) JVeurosperma (Momordica,) 
Delostylis (Trillium,) Criteston (Hordeum,) Trisiola (Uniola,) Torreya and Dis- 
tymus (Cyperus,) Aplostemon (—Scirpus cespitosus and S. triqueter !) under which 
two additional genera are proposed, viz. Diplarinus for the Scirpz with two stamens, 
and Dichismus for those with two stigmas. 

t One of these articles is devoted a consideration of the natural affinities of 
Flerkea; which he considers as forming a small family along with Galenia!! 
while Wect77s,to which Pursh united it, is said to stand next to Myriophyllum! 

t Ilysanthes is probably Lindernia, incorrectly described. Peramibus is founded 
on a genuine Rudbeckia. Hedychloe is Kyllingia pumila. The characters of the 
two following genera we copy entire, for the edification of cryptogamic botanists : 
the first is said to be a Fungus, the second an Alga. 

“ WV. G. Anastomarta.—Fructification in flexuose lamellar veins, anastomosed 
like a net.—This genus will be next to Merulius and Dedalea ; some species of 
them may probably belong to it.-.4. campanulata. Stipitated fulvous ; stipe thick ; 
pericle campanulated ; netted outside, margin erose, insides scaly and dark spotted. 
—This may be the type of the genus. Size, four or five inches. It grows in the 
State of New York.--—A. dimidiata. Sessile, dimidiated, imbricated, wrinkled 
above and fulvous with brown or black zones, netted beneath ; veins often bifid 
near the margin.—Near Catskill, State of New York. It may be the type of a sub- 
genus, Campsilicus. ‘ 

“ VV. G.Srypnion. A floating gelatinous and floccose mass, easily divided and 
homogeneous, without any perceptible filaments or organs.—A very singular genus, 
next to my G. Potarcus. It differs from Conferva, which consists of five fixed fila- 
ments, and Oscillatoria of interwoven articulated ones. I could not perceive any fila- 
ments in it, perhaps a microscope might show some [! !] surrounded by a jelly. The 
name means tow in Greek.—S, fluitans. Floating, elongated perpendicularly ; 
amorphous, floccose or lacerated ; of a dirty yellowish or brown color.—Very com- 


236 Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 


Tracts in the Western Review, about the year 1820. Among 
them is a Monograph of North American Roses ; in which thir- 
ty-three species indigenous to the United States are described ! 
Also a Monograph of Houstonia, in which fourteen species are 
described, exclusive of the Hedyotis crassifolia of his Florula Lu- 
doviciana, of which he forms a new genus! These tracts, with 
another on the classification of some natural families, have been 
reprinted in the fifth, sixth, and seventh volumes of the Annales 
Générales des Sciences Physiques, at Brussels —The following 
are unknown to us. 

1821. ‘ Western Minerva; several new genera; suppressed 
by my rivals!” 

1822. “ The Cosmonist, twenty numbers, Lexington.—New 
Plants of Kentucky.” 

1823. “ Prenanthes Opicrina, and other plants, Cincinnati.” 

1824. “ Florula Kentuckensis and Prodromus N. sp., Lexing- 
ton.” No intimation is given of the place or form of publication. 

1824. Furst Catalogues and Circulars of the Botanic Garden 
of Transylvania University, Kentucky. 

1825. Neogenyton, or indication of sixty-six new genera of 
plants of North America.—A loose sheet of four pages, printed at 
Lexington ; and we believe reprinted in Seringe’s Bulletin. A 
few good genera are indicated in this tract, but not properly char- 
acterized. 'The best are, Cladrastis ( Virgilia lutea ; upon which 
he endeavors to establish three or four species,) and Stylipus. A 
few are good, but anticipated by other authors; such as Helichroa 
(in which some seven or eight species are made out of at most 
three,) which is E’chinacea of Mcench ; and Megadenus, which 
is Eleocharis of Brown; several others may be found to indicate 
sections or sub-genera; but about fifty of the sixty-six are abso- 
lute nonsense.* 


mon on the surface of the Ohio in summer, having the appearance of pieces of ropes 
or oakum. It smells like Conferva.”  Rafinesque, l.c. p. 16. 

* Thus, Tomostigma is founded upon Draba Caroliniana; Hartiana, upon Anem- 
one Caroliniana, &c. ; Stylésma, on Convolvulus tenellus, is said not to belong to 
the Convolvulacee ; Helepta, with three species, is made from Heliopsis levis; En- 
dodia and Aplexia are founded, one on Leersia lenticularis, the other on L. Virgin- 
ica; three genera are founded upon genuine species of Croton, and one on Stillin- 
gia sylvatica, &c. &c. It is but fair to notice, however, that it appears from the 
species cited, that his Ptilemnium is the same with Discopleura, DC., his Spermo- 
lepis with Leptocaulis, Nuté., and his Oxypolis with Archemora, DC., but mixed 
with an Angelica and Tiedmannia. None of them could have been identified by 
the characters assigned. 


\ 


Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 237 


A pamphlet (?) entitled “ Neocloris or New Species of Western 
America,” is mentioned by Rafinesque, but neither the place nor 
form of publication are given: we are wholly unacquainted 
with it. 

1826. ‘School of Flora, with figures, Philadelphia.” 

1828. “ Neophyton Botanicon, or New Plants of North Amer- 
ica.” —Medical Flora of the United States, vol. 1, 12mo. Phila- 
delphia. ‘The second volume was published in 1830. It is illus- 
trated with rather rude wood cuts, and contains much information 
respecting the plants employed in popular medicine. 

1830. American Manual of the Grape Vines, and the Art of 
Making Wine. Philadelphia: a pamphlet of sixty-four pages, 
12mo.—He describes sixty-two species of grape, of which forty 
are natives of the United States! One hundred varieties of our 
species are characterized !—‘ Botanical Letters to De Candolle.” 

A gradual deterioration will be observed in Rafinesque’s botan- 
ical writings from 1819* to about 1830, when the passion for es- 
tablishing new genera and species, appears to have become a com- 
plete monomania. This is the most charitable supposition we 
can entertain, and is confirmed by the opinions of those who 
knew him best. Hitherto we have been particular in the enu- 
meration of his scattered productions, in order to facilitate the la- 
bors of those who may be disposed to search through bushels of 
chaff for the grain or two of wheat they perchance contain. 
What consideration they may deserve, let succeeding botanists 
determine ; but we cannot hesitate to assert that none whatever 
is due to his subsequent works. These, like many of the preced- 
ing, are little known; but we shall continue our enumeration, 
and future writers can correct our opinion wherever they think 
we have done the author injustice. 

1832. “The American Florist: thirty-six figures, 12mo. 
Philadelphia.” With this we are unacquainted.—Aflantic Jour- 
nal, and Friend of Knowledge. A periodical of which eight 


* It was in this year (1819) that I became alarmed by a flood of communications, 
announcing new discoveries by C. S. Rafinesque, and being warned, both at home 
and abroad, against his claims, I returned him a large bundle of memoirs, prepared 
with his beautiful and exact chirography, and in the neatest form of scientific pa- 
pers. This will account for the early disappearance of his communications from 
this Journal. The step was painful, but necessary ; for, if there had been no other 
difficulty, he alone would have filled the Journal, had he been permitted to pro- 
ceed.—SeEn. Epiror. ; 


Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 31 


238 Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 


numbers appeared in 1832 and 1833; published at Philadelphia. 
The whole forms an 8vo. volume of 212 pages. Its contents 
are miscellaneous, but there are several botanical articles, in 
which, of course, new genera and species are described. In one 
of these articles, Rafinesque takes up Dr. Torrey’s account of the 
plants collected by Dr. James, in Long’s expedition to the Rocky 
Mountains, (published in the second volume of the Annals of the 
Lyceum of Natural History, New York,) upon which he creates 
twenty new genera! In another, he describes two new genera of 
Umbellifere called Streblanthus and Orimaria; one of which is 
an Hryngium falsely characterized ; the other, a Bupleurum 
(which had doubtless escaped from some garden) in an undevelop- 
ed state, which we happen to know Rafinesque had mistaken for 
a grass, and described as a new genus of that family; but, be- 
ing told it was a Bupleurum, he has accordingly published it as 
anew genus ‘‘near to Bupleurum.”’ 

1833. Herbarium Rafinesquianum. Loose sheets, printed in 
24mo., we believe at different times, and reaching to about eighty 
pages. ‘The first partis chiefly a reprint from the last number of 
his Atlantic Journal; the second contains a list of his botanical 
works, and account of plants offered for sale, a monograph of 
Samolus increased to ten species. of the American species of C'yp- 
ripedium increased to ten species, of Spiranthes, ten species, and 
of Jeffersonia and Podophyllum, each increased to four species. 
The remainder is of the same character. 

1836. Fora Telluriana: four parts; each of about one hun- 
dred pages, Svo.; the fourth part, or supplement published in 
1838.—New Flora and Botany of North America ; being a sup- 
plemental flora to the various botanical works of Michaux, Muh- 
lenberg, Pursh, &c. §c. §c. Philadelphia: printed for the author 
and publisher. Four parts are mentioned; but we have seen 
only three, of about one hundred pages each. 

The object proposed in the fora Telluriana is general gen- 
eric reform; and the author informs his readers, that “although 
the attempt may astonish or perplex some timid botanists,” he in- 
tends to establish about one thousand totally new genera, includ- 
ing some of those he had formerly published :* it is needless to 
add, that in this and the New Flora of North America, together, 
he has nearly fulfilled his promise. According to his principles, 


* Flora Telluriana, Introduction, p. 15. 


Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 239 


this business of establishing new genera and species will be end- 
less; for he insists, in his later works particularly, that both new 
species and new genera are continually produced by the deviation 
of existing forms, which at length give rise to new species, if the 
foliage only is changed, and new genera when the floral organs are 
affected. He assumes thirty to one hundred years as the average 
time required for the production of a new species, and five hun- 
dred to one thousand years for a new genus; and on a preceding 
page he remarks,* that ‘‘new varieties and species were often met 
with by me at long intervals, in wild places well explored before, 
grown from seeds of akin species.” ‘It is even possible,” he 
continues, ‘‘ to ascertain the relative ages and affinities of actual 
Species and genera. .... As a general rule, the real genera 
of single or few species, are the newest in order of time, and the 
most prolific, the eldest in the series.” t 

It is therefore of little consequence, that half his genera and 
species do not really exist at present, since they may perchance 
make their appearance a century hence.{ . Our notice of these 
extraordinary works must be very brief. ‘The first and most 
amusing part of the Flora Telluriana, is chiefly occupied with 
the author’s views of natural classification, upon which we have 
already made some remarks. ‘This is fallowred by “The fifty 
rules of generic nomenclature, by Linneus and Rafinesque !” 
In the second, the business of making genera is begun in earnest, 
and continued through the work. Thus Alliwm is divided into 
fifteen genera; Solidago, into seven, with about twice as many 
sub-genera; Sazifraga, into twelve genera, which are placed in 
three natural orders, and two different classes ; Polygonum into 
twenty-three ; Gentiana, (as left by Geb) into fourteen ; 
Linum, into thirty-four; Hypericum into eleven; and Salvia, into 
fourteen genera absolutely, and fourteen more proposed as doubtful 
or perhaps sub-genera. ‘“ As I have not yet heard of a genus dedi- 


* Op. cit. p. 12.—Vid. also New Flora, &c. p. 16. t Op. cit. p. 14. 

{ “ Thus it is needless to dispute and differ about new genera, species and vari- 
eties. Every variety is a deviation which becomes a species as soon as it is perma- 
nent by reproduction. Deviations in essential organs may thus gradually become 
new genera. Yet every deviation in form, ought to have a peculiar name, and it 
is better to have only a generic and specific name for it, than four when deemed a 
variety.” Rafinesque, in Atlantic Journal, p. 164. “All our actual species of 
Roses, Grapes, Oaks, Plums, Apples, Currants, Asters, Azaleas, Heaths, &c., have 
thus been formed. Nay, it is so probably with every genuine genus of many spe- 
cies.’ Herbar. Rafin. p. 15. 


240 Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 


cated to me,” he remarks in the introduction, ‘TI shall perhaps 
have to imitate Roxburgh, and choose one for myself, as a Ra- 
Jinesquia.” It is not true that Roxburgh dedicated a genus to 
himself. This honor was reserved for Rafinesque, who accord- 
ingly appropriated the Lotus pinnatus of the Botanical Magazine, 
and described it in due form as Rarinesquia seu FVundula, the 
second name being proposed as a substitute in case this honor had 
been already conferred by some other person. But as the plant 
turned out to be an Hosackia, he is obliged to make another trial ; 
and in the preamble to the third part, he continues: “As toa 
Rafinesquia, I have provided half a dozen, out of which I hope 
some one will suit the fancy of botanists and be adopted; al- 
though I may be blamed for this conceit, I blame instead for it 
those makers of new genera, that eve them to obscure indi- 

viduals, that have not added one page to the science ; and have 
not thought of me for forty years, who have added one thousand 
pages to it, and three thousand new genera or species.”* His 
next choice falls upon the beautiful Gardoquia Hookeri ! which 
is published in due form as the second Rarriesaquia of Rafin- 
esque ;+ and of which he makes two species in his New Flora of 
North America. 

The last named work is precisely of the same character with 
the preceding, except that the new genera are not quite so nume- 
rous, but the new species amply supply the deficiency. Several 
of the former are made in this way: “ Actimeris, Raf, mis- 
spelt Actznomeris by Nuttall; Actispermum, Raf., misspelt Actino- 
spermum by Elliott.” As to species, the following may suffice 
for examples. A single Amphicarpea is divided into ten species 
in two genera, Bellis integrifolia into four species, Capsella Bur- 
sa-pastoris into seven species and one new genus besides, Pru- 
nella vulgaris into ten species, two species of Triostewm into 
eight, a single (?) E’clipta into ten or twelve species and appa- 
rently three genera, &c. &c. These are by no means unusual 
instances, but fairly exhibit the character of the work. 

1839. American Manual of the Mulberry Trees. Philadelphia. 
Of this pamphlet we have seen no more than the title-page and 
the first sheet. 

1840. The Good Book and Amenities of Nature; or Annals 
of Historical and Natural Sciences, is the last we have to notice. 


* Flora Telluriana, part 3, p. 6. t Op. cit. part 3, p. 82. 


Botanical Writings of Rafinesque. 241 


We have only seen a few sheets of this miscellaneous work, 
which purports to be the commencement of a periodical or occa- 
sional publication. The first article is a general classification of 
the sciences comprised in ‘‘ Cosmosy, or Natural History.” Here 
Wwe meet with such names as the following branches of Astro- 
graphy, viz. “ Astrosy, Heliosy, Tholosy, Selenosy, Cometosy, 
Toxosy, &c., applying to the stars, the sun, the planets, the 
moons, the comets, and the various T%vomes (other bodies) of 
the skies ;” as well as “ Atmology, the science of the atmos- 
phere,” with its branches, such as “ Yetology, of rains; Phosolo- 
gy, of luminous meteors;” not to mention Dimnology, Pota- 
mology, Stromology, Spilology, Volcanology, Stocology, E'thero- 
logy, Gazology, Gazomy, Uxromy, Flogomy, ‘the flogomes, or 
burning substances,” Campsology, &c., &c., &c. This reminds 
us of a paper which Rafinesque many years ago sent to the editor of 
a well known scientific journal, describing and characterizing, in 
natural history style, éwelve new species of thunder and hghtning ! 
But the only botanical article we have seen is a ‘‘ Revision of the 
Carexides,” in which the simple genus Carer is divided into two 
sub-families and eighteen genera: and we observe that the same 
Species, under different names, are frequently cited as the types 
of two or three different genera. With this, so far as we can as- 
certain, the last botanical article of this indefatigable writer, we 
close our remarks, which many readers will probably consider un- 
reasonably prolix.* A. G. 


* Mr. Rafinesque’s papers on Zoology, Fossil Remains, &c. are numerous ; but 
we are not prepared to enumerate them. The following are some of his more con- 
siderable miscellaneous works, exclusive of those previously mentioned, viz. 

The American Nations ; or outlines of their general history, ancient and modern, 
including the whole history of the earth and mankind in the western hemisphere, 
&c. &c. Vol. I. Philadelphia, (published by the author,) 1836. 8vo. pp. 560. 
Vol. II, is also said to be published. 

Safe Banking; including the principles of wealth. Philadelphia, 1837. 12mo. 
pp- 136. 

Celestial Wonders and Philosophy of the Visible Heavens. 1839. 

Genius and Spirit of the Hebrew Bible, &c. 

The World, or Instability; a Poem in twenty parts: with notes and illustrations. 
Philadelphia, (J. Dobson,) 1836. 8vo. pp. 248. 


242 Invention of the Mariner's Needle. 


Art. I].—Abstract of a Letter to Baron A. Humboldt, wpon the 
Invention of the Mariner’s Compass.—Lettre a M. le Baron 
A. de Humboldt, sur l’Invention de la Boussole; par M. J. 
Kuaproru. Paris: 1834. pp. 138. 


Read before the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, by Epwarp FE. Sat- 
ispury, A. M., and published by permission of the Academy. 


Tuts is the title of a little volume, published six years ago, in 
which M. Klaproth, a well known orientalist, since deceased,* has 
given the result of researches made by him, respecting ine. inven- 
tion of the mariner’s compass. 

It has been long since generally admitted, that the classic wri- 
ters, though they had some idea of the attracting and repelling 
power of the magnet, were ignorant of its polarity, and conse- 
quently of its applicability to navigation. But the later opinion, 
that the merit of this discovery is to be attributed to an Italian 
of the middle age, must be also abandoned. Klaproth’s investi- 
gations go to prove, that our knowledge of the magnet, as well 
as of the magnetic needle and compass, has been derived, either 
directly or indirectly, from the Hast, and originally from China, 
where the earliest notices of both belong. 

Should this work not have become known already in this coun- 
try, a brief abstract of its most important points may not be un- 
entertaining or without value. 

The name magnet comes from the Greek. ‘The most ancient 
Greek name for this natural production was Mos jjgaxdete, stone of 
Heraclea, a city situated at the foot of Mt. Sipylus, in Lydia. 
This city was afterwards called Magnesia, and the name of the 
stone, for which it was remarkable, became changed to Méyv7- 
avs Mos, stone of Magnesia, or vulgarly, Méyrys, and Méyryris. 
The same name is found in the Latin, and its origin from the 
Greek is confirmed by Lucretius, who says 

“Quem magneta vocant patrio de nomine Graii : 
Magnetem, quia sit patriis in montibus ortus.” 

Other languages into which the name magnet has been incor- 
porated, are the modern Greek, (Méy»nrijc,) the German, (mag- 
net,) the Hollandish, (magneet-stein,) the Danish, (magneet,) the 
Swedish, (magnet,) the language of the Grisons, in the dialect of 


* M. Klaproth was a Prussian, born at Berlin in 1783, and died at Paris in 1835. 


Invention of the Mariner’s Compass. 243 


Surselva, (magnét,) the Hungarian, (magnet-ko,) the Russian, 
(magnét,) the Polish, (magnes, magnet, and magnet kamen, ) 
and the Vendish of Styria, (magnet,) where, excepting in the 
modern Greek, the Latin has unquestionably been the medium 
of transporting the word from the ancient Greek. 

Another name in use in several European idioms, as in the 
Greek, Italian, French, the Romance language of Surset, the 
Bosnian, Croatian, and the Vendish of Styria, is calamita. This 
word appears to be of Greek origin, and is given by Pliny as the 
name of a small green frog. 'The application of the term to the 
magnet is explained by a fancied resemblance to that animal in 
the magnetic needle, when poised on water by means of small 
reeds, projecting beneath it like the legs of a frog in motion, ac- 
cording to the usual mode in early times, in Europe, of adapting 
it to the mariner’s use. But that the idea of such a resemblance 
was not original in Europe, one might be led to suspect, from 
the analogy of the Birman name for the compass anghmyaoung, 
which signifies dzard, and will be rendered still more probable 
by evidence, hereafter to be given, that this mode of using the 
magnetic needle in navigation, was adopted in China about eighty 
years previous to the earliest mention of the needle itself in any 
European writer. 

Many of the terms applied to the magnet, bothin European and 
Asiatic languages, allude to one or another of its characteristic 
properties. Among these, the French laimant, the lover, and 
the Spanish and Portuguese zman, with the same signification, 
is particularly worthy of notice, as having its precise correspond- 
ent in the Chinese thsw chy, of which a celebrated Chinese nat- 
uralist who flourished in 1580, observes: “‘if this stone had not 
a love for the iron, it would not make it come to it,” and a wri- 
ter of an age eight centuries earlier: “The magnet draws the 
iron like a tender mother, who causes her children to come to 
her, and it is for this reason, that it has received its name.’ In 
India also, the magnet was of old personified as capable of ten- 
der attachment, in the Sanscrit name thoumbaka, the kisser, from 
which are derived several appellations now in use in that coun- 
try, as tchowmbok in the Bengalee, and tchambak in the Hindos- 
tanee. Another Sanscrit term for the magnet is ayaskanta, the 
loved stone, or ayaskanta-mani, the stone loved by iron, which 
also the Bengalee retains; and in the Cingalese the magnet bears 
the name of kandako-galah, the stone that loves, which is ap- 


244 Invention of the Mariner’s Compass. 


parently composed of the Sanscrit kanta, loving, and the Cinga- 
lese galah, stone. 

The languages of Mussulman Asia derive the names which 
they give to the magnet, mostly, from the Greek Méyryrys: thus 
in Arabic we find al-méghndthis; in Persian seng-i-maghnathis 
—the stone maghnathis; and in 'Turkish mknathis. 

Of the names given to the magnetic needle and compass, one 
which is to be met with in many Huropean languages, is the Ital- 
ian boussola, the Portuguese bussola, the Spanish brujula, the 
French boussole, &c. Some Italian authors have claimed this term 
as original in their own language, and have sought to argue, from 
its having been so widely adopted in other languages, in favor of 
their national assumption of the honor of having invented the 
compass. ‘The word cannot, however, be deduced from an Ital- 
ian origin any more reasonably than from an assumed. English di- 
minutive bovel, no such diminutive existing, which some writers 
have attempted; nor does the Greek Mécehas, bear the appear- 
ance of being original with that language. ‘The derivation of both 
the Greek Mzéoskoc, and the Italian boussola, and so of the cor- 
responding words in other languages of Europe, is to be found 
in the Arabic mouassala—arrow, an initial m of Arabic words, 
having been very commonly changed, in the middle age, to 6. 
Mouassala is itself one of the names given to the magnetic needle 
in Arabic. 

Among the Turks and Persians, the term for the compass, in 
most general use, is kibléh-naméh, or kibléh-numa—indicator of 
the kibléh, which is the direction to be faced in prayer, and con- 
sequently, as Mecca lies to the south of most of the Mohamme- 
dan countries, the south. With this is perfectly synonymous the 
Chinese apellation tcht nan—indicator of the south, and the Man- 
dchow dchoulest dchorikot, for the magnetic needle. The Per- 
sians undoubtedly derived their name for the compass, kibléh- 
namch, from the Chinese, for it is a peculiarity limited to the 
Chinese and those who have adopted their civilization, that they 
make the south their principal pole, regarding this as the anterior 
and the north as the posterior side of the world; according to 
which they also place the throne of their Emperor, and the prin- 
cipal fagade of their edifices, so as to front the south. 

As the Hindoos have never been addicted to navigation, the 
knowledge of the compass seems to have been introduced but 
very late among them, and the names they give to it are for the 


Invention of the Mariner's Compass. 245 


most part foreign. In the English provinces of India it is called 
compass, from the English; and in the Cingalese of Ceylon, 
kompédsouwa, a corruption of compass. The Hindostanee has 
adopted the Persian term kibléh-numa—indicator of the south. 

In these comparisons of the most current terms for the magnet 
and the magnetic needle and compass, in the eastern and western 
world, there is not a little to lead one to believe that the discovery 
of the wonderful properties of the magnet originated in the re- 
mote Orient, and was gradually communicated to the nations of 
the west. But there are historic notices of the magnetic needle 
and compass, which also point to the east as the field of the first 
discovery of the polarity of the magnet and its applicability to 
navigation. 

The earliest explicit mention of the magnetic needle, by any 
European writer, is in a poetical work of Guyot de Provins, da- 
ting about the year 1190. 'The next as to date is found in the 
Historia Orientalis of Jacques de Vitry, referring to the year 
1204: ‘“ Adamas in India reperitur—ferrum occulta quadam na- 
tura ad se trahit. Acus ferrea, postquam adamantem contigerit, 
ad stellam septentrionalem, quae velut axis fermamenti, aliis ver- 
gentibus, non movetur, semper convertitur, unde valdé necessarius 
est navigantibus in mari.” It would be difficult to give any au- 
thority to this passage, and not recognize the east as the source of | 
knowledge, among Europeans, of the polarity of the magnet. 
Not long before the year 1260, Brunetto Latini, ‘‘ maitre du divin 
Dante,” being on a journey in England, saw the magnet and the 
magnetic needle for the first time, in visiting Roger Bacon, anda 
fragment of a letter of his, written on the occasion, which has 
been preserved, describes them thus: ‘‘ He shew me the magnet, 
a disagreeably looking black stone it readily unites with iron; a 
small needle is taken into the hand and fastened in a bit of reed, 
then it is put upon a surface of water, and one stands over it, and 
the point turns towards the star, (the polar star;) in case the night 
is obscure, and neither star nor moon is seen, the mariner may 
keep to his right course.” 

Albertus Magnus, of Swabia, who flourished about the middle 
of the thirteenth century, quotes in a work of his, “ De Minerali- 
bus,”’ a passage from a “treatise concerning stones,”’ attributed to 
Aristotle, of which the following portion merits particular atten- 
tion: “ Angulus magnetis cujusdam est, cujus virtus apprehendi 

Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 32 


246 Invention of the Mariner’s Compass. 


ferrum est ad zoron, hoc est septentrionalem, et hoc utuntur naute. 
Angulus vero alius magnetis illi oppositus trahit ad aphron, id est 
meridionalem: et si approximes ferrum versus angulum zoron, 
convertit se ferrum ad zoron, et si ad oppositum angulum ap- 
proximes, convertit se directé ad aphron.” Vincent de Beauvais, 
a cotemporary of Albertus Magnus, has left a similar passage, 
likewise quoting Aristotle, in his “ Speculum Naturale: “ An- 
gulus quidem ejus cui virtus est attrahendi ferrum, est ad zaron, 
i. e. septentrionalem, angulus autem oppositus, ad aphron, i. e. 
meridiem. Itaque proprietatem habet magnes, quod si approximes 
ei ferrum ad angulum ipsius qui zaron, i. e. septentrionem respicit, 
ad septentrionem se convertit, si vero ad angulum oppositum 
ferrum admoveris, ad aphron, i. e. meridiem se movebit.” ‘The 
names given in these two passages to the noc and south pole, 
zoron or zaron, and aphron, are the Arabic en jab nor th, and —— 
south. As to the work here attributed to Aeteae under the title 
of a “treatise concerning stones,” we have no such Greek text 
of this author, and it is doubtful if ever he wrote such a book. 
There is an Arabic treatise entitled |or—j$ia—the Book of 
Stones, composed by a certain Lucas, son of Serapion, but pur- 
porting to be a translation from Aristotle, which Baron De Sacy 
has shown to be the true source of citations under the name of 
Aristotle, in the writings of Téifachi and Beilak Kibdjaki; and 
very probably Albert and Vincent have quoted this same work 
in their account: of the polarity of the magnet. However, the 
names zoron and aphron, applied by these authors to the two 
magnetic poles, are sufficient to prove that they derived their 
knowledge of the magnet’s polarity from an oriental source. 

But there is no evidence that the Arabs were the inventors of 
the magnetic needle. It may, indeed, have been in use among 
the Arabian navigators, before it was noticed by men of science ; 
but we have in no Arabic work any fhention of it which goes 
back beyond the year 1242. In this year, Béilak Kibdjaki made 
a voyage from Tripoli to Alexandria, and in his treatise entitled 


lta) KSjx0 3 plea AS Cli the Treasure of Mer- 
ae touching the foniede of stones, he has recorded his ob- 
servations on that occasion, respecting the magnetic needle. ‘“ As 
to the properties of the magnetic needle,” he writes, ‘it is to be 
observed, that the captains who navigate the sea of Syria, when 
the night is so obscure that they can see no star by which to steer 


Invention of the Mariner’s Compass. 247 


their course according to the four cardinal points, place a pitcher 
full of water in the interior of the vessel, to be sheltered from the 
wind, and then take a needle and pass it through a piece of wood 
or reed, forming a cross, which they throw into the water in the 
pitcher prepared for the purpose, and it floats. ‘They then take a 
magnet large enough to fill the palm of the hand, or smaller, and 
bring it near the surface of the water, giving their hands a rota- 
tory movement towards the right, so that the needle turns about 
on the surface of the water. Then they withdraw their hands 
all of a sudden, and truly the needle points north and south. I 
myself saw this done on my voyage from Tripoli in Syria to Alex- 
andria, in the year 640,” (or 1242 of ourera.) “They say,” he 
continues, ‘that the captains who navigate the Indian ocean sup- 
ply the needle and piece of wood by a sort of fish, of thin iron, 
hollow, and so made with them, that, when thrown into the water 
it floats, and shows by its head and tail the two points of north 
and south.” So early, then, as the year 1242, the water-com- 
pass was in general use on the Syrian waters, and was known, 
it is to be presumed, as well to Arabian as to Huropean navi- 
gators. But what this author, Béilak, says of the peculiar form, 
according to report, of the magnetic needle which was used in 
the Indian ocean, indicates an independent knowledge of it in 
that quarter of the globe; and recalling the signification of cala- 
mita, little green frog, and the Burman appellation for the com- 
pass, meaning lizard, leads one to look further to the east than 
any of the Mohammedan countries for the original discovery of 
the polaric properties of the magnet. We shall presently see that 
between 1111 and 1117, the Chinese made a water-compass ex- 
actly such as Beilak describes that which he saw in 1242, in the 
Syrian waters, and also like that which Jacques de Vitry saw 
within the first half of the thirteenth century, in the possession 
of Roger Bacon. 

The Chinese have been acquainted with the magnet and its 
attractive force and polarity from the highest antiquity. In a 
Chinese dictionary, composed in 121, by Hiu-tchin, the magnet 
is mentioned, asa “stone with which one can give direction to 
the needle.” About a hundred years later, as we learn from P. 
Gaubil, in his history of the dynasty of the Thang, there is found 
a distinct notice of the compass as an instrument by which to as- 
certain the points of north and south. Under the dynasty of the 
Tsin, (i. e. between 265 and 419,) Chinese vessels were already 


248 Invention of the Mariner’s Compass. 


steered to the south by means of the magnet. But the Chinese 
were acquainted with the declination of the needle, also, a long 
while before it was supposed to be first discovered by Columbus. 
In a medical natural history, composed between the years 1111 and 
1117, the author gives the following notice of the magnet and of 
its properties. This is the most ancient description of the mag- 
net found as yet in any Chinese book: ‘‘ The magnet is covered 
over with little bristles slightly red, and its superficies is rough. 
It attracts iron, and unites itself with it; and for this reason it is 
commonly called ‘the stone which licks up iron.” When an 
iron point is rubbed upon the magnet, it acquires the property of 
pointing tothe south; yet it always declines eastward, and is not 
perfectly true to the south. On this account, a thread of new 
cotton is taken and attached by a particle of wax as large asa 
mustard-seed, exactly to the middle of the iron, which is thus 
suspended in some place where there isno wind. ‘The needle 
then points, without variation, to the south. If the needle is 
passed through a little tube of thin reed, which is afterwards 
placed on water, it directs tothe south, but always with a decli- 
nation to the point ping, that is to say, east 2 south.” ‘The accu- 
racy of this observation, referring it to the capital city of the 
empire, is confirmed by P. Amiot, who, after taking magnetic 
observations at Peking for several years, found the variation of 
the needle there to be constantly from 2° to 2° 30’. 

Upon a due consideration of all these historic data, in connec- 
tion with the comparison of the European and Oriental names of 
the magnet, the magnetic needle, and the compass, it cannot ap- 
pear to any one to be arash conclusion, that the knowledge of 
the natural production, as well as of its wonderful applicability 
in navigation, existed first in China, and was communicated by 
the intervention of the Arabs to the nations of Europe, probably 
on occasion of the more frequent intercourse between Europe and 
the East to which the Crusades gave rise. 

But before the Chinese had applied the magnet to use in navi- 
gation, it was employed among them in the construction of mag- 
netic cars by which travellers on Jand directed their course. Not 
to cite those stories of the Chinese relative to these cars which 
lose themselves in a fabulous antiquity, the earliest historic allu- 
sion to them dates in the first half of the second century, when 
the Emperor l'cheou Koung, as it is related, gave to some em- 
bassadors from Tonkin and Cochin-China “five travelling cars, 


Invention of the Mariner's Compass. 249 


so constructed as always to indicate the direction of the south.— 
The cars which showed the south,” it is added, “always went 
in front, to show the way to those who were behind, and to make 
known the four cardinal points.” In the year 235, a Chinese em- 
peror ordered one Makiun to construct a “‘ car which would show 
the south,” to be deposited in a sort of Museum; and we are in- 
formed that the invention had then, for some time, been lost, and 
was recovered by the ingenuity of Makiun. Ina book of annals 
of the dynasty of the T'sin, the magnetic car of a previous age is 
thus described: ‘The figure sculptured in wood, standing upon 
the magnetic car, represented a genius dressed in feathers. In 
whatever direction the car inclined or turned, the hand of the 
genius pointed invariably to the south. When the Emperor went 
out in form, in his carriage, this car led the van, and served to 
show the four cardinal points.” From the year 235, the con- 
struction of a magnetic car seems to have been a puzzle which 
different Chinese emperors proposed to the ingenious men of their 
courts, and the knowledge of the invention appears to have been 
confined within very narrow limits. 

Between 806 and 820, under the Thang dynasty, were first 
constructed cars called Kin koung yuan. 'These were magnetic 
cars to which had been added a sort of drum called Az i kou, a 
piece of mechanism which may remind one of some curious pub- 
lic time-pieces still to be seen in old cities of Europe. <A drum- 
car is thus described by a Chinese author: ‘It had two stories, in 
each of which was a wooden man holding erect a mallet of wood. 
As soon as the car had run one /y,* the wooden man of the lower 
story struck a blow upon a drum, and a wheel placed at the mid- 
dle of his height made one revolution. After the car had run ten 
lys, the wooden man of the upper story struck a little bell.” 

The magnetic car cannot be traced later than 1609. Jn that 
year was published a celebrated Encyclopedia, which contains 
the following passage, accompanying a design of the human 
figure which was-placed upon the magnetic car: ‘This is a car 
ornament, of which the dimensions are as follows: It is one foot 
and four inches in height, and in breadth at the bottom seven 
inches and four lines. At the extremity of the axle-tree of the 
car is pierced a round hole of three inches and seven lines in di- 
ameter. In this hole moves a peg of the same size, on which is 


* A measure of distance variously estimated. John Francis Davis, in his History 
of China, computes thirty lys in one English mile. 


250 Temperature of Mercury in a Siphon Barometer. 


placed the figure of a man sculptured in jade,* whose hand always 
points tothe south. ‘This figure had motion in the hole, and turned. 
In the years Yan Yeou, (from 1314 to 1320,) it was an object to 
determine the position of the monastery of Yao mou ngan, and 
the figure on the magnetic car was made use of for this purpose.” 


Art. IIL—A Method of determining the Temperature of the 
Mercury in a Siphon Barometer, from the observed upper and 
lower readings ; and of testing the accuracy of the instrument ; 
by Farranp N. Benepict, Prof. Math. and Civil Engineering, 
Univ. of Vermont. 


Ir has long been known that a true determination of the tem- 
perature of the mercurial column, is essential to the accuracy of 
barometrical results. The apparatus now in use for this purpose 
is a thermometer encased in the brass mounting,- with its bulb 
contiguous to the tube of the barometer. While there can be no 
doubt that the attached thermometer has answered a useful pur- 
pose for indicating approximately the temperature of the mercu- 
rial column, it is equally evident that its indications are not to be 
relied upon in many cases within the requisite limits of exact- 
ness. ‘These cases, in the present state of science, are the most 
common and generally the most interesting. When the subjects 
of investigation are such as to admit of a choice of the places of 
observation, as the vaults of observatories or large and deep cel- 
lars, the temperature may be assigned with all necessary precis- 
ion. But in the most of physical questions, like those relating to 
the barometrical measurement of altitudes or to detecting the ho- 
rary and diurnal variations of atmospheric pressure, the errors in- 
cident to this mode of appreciating the temperature, under ordi- 
nary circumstances, are necessarily considerable. ‘To entitle the 
attached thermometer to confidence, its bulb should be a long 
cylinder, of a diameter equal to that of the barometric tube, and 
similarly exposed to the surrounding influences of temperature. 
But these conditions have proved difficult to satisfy. Bunten’s 
mountain barometer, which is probably the most perfect portable 
instrument of the kind now in use, is faulty in each of these re- 
spects, and, to a great extent, necessarily so. ‘The brass mount- 
ing is a hollow cylinder with two rectangular orifices nearly op- 


* A hard stone, of variegated hue. 


Temperature of Mercury in a Siphon Barometer. 251 


posite to each other, about four tenths of an inch wide, parallel 
to the axis, and extending 9 or 10 inches from the extremities to- 
wards the centre. ‘The design of this is to expose to view the 
extremities of the column, and to allow the requisite movement 
to the vernier. The remaining central portion, which is about 
15 inches in length, and has no perforation through its surface, 
embraces the attached thermometer. ‘This arrangement evident- 
ly exposes the bulb and the tube to different influences. The 
bulb is comparatively small, and its connection with the mount- 
ing is more intimate than it is with the tube, and consequently 
it tends to indicate the temperature of the former more truly than 
that of the latter; and more especially so as a like connection 
between the tube and the mounting is unattainable with a due 
regard te the safety of the instrument. And besides, allowing 
the attached thermometer to mark truly the temperature of that 
part of the column in its vicinity, and which, like it, is protected 
by the mounting, it might materially err in respect to the remain- 
ing portions which are exposed to the direct and variable influen- 
ces of the atmosphere. These remarks, suggested by the con- 
struction of the instrument, I verified experimentally in the fol- 
lowing manner. I filled with mercury a tube 14 inches long and 
of a diameter not much larger than that of the barometric tube, 
and inserted into the open end a tube of less diameter; joining 
the two firmly with sealing wax. ‘This was introduced into the 
central part of the brass mounting. I took a series of observa- 
tions with this instrument in a cellar where the temperature was 
low and uniform, and another series in a room where the temper- 
ature was high and also uniform. In both these series of obser- 
vations the temperature indicated by the attached thermometer 
must have been very nearly the same as that of the mercury in 
the tube. Denoting the means of these temperatures by (¢,) 
(¢’) respectively, and the mean altitudes of the upper surface of 
the mercury by (a,) (a”,) we evidently have t”=¢+A(a’—a); 
A being a constant depending upon the volume of mercury and 
the diameter of the lesser tube. For the same reason, if (¢’) is 
the temperature of the mercury at any other time, and (a’) the 
reading of the upper surface, we have t’=¢+A(a’—a). Elimi- 
nating the constant A between these two equations, and resolving 
for (¢’,) there results (=i (aa) +t (1). I then made the 


following observations. 


252 Temperature of Mercury in a Siphon Barometer. 


1 311 OL. 31.1 - 
2 5! 43.8 42.8 39.0 4.8 3.8 
3 10’ 56.5 53.6 49.1 7A 4.5 
4 15/ 63.6 60.0 56.2 (ee 3.8 
5 20/ 67.8 64.4 62.2 5.6 2.2 
6 25! 69.4 67.3 65.9 3.5 1.4 
ih 30! 70.0 68.9 67.6 2.4 io 
8 35’ 70.0 69.8 69.0 1.0 0.8 


The first observation was made in a large unoccupied room where 
the instrument, having been suspended for some hours, indicated 
a temperature of 31.1 degrees Fah. The instrument was then 
quickly removed, together with the detached thermometer, to a 
room at the temperature of 70 degrees, in which all the succeed- 
ing observations were made. The second vertical column ex- 
presses the time in minutes after the first observation. 'The 3d, 
Ath and 5th express in that order the temperatures of the detach- 
ed and attached thermometers, and of the mereury in the tube, 
calculated according to formula (1). The 6th and 7th columns 
express respectively the number of degrees the temperature of 
the mercury in the tube was behind the attached and detached 
thermometers. From this table it appears that, after the barom- 
eter had been suspended a quarter of an hour for example, the 
detached thermometer errs as an index of the temperature of the 
mercurial column by 7.4 degrees, and the attached thermometer 
by 3.8 degrees; and that the corresponding errors, after half an 
hour’s suspension, are 2°.4 and 1°.3 respectively. ‘These errors 
would have been somewhat diminished if the diameter of the 
tube had been strictly equal to that of the barometric one; but 
on the other hand they might have been aggravated and rendered 
more uncertain if the tube had been as long as the barometric 
one, and had not the temperature of the room been sustained at 
an uniform height. ‘The observations of the table were made 
with care under circumstances favorable to accuracy, and were 
verified by three or four other tables, with which it substantially 
agreed. From the frequency of the observations, some slight er- 
rors of time may have been committed, but too inconsiderable to 
affect the particular object of the experiment. 

We conclude therefore that the attached thermometer is an un- 
certain index of the temperature of the mercurial column, except 
in those rare cases when the temperature of the air is known to 
be uniform, and not even then until after nearly an hour’s sus- 
pension of the barometer. 


Temperature of Mercury in a Siphon Barometer. 253 


To appreciate the temperature of the mercurial column through- 
out its whole extent, in a siphon barometer of which the two 
branches are cylinders of equal diameters, I propose the follow- 
ing method. v 

Let ABC represent the tube of a siphon barometer, of which 
those portions at least within the ranges of the mercurial surfaces 
are cylinders of equal diameters; and let O be the zero point of 
the scale D’B, which is supposed to be inexpansible by heat. 

Suppose the summits of the convex surfaces Fig. 1. 
of the column in the two branches, at any time, tae taereal 
are at D, d; and put OD=upper reading =a At 

Od=lower reading =b 
temperature =¢ 

If the temperature increases to (¢’,) while the 
atmospheric pressure remains unchanged, the 
masses of mercury in the two branches will ev- 
idently not be altered, and the surfaces will rise 
to some points D’, d’. Suppose now the tem- 
perature (¢’) to be constant, and the atmospher- 
ic pressure to increase. For the sake of refer- 
ence to the figure, we have supposed the tem- 
perature and pressure, whenever they change 
to increase ; but thiscan lead to no error when 
the contrary is the case, as an erroneous suppo- 
sition would be corrected by the sign. Conse- 
quent upon this increase of pressure, the sur- 
face d’ will descend to some point d’”, and the 
surface D’ will ascend to some point D’. Since | 
the tube D’/D” contains a volume of mercury B | 
equal to that which d/d’” did under the first # ¥ 
pressure with the temperature (¢’,) and since the diameters of 
these tubes are equal, their altitudes must be equal, and therefore 
D'D” =d/d" ; (1.) 

If (©) represents the ratio of expansion in height of mercury in 
a cylindric glass tube, due to one centigrade degree ; and (p,) (p’) 
the altitudes of cylinders having diameters equal to those of the 
barometric tube within the ranges of the mercurial surfaces, and 
capacities respectively equivalent to the volumes of mercury in 
the longer and shorter branches of the siphon at the epoch of the 
first observation when the temperature was (¢ ;) we have 

Vol. xu, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1341. 33 


254 Temperature of Mercury in a Siphon Barometer. 


DD/=<(¢' — t)p 
. dd’ =<(t/ —t)p’, 
and therefore DD’-++-dd/=<«(t’ —t) (p +p’). 
We derive from the figure D/D” =OD” = OD—DD’ 
d'd’ =Od" —Od+dd'’. 
Equating the second members of these last equations, according 
to (1), and denoting the upper reading OD” by (a,), and the low- 
er reading Od” by (6,), and substituting for DD’+dd’ its value 
expressed above ; we have a, — b,—(a—6)=<(t/—t)(p+p’), (2) 
which is of the form a,—6,—(a—6)=A(t’ —f), (3) where A is a 
constant co-efficient, since (¢) is constant, and (p-++p’) is constant 
for the same barometer. This equation exhibits the relation be- 
tween the elements of any two sets of observations, on the sup- 
position that the scale is not affected by a change of temperature. 
To correct this for the expansion of the scale, let D’EFP re- 
present the brass mounting which bears the scale D’O’ O”F'; 
and suppose the imaginary zero point O to have been assumed in 
the same horizontal line with the zero point O’ or O” of the brass 
scale at the temperature (¢). Since the expansion of brass is 
more than twice that of glass, there can be but one point in the 
graduated line, at which the glass tube and mounting are invari- 
ably united. Let this point be V; andput OV=f Let D”, d’” 
be those points in the brass scale, which are conveyed to D”, d” 
respectively by the augmentation (¢’—¢) of temperature. Deno- 
ting by («’) the ratio of expansion of brass in length due to one 
centigrade degree, and by (a’), (0’) the distances O’/D’”, O”d’” 
respectively, which are the actual readings at the temperature (¢’) ; 
we have D’D”’=e(t/—t)(a/+f) 
dd =e'(t! He t) (b’ —f,) 
and therefore D’D!” — d/d!"=e'(t’ —t) (a’ -0/+-2f.) 
We have from the figure OD” =O0/D’””+D’D” (3) 
O”d" =O"d!" ddl" (a9 
Subtracting the latter of these last two equations from the for- 
mer, and employing the notation and the above value of D’D’”” — 
dd’, we have a,—b,=a'—b/+(t/—1) (a’—0/+2f.) 
Eliminating (a,—6,) between this equation and (2) there results 
a! —b —(a—b) =6(¥' —t) (p+-p’)—#(—1) (a —8/+2f) (4). 
Since the quantity (a’--6’) in cylindrical siphon barometers dif- 
fers from a constant by only about 4 millimetres for a change of 30 
centigrade degrees in the value of (¢’—7’,) and since (¢’) is less 


Temperature of Mercury ina Siphon Barometer. 255 


than 0.00002, «(¢/—7) (a’—6’+2/) can rarely differ from a con- 
stant mean so much as 0.0009. Wherefore, putting 

_e(a’— +2 f)=A’, a constant, (5) 
equation (3) becomes a/— b’— (a —6)=(A—A’) (t/-7,) (6.) 

This equation is of the same form as (3,) differing from it only 
in the value of the co-efficient of (¢/—7¢,) and expresses the rela- 
tion between the elements of any two sets of observations, em- 
bracing the corrections for the expansions of the mercury, scale, 
and glass tube. 

Ifthe volume of mercury (p+p’,) with which the barometer is 
charged, were known, as may have been determined with ex- 
- actness by weighing the instrument before and after filling ; and 
also the point at which the tube and mounting are united, which 
makes known the value of (f,) then would A and A’ be known; 
and (6) would give us 

a! —b’ —(a—b) 


t’=t-+- KR } (7) 
which shews the mean temperature of the whole column in terms 
of the constants A, A’, (a,) (6,) (¢.) 

But if A and A’ are not known with great exactness; if we 
compare the elements (a’’) (6”) (¢’’) of any other observation, with 
(a,) (6,) (¢,) we have in like manner 

a!’ — b’’—(a—b)=(A—A’) (¢ —2) (8) 
Eliminating (A — A’) between (6) and (8,) there results 
a’—b’—(a—b) t-t 
a ey ae 
which expresses the relation between the elements of any three 


sets of observations. Solving (9) for (¢’) we have 
fi — 


sa dad Naya [a’— b’—(a—b.) | (10.) 


Wherefore, knowing the elements of any two observations (a,) 
(6,) (¢) and (a’,)(b”,)(¢”,) we have the temperature (¢’) in terms 
of its corresponding readings (a@’,) (b’.) 

ft is evident that the observations (a,) (0,) (¢) and (a”,) (6”,) 
(¢,) should be made with great care, in places subject for the time 
to but slight variations of temperature, so that the thermometer 
which is used, either attached or detached, may be depended 
upon as indicating truly the temperature of the mercury. It is 
evident also, that accuracy would be materially promoted by us- 
ing the means of a number of successive observations rather than 
individual ones; and also by choosing such temperatures that 
(t’’ — t) may be as large as circumstances will permit. 


256 Temperature of Mercury in a Siphon Barometer. 


An example may serve the purpose of illustrating the practical 
application of the formula:—to determine the numerical co-effi- 
cients of (10) for No. 366 Bunten’s mountain barometer, I made 
the two following sets of observations. 

a=393.575, b=358.760, t= —3.22 
a’ =391.746, 6” =355.043, t’”=+ 16.73. 

Here, as throughout this paper, unless the contrary is express- 
ed, the unit in length is a millimetre, and the degrees are those of 
the centigrade scale. 'The formula, however, is equally applica- 
ble to any other denominations. 'The first set is the mean of ten 
successive hourly observations, in which, during the whole time, 
the temperature was so uniform as to vary but 19.7. In this, as 
in the second series, the barometer had been suspended some 
hours before the first observation of each series was made. ‘The 
second set is the mean of seven hourly observations, during which 
time the attached thermometer varied only 0.6 of a degree. To 
remove what may seem a fallacious aspect of exactness from the 
number of decimal places in the readings, I would observe that 
the scale is graduated in millimetres, which are sub-divided into 
tenths by a vernier, and these, by careful reading, may be divided 
into halves or quarters, by the eye. ‘The third decimal place re- 
sults from the process of taking means, and depends for its exact- 
ness, upon the number of observations taken. Substituting these 
observed values of (a,) (6,) (¢,) (a”’,) (b”,) (¢,) in (10,) we have 

v= -3 poe sae (a’ — b’—34.815 ;) 
PRE 1.888 Lainie 
or, after reduction, ¢’/=10.576 (a’— b/ — 35.12) (10’.) 

If, for example, the upper reading is 392.35, and the lower one 
356.63, then, according to the formula, the temperature will be 
6.35 degrees. 

The temperatures calculated by this formula for No. 366 Bun- 
ten’s barometer I found to differ very rarely so much as one de- 
gree from those indicated by the attached thermometer, and most 
frequently not half that, when the observations were made with 
suitable care in a place of comparatively uniform temperature ; 
and the more confidence I had in the correctness of the observa- 
tions, the closer the agreement seemed to be. 

This formula, like all others relating to the barometer, supposes 
an exact instrument. It is desirable therefore to have the means 
of testing its accuracy of construction, and, if faulty, of applying 
a suitable correction. 


Temperature of Mercury ina Siphon Barometer. 257 


The imperfections of a barometer may chiefly be classed under 
the following heads. 

1. Anerroneous scale. 

2. An imperfect vacuum. 

3. Variableness of the friction of the mercury on the interior 
surface of the tube. 

4. The want of equality and uniformity of those parts of the 
two branches within the range of the mercurial surfaces. 

The first of these must evidently occasion uncertain results in 
the calculated temperature, as well asin every other object of re- 
search, and the above formula furnishes no means of detecting or 
appreciating the error of the scale. An imperfect vacuum, al- 
though it influences the length of the column, and on ¢his account 
injures the instrument, has no effect upon the calculated tempera- 
ture. For, in this respect, it is evidently immaterial whether the 
inferior surface falls, and the superior one rises by atmospheric 
pressure alone, or whether it is modified by the elasticity of the 
enclosed air. 

The third imperfection, although little attention has been be- 
stowed upon it hitherto, is one to which barometers of all con- 
structions are exposed, and is probably among the most difficult to 
rectify. The effects of this are to sustain the column ata height 
different from that due to the atmospheric pressure, and also to 
change the forms of its convex terminations. Both these circum- 
stances occasion error as it respects the height of the column, while 
the latter, or change of form only, can affect the correctness of the 
calculated temperature. 

The altitudes of the segments which terminate the column are 
found to vary more or less at different times in the same barome- 
ter. In some, the variation is quite inconsiderable, if necessary 
care is taken in observing; while in others, one or both the ter- 
minal surfaces may assume all forms from a plane to an apparent 
hemisphere. When the atmospheric pressure is increasing, the 
inferior meniscus tends to become less convex, and the superior 
one more so. For, as the column lengthens, and the mercury 
consequently descends in the shorter branch of the siphon, the 
cylindric surface of mercury which is in immediate contact with 
the glass tube is retarded by its friction against the glass, and re- 
tards in its turn, though in a less degree, the next concentric sur- 
face of mercury; and this the succeeding one, and so on; the 
central filament being least retarded of all. This would cause 


258 Temperature of Mercury in a Siphon Barometer. 


the inferior meniscus to become less convex when the column is 
lengthening, and more convex when it is contracting. In like 
manner, the superior meniscus would have its convexity increas- 
ing while that of the inferior one is diminishing, and vice versa. 
This tendency, which in good barometers, I apprehend is small, 
may be chiefly, and perhaps sufficiently counteracted by causing 
the barometer to vibrate once or twice far enough to produce an 
oscillation of the column in respect to the axis of the tube, and 
then, after having firmly secured the instrument in a perpendicular 
position, by giving it a few gentle taps with the fingers. These 
irregularities are greatly increased in some barometers by the va- 
riable adhesiveness of the mercury to the sides of the tubes, at dif- 
ferent sections of them, arising partly perhaps from the impurity 
of the mercury, but more probably from imperfections of the in- 
terior surfaces of the tubes. If these latter imperfections exist to 
any considerable extent, which may be ascertained by measuring 
the altitudes of the terminal convex segments of the column, the 
barometer is unfit for delicate purposes; not merely because the 
temperature is thereby rendered uncertain, but more particularly 
from their influence upon the height of the column. When the 
altitudes of these terminal segments are not so variable as to prove 
fatal to the instrument, it is desirable to apply a suitable correc- 
tion to the formula for temperature. 
For this purpose let PQR repre- Pig. 2. 

sent the tube of a siphon barometer ; 
EAF, eaf the forms of the terminal 
segments of the column, when the 
upper and lower readings are respec- 
tively (a,) (6;) HBI, hdc the forms 
and positions of these segments, 
when the readingsare (a’,) (6’). If the 
two meniscuses of the longer branch 
are similar, and also the two men- 
iscuses of the shorter one, it is evi- 
dent that (a’) and (6’) would require 
no correction ; since the correction 
for (a’,) for example, is obviously 
AB, the height to which the vertex 
B of the meniscus HBI must rise if 
this meniscus should assume the 
form of that of EAF’, without dis- 


Temperature of Mercuryin a Siphon Barometer. 259 


placing the body of the column below it. Suppose then the parts 
of the column in the vicinity of the circle HI to have such a hor- 
izontal tendency towards the axis of the tube, without disturbing 
the column below, as to cause the meniscus HBI to take the form 
of EAF. We shall then have this equation: 

Meniscus HAF =meniscus HBI-+ cylinder HEFL (11.) 

Put height AD of meniscus EAF=H. 

Height BC of meniscus HB[=H’. 

Radius of tube ED=r. 

Correction AB=z. 

Height of cylinder CD=y. 

Circumference of a circle whose diameter is unity =z. 

And let the capacity of any meniscus HAF be represented by (zr? ) 
multiplied by a function F (H1) of its height. Equation (11) 
therefore becomes mp?, F(H)=2r?. F(A’) +2r2y. 

From the figure we have H=H’+y-+2. 

Dividing the first of these equations by (7r?,) and eliminating (y,) 
we have «=H —H’+F(H’) -F(H.) (12.) 

It remains only to determine F' (H,) F (H’,) which depend 
upon the form of the meniscus. 

If the tube is small, the meniscus differs insensibly from the 
segment ofa sphere, (Mécanique Céleste, 9334.) And generally, 
since the meniscus in barometer tubes is a small portion of the 
solid of revolution of which it is a segment, every practical pur- 
pose would be answered by considering it a common paraboloid. 
This being so, we have F(H)=3H, and F(H’)=3H’; and con- 


H—H’ 
sequently (12) becomes z=- 5) ,(13.) Wherefore (a’) is cor- 


H —H’ 
rected to a’+-—p —,, (14.) 


In like manner, denoting the corresponding heights of the me- 

niscuses in the lower branch by (h,) (h’,) we shall find (6’) to be- 
h—h/ 

come b’ > (15;) and consequently (a’—b’) becomes, after 


H+h H’+h’ 

. : — (16.) Hence, to find the cor- 
rection for the tae of readings (a/—b’,) we subtract the 
half sum of the heights of the meniscuses which terminate this 
column from the half sum of the heights of the meniscuses which 
terminate the column of which the readings are (a,) (6.) 


correction, a’ — b’-+- 


260 Temperature of Mercury in a Siphon Barometer. 


It is evident from (16) that no error will be introduced, and 
consequently no correction will be needed, even if the forms of the 
meniscuses do vary, provided the sums of their altitudes for each 
column are constant; that is, provided the height of the upper 
meniscus increases as that of the lower one diminishes, and vice 
versa. ‘This indeed is the tendency in good tubes properly filled, 
and furnishes a convenient and useful test. 

Example. I took two observations with No. 365 Bunten’s ba- 
rometer, in which the altitudes of the meniscuses were particu- 
larly subject to variation. 'The elements of the first observation 
were 

a=A07.75, 6=363.11, H=1.68, h=1.75 ; and of the second 
a’ = 400.11, 6’=360.09, H’=0.90, h’=1.60. 

According to (16) therefore, the corrected difference of readings 
is 40.49; while the observed difference is 40.02. 

We have hitherto supposed the tubes, within the ranges of the 
mercurial surfaces, to be of equal and constant diameters. It is 
desirable to test the accuracy of the instrument in this respect, 
and, if necessary, to apply the suitable correction for temperature. 
A correction also for capillarity is equally important, and may be 
directly applied by knowing the diameter of the tube at the ex- 
tremity of the column. 

We will suppose the tubes within the ranges of the mercurial 
surfaces to be frustums of cones; and, besides the notation and 
figure employed in determining (9,) 

Put R=radius of the tube at D, 
r=radius of the tube at d, 
é=angle which the axis of the tube makes with its side at D, 
6/=angle which the axis of the tube makes with its side at d; 
and suppose the cylinders, whose altitudes are (p,) (p’,) to rest on 
bases at D, d, respectively equal to the horizontal sections of the 
barometric tube at these points. 

Regarding the tubes DD’, dd’, from the necessary smallness of 
their heights, as cylinders, we have 

Capacity of the tube DD’/=zeR?p(t/ —7,) (17.) 

Capacity of the tube dd’=7er?p/(t/—1,) (18.) 

Radius at D/=R-+(a, —a@) sin. 4. 

Radius at d’”=r+(b,—)) sin. . 


Frustum DD’ =3 (a,—a) [R?+[R+(a,—a) sin. 6]? -+R[R+ 
(a,—a) sin. 4]*,] (19.) 


Temperature of Mercury in a Siphon Barometer. 261 


Frustum dd’=5 (b,—b) [r?-+[r+(b, 5) sin. 0]? -4rfr-+ 


(b,— 5) sin. 6]?] (20.) 
It is evident, whatever may be the forms of the tubes, that 
capacity of D’D”=capacity of d’d” (21.) 
But, from the figure cap. D/D”=cap. DD” —cap. DD’ 
cap. d/d’’=cap. dd’’-+-cap. dd’. 

Equating the second members according to (21,) and transpos- 

ing, we have 
cap. DD” —cap. dd” =cap. DD’+cap. dd’ ; 
or, denoting the sum of the second members of (17) and (18) by 

(I,) (22) 
the second member of (19) by (K,) (23) 
and the second member of (20) by (L,) (24) 
we have K —L=I (25.) 

In like manner, if the observations (a,, 0,,, t,,,) (@3, 05; 3) 
(a,, 6,, t,,) be compared respectively as above with (a, 6, ¢,) we 
shall have K’—L/=V, K”—L”=I", K’””—L/”=1’”;, (26) the 
terms of these equations being functions similar to those of (25.) 

The four equations (25) and (26,) after correcting the readings, 


2 
are sufficient to determine the unknown quantities Aah 6, & and 


Re : 
( 73 ptr’) which these equations contain. 


From the minuteness of the angles (4,) (#,) we may use (4,) 
(6) in the places of sin. 4, sin. 6’; and neglect the terms which 
contain the second powers of these angles. 'This will materially 
abridge labor without impairing the practical accuracy. 

As our limits will not permit us to discuss the general question, 
we will select that particular case only in which the two branch- 
es are cylinders of unequal diameters; and which is the most 
important, if not the only one that needs to be regarded in the use 
of the barometer. 

Here 6=0, ”=0 
K=R?(a,—a) according to (23) 
L=7r?(b,—b) oe (24) 
[=7e(R2p+r2p’) “ (22) 
Substituting these in (25,) and dividing by (7r?,) we have 


R? Ré / / 
p2 (4,—4@) —(b,—b)=8\_ pt+p’} (t/t) (27.) 
Vol. xu, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 34 


262 Temperature of Mercury in a Siphon Barometer. 


In like manner, if we compare the elements (a,, 6,, t,,) 
(A) By tn) With (a, 6, t,) successively, we shall have 


R2 R2 
ra (4 —a) —(b,,—6)=8 (ep +p’) (¢’ —#,) (28) 


R2 R2 
Ee an) — On 0) =e a5 pte’) Ca) (29) 


R2 
Eliminating (5 ‘ from the last three equations, we shall 


have 
Re 
Beye (Ca) Nel ara) i —¢ 
Ra) 8 a oe 
ra (2),—@) ie (6,, ay b) 
R23 
=a (ty, — @) —(b,,— 8) Pe 
iP t” —t , (BL. ) 


D2 a as 


pe (Qi an a) a (b,,, Py, b) 


} R? 
Solving (31) for (=) we have 


2 


R? Cy) Wis Oe (0” —t) Ohi a 
eo Ce a Cat ©) 

The readings in (30) and (32) are those of the supposed inex- 
pansible scale. ‘To change these equations into terms of the 
readings taken from the brass scale, after being corrected for the 
height of the meniscuses, we have 
from (3’) a, =a’ +2(t’ —t)(a@’ 4+f)) 

a, =—q"’ +e’ (oe —t) (a”’ +f) 
a, al! Lel(t” —t) ie ‘+f) (33) 
and from (3/’) ‘ =b! +2é(t/ —t) (Wo — 
ik — h// Lel(t/ aS t) (b” —f) 
bb Let — t) (6 —f) 
Substituting in (32,) and reducing, we have 


t/ — 
= b+e/(t/’—t) (b/ — b’”’) Se 


- b) 
r? ut (yl uW MI Gar wt 
al’ —a+e(t’ —t) (a’—a )—pra leo —a) 
Neglecting the third terms in the numerator and denominator, 
as they are nearly equal and very small, we have 


Temperature of Mercury in a Siphon Barometer. 263 


ps 
b” er, [ex “(bl — b) 
2 omy, 
Kt = —— (35) 


CaS rae Cae as a) 
whichis the same as (32). 

In like manner, substituting in (31,) and resolving for (¢ —t), 
we have 


(t” —t) [a’—a— 7 (8! —b)] 


ie (36. ) 


72 
a! —a—p, (0 — b)+ (¢” —t)e/[a” —a/ - R2(o” - b/)| 


Neglecting the fourth term in the pene from its minute- 
ness, we have 


Hea 


ti’ —¢t 


aaa. [a a —a(0/ —b)]. (37) 
ies R2 (64-— b) 

In these last four equations (a’,) (a’’,) (b’,)(6”,) are the read- 
ings after being corrected, if necessary, for the heights of the 
meniscuses. These formule are sufficient for determining the re- 
lative diameters of the two branches of the siphon, and the mean 
temperature throughout the mercurial column. 

An example will serve to illustrate the process. 

To test No. 366 Bunten’s mountain barometer, and to deduce 
the formula for the temperature of the mercurial column, I made 
the following observations. 


Upper read- | Lower read- Heights of up- Heights of low- Ternpenatare 
mene ing. per meniscuses.| er meniscuses. ee 


“Lia =400.716 =365.04 SSeS) Ui As A620 
2 ja’: =a’ bab! H’ =H’ ie 

3 ja” =394.64b” —356.50) H” =1.80 | h” =1.69 |¢” =31.32 
Aa 389 G06 352 AS) He ei hl 6A a2 AD 


The second observation is any one of which the temperature 
is demanded. 'The remaining three were taken agreeably to the 
suggestions under (10.) And it is farther important in this case, 
that at least two of the upper readings should differ considerably 
from each other in value; which may be effected by observing 
at the base, and on the summit of a hill, or under different at- 
mospheric pressures at the same place. In this example, how- 
ever, owing to the accidental loss of the barometer, the difference 
between any two upper readings, is not so great as it ought to be. 


264 Temperature of Mercury in a Siphon Barometer. 
By (14) and (15) 


} 1.73 —H’. : 1.48 — h’ 
a’ is corrected to Oa aon me > 6’ is corrected to b’ — Oe 
al 2 394.60 ; bp! és 356.60. 
ql! a 389.58 ; OH be 352.51. 


The left readings are those found in the formula, which are 
supposed to have been corrected for the heights of the menis- 
cuses. The readings found in their equivalents, are those taken 
from the brass scale. Substituting the observed temperature and 

2 
corrected readings in (35,) we have 7a = 1.0013 ; so that the di- 
ameter of the longer branch being denoted by unity, that of the 
shorter branch would be 1.0006. 

For the temperature, we have, after the necessary substitutions 
and reductions 

H’+h/ 


t= 10,74(a! — 1.0018 b/ - 3 — - 33.02). (38.) 


In which (a’,) (8’,) are the observed readings, and H’, h’, the 
height of the meniscuses. 

This formula is easy of application, although it provides for 
imperfections in the instrument, which are not necessary to it, 
and which may in a great measure, or perhaps entirely, be avoid- 
ed by ingenuity and care in the construction. 

Remarks.—If the tubes of the two branches are cylinders of 
equal diameters, and their interior surfaces are free from tarnish, 
or any foreign substance, such as dust, humidity, &c., and are 
filled with pure mercury, according to the well known rules for 
this process, the heights of the meniscuses, I am confident, would 
not vary in such a manner as to require a correction in the for- 
mula for temperature. If barometers were thus constructed, with 
that care which all exact instruments demand, the temperature 
could be derived from a formula like (10’) in but little more time 
than would be requisite to read it accurately from a thermometer, 
and record it ; and what is still more important, the height of the 
column would not be subject to those errors which a construc- 
tion faulty in these respects must occasion. 

The means above set forth for determining the mean tempera- 
ture of the mercury, throughout the whole extent of the column, 
and for detecting and correcting the defects of the instrument, 
are peculiar to siphon barometers, and give this form a decided 
advantage over all others. 


Temperature of Mercury in a Siphon Barometer. 265 


These formulas may be used, not only to determine the tem- 
perature of the mercury, but, supposing this to have been ascer- 
tained by any other means, to verify the correctness of the ob- 
servations ; as for example, the correctness of the readings and 
temperature (a’,) (b’,) (¢’,) would be verified by their satisfying 
equation (38. ) 

If, in any case, doubt should be entertained as to the parabolic 
form of the meniscus which in (12,) makes F(H)=4H, we can 
put F(H)=BH ; B being an indeterminate co-efficient. ‘Then as 
from (12) to (16,) a’—0’ would be changed to a’—b’+B(H+A 
— H’—h’); and from equation (10) we should have 

a! —b’ —(a—b)+B(H +A —H’—h’)=(A - A’) (t/—2,) 
a’ —b" —(a—b)+B(H+h—H,—h,) =(A—- A’) (¢#’—7); H, 
and h, being the altitudes of the meniscuses for a”, b”. 

These two equations give the numerical value of B—. 'T'o de- 
termine the form of the meniscus from this value of B, we have, 
regarding its vertex as the origin of coordinates, fry?dz=7By?x. 

i 1-Bdzx dy 
Differentiating, &c. 12Bii a man Integrating and returning to 


numbers, we have 
2B 


cu=y”; in which (C) is the correction. This isa parab- 


eR in-. Me 
ola, if 1B 's positive, which becomes the common one, when 


2B 
B=}. If; p's negative, it is an hyperbola; which is the 


common one, if B=—1. But the hyperbolic form, it is evident, 
cannot subsist in a mercurial barometer. Various consequences 
from the above formule, and remarks relating to the construc- 
tion of the barometer, and the necessary precautions to be taken 
in observing, my limits compel me to omit. 


266 Mollusca of Middlebury, Vt. and Vicinity. 


Arr. IV.—Catalogue of the Mollusca of Middlebury, Vt., and 
vicinity, with observations ; by C. B. Apams, Prof. Chem. and 
Nat. Hist. Middlebury College, Memb. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 


Tue utility of catalogues of species, which inhabit distant 
parts of this country, as materials for ascertaining their geograph- 
ical distribution, need not be urged. Even a single local cata- 
logue cannot but be of interest and utility. It is obviously im- 
portant that the stations and the abundance or scarcity of the 
several species should be designated. Such catalogues should 
also be drawn up by those whose residence in the region enables 
them to make numerous observations at all seasons, to detect the 
rare species and those which appear only for a very limited time 
during the year. 

In obtaining materials for the following catalogue, my acknowl- 
edgments are due to Prof. George W. Benedict, of Burlington ; 
also to Messrs. K. Prescott, Luther H. Sheldon, and M. W. John- 
son, who have been my assistants in the department of Natural 
History, and who have detected some of the rare species, which 
might otherwise have escaped search. That other species may 
yet be found is by no means improbable, for a species, whose 
habitat should be as circumscribed as that of Vitrina pellucida, 
Drap., (see following remarks, ) appears to be in this vicinity, may 
elude the researches of many years. But after the careful search, 
which has been made in various places and in every station, es- 
pecially by my assistants, it cannot be expected that any important 
additions will be made. 


Menanta. 


M. depygis, Say. It is remarkable that no species of the fam- 
ily Melaniana occur in the New England States, with this single 
exception, although some are abundant in New York. ‘This spe- 
cies occurs here only in Lake Champlain, where it was first found 
by my friend Prof. George W. Benedict, in Burlington. It is 
very rare. I have found several imperfect specimens, and but 
one with the animal, at Shoreham. 


PaLupDINa. 


P. decisa, Say. , This species, so common in the streams and 
ponds of New England, occurs plentifully in Otter Creek, but 


Mollusca of Middlebury, Vt. and Vicinity. 267 


rarely in Lake Champlain. Deshayes could not have suggested, 
as he has, (2d edit. Lam. An. sans Vert. in loc.) that this is the 
young of P. ponderosa, Say, had he seen suites of young and 
old in both species. ‘This species is more nearly related to P. in- 
tegra, Say, from which it is well distinguished by Haldeman, 
(Monog. Limniad. No. 1.) 

P. lustrica, Say. This species is very abundant in Lake 
Champlain and in the streams. Its color varies from brown to 
green in different localities. 


VALVATA. 


V. tricarinata, Say. Abundant in Lake Champlain, of a grass 
green color. 

V. sincera, Say. - This species occurs plentifully in Putts’s 
swamp, on the New York side of Lake Champlain, opposite Brid- 
port. It isso rare, that a description of the animal may not be 
without interest. 

Foot whitish, swelling and regularly rounded posteriorly, with 
the anterior lobes sharply angular, somewhat contracted in the 
middle, less than .3 in. long; head anteriorly obtuse and bilobed, 
—lobes regularly rounded,—whitish, with a tinge of slate color 
on the top, deepening posteriorly ; mouth pale-yellowish ; tenta- 
cles filiform, whitish, more than .2 in. long ; eyes minute, black, 
shining, situated on the upper and outer part of the posterior side 
of the protuberance at the base of the tentacles; branchial cavity 
blackish brown on the margin; plumose branchia consisting of a 
stem, on each side of which extend, at right angles to it, about 
ten filiform obtuse branches, bent in zigzag, shorter near the top, 
the whole appearing like a feather ; tentaculiform branchia rather 
longer than the tentacles, equally slender and obtuse. 


Limnza. 


L. megasoma, Say. This large and rare species I have seen 
only at Burlington. 

L. appressa, Say. This species has been found only in or 
near Lake Champlain. At Burlington itiscommon. Sometimes 
it is nearly as much shouldered on the body whorl as the L. stag- 
nalis of Europe, from which it differs very slightly. 

L. gracilis, Jay. 'This very remarkable species occurs in Lake 
Champlain. About half a dozen specimens were discovered near 
Burlington, and have been distributed by Prof. Benedict. A sin- 
gle specimen, large and perfect, but without the animal, I found 


268 Mollusca of Middlebury, Vt. and Vicinity. 


in Addison. The most striking character of this species is its 
elongation with a very few whorls. The specimen in my cabi- 
net is one inch in length, and in the convexity of the penult 
whorl only .15 in. diameter. The last whorl is scarcely broader, 
except across the lips, both of which are expanded. Although 
nearly seven times longer than its average breadth, it has only 43 
whorls! 

L. pallida, nob. This species has been found only at Shore- 
ham. Since it was described, I have found three living speci- 
mens, of a dingy white! 

LL. elodes, Say. 'This species is not very common. - 

L. umbrosa, (?) Say. A Limnea is very abundant in many 
parts of the New England States, which corresponds very nearly to 
Say’s umbrosa. Some specimens, however, have a more promi- 
nent columellar fold than is ascribed to that species, and Dr. 
Gould (Mss.) has proposed for it the name ZL. plebeia. The 
prominence of this fold is subject to variation, and is not sufli- 
ciently marked to constitute alone a good specific character. 

L. desidiosa, Say. This species is very common, and is sub- 
ject to great variation of form, sometimes being elongated and 
scarcely to be distinguished from ZL. elodes. Other specimens are 
short, as in Say’s fig. (Am. Conch.) and the upper part of the last 
whorl is much inflated and more or less shouldered, while the 
lower part is produced. 'This variety approaches L. wmbilicata, 
nob., which, however, has the umbilicus larger, and the lower 
part of the last whorl abbreviated, much inflated, and globular, 
so that the whole shell has the form of a cone with a hemis- 
pherical base. 

L. caperata, Say. Although common in this vicinity, this 
species has not been found elsewhere in the eastern states. 


Puysa. 

P. ancillaria, Say. ‘This rare species occurs in Lake Cham- 
plain, and in some ponds in Sudbury. In the lake it is remarka- 
ble for being sometimes of a deep bay color. The young are 
not easily distinguished from the next species, although mature 


specimens differ widely. 
P. heterostropha, Say. This species is common here as in 


many other parts of New England. 

P. gyrina? Say. Of this species a very few specimens only 
have been found. Although I have not seen authenticated spe- 
cimens, nor any figure, of Say’s species, they correspond so well 


Mollusca of Middlebury, Vt. and Vicinity. 269 


with his description, that I have not much hesitation in referring 
them to it. 

P. elongata, Say. This species is rather common here. It is 
rarely: seen in Mass., but has been found in New Bedford by my 
friend C. F. Shiverick, Esq. 

The above four species of Physa differ chiefly in the propor- 
tions of the spire and aperture, and of the length and breadth, the 
gradation in these two particulars being parallel, as appears in the 
following table. The ratio is, of course, subject to some va- 
riation, even in mature specimens, which alone should be com- 
pared. 


Length. Breadth. Ratio. Length of spire. of aperture. Ratio. 


P. ancillaria, 65 ins: AS im —1.35. 2 ins: 155: 1n.—. 18. 
P. heterostropha, .75in.: .45 in.=1.67. .25in.: .5  in.=.5. 


P. gyrina? Oo Wenis2o W225) Bo 1g: coe lie 
P. elongata, 98 in. ; .25 in. =2.32. .28in. : .30 in.=.93. 
PLANORBIS. 


P. lentus, Say, and P. corpulentus, Say. These are undoubt- 
edly varieties of the same species, the former being merely a 
stunted growth of the latter. Very large and beautiful speci- 
mens were found plentifully below the falls of Otter Creek, in 
this village, during the spring of 1839, but last year not one 
could be found. Some were 1.15 in. in their greatest breadth, 
and .55 in. in the height of the aperture. This species is com- 
mon in Lake Champlain. 

P. campanulatus, Say. I have found this species only in the 
Lemonfare river, where it was abundant. 

P. bicarinatus, Say. Common. 

P. armigerus, Say. Common in swamps. In the dry season 
it takes refuge among the moist and decaying leaves. 

P. exacuous, [eracutus?| Say. This species is the most de- 
pressed and fragile of all our Planorbes. A specimen .24 in. in 
diameter is only .05 in. in height, and weighs only .05 of a grain. 
It is found clinging to wood, in still water, on the margins of 
Lakes George and Champlain, but is not plenty. My friend, J. 
W. Mighels, M. D., of Portland, has found it rather plentifully in 
the interior of Maine. In the eastern part of Massachusetts it- 
has been found in several places. 

P. parvus, Say. 'This species is common. One specimen in 
my cabinet is } in. in diameter. 

Vol. xi, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1841. 35 


270 Mollusca of Middlebury, Vt. and Vicinity. 


P. elevatus, nob. 'This species does not differ much from 
some varieties of the preceding, and perhaps may not prove enti- 
tled to rank as a species. All the specimens which I have seen, 
however, present that constancy of difference which is most im- 
portant in distinguishing species. One or two specimens have 
been found in a swamp at Ticonderoga, N. Y. 

P. hirsutus, Gould. This species, common in the vicinity of 
Boston, is rare in this region. It is found in company with P. 
exacutus. 

P. deflectus, Say. A very few specimens have been found, in 
company with Valvata sincera. 


SuccINEA. 


S. obliqua, Say. This species is frequently confounded, as 
perhaps it should be, with S. campestris, Say. In the Western 
States this shell is of a pale horn color, but in this vicinity it is 
of a deep shade of amber. It is common in low grounds under 
stones and wood. On the Brothers’ Islands, opposite Burlington, 
Prof. Benedict has found very large specimens, one of which in 
my cabinet is .97 in. long, and .55in. wide. ‘The animal is more 
or less thickly mottled with dark purple. In October a thin trans- 
parent epiphragm is formed. 

S. ovalis, Say. This very fragile species is found only very 
near water. In low ground, which is covered with a species of 
flag, and overflowed by Lake Champlain in the early part of 
summer, I have seen them in immense numbers on the upper 
part of the flags. WS. putris of Europe is intermediate in form 
between this and the preceding species. 

S. avara, Say. 'This species is the young of S. vermeta, Soy. 
At this age.a viscid substance attaches dirt to the shell, which 
becomes clean in a mature state. As the young was first de- 
scribed, the name of the adult must be rejected. This species is 
found in the same station with S. obliqua, and in this region is 
rather rare. 


Buuimvs. 


B. lubricus, Drap. 'This species is remarkable for its exten- 
sive geographical distribution, being dispersed over a large part of 
Europe. It is rather common in this vicinity, has been found in 
great abundance near Boston by Dr. Gould, and was seen near 
Lake Winnipeck and the Lake of the Woods by Say. With 
equal propriety the species has been referred to Achatina, but as 


Mollusca of Middlebury, Vt. and Vicinity. 271 


Deshayes remarks, (Lam. An. sans. Vert. 2nd edit.,) in common 
with some others, it establishes a passage between the two gen- 
era, and proves the uselessness of one of them. 


Popa. 


P.armifera, Say. Of this species, not before known this side 
the Alleghany Mountains, (Gould, Monog. Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist. 
Vol. III, p. 401,) I have found a very few specimens in Bridport 
on the borders of Lake Champlain, and Prof. Benedict has found 
it at Crown Point. 

P. badia, nob. 'This species was discovered in company with 
the preceding by Prof. Benedict. Dr. Gould (op. cit.) remarks 
that it is “almost precisely like” P. marginata, Drap. 'That 
species has a narrower aperture and wider umbilicus. It is quite 
possible however that a comparison of numerous specimens may 
establish their specific identity. 

P. albilabris, Ward’s letter. 'This species is well known as 
Say’s Cyclostoma marginata. The late lamented Dr. Ward, of 
Roscoe, Ohio, ascertained that it was a Pupa, and, as Say’s spe- 
cific name had been pre-occupied in this genus, proposed for it the 
name which we have given. A few specimens only in this re- 
gion have been found by Prof. Benedict. 

P. ovata—syn. Vertigo ovata, Say. 'This species has been 
mistaken by some for P. modesta, Say, but a specimen with all 
the teeth fully developed leaves no doubt in my view of the cor- 
rectness of others, who have regarded it as P. ovata. It is rare 
in this vicinity, but is more common near Boston. 

P. contracta, Say. This species is found quite plentifully. 
Mature specimens vary considerably in size. 

P. exigua, Say. This very neat little species is rather common. 

P. milium, Gould. This is the most minute shell, which has 
been described in this country. ‘Twelve mature specimens to- 
gether weighed less than .06 gr., or .005 gr. each. ‘The Delphi- 
nula serpuloides, nob., the least of the marine shells of New Eng- 
land, weighs precisely twice as much. The dimensions of Pupa 
milium are, length .06 in., breadth .03 in. The Helix pygmea, 
Drap., according to Turton, (Land and Fresh Water Shells of 
Great Britain,) is .05 in. broad, and Deshayes remarks (op. cit.) 
that it is “‘une des plus petites especes connues.” This Pupa 
therefore is probably the most minute of known shells, with the 
exception of the microscopic Cephalopods. 


272 Mollusca of Middlebury, Vt. and Vicinity. 


This species was not “ first discovered”? by Dr. Gould, as claim- 
ed by him, (op. cit.,) but was discovered in July, 1839, by Mr. 
Sheldon. I supposed, until the publication of Dr. G.’s descrip- 
tion, that it had long been known to him, and the privilege of 
describing it was tacitly yielded to his claim of discovery. 

Hetix. 
_- HZ. albolabris, Say. 'This species is every where found, but is 
most abundant in company with Succinea obliqua, Say, at the 
Brothers’ Islands, and in the same company on an island near the 
N. E. extremity of Lake George. A pink variety is rare. This 
species sometimes attains a size of 1.35 in. in its greatest diam- 
eter; but another mature specimen, from a different locality, is 
only .9 in. in its longest dimension. A specimen from Cincin- 
nati, which I received from my friend J. G. Anthony, Esq., very 
nearly approaches in size to H. major, Binney, being 1.4 in. broad. 

HZ. thyroidus, Say. Only three or four specimens of this spe- 
cies have been found in this vicinity. They had a tinge of pink. 

Hi. palliata, Say. 'This species is as rare here as the prece- 
ding. 

H. monodon, Rack. and H. fraterna, Say. These species are 
common on hill sides. In some specimens now before me the 
umbilicus is entirely covered by the reflected lip, which is char- 
acteristic of the fraterna ; but others have it scarcely encroached 
upon by the lip, and are therefore the monodon. As the very 
numerous specimens, which [ have collected, present every inter- 
mediate condition, as well as also in respect of size and elevation 
of the spire, and especially as their gradations in these particulars 
are by no means parallel, I have not been able to find two species 
among them. With such authorities, however, as Say and Bin- 
ney, for their specific difference, I cannot but distrust the cor- 
rectness of my conclusion. 

H. concava, Say. ‘This species is rare in this vicinity. 

H. pulchella, Mill. 'This species is very abundant in this 
town, so that I have taken eleven hundred specimens in one 
hour. ‘The shell is stouter than in many other parts of the coun- 
try. ‘The species is remarkable for its very extensive geographical 
distribution. It is well known asa native of Great Britain and 
of alarge part of Europe. In this country, it has been found in 
Maine by Dr. J. W. Mighels, of Portland, and was seen by Say 
as far west as Council Bluffs, on the Missouri river; from Prof. 


Mollusca of Middlebury, Vt. and Vicinity. 273 


Foreman, of Baltimore, I have received specimens collected at 
Charleston, 8.C. At many intermediate places it has been found 
by numerous observers. 

HT. Sayii, Binney. 'This species is very rare here, only one 
good specimen, and a few partially decayed, having been found. 

fT. tridentata, Say. This species is not common in this re- 
gion. Its size is less than that of specimens from the western 
states. 

H1. labyrinthica, Say. ‘This singular little species is not rare. 

H. indentata, Say. 'This species is rare. The animal is re- 
markable for being of a rather light blue color. 

fT. arborea, Say. 'This species is very common. It inhabits 
both dry and wet lands. In the former situation the shell is of a 
pale horn color ; in the latter it is of a deep brown, and the ani- 
mal is black. ‘The latter variety attains a greater size, some spe- 
cimens in my cabinet being .3 in. broad. 

HI. inornata, Say. One specimen only has been obtained 
here. With this exception, I believe this species has not been 
found in New England. 

HH. alternata, Say. 'This species is very common. At the 
Brothers’ Islands, it attains its greatest size, some specimens being 
one inch in diameter. 

7. chersina, Say. In April, 1839, this species was found in this 
town. Not long after it was found near Boston. It is not rare. 

HI. lineata, Say. 'This species is not rare. It is of a beautiful 
light green, and is remarkable for its resemblance to a Planorbis. 

7. striatella, Anth. 'This species, long confounded with H. 
perspectiva, Say, which does not occur in New England, was 
first recognized as a distinct species by J. G. Anthony, Esq. In 
this species the last whorl much exceeds the umbilicus in diame- 
ter, while in Say’s shell it is not more than equal to it. The last 
whorl in the former is also much larger. Less essential differ- 
ences are that Say’s species is larger, uusally of a darker color, 
and that it has the striz more elevated. The striatella is quite 
common here. 

H. fuliginosa, Griffith, is rare in this part of Vermont. 

H.. electrina, Gould, in Binney’s Monog. "This species was 
discovered by me in Marion Co., Mo., in Nov. 1837. In August, 
following, Col. A. Bourne, of Chillicothe, Ohio, forwarded to me 
specimens from that place. Subsequently I have found it in this 
town and at Rogers’s Rock, Lake George, and Dr. Gould has 


274 Mollusca of Middlebury, Vt. and Vicinity. 


found it near Boston. {t is not rare here, and is associated with 
H.. arborea, under logs, &c., both in moist and in dry lands. Dr. 
Gould has found it only near the water’s edge. 

This species is remarkable for its close resemblance above to 
H. indentata, Say, and beneath to H. arborea, Say. ‘This re- 
semblance is so striking, that a view of either side alone would 
lead any one to place it with one or the other of these species. 
A comparison of both sides easily distinguishes it.* 

HI. multidentata, Binney. 'This beautiful little species was 
discovered by Dr. Binney several years since, in Strafford, Vt. 
Subsequently it has been found in this town very sparingly. It 
is remarkable for the roseate color of the animal, seen through 
the semi-transparent shell, and for the teeth. These are placed 
in rows, far within the aperture, on its outer and lower half. 
The rows are curved, with the convexity towards the aperture, 
and contain four to six closely approximate teeth, appearing 
through the shell like glass beads. ‘The number of rows varies 
from two to four, of which never more than one is visible from 
the aperture. 

HI. minuscula, Binney. This species, recently discovered in 
Ohio, has also been found in this town. Under a log, in wet 
land, I found a large number, but have not found many else- 
where. It exactly resembles H. pulchella, Miill., in size and 
color, but that species is easily distinguished by its reflected lip, 
enlargement of the last whorl, and small umbilicus. 


ViITRINA. 


V. pellucida, Drap. ‘This species was observed first on this 
continent by Say, who remarks that it “ was first found near 
Coldwater lake, in lat. 482° N., under stones, fallen timber, &c. 
It afterwards occurred, in similar situations, until we approached 
Lake Superior, when it was no more seen. No species of this 
genus has been hitherto found in this country; this shell is there- 
fore the more interesting. 'The specimens which we collected 
do not appear to differ in any respect from those of Europe.”+ I 


* A description of this species, under the name of H. Janus, had been prepared 
for this article, when I received, through the kindness of Dr. Binney, the remain- 
der of his excellent monograph, printed in anticipation of the next No. of the Bost. 
Jour. Nat. Hist., in which, not aware that any one had discovered it prior to Dr. 
Gould, he has quoted from Dr. G.’s MSS. The two following species are descri- 
bed by Dr. B. in the same paper. 

t App. Long’s Exped. to Source of St. Pet. River. 


Mollusca of Middlebury, Vi. and Vicinity. 275 


am not aware that it has since been found, until the summer of 
1839, when on an excursion to Rogers’ Rock, near the N. E. ex- 
tremity of Lake George, N. Y., I found a number of individuals 
crawling among moist leaves. On a visit to the same place, last 
autumn, avery few only were found. ‘These specimens were 
obtained in a niche in the rock, accessible only by water, within 
the space of less than a square rod. A careful search in the 
neighborhood enabled me to detect only one dead specimen, at 
a distance of ten rods from the little colony. 

Although I have not seen specimens of the European shell, I 
do not doubt that this is the same species, which is figured and 
described by numerous authors. It differs only in being entirely 
destitute of the tinge of green, which is mentioned by some of 
them. It is perfectly hyaline, and for elegance of contour and 
delicacy of aspect, cannot be surpassed. 


ANCYLUS. 


A. parallelus, Hald., Mss. 'This species has been supposed 
to be Say’s A. rivularis, with the brief description of which it 
agrees very well. But my friend 8S. 8. Haldeman, Esq. informs 
me that it is distinct. It is rather common in Otter Creek, and 
in a pond in the east part of Brandon. 

A. tardus, Say. Found rather plentifully in a brook in the 
east part of this town. Mr. Prescott has also found it in the 
southern part of this State. 


T'wo species of naked Mollusca, of the family Pulmonea ter- 
restria, Cuv., are found in this region, which have a dense shield- 
like mantle, covering the whole back, the branchial orifice on the 
right side near the head, and the anus at the posterior extremity. 
As the latter orifice does not communicate with the branchial 
cavity, which is immediately behind the head, these species can- 
not belong to the genus Vacinutus, Fer., to which I had at first 
referred them on account of the extent of the shield-like mantle. 
Not having the means here of ascertaining whether any genus has 
been described for their reception, I am obliged to leave them. 
One species is (after being preserved in spirit) 12 inches long and 
4 inch in diameter. 'The mantle is thickly mottled with a gray- 
ish black, and the spots on the back are sometimes confluent. 
The other species (also in spirit) is about 4 inch long and 4 inch 
in diameter, and is of a nearly uniform blackish gray color. This 


276 Mollusca of Middlebury, Vt. and Vicinity. 


Species is quite common. A species of Limax also occurs of the 
same size. 
ANODONTA. 


A. Benedictensis, Lea. This species occurs only in Lake 
Champlain, where it is abundant. 

A. cataracta, Say. At Wallingford, Vt.,a very few specimens 
have been obtained. 

Two other species of Anodonta occur, which I have not been 
able to identify with any species known to me. One of them re- 
sembles A. Wardiana, Lea. 


ALASMODONTA. 


A. arcuata, Barnes. 'That this species is quite distinct from 
the margaritifera of Europe, I have had an opportunity of seeing 
from a specimen of the latter in the cabinet of Dr. Gould. 
Barnes’s species occurs in Onion river, at Burlington. 

A. rugosa, Barnes. 'This species occurs in Otter Creek and 
Lake Champlain, but is not common. 

A. undulata, Say. 'This species occurs in Otter Creek. 


Unto. 


U. alatus, Say. Abundant in Lake Champlain. 

U. gracilis, Barnes. Common in Lake Champlain. 

U. compressus, Lea. 'This species occurs, well characterized, 
in a rivulet a few miles west of this village. In the east part of 
this town are specimens which differ so much from the common 
type as perhaps to constitute a new species. 

U. rectus, Lam. 'This species occurs rarely in Lake Cham- 
plain. 

U. ventricosus, Barnes. "This species is rather common in 
Lake Champlain. It is subject to great variations of form. 

U. luteolus, Lam. 'This species is very abundant in Lake 
Champlain. Its variations in form, although less than in the pre- 
ceding, are considerable. In both, however, the most marked 
are those of sex. 

U. complanatus, Lea. Very abundant in Lake Champlain and 
elsewhere, but I have not seen one with a white nacre. Rayed 
specimens are sometimes seen. 

I have found in Lake Champlain a single specimen of another 
species, which is unknown to me. 


Mollusca of Middlebury, Vt. and Vicinity. 277 


Cycuas. 


C. elegans, nob. Rather common in a swamp five miles north 
of this village. One specimen occurred at Burlington. 

C. rhomboida, Say. Very abundant in Lake Champlain. This 
is the only species which I have seen in the open waters of the lake. 

C. partumeia, Say. Common in swamps. 

C. calyculata, Drap. In company with Valvata sincera, this 
species was found quite plenty. It has also been found in this 
town very numerous in a cavity one yard in diameter in a swamp, 
and it is remarkable that not one could be found elsewhere. Dr. 
Mighels has found it occurring plentifully in Maine. That the 
same species of Cyclas should occur so abundantly in this coun- 
try and in Europe, may seem incredible. But the coincidence 
is so exact, that were specimens from both continents mingled, 
I do not think that they could be separated. 

The descriptions of native species of this genus are so unsatis- 
factory, that I do not venture to affix names to two other species, 
of which one is the largest and the other the least of American 
species. 


General Remarks.-—Of the thirty two terrestrial species enu- 
merated above, three certainly, and possibly four, are also widely 
distributed in Europe; while of the forty five aquatic species, 
identity with those of Europe appears only in a single instance. 

Lake Champlain appears to be the most eastern limit on this 
continent of the entire family of Melaniana, and is also on the 
boundary between two provinces of the Naiades. Unio alatuts, 
U. gracilis, U. rectus, U. ventricosus, and U. luteolus, which are 
common through the western states, occur in its waters, and with 
the exception of U. rectus, plentifully, but are not found any far- 
ther eastward. U.compressus, and Alasmodonta rugosa, western 
species, also occur in its vicinity, but have not been found east of 
the Green Mountains. U. complanatus, an eastern species, com- 
mon as far at least as Eastport, Maine,* occurs abundantly in Lake 
Champlain. The family of Limneana do not observe this boun- 


dary. 


* Whence I have specimens, through the kindness of J. Ray, M.D. of that place. 

t OF most of the species enumerated in this article, I have duplicates, and also 
of upwards of 100 marine species of the shells of Maine and Massachusetts, which 
I shall be happy to exchange for native or foreign shells. 


Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 36 


278 Means of detecting Arsenic in the Animal Body, &c. 


Art. V.—On the Means of detecting Arsenic in the Animal 
Body, and of counteracting its Effects ; by J. Lawrence Smiru, 
M. D., of Charleston, 8. C. 


Messrs. Editors—This, I hope, will receive a place upon the 
pages of your Journal, if it be only for the importance of the sub- 
ject of which it treats, although it is not improbable, in stating 
what Iam about to do concerning the more recent experiments 
upon arsenious acid, that your readers will be able to find some- 
thing which may be of importance to them in future investiga- 
tions upon this substance. But two months have elapsed since 
the whole of France was agitated by one of the most interesting 
criminal processes upon record—it was a case of poisoning by 
arsenic ; and the contradiction of the results of the medico-legal 
examinations, created an excitement which the decision of the 
jury augmented. ‘Three chemical examinations were made upon 
different portions of the body, and at different times, to ascertain 
whether arsenic had been administered to the individual during 
life. "The materials for the first were furnished immediately after 
death, and consisted of the fluid found in the stomach, the stom- 
ach itself, and a portion of the intestines ; but the first was lost 
by an accident which happened to it while being experimented. 
upon, so that the stomach and intestines alone remained. 'The 
second and third were made upon portions of the body exhumed 
after eight months’ burial; they were the liver, heart, brain, and 
inner muscles of the thigh. 'The first and second examinations 
were made by several expert chemists of Tulle, without detect- 
ing the poison. ‘The third M. Orfila was called upon to make, 
and he succeeded in exhibiting the metal, reduced by means of 
Marsh’s apparatus; his success was no doubt owing to the man- 
ner in which he carbonized the animal matter, which was by the 
aid of nitric acid. 

One cannot be surprised at the excitement that a thing of this 
character must have produced, and it is with much interest and 
benefit that I have followed up the chemical researches conse- 
quently arising, as well as the many interesting questions pro- 
posed for solution, and my object now is to mention the most 
important of them. Some of the questions are as follows : 


Means of ‘detecting Arsenic in the Animal Body, §c. 279 


Ist. Does the hydrated peroxide of iron contain arsenic ? 

2d. Does arsenic exist normally in the animal tissues ? 

3d. Is not Marsh’s apparatus subject to serious objections ? 

Ath. What are the best means not only of detecting but of 
ascertaining the quantity of arsenic when in combination with 
animal matter ? 

5th. What are the best means of combatting the poisonous 
effects of arsenious acid ? 

To all these questions such answers will be given as have yet 
been furnished. 

Does arsenic exist in the peroxide of iron ? 

This question originated from the fact that this substance had 
been administered in the case spoken of; and there are those who 
suppose that the arsenic detected belonged originally to the per- 
oxide of iron used as an antidote. 

It is well known that arsenic exists in a state of combination in 
many of the sulphurets of iron, from which the sulphate is ob- _ 
tained, and it is the latter that furnishes the peroxide either by 
precipitation or heat. Both forms of this oxide have been sub- 
jected to minute examination by M. Orfila, who was particularly 
interested in this question, and the following are his experiments 
with their results: 

“Ist. I boiled during four hours, in five capsules, four and 
a half ounces of hydrated peroxide of iron, taken from different 
apothecaries, with four ounces of distilled water, and by Marsh’s 
apparatus no trace of arsenic could be obtained. 

‘2d. I then added thirty grains of pure caustic potash to the 
hydrated peroxide of iron in each capsule, but no trace of arsenic 
could be obtained. 

‘3d. But on treating by an ebullition of five hours an equal 
quantity of hydrated peroxide of iron in pure sulphuric acid, the 
liquid of three capsules out of the five gave arsenical taches. 

“Ath. Four portions of four ounces each of colcothar of com- 
merce, (the anhydrous peroxide of iron formed by heating the 
sulphate,) obtained from different merchants, by ebullition for 
four hours in distilled water, did not give indications of the pres- 
ence of arsenic. . 

“5th. This substance in the same quantity by ebullition du- 
ring five hours with strong sulphuric acid, gave large arsenical 
taches with the aid of Marsh’s apparatus. 


280 Means of detecting Arsenic in the Animal Body, &c. 


“6th. Thirty grains of colcothar boiled with sulphuric acid, 
gave arsenical taches. 

“7th. Fifteen grains of the same body, treated in the same 
way, gave no indications of arsenic. 

“8th. A solution of sulphate of iron gave no arsenical taches 
with the apparatus.” 

M. Orfila next administered four ounces of colcothar to three 
dogs, tying the esophagus to prevent vomiting. One of them 
was examined thirty four hours after, the second fifty, and the 
third sixty. The liver, spleen, heart, and kidneys of these ani- 
mals, were submitted to investigation, but no trace of arsenic 
could be obtained. ‘The liquid of the stomach and intestines of 
the first dog being separated from the colcothar, gave arsenical 
taches, though its urine did not indicate the presence of this me- 
tal. The intestinal liquid of the second dog gave some taches, 
less apparent and less numerous than that of the third, but on 
the contrary its urine gave strong indications of arsenic. 

The conclusions to be arrived at from these experiments are, 
that the hydrated peroxide of iron, and the colcothar, the former 
of which is administered as an antidote for arsenious acid, con- 
tain arsenic in minute quantities, (though the former being no 
doubt as often without as with it,) but that it requires the aid of 
a strong acid to develope it, and also, that when these substances 
are administered, the arsenic that they contain is slowly absorb- 
ed, passes by the organs, and is eliminated by the urine. The 
organs never at any time retain sufficient arsenic to exhibit it 
when examined for. 

This question being answered in the affirmative, would appear 
to throw a great obstacle in the way of pronouncing with cer- 
tainty whether the arsenic found in the intestinal liquid of an 
individual supposed to have been poisoned, and to whom the hy- 
drated peroxide of iron had been administered as an antidote, was 
due to arsenious acid or to the oxide of iron. This difficulty 
would not arise except the quantity found be extremely small ; 
for the peroxide of iron, from the manner in which it is prepared, 
can contain but the smallest appreciable amount ; and, moreover, 
as it has already been remarked, it is not always that we find 
even that. The plan that the medico-jurist should adopt, ina 
case of this character, would be to examine the peroxide of iron 
that the person had taken, should there be any of it remaining, 


Means of detecting Arsenicin the Animal Body, §c. 281 


if not the sulphate of iron from which it was made. Again, he 
should lay but little stress upon the examination of the intestinal 
liquid, but direct his attention particularly to the organs. This, 
together with circumstances peculiar to each case, will explain 
away any doubt that might arise. 

It ought to be perfectly understood, that the fact of the per- 
oxide of iron containing a small quantity of arsenic, should be 
considered rather as a light to guide the chemist in his resear- 
ches, than as a stumbling-block that might cause him to fall into 
error. 

Does arsenic exist normally in the animal tissues ? 

This perhaps has been one of the most interesting questions 
ever proposed to chemists, and the investigations that it has 
given rise to, serve to show the almost perfection of their science, 
for were it supposed that the whole animal frame contained but 
one fiftieth of a grain of arsenic, the chemist would not despair 
not only of being able to detect it, but also of fixing its locality. 

As it regards the bones, it has been clearly demonstrated that 
they contain arsenic in a minute quantity, but sufficient to place 
the fact beyond the smallest doubt. 

Whether it exists in the muscles or not, is a question by no 
means settled. It is true, that with the aid of Marsh’s apparatus 
there can be obtained from muscles digested a long while in nitric 
acid, taches which are of different shades, such as brilliant white, 
brilliant yellow, and rusty color; they are volatile and not 
soluble in nitric acid. Many have supposed their composition 
to be sulphur with an infinitely small quantity of arsenic. I 
think that these taches can be more easily accounted for by sul- 
phur and phosphorus, both of which exist in the muscles, and I 
am sorry that there is neither time nor opportunity to examine 
into the truth of this supposition. Nevertheless, whether they 
contain arsenic or not, the taches obtained have but one charac- 
teristic belonging to that of arsenic, volatility. 

The next part of this question is very important; it is whether 
the organs, such as the liver, spleen, heart, &c., contain normal 
arsenic. ‘The reason of its importance is, that it is upon them 
that we should place considerable reliance, in the examination of 
the body of a person supposed to have been poisoned by arsenic. 
To this we answer, that not the smallest trace has been detected 
in any of them; and the answer is based, not upon the few ex- 


282 Means of detecting Arsenic in the Animal Body, &c. 


periments of a single individual, but drawn from numerous care- 
ful researches, made by skillful chemists. What is still more 
convincing on this point, is, that even in some few cases, where 
an animal has been poisoned by arsenic, its liver will not indi- 
cate its presence. 

To sum up the answer to this question in a few words—the 
bones do contain arsenic. No positive evidence has as yet been 
given to lead us to believe that the muscles contain the smallest 
quantity of arsenic. We have the most positive evidence that 
the organs do not contain the least trace of arsenic. 

fs not Marsh’s apparatus subject to many and serious objec- 
tions ? 

This valuable instrument I think was discussed a year or two 
since, by Dr. Mitchell, of Philadelphia, but as I have never seen 
his article on the subject, I hope, that if this should meet his eye, 
he will excuse such parts of it as may be a repetition of what he 
then stated. Most that is about to be mentioned concerning this 
apparatus, belongs to the investigation of those more intimately 
connected with the subject than myself. 

Marsh’s apparatus, modified from its original and rather com- 
plex form, consists of a four or eight ounce phial, with a perfora- 
ted cork and glass tube, bent at right angles, or straight, (the for- 
mer is considered preferable, though in both instances the ex- 
tremity must be drawn out to a capillary opening, ) and furnished 
with a porcelain plate or saucer, and the materials for generating 
hydrogen—zinc, sulphuric acid and water. ‘These three last sub- 
stances in effect constitute the instrument. ‘The first question to 
be decided is, whether any of them are subject to an impurity 
that might create an error. 

As regards the zine, that there are some instances of the zinc 
of commerce containing a small quantity of arsenic, is not to be 
denied; and that this will give rise to an impure hydrogen, 
when acted upon by pure sulphuric acid and water. But then, 
again, there is nothing more easy than to procure zine of com- 
merce which will generate hydrogen perfectly free from arsenic, 
notwithstanding there are some who say that purified zinc is not 
free from this metal ; but it is evident that they must be mistaken, 
as any one may see by making the experiment, which, as it is a 
very simple one, it would be well to perform; and I feel confi- 
dent in saying that little or no difficulty will be found in procur- 


Means of detecting Arsenic in the Animal Body, §c. 283 


ing ordinary zinc of the necessary purity to be used in Marsh’s 
apparatus. 

Sulphuric acid may contain arsenic, when manufactured with 
sulphur obtained from pyrites holding that substance in combina- 
tion ; but a simple distillation will serve to rid it of this impurity. 

After placing the zinc, sulphuric acid and water in the appa- 
ratus, replace the cork with the glass tube inserted in it, and 
when the hydrogen has been allowed to generate a sufficient 
length of time to expel the air, inflame it as it issues from the 
extremity of the tube; if a porcelain plate be now applied to 
about the middle of the flame, and no tache or spot be obtained, 
we have the best evidence of the purity of our materials. 

Another apparent objection to the apparatus, is, that the intro- 
duction of animal matter, either solid or liquid, causes the for- 
mation of a large quantity of froth, which arrests the progress 
of the operation. 'This, however, is so easily remedied, that it 
need hardly be considered an objection. If the froth be not 
in too great quantity, it will suffice to introduce a little oil, 
which will serve to arrest its formation. Another method is to 
turn the liquid out of the phial into a funnel, with the finger 
placed upon the lower extremity, the froth will at once rise to 
the surface, and by taking away the finger the liquid will pass 
out perfectly free from it. Again, if care be taken to carbonize 
the matter before using it, this obstacle will be removed. 'There 
is still another means, and I find it to succeed very well in most 
instances ; 1t is to pour the sulphuric acid destined for the for- 
mation of the hydrogen first upon the animal matter, and then 
pour the two upon the zinc and water; it would appear that a 
partial carbonization takes place. No doubt most persons. will 
now perceive that this objection possesses no weight, and vanishes 
altogether before the means proposed to encounter it. 

The next part of this question to be examined, is, what sub- 
stances besides arsenic produce taches with this apparatus, and is 
there no danger of confounding them with that of arsenic? 
They are antimony, sulphur, phosphorus and iron. — Before 
speaking of their distinguishing characteristics, it would be as 
well to say a few words concerning that produced from arsenic. 

The arsenical tache is highly metallic, of a steel color, with a 
slight reddish tinge, and borders of a dark rusty color; but to 
have a proper idea of its appearance, as well as that of the others, 


284 Means of detecting Arsenic in the Animal Body, &c. 


one should see them. It is volatile by heat, and is dissolved by 
cold nitric acid, which solution gives to the nitrate of silver a 
brick-red precipitate, the arsenate of silver. 

The antimonial tache is less metallic than the former in its ap- 
pearance, also blacker, and when very dense even smutty. It 
can be volatilized, but with great difficulty, and not before it has 
been as it were chased about the surface of the porcelain. It is 
soluble in cold nitric acid, which solution gives no red precipitate 
with nitric acid. 

The next tache to be spoken of, is the compound one, of arse- 
nic and antimony; at the same time mention will be made of 
the method adopted by M. Orfila for detecting the one or the other 
of these metals in it. It partakes, as might be expected, of the 
characters of both the metals that enter into its composition, being 
partially volatile, soluble in nitric acid, from which the brick-red 
precipitate of arsenate of silver can be obtained. M. Orfila pro- 
poses a plan of separating the constituents of this tache, and of 
testing each by itself. He proceeds as follows: having collected 
a number of the compound taches upon a porcelain plate, he dis- 
solves them in nitric acid, which solution being poured intoa 
capsule, is evaporated to dryness, and a residue remains composed 
of antimonious acid and a mixture of arsenic and arsenious acids. 
Upon this residue a little water is poured, and the capsule slightly 
heated, which enables the water to dissolve more readily the two 
last mentioned acids. The antimonious acid being allowed to 
settle, the clear liquid is decanted, and a few drops of nitrate of 
silver being thrown upon it, the brick-red arsenate of silver is 
formed, which is sometimes mixed with a considerable quantity 
of a yellow precipitate, the arsenite of silver. This will, how- 
ever, rarely happen, if a large quantity of nitric acid has been 
used ; for by so doing, only an extremely small quantity can re- 
main in the state of arsenious acid, the oxidation being carried a 
degree higher. Nevertheless, if the entire precipitate produced 
by the nitrate of silver be yellow, it can have no effect in de- 
stroying the fact concerning the presence of arsenic, as it only indi- 
cates that it has met with arsenious and not arsenic acid. But 
to return to the substance left in the capsule :—A small quantity 
of muriatic acid, slightly diluted, is poured upon it, which imme- 
diately dissolves it. A current of sulphuretted hydrogen is now 
made to pass through this solution, when the orange-colored sul- 


Means of detecting Arsenic in the Animal Body, Sc. 285 


phuret of antimony is formed. Another process will be stated. 
for arriving at the same end, when mention is made of a method 
by which I propose to separate arsenic from organic substances. 
The importance of studying this double tache will be evident to 
every reflecting mind, for it may not unfrequently happen that the 
physician called upon to administer to a person supposed to be 
laboring under the effects of arsenic, may use tartar emetic to dis- 
embarrass the stomach of the supposed poison; death taking 
place, an examination is made of the liquid found in the stomach 
and intestines, of urine, &c., by means of Marsh’s apparatus, and 
a tache is obtained which is not easily volatilized, and which has 
the appearance of antimony. What then is to be done? Why, 
we are to proceed in our experiments as just stated, and the two 
metals, if both be present, are to be separated. 

The tache from sulphur has all the characteristics of that sub- 
stance; color yellow, volatile, with a suffocating smell, &c. 
There is not the least probability of confounding it with any 
thing else. 

The tache from phosphorus possesses three different shades, 
brilliant white, brilliant yellow, and rust color. When the quan- 
tity of phosphorus is very small, either the first, or only the first 
and second are seen. It is volatile, reddens litmus paper, and 
is insoluble in cold nitric acid, so that there cannot be the least 
occasion for mistaking between this and arsenic. 

The next substance that produces a tache when introduced into 
the apparatus in question, is iron, but it ought not to be classed 
with the others, for I am firmly convinced that it is not due to 
any iron that may be dissolved by the hydrogen ; in other words 
that there is no ferruginous hydrogen. My reason for so be- 
lieving is based upon the following facts :—If we desire to obtain 
this tache, a considerable quantity of iron, or some salt of iron, 
must be used, and the gas made to generate rapidly. Now observe 
what must take place. The action of the liquid being violent, a 
spray is formed, which consists of the dilute acid and whatever 
salts it may hold in solution, in this case iron as one; this spray 
passes along with the hydrogen through the jet; the hydrogen 
being now ignited, a porcelain surface is placed in contact with 
the flame, which, becoming heated, enables it to evaporate 
the water from the salt of iron, which deposits itself, and after- 


wards becomes decomposed by a continuation of the heat, the 
Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 37 


286 Means of detecting Arsenic in the Animal Body, &c. 


peroxide being left. If we still retain the iron in the apparatus, 
but make the action not very brisk, no tache will exhibit itself 
upon a smooth porcelain surface; but if the broken surface of a 
piece of porcelain is placed in contact with the flame, a slight 
black deposit is formed, consisting, as in the former case, of per- 
oxide of iron; the reason of this is, that it is a more convenient 
surface for retaining the particles of the solution of iron thrown 
out in company with the hydrogen. Again, this tache is evi- 
dently an oxide, which it is not probable would be the case, had 
the iron been chemically combined with the hydrogen. Another 
reason is, that if the gas be made to traverse water or chloride of 
calcium before ignition, no tache will be formed, for the iron 
mixed with the hydrogen is retained by either of these means. 
This tache has been perhaps more noticed than it deserves. It is 
not easily produced, and is distinguished by its not being volatile 
and its solution in any of the strong acids, giving a blue precipi- 
tate with ferrocyanuret of potassium. 

There is yet one other tache to be spoken of. If the flame of 
the apparatus, containing only zinc, sulphuric acid and water, be 
prolonged for some time upon one spot on the porcelain, an opake 
white tache will be perceived, which I propose to explain in the 
same way as the last, the cause of it being the oxide of -zine 
instead of iron, this oxide arises from the decomposition of a 
small quantity of sulphate of zinc thrown out with the hydrogen, 
but still it is a thing hardly worthy of notice, for after it is formed 
it is difficult to see it. 

What is the conclusion to be arrived at concerning Marsh’s ap- 
paratus, after what has been said? Why, that it should be con- 
sidered as the most valuable instrument that the medico-jurist 
possesses, to assist him in his experiments upon the poison in 
question; for with proper care all the objections to it can be easily 
remedied, and the character of each tache is so well marked that 
they need never be confounded, as will be seen by glancing the 
eye over what follows. 

Arsenic—Steel color, highly metallic, easily volatilized by heat, 
readily dissolved in nitric acid; the nitric acid solution gives with 
nitrate of silver a brick-red precipitate. 

Antimony—Color darker than steel, metallic, with difficulty 
volatilized by heat, readily dissolved in nitric acid ; the nitric acid 
solution gives with nitrate of silver no precipitate. 


Means of detecting Arsenicin the Animal Body, &c. 287 


Sulphur—Color sulphur-yellow, easily volatilized by heat, not 
soluble in nitric acid, gives the well known smell of sulphur when 
burnt. 

Phosphorus—Color brilliant from white to red, easily volatilized 
by heat, not soluble in nitric acid, reddens litmus paper. 

fron—Color black but slightly metallic, not volatilized by heat, 
soluble in nitric acid ; the nitric solution strikes a blue color with 
ferrocyanuret of potassium. : 

Examination for arsenic in case of poisoning. 

Under this head will be answered the fourth question, which is, 
What are the best means not only of detecting, but of ascertain- 
ing the quantity of arsenic in combination with animal matter ? 

Arsenious acid, it is well known, does not destroy life by a 
mere local action upon the stomach and intestines, as do many of 
the strong acids, but that its poisonous effects are exhibited after 
it has been absorbed into the system. It is true that it inflames 
the mucous membrane of the intestinal canal, but that is compara- 
tively of minor importance to its other effects. If it be absorbed, 
in what secretions and in what organs is it to be found in the 
greatest abundance? The urine is the first secretion in which 
arsenious acid exhibits itself, and in that not long after adminis- 
tration. 'This fact, then, makes it important to preserve the urine 
of a person who we may suppose has been poisoned by this agent, 
for making the necessary medico-legal examination, and in cases 
where death does not occur it ought to be considered of more 
value than the matter vomited. 

After the bladder, the liver and heart next demand our atten- 
tion, for one may calculate with almost absolute certainty upon 
finding this substance in these organs, had it been employed. 
The brain and inner muscles of the thigh, in most cases of poison- 
ing by arsenious acid, contain it in sufficient quantity to be ex- 
hibited by means of Marsh’s apparatus. Other portions of the 
body frequently contain it in small quantities, but if we have the 
organs already mentioned, along with the stomach, intestines, 
and their contents, it will be all that it is important to experiment 
upon. 

In commencing the experiments we should be furnished with 
the following materials, viz. nitric and sulphuric acids, nitrate of 
potash, zinc and water. Their purity should be fully established 
before they are employed. 


288 Means of detecting Arsenic in the Animal Body, &c. 


The use of the nitric acid is to carbonize the animal matter, 
and in that way to develope any arsenic that it may contain. 
This process is of vast importance, as will be seen by the follow- 
ing example. Let the liver contain the largest quantity of arse- 
nious acid that can reach it by the process of absorption, and it 
may be boiled for six hours, in distilled water, without giving up 
the smallest portion of the poison; whereas, carbonize it first by 
the aid of nitric acid, and then pour the water upon it, and re- 
sults of an entirely different nature will be obtained. ‘There are, 
no doubt, two reasons for the cause of this; the first is, that the 
arsenious acid has undergone some chemical change, which ren- 
ders it insoluble ; the second is, that the liver is completely broken 
up by the nitric acid, and the arsenic, in whatever state it may 
have existed, is now converted into arsenic acid. 'The nitrate of 
potash is sometimes employed to destroy the carbon after the 
nitric acid has acted upon the animal matter. The sulphuric acid, 
zine and water, are the elements of Marsh’s apparatus. 

The fluid of the stomach and intestines should be first experi- 
mented upon; and this may be introduced into the apparatus 
either in its crude state, or after having undergone carbonization 
by heat or nitric acid. If it be employed uncarbonized, we may 
expect a great quantity of froth, which may be obviated in some 
measure by the means already mentioned. When we carbonize 
the matter by heat, it becomes necessary to introduce a small por- 
tion of pure caustic potash during its evaporation, which combines 
with arsenious acid, forming arsenite of potash, a substance not 
easily volatilized. If nitric acid be used, we first evaporate the 
liquid to dryness, then pour upon it two or three times its bulk of 
nitric acid, and again evaporate to dryness, when we may ex- 
pect an almost complete destruction of the animal substances. 
The carbonized matter, formed either by heat or nitric acid, with 
whatever it may contain, is digested for a little while in pure wa- 
ter, which easily dissolves the arsenic, now in the states of arse- 
nite of potash and arsenic acid. Filter, introduce the liquid into 
the apparatus, when we may expect to exhibit the metal upon a 
porcelain surface. In experimenting upon the urine, the same 
steps are to be taken. 

The examination of the liver is conducted as follows :—T'wo 
or three pounds of it are first dried by a gentle heat, and then 
digested with about three times as much nitric acid by weight, 


Means of detecting Arsenic in the Animal Body, §c. 289 


until the mass becomes perfectly dry ; water is now poured upon 
it, and heat applied for ten or fifteen minutes; the liquid is now 
filtered, and tested by the apparatus. The heart, muscles, brain, 
&c., if examined, must undergo the same process. 

There is yet another advantage, that has not been mentioned, 
connected with the carbonization of animal matter by nitric acid; 
it is, that if antimony be present, it becomes converted into anti- 
monious acid, which is insoluble in water. 

Mention has been made only of the manner of separating 
arsenic from animal matter, by the aid of Marsh’s apparatus, 
and it may be well to give a brief account of one or two new 
methods adopted by Mr. Persoz to serve the same end, with this 
additional advantage, that it enables one to ascertain the exact 
amount present. 

The suspected materials, after having sufficient reason to sup- 
pose that they do not contain a poison of organic origin, or mer- 
-curial or antimonial preparations, are subjected to the action of 
dilute nitric acid, in order to destroy those parts that are decom- 
posed by this agent. Most of the organic substances having un- 
dergone this decomposition, the residue is diluted with water, and 
heated to the boiling point, and then left to cool; the fatty and 
resinous substances rise to the surface, are taken off and washed, 
and the washings added to the original liquid, which is then 
evaporated to the consistency of syrup. ‘The liquid now has a 
dark brown tint, an evidence that it still contains a quantity of 
organic matter. Nitric acid, therefore, is again added, and a new 
oxidation takes place. We recommence to evaporate, and con- 
tinue to add nitric acid, until the liquid acquires a lively orange 
tint, when a careful evaporation is commenced, first over a naked 
fire, and then by the means of vapor. An approximate value be- 
ing made of the quantity of residue, twice and a half times its 
volume of pure nitrate of potash is added, for the purpose of com- 
pleting the oxidation. Water is next poured upon these materi- 
als, and heat applied and continued until the water is evaporated 
and the residue is dry; by this means an intimate mixture is 
brought about between the nitre and animal substances. In this 
part of the operation, care must be taken to extend the matter as 
much as possible over the surface of the capsule as soon as it be- 
gins to dry. The capsule is now heated almost to redness, when 
a deflagration takes place, and propagates itself through all the 


290 Means of detecting Arsenic in the Animal Body, &e. 


matter submitted to analysis, destroying all remains of organic 
matter. Care must be taken that the nitre be in sufficient quan- 
tity, for if not, this part of the process must be gone over a second 
time. 

After the deflagration has taken place, it may be well to heat 
the residue a second time, in a capsule of platinum or silver, to 
redness. ‘The residue consists generally of the following sub- 
stances: the excess of nitrate of potash mixed with the nitrite of 
the same substance; carbonate of potash; the salts existing in 
the organic matter, as well as those formed during the process, 
such as the phosphates, sulphates and chlorides, free oxides, and 
finally arsenic acid, free and in combination with potash. This 
compound mass being pulverized, is mixed with one and a half 
times its bulk of hydrochlorate of ammonia, introduced into a 
retort, and heated to a dull redness. By the action of the heat, 
the chlorine of the hydrochlorate of ammonia combines with the 
potassium, and the hydrogen of the ammonia reduces the arsenic 
acid to the state of arsenious acid, which sublimes with the ex- 
cess of hydrochlorate of ammonia, and is condensed on the upper 
part and neck of the retort. Other chemical changes take place, 
but they do not modify the one just stated. The operation being 
finished, the retort is broken, and the substance sublimed dissolved 
in water strongly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and through 
this solution is passed sulphuretted hydrogen, which enables us 
to obtain all the arsenic that was originally in combination with 
animal matter, in the state of a pure sulphuret. This process is 
somewhat complicated, but each step is so clear, that with proper 
care, the most satisfactory result might be obtained in almost all 
cases. 

In fulfilling the promise as regards the stating of all important 
facts lately brought to light concerning this too universal poison, 
I will mention two other methods of separating and of ascertain- 
ing the quantity of arsenic in combination with organic substan- 
ces. They are both modifications of Marsh’s apparatus ; one is 
proposed by M. Lassaigne, and the other by myself. 

M. Lassaigne, instead of igniting the arsenuretted hydrogen, 
and obtaining the arsenic upon a cold surface, passes it through a 
solution of nitrate of silver, which it has the property of decom- 
posing. The solution first becomes brown, and then a deposit of 
oxide of silver takes place. After the gas has ceased to pass, a 


Means of detecting Arsenicin the Animal Body, &c. 291 


quantity of muriatic acid is poured upon it, which decomposes 
what nitrate of silver remains, and converts the precipitate into 
chloride of silver. ‘There remains now in solution arsenic and 
arsenious acids, and by filtering and evaporating to dryness, ehey 
are obtained. 

I propose to pass the arsenuretted hydrogen through a tolerably 
strong solution of iodine in alcohol, in order to decompose it, 
which it does effectually, there being formed the iodide of arse- 
nic, which remains in solution. All that is now necessary to be 
done, is to evaporate nearly to dryness, until red fumes make their 
appearance, and then pour twice or thrice as much nitric acid as 
there is residue into the capsule. Heat is again applied, and the 
evaporation continued to dryness, when there will be remaining 
arsenic and arsenious acids. The nitric acid in this case converts 
the iodine of the iodide of arsenic, and the free iodine into iodous 
and iodic acids, both of which are evaporated with the undecom- 
posed nitric acid. 

Iodine also decomposes the antimoniacal hydrogen, first form- 
ing iodide of antimony, which the water of the alcohol immedi- 
ately decomposes into hydriodic acid and oxide of antimony, the 
latter of which is precipitated. This then becomes a convenient 
mode of separating the two substances, antimony and arsenic, for 
by passing the compound gas through the alcoholic solution of 
iodine, it becomes decomposed, and iodide of arsenic is formed, 
which remains in solution, and the oxide of antimony which is 
precipitated, can be separated by means of a filter. This, how- 
ever, is not the plan that I would propose; it would be better to 
invert the precipitate as well as the liquid into a capsule, evapo- 
rate and treat with nitric acid as in the case of arsenic, when 
we shall have left the arsenic, arsenious and antimonious acids, 
the two former of which are soluble in water. 

One may now imagine that there is nothing easier for the med- 
ico-jurist than to form a correct opinion, and one that cannot be 
doubted, concerning the poisoning by arsenic. Whether such is 
the fact or not, he will find, in some cases, that all his skill and 
care will be required, not only to convince the minds of others, 
but even his own. - It may not unfrequently occur, that arsenious 
acid has been the poisoning agent, and still great difficulties pre- 
sent themselves, which are enumerated in almost all works on 
medical jurisprudence. 


292 Means of detecting Arsenic in the Animal Body, &c. 


There is one very important fact to be kept in mind with ref- 
erence to examinations of this character ; it is the medical treat- 
ment that the individual has been subjected to before death. For 
instance, the treatment by diuretics, which will be mentioned 
presently, may remove from one or more organs the poison previ- 
ously contained in them, and still the impressions made upon 
them be too strong to be recovered from. How then is this diffi- 
culty to be removed? By carefully preserving all the urine—an 
observation which is of such importance that it should not escape 
the memory of any physician. 

What are the best means of treating the poisonous effects of ar- 
senic ? 

A few words upon two new methods of treating the effects of 
arsenic, will conclude this article, already extended much farther 
than I had intended. 

The remedies that we already possess, are, at the very best, 
but feeble agents to combat the effects of this poison. ‘The one 
most to be relied on is the hydrated peroxide of iron, it being a 
veritable antidote to poisoning by arsenic; however, there are 
some objections, the principal of which is the slowness of its 
absorption, for it is only where it encounters the poison that its 
salutary effects are displayed, by forming with it an inert arsenite 
of iron. 

A treatment proposed in Italy, is the administration of stimu- 
lant draughts every two or three hours, consisting of brandy one 
ounce, wine two ounces, bouillon (the liquid produced by boiling 
beef or other meat in water) four ounces. It is based upon 
the supposition that the effects of arsenic are atonic, the truth of 
which is far from being established. Instances are given where 
this treatment has proved efficacious, although I have witnessed 
experiments made with it, in comparison with simply tepid water, 
where the latter proved to be the most successful of the two. 

The treatment by diuretics is one that deserves some conside- 
ration; it is advanced by M. Orfila, based upon numerous experi- 
ments. It has been more than once stated, that the urine exhib- 
its a large portion of the arsenious acid absorbed into the system, 
and it seems very rational to suppose, that if this secretion could 
be augmented by any means, that the quantity of arsenic carried 
off would be also increased. It has been observed, that where 
equal quantities of arsenious acid have been given to two dogs of 


Extrication of the Alkalifiable Metals, Src. 293 


equal vigor, and if one died and the other survived its effects, we 
find that the latter had urinated largely. The diuretics merit 
some attention; they are not to be used until the stomach is 
emptied of its contents by some mild emetic and tepid water. 

In a medico-legal examination for antimony, most of the steps 
that have been proposed in the case of arsenic can be followed ; 
the principal modification is where either nitric acid or heat has 
been used to carbonize the animal matter ; for in that case, muri- 
atic acid slightly diluted is to be employed as the dissolving agent 


instead of water. 
Paris, December 6, 1840. 


Art. VI.—On the Extrication of the Alkalifiable Metals, Bart- 
um, Strontium, and Calcium ; by Rosert Hare, M. D., Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. 


Read before the American Philosophical Society, October 4, 1839. 


In the autumn of 1820, I devised an innovation in the mechan- 
ism and in the mode of completing the circuit of an extensive vol- 
taic series. Previously to that time, in using any form of the vol- 
taic battery, the circuit had always been completed by making a 
communication between the electrodes,* after the submersion of 
the plates. In the case of the deflagrator, the electrodes might 
be made to communicate before the immersion of the plates, the 
circuit being completed by their immersion. Or, in case the elec- 
trodes should not be in contact before immersion, the operator was 
enabled to bring them together so nearly about the same time, as 
to avail himself of the pre-eminently energetic action which im- 
mediately succeeds the encounter between the plates and the 
solvent. 

Fourteen years had elapsed, during which I had the regret of 
perceiving that the advantages of the deflagrator were not sufii- 
ciently estimated in Europe, when, about the year 1835, the cel- 
ebrated F'araday,t while investigating the principles upon which 
galvanic apparatus should be constructed, came to a conclusion 


* Acreeably to the suggestion of Faraday, I use the word electrode, for the pole of 
a voltaic series ; also anode, for the positive pole, and cathode for the negative pole. 

+ See London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal, vol. viii, for 
1836, p. 114. 

Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 38 


294 Extrication of the Alkalifiable Metals, 


that the deflagrator eminently associated the requisites of which 
he was in search, and stated many facts and arguments tending 
to prove that it was the most perfect form of the apparatus at that 
time known. More than twelve years ago, while I was operating 
_with a deflagrator of three hundred pairs, each seven inches by 
three, I observed that, in a circuit made through a saturated solu- 
tion of chloride of calcium, by means of a coarse platina wire 
(No. 14,) and a fine wire, (No. 26,) that when the latter was made 
the cathode and the former the anode, a most intense ignition 
resulted, causing the rapid fusion of the fine wire into globules 
like common shot. But when the situations of the wires were 
reversed, so that the smaller wire was made to form the anode, 
the ignition became comparatively so feeble as to be incompetent 
to fuse the fine platina wire. This phenomenon had continued 
to appear inexplicable, when, during the last winter, it occurred 
to me that the evolution and combustion of the calcium might be 
the cause of the superior heat produced at the cathode. 

This led to the employment of chlorides in the process of 
Seebeck, Berzelius, and Pontin, for the production of amalgams 
from the earths, in which a cathode of mercury, and anode of pla- 
tina were used. Accordingly, in operating with a deflagrator of 
three hundred and fifty Cruickshank pairs of seven inches by three, 
a mercurial amalgam was speedily obtained, which appeared suf- 
ficiently imbued with calcium to become speedily buried under 
a pulverulent stratum of lime, and mercury in a minute state of 
division. 

Nevertheless, after exposure of the amalgam thus produced to 
the air, till all the calcium had been separated, and igniting the 
resulting powder to drive off the adhering mercury, the ratio of the 
weight of the lime thus obtained, to the mercury with which it 
had been united, was not over a five hundredth part. Witha 
view to procure an amalgam in which the proportion of calcium 
should be greater, I was led to devise the following apparatus and 
process, of which an engraving and description are now laid be- 
fore the society. 

How far the result of my exertions, subsequently stated, may 
be considered in advance of the steps previously taken, will be 
evident from the fact that all the knowledge which exists, res- 
pecting the isolation of the metals of the alkaline earths, is due 
to the experiments and observations of Davy ; and to what point 


Barium, Strontium, and Calcium. 295 


they extended may be learned from the following quotations 
from the Bakerian lectures of that celebrated chemist. In refe- 
rence to his efforts to isolate the radical in question, the distin- 
guished lecturer mentions “ that to obtain a complete decomposi- 
tion was extremely difficult, since nearly a red heat was required, 
and that ata red heat the bases of the earths acted upon the 
glass, and became oxygenated. When the tube was large in pro- 
portion to the quantity of amalgam, the vapor of naphtha furnish- 
ed oxygen sufficient to destroy a part of the bases; and when a 
small tube was employed, it was difficult to heat the part used as 
a retort sufficiently to drive the whole of the mercury from the 
base, without raising too highly the temperature of the part serv- 
ing for a receiver so as to burst the tube.” ‘When the quantity 
of amalgam was about fifty or sixty grains, I found that the tube 
could not be conveniently less than one-sixth of an inch in di- 
ameter, and of the capacity of about half acubic inch. In conse- 
quence of these difficulties, in a multitude of trials, I had few 
successful results; and in no case could I be absolutely certain 
that there was not a minute portion of mercury still in combina- 
tion with the metals of the earths.”’* 

The observations are more than confirmed by my experience, 
which leads me to the conviction that the removal of the mer- 
cury is not to be accomplished thoroughly in glass vessels, and, 
of course that Davy was perfectly correct in supposing that the 
products which he described as barium and strontium, were alloys 
with mercury. [Iam also under the impression that the metals 
above mentioned decompose naphtha, when heated with its va- 
por, and enter into combination with its constituents. Had the 
barium which Davy obtained, been free from mercury, it would 
not have been fusible below ared heat, as alledged by him. 
Agreeably to my experience, that metal requires no less than a 
good red heat for its fusion. 

In a subsequent paragraph he adds: “The metal from lime I 
have never been able to examine exposed to air or under naphtha. 
In the case in which I was enabled to distil the mercury from it 
to the greatest extent, the tube unfortunately broke while warm, 
and at the same moment when the air entered the metal, which 


* See Transactions of the Royal Society, Part If. Nicholson’s Journal, vol. 
xxi, for 1808; or, Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, vol. xxxiil. 


296 Extrication of the Alkalifiable Metals, 


had the color of silver, took fire and burnt, with an intense white 
light, into quicklime.”* 

Had the failure of Sir Humphrey, in his efforts to isolate cal- 
cium, been due only to the accidental fracture of a glass tube, 
it would be inexplicable that a chemist so indefatigable should 
not have successfully reiterated the experiment ; or that no other 
chemist, during thirty intervening years, should have succeeded 
by resorting to the sarne means. No doubt exists in my mind 
that without using a larger quantity of mercury than the sixty 
grains which he employed, and resorting to other materials than 
glass for a distillatory apparatus, no chemist could succeed in the 
isolation of calcium, nor in the complete distillation of the mer- 
cury from the amalgams of the other metals, so as to obtain avail- 
able quantities for examination. 

Jn a subsequent communication to the Royal Society, Davy 
mentions, that ‘by passing potassium through lime and magne- 
sia, and then introducing mercury, I obtained solid amalgams, 
consisting of potassium, the metal of the earth employed, and 
mercury.” 

“The amalgam from magnesia was easily deprived of its potas- 
slum by water.” Of the amalgam containing calcium he makes 
no farther mention, but suggests the possibility of obtaining, by 
operations performed in this manner, quantities of the metals of 
the earths sufficient for determining their nature and agencies. 

But I will proceed to explain and describe the apparatus and 
process to which I have resorted, and to communicate the results 
which I have obtained. 


A Description of the Apparatus and Process for obtaining amal- 
gams of Calcium, Barium, and Strontium from saturated so- 
lutions of their Chlorides, by exposure to the Voltaic circuit in 
contact with mercury. 


A and B, two bell glasses, with perforated necks, were invert- 
ed and placed one within the other, so that, between them, there 
was an interstice of half an inch, which was filled with a freez- 
ing mixture. Concentrically within Ba third similar bell F, 


* See Transactions of the Royal Society, Part [I. Nicholson’s Journal, Vol. 
xxi, for 1808; or, Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, Vol. xxxiii. 

t Transactions Royal Society for 1810, part I, p. 62. Tuilloch’s Magazine, vol. 
XxxvVi, p. 87. 


Barium, Strontium, and Calcium. 297 


was placed, including a glass flask, of which the stem extended 
vertically through the neck of F. From a vessel V, with a cock 
intervening, a tube luted to the orifice of the flask extended to 
the bottom of it, so as to convey thither from V a current of ice- 
water, which, after refrigerating the bulk of the flask, could es- 
cape through the nozzle projecting, horizontally, from the neck, 
T. The mercury in the capsule D communicates through the 
rod with the negative poles of one or more deflagrators. The 
capsule L in like manner with the corresponding positive poles. 


Fig. 1. 


i=: 


Sa 
PFA: 
pS 


ESE 


. 


as ra 
aD) 
Rs 


i rel 
| a EI 


sj 
(URTSUSAUUTANNNATONNETUUGAEOAO MUSCAT JUVVNTUTLLYTTAYSAAMTTATA 


A rod of platina reaches from some mercury in the capsule D, 
through the necks of the beds A and B, into a stratum of mercury, 
resting upon shoulder of the bell glass B, so as to be about a quar- 
ter of an inch beneath the flask. Several circumvolutions of 
platina wire, No. 14, forming a flat coil, were interposed between 
the mercury and the bottom of the flask. The recurved ends of 


298 Extrication of the Alkalifiable Metals, 


this wire were made to reach into the mercury in the capsule L. 
Over the mouth of the bell F, after the introduction of the flask 
and coil, some bed-ticking was tied, so as to prevent contact be- 
tween the platina and mercury, and to check as much as possible, 
any reunion between the radical taken up by the one, and the 
chlorine liberated by the other. Into the bell T, a saturated so- 
lution of the chloride to be decomposed was poured, and some 
coarsely powdered crystals of the same compound added. Of 
course the solution, by penetrating the ticking, came into con- 
tact with the mercury. 


Electrolytic Process. 


The peculiar mechanism of my apparatus, by which, in ten 
seconds, the acid may be thrown on or off of the plates, enables 
the operator, within that time, after a due arrangement of the 
poles is made, to put either or both of the deflagrators in opera- 
tion, or to suspend the action of either or both. This mode of 
completing or breaking the circuit gives a great advantage in de- 
flagrating wires ; or in the processes, wherein dry cyanides, phos- 
phurets, or carburets are to be exposed to voltaic action in vacuo, 
orin hydrogen. It enables us to arrange every part of the ap- 
paratus so as to produce the best effect upon the body to be acted 
upon, and then to cause a discharge of the highest intensity of 
which the series is capable, by subjecting the plates to the acid 
previously lying inactive in the adjoining trough. 

In the case in point, where a chloride was to be decomposed, 
the deflagrators could be made to act through the same elec- 
trodes, either simultaneously or alternately. Of these facilities I 
thus availed myself: 

Having supplied each deflagrator with a charge of diluted acid 
of one fourth of the usual strength, I began with No. 1, and at 
the end of five minutes superseded it by putting No. 2 into ope- 
ration. Meanwhile, having added to No. 1 as much more acid 
as at first, at the end of the second five minutes, I superseded No. 
2 by No. 1; and in like manner, again superseded No. 1 by No. 
2. Having thus continued the alternate action of the deflagra- 
tors for about twenty minutes, both were made to act upon the 
electrodes simultaneously, the balance of acid requisite to com- 
plete the charge having been previously added. 


Barium, Strontium, and Calcium. 299 


By these means the reaction was rendered more equable than it 
could become in operating with one series more highly charged. 
Although, under such circumstances, the reaction may, at the 
outset, be sufficiently powerful to produce ignition, as I have of- 
ten observed, after fifteen or twenty minutes it may become too 
feeble in electrolyzing power to render the continuance of the 
process in the slightest degree serviceable. Agreeably to my ex- 
perience, as the ratio of the calcium to the mercury increases, the 
amalgam formed becomes so much more electro-positive as to 
balance the electro-negative influence of the voltaic current. Af- 
ter reacting with one series of two hundred pairs, of one hun- 
dred square inches each, for seventy minutes, I have found the 
proportion of calcium to be only one six-hundredth of the amal- 
gamated mass obtained. 

In this lies the great difficulty of obtaining any available quan- 
tity of the radicals of the alkaline earths by electrolyzation ; espe- 
cially in the case of calcium. It is easy, by a series of only fifty 
pairs, to produce an amalgam with that metal, which, when ex- 
posed to the air, will become covered with a pulverulent mixture 
of lime and mercury; but, in such case, the quantity of calcium 
taken up by the mercury, when estimated by the resulting oxide, 
will be found almost too small to be appreciated by weighing. 
To increase the quantity of calcium to an available extent I have 
found extremely difficult, since, as the process proceeds, the chem- 
ical affinity becomes more active, while the electrolyzing power 
becomes more feeble. i 

That a change should be effected in mercury, giving to it the 
characteristics of an amalgam, by the addition of a six hundreth 
part of its weight, cannot be deemed difficult to believe, when it 
is recollected that Davy found that when, by amalgamation with 
ammonium, a globule of mercury had expanded to five times its 
previous bulk, it had gained, in weight, only one twelve thou- 
sandth part.* 

As the affinity between the chlorine and the radicals of the 
alkaline earths increases in strength with the temperature, and_as 
heat is evolved in proportion-to the energy of the voltaic action, 
the disposition of the elements separated by electrolyzation to re- 
unite is, in this way, promoted. Hence the necessity of refrige- 
ration. 


* Sixty grains of mercury contained only one two hundredths of a grain. See 
Nicholson’s Journal, Vol. xxx111, p. 213. 


300 Extrication of the Alkalifiable Metals, 


The best index of the success of this process is the evolution 
of chlorine ; since in proportion to the quantity of this principle 
extracted at the anode, must be the quantity of calcium separated 
at the cathode. During my operations, chlorine was evolved so 
copiously as to tinge the cavity of the innermost bell with its 
well known hue. Hence, when the evolution of chlorine ceases 
to be very perceptible, the amalgam should be extricated from 
the apparatus, and separated by a funnel and the finger from the 
solution of chloride, and immediately subjected to distillation. 

It has been mentioned, that in the electrolytic process above 
described I resorted to the alternate action of two deflagrators. 
This was effected by making the negative poles of both commu- 
nicate with the mercury in capsule D, while the positive poles 
communicated with some mercury in capsule L. For a descrip- 
tion of the deflagrators employed, I refer to the American Philo- 
sophical Transactions, vol. v, or to this Journal, vol. xxxil, p. 285, 
as those which I employed were of the kind there described. 

I have found great benefit to arise from Mr. Sturgeon’s expedi- 
ent of amalgamating the surfaces of the zinc; which Faraday 
has represented as giving, to a great extent, the properties of a 
sustaining battery. Agreeably to my experience, it renders the 
plates less liable to be encrusted with suboxide of zine and cop- 
per, which always impairs the energy of a voltaic series. 


Mistillatory Apparatus and Process. 


A quantity of the amalgam, weighing Fig. 2. 
about three thousand grains, was intro- 
duced into an ironcrucible. Of this cru- 
cible a section is represented by Fig. 2, 
which was forthwith closed by a capsule 
seated ina rabbet, or groove, made on 
purpose to receive it. The capsule being 
supplied with about half a dram of caontchouchine, was then 
covered by the lid. In the next place, by means of a movable 
handle, or bail, of wire so constructed as to be easily attached, 
the crucible was transferred to the interior of the body of the 
alembic, A. Into the cavity thus occupied, about a dram meas- 
use of naphtha was poured. The canopy, A, and body of the 
alembic, B, were then joined, (as represented in fig. 3,) with the 
aid of a luting of clay and borax between the grooved juncture, 
and the pressure of the stirrup screw provided for that purpose. 


Barium, Strontium, and Calcium. 301 


A communication was made between the alembic and a small 
tubulated glass receiver, by means of an iron tube thirty inches 
Fig. 3. 


long, and a quarter in bore. ‘The tubulure of the receiver re- 
ceived the tapering end of an adopter, G, which communicated 
Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1841. 39 


302 Extrication of the Alkalifiable Metals, §c. 


with a reservoir of hydrogen by means of a flexible lead pipe. 
The length of the tube prevented the alembic, or receiver, from 
being subjected to the agitation which results from the condensa- 
tion of the mercurial vapor. Before closing the juncture com- 
pletely, all the air of the alembic was expelled by a current of 
hydrogen, desiccated in its passage by a mingled mass of chloride 
of calcium and quicklime contained in the adopter. By keeping 
up the communication with the reservoir of this gas, while sub- 
jected toa column of about an inch or two of water, the pressure 
within the alembic being greater than without, there ene be no 
access of atmospheric oxygen. 

The bottom of the alembic was protected by a stout capsule of 
iron, (a cast iron mortar, for instance.) ‘The next step was to 
surround it with ignited charcoal, in a chauffer or small furnace, 
taking care to cause the heat to be the greatest at the upper part. 
By these means, and the protection afforded by the mortar, the 
ebullition of the mercury may be restricted to the part of its mass 
nearest to the upper surface. Without this precaution, this metal 
is liable to be thrown into a state of explosive vaporization, by 
which it is driven out of the crucible, carrying with it any other 
metal with which it may be united. 

On the first application of the fire, the caoutchouchine distilled 
into the receiver. Next followed the naphtha from the body of 
the alembic. Lastly, the mercury ‘of the amalgam distilled; the 
last portions requiring a bright red heat, in consequence oF the 
affinity between the metal and the alkalifiable radical. 

After the distillation was finished, the apparatus having been 
well refrigerated, the alembic was opened and the crucible re- 
moved. As soon as the lid was taken off, some naphtha was 
poured between the rim of the capsule and sides of the crucible, 
so as to reach the metal below. This was found adhering to the 
bottom of the crucible. 

When the heat was insufficient to carry off all the mercury, 
the metal was found in a state somewhat resembling metallic 
arsenic in texture, though its susceptibility of oxidation, and its 
affinity for carbon, caused it to be deficient of metallic lustre, 
until the surface was removed by the file or burnisher. 


Properties of the Metals obtained by the processes above mentioned. 


Either metal was rapidly oxydized in water, or in any liquid 
containing it; and afterwards, with tests, gave the appropriate 


Description of an Apparatus, §c. . 303 


proofs of its presence. They all sank in sulphuric acid; were 
all brittle and fixed; and, for fusion, required at least a good red 
heat. After being kept in naphtha, their effervescence with water 
is, on the first immersion, much less active. Under such circeum- 
stances they react, at first, more vivaciously with hydric ether 
than with water, or even chlorohydric acid; because in these 
liquids a resinous covering, derived from the naphtha, is not solu- 
ble, while to the ether it yields readily. 

By means of solid carbonic acid, obtained by Mitchell’s modi- 
fication of Thilorier’s process, I froze an ounce measure of the 
amalgam of calcium, hoping to effect a partial mechanical sepa- 
ration of the mercury by straining through leather, as in the case 
of other amalgams. ‘The result, however, did not justify my 
hopes, as both metals were expelled through the pores of the 
leather simultaneously, the calcium forming, forthwith, a pulver- 
ulent oxide, intermingled with, and discolored by mercury in a 
state of extreme division. 

By the same means I froze a mass of the amalgam of ammo- 
nium as large as the palm of my hand, so as to be quite hard, 
tenacious and brittle. ‘The mass floated upon the mercury of 
my mercurial pneumatic cistern, and gradually liquefied, while 
its volatile ingredients escaped. 

When the freezing of the amalgam was expedited by the ad- 
dition of hydric ether, the resulting solid effervesced in water, 
evolving ethereal fumes. This seems to show that a portion of 
this ether may be incorporated with ammonium and mercury, 
without depriving the aggregate thus formed of the characteris- 
tics of a metallic alloy. 


Art. VII.— Description of an Apparatus for Deflagrating Car- 
burets, Phosphurets, or Cyanides, in vacuo or in an Atmos- 
phere of Hydrogen, with an account of some Results obtained 
by these and by other means ; especially the Isolation of Cal- 
cium; by Roserr Hare, M. D. 


Read before the American Philosophical Society, October 18, 1839. 


Upon a hollow cylinder of brass (A A) an extra air-pump plate 
(B B) is supported. The cylinder is furnished with three valve . 
cocks, (D D D,) and terminates at the bottom in a stuffing-box, 


304 Description of an Apparatus for 


through which a copper rod slides so as to reach above the level 
of the air-pump plate. The end of the rod supports a small hor- 
izontal platform of sheet brass, which receives four upright screws. 


These, by pressure on brass bars extending from one to the other, 
are competent to secure upon the platform a parallelopiped of 
charcoal. Upon the air-pump plate a glass bell is supported, and 


Deflagrating Carburets, Phosphurets, or Cyanides. 305 


so fitted to it by grinding, as to be air-tight. The otherwise open 
neck of the bell is also closed air-tight by tying about it a caout- 
chouc bag, of which the lower part has been cut off, while into 
the neck a stuffing-box has been secured air-tight. Through the 
last mentioned stuffing-box a second rod passes, terminating within 
the bell in a kind of forceps, for holding an inverted cone of char- 
coal, (KH. ) 

The upper end of this sliding rod is so recurved as to enter 
some mercury in a capsule, (F.) By these means and the elas- 
ticity of the caoutchouc bag, this rod has, to the requisite extent, 
perfect freedom of motion. 

The lower rod descends into a capsule of mercury, (G,) being 
in consequence, capable of a vertical motion, without breaking 
contact with the mercury. It is moved by the aid of a lever, 
(H,) connected with it by a stirrup working upon pivots. 

Of course the capsules may be made to communicate severally 
with the poles of one or more deflagrators. The substance to be 
deflagrated is placed upon the charcoal forming the lower elec- 
trode, being afterwards covered by the bell, as represented in the 
figure. By means of the valve-cocks and leaden pipes a com- 
munication is made with a barometer gage; also with an air- 
pump, and with a large self-regulating reservoir of hydrogen. 

The air being removed by the pump, a portion of hydrogen is 
admitted and then withdrawn. ‘This is repeated, and then the 
bell glass, after as complete exhaustion as the performance of the 
pump will render practicable, is prepared for the process of de- 
flagration in vacuo. But, if preferred, evidently hydrogen or 
any other gas may be introduced from any convenient source by 
a due communication through flexible leaden pipes and valve- 
cocks. 

Having described the apparatus, I will give an account of some 
experiments, made with its assistance, which, if they could have 
illuminated science as they did my lecture room, would have im- 
mortalized the operator. But, alas, we may be dazzled, and 
almost blinded by the light produced by the hydro-oxygen blow- 
pipe, or voltaic ignition, without being enabled to remove the 
darkness which hides the mysteries of nature from our intellec- 
tual vision. bi 

I hope, nevertheless, that some of the results attained may not 
be unworthy of attention; and that, as a new mode of employ- 


306 Description of an Apparatus for 


ing the voltaic circuit, my apparatus and mode of chamipalation 
will be interesting to chetnisia 

An equivalent of quicklime, made with great care from pure 
crystallized spar, was well mingled, by trituration, with an equiv- 
alent and a half of bicyanide of mercury, and was then enclo- 
sed within a covered porcelain crucible. The crucible was in- 
cluded within an iron alembic, such as has been described by me 
in this volume, as employed for the isolation of metallic radicals. 
(See page 300.) 

The whole was exposed to heat approaching to redness. In 
two experiments the residual mass had such a weight as would 
result from the union of an equivalent of cyanogen with an 
equivalent of calcium. 

A similar mixture being made, and, in like manner, enclosed 
in the crucible and alembic, it was subjected to a white heat. — 
The apparatus being refrigerated, the residual mass was transfer- 
red to a dry glass phial with a ground stopper. 

A portion of the compound thus obtained and preserved was 
placed upon the parallelopiped of charcoal, which was made to form 
the cathode of two deflagrators of one hundred pairs, each of one 
hundred square inches of zine surface, co-operating as one series. 

In the next place, the cavity of the bell-glass was filled with 
hydrogen, by the process already described, and the cone of char- 
coal being so connected with the positive end of the series as to 
be prepared to perform the office of an anode, was brought into 
contact with the compound to be deflagrated. These arrange- 
ments being accomplished, and the circuit completed by throw- 
ing the acid upon the plates, the most intense ignition took place. 

The compound proved to be an excellent conductor; and du- 
ring its deflagration emitted a most beautiful purple light, which 
was too vivid for more than a transient endurance by an eye un- 
protected by deep-colored glasses. After the compound was ad- 
judged to be sufficiently deflagrated, and time had been allowed 
for refrigeration, on lifting the receiver, minute masses were 
found upon the coal, which had a metallic appearance, and which, 
when moistened, produced an effluvium, of which the smell was 
like that which ped been observed to be generated by the silicu- 
ret of _ potassium. 

Similar results had been attained by the deflagration, in a like 
manner, of a compound procured by passing cyanogen over 


Deflagrating Carbureis, Phosphurets, or Cyanides. 307 


quicklime, enclosed in a porcelain tube heated to incandes- 
cenee.* 

Phosphuret of calcium, when carefully prepared, and, subse- 
quently, well heated, was found to be an excellent conductor of 
the voltaic current evolved from the apparatus above mentioned. 
Hence it was thought expedient to expose it in the circuit of the 
deflagrator, both in an atmosphere of hydrogen and in vacuo. 
The volatilization of phosphoruts was so copious as to coat nearly 
ali the inner surface of the bell-glass with an opake film, in color 
resembling that of the oxide of phosphorus, generated by expo- 
sing this substance under hot water to a current of oxygen.} 

The phosphuret at first contracted in bulk, and finally was, for 
the most part, volatilized. On the surface of the charcoal, ad- 
joining the cavity in which the phosphuret had been deflagrated, 
there was a light pulverulent matter, which, thrown into water, 
effervesced, and, when rubbed upon a porcelain tile, appeared to 
contain metallic spangles, which were oxydized by the conse- 
quent exposure to atmospheric oxygen. 

In one of my experiments with the apparatus above described, 
portions of the carbon forming the anode appeared to have un- 
dergone complete fusion, and to have dropped in globules upon 
the cathode. When rubbed, these globules had the color and 
lustre of plumbago, and, by friction on paper, left traces resem- 
bling those produced by that substance. ‘They were susceptible 
of reaction neither with chloro-hydric nor with nitric acid, nei- 
ther separately nor when mixed. ‘They were not in the slightest 
degree magnetic. 

About 1822, Professor Silliman obtained globules, which were 
at first considered as fused carbon, but were subsequently found 
to be depositions of that substance transferred from one electrode 


* After the above mentioned experiments were made, I was led to believe that 
the compound, obtained as above described by heating lime with bicyanide of mer- 
cury, contained fulminic acid, or an analogous substance. The mass being dissol- 
ved in acetic acid, and the filtered solution subjected to nitrate of mercury, a copi- 
ous white precipitate resulted. This, being desiccated, proved to be a fulminating 
powder. It exploded, between a hammer and anvil, with the sharp sound of ful- 
minating silver. ; 

t The compound usually designated as the phosphuret of calcium consists, aécor- 
ding to Thomson, of one atom of phosphate of lime, as well as two atoms of 
pure phosphuret. Hence it is easy to see that the oxygen which enters into the 
constitution of the oxide, deposited, as above mentioned, upon the interior surface 
of the bell-glass, is derived from the phosphate. 


- = 
+ 


308 Proceedings of the British Association. 


to the other. Several of these globules were, by him, sent to 
me for examination, of which none, agreeably to my recollection, 
appeared so much like products of fusion as those lately obtained. 

Formerly plumbago was considered as a carburet of iron, but, 
latterly, agreeably to the high authority of Berzelius, has been 
viewed as carbon holding iron in a state of mixture, not in that 
of chemical combination. It would not, then, be surprising if 
the globules which [ obtained consisted of carbon converted from 
the state of charcoal into that of plumbago. 


Art. VIIIl.—Abstract of the Proceedings of the Tenth Meeting 
of the British Association for the advancement of Science. — 


Te tenth meeting of this body was held at Glasgow, during 
the week commencing on the 16th of September, 1840. From 
the report published in the London Atheneum, is prepared the 
following abstract, in which, on account of our limited space, we 
are obliged to omit some details, which are less within the scope 
of this Journal. 

The number of members at this meeting, was 1353, viz. new 
members, 995; old life members, 121; old annual members, 
107 ; foreigners, 40. The property of the Association is £5895 
ls. ; the year previous it was £5588 Os. 4d.; the reduction be- 
ing caused by the large grants paid during the year, for scientific 
uses. These payments amount to £1548 4s. Ad. 

At the general meeting on Thursday evening, Sept. 17, Mr. 
Murchison read the report of the General Secretaries, in which 
was presented a brief view of what the Association had ef- 
fected during the past year, as recorded in the last published vol- 
ume of their transactions. 

Professor Whewell was elected President of the Association, 
for the coming year. The next meeting will be at Plymouth, 
the precise time to be fixed by the Council, after consulting the 
~ local authorities. 


* Sect. A. Mathematics and Physics. 


Major Sabine presented his Report on the translation of for- 
eign memoirs. At the meeting at Newcastle, in 1838, a com- 
mittee was appointed to procure and publish translations of for- 


Proceedings of the British Association. 309 


+ 


eign scientific memoirs, and the sum of £100 was placed at their 
disposal; and at the meeting in 1839, a further sum of £100 was 
allotted for the same object. ‘The memoirs translated in the first 
year, under the superintendence of the committee, and at the ex- 
pense of the Association, were :— 


1. ‘Remarks on the advancement of magnetical observatories, and a 
description of the instruments to be placed in them,’ (with one plate) by 
Weber. 

2. “Method to be pursued during the magnetical term observations,’ by 
Gauss. 

3. Extract from the daily observations of magnetic declination, during 
three years at Gottingen, by Gauss. 

4. Description of a small portable apparatus for measuring the abso- 
lute intensity of terrestrial magnetism, (with one plate) by Weber. 

5. ‘On the graphical representation of the magnetic term observa- 
tions,’ (with two plates) by Gauss. 

For the translation and publication of these in 'Taylor’s Sczen- 
tific Memoirs, the first year’s grant of £100 was paid to Mr. 
Taylor. In the present year, Ohm’s memoir, entitled ‘'The gal- 
vanic circuit investigated mathematically,’ has been translated at 
the expense of the Association, and given to Mr. T’. for the 7th 
and 8th Nos. of the Scientific Memoirs. 'The Association have 
also paid for seven plates, representing the lines of magnetic de- 
clination, inclination, and intensity, computed by M. Gauss’s the- 
ory. ‘Translations of the eight memoirs below mentioned, have 
been gratuitously presented to the committee :— 


1. Gauss ‘On a new instrument for the direct observation of the chan- 
ges of the intensity in the horizontal portion of the terrestrial magnetic 
force.’ 

2. Weber ‘On the arrangement and use of the bifilar magnetometer.’ 

3. Gauss, ‘ General theory of terrestrial magnetism.’ 

4. Encke ‘ On the method of least squares.’ 

5. Bessel ‘On the determination of the axes of the elliptic spheroid of 
revolution which most nearly corresponds to the existing measurements of 
arcs of the meridian.’ 

6. Weber, ‘ Description and use of a transportable magnetometer.’ 

7. Bessel ‘On the barometrical measurement of heights.’ 

8. Rudberg, ‘ Experiments on the expansion of air.’ + 

These translations have been placed by the committee, in the © 
hands of Mr. Taylor, by whom they have been printed in the 


6th, 7th, and 8th Nos. of the Sczentzfic Memoirs. 
Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 40 


310 Proceedings of the British Association. 


Revision of the Nomenclature of the Stars.—Report of a com- 
mittee appointed in 1838, consisting of Sir J. Herschel, and 
Messrs. Whewell and Baily. The revision of the northern hem- 
isphere and the constellations visible in Europe, has been con- 
tinued by Mr. Baily, by carefully tracing the just and most au- 
thentic limits of the existing and recognized constellations, and 
by a careful examination of the several stars, in the course of 
which many singular instances of confusion and error in naming 
and placing have been detected. ‘This process, which involves 
an investigation of the history of each star, and of the designa- 
tions it has received from each of its observers, and in the several 
catalogues in which it occurs, is nearly complete, and may be 
considered as clearing the ground for a systematic nomenclature 
of the northern stars, as well as for an effective table of syno- 
nyms of each star. In the southern hemisphere, or rather in 
those constellations which are visible only to an observer in that 
hemisphere, Sir John Herschel has continued, and nearly com- 
pleted, a chart of those stars only, and of all those stars which are 
distinctly visible to the naked eye in aclear night; in which 
chart each star is represented of its true magnitude, according toa 
scale, in which the total interval from the stars of the first mag- 
nitude, to the lowest inserted, in place of six degrees, is made to 
consist of eighteen, so as to subdivide each magnitude into three. 
The final assignment of these magnitudes, resting on the collation 
and inter-comparison of an extensive series of observations, made 
for that express purpose with the naked eye, occasionally assist- 
ed by a common opera glass, has been a work of much time and 
labor, and is not yet quite completed. Nor till this is accom- 
plished, can any further progress be made in the arrangement of 
the southern constellations, which at present are in a state of 
great confusion. A small part only of the grant of £50, has 
been expended, but the whole, will, no doubt, be required ; and 
your committee therefore recommend its continuance.—Signed 
for the Committee, J. F. W. Herscuetn. 

On the Reduction of the stars in Lacatlle’s Calum Australe 
Stelliferum, the committee report, that the reductions of all the 
stars are finished; and Mr. Henderson’s assistant is at present 
arranging the results in the form of a catalogue, which however, 
could not be completed in time for this meeting. ‘The comple- 
ted portion, so far as finished, has been transmitted to Mr. Baily, 


Proceedings of the British Association. 311 


to be used in the construction of the new catalogue of the Astro- 
nomical Society. No money has been spent during the year; but 
of course, a renewal of the grant will be desirable.—Signed for 
the committee, J. F. W. Herscuet. : 

Report on the reduction of Meteorological Observations made 
at the equinoxes and solstices, on the part of a committee appointed 
in 1838.—Sir J. Herschel, referring to his report of last year for 
the reasons why the reduction of these observations was not im- 
mediately commenced, reports further that the same reasons de- 
layed any effective commencement of the work until very lately ; 
but that owing to several wanting series of observations having 
at length come to hand, so as to render the series for the years 
1835-8 tolerably consecutive, at least for several localities, your 
Committee considered it advisable to wait no longer, but proceed 
to work with the materials in hand. Accordingly, having cast 
the plan of operations for the comparison and projection of the 
barometric oscillations in those years, (to which for the present, 
your Committee propose to limit their proceedings, till it shall ap- 
pear whether a further and more complete comparison, including 
the thermometric changes, and especially the correspondence of 
the winds, seems likely to lead to any valuable conclusions, ) the 
reduction, arrangement and projection of the several series of 
observations was confided to the able and zealous hands of W. R. 
Birt, Esq., who is now actively employed in this operation, and 
who has enabled your Committee to lay before the meeting, as 
specimens of the mode of proceeding, the tabulation and projec- 
tion of the observations made in the British Isles in the year 
1836, which are, accordingly, submitted for inspection. In the 
discussion of these observations, it has been found advantageous 
to divide the stations from which they have emanated, into groups, 
according to geographical proximity, the chief of which are,— 
the group of the British Isles, that of the continent of Europe, the 
North American, South African and Indian groups. Hach of 
these groups is referred, by applying the differences of longitude 
to the times of observation, to a central station; and the projected 
curves, in which the abscissee are the mean times at that station, 
and the ordinates the reduced barometric altitudes, exhibit at one 
view the correspondence or disagreement of the barometric move- 
ments for all the stations of the group. * * * ‘The projection of 
these curves is the first step in the process of reduction contem- 


312 Proceedings of the British Association. 


plated ; and even in the very limited range afforded by the speci- 
mens now presented, affords ground for interesting remark. ‘Thus 
we see that the march of the barometer in the only two Irish sta- 
tions which have furnished observations, (Markree and Limerick, ) 
while agreeing well with each other, differs most decidedly from 
its corresponding march in all the English stations; which, on 
the other hand, offer a good correspondence, inter se. * * It 
would be premature, at present, to enter fully into the details of 
the further steps contemplated in these reductions, as they will 
be, of necessity, materially influenced by the aspect under which 
the subject shall present itself in its progress, and especially by 
the discussion of one or two of the most complete series, among 
which, thanks to American zeal and industry, the group including 
the United States promises to be the most prominent. Only a 
very trifling sum (under £2,) has been hitherto expended (for 
the printing of the skeleton forms,) out of the original grant of 
£100; but the continuance of the grant will be required to meet 
the further requisite expenses. It is only justice to Mr. Birt to 
observe, that his part of the work appears to be executed with 
great care and judgment.—Signed, J. F. W. Herscuet. 
Reduction of the stars in Lalande’s Histoire Céleste-—The 
Committee appointed to superintend the reduction of stars in the 
Histoire Céleste, report, that about 33,000 stars have been already 
reduced, the cost of which has been about £412, exclusive of 
about £52 for printing skeleton forms for the use of the com- 
puter. They further report, that there are about 16,000 more 
stars to be reduced, the cost of which will be about £200 more. 
As the original grant will not cover the whole of this expense, 
(there being only about £35 remaining out of that grant,) the 
Committee suggest the propriety of extending the grant for the 
ensuing year to the £200 above mentioned, which, they trust, 
will complete the work. Aug. 25, 1840.—F rancis Batty. 
Catalogue of Stars of Roy. Ast. Soc——The Committee ap- 
pointed to superintend the extension of the Royal Astronomical 
Society’s Catalogue of Stars, report, that the work is in consid- 
erable progress, and that it will probably be completed before the 
next meeting of the British Association, in 1841. They further 
report, that £360 have been already paid for computations, and 
about £70 for printing and other expenses, making a total of 
about £430, out of the original grant for £500. As this balance 


Proceedings of the British Association. 313 


of £70, will not be sufficient to complete the work, the Commit- 
tee request that it may be extended to £150, which they hope 
will meet every expense. 

Report on Radiant Heat.—Prof. Whewell laid before the Sec- 
tion an abstract of Prof. Powell’s Report on Radiant Heat. 'This 
report was supplementary to one furnished by Prof. P. to the As- 
sociation at the Oxford meeting in 1832, and he now proposed to 
give an account of the progress of discovery since that period. 
Such a report was peculiarly required from the number and im- 
portance of the results arrived at in the interval, which though not 
sufficient to form the basis of an unexceptionable theory, have at 
least tended greatly to modify previous opinions, and to enable us 
to refer large classes of phenomena to something like a simple and 
common principle. 'The former report was divided into various 
heads, derived from what appeared in the then existing state of 
our knowledge, well-marked distinctions between several kinds of 
effects ascribed to radiant heat; but recent discoveries have in a 
great degree so changed our views on the subject, that these divi- 
sions cannot with any advantage or convenience be adhered to. 
One principle of arrangement, however, has been newly supplied 
in the discovery of the polarization of heat; so that all the re- 
searches to be described may be conveniently classed under two 
heads :—Ist, as they relate to heat in its ordinary or unpolarized 
state; 2dly, as they relate to polarized heat. ‘The report then 
entered on the first general head, by calling attention to the re- 
cent rescarches of Melloni and Forbes respecting the transmis- 
sion and refraction of heat. Prof. P. adverted to the discovery 
of Melloni, that the resistance to the passage of heat is not ex- 
erted at the surface, but at the interior of the mass. ‘This was a 
result of the observation, that the difference between the trans- 
mission of heat from a more highly heated source and from a less 
highly heated source, became less as the thickness of the screen 
was diminished, and disappeared when very thin screens were 
interposed. By comparing the transmissive powers of a great 
number of substances, he found that in crystallized bodies the 
diathermaneity for the rays of a lamp was proportional to their re- 
fractive powers ; but in uncrystallized bodies no such law could 
be traced. It was in the course of these researches that Melloni 
made the important discovery of the singular property possessed 
by rock-salt,—viz. that it is almost entirely permeable to heat, 


314 Proceedings of the British Association. 


even from non-luminous sources. He found its transmissive 
power six or eight times greater than that of an equal thickness 
of alum, which had nearly the same transparency and refractive 
power; and that, unlike other diathermanous media, it is equally 
diathermanous to every species of heat, i. e. whether from sources 
highly heated or moderately heated ; thus, he found a plate of 
7 millimetres (.28 inch) thick, to transmit 92 out of 100 rays, 
whether from flame, red hot iron, water at 212°, or at 120° F. 
A plate one inch thick gave a similar constant ratio: the general 
conclusion resulting, that the source being a lamp, the diather- 
mancy is not proportional to the transparency; and he makes 
some general remarks on these results, as related to those of See- 
beck, on prismatic dispersion. In asupplementary paper, Melloni 
investigates the modifications which calorific transmission un- 
dergoes in consequence of the radiating source being changed. 
He employs four sources of heat :—1, a Locatelli lamp; 2, incan- 
descent platinum; 3, copper heated by flame to about 730° F. ; 
4, hot water in a blackened copper vessel. ‘The discovery of the 
complete diathermancy of rock-salt furnished the means of pros- 
ecuting the author’s researches on the refraction of heat. In the 
successful experiment which he made, he concentrated in the fo- 
cus of a rock-salt lens, the rays of dark heat from hot copper and 
hot water. A similar lens of alum produced no effect, which 
proves that the effect is not due to the mere heating of the cen- 
tral part of the lens. In discussing the properties of the calorific 
rays transmitted by different bodies, a remarkable effect presented 
itself; the rays of the lamp were thrown upon screens of differ- 
ent substances in such a manner that, either by changing the dis- 
tances, or by concentration with a mirror or a lens of rock-salt, 
the effect transmitted from all the sources was of a certain con- 
stant amount. 'This constant radiation was then intercepted by 
a plate of alum, and it was found that very different proportions 
of heat were transmitted by the alum in the different cases ; from 
which Melloni concludes, ‘‘that the calorific rays issuing from 
the diaphanous screens are of different qualities, and possess (if we 
may use the term,) the diathermancy peculiar to each of the sub- 
stances through which they have passed.”” He next investigated 
the effects of colored glasses, and concludes that all the colored 
glasses except green, produce no ‘elective action’ on heat ; green 
glass, on the contrary, transmits rays more easily stopped than 


Proceedings of the British Association. 315 


the others; and that green glass is the only kind which possesses 
a coloration for heat, (if we may use the term,) the others acting 
upon it only as more or less transparent glass of uniform tint does 
upon light. From experiments upon the solar rays transmitted 
_by green glass, and intercepted by other media, he found they 
passed copiously through rock-salt, but feebly through alum: 
whence he concludes that there are among the solar rays some 
which resemble those of terrestrial heat ; and in general, that the 
differences observed between solar and terrestrial heat, as to their 
properties of transmission, are therefore to be attributed merely to 
the mixture, in different proportions, of these several species of 
rays. Prof. Forbes repeated and extended Melloni’s experiments 
on the transmission and refraction of heat. One cf the most in- 
teresting points to which he directed his attention, was the possi- 
bility of detecting heat in the moon’s beams. ‘These, concentra- 
ted by a polyzonal lens of 32-inches diameter, and acting on the 
thermo-multiplier, gave no indication of any effect: so that Prof. 
F’. considers it certain that if there be any heat, it must be less 
than the 300,000th part of a degree centigrade. In his third 
section, he investigates the index of refraction for heat of differ- 
ent kinds as compared with that for light in the same medium. 
The method of observation adopted was indirect, depending upon 
the determination of the critical angle of total internal reflection 
in a rock-salt prism with two angles of 40°, and one of 100°. By 
an ingenious mechanical contrivance, the sentient surface of the 
pile was made to receive rays coming from the source of heat 
after undergoing two refractions and one reflection, whatever was 
the angle of incidence. ‘The mean of the results obtained from 
various sources of heat, variously transmitted, for the index of re- 
fraction for rock-salt, is 1.552. The results deduced are :—1. 
The mean quality, or that of the more abundant proportion of 
the heat from different sources, varies within narrow limits of re- 
frangibility. 2. These limits are very narrow indeed where the 
direct heat of any source is employed. 3. All interposed media, 
(including those impermeable to light,) so far as tried, razse the 
index of refraction. 4. All the refrangibilities are inferior to that 
of the mean luminous rays. 5. The limits of dispersion are open 
to further inquiry, but the dispersion in the case of sources of 
low temperature, appears to be smaller than that from luminous 
sources. 


316 Proceedings of the British Association. 


The report then went on to the researches of Melloni on the 
reflection of heat ; and the analogies of light and heat, as traced 
by Forbes and Melloni. He dissents from the opinion of Am- 
pere, that the difference between heat and light is to be accounted 
for by the difference of wave length on the undulatory hypoth- 
esis. During these researches, he found that a certain kind of 
green glass colored by oxide of copper, though it permitted a por- 
tion of luminous rays to pass, absorbed all the calorific rays, so 
that it exhibited no calorific action capable of being rendered per- 
ceptible by the most delicate thermoscope, even when so concen- 
trated by lenses, as to rival the direct rays of the sun in brilliancy. 
With respect to the transmission of heat by screens, Prof. F. re- 
marked that Melloni’s view of the transmission of heat of low 
temperature, by all substances alike, is equivalent to saying that 
substances in general allow only the more refrangible rays to 
pass, or that while rock-salt presents the analogy of white glass, 
by transmitting all rays in equal proportions, every substance 
hitherto examined acted on the calorific rays as violet or blue 
glass does on light, absorbing the rays of least refrangibility, and 
transmitting the others only. 'To this rule, Melloni made out 
the first exception, or the first analogue to red glass,—rock-salt 
with its surface smoked. Prof. F'. soon pointed out another, viz. 
mica split by heat into numerous fine lamine, and hence, as the 
effect was obviously mechanical, (since unlaminated mica pro- 
duces no such effect,) he concludes that the smoked surface of 
the rock-salt acted also mechanically, and was thus led to try the 
effects of surfaces variously altered by mechanical means; and 
thus effects in some distant degree analogous to sifting the heat, 
were observed. Fine powders, also sifted on the surface, were 
found to affect the transmission of heat, and these Prof. F. con- 
sidered analogous to diffraction and periodic colors in light. From 
these important researches, we have learned to connect modifica- 
tions in the transmission of heat with the quality of refrangibility, 
and not as heretofore with a supposed difference of quality de- 
pending on the source of the heat. The report then gave an ac- 
count of the researches of Dr. Hudson on radiation of heat, those 
of President Bache and Stark on the influence of color and sur- 
face on radiation, and Prof. P.’s experiments upon the repulsive 
power of heat; and adverted to Mr. Farquharson’s theory of the 
formation of ice at the bottom of rivers, as a result from radiant 


Proceedings of the British Association. 317 


heat. From this opinion, Prof. P. dissents. The report then 
proceeds to the second division, on polarized heat, under which 
a detailed history of the several successive discoveries of Prof. 
Forbes on this subject was minutely given, with the dates of the 
several stages of the discoveries. Melloni having failed in repeat- 
ing the experiments of Berard in polarizing heat by the tourma- 
lin, and Nobili having in vain attempted it by reflection, Mrs. 
Somerville, in her Connexion of the Physical Sciences, 2d ed., 
speaks of it as altogether without experimental proof. In No- 
vember, 1834, Prof. Forbes took up the subject and obtained com- 
plete success. He succeeded in polarizing heat from various 
sources, and by the aid of various substances, as piles of plates of 
mica, and by reflection and refraction, and showed that the pecu- 
liar modification of the experiments adopted by Berard, by reflec- 
tion from glass, the quantity even at the maximum which could 
reach the thermoscope after two reflections, would be so extremely 
small, as that no difference of effect in the two rectangular posi- 
tions could really have been perceptible. ‘The entire series of 
those discoveries was completed between November, 1834, and 
January, 1835, the main practical improvement (which led ‘to all 
the rest of the discoveries,) being the employment of the piles of 
mica. Prof. Forbes being at Paris in the summer of 1835, and 
finding both Biot and Melloni sceptical as to these results, he ex- 
hibited them to those philosophers with mica piles, which he pre- 
pared for the occasion, and which he left with Melloni. The 
next subject entered upon by Prof. F’. was that of circular and 
elliptic polarization. ‘This he determined both by depolarization, 
and also by the internal reflection of heat in arhomb of rock-salt, 
as in the analogous cases of circular polarization of light. The 
report then adverted to the researches of Melloni on polarized 
heat, and entered minutely into historical details, and the theo- 
retic views of the author; and then pointed out some expressions 
in Dr. Thomson’s work on heat, which might lead a person who 
did not carefully attend to dates and facts, to attribute the priority 
of discovery to Melloni, and thus to deprive Prof. Forbes of a por- 
tion of his well-earned fame ;. and which was so clearly his due, 
that in 1836 the Keith prize had been, awarded to him by the 
Royal Society of Edinburgh, after a close examination by the 
council of the researches and experiments; and subsequently the 
Rumford medal was adjudged to him by the Royal Society of 
Vol. xz, No. 2.—Jan.-—March, 1841. 41 


318 Proceedings of the British Association. 


London, after similar precautions. The later researches of Forbes 
and Melloni on this subject, related to the connexion of these dis- 
coveries and the facts thus developed, with the undulatory theory. 
The report contained some remarks on the clearness with which 
the chronological order of the discoveries is marked in this case, 
and the consequent impossibility of any of those disputes which 
have sometimes tended to disturb the harmony of scientific in- 
quiries. The continental philosophers have the merit of devising 
and bringing to perfection the instrument, by the aid of which 
alone, any discoveries in this very delicate field of research could 
have been expected. Prof. Forbes is the author of the discovery 
of the polarization of heat in all its branches, and from all its 
sources. 

Prof. Forbes gave an abstract of his Supplementary Report on 
Meteorology. At the last meeting of the Association, he had 
been requested to make a report on the progress of meteorology 
since the period of his former report, which was drawn up in 
1833. In obedience to that request he now came before them. 
He had distributed the matter of this report under the same gen- 
eral heads as those under which he had formerly treated of the 
several subjects. ‘These were Temperature, Pressure, Humidity, 
Wind, Clouds, Rain, Electricity, Meteors, and suggestions on the 
first of these heads. In the report he had entered fully into the 
subject of the instruments used for measuring temperature, with 
their improvements, defects, and the cautions to be observed in 
using them. He enlarged on the decrease and accumulation of 
heat, and the curves which were used for elucidating these sub- 
jects. He spoke of the temperature decreasing in a geometrical 
series as you ascend through arithmetically increasing heights, 
the temperature being supposed constant, and entered on an ex- 
amination of the paradoxical conclusion at which Poisson had 
arrived, that the upper surface of the atmosphere was, in conse- 
quence of the extreme cold there existing, in a state which he 
termed liquefaction. He observed that there are reasons for con- 
cluding that the temperature of space itself entirely beyond the 
atmosphere of the earth, was not so cold as Poisson seemed. to sup- 
pose the highest portions of our atmosphere ; but that, indépen- 
dent of this opinion, there were other causes in operation quite 
sufficient to limit the extent of the atmosphere, without the aid 
of this startling supposition, and which limited height might be 


Proceedings of the British Association. 319 


considered as almost established, since Wollaston’s proofs derived 
from the two entirely unconnected sources of astronomical and 
chemical phenomena. He then glanced briefly at the subject of 
isothermal lines, and passed on to the subject of solar radiation. 
He examined at great length the researches of Poisson on this 
subject ; and pointed ont what he considered the inadequacy of 
his speculations on what may be called the astronomical part of 
the total influence. The chief point insisted on in this branch, 
was, the neglect of Poisson to take into calculation the influence 
of the earth’s atmosphere in diminishing the heating power of 
the sun’s rays, particularly when they entered it obliquely. This 
he showed to be most important, by stating the fact, that at Paris 
the influence of the atmosphere upon rays entering vertically, 
was to reduce their heating influence by 25 per cent. of what it 
would have been had they not passed through it; when they 
entered so obliquely as to form an angle of 25° with the hori- 
zon, their heating inflaence was reduced to one half; and when 
an angle of 5°, to one twentieth part. If Poisson’s views were 
correct, the total solar influence at Paris would be 24° centigrade ; 
and as the mean temperature of Paris is 11°, this would leave 
about 13°, or about 9° of Fah., as the temperature irrespective of 
the sun’s heat ; whereas the mean temperature of the polar parts 
of the earth, which are so far from being totally deprived of solar 
influence, that they are alternately under that influence and de- 
prived of it, is no higher than about 32°. He then proceeded to 
the consideration of the temperature of the earth below the sur- 
face,—gave a sketch of the results of former experiments, origin- 
ating in those made in the caves under the Observatory at Paris; 
detailed the results of those lately made; and promised, before 
the meeting was closed, to bring up this subject again, in con- 
nexion with the experiments made at Edinburgh. ‘Then he 
glanced rapidly at the subject of mean temperature, and showed, 
that while within the tropics it is sufficient to plunge a thermom- 
eter a foot under the surface of the earth, in order to get by its 
mean indication the mean temperature of the place, in higher lat- 
itudes this would not be sufficient ; and he detailed the circum- 
stances producing the difference, and pointed out the methods 
and precautions necessary for obtaining it. He then entered on 
the consideration of the temperature of the space beyond the 
earth, and stated the probable source of it to be the radiating in- 


320 Proceedings of the British Association. 


fluence of the stars. Under the head of pressure, the barometer, 
its construction and proper use, came under consideration. He 
pointed out the use of curves in recording and comparing its indi- 
cations,—the great variety of its oscillations in the several parts 
of the earth, and the importance of accurate registers of its indi- 
cations being kept,—alluding to the value of the hourly observa- 
tions recorded, for so many years, under the inspection of Mr. 
Snow Harris, at Plymouth, and those at Leith and other places 
in Scotland, under the inspection of Sir D. Brewster. He next 
referred to a fact which seems to lead to the inference, that we 
must repose less confidence in the barometer as a means of meas- 
uring heights than has been heretofore supposed. It has been 
found by actually leveling between the Black Sea and the Cas- 
pian, that the latter is only 82 feet below the level of the former ; 
whereas barometric measurements, founded on previous deter- 
minations, since carefully repeated, gave, in consequence of 
some unknown anomaly, the difference of 320 feet. The hu- 
midily of the atmosphere was the next topic discussed. As to 
the amount of vapor in the air, at any one instant, he considered 
that by the researches of Dr. Apjohn, begun at the suggestion of 
the Association, the important problem of the wet-bulb thermom- 
eter had been completely solved, and meteorologists thus put in 
possession of a simple and most effective instrument. 'The distri- 
bution of humidity in the atmosphere was next noticed. Under 
the head of wind, he alluded to the theory of Dove, which he 
said was comparatively unknown in these countries ; and briefly 
spoke of the researches of Lieut. Col. Reid, Mr. Redfield, and 
Mr. Espy. Passing over the topics of clouds and rain, he prom- 
ised to bring forward on a future day, some facts connected with 
extraordinary falls of rain which had been observed; but which, 
as stated by him, in one instance in his former report, had been 
in his absence called in question. Regarding electricity, he ob- 
served that little had been added either to our instrumental re- 
sources, or to our knowledge of the subject, since his former re- 
port. On the subject of meteors, the report contained all the re- 
cent information concerning the unusually numerous appearance 
of those which had been seen for some years, on the 12th and 
13th of November, and 10th of August ; and concluded by point- 
ing out the advantages of public meteorological observations for 
the purpose of, Ist. determining laws: 2d. keeping, and under 


Proceedings of the British Association. 321 


proper regulations suffering to be inspected, standard instru- 
ments: 3d. making and recording observations, in number and 
with a regularity not to be expected, and scarcely ever obtained, 
in observatories maintained by individuals. Private stationary 
observations were next noticed, and suggestions thrown out; 
and lastly, traveling observations. 

A report was then read, on the application of a portion of the 
sum of £50, voted in 1839, for discussion of tide observations, 
and placed at the disposal of Rev. W. Whewell. The subject 
has been diligently prosecuted during the year, and is still in 
progress. 

Sir David Brewster gave in his report on the hourly meteoro- 
logical observations made at Kingussie, (N. lat. 57°; W. lon. 4°,) 
and at Inverness, (N. lat. 57° 293’; W. lon. 41°.) Having se- 
lected Inverness and Kingussie as two suitable stations for carry- 
ing out two series of hourly observations with the thermometer 
and barometer, and having prevailed upon Rev. Mr. Rutherford, 
of Kingussie, and Mr. Thomas Mackenzie, of Inverness, to un- 
dertake the observations, the necessary instruments were made 
by Mr. Adie of Edinburgh, under the superintendence of Prof. 
Forbes, and the observations begun Nov. 1, 1838, that month be- 
ing the commencement of the meteorological year, or the first of 
the groupof winter months. I have now the satisfaction of lay- 
ing before the Association the observations themselves, forming 
two quarto volumes,—a work of stupendous labor, executed for 
the first time, by educated individuals, with the aid of properly 
instructed assistants. The observations made at Kingussie, and 
to a certain extent those made at Inverness, contain ampler details 
of meteorological phenomena than any series of hourly observa- 
tions with which we are acquainted. In addition to the ther- 
mometrical observations, the height of the barometer, and the 
temperature of the mercurial column were observed every hour. 
The general character of the weather was carefully noted. The 
character and direction of the wind at every hour was recorded. 
The number of hours of wind, of breeze, of calm, of rain, of 
snow, and of cloudy and clear weather, were regularly marked ; 
and the number and nature of the aurore boreales were recorded 
and described. When these observations are compared with those 
made at Leith under my superintendence for four years, with 
those made at Plymouth from 1832 to 1840, at the expense of 


322 Proceedings of the British Association. 


the Association, and under the able superintendence of Mr. Snow 
Harris, and with those made at Padua, Philadelphia and in Cey- 
lon, we perceive very distinct traces of meteorological laws, of 
which no idea had been previously formed; and I have no hesi- 
tation-in stating that when observations of this class are multi- 
plied and extended, they will lead to general results of as great 
importance in predetermining atmospherical changes, as those 
which have enabled the astronomer to predict the phenomena of 
the planetary system. * * In comparing the number of hours 
of calm throughout the year, it appears that they occurred when 
the temperature was lowest, and upon laying them down ina 
curve, this curve was almost exactly the reverse of that of the 
mean daily temperature of the year; that is, the wind, or com- 
motion in the atmosphere, depends on and varies with the tem- 
perature. ‘This very important and new result is confirmed in a 
remarkable manner by the observations of Mr. Osler at Birming- 
ham; observations of inestimable value, which were made at 
the request and expense of the British Association, and exhibit 
more important results respecting the phenomena and laws of 
wind than any which have been obtained since meteorology be- 
came one of the physical sciences. 

Comparative force of the wind during the twenty-four hours. 
Mr. Follett Osler brought forward a paper in which he gave the 
results of his investigations respecting the direction and force of 
the wind, deduced from the mean of 26,000 hourly observations, 
taken by the anemometer at the Philosophical Institution at Bir- 
mingham, during 1837, 8 and 9. In tabulating these observa- 
tions, the curve obtained is found to be almost identical with 
that of the thermometer; not only for the whole year, but for 
each season. ‘Ihe increase in the temperature, however, precedes 
the rise of the wind by a short interval, until it has attained its 
maximum force; but as evening approaches, the wind declines 
more rapidly than the temperature. 

Mr. Caldecott made a communication respecting an Hourly reg- 
ister of Meteorological observations kept at Trevandrum, com- 
menced June 1, 1837, and to be continued to June 1, 1842. ‘The 
observatory was erected by the Rajah of Travancore, in lat. 8° 
30/ 35” N.; lon. 5h. 8m. BE. of Greenwich; 170 feet above the 
level of the sea, and distant from it in a direct line, about two 
miles. Every precaution appears to have been taken to insure 


Proceedings of the British Association. 329 


accuracy, and of the observers, (all natives of India,) Mr. C. re- 
marks that after the first difficulty of instructing them is sur- 
mounted, their patient, diligent and temperate habits peculiarly 
fit them for the office here required of them, and I have always 
found those who have been selected for the duty full as trust wor- 
thy as any class of persons probably, to whom such observations 
are usually intrusted. For the two years ending June 30, 1838, 
the mean temperature of the station was 78°.79: the mean dew 
point 71°.78. The barometric registers give, by a mean of all 
the diurnal semi-oscillations, the following results : 

Fall between 10 A. M. and 4P.M. . . .109 inch. 

Rise“ AUP. Misandi lO AgiMiyo. Hn edOSiy 

Ball 20% TO) Acs Miser dia As ALO IME hots: 3 (ei Olin ce 

Rise  “ 4 A. M. and 10 A. M. Onan 

Times of mavima, between the hours of 9 ond 10 morning 
andevening. ‘limes of minima, between those of 3 and 4 Aes 
noon and morning. 

Mr. Scott Raiccell read the report a the Committee on Waves. 
All the objects confided to this committee, (consisting of Sir John 
Robinson and himself,) having been fully accomplished, the re- 
port now presented was to be considered as final. ‘That part of 
the duties of the committee which related to the connexion of 
the phenomena of waves with the resistance of fluids to solids, 
had devolved upon them under a separate name, as the committee 
on forms of vessels, and would be reported under a separate head. 
The wave form of vessel, however, had been now proved to pos- 
sess so many advantages, that its use seemed likely to become 
general, and thus a great change would be effected in naval ar- 
chitecture. Prof. Kelland read a communication on the theory 
of waves.—Sir D. Brewster communicated a paper on Prof. Pow- 
ell’s measures of the indices of refraction for the lines G and H 
in the spectrum ; and Prof. Powell one on an experiment of in- 
terference of light. 

On a blue sun seen at Bermuda. Sir D. Brewster communi- 
cated a letter from Lieut. Col. Reid, governor of the Bermudas, 
covering a letter from Dr. A..W. Harvey, of Bermuda, who states 
that on the 11th and 12th August, 1831, immediately after a hur- 
ricane which devastated Barbadoes, the sun appeared of a bluish 
color, and its light was unusually dim. This was owing, as Sir 
D. Brewster imagined, to the interposition between the sun and 


324 Proceedings of the British Association. 


the observer, of vapor or water ina vesicular state. Col. Reid’s 
letter also contains the following statement: ‘‘ Three days ago 
(i. e. Aug. 14, 1839) IT had a fine opportunity of observing a wa- 
ter-spout under my house, and could with a spy-glass distinctly 
observe, that at the surface of the sea it was revolving like the 
hands of a watch, and the same observation was made at a tele- 
graph station near the government house. This is the fifth ac- 
count, well authenticated, in north latitude: all five revolved the 
same way.” 

On the decomposition of glass, by Sir D. Brewster.—There is 
no subject more curious or more instructive than the disintegra- 
tion of crystallized and uncrystallized bodies, either by the direct 
influence of chemical agents, or the slow process of natural de- 
composition. At the meeting at Edinburgh, I submitted, (said 
Sir D.) a brief account (since enlarged and published in the Edin- 
burgh Transactions, ) of remarkable optical phenomena produced 
by the instantaneous action of water and other fluids on crystals, 
and on their subsequent decomposition when placed in their sat- 
urated solutions. Since that time Ihave had occasion to examine 
the phenomena of decomposed glass, both of that which is found in 
Italy, and of specimens recently found in making excavations 
among the ruins of the Chapter-house of the Cathedral of St. An- 
drews. In decomposed glass, the decomposition commences in 
points, and extends itself either in planes so as to form thin films, 
or in concentric coats so as to form concentric films. When the 
centres of decomposition are near each other, the concentric films 
or strata which they form interfere with each other, or rather 
unite, and the effect of this is, that the glass is decomposed in 
films of considerable irregularity, their surfaces having a finely 
mamnmuillated appearance convex on one side and concave on the 
other. The films thus formed, afford by transmitted light colors 
of infinite beauty and variety, surpassing any thing produced in 
works of art. They have the effect of dissecting, as it were, the 
compound surface of the solar prism, or of sifting and separating 
the superimposed colors, in a manner analogous to what is produ- 
ced by colored and absorbing media. I have succeeded indeed, 
in producing one or more bands of white light incapable of de- 
composition by the prism; and there can be no doubt that they 
will be found to exercise a similar or an analogous action on the 
leading rays of the thermometric spectrum. In the decomposed 


Proceedings of the British Association. 325 


glass from St. Andrews, a change of a very different kind is ef- 
fected. In some cases the siliceous and the metallic elements of 
the glass are separated in a very singular manner, the particles of 
silex having released themselves from the state of constraint pro- 
duced by fusion and subsequent cooling, and arranged themselves 
circularly round the centre of decomposition; while the metallic 
particles, which are opake, have done the same thing in circles 
alternating with the circles of the siliceous particles. This resto- 
ration of the silex to its crystalline state, is proved by its giving 
the colors of polarized light, and possessing an axis of double re- 
fraction. The most valuable glass articles manufactured by 
Fraiinhofer, of Munich, seemed to be peculiarly liable to some su- 
perficial decomposition of this kind. A prism of this glass in the 
Observatory of- Paris had become absolutely black. A prism be- 
longing to himself had become quite blue on the surface, although 
as yet its action on light was not affected. The largest object 
glass of the principal telescope in the Observatory of Edinburgh 
had begun to show decided symptoms of superficial decomposi- 
tion, and many other instances could also be mentioned. M. La- 
mont, professor of astronomy at Munich, who is in the constant 
habit of using Fraimhofer’s glasses, stated that there is an easy 
and effectual remedy for this tendency of Fraiinhofer’s glass to 
deteriorate on the surface, which was to rub it frequently with 
the finer parts of whiting, prepared by elaborating a mass of whi- 
ting in water, the fine powder to be dried and used on old soft 
linen. 
On the rings of Polarized Light produced in specimens of de- 
composed glass ; by Sir D. Brewster.—In the course of a series 
of experiments on the connexion between the absorption of light 
and the colors of thin plates, published in the Phil. Trans. 1837, 
I accidentally observed under the polarizing microscope, certain 
phenomena of polarized tints of great beauty and singularity. 
These tints were sometimes linear and sometimes circular, and in 
some specimens they formed beautiful circular rings traversed by 
a black cross, resembling the phenomena of mineral crystals, or 
those produced by rapidly cooled circular plates or cylinders of 
glass. Having found in the decomposed glass from St. Andrews, 
that the siliceous particles had resumed their position as regular 
crystals, and arranged themselves circularly round the centre of 
decomposition, I was led to suppose that this was the cause of the 
Vol. xu, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 42 


326 Proceedings of the British Association. 


phenomenon, and that the rings were the effect of the double re- 
fraction of the minute crystals. A few experiments, however, 
overturned this hypothesis, and I was soon satisfied, by a little 
further investigation, that the phenomena arose wholly from the 
polarization of the transmitted light by refraction, the splendid 
colors being entirely those of thin plates, which were sometimes 
arranged so as to have the appearance of concentric rings. - The 
structure by which these effects was produced, was compared by 
the author to a heap of very deep watch glasses laid one above 
another. When the thin films were arranged longitudinally, and 
were inclined to the general surface of the plate, so as to trans- 
mit the rays obliquely, the light was still polarized, but only in 
one plane, viz. a plane perpendicular to the plane of incidence. 
When a drop of water or oil was introduced between the films, 
the phenomena of polarization as well as of color, instantly dis- 
appeared. 

Prof. Phillips communicated new experimental researches on 
rain. He had endeavored, by a new train of researches on the 
quantities of rain received on horizontal surfaces, at different 
heights above the ground, and by a contemporaneous series of 
experiments on the direction and angle of inclination of the de- 
scending lines of rain drops, and by contemporaneous registration 
of wind, temperature and moisture, to furnish additional data of 
importance in the theory of rain. In the second part of his com- 
munication he described a new rain-gauge, for the purpose of de- 
termining the direction in which rain comes, and the angle of in- 
clination at which it descends. For this object, a compound 
gauge is constructed, having five equal receiving funnels and 
tubes; one with a vertical tube and horizontal aperture, the other 
four with tubes recurved, so as to present the openings of the fun- 
nels in four vertical planes, directed to four quarters of the ho- 
rizon. 

Excessive rain.—Prof. Forbes remarked that some doubt had 
been expressed concerning the remarkable fall of rain at Genoa 
(not. Geneva,) stated in his report of the previous year, viz. 30 
inches in 24 hours, Oct. 25, 1822. He now adduced satisfactory 
proof of its truth. He then noticed some other remarkable falls 
of rain. Flaugergues, the eminent meteorologist of Viviers, ob- 
tained, on the 6th of September, 1801, 143 English inches of rain 
in eighteen hours. On the 20th of May, 1827, there fell at Ge- 


Proceedings of the British Association. 327 


neva, six inches of rain in three hours. At Perth, Aug. 3d, 1829, 
there fell 4-5ths of an inch in half an hour. Don Antonio Lago 
observed at San Luis, Maranham (23° S. lat.) a fall of 23 feet 4 
inches 9.7 lines in a year. 

Mr. Espy’s paper on Storms, which excited much attention, 
was appointed for half past twelve o’clock, (Sept. 19,) and that 
hour having now arrived, the President called on Mr. Espy, who 
commenced by stating that he had found by examining simulta- 
neous observations in the middle of storms, and all round their 
borders, that the wind blows inward on all sides of a storm to- 
wards its central parts; towards a point if the storm is round, and 
towards a line, if the storm is oblong, extending through its long- 
est diameter. Mr. Espy stated that he had been able to investi- 
gate within the last five years seventeen storms, without discov- 
ering one exception to the general rule. He could now only give 
a specimen of the manner in which he had proceeded. He pre- 
sented a map of Great Britain, on which were drawn arrows rep- 
resenting the course of the wind on the night of January 6th, 
1839. From this and from documents which Mr. Espy pro- 
ceeded to read, it appeared that during those hours the wind was 
blowing a violent gale on the northwestern part of the island 
from the N. W.; on the southwestern parts from the 8. W., and 
on the southeastern parts a strong gale from the S. HK. and S. 8. B.; 
and that in the middle parts of the island it changed from south- 
easterly to southwesterly about those same hours :—the change 
taking place about two hours sooner on the west side of the isl- 
and than on the east side in the central parts, but much sooner in 
the northern parts than in the southern. 'The barometer also fell 
sooner in the northern and western parts than in the southern 
and eastern. From these two circumstances he thinks it highly 
probable, that this storm moved not exactly toward the east, but 
a little south of east, and if so, it would be similar to some storms 
which he had examined in the United States. He mentioned 
one in particular, which occurred January 26, 1839, whose N. N. E. 
and §.S. W. diameter reached at least seven hundred miles, 
while its diameter from W.-N. W. to E. 8. E. was probably not 
more than 300. The south border of this storm certainly trav- 
elled towards the south of east, and Mr. Espy found that in this 
storm, as in many others, the barometer fell sooner to the north 
and west than to the south and east. A much greater difference 


328 Proceedings of the British Association. 


however depended on the longitude than on the latitude of places. 
The barometer was at its minimum at Cape Wrath, in the N.N. W. 
corner of Scotland, two hours and a half sooner than at the Calf 
of Man, five hours sooner than at Edinburgh, and thirteen hours 
and a half sooner than at Thwaite, in Suffolk. Mr. Espy then 
stated that he had examined the data furnished by Col. Reid, of 
several hurricanes in the West Indies, and found conclusive evi- 
dence that the wind blew inwards to a central space in all these 
storms. Diagrams of two were exhibited :—one on the 3d of Oc- 
tober, 1780, in which Savannah-la-Mar was destroyed. In that 
storm, at its very height, the wind at Savannah-la-Mar, on the 
south side of the island of Jamaica, was south,—and nearly oppo- 
site to that point, on the north side of the island, the wind was 
N. E., or nearly in an opposite direction, for two hours at the time 
of the greatest violence of the storm at both places. The other 
storm was on the 18th of August, 1837, off Charleston, S. E. 
On that day, the ship Duke of Manchester had the centre of the 
storm pass over her, and on the same day, the West Indian and 
the Rawlins, which were on the southwest of the Duke of Man- 
chester, had the wind all day from 2 A. M. southwest, and at the 
same time the Cicero and the Yolof, on the N. EK. of the Duke of 
Manchester, had the wind N. BK. and E.N. BK. The Yolof all 
day, till 8 P.M. Mr. Espy then stated that he had visited the 
tracks of eighteen tornadoes, and examined several of them with 
great care, and found that all the phenomena told one tale,—the 
inward motion of the air to the centre of the inverted cone of 
cloud as it passed along the surface of the earth. From all these 
facts he demonstrated that there is an inward motion of the air 
towards the centre of storms from all sides; and that this is the 
inference which ought to be drawn from the well-known fact, 
that the barometer stands lower in the midst of a storm than it 
does all round its borders. ‘The difficulty is, to account for the 
continued depression of the barometer, notwithstanding the great 
rush of air at the surface of the earth towards the place where the 
barometer stands lowest. So great did this difficulty appear to 
Sir J. Herschel that he stated to the British Association at New- 
castle, that it appeared to him fatal to Mr. Espy’s theory. It ap- 
peared to Sir John that the only way to account for the fall of the 
barometer was a centrifugal force in the air, arising from the 
whirlwind character of storms. Mr. Espy thought it probable 


» f 


Proceedings of the British Association. 329 


that the following statements had never met the eye of Sir John, 
or he would at least have hesitated before he gave it as his opin- 
ion, that the air could not blow in towards a common ceutre 
without causing the barometer to rise above the mean. Mr. 
Forth says in the second volume of the Philosophical Transac- 
tions, (abridged,) that during a great depression of the barometer, 
January 8, 1735, he observed that the wind in the northern parts 
of the island blew from the N. E., and on the southern parts of 
the island from the S. W. And Mr. Howard says, in a great 
storm of 1812, the wind on the north of the Humber blew from 
the BE. N. E., and on the south of the Humber from the S. W. 
Mr. Espy then stated that he found by calculating according to 
well-known chemical laws, that the caloric of elasticity given out 
in the air in which acloud is formed, would expand the air in the 
cloud about 8000 cubic feet for every cubic foot of water formed 
in a cloud by condensation of the vapor ; and he exhibited an in- 
strument which he called a nepheloscope, which enabled him to 
measure the expansion with great accuracy, and he found it to 
agree with the calculations made on chemical principles. He 
then proceeded to give an outline of his theory, premising that the 
numbers he should introduce were not intended to be strictly ac- 
curate, and would be subject to many corrections, one in particu- 
lar, in which no notice had been taken of the specific heat of air 
under different pressures.* : 

This paper gave rise to a very interesting conversation, but 
from the great length of the paper itself, we can only direct at- 
tention to the leading points of the discussion. Prof. Stevelly 
called the attention of the Section to the fact that he had at the 
Edinburgh meeting in 1834, used the principle of cold, produced 
by rarefaction, to explain what he called the secondary forma- 
tion of clouds, and thus the propagation of storms; and even as- 
signed this rarefaction as the cause of the summer hail. He ob- 
jected to the main position, however, in Mr. Espy’s theory, that 
the fall of temperature caused by the expansion of any body of 
air rendered light by being loaded with moisture as it rose in the 
atmosphere, was the same as the constituent temperature of the 
strata of air into which it rose, that is, of equal tension. He 


* A synopsis of Mr. Espy’s philosophy of storms was published in Vol. 39, (pp. 
120—132,) and we therefore omit it in this place.—Eds. 


330 Proceedings of the British Association. 


deduced from the numbers given by Poisson, that it was much 
greater; that a cloud would be colder and not hotter than the 
surrounding air, and therefore the violent ascending vortex calcu- 
Jated upon by Mr. Espy would not exist. Prof. Forbes had three 
objections to Mr. Espy’s theory: Ist. the small funnel at the 
centre of a tornado, through which Mr. Espy supposed the air to 
rise, would be insufficient to vent all the air which would rush 
during a tornado, with the frightful velocity we know it to attain, 
through the constantly enlarging rings surrounding that central 
funnel, to the extent of many hundred miles. 2. As the tornado 
had a progressive motion, as Mr. E. admitted, it would be more 
difficult than Mr. E. supposed to deduce from the way in which 
the trees in its path were thrown, the actual course of the atmos- 
pheric particles at any instant, as each would move with a mo- 
tion compounded of two motions, both varying in relative direc- 
tion and magnitude. 3. All the vapor in the air would be con- 
densed into cloud much sooner than Mr. E. supposed, and he 
thought it certain that the small amount of heat given out by the 
vapor would not suffice to expand the air in the funnel to the 
extent required, if Mr. Espy’s views were correct. As to the 
question whether Mr. Redfield’s and Col. Reid’s theory of a whirl, 
or Mr. Espy’s radial theory, was most accordant with fact, Mr. 
Osler said, that from the investigation he had given this subject, 
he was convinced that the centripetal action described by Mr. E. 
took place in most hurricanes. The particulars which he, (Mr. O.) 
had collected, together with the indications obtained from the 
anemometers at Birmingham and Plymouth, satisfied him that the 
action of the great storm of January 6 and 7, 1839, was not ro- 
tatory at the surface of the earth, when it passed across England. 
He differed, however, both from Mr. Espy and Mr. Redfield in 
one essential point, for he believed it would be almost impossible 
to have a violent hurricane without, at the same time, having 
both rotatory and centripetal action. A storm might very probably 
be generated in the first instance in the manner accounted for by 
Mr. Espy, or by the action of contrary currents: in the first case 
the rush of air toward a spot of greater or less diameter would 
not be perfectly uniform, owing to the varying state of the sur- 
rounding atmosphere ; this together with the upward tendency 
of the current would, in some cases, produce a violent eddy or 
rotatory motion, and a whirlwind of a diameter varying with the 


Proceedings of the british Association. 331 


cause would ensue; the centripetal action would thus be im- 
mensely increased, the whirlwind itself demanding a vast supply 
of air, which would be constantly thrown off spirally upwards, 
and diffused over the upper atmosphere, thus causing the high 
state of the barometer which surrounds a storm. He further 
stated that he had brought his theory of the combined action of 
centripetal and rotatory motion before the meeting at Birming- 
ham, and a short notice of it would be found in the reports of 
the Sections. If no rotatory action takes place, he believed that 
we merely experienced the rush of air which necessarily precedes 
a heavy fall of rain or thunder storm; but he believed that noth- 
ing violent enough to be called a hurricane could take place, 
unless a violent rotatory or whirling action be first produced, and 
that in many and perhaps most cases, the rotatory portion is not 
in contact with the earth. Mr. Arch. Smith said there was one 
point which must not be overlooked in any correct comparison of 
the rival theories. From the principle of the conservation of 
areas it was perfectly certain, that if a storm was caused in the 
manner supposed by Mr. Espy, there must be a rotation, greater 
or less, in the centre. Because, unless the motion of all the cur- 
rents were accurately directed to one point, or at least their mo- 
ments in a horizontal plane were equal to zero, which was infin- 
itely improbable, a motion of rotation must be the result, as in the 
instance of the motion of water in a funnel cited by Mr. Espy. 
If the central space of comparative rest were large, the whirl 
might be imperceptible ; but if small, as in the case of a water- 
spout, it must be considerable. Without embracing either theory, 
he thought it difficult to conceive, as he understood Mr. O. to do, 
the motion of rotation to be the primary, and the centripetal, 
(which indeed would be centrifugal,) force to be the secondary 
phenomenon. But it was comparatively easy to suppose the cen- 
tripetal motion to be the primary phenomenon, and quite certain 
that if so, there must result a secondary phenomenon of rotation, 
of which indeed some indications appeared in Mr. Espy’s maps. 
In making some remarks on the preceding paper, Sir D. Brewster 
observed, that it was impossible to form any decided opinion on 
the subject from the great want of well ascertained facts; and 
as Mr. Espy had founded his theory expressly on observations, 
often made by himself, it was impossible to do justice to his in- 
genious views until a greater number of facts had been collected. 


332 Proceedings of the British Association. 


The facts too stated by Mr. Espy were opposed to those observed 
by others. In the case of hurricanes or tornadoes the convergence 
of the aérial currents in the one theory and their rotatory motion 
in the other were not observed, but inferred from a number of 
facts; but as Mr. Espy regarded water-spouts as formed in the 
same manner as tornadoes, and as Col. Reid had distinctly stated, 
(in his letter quoted before,) that he had actually seen, from the 
government house at Bermuda, by means of a telescope, the wa- 
ter-spout revolving like the hands on a dial-plate of a watch, there 
could be no doubt that we were at variance about facts. "This ex- 
plicit and distinct observation of a rotatory motion, by so able and 
accurate an observer as Col. Reid, was worth a thousand infer- 
ences. Prof. Phillips said that he thought the statements of facts 
connected with tornadoes as stated in the American Journals, were 
more consistent with Mr. Espy’s than with Mr. Redfield’s theory ; 
and Col. Reid’s thinking he saw rotation in a water-spout could 
not invalidate the abiding evidence from uprooted forests. Mr. 
Hspy in his reply seemed to think he had been misunderstood, 
and answered Prof. Forbes’s objections at considerable length. 

A letter dated New York, July 28, 1840, from Mr. Wm. C. 
Redfield to Sir J. Herschel, was communicated to the meeting. 
With this letter Mr. R. had sent, by the steamship British Queen, 
a map showing the direction of the wind in the great storm of 
December 15, 1839, at noon, with a schedule of the observa- 
tions: also, a sketch of the various directions of prostrated trees, 
&c. found in a section of the track of the New Jersey tornado of 
June 19, 1835, with a statement of the observations,—furnishing 
some of the evidences of rotation found in the tract of the tor- 
nado. Unfortunately neither of these communications had reach- 
ed Sir J. Herschel, and there was reason to apprehend they were 
lost. 

Mr. C. J. Kennedy read an elaborate paper on the theory of 
electricity.x—A communication was read by Dr. Forbes, on the 
mean apsidal angle of the moon’s orbit.—Mr. Fox read his re- 
port on subterranean temperature. Early in 1815, Mr. Joel Lean 
stated to him his conviction that the high temperature observed 
in our mines existed in the earth itself, increasing with the 
depth; and shortly afterwards his brother Thos. Lean, at their 
request, made many experiments in Huel Abraham copper mine, 
of which he was the manager, in order to test the correctness of 


Proceedings of the British Association. 333 


this view. 'The result obtained by him tended to confirm it very 
unequivocally ; and so did another series, made the same year in 
Doleoath mine, by John Rule, Jr. one of the superintendents. 
Many other individuals have since at the request of Mr. F., carri- 
ed on similar observations in different mines, all showing that the 
subterranean temperature increases in some proportion to the 
depth of the stratum. 'The tables of observations given in the 
Report confirm Mr. F'ox’s previous views, that the rate of increase 
is not so considerable at deeper excavations as at those which 
are shallower.—Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson read a paper on the tem- 
perature of the earth in the deep. mines near Manchester.—Prof. 
Forbes made his report on the temperature and conducting pow- 
ers of different strata. ‘The results agree substantially with those 
reported by him last year. 

Sir D. Brewster read a report on the Phenomena and cause of 
musce volitantes. As this paper was illustrated with several draw- 
ings, and contained minute experimental details, it is not easy to 
give a popular account of it. The following are the principal re- 
sults. 1. In persons of all ages, and with the most perfect eyes, 
transparent filaments or tubes exist in the vitreous humor, and at 
different distances from the retina. 2. These filaments float in 
the vitreous humor, moving about with the motion of the head. 
3. These filaments are seen by means of their shadows on the 
retina, and are most distinctly visible in divergent light, their 
shadows being bounded by fringes produced by diffraction or in- 
flexion. 4. The real musce, resembling flies, are knots tied, as 
it were, on these filaments, and arising from sudden jerks or mo- 
tions of the head, which cause the long floating filaments to 
overlap and run into knots. 5. By making experiments with the 
head in all positions, and determining the limits of the motions 
of the musce, by measuring their apparent magnitude, and pro- 
ducing double images of them by means of two centres of di- 
vergent light, the author was able to determine their exact place 
in the vitreous humor, and to ascertain the important fact that 
the vitreous humor in the living human eye is contained in cells 
of limited magnitude, which prevent any bodies which they con- 
fain from passing into any of the adjacent cells. ‘The author 
concluded with the following observations: ‘I have dwelt thus 
long on the subject of msc@ volitantes, not only because it is an 
entirely new one, but also on account of its practical utility. Mr. 

Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 43 


334 Proceedings of the British Association. 


Mackenzie informs us that few symptoms prove so alarming to 
persons of a nervous habit or constitution as musce volitantes, 
and that they immediately suppose that they are about to lose their — 
sight by cataract or amaurosis. ‘The details which I have sub- 
mitted to you prove that the musce volitantes have no connexion 
with either of those diseases, and are altogether harmless. This 
valuable result has been deduced from a recondite property of di- 
vergent light, which has only been developed in our own day, 
and which seems to have no bearing whatever of an utilitarian 
character ; and this is but one of numerous proofs which the 
progress of knowledge is daily accumulating, that the most ab- 
stract and apparently transcendental truths in physical science, 
will sooner or later, add their tribute to supply homan wants, and 
alleviate human sufferings. Nor has science performed one of 
the least important of her functions, when she enables us either 
in our own case or in that of others, to dispel those anxieties and 
fears which are the necessary offspring of ignorance and error.” 

Sir D. Brewster read a notice ‘on the line of visible direction 
along the axis of vision.’ In D’Alembert’s memoir ‘on different 
~ questions in Optics,’ published in his Opuscules Mathematiques, 
tome 1, he has maintained the singular opinion that distant ob- 
jects, like the fixed stars, when viewed directly with both eyes, 
are not seen in their true direction, that is, neither in the direc- 
tion of the rays which they send to the eye, nor of the line (co- 
incident with it) drawn from the point of incidence on the retina 
through the centre of visible direction. ‘The author pointed out 
the fallacy in D’Alembert’s reasoning, and thus established in op- 
position to the opinion of that distinguished philosopher, the law 
of visible direction which he had explained at the Newcastle 
meeting. 

Dr. Reade exhibited an experiment with an instrument which 
he called an Jriscope. A piece of black polished glass was rub- 
bed over in part with a solution of Castile soap; as-soon as it 
was dry, the soap was polished off with a glove, until, as far as 
appearances were concerned, the one part of the glass was as 
_ clean as the other. He then blew his breath on the plate through 
a tube about half an inch in bore, and instantly the most vivid 
rings of colors (resembling Nobili’s) were exhibited where the 
breath condensed on the part of the glass which had been pre- 
viously soaped: while, on the other part, the condensed breath 
exhibited simply the usual dead gray color. 


Proceedings of the British Association. 335 


Report of the Committee (Sir J. Herschel, Mr. Whewell, Mr. 
Peacock and Prof. Lloyd,) appointed to draw up plans of sczentific 
coéperation relating to the subject of terrestrial magnetism. In 
consequence of the measures adopted as detailed in the last re- 
port of this committee, a very extensive system of corresponding 
maguetical observations has been organized, embracing between 
thirty and forty stations in various and remote parts of the globe, 
provided with magnetometers and every requisite instrument, and 
with observers carefully selected, and competent to carry out, at 
most, if not all the stations, a complete series of two-hourly ob- 
servations, day and night, during the whole period of their re- 
maining in activity, together with monthly term observations, at 
intervals of two minutes and a half. Of these observatories, that 
at Dublin, placed under the immediate superintendence of Prof. 
Lloyd, has been equipped and provided for by the praiseworthy 
liberality and-public spirit of the University of that metropolis,— 
those at Toronto, the Cape of Good Hope, St. Helena, and Van 
Diemen’s Land, as also the two itinerant observatories of the An- 
tarctic Expedition by the British Government,—those of Madras, 
Simla, Sincapore and Aden, by the Hon. Hast India Company ; 
to which are to be added ten stations in European and Asiatic 
Russia, and one at Pekin established by Russia,—two by Austria, 
at Prague and Milan,—two in the U. States; viz. at Philadelphia, 
by the Girard College, and at Cambridge by the American Acad- 
emy,—one by the French government at Algiers,—one by the 
Prussian, at Breslau,—one by the Bavarian, at Munich,—one by 
the Spanish, at Cadiz,—one by the Belgian, at Brussels,—one by 
the Pasha of Egypt, at Cairo, and one by the Rajah of 'Travan- 
core, at T'revandrum, in India. In addition to this list, it has re- 
cently also been determined, at the instance of the Royal Society, 
by the British Government, to provide for the performance of a 
series of corresponding observations, both magnetic and meteoro- 
logical, at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, under the able 
superintendence of the Astronomer Royal. At Hammerfest also, 
in Norway, negotiations have been for some time carrying on for 
establishing an observatory of a similar description, in which Mr. 
' Hansteen has taken an especial interest. A great number of mag- 
netic and other instruments available for this service, it appears 
have been left at Kaafiord, by M. Gaymard, acting for the ‘* Com- 
mission Scientifique du Nord,” under the direction of the French 


| an Proceedings of the British Association. 


Ministry of the Marine, all which instruments, through the effi- 
cient intervention of M. Arago, it is understood will be placed at 
the disposal of the observer or observers who may be appointed 
to conduct the observations. 'To complete the establishment, 
however, certain instruments, as well as registry-books, We. are 
still requisite. The Council of the Royal Society have under- 
taken to supply these from the Wollaston Donation Fund.* As 
regards the magnetic observatory at Breslau, under the direction 
of M. Boguslawski, your committee have to report, that in order 
to secure the establishment of that station, and to place it on an 
equal footing with the rest, certain instruments, &c. required to 
be provided, for which no funds existed or could be made avail- 
able on the spot, viz. a bifilar and a vertical-force magnetometer, 
with the requisite reading telescopes, and a set of registry-books. 
* * ‘These were supplied at the expense of the Association. * * 
A letter from M. Boguslawski, dated July 22, 1840, announces 
the safe arrival of the instruments and books in question, and 
the consequent complete state of instrumental equipment of the 
Breslau observatory, expressing at the same time, his sincere 
thanks for the assistance accorded him. By returns from the 
several stations authorized by the British government, so far as 
yet received, it appears, that the observatories at the Cape and St. 
Helena might be expected to be complete and ready for the re- 
ception of the instruments in May. From Van Diemen’s Land 
no accounts have yet been received. At Toronto, Canada, where 
the greatest delays and difficulties were to be expected and have 
been experienced, the observatory was so far advanced at the 
date of Mr. Riddell’s last communication, as to leave no doubt of 
its completion in time for the regular observation of the August 
term.t Meanwhile, in this, as at the other stations, all observa- 
tions practicabie under the actual circumstances of each are made 
and regularly forwarded ; and here your committee would espe- 


* An interesting view of the existing state of knowledge respecting terrestrial 
magnetism, and a detailed account of the present magnificent system of magnetic 
observations, is contained in a paper in the (London) Quarterly Review, July, 
1840, No. 131, Vol. 66.—Ebs. 

t On the term days, which begin on the Friday preceding the last Saturday in 
February, May, August and November, at 10h. P. M. Gottingen mean time, the 
magnetic observations are continued for twenty-four successive hours, at intervals 
of two and a half minutes. Similar observations are also made on the Wednesday 
preceding the 2ist of each remaining month.—Eps, 


Proceedings of the British Association. — By 4 


cially call attention to the extremely remarkable phenomena ex- 
hibited at ‘Toronto on the 29th and 30th of May, when, by great 
good fortune, a most superb Aurora appeared at the very time of 
the term observations. The phenomena of this Aurora, which was 
remarkable for the extent and frequency of the pulsating waves, (al- 
luded to in the Report of the Council of the Royal Society, relating 
to this subject,) are very minutely and scientifically described by. 
Mr. Riddell.* But what renders the occurrence presently inter- 
esting, is the fact, that during the whole time of the visible ap- 
pearance of this aurora on the night from the 29th to the 30th, 
as well as for some hours previous, while it might be presumed 
to be in progress, though effaced by daylight, all the three mag- 
netical instruments were thrown into a state of continual and™ 
very extraordinary disturbance. In fact, at 6h. 25m. in the morn- 
ing of the 29th, the disturbance in the magnetic declination du- 
ring asingle minute of time carried the needle over ten minutes 
of arc; and during the most brilliant part of the eveuing’s dis- 
play (from 3h. 25m. Gott. m. t. to 4h. 35m.) the disturbances 
were such as to throw the scales of both the vertical and hori- 
zontal force magnetometers out of the field of view, and to pro- 
duce a total change of declination, amounting to 1° 59’, It 
should also be remarked, that the greatest and most sudden dis- 
turbances were coincident with great bursts of the auroral stream- 
ers. ‘The correspondence or want of correspondence of these 
deviations with the perturbations of the magnetic elements ob- 
served in Europe and elsewhere on the same day, cannot fail to 
prove of great interest. Should it fortunately have happened 
that Capt. Ross has been able to observe that term at Kerguelen’s 
Land, which is not very far from the antipodes of Toronto, an 
indication will be afforded whether or not the electric streams 
producing the aurora are to be regarded as diverging from one 
magnetic pole or region, and converging to another. Your com- 
mittee cannot conclude this report, without congratulating the 
Association and the scientific world in general on the‘ extensive 
interest inspired, and the vast range of observation consequently 
embraced by this operation, which, so far as any accounts have 


* Some notices of this auroral display have appeared in this Journal, (Vol 39, pp. 
194, 383.) It was attended with a singular auroral belt, extending over head from 
east to west, which was seen as far eastward at least as Nantucket, and westward 
several hundred miles from that island.—Eps. 


338 Proceedings of the British Association. 


hitherto reached them, appear to be going on prosperously in all 
its parts,and to promise results fully answerable to every expec- 
tation of its promoters. Neither would they feel justified in their 
own eyes, were they to omit expressing their deep and grate- 
ful sense of the indefatigable personal exertions of Major Sabine 
throughout the whole of the progress, both in carrying on a most 
voluminous correspondence, in ordering, arranging and dispatch- 
ing instruments, and facilitating, by constant attention and ac- 
tivity, those innumerable details which are involved in a combin- 
ation so extensive,—a combination, which, but for those exer- 
tions, your committee are fully of opinion must have been greatly 
wanting in that unity of design and codperation which now so 
eminently characterizes it.—Signed, on the part of the commit- 
tee, J. F. W. HerscHen. : 

The following is a list of the magnetic observatories establish- 
ed by the Russian government, viz. St. Petersburgh, Catharinen- 
burgh, Barnaoul, Nertchinsk, Kazan, Nikolaieff, Tiflis, Sitka, (N. 
_W. coast of America,) Helsingfors in Finland, and Pekin in 
China. 

The Astronomer Royal announced that her Majesty’s govern- 
ment had sanctioned the establishment of a magnetic observa- 
tory at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. In ‘reference to 
- the aurora seen at Toronto, in Upper Canada, on the 29th of May, 
and to the magnetic perturbations by which its perturbations had 
been accompanied, he stated that the term day of. the 29th, and 
30th of May, 1840, had also been kept at the Royal Observatory 
at Greenwich; that an aurora was seen there also on the 29th, 
and that the disturbances of the declination magnetometer ex- 
ceeded in any amount which had been observed there on previous 
occasions. Observations had for some time past, been made un- 
der his superintendence, and he had observed some remarkable 
auroral disturbances of the needle, when the amount of the de- 
flection had, ‘as well as he remembered, exceeded half a degree. 
The coincidence of these disturbances had not been exact; at 
Greenwich as in America, they had been found to occur earlier 
than in those places more to the east. 

Dr. Lamont gave an account of the magnetic observatory at 
Munich, regular observations at which, were begun Aug. 1, 1840. 
It differs in two respects from other establishments of this kind. 
It is 13 feet below the earth’s surface, thus affording the advan- 


Proceedings of the British Association. — 339 


tage of a temperature nearly equal throughout the year. Sec- 
ondly, the instruments are of unusually large dimensions, and are . 
in all respects sufficient for the most delicate investigations.— 
Dr. L. gave also a general statement of the system of meteoro- 
logical observations carried on in Bavaria; the results of which 
appear in the annual publications of the Royal Observatory of 
Munich. 

Prof. Jacobi, of St. Petersburgh, gave ahistorical sketch of the 
laws which regulate the action of Electro-magnetic machines. 
After recounting the theoretical researches carried on by himself 
with the assistance of M. Lenz, he adds, ‘‘ Unfortunately, I can- 
not here give the details either of the experiments which I have 
made upon a very large scale, or of the machines and apparatus 
of various kinds which I have constructed. The necessity of 
multiplying the facts or tangible results,—a necessity the more 
urgent, because the practical applications of this force increased 
so very rapidly,—this necessity I say, has not allowed me time 
to digest and arrange them. I will, however, particularly notice 
the satisfactory results of the experiments made last year with a 
boat of 28 feet long, and 74 feet wide, drawing 22 feet of water, 
and carrying 14 persons, which was propelled upon the Neva at 
the rate of about 3 English miles in-the hour. ‘The machine, 
which occupied very little space, was set in motion by a battery 
of 64 pairs of platinum plates, each having 36 square inches of 
surface, and charged according to the plan of Mr. Grove, with 
nitric and diluted sulphuric acid. Although these results may 
perhaps not satisfy the exaggerated expectations of some per- 
sons, it is to be remembered. that in the first year, viz. in 1838, 
this boat being put in motion by the same machine, and employ- 
ing 320 pairs of plates, each of 36 square inches, and charged 
with sulphate of copper, only half this velocity was obtained. 
This enormous battery occupied considerable space, and the ma- 
nipulation and management of it were very treublesome. The 
judicious changes made in the distribution of the rods, in the 
construction of the commutator, and lastly in the principles of 
the voltaic battery, have led to the successful result of the fol- 
lowing year, 1839.. We have gone thus on the Neva, more than 
once, and during the whole day, partly with and partly against 
the stream, with a party of 12 or 14 persons, and with a velocity 
not much less than that of the first-invented steamboat. I be- 


340 Proceedings of oe British Association. 


lieve that more cannot be Slee from a chichinsies foree, 
whose existence has only been known since 1834, when I made 
the first experiment at Konigsberg, in Prussia, and only succeed- 
ed in lifting a weight of about 20 ounces, by even _ this electro- 
magnetic power. 

‘“‘T must on the present occasion, confess frankly that hitherto 
the construction of electro-magnetic machines has been regulated 
in a great measure by mere trials ; that even these machines con- 
structed according to the indisputable laws established with re- 
gard to the statical effects of electro-magnets, have been found in- 
efficient, as soon as we came to deal with motion. Being always 
accustomed to proceed in a legitimate manner, and feeling great 
regret at the irregular attempts which were being made every 
where, without any scientific foundation, this state of things ap- 
peared to me so unsatisfactory, that I could not but direct all my 
efforts to ascertain clearly the laws of these remarkable machines. 
I submit the formule relative to these laws, which appear to me 
to recommend themselves as much by their simplicity as by the 
natural manner in which they develope themselves. Let It rep- 
resent all the mechanical resistances acting upon the machine, 
and » the uniform velocity with which it moves; we have for 
the power or mechanical effect, the expression T=Rv. Let n 
be the number of coils of the helix which covers the rods; z the 
number of the plates of the battery; B the total resistance of 
the galvanic circuit ; K the electro-motive force ; / a coefficient 
which depends on the arrangement of the bars, the distance of 
the poles, and the quality of the iron; we have then for the max- 
imum of the mechanical effect which will be obtained, the ex- 
pression, 


LT z? Be 
2 m AB 
For the ae which corresponds to this maximum, 
B 
I rEaey 
For the resistance acting upon the machine, 
Nr 2 2 


Lastly for the economic effect, i. e. the duty or the mechanical 


effect divided by the consumption of zinc in a given time, 


E 
IV. O oye 


Proceedings of the British Association. 341 


These formule may be expressed in the terms, 

1. The maximum of mechanical effect which may be obtain- 
ed from a machine, is proportional to the square of the number 
of voltaic elements, multiplied into the square of the electro-mo- 
tive force, and divided by the total resistance of the voltaic cir- 
cuit. There enters, moreover, into the formula, a factor which 
I have designated /, and which depends upon the quality of the 
iron, the form and disposition of the rods, and the distance be- 
tween their extremities. The result is, that with reference to 
some other investigations, which 1 have made of voltaic combi- 
nations, and under similar conditions, the use of platinum, zinc, 
the resistance being the same, will produce an effect two or 
three times greater than the use of coeppr, zinc. 

2. Neither the number of the coils of the helix which covers 
the rods, nor the diameter, or the length of the rods themselves, 
has any influence upon the maximum of the power. It results, 
therefore, that neither by adding to the length or diameter of the 
rods, nor by employing a greater quantity of wire, can the power 
be increased. There is however, this remarkable fact, that the 
number of coils disappears from the formula, simply because 
the force of the machine is in a direct ratio, and the velocity is 
in an inverse ratio, to the square of this number. It is thus that 
the number of coils, the dimensions of the rods, and the other 
constituent parts of an electro-magnetic machine, should be con- 
sidered simply as occupying the range of the ordinary mechan- 
isms which serve for the transmission or transformation of the 
velocity, without increasing the available power. So it would 
be possible to use, instead of the ordinary wheelwork, rods of 
greater or less length, or a greater or Jess quantity of wire, in or- 
der to establish between the force and the velocity the relation 
which the applications to manufacturing processes may require. 

3. The mean attraction of the magnetic rods, or the pressure 
which the machine can exert, is proportional to the square of the 
current. This pressure is indicated by the galvanometer, which 
in this manner performs the function of the manometer of steam 
engines. : 

4. The economic effect, i. e. the duty or the available power, 
divided by the consumption of zinc, is a constant quantity, which 
is expressed most simply by the relation between the electro-mo- 


tive force and the factor k, which has been previously noticed. 
Vol. xz, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 44 


342 Proceedings of the British Association. 


I may here repeat what I stated elsewhere, that by employing. 
platinum instead of copper, the theoretical expenses may be re- 
duced in the proportion of nearly 23 to 14. 

5. The consumption of zinc, which takes place while the ma- 
chine is at rest, and does no work at all, is double that which oc- 
curs while it is producing the maximum of power. 

T consider that there will not be much difficulty in determin- 
ing with sufficient precision, the duty of one pound of zinc, by 
its transformation into the sulphate, in the same manner that in 
the steam engine, the duty of one bushel of coal serves asa 
measure to estimate the effect of different combinations. The 
future use and application of electro-magnetic machines appear 
to me quite certain, especially as the mere trials and vague ideas 
which have hitherto prevailed in the construction of these ma- 
chines, have now at length yielded to the precise and definite 
laws which are conformable to the general laws which nature is 
accustomed to observe with strictness, whenever the question of 
effects and their causes arises. In viewing on the one hand a 
chemical effect, and on the other a mechanical effect, the inter- 
mediate term scarcely presents itself at first. In the present case, 
it is magneto-electricity, the admirable discovery of Faraday, 
which we should consider as the regulating power, or as it may 
be styled, the logic of electro-magnetic machines. 

Prof. Kelland read a paper having for its object to point out the 
state of our experimental knowledge of the transmission of heat, 
and to exhibit its total inadequacy to serve as the test of any pre- 
cise and accurate theory. 

Dr. Anderson made a communication concerning the meteorol- 
ogy of Perth. ‘This place is about 30 feet above the mean level 
of the ocean, in lat. 56° 23’ 40” N.; lon. 3° 26’ 20” W. The 
magnetic variation there, (which seemed to have reached its max- 
imum in 1815,) was 26° 54’ W. in Nov. 1836: the magnetic dip 
was 72° 10’ in May, 1838. ‘The mean barometrical pressure de- 
duced from a period of consecutive observations, continued from 
1829 to 1835, was 29.802 in., the time of observation being nine 
o’clock in the morning. ‘The extreme range of the barometer du- 
ring this period was 2.821 inches. The mean temperature is 
about 48° F. ‘The mean annual quantity of rain from 1829 to 
1834 was 30.89 inches. 


Proceedings of the British Association. 343 


Sir D. Brewster read a paper on the cause of the increase of 
color in objects seen with the head inverted. It has been long 
known to all artists and tourists, that the colors of external ob- 
jects, and particularly of natural scenery, are greatly augmented 
by viewing them with the head bent down and looking back- 
wards between the feet, that is, by the inversion of the head. 
The colors of the western sky, and the blue and purple tints of 
distant mountain scenery are thus beautifully developed. ‘This 
position of the head is a very inconvenient one; but the effect 
may be produced nearly to the same extent by inverting the 
head so far as to look at the landscape backwards beneath the 
thighs or left arm. It is not easy to describe this change 
of color, but it may be stated that the colors of distant moun- 
tains, which appear tame and of a French gray color when 
viewed with the head erect, appear of a brilliant blue or purple 
tint with the head inverted. * * While in perplexity about the 
cause of the phenomenon in question, I had an opportunity of ob- 
serving the great increase of light which took place in an eye in 
a state of inflammation. ‘This increase was such, that objects 
seen by the sound eye appeared as if illuminated by twilight, 
while those seen by the inflamed eye, seemed as if they were 
illuminated by the direct rays of the sun. Al! colored objects 
had the intensity of their colors proportionally augmented ; and I 
was thus led to believe that the increase of color produced by the 
partial or total inversion of the head, arose from the increased 
quantity of blood thrown into the vessels or the eye-ball,—the in- 
creased pressure thus produced upon the retina, and from the in- 
creased sensibility thus given to the sentient membrane. Subse- 
quent observations have confirmed this opinion, and though I can- 
not pretend to have demonstrated it, I have no hesitation in ex- 
pressing it as my conviction that the apparent increase of tint to 
which I have referred, is not an optical, but a physiological phe- 
nomenon. — If this is the case, we are furnished with a principle 
which may enable us not only to appreciate faint tints, which can- 
not otherwise be recognized, but to perceive small objects which, 
with our best telescopes, might be otherwise invisible. 

Mr. Snow Harris’s report on the working of Whewell’s ane- 
mometer at Plymouth, was read by the secretary. ‘The instru- 
ment being now effectively at work, Mr. H. proposes to have 
completed by the next meeting a graphical delineation of the in- 


344 Proceedings of the British Association. 


_ tegral amount of wind shown by it at Plymouth for the entire 
year, and in the mean time he sent drawings and tables which 
contain the results of its work for the last three months. 

Sir David Brewster then offered some remarks on microscopes, 
and his mode of illuminating microscopic objects. 

Prof. Nichol gave an account of the astronomical observatory 
erecting near Glasgow. ‘Two reflectors by Ramage had been ob- 
tained, one of 25 feet focal length, to which Sir J. Herschel’s 
collimator is to be affixed, and another of 55 feet focal length and 
23 inches in diameter. A transit-circle had been been ordered 
from Munich, the telescope of which is 8 feet focal length and 
6.25 inches diameter. An equatorial of great power was also in 
expectation. 

Mr. Airy, the astronomer royal, gave an explanation of a new 
apparent polarity of light, announced some time since by Sir D. 
Brewster. His explanation resulted in showing that the phenom- 
enon is a simple consequence of the undulatory theory. Sir D. 
Brewster remarked that Prof. Powell’s solution of this problem 
was fallacious, and that of Mr. Airy did not explain all the facts. 
A full account of experiments on the phenomenon in question is 
now preparing for the Royal Society. 

Sir D. Brewster gave an account of a rainbow seen in Dumfries- 
shire by Rev. Mr. Fisher, in which the primary bow was accom- 
panied with five supplementary bows, and the secondary one with 
three ; a larger number than had been before noticed. 

Mr. Airy explained the principles of Mr. Fowler’s new calcula- 
ting machine, the object of which was to facilitate the guardians 
of a poor-law district in Devonshire, in calculating the proportions 
in which the several divisions were to be assessed. 

Dr. Anderson then submitted some observations on the dew 
point, in which he explained the principles of the formula which 
he deduced several years ago, from the experiments of Dalton and 
Gay-Lussac, for determining the various objects connected with 
the hygrometric state of the air; and showed by means of tables 
which he had constructed from it, the facility and dispatch with 
which the absolute as well as the relative humidity of the atmos- 
phere, together with the dew point, might be obtained. 

Mr. Shand read a paper on the agency of sound, adverting to 
the rules and principles by which it is governed, and with partic- 
ular reference to the economy of voice in public apartments. 


Meteorological Journal for the year 1840. 345 


Mr. Graham Hutchinson read a paper on a method of prognos- 
ticating the probable mean temperature of the several winter 
months, from that of corresponding months in the preceding 
summer. 

Mr. Wm. Bald continued a series of observations made in 
1839, and 1840, on the tides in the harbor of Glasgow, and the 
velocity of the Tidal Wave in the estuary of the river Clyde, 
between Glasgow and Port Glasgow. 


[The remainder is unavoidably deferred to the next number} 


Arr. [X.—Abstract of a Meteorological Journal for the year 
1840, kept at Marietta, Ohio, Lat. 39° 25’ N., and Lon. 4° 
28’ W. of Washington City; by S. P. Hirprets, M. D. 


THERMOMETER. we Ss | BAROMETER. 
2 | 5: lati 
Months. Be late a oS Prevailing winds. 
a |i 8 er les eee Gg |g 
= S > BS co bla a = iS 
| e |e) ei 2/2/84 Bll 
S isis isis 2) eis) mena ilies 
|S) 3 [etl | |e |S bi a ds ll tes cesta 
January, |25.00/43) —4|47| 11) 20) 2/33 W., N. W. 39 .80/28.78)1.02 
February, |41.00/74) -0)74) 15} 14; 3/08) w., s. w., s. E. 29.75/28.88| .87 
March,  |48.66/78| 16/62] 12| 19| 321) w., w., 5. B. 29.64/28.82| .82 
April, _|56.5788) 26|62| 17] 13) 4/25) s. w.,N., 8. B. 29.74|29.10) .64 
May, 61.80/91) 33/58) 21) 10) 5,21 S., 8. E. 29.55|28.92) .63} 
June, 68.66/89) 43/46] 19) 11} 4/25 S., 8. W. 29.68|29.10) .58 
July, 71.25/92) 51/41) 23) 8) 2|17 S., S. W. '29.63|29.25] .38 
August, 72.43/90] 51/39] 22) 9) 5/25 S., S. W. 29.65|29.20) .45 
September, 57.27/82) 34/48| 20} 10) 2/00 S., 8. E., Ne 29.75|29.12) .63 
October, 52.8382) 19/63] 19] 12| 3/92) s. w., w.,N. w. 29.60/29.08) .52 
November, |40.60)68} 22/46] 14) 16) 1/92) W., S. W. 29.70/28.88] .82 
December, |32.1458' 6/52) 11] 20) 1/50 W., N. W. '29.75128.85] .90 
Mean, {|52.55! 204)162'39}09 1 


Remarks on the year 1840.—The mean temperature for the 
year is 52.35°, which varies but a small portion of a degree from 
that of the preceding year. ‘The amount of rain and melted snow 
is 39.09 inches, which is a few inches below the annual mean for 
this place, but is about six inches greater than that of the prece- 
ding year. ‘The distribution has been regulated in a remarkable 
manner, so as to be most abundant in those months, where the 
heat and evaporation are the greatest, and moisture most needed 
for the growth of plants and filling out the ripening grain. The 
mean temperature for the several seasons is as follows.—N. B. The 
winter embraces December of 1839. 


346 Meteorological Journal for the year 1840. 


Winter months, 34.11°. Spring months, 55.70°. Summer 
months, 70.859. Autumn months, 50.24°. There is a great 
similarity in the seasons of the two past years, the difference be- 
ing not more than a degree in any one of them. ‘The range of 
the barometer has been less than in the preceding year, the mer- 
cury rising at no time higher than 29.80, or sinking below 
28.78. January was a very cold month, the mean being 25°, 
which is ten degrees below that of 1839. Although the mer- 
cury did not fall at any time to more than 4° below zero, yet it 
was below and near to that point on ten mornings. February, 
which is usually the coldest month, was this year six degrees 
warmer than January. March was six degrees warmer than that 
of last year, and brought forward the blooming of plants some- 
what earlier. The past year in the west, has been somewhat 
remarkable for storms of wind and hail. On the 23d of April, at 
half past four P. M., a tornado swept across the S. E. portion of 
the town of Marietta, near the Ohio river, unroofing several 
buildings, and blowing down the brick gable ends ; quite a num- 
ber of ornamental trees were prostrated. It crossed the Ohio 
from Virginia, where it did considerable damage to fences, trees, 
&c. The force of the wind continued only for a few minutes, 
and was not very extensive. On the third day of May, a simi- 
lar tornado visited Gallipolis and vicinity, doing considerable 
damage to buildings, trees and fences. It took place at half past 
four P. M. The same gust reached Marietta at half past five, 
but was not so violent. 

Gallipolis lies about sixty miles distant in aS. W. direction 
from Marietta. On the 18th of June, about noon, an uncommon 
shower of hail fell upon a district of country three miles south 
of this place. It commenced in the state of Ohio, a few miles 
west of the river, ranging nearly east and west, and crossed the 
river into Virginia, passing over the large island below town. 
It was about a mile in width, and eight or ten miles in length. 
A constant discharge of electric fluid attended the shower, not 
however, in very loud peals of thunder, but with a continual 
roar, like the rumbling of carriages over hard ground. So im- 
mense was the quantity of hail, that it covered the earth to the 
depth of six or eight inches, destroying the wheat, rye and oats, 
entirely, beating them into the ground. Indian corn was greatly 
damaged, but made a tolerable crop, where the plants were trim- 


Meteorological Journal for the year 1840. 347 


med carefully with a knife and set upright. Apples and peach- 
es, half grown, were torn with the leaves, from the trees, present- 
ing a very dismal appearance. A man who was plowing corn 
on the island, took shelter under an apple tree, thinking it only 
acommon shower. He was bare-footed and bare-legged, and in 
his shirt sleeves. 'The hail covered his feet above the ankles, 
and nearly froze them before he could reach the shelter of a de- 
serted building that stood near the field. Sheep, fowls, and 
small animals suffered severely from the effects of the hail. At 
Marietta, the cloud discharged rain principally, with a few scat- 
tering hail-stones. 'The wind was light at the time, or the dam- 
age must have been much greater. Large quantities of the un- 
melted hail remained until the next day. It had quite an effect 
on the temperature at Marietta, as the mercury, which stood at 
68° in the morning, sunk to 62° at 2 o’clock P. M., while the 
day before, it was at 80°, and the day following, at 76° at the 
same hour. 

Flowering of plants and trees, ripening of fruit §c., in 1840.— 
March 1, Mezereon in bloom; 2, white maple, and red elm; 
18, early hyacinths ; 20, daffodil and dew-drop; April 2, Pyrus 
japonicus ; 3, peach and white-heart cherry begin to open; 4, 
damson ; 5, imperial gage; 7, peach in full bloom; 8, winter, 
or pound-pear—puccoon and anemone; 10, service tree; 11, 
Judas tree, or red-bud; 13, apple nearly open; 16, apple in full 
bloom, early tulips open ; 19, Cornus florida, or dog-wood ; 21, 
tree peony, papaveracea, quince tree; 22, tulips in full bloom, 
apple shedding its blossoms; 25, lily of the valley, yellow moc- 
ason flower, or Cypripedium parviflorum ; 27, Anona glabra; May 
2, yellow single rose ; 5, Isabella and Catawba grape ; 6, a smart 
frost, which destroyed many of the grape blossoms; 14, black 
walnut, Rubus villosa, or black-berry ; 17, white rose, and white 
Chinese peony, for which latter flower the rose-bugs have an es- 
pecial liking; 22, many varieties of hardy roses in bloom; 25, 
Gladiolus, and Peonia fragrans; 26, peas fit for the table, some 
years they are six or eight days earlier; 27, pine-apple straw- — 
berry ripe; June 6, white lily in bloom; 13, early Russian cu-— 
cumber fit for the table, grown without artificial heat; 14, red 
Antwerp raspberry ripe ; 17, Lilium Pennsylvanicum in bloom ; 
19, blight in pear and quince trees, worse than ever before 
known, nearly destroying trees of fifteen years growth ; 20, rye 


348 Meteorological Journal for the year 1840. 


harvest begun; 27, chandler apple ripe; July 2, wheat harvest 
begun ; 14, Vaccinium frondosum, or whortleberry, ripe, grows on 
the hills, amongst the yellow pine; 15, Rubus villosus, or black- 
berry ripe. 

Columba migratoria.—The forest trees generally, this year 
abounded with fruit, being what is called in the west, ‘‘a fine 
year for mast.” In such seasons, we are generally visited with 
immense flocks of the Columba migratoria, or wood pigeon. 
This year they appeared about the 15th of September, filling the 
woods with their numbers. One of their ‘roosts’? was selected 
about a mile and a half from Marietta, in the uplands, where the 
timber was a second growth; the trees generally small, and 
many of them mere saplings. From near sunset to an hour af- 
ter, the air was filled with their winged squadrons, and the trees 
and bushes loaded with pigeons, seeking a resting place for the 
night. They found it however, a very unquiet one, for the 
young men and boys visited them every night with torches of 
pine wood, killing them with shot guns, and knocking many 
down with sticks, until they were tired with the sport. After 
about two weeks, the pigeons shifted their nocturnal camping 
ground, either from the disturbance of the hunters, or to a more 
plentiful region for food. The ‘roost’? covered a space of sev- 
eral hundred acres, so that their numbers must have amounted to 
many millions. Between daylight and sunrise, they uniformly 
visited the shore of the Ohio river, for drink, or for small gravel 
stones to assist in digesting. At this period, the vigilant sports- 
man had fine amusement in shooting them on the wing, as they 
rose over the top of the bank where he was standing, killing 
sometimes two or three dozen at a single discharge. Although 
this beautiful bird has been subject to the depredation of man for 
more than fifty years in Ohio, in addition to the multitudes that 
annually fall a prey to their feathered enemies, they still exist 
in vast numbers. What then must have been the amount of 
their winged hosts, as they yearly migrated from the warm re- 
gions of the south, to the cooler districts of the north, as instinct 
and habit directed, before civilization had made any inroads on 


the vast forests which had for ages supplied them with food. 
Marietta, January 5th, 1841. 


Star-Showers of Former Times. 349 


Art. X.—Contributions towards a History of the Star-Showers 
of Former Times ; communicated by Epwarp C. Hernricx, 
Rec. Sec. of the Conn. Acad. 


[Read before the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, April 28, 1840; and— 
since revised. ] 


A FULL account of the showers of shooting stars which have 
visited our planet, would much enlarge our knowledge of the 
system of bodies from which we receive these brilliant strangers. 
But a mere catalogue even, of all these displays is too much to 
hope for, inasmuch as some of them have doubtless been con- 
cealed by clouds, and others witnessed only by barbarians. Of 
those which have been preserved by the historian, a complete 
collection cannot at present be made in this country, owing to 
the insufficiency of our means of historical inquiry. A large por- 
tion of the materials for the present paper was collected in a 
search which I made in 1837 and 1838, for the purpose of ob- 
taining evidence of the annual occurrence in August of an unu- 
sual number of shooting stars. ‘The publication of the paper has 
been delayed in the hope that it might be rendered less incom- 
plete ; but I have now concluded to offer it in its present state, 
trusting that those who have the opportunity, will supply its de- 
ficiencies and correct its errors.* 

(1.) 1768 years before Christ. “In the fiftieth year of the 
reign of the emperor Kié or Li-Koué, 1. e. the year 1768 [before 
Christ] the Chinese saw stars falling :” [des étoiles tomber.|— 
Cométographie par M. Pingré, Paris, 1783, t. 1, p. 248, Ato. ; 
quoted from the Monarchie Sinice Synopsis Chronologica, an- 
nexed to Vol. 2, of Voyages de Mel. 'Thévenot, Paris, 1696. 

This statement is quite indefinite, and I cite it with some hes- 
itation. ‘The most probable meaning seems to be that a large 
number of shooting stars was. seen; but it remains to be deter- 
mined whether the original record warrants the construction here 
assumed. 

(2.) 686 B. C. In the reign of the Emperor Le-wang, B. C. 
686, ‘‘the stars disappeared, and meteors fell like rain.” —Med- 
hurst’s China, London, 1838, 8vo. App. No. 1, p. 570. 


* A partial list of the dates of these meteoric showers, was given in Vol. xxxtv, 
p- 182, and also in Vol. xxxv, p. 367. 
Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 45 


350 Star-Showers of Former Times. 


This at first view appears to be a very clear case, but its re- 
semblance to an instance mentioned in the Catalogue of Bolides, 
&c. observed in China, (Abel-Rémusat, Jour. de Phys. 1819,) 
which reads thus—“ 687 ans avant J. C. * * les étoiles ne parois- 
sotent pas,* * il tomba une étoile en forme de piuie,’—induces 
the suspicion that the Chinese annalist may mean to state only 
the appearance of a single meteor which exploded into fragments. 
See note under No. (6.) 

(3.) A.D. 7. “In the thirty sixth year of his reign, [i. e. of 
Synin who began to reign in the year of Synmu 632, before 
Christ 29 years, | it rain’d Stars from Heaven, in Japan.’””—Hist. 
of Japan, by Engelb. Kempfer, M. D., trans. by J. G. Scheuch- 
zer, London, 1728, folio, Vol. 1, p. 162.* 

(4.) A. D. 532. “In the same year [A. D. 532] there hap- 
pened a great chasing of stars from evening until morning, so 
that every one was amazed, and cried out—The stars are falling! 
We never knew any thing like it!” 

“ To 0 abt@ éter xal dotéowy yéyove Ogduos molds and éomégas &ws ad- 
yous: wate mikytas éxmhijttecbar, nad héyerr, Ore of Kotéges mlatoVvOL, xual Odx 
oidauEr moté ToLodTO mQay"0..”— Theophanis Chronographia: Hist. By- 
zant. Script. Corp. ed. Venet. fol. 1729, tom. 6, p. 126. 

The following account of the same event is given by Cedre- 
nus: “In the same year there was a great running of stars, so 
that all were astonished, and exclaimed—See ! the stars are fall- 
ing! We don’t know what is to happen.”—Greo. Cedreni Comp. 
Hist. ; Hist. Byz. Sc. Corp. tom. 7, p. 292.—Stated also in Jo. 
Malalee Chronog. |. 18, p. 477, cons. B. G. Niehbuhr, Bonne, 8vo. 
1838. 

This is the shower referred to A. D. 533, in Chladni’s Feuwer- 
Meteore, p. 88.+ 


* In the same work are the two following accounts, which may perhaps relate 
to meteoric showers. 

A.D.11. “Inthe 40th year of his reign, [i. e. of Synin,] on a clear and se- 
rene day, there arose of a sudden in China, a violent storm of thunder and light- 
ning: Comets, Fiery-Dragons and uncommon Meteors appeared in the Air, and it 
rain oe om Heaven.’ p. 163. 

A.D. “In the second year of his reign, [i. e. of GCen there happened 
a storm ne oe and lightning dreadful beyond expression. J¢ rained fire from 
Heaven, like stars, and the air was filled with a frightful noise.”” p. 175. 

t In E. H. Burritt’s Geography of the Heavens, (5th ed. 1838, 12mo.) p. 161, it 
is said that ‘“‘as early as the year 472, in the month of November, a phenomenon 
of this kind [a shower of shooting stars] took place near Constantinople. As Theo- 
phanes relates, ‘ the sky appeared to be on fire with the coruscations of the flying 
meieors.’’’ ‘This is a mistake, It was a shower of volcanic dust from Vesuvius. 


Star-Showers of Former Times. 351 


(5.) A.D. 558. ‘Some time after this, there wasa great run- 
ning of stars from evening until morning, so that every one was 
greatly terrified, and exclaimed,—‘ the stars are falling.’ ” 

‘© Meta 0& yodvoy tit, yéyovey dotéguy Ogduos ag Eonkgas ews mow, 
Gore whytas duegeemhijttecbae ual héyev, dre mlatovory of cotéges.” —Geo. 
Cedreni Compend. Historiarum; Hist. Byz. Sc. Corp. tom. 7, p. 304. 

(6.) A.D. 585. “In the 8th moon, on the day Ou-chin [Sep- 
tember 4?] there appeared many hundred shooting stars scatter- 
ing themselves on all sides.’ 

‘“‘A la 8e lune, le jour Ou-chin, il parut plusieurs centaines d’ 
étoiles coulantes qui tombeérent en se dispersant de tous cétés.”— 
Catalogue des Bolides et des Aérolithes observés a la Chine, etc. 
tiré des livres Chinois, par M. Abel-Rémusat: Jour. de Phys. 
ISG) (88, p:.a56." 

(7.) A. D. 611. <A shower of shooting stars is referred to by 
Sojuty, as having occurred this year. See No. (29.) 

(8.) A. D. 744 or 747. “And the stars came forth shooting 
exceedingly.” 

‘‘ And steorran foran swythe scotienda.”—Chron. Saxonicum, 
edit. Gibson, 4to. Oxon. 1692, p. 55. 

(9.) A. D. 750. “At that time happened a fearful sight and 
a strange portent resulting from an appearance in the sky. It 
began about candle-lighting and was visible during the whole 
night, causing surprise and great fear in all the beholders. For 


* This Catalogue is derived chiefly from the compilation of a Chinese author, 
Ma-tou-an-lin, who has given a chronological account of fire-balls, meteorites, 
&c. down to A. D. 1221. Abel-Rémusat has generally omitted those cases where 
the meteor did not explode, so that it is quite probable that the original list com- 
prises several star-showers. Some of the following instances cited by Rémusat, 
may perhaps prove to be such showers, but they cannot be so considered without 
further evidence. Some of them appear to be only single meteors which left 
trains of sparks. 

687 B.C. En été, a la 4e lune, le jour Sin-mao (5e de la lune) les étoiles ne 
paroissoient pas, quoique la nuit fat claire, il tomba une étoile en forme de pluie. 

15 B.C. A la 2e lune, le jour Kouei-wei, aprés minuit, il tomba une étoile en 
forme de pluie. 

268 A.D. <A la 7e lune, une étoile tomba en pluie du cote de J’ouest. 

288 A.D. A la 8e lune, le jour Ji-tseu, nouvelle pluie d’étoiles. 

532 A.D. A la 7e lune, Je jour Kia-tchin, une étoile tomba en pluie. 

837 A.D. A la Qe lune, le jour Ting-yeou il y eut une étoile de la grosseur 
d'un boisseau, etc. Plusieurs centaines de petites étoiles le suivoient. 

1002 A.D. A la 9e lune, le jour Phing-chin, il y eut une étoile qui sortit de 
Orient, etc. Plusieurs dixaines de petites étoiles Ja suivoient et tombérent avec 
elle. 


352 Star-Showers of Former Times. 


it seemed to them as though all the stars left their appointed pla- 
ces in the heavens, and descended towards the earth. But when 
they came near the ground, they were one and all suddenly dissi- 
pated without doing any damage whatever. Many assert that this 
astonishing sight was witnessed throughout the whole world.” 

“6 SuvyvexOn yao tyvixadra Ogauc pobegdy zai teouotioy Sévoy é& cegiou 
yevéoOar cuumtouotos: reg EQ) Miyruy amas xatdobar, dvd aéoys eqalveto 
wuntoc, ixmhytiy ual déog utya tots Oewuévors éumovody Gaaciv. ° Hddxer 
7uQg abTois Ws of datégss GMAaYTES TOU TETHYUEPOY GUTOLS OvQaVioU YHOU TAO 
* * * wotuevor xatk vis épégovto. Ot é megiyeror yevouevor GOedoy duE- 
Mbovto, nzvoTe tiv ofavody babyy mowokusvor mbnote, acl dé aodhol s 
Ova méons TAS olxouserys TO toLodtoy éalavoy dredEeruvicto Géaua,’’—Sanctt 
Nicephori Patr. Constantinop. Breviartum Hist: Hist. Byz. Ser. 
Corp. tom. 7, p. 33. 

(10.) A. D. 764. “Tn the same year, in the month of March, 
stars were seen falling from heaven, so that all the beholders im- 
agined that the end of the world had come. ‘There was also a 
great drought, and the fountains were dried up.” 

“To 0 atte eter pyjyl Magtio cotéges éx tov ovoarod alatortes OpOy- 
Cav, a mkytas tors Og@YTAS TiY TOD magdyt0S aiGyos Srokaubdvery Elvoce 
aurtélsvay- adzyuds te molds yéyover, Os SnourvOjvae xa myyus.”—Stepha- 
nis Chronographia: Hist. Byz. Scr. Corp. tom. 6, p. 291.—See also 
Hist. Miscelle, lib. 22, Muratori: Rer. Ital. Scr. tom. 1, p. 159:— 
Calvisii Opus Chronol. fol. 1685, p. 634. 

This is the shower referred to A. D. 763, in Chaldni’s Feuer- 
Meteore, p. 88. 

(11.) A. D. 765. “On Saturday, the fourth day of January, 
A. D. 765, stars were seen falling as it were from heaven.” 

“ Anno 1076, [Grecorum ; Christi 765,] mense Canun posteri- 
ori, (Januario,) die 4, feria 6, stelle quasi e colo decidere vise 
sunt.”—Dionysius Patriarcha, in Assemanni Biblioth. Orient., 
tom. 2, p. L112. Roma, 1721, folio.* 

(12.) A. D. 829. “An Earthquake at Aix a few Days before 
Easter, and a violent Hurricane. “Another Comet in Aries. And 
for several Days together, very many little twinkling Fires like 
Stars, ran up and down in the Air; great Tempests of Wind fol- 
lowed. Chr. Magdeb.— General Chronological History of the 


* In the Saxon Chronicle, under date of A. D. 793, it is stated that fiery dragons 
[a common term for very brilliant meteoric fire-balls,] awere seen flying through the 
air. It does not appear whether they were numerous. 


Star-Showers of Former Times. 353 


Air, Weather, §&c. [by Dr. Thos. Short.] 2 vols: 8vo. Lond. 
1749. Vol. I, p. 86. ‘ 

This account is not altogether intelligible, and I have not been 
able to find any other testimony concerning the occurrence. 

(i3.) A. D. 855. October 17. . “ This year there was a fall of 
stars during the night preceding the first day of the month 
Djomadi II, (Hegira 241,) which continued from the begin- 
ning of the night until dawn. At the same period earthquakes 
were felt in all parts of the world.” 

“Dans cette année (savoir 241) il arriva une chute d’étoiles 
dans la nuit (c’est-a dire qui précéde le jeudi) dans la nouvelle 
lune, (le premier quartier,) du Dschumadi II, et qui dura depuis 
le commencement de la nuit jusqu’a l’aurore. Il y eut en méme 
temps des tremblements de terre dans le monde entier.” — Tarich 
el-Mansury, Cod. 521. Acad. Sci. fol. 51; cited by M. Fraehn, 
in a communication to the Imp. Acad. Sci. of St. Petersburgh, 
Dec. 1, 1837 ; quoted in L’ Institut, Paris, No. 252, p. 350. Oct. 
25, 1838. f 

(14.) A. D. 899. November 14. “In the year 286 (of the He- 
gira,) there was an earthquake in Egypt, on Wednesday, the 7th 
of the month Djolkaada, from midnight until morning, and the 
stars called Schuhub, (luminous meteors,) were in extraordinary 
commotion, going from east to west, and from north to south, in 
such a manner that no mortal could look at the heavens.” 

“Dans Vannée 286, il y eut en Egypte, un tremblement de 
terre le mercredi 7 du mois de Sulkade, depuis le milieu de la 
nuit jusqu’au matin, et les étoiles qu’on nomme Schuhub, (i. e. 
‘le météore lumineux) s’agiterent d’une maniere extraordinaire en 
se mouvant de l’est a l’ouest et du nord au sud, de fagon qu’au- 
cun mortel ne pouvait jeter les yeux sur le ciel.” —Hlmacint His- 
tor. Saracen., Arab. et Lat., op. Hrpenii, p. 181, quoted by M. 
Fraehn, L’ Institut, No. 252, p. 350. 

(15.) A. D. 901. ‘The whole hemisphere was filled with 
those meteors called falling stars, the ninth of Dhu’lhajja, (288th 
year of the Hegira,) [A. D..901, November 25,] from midnight 
till morning, to the great surprise of the beholders, in Egypt.”— 
Modern Part of the Universal History. 8vo. Vol. 2, p. 281. 
Lond. 1780. 

(16.) A. D. 902. “In the month Djolkaada of the year 289, (of 
the Hegira,) died king Ibrahim ben Ahmet, and during the same 


354 Star-Showers of Former Times. 


night were seen great numbers of stars, which moved, as if they 
had been darted through the atmosphere, from a culminating 
point, and rushed down on the right and left, like rain. On ac- 
count of this phenomenon, this year was called the year of stars.” 

“Dans la lune Dylcada de l’année 289, mourut le roi Ibrahim 
ben Ahmet, et dans le méme nuit, on vit un nombre considérable 
d’étoiles, qui comme si elles eussent été lancées dans les airs, 
partaient d’un point culminant et se précipitaient a droite et a 
gauche sous forme de pluie. C’est.a cause de ce phénomene que 
cette année a pris le nom d’Année des étoiles.” Conde: Hist. 
de la Domination des Maures en Espagne, 1, 397, quoted by M. 
Fraehn, (as above,) who states that the date is the 24th or 25th 
October, A. D. 902. Furst quoted in part by Von Hammer, 
Comptes Rend. Acad. Sci., 1837, I, 293. 

The following probably refers to the same occurrence: ‘“ Anno 
Dominice Incarnationis 902, urbs T'auromenis a Sarracenis capta 
est. Hodem anno in nocte visi sunt igniculi in modum stellaram 
per aera discurrentes: qua nocte Rex Africe residens super Cosen- 
tiam Calabriz civitatem, Dei judicio, mortuus est.”—Chronicon 
Romualdi If, Archiepisc. Salernitani: in Muratori, Rer. Ital. 
Ser. t. vii, p. 160. 

(17.) A. D. 912 or 913. “I will here add what I have seen 
in a commentator on the Astronomical Aphorisms of Ptolemy, the 
last of which begins thus: ‘Shooting stars indicate dryness of 
the air; if they all go towards the same quarter of the heavens, 
they foreshow winds which will blow from that quarter, but if 
they scatter in all parts of the heavens they indicate the drying 
up of the water, disturbances in the atmosphere, and the incur- 
sions of armies moving in various directions.’ The commentator 
remarks, ‘I remember that in the year 290 [of the Hegira, be- 
ginning Dec. 4, A. D. 902] there were seen in Egypt burning 
meteors which scattered themselves through the sky and filled 
the whole expanse ; they caused great terror and increased con- 
tinually.* A short time after, a great dearth of water was felt in 
this country: the Nile rose only thirteen cubits, and violent distur- 
bances arose which caused the ruin of the dynasty of the Toulou- 
nisin Egypt. In the year 300 [beginning Aug. 17, A. D. 912] 
the same phenomena were seen in all parts of the sky; the flow 


“ If the dates are correct, this must be a case different from No. (16.) 


Star-Showers of Former Times. 355 


of the Nile was bad, and there were troubles and agitations in the 
country.” ‘These are doubtless very strong signs, but they are — 
common to all regions; and not peculiar to Egypt. We have 
seen a recurrence of the same phenomena in the present year 
596, [beginning Oct. 22, 1199.] At the beginning of the year, 
the stars were seen coursing through the heavens, and afterward 
the water was very low. During the same year the sovereign of 
Egypt was dethroned by his uncle Melic-aladel.”—Translated 
from ‘“ Relation dev Egypte, par Abd-allatif, médecin Arabe de 
Bagdad, etc. ; traduit et enrichi de notes historiques et critiques : 
par M. Silvestre De Sacy.” Paris, 1810, 4to. book 2, chap. 2, 
p. 340. Furst quoted in part by M. Fraehn, (sup.) 

The passages occur at pp. 117 and 118 of the Tubingen edi- 
tion of 1789. 

(18.) A. D. 931 or 934. “In the same year appeared signs in 
the heavens among the stars, which appeared some falling and 
others blazing like torches, on the fourteenth day of October, the 
second day of the moon.” 

“934. Indictione 4. Defunctus est Joannes Abbas II Kal. Apri- 
lis, fer. 2. Et in ipso Anno apparuerunt signa in Ceelo de stellis, 
quee videbantur hominibus alie cadere, aliez fulgere sicut facule 
xiv die intrante mense Octobri Luna 2.”—WNotes found on a Cal- 
endar ; and printed at the end of Chronicon Cavense: Muratori, 
Rerum Italicarum Scriptores. 26 tom. fol. Mediol. 1723, etc. 
to vil; ip. 961. 

The date on the margin is A. D. 934. ‘The year of the indict 
tion requires A. D. 931: the moon’s age agrees about equally well 
with either. 

(19.) A. D. 935. In the year 323, [Hegira,] “ several violent 
shocks of an earthquake were felt in Egypt, the third of Dhu’l- 
kaada: [Oct. 5, A. D. 935,] about the same time, many of those 
meteors called falling stars, of a very remarkable kind, likewise 
appeared in Egypt.”—Modern Part of the Universal History. 
8vo. Lond. Vol. 2. 1780. p. 333. (Hist. of the Arabs.) 

The following is cited by M. Fraehn: “Le 3 du Sulkade de 
Van 323, il y eut en Egypte, un tremblement de terre, et les 
étoiles lumineuses étaient dans un mouvement violent.” —Hu- 
tychti Annal., 11, 529. 

It is plain that the exact date of the shower cannot be inferred 
from either of these accounts. 


356 Star-Showers of Former Times. 


(20.) A. D. 1029. “In the year 420, in the month Radjab, 
[beginning July 16, A. D. 1029,] fell many stars with great noise 
and very vivid light.” 

“ Dans l’an 420, au mois de Redscheb, il tomba beaucoup d? 
étoiles, avec accompagnement d’un bruit extraordinaire et de lu- 
mieres tres vives.” —Soyuti, Hist. Cair. fol. 338. First quoted 
by Von Hammer: Comptes Rend. 1837, I, p. 293. Cited also 
by M. Fraehn. 

Was this a shower of shooting stars, or only the fall of a num- 
ber of meteoric stones? 

(21.) A. D. 1060. In the Comptes Rendus of the French 
Academy of Sciences, (1837, I, 532,)it is stated that M. de Para- 
vey had found in an ancient history of Anjou, an account of a re- 
markable fall of shooting stars which happened-A. D. 1060. The 
date of the month was not mentioned in the history. It is to be 
hoped that the passage will be given in full. 

(22.) A. D. 1090. “M. Muncke states that in the year 1090, 
according to the chronicles of that period, shooting stars appeared 
in considerable numbers, during several consecutive nights.”— 
Trans. from M. Quetelet’s Catalogue des Principales Appari- 
tions d’ Eitoiles Fulantes: (Brux. 1839,) p. 28; where reference is 
made to Gehler’s Dict. of Physics, viii, 1025. 

This may possibly be a typographical error for A. D. 1096. 

(23.) A. D. 1094. “ At this period, so many stars fell from 
heaven that they could not be counted. In France the inhabit- 
ants were amazed to see one of them of great size, fall to the earth, 
and they poured water on the spot, when to their exceeding as- 
tonishment, smoke issued from the ground with a hissing noise.” 

“A.D. 1094. Rex autem Willielmus [Victor] omnes fines 
Walliz hostiliter ingressus * * * Eodem tempore tot stelle de 
coelo cadere vise sunt, quod non poterant numerari. Inter quas, 
cum unam magnam quidem labi in Gallia gens stuperet, notatoque 
loco, aquam ibi fudisset, fumum cum stridoris sono de terra exire, 
obstupuit vehementer.”—Matth. Paris Mon. Alb. Angli Hist. 
major, etc. fol. Lond. 1640, p. 18. 

“The year 1094 was very remarkable for the number and fash- 
ion of gliding stars, which seemed to dash together in manner of 
a conflict.” —Sir J. Hayward, cited in Guthrie's History of Hng- 
land. fol. 1744. Vol. i, p. 423. 

It is not improbable that these events belong to the next year. 


Star-Showers of Former Times. 357 


(24.) A. D. 1095. April 4. ‘This year Easter was on the 8th 
of the Kalends of April. And, after Easter, on the festival of St. 
Ambrose, that is on the 2d of the Nones [4th day,] of April, over 
almost all this land and for nearly the whole of the night, stars 
were seen falling from heaven in manifold ways, not one or two 
at a time, but so thickly that no man could count them.” 

“MXCV. Onthisum geare weron Eastron on var kl. Apr. 
And tha uppon Eastron on sce Ambrosius meesse-niht, that is 11 
Non. Apr., wees gesewen for-neah ofer eall this land swilce for- 
neah ealle tha niht swithe meeni-fealdlice steorran of heofenan 
feollan, naht be anan oththe twam, ac swa thiclice thet hit nan 
mann ateallan ne mihte.”—Chron. Sax. ed. Gibson. Oxon. 1692. 
Ato. p. 202. 

This instance was first quoted, anonymously, from Wilken’s 
History of the Crusades, (Geschichte der Kreuzziige, Leipzig, 
1807,) in Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (1836, II, 145.) Wilken 
(th. 1, s. 75,) quotes Baldric’s Chronicle, which states that the 
shooting stars were on that occasion so numerous, ‘ut grando, 
nisi lucerent, pro densitate putarentur.’? ‘The date is erroneously 
given, April twenty fifth, in Wilken. It is thus copied into the 
Comptes Rendus, from which work the false date has been ex- 
tensively propagated. Calvisius (Opus Chronolog., etc. fol. Franc. 
ad Mcen. 1685, p. 743,) also gives the subjoined quotation from 
Baldric, which shows the origin of the mistake. ‘The moon was 
in fact in the twenty fifth day of the lunation, on the 4th day of 
the month of April of that year. Notices of this great meteoric 
shower are found in many different authors, some of which are 
given below. Its exact date is most satisfactorily determined. 

“1095. Stelle in ceelo die 4. April. fer. 4, Luna 25, vise sunt 
inter se pugnare, in tanta frequentia, ut numerari non possent.”— 
Baldricus. 

‘¢ Anno autem Dominice Incarnationis millesimo nonagesimo 
quinto, Indictione tertia, pridie Nonas Aprilis, quarta feria post oc- 
tavas Pasche, a quarta ferme vigilia noctis, usque in crepusculum, 
stelle innumerabiles de ccelo, versus occidentalem plagam, ubigq. 
terrarum cadere vise sunt.”—Chron. Sac. Monast. Casin. ; in 
Muratori Rer. Ital. Scr. t. iv, p. 497. 

1094 [‘ verius 1095”| Ind. 1. mense Aprilis Urbanus Papa Pla- 
centize Synodum celebravit et rv Nonas ejusdem mensis Aprilis fuit 
terribile signum in stellis, ita quod a mediee noctis tempore usque 

Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 46 


258 Star-Showers of Former Times. 


mane vise sunt innumere stelle mixtim ex omni parte Celi de- 
currisse, et in terram decidisse.—Romualdi Salern. Chron., in 
Muratori, Rer. It. Ser. t. vil, p. 177. 

Anno 1095, mense Aprilis in nocte diei 4, subito visi sunt igni- 
culi cadere de ceelo, quasi stelle per totam Apuliam, qui repleve- 
runt universam superficiem terre, et ex tunc cceperunt Galliz 
populi, imo totius Italiz pergere ad sepulchrum Domini cum ar- 
mis ferentes in humero dextro Crucis signum.—Lupi Protospate 
Rer.in Reg. Neapol. Gest. Chron., in Muratori, Rer. It. Ser. 
teve pe ai 

1095. Pridie Nonas Aprilis visee sunt in nocte stelle, quasi de 
ccelo cadere.—Rog. de Hovenden, Annales, pars prior. fol. Lond. 
1596. fol. 266. 

(25.) 1096. ‘During many nights stars were seen to rain 
down at intervals, but so thick and fast, that one would have said 
they were flakes from the celestial orbs.” 

“On vit durant plusieurs nuits pleuvoir des Etoiles par inter- 
vales, mais si dru et menu, qu’on ett dit que c’étoient des blu- 
ettes du débris des orbes célestes.”.—De Mezeray: Abréegé Chro- 
nologique de l’ Hist. de France. Amst. 1755. Ato. t. ii, p. 156. 

“Tn 1096 nono [Qu. nonis] Aprilis in Depositione Sancti Am- 
brosii, [Aprilis 4?] visee fuerunt in multis locis frequenter in illa 
nocte stella, quae ceciderunt de celo, et in Ascensione Domini, 
quee fuit in illo et eodem anno, et in festivitate Sancti Ambrosii 
cecidit magna nix.”—-Chron. Parmense, in Muratori, Ker. It. 
INChe tox pew OU! 

Chladni has mentioned the meteors of this year, (Fewer-Me- 
teore, pp. 88, 89,) referring for authority to Historie francice 
fragmentum ; in Duchesne: Hist. Franc. Script. t. iv, p. 90.* 

(26.) A. D. 1106. “On the twelfth of February, at Bari, a 
town in Italy, were seen by day several stars in the sky, some- 
times apparently running together, and sometimes apparently fall- 
ing to the earth.” 

“Pridie idus Februarii apud Barum Italize oppidum conspecte 
sunt aliquot stelle in ceelo per diem, nunc quasi inter sese con- 
currentes, nunc quasi in terram cadentes.”—Hist. E'ccl. Magdeb. 
tom. vi, p. 1712. 


* In (Short’s) Genl. Chr. Hist. of the Air, &c., it is said that in A. D. 1099, 
“ many frightful prodigies were seen: * * * stars seemed to fall to the earth, &c.” 
Vol. 1, p. 104. 


Star-Showers of Former Times. 359 


“A comet was visible in February, from 3 o’clock to 9 for 
twenty five days at the same hour. * * * In Judea this comet was 
seen fifty days decreasing. * * * Shortly after the Stars seemed 
to rain down from Heaven.”—Clark’s Mirrour.—[Short’s|] Gen. 
Chron. Hist. of the Air, &c. Vol. I, p. 107. 

The following passage (nearly identical with that above given,) 
is quoted from Schnurrer’s Die Krankheiten des Menschenge- 
schlechts, 1825, (Bd. 1, s. 230,) by M. A. Erman, in Poggendorff’s 
Annalen der Physik, B. 48, s. 585, (1839.) 

‘Anno 1106, pridie Idus Februar. apud Baram Italiz stelle 
vise sunt in ccelo per diem, nunc quasi inter se concurrentes, 
nunc quasi in terram cadentes.” 

The foregoing is cited by Erman in support of his hypothesis 
that the meteoric stream from which are derived the shooting 
stars which at the present time are seen about the 10th of Au- 
gust, intervenes between the earth and sun about the 6th of Feb- 
ruary. The account does indeed seem to assert that the meteors 
Were seen in the day time, but it is evident that unless they were 
at least as brilliant as the planet Venus, they would not be visible 
in such circumstances. There was no eclipse of the sun on this 
day. Perhaps the story may be cleared up by reference to the 
Annales Boicorum of Aventinus, from which many fearful prod- 
igies are quoted in the Magdeburgh Ecclesiastical History, as hap- 
pening at this time. Without the quotation from Clark’s Mir- 
rour, it would be doubtful whether the number of meteors seen 
at this time was larger than usual. 

(27.) A. D. 1122. April 4. In the year of our Lord 1122, on 
the day before the nones of April, at the fourth watch of the 
night, while the brethren were chanting the Synaxis nocturnalis, 
innumerable stars were seen falling, and as it were raining down, 
throughout the world.” 

‘“‘ Hoc interea tempore, anno Dominice Incarnationis ejus mil- 
lesimo centesimo vicesimo secundo, pridie Nonas Aprilis, quarta 
vigilia noctis, cum Fratres nocturnalem Synaxim decantarent, 
stellae de Coelo innumerabiles cadere, et quasi pluere vise sunt, 
ubique per totum orbem terrarum.”—Chronica Sacri Monasterit 
Casinensis, lib. 4, cap. xxix, in Muratori, Rer. ft. Ser. t. iv, p. 
5A6. 

1122. Stelle innumerz quasi pluere vise sunt pridie Non. 
Aprilis hora matutina.—Anonymi Monachi Cassinensis Breve 
Chronicon ; in Muratori, Rer. It. Scr. t. v, p. 61, 


360 Star-Showers of Former Times. 


1122. Indictione decimaquinta Stelle innumerabiles vise sunt 
cadere per totum orbem pridie .... Aprilis hora matutina.— 
Chron. Fosse Nove, in Muratori, Rer. It. Scr. t. vii, p. 868. 

(28.) A.D. 1199, ‘*At the beginning of the year [596 of the 
Hegira, commencing Oct. 22, 1199] the stars were seen coursing 
through the heavens, &c.’’ See quotation from Abd-allatif’s Ac- 
count of Egypt, under No. (17.) 

(29.) A. D. 1202. In the year 599, on the night preceding 
Sunday the last day of the month Moharrem, [October 19, A. D. 
1202,] the stars rushed across the heavens from east to. west, and 
glided to the right and left, like grasshoppers in a field. This 
continued until dawn. The inhabitants cried out with terror, 
and fervently implored the mercy of the Most High. A similar 
occurrence happened in the year of the holy mission of the Proph- 
et, [A. D. 611,] as well as in the year 241, [A. D. 855.] 

‘Fin Pan 599, dans la nuit du dimanche, dans le dernier jour 
du Muharrem, les étoiles s’élancérent au ciel dans une direction 
de l’est 4 l’ouest, et s’échappérent ca et la tant a droite qu’a 
gauche, comme des sauterelles sur un champ. Ceci durajusqu’a 
Yaurore. Les hommes jetérent des cris d’épouvante et imploré- 
rent a grand cris la misericorde du ‘T'res-Haut. La méme chose, 
au reste, avait eu lieu dans |’année de la sainte mission du Proph- 
ete, ainsi que dans année 241.”—Soyuty’s Hist. of Cairo, foi. 
342, quoted by M. Fraehn, (as above.) First citedin part by pow 
Hammer, Comptes Ren. Acad. Sci. 1837, 1, 294. 

‘Au commencement de Van 599 on vit a Bagdad les étoiles 
tomber ¢a et la, et comme des sauterelles s’élancer d’un lieu dans 
un autre. Cela dura jusqu’a l’aurore. Les hommes poussérent 
des cris et implorerent par des priéres le Dieu tout puissant.”— 
Scheby, in T. Duwel el-Islam. Cod. Acad. Sci. No. 254. Ci- 
ted by M. Frraehn. 

“Dans V’année 599 on vit un mouvement d’oscillation des 
étoiles pendant toute la nuit du dernier [jour] de Muharrem.”— 
Hoddschy Chalfa, Chronological Tables. Cited by M. Fraehn. 
L’ Institut, No. 252. 

(30.) A. D. 1243, July 26. “In this year, on the 7th of the 
Kalends of August, the night was most serene and the air ex- 
ceedingly pure, so that the milky way was as manifest as in the 
clearest winter night, although the moon was in her eighth day. 
And to our surprise, stars were seen falling from heaven, swiftly 


Star-Showers of Former Tunes. 361 


darting on all sides. * * * Most remarkably, thirty or forty were 
seen to shoot or fall at the same instant, so that two or three 
would fly together in the same track. Of course, if these had 
been real stars, (which no man of sense supposes, ) not one would 
have been left in the sky. It belongs to the astrologers to inter- 
pret this portentous appearance ; but to all the beholders it was a 
most stupendous and wonderful spectacle.” 

“Ht eodem anno, videlicet septimo Calend. Angusti, fuit nox 
serenissima, aérque purissimus, ita quod Lactea, sicut solet placi- 
dissima nocte hyemali contingere, manifeste apparebat, Luna ex- 
istente octava. Ht ecce stelle cadere de clo videbantur, velo- 
citer sese jaculantes hac et illac. Non tamen, ut de more contin- 
git, quedam facule per modum stellarum subruentes (quod, sicut 
determinatum est in libro Metheorum Aristotelis, naturaliter con- 
tingit,) sicut fulgur ex tonitru: sed in uno instanti, preeter soli- 
tum, triginta vel quadraginta saltitare vel cadere viderentur, ita 
scilicet, quod due vel tres simul uno tramite, volare se mentiren- 
tur. Unde, si vere stelle fuissent (quod nullius sapientis est sen- 
tire) nec una in celo remansisset. Considerent Astrologi, quid 
hujusmodi portentum significet; sed omnibus intuentibus, vide- 
batur nimis stupendum et prodigiosum.*—Matt. Paris Mon. 
Alb. Angli Hist. Major. fol. Lond. 1640, p. 602. 

‘©1243. Eodem mense [i.e. Julii] discursus Siderum de nocte 
visus est in Festo Sancti Jacobi [26to.] ita ut unum contra alte- 
rum quasi hostem insurgerent, et inter se hostiliter dimicarent.” 
—Ric. de St. Germano Chronicon, in Muratori, Rer. It. Scr. 
t. vil, p. 1052. 

(31.) A. D. 1366, Oct. 22. “In the year 1366, on the day 
after the festival of the eleven thousand virgins, [Oct. 22,] from 
midnight until daylight, stars were seen falling in streams from 
heaven, and in such multitudes that no man could count them.” 

‘“‘ Fodem anno (i. e. 1366) die sequenti- post festum xr millia 
virginum, ab hora matutina usque ad horam primamy visee sunt 
quasi stellee de ccelo cadere continua [continue ?] et in tanta mul- 
titudine, quod nemo narrare sufficit.”,—Chronicon Ecclesi@ Pra- 


* This quotation was published in my paper of November, 1837, (this Jour. Vol. 
33, p- 308.) 

t The hour of matins ranged between midnight and one o’clock in the morn- 
ing; the prime began at day break or sometimes at sunrise. There is no reason 
to suppose that this display was seen in the day time. 


362 Star-Showers of Former Times. 


gensis.—Script. Rer. Bohem. pars II, p. 389. Prag. 1784. Quo- 
ted by Boguslawski, Jr. in Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik 
und Chem. B. 48, s. 612, 1839. 

(32.) A. D. 1398. ‘Many stars of a fiery appearance fell 
down. At this time pestilence invaded nearly the whole of 
Italy.” 

“Anno Domini mccctxxxxvut. Multe stelle: ad modum ignis 
ceciderunt, quas Asub vocant. 'Tunc pestis totam fere Italiam 
invasit.”—Annales Forolivienses, in Muratori, Rer. It. Ser. tom. 
xxii, p. 200. 

(33.) A. D. 1399. “An eclipse of the sun happened on the 
second of the Calends of October. [Sept. 30.] Stars like fire 
were also seen falling from heaven in many parts of Italy.’ 

“Anno Domini mcccic. Eclipsis Solis facta est secundo Ca- 
lend. Octobris. Stelle quoque instar ignis de ccelo cadentes in 
plerisque Italie locis vise sunt.’’—Annales Forolivienses, in Mu- 
ratori, Fer. It. Scr. t. xxii, p. 200. 

(34.) A. D. 1635, 1636. “ During the whole summer of 1635, 
no less than during that of 1636, signs of this sort were seen, viz. 
burning stars running together in the heavens in great numbers 
and falling to the earth.” 

“‘Hujus quoque generis varia signa pestem Noviomagensem 
preenunciare visa sunt: Tota enim estate anni 1635, non minus 
quam anni 1636, hujusmodi indicia se prodiderunt: Nempe, stel- 
larum ardentium in celo oberrantium magnus concursus, et in 
ierram prolapsio.”—Diermerbroeck: Op. omnia. fol. Ultraj. 1685: 
De Peste, p. 10. Quoted in Webster’s Hist. E'pidem. and Pes- 
tilen. Diseases, Vol. 2, p. 89. 

If this is to be interpreted literally, it must be considered an ex- 
travagant account. In (Short’s) Gen. Chron. Hist. of the Air, 
&c., is the following statement, (the time of year being uncer- 
tain, )—‘‘ From March to August, 1636, not one drop of rain. 
This Numigen plague raged most at new and full moon. It was 
presaged by great Justling and Falling of fiery Stars south or 
west, many fewer birds than ordinary, é&c.”’-—Vol. I, p. 314.* 


“ Rev. W. B. Clarke, in Loudon’s Mag. Nat. Hist., 1834, Vol. 7, p. 294, states 
that, ‘On August 18, 1716, meteors were seen all over Europe, from 8 P. M. to 
3 A. M.”—“ On January 4, 1717, there was a shower of fire at Quesnoy.’’—The 
first case is probably a display of the aurora borealis: the latter was probably a 
lightning-bolt, or possibly a large meteoric fire-ball.—(Hist. de l’ Acad. de France, 
1717, p. 8, II.) 


Star-Showers of Former Times. 363 


(35.) A. D. 1743. October 4. “A clear Night, great Shooting 
of Stars between 9 and 10 a Clock, all shot from 8S. W. to N. E. 
[Qu. N. E. to S. W.] one like a comet in the Meridian very large, 
and like Fire, with a long broad Train of Fire after it, which 
lasted several minutes; after that was a Train like a Row of thick 
small Stars for twenty Minutes together, which dipt N.”— Gen- 
eral Chronological Hist. of the Air, Weather, Sc. [by Dr. Thos. 
Short.] Lond. 1749. 8vo. Vol. II, p. 313. 

The dates of the catalogue thus far, are of the Julian style: 
those which follow, are of the Gregorian.* 

(36.) A. D. 1799. November 12. A great shower of shooting 
stars, seen chiefly between midnight and morning, in various parts 
of Europe and America. The light of the moon (then at the full,) 
greatly impaired the splendor of the display.—E/liicott’s Journal. 
Ato. 1814. p. 248.— Humboldt: Voyage, tom. 4. liv. 4. ch. 10. 
8vo.— Gilbert’s Ann. der Physik, Bd. 6: 191,12: 217, 15: 109. 

(37.) A. D. 1803. April 20. A great shower of shooting stars 
after midnight, seen in the northern and middle portions of the 
United States. Sky clear and moon only a few hours before the 
change.— This Jour. Vol. 36, p. 358. 

(28.) A. D. 1832. November 13. An extensive shower of 
shooting stars seen between midnight and morning, in various 
and widely distant parts of the globe. ‘The moon (five days past 
the full,) much diminished the brilliancy of the spectacle.—Bzb. 
Univ. de Genéve. 1832; t. 3: 189.—Comptes Rend. v1. 562. 

(39.) A. D. 1833. November 13. A great shower of shooting 
stars seen between midnight and morning in various parts of 


* In this catalogue I intend to confine myself to showers of shooting stars, and 
omit many instances, occurring chiefly in August, in which meteors have been 
seen in uncommon, but not very large numbers. Of these meteoric displays some 
may perhaps merit a place in this list, e.g. those of Aug. 9,1779, Aug. 9, 1798, Dec. 
6, 1798, and Aug. 9, 1837. An extensive collection of these cases is given by M. 
Quetelet in his Catalogue des Principales Apparitions des Etoiles Filantes, (4to. 
Bruxelles, 1339.) Jt may be well to restrict the term meteoric shower to those in- 
stances where the meteors appear at a rate not less than 1000 per hour. 

t In E. H. Burritt’s Geography of the Heavens, (12mo. 1838, p. 161,) it is said, 
“‘ a shower of stars exactly similar took place in Canada between the 3d and 4th of 
July, 1814, and another at Montreal, in Nov. 1819.”’ ‘“ Another was witnessed in 
the autumn of 1818, in the North Sea, &c.” Probably neither of these occurrences 
was a shower of shooting stars. On the 3d and 4th of July, 1814, there fell on the 
river St. Lawrence, Canada, a quantity of dust or ashes, the air being very hazy 
and smoky.—Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. Lond. 44: 91. That of 1818, was doubtless a 
display of the aurora borealis. 


364 Star-Showers of Former Times. 


North America. The meteors appeared to diverge from the vicin- 
ity of y Leonis, and were most abundant about 4 A.M. Sky 
clear and moon in the second day past the change.—This Jour. 
Vols. 25, 26, &c. 


- Recapitulation: dates reduced to Gregorian style. 


1. B. C. 1768. 14. A.D. 899. Nov. 18. 27. A. D. 1122. April 11. 
ee ee VOSG: Teena 901. Nov. 30. Qo cg eo Oe tae 
Sila 3B allies LOA 962. Oct. 30. 29. 1292. Oct. 26. 
LP SNCS 2 Rieck 912 or 913. 30.. 1243. Aug. 2. 
Deity hy de OOS: TS aa 931 or 934. Oct.19. 31. “ 1366. Oct. 30. 
Galen SeonSepty Gl 19) 935. Oct. ? Doe i ooo 
acne eee Gilad . | 20. “ 1029. July or Aug. 33. “ 1399. Oct. ? 
SH mata O70) oy CY eae?) (areca a OL 34. “ 1635, 1636. 
gD ee Ea ROO: Beam OOD: 30. 1743. Oct. 15. 
105 oe vod Je Wareh. 2a. tc) OOS. 30,7 6 TOS Noveate. 
PP 7Oov dans 8240 1095: April 10: 37. *- 1803. April 20. 
qe ee O29: 25. ‘ . 1086. April 10° 38.  “ \ 1832. Nov. 13. 
Bie Si Soa Oct 21.) 26.) : 4, J106. Feb- 19: 39. “ 1833. Nov. 13. 


The limits prescribed to this paper will permit only a very brief 
discussion of the preceding catalogue. The region of country 
included by these showers, down to that of A. D. 1799, extends 
from England to China, about 130° in longitude, and from about 
20° to 51° N. latitude. ‘The table above shows the dates ( when- 
ever they could be found,) reduced to the Gregorian calendar, 
which, thus stated, will indicate with sufficient accuracy the point 
of the earth’s orbit, in each instance intersected by the meteoric 
stream. It is reasonable to presume that some of the dates are 
erroneous, and that some of the cases were not actually meteoric 
showers. Much caution is therefore necessary in tracing the cor- 
respondence of dates between these ancient star-showers and 
those of the present age, especially as our knowledge is so im- 
perfect regarding the meteoric seasons which now exist. The 
shower of April 20, 1803, may be the lineal successor of those of 
April 10, 1095 and 1122. That of Angust 2, 1243, may be the 
ancestor of the meteoric sprinklings of August 10, seen at the 
present day. It does not appear certain which of these ancient 
showers is represented by the modern shower of November 13. 
There is some reason to suppose that those showers which are 
described as continuing all night, (e. g. Nos. 4, 5, 9,) may have 
occurred in the summer season. 

Previous to 1833, we have no precise observations on the posi- 
tion of the point of radiation during any meteoric shower, but 


Star-Showers of Former Times. 365 


some slight indications that such radiant was noticed, occur in 
Nos. 14, 16, 29, 35. No comparison as to this particular can be 
made between the ancient and the modern meteoric displays.* 

If the foregoing catalogue comprised all the star-showers that 
have ever occurred, it would be easy to determine the cycle of the 
shower of any particular date. In the present state of our knowl- 
edge, it may be inferred that the cycle of the November shower 
is about thirty four years. 'There is of course some ground for 
expecting about the year 1867, a recurrence of the splendid dis- 
plays of November 13, 1832 and 1833. It is remarkable that 
Humboldt mentions that the earthquakes of 1766 in South Amer- 
ica, Were preceded by phenomena like those of November 12, 
1799. I have searched several American newspapers of the 
former period, but find no trace of any such meteoric display in 
the United States. The cycle of the April shower may be about 
twenty seven years; but it does not appear that any unusual num- 
ber of meteors was seen in April, 1830. It is, however, not to be 
supposed that the cycle remains constant through successive ages. 

A just theory of shooting stars must explain all the meteoric 
showers enumerated in the foregoing list, so far as they are truly | 
stated. It must likewise account for all the meteoric seasons 
which exist at the present time, and also for the shooting stars of 
daily occurrence, which, taking into view the whole globe, are 
exceedingly numerous. ‘The most probable hypothesis is, that 
there are revolving around the sun, millions of small planetary and 
nebulous bodies, of various magnitudes and densities; and that 
when any of these dart through our atmosphere, they become 
ignited and are seen as shooting stars. 'To ascertain the mode 
in which they are arranged in the solar system, is an important 
object of inquiry. A single zone or ring of such bodies is insuffi- 
cient to account for all the known phenomena. 


* The following passage from Ptolemy (differing somewhat from that quoted 
under No. 17,) deserves notice here, as showing that observations upon the direc- 
tions of shooting stars were not unknown in his time.—‘ Discursiones et jacula- 
tiones stellarum si ab uno angulo prorumpant, inde quoque ventum emittunt. Sin 
occurrant inter se, ventorumque prelia suscitant. Sin vero de quatuor plagis ruant, 
hyemes varias ferunt, atque etiam:fulmina, tonitrua, et que alia hujusmodi sunt.’’— 
Claud. Ptol. lib. de judiciis, interp. J. Camerario, fol. Basil. 1551, p. 403. 


Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 47 


366 - Native and Meteoric Iron. 


Arr. XI.—On Native and Meteoric Iron; by Cuartes Upnam 
Sueparp, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Medical Col- 
lege of the State of South Carolina. 


Native Iron from near Oswego, N. Y. 


Wuite at French Creek, Jefferson county, N. Y., during the 
last summer, I was informed by Capt. Hucernin, of that place, 
of the existence of a mass of native iron at Oswego, which had 
for several years been in the possession of an individual there, by 
whom it had been preserved, under the impression that it was 


of meteoric origin. Aided by directions from Capt. H., I had 
no difficulty, when passing through Oswego a few days after, in 
finding the person in whose hands the specimen was still remain- 
ing. This individual was Mr. Puiwanper Rarusun, a highly 
intelligent and respectable blacksmith. He very liberally pre- 
sented me the mass, upon the conditions of my devoting to it a 
careful examination, and reserving for hima slice of it, suffi- 


Native and Meteoric Iron. 367 


ciently large to enable him to gratify the very rational curiosity 
he possessed of working under the hammer, an iron which he 
was satisfied differed very ponstem bly from the metallic iron of 
the arts. 

_The mass was found in the town of Scriba, four miles east of 
Oswego, about five years ago, by aman by the name of Julius 
Rust, who was in the habit of furnishing Mr. Rarusun with 
charcoal. It was discovered in digging up the soil, which had 
been the foundation of an old coal-pit. Its weight is about 
eight pounds; and its general aspect, of which some idea may 
be formed by the annexed figure, is wholly opposed to the sup- 
position of its being a product of the forge. Indeed no iron 
works of any description have ever existed in this region. It 
approaches the cube in shape, though all its angles and edges are 
more or less rounded, while its upper surface is sub-spherical, and 
nearly smooth. The sides and base, on the contrary, are much 
pitted by irregular concavities, which give a surface most resem- 
‘bling on the whole, the ripple produced ona calm sea by the 
first access of a gentle breeze. ‘The arrangement of these de- 
pressions and elevations upon the sides of the mass, is such, as 
to give obscure lines or waves parallel to the edges of the base. 
This appearance taken along with the more flattened shape of 
the base, led Mr. Rarusun to imagine that the mass had fallen 
from the heavens, in a plastic condition, and that its present fig- 
ure is partly accounted for, by its striking the earth on that side, 
which is here described as the base. 

With the exception of a few impressions made in two or rice 
places by the cold chisel, for the purpose of detaching little frag- 
ments by Mr. R. there is no trace pertaining to it, of any human 
workmanship. But its most singular feature consists in its hav- 
ing several re-entering angles, (see 1 and 2,) about its edges, 
which are closely packed with a hard, black and brittle ore, whose 
color and lustre approach to those of Borrowdale plumbago. No 
part of the specimen exhibited any accumulation of rust. Its 
color, where a fresh surface had not been exposed, was iron-black. 
The fresh surface is light steel-grey. ‘The texture is exceedingly 
fine, and when polished, the lustre is high. 

On my return to New Haven, I employed a skilful machinist, 
who had been accustomed to the slitting of meteoric iron, to 
make a number of sections from one side of the mass. In per- 


368 — Native and Meteoric Iron. 


forming this operation, he observed that its hardness was less in 
amount, and more uniform in its nature, than that of the Texian 
meteoric iron, while it differed no less strikingly in other respects, 
from any artificial iron with which he was acquainted. He no- 
ticed in particular, that it possessed an unusual degree of tough- 
ness. Its specific gravity is 7.50. 

Ammonia was added in excess to the slightly warmed, nitro- 
hydrochloric solution of this iron, and the fluid shortly after 
cleared from the precipitated sesquioxide of iron: this fluid was 
destitute of any tinge of blue, nor did it yield a precipitate when 
treated with the hydrosulphate of ammonia. Neither nickel or 
cobalt can therefore enter into the composition of this iron. 

In the next place, I detached, with considerable difficulty, 
enough of the brittle plumbago-looking mineral above alluded to, 
to discover in it the following properties: hardness =5.0... 5.5: 
specific gravity =5.2...5.4; brittle: color dark iron-black: streak 
similar, except a tinge of brown: lustre imperfectly metallic: 
fracture uneven to granular; a portion of it is magnetic, while 
the rest is not taken up by the magnet. Heated before the 
blowpipe, in thin fragments, it does not fuse, but becomes some- 
what rounded on the edges; after heating, it is strongly mag- 
netic. It slowly entered into solution in nitro-hydrochloric acid, 
excepting a few flocks of silicic acid. No traces of either nickel 
or cobalt were present in the solution. 

It is only very recently that I have had it in my power to re- 
sume the investigation of this singular specimen of iron. Jam 
unable to detect in it either of the following principles, to wit, 
lead, tin, manganese, copper, titanium, silver, sulphur or phos- 
phorus. 

The precipitated peroxide of iron, on digestion with a solution 
of potassa, and subsequent treatment with hydrochlorate of am- 
monia, gave only a faint troubling from alumina. 

The clear fluid, from which the iron and alumina were precip- 
itated, gave with rales of EAE, a distinct, but feeble pre- 
cipitate of oxalate of lime. 

The solution of the iron in hydrochloric acid, as well as in 
sulphuric acid, gave an impalpable, heavy, black, plumbaginous 
looking matter, which on being ignited alone, suffered no change 
in color. It was heated to redness along with carbonate of po- 
tassa, the mass was treated with water, and hydrochloric acid, 
whereupon silicic acid made its appearance. 


Native and Meteoric Iron. 369 


The iron afforded me the following results : 


Tron, - - - - - - 99.68 
Silicon, - - - - - - 0.20 
Calcium, - - - - - 0.09 


Aluminium, in traces, - - - 


99.97 
The hard and brittle ore attached to the mass, does not appear 
to differ essentially from ordinary magnetic iron ore. It contains 
traces of silicic acid and of lime. 
The source of this iron, must probably for the present, remain 
a subject of doubt. The secondary country in which it was 
found, no less than the peculiar configuration of the mass, would 
lead us to doubt its terrestrial origin, either as a product of nature 
or of art; while the absence of nickel in its composition, sepa- 
rates it widely from meteoric iron. Future observations may re- 
lieve it from the isolated position it now appears to hold. 


Meteorice Iron from G'uilford County, North Carolina. 


In the year 1830, I gave, in Vol. xvi, p. 140, of this Journal, 
a hasty notice of two small fragments of iron from North Caro- 
lina, which had been presented to the American Geological So- 
ciety, by Prof. D. Olmsted, of Yale College. Having had occa- 
sion to bestow a renewed attention to the subject recently, I find 
I had adopted an erroneous opinion respecting the specimen from 
Guilford County. It contains both chlorine and nickel; and 
consequently can no longer be regarded as possessed of terres- 
trial origin. 

The structure of this iron, as developed by the recent attempt 
to detach a few grains for analysis, reminds me forcibly of that 
exhibited by the Buncombe, (N. C.,) meteoric iron. Like this, 
it cleaves into tetrahedral, octahedral, and rhomboidal fragments, 
and presents the same foliated texture, and pinchbeck tarnish. 
It cleaves, however, with greater difficulty than the Buncombe 
iron. 

In effecting its solution in nitro-hydrochloric acid, I observed 
a very slight residuum of a greyish black color. It was removed 
from the solution, and finely pulverized in a mortar. It present- 
ed the appearance of magnetic iron, and on treating it with a con- 
centrated portion of the mixed acids, it entered into solution af- 


370 First, or Southern Coal Field of Pennsylvania. 


ter the manner of this ore. Peroxide of iron was thrown down 
on the addition of ammonia to the solution. 

Water boiled in contact with the iron, afforded, when treated 
with nitrate of silver, a copious precipitate of chloride of silver. 
Faint traces of cobalt were also detected in the iron. But the 
small quantity of the mineral at my command, prevented me 
from attempting to estimate the proportions of these ingredients. 
The same reason also precluded the search after other principles 
often found in meteoric iron. The following presents the results 
obtained : 


Tron, - - - - - - 92.750 
Nickel, - - - - - - 3.145 
Magnetic iron? - - - - 0.750 

96.645 


Charleston, S. C., Feb. 3d, 1841. 


Arr. XII.—On the First, or Southern Coal Field of Pennsylva- 
nia; by M. Carry Lea. . 


Amone the numerous sources of wealth possessed by Pennsyl- 
vania, are her inexhaustible iron mines and coal beds. It must 
be acknowledged by all, that they constitute her true wealth, and 
they will contribute greatly to elevate her in the scale of national 
prosperity. 

Her coal beds are peculiarly valuable, possessing as she does, 
every variety of this fuel, from the hardest anthracite, to the most 
highly charged bztunwnous coal. She can supply those kinds 
most suitable for economical purposes, for generating gas, for 
making and working iron, in a word, for all the many uses to 
which this substance is applied. It is chiefly to her mines that 
the steam navigation of the Atlantic coast must look for its sup- 
plies, and the quantity thus consumed, though at present it may 
appear inconsiderable, will probably be soon enormously increased. 

It has been the opinion of my father for many years, that the 
hard or highly carbonized anthracite of the eastern end of the 
Southern Coal Field, changes to the bituminous in the western 
end, by nearly regular gradations, the veins probably being con- 
tinuous from the one point to the other. A case analogous to this 


is presented by the anthracite and bituminous coal of South 
Wales. 


First, or Southern Coal Field of Pennsylvania. 371 


With a view of testing this opinion, and for other purposes, a 
laborious set of analyses was undertaken, from specimens known 
to be authentic, in the laboratory of Prof. Booth. The method 
of analysis pursued was the following. One gramme of the coal, 
reduced to a fine powder in an agate mortar, was carefully and 
gradually heated, in a platina crucible having but one small aper- 
ture, in order to drive off the volatile matter. When this was 
effected, the residuum was weighed, and the volatile matter thus 
ascertained. ‘The crucible was then exposed to the highest heat 
of an alcohol blowpipe for some hours, until the carbon was thor- 
oughly burnt out, and the ash was then weighed. ‘The ash and 
volatile matter subtracted from 1.000 gave, of course, the carbon. 

It must be borne in mind that the analyses of the various coals 
from the Dauphin and Susquehanna Coal Company’s lands, were 
made from specimens taken from explorations of veins, near the 
surface, and should therefore be considered in a great measure as 
crop coals. 

Analyses.* 


No. 1. Lehigh.—The farthest eastern point at which coal is 
worked, is that owned by the Lehigh or Mauch Chunk Coal 
Company. ‘The specimen of this coal examined was very pure, 
and of very conchoidal fracture; it was broken with difficulty 
and flew very much under the strokes of the pestle. Its color 
was a deep, brilliant black, with very narrow parallel lines of a 
still deeper color. It was a long time in burning and left a light 
fleecy ash of a very white color. 

No. 2. Tamaqua. Little Schuylkill Coal Co.’s Mines.—This 
is the next important mining station, west of the Lehigh. ‘The 
specimen was very brilliant with a somewhat conchoidal fracture, 
and so hard that white paper rubbed on a fresh fracture was 
scarcely marked by it. Its ash was greyish white and flocculent. 

No. 3. Pottsville. Black Mine Vein.—Next in order is the 
Pottsville coal. The specimen examined was of a fine brilliant 
appearance and very refractory. It came from the Black Mine 
vein, two hundred feet below water level, and contained layers 
of a darker and softer substance without any splendor, and by 
these it usually fractured. Ash deep red. 


* The analyses have been condensed into a tabular form for greater economy 
of room and perspicuity ; the Nos. will be found to correspond with the table.— Eds. 


372 Furst, or Southern Coal Field of Pennsylvania. 


No. 4. Pinegrove.—A specimen of this coal, from the “‘ North 
Seam,” three fourths of a mile north of Sharp Mountain, was sub- 
mitted to examination. It was brilliant, exhibited a conchoidal 
fracture, and was refractory under the hammer. sh reddish yel- 
low. 

No. 5. Black Spring Gap, 26 miles from the Susquehanna. 
Fish-back Vein.—This is the next western point at which coal 
is worked, and from it, specimens of two veins were examined, 
this and the following. This one is devoid of lustre, and after 
burning, leaves a yellowish red ash. 

No. 6. Black Spring Gap. Peacock Vein.—The coal from 
this vein was brilliant, with a conchoidal fracture, and leaves a 
yellowish red, very light ash. 

No. 7. Gold Mine Gap, 25 miles from the Susquehanna. 
Peacock Vein.—This coal is brilliant, possessing a conchoidal 
fracture. Its ash was yellowish red, very bulky and light. 

No. 8. Rausch Gap, 21 miles from the Susquehanna. Pitch 
Vein, west side.—The specimen from this vein was rather friable. 
Its fracture was somewhat conchoidal, and generally brilliant. 
Ash yellowish red. 

No. 9. Rausch Gap. Pitch Vein, east side.—This coal is hard 
and rather brilliant, leaving a deep red ash, which changes to yel- 
lowish brown by a day’s exposure to the air. 

It will be seen that the portions of volatile matter in the two 
last are very nearly equal. The difference in the hardness and 
in the ash, probably results from the one specimen having been 
taken from nearer the crop than the other. 

No. 10. Yellow Springs Gap, 16 miles from the Susquehan- 
na. Back-bone Vein.—This specimen possessed but little lustre 
and left a dark red ash. 

No. 11. Yellow Springs Gap. Vein next north of Central 
Ridge.—This is a dense, black coal, which cokes. _ Its ash is pale 
salmon color. 

No. 12. Rattling Run Gap, 13 miles from the Susquehanna. 
Perseverance Vein.—The specimen analyzed was brilliant, with 
a clear, bright fracture, and burned with a bright flame. Its ash 
was dark red. 

This terminates our series, being the last important coal station 
where a vein fit for working has been discovered, so far as explo- 
ration has gone on. 


Furst, or Southern Coal Field of Pennsylvania. 373 


It would appear from these results, that the bituminous quali- 
ties of the coal increase with considerable regularity from T’ama- 
qua to Rattling Run, that from Mauch Chunk being an excep- 
tion, although its excess of volatile matter may probably be at- 
tributed to its containing a larger proportion of water. 

Specimens of two other American coals, were examined for 
comparison with the preceding. These were from the Blossburg 
or ‘Tioga mines, and from Cumberland, Md. 

‘No. 13. Tioga.—The Tioga Coal Field is a detached portion 
of the eastern extremity of the Great Allegany Coal Basin. The 
specimen examined was of a medium hardness, and its fractures 
were sometimes brilliant, sometimes altogether devoid of lustre. 
Its ash was cream-colored, inclining to grey. 

No. 14. Cumberland, Md.—This coal is brilliant, with an 
even fracture, and cream-colored ash, passing to grey. 

No. 15. Black Spring Gap. Grey Vein.—This remarkable 
vein, as mentioned by R. C. Taylor, Esq. in his ‘‘ Report of the 
Stony Creek Coal Estate,” is about seventeen feet thick, contain- 
ing much fine coal, with a vein near the centre, two or three feet 
thick, of coal of a greyish color, which has given the name to the 
whole. ‘The specimen of this included vein, in my possession, 
closely resembles plumbago in appearance. It burns with little 
flame, leaving a yellowish red ash. 


Table of analyses of coals from Pennsylvania. The nwmbers re- 
Ser to those prefixed to the paragraphs. 


No. Locality. Carbon. Volatile matter. Ash. 
1. Lehigh, - - - - - 870 073 .057 

Another analysis of the same gave, .869 O75 .056 
2. Tamaqua, - - - - .910 .055 .035 


3. Pottsville, - - - - 884 .068 .048 
4. Pinegrove, - - - 859 072 069 . 
5. Black eps Gap. Fish- back vein, .840 .065 .095 
6. Black Spring Gap. Peacock vein, .886 O71 043 
7. Gold Mine Gap. Peacock vein, 830 .090 .080 
8. Rausch Gap. Pitch vein, west side, .771 LOD tO 
9. Rausch Gap. Pitch vein, east side, .789 tO) LOL 
0. Yellow SpringsGap. Back-bone vein,.775 .110  .115 
1 


. Yellow Springs Gap. Vein next N. 
of Central Ridge, TAT .148 105 


12. Rattling Run Gap, - - - 761 .169 .070 
Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1841. 438 


374 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 


moe Carbon. Volatile matter: Ash. - 

13. Tioga, .: - - = ee oe 75 .100° 

- 14. Cumberland, Md.,— - - - OAS ae .076 
15. Black Spring cae Grey vein, .860 0452 .>.085 


A comparison between the coals of Cumberland, Md., Bloss- 
burg, Penn., Dauphin Co., Penn. and South Wales, showe a re- 
markable similarity of composition as respects volatile matter. 
The greatest difference, in fact, scarcely exceeds one half of one 
per cent, as will be seen by the following table. 


Carbon. Volatile matter. Ash. 


Cumberland, - - - - - “754 .170 .076 
Blossburg, or 108 - - - £725 175 . 100 
Dauphin, - - - 761 . 169 .070 


South Wales, Dyas ( by Berthier, ) 195 175 .030 
Philadelphia, pee SLOT tar 


Arr. XIII.—Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 


I. American Philosophical Society. 


Nov. 6, 1840.—Professor Bache submitted to the Society a Chart, rep- 
resenting the extraordinary variations of the magnetic declination during 
the term day, on the 29th of May last, prepared by W. C. Bond, Esq., from 
the observations at the Magnetic Observatory at Cambridge. 

Professor Bache read an extract of a letter from Lieut. Riddell, direc- 
tor of the Magnetic Observatory at Toronto, U. C., which stated that an 
entire discordance had been found between the curve representing the 
changes of inclination, on the Iebruary magnetic term day, at Toronto, 
Dublin, Brussels, and Prague, whilst those at the last three named stations 
agreed very well together. This result, Professor B. stated, confirms the 
conclusions previously drawn from the observations at short intervals, of 
Prof. Lloyd and himself, in November last. 

Mr. Walker made some observations in relation to the Observatory ae 
the Harvard University, Cambridge, and stated that extensive arrange- 
ments had been made, and were in contemplation, for prospeutige mag- 
netic observations and practical astronomy. 

Professor Bache made a verbal communication of some recent deter- 
minations of the magnetic dip, made by him at Philadelphia and Bal- 
timore. ; 

He reminded the society, that on a former occasion he had submitted 
a comparison of the observations for magnetic dip at various stations, com- 
mon to the series of Prof. Loomis, (Am. Philos. Soc. Trans. Vol. VII, 


Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 375 


N.S.,) and to that of Prof. Courtenay and himself. The discrepancies 
at Philadelphia and Baltimore were among the most striking. Having 
satisfied himself. that the dip given by his instrument at the station occu- 
pied by Prof. Loomis, near Philadelphia, was sensibly the same as that 
given by Prof. Loomis, his next step was to ascertain, by observations in 
a different position from those used in both the sets of observations form- 
erly made, which probably represented more correctly the dip at Phila- 
delphia. The result of two series of observations near the observatory at 
the Girard College, (at a sufficient distance to be beyond sensible influ- 
ence from the magnetic instruments,) made with four different needles, 
was as follows :— 4 

July 21, 1840. No.1, 71° 51.7’. No. 2, 71°.51.7'.. Mean of Lloyd, 
No. 1 and No. 3, 71° 55.8’. , 

November 2, 1840. No. 1, 71° 51.2’. No. 2, 71° 51.0’. Mean of 
Lloyd, No. 1 and No. 38, 71° 57.4’. 

Mean, 71° 53.3’. 

The needles, termed Lloyd No. 1 and No. 3, are used without rever- 
sing the poles; and a correction has been applied from the mean of six- 
teen comparisons, with the ordinary needles, at different places: as, 
however, this correction is obtained through Nos. 1 and 2, the results 
merely add to the aes of observations from which the mean is abe 
tained. 

Prof. Bache remarked that his former result was thus confirmed. 

At Baltimore, the place of observation was in the second square, N. E. 
of the Washington Monument. ‘The same needles were used. 

Aug. 27, 1840. No.1, 71° 31.7. No. 2, 71° 39.1. Mean of Lloyd, _ 
No. 1 and No. 3, 71° 32.4’. Mean, 71° 34.4’, differing from the results 
of both the former series. ; 

Prof. Bache stated, in continuation, that the geological formations at 
and near Baltimore, rendered it difficult to select an unexceptionable site 
for magnetic observations there, and was a sufficient explanation of the 
observed discrepancies. The results, which he had at present obtained, 
differed about 10’ from the mean of those of Professors Courtenay and 
Loomis. 

Dr. Patterson announced the death of Prof. Charles Bonnycastle, a 
member of this society, (elected at the last meeting,) which took place on 
the 31st of October. 

Nov. 20.—Dr. Patterson, from the observatory committee, reported, 
that an ordinance had passed the city councils, authorizing the erection of 
an astronomical observatory within Rittenhouse square. It was subse- 
quently resolved, that the terms of the ordinance be accepted by the so- 
ciety, and that the observatory committee be instructed to take the neces- 
sary measures under the powers amen them, for carrying into effect the 
objects of the ordinance. 


376 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 


Prof. Bache stated, that along with Messrs. Walker, Kendall, Cresson, 
Frazer, and a pupil of the High School, he had watched for meteors or 
shooting stars, at the High School, on the nights of Nov. 12-13, and— 
13-14, and met with the usual negative results of the observations before 
made in Philadelphia. ; ‘ 

Dr. Horner called attention to the noise and shock observed about 9 
o’clock on Saturday evening last, (Nov. 14,) which were supposed by 
some to be those of an earthquake. Judge Hopkinson referred to a siate- 
ment, that the phenomena were supposed to be produced by the explo- 
sion of a near meteor. Mr. Nicklin mentioned facts, which induced him 
to think there had been a slight shock of an earthquake at the time men- - 
tioned. Dr. Chapman and Mr. Cresson attributed the rambling noise and 
shock to thunder. Dr. Chapman had noticed a flash of lightning near 
the horizon, which was followed by thunder. Mr. Cresson had noted an 
interval of nearly two minutes between the flash of lightning and the clap 
of thunder. 

Prof. Henry described an apparatus for producing a reciprocating mo- 
tion by the repulsion in the consecutive parts of a conductor, through 
which a galvanic current is passing; and made some remarks in refer- 
ence to the electro-magnetic machine invented by him in 1829, and sub- 
sequently described by Dr. Ritchie, of London. The machine referred 
to had been applied recently by Prof. Henry in his experiments. 

Prof. Bache communicated an extract of a letter from Prof. Rimker, 
director of the observatory of Hamburg, which contained the results of his 
observations of Galle’s first comet, and occultations observed in April, 
May, June, and August, 1840. 

Dec. 4.—The committee, consisting of Mr. Richards, Dr. Ludlow, and 
Mr. G. M. Wharton, on a communication of Prof. Forshey, of Natchez, 
containing a description of the great mound near Washington, Adams 
county, Mississippi, reported favorably of the same, and expressed the 
hope, that the author might be enabled to prosecute farther examinations, 
“the result of which, with his enlightened commentaries, would furnish 
a most acceptable addition to the Transactions of the Society.” 

The mound, described by Professor Forshey, is found about nine miles 
north-east from the city of Natchez, Mississippi, upon the most elevated 
portion of that comparatively low and level region. It is approached on 
all sides by a slope. ‘The elevation of its base above the mean level of 
the waters of the Mississippi, at Natchez, is estimated at 265 feet, and the 
greatest height of the mound above the earth, 84 feet. The whole eleva- 
tion above the waters of the river 348 feet, giving to the spectator a clear 
horizon of 150 degrees, embracing, in that flat region, arjch and extended 
prospect. 

The mound is an irregular artificial elevation of earth, varying, in its 
general line, from 40 to 46 feet in height, and encloses an area of about 


Proceedings of Scientific Societies. O77 


seven acres inclusive of the ground covered by its base. On the sur- 
face of the general mound are erected, at irregular intervals, 15 smaller 
mounds, one of which is 38 feet in height, and the remaining 14 varying 
from 4 to 12 feet in height. The mound consists of clay, with some ad- 
mixture of earth, and its sides seem to have been faced with rudely formed 
brick, made Bon the adjacent clay. The bricks are found after digging 
-to the depth of some 12 or 15 inches into the embankment. The western 
front is ascended by two causeways, which are distinctly marked, and are 
found one at each angle of the mound. At the eastern extremity is an- 
other causeway entrance to the enclosure, and near to this entrance, and 
outside the embankment, may be traced, for some distance, an ancient 
fosse. The three causeways are of easy ascent, and wide enough for the 
introduction of burthens. Upon the north and south sides of the great 
mound, and at points nearly opposite to each other, covered entrances or 
archways were constructed, but they are now so obstructed as to be difli- 
cult of examination. Before the forest was cleared by civilized culture, 
tradition relates that extensive avenues reached north, south, east, and 
west, thus affording, from the elevation of the great mound, a most attrac- 
tive prospect. 

The result, of the partial examinations made, shows that portions of the 
mound were used as places of interment by the Indians. The cranium 
secured by Prof. Forshey was of the tribe of Flatheads. 

Harthen vessels of rude construction, and ‘probably used frequently as 
receptacles for the remains of those interred, or as mementos at their fun- 
eral obsequies, are found. Various objects from the mound have reached 
the Lyceum at Natchez. 

The committee, consisting of Mr. Lea, Dr. Hays, and Mr. Ord, to 
whom was referred a communication, entitled “remarks on the dental 
system of the mastodon, with an account of some lower jaws in Mr. Koch’s 
collection, St. Louis, Missouri, where there is a solitary tusk on the right 
side, by William EH. Horner, M: D., professor of anatomy in the Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania,” reported in favor of the publication, which was di- 
rected accordingly. ; 

Dr. Horner inquires into the mode of formation of the teeth of the mas- 
todon, and compares it with that of the elephant and of man. The teeth 
of the mastodon are all formed upon one type of configuration, the num- 
ber of denticules excepted ; they therefore, like those of the elephant, do 
not admit of a division into incisors, cuspidati, and molares, as in some 
other animals. The teeth are all molars. The lower jaw itself resem- 
bles somewhat a human lower jaw cut off in front of the molar teeth, and 
then joined in the two posterior segments. ‘These teeth invariably suc- 
ceed each other from behind; the hindmost, as they emerge, pushing the 
others forward, and out of their places, until the latter all drop out, and a 
large solitary tooth is finally left on each side of each jaw. 


378. Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 


Dr. Horner alludes to the erroneous nature of the early ideas of natu-. 
ralists on the teeth of the mastodon, and observes that we now know, with 
some degree of certainty, that the earliest teeth of this animal were not 
more than an inch and a half square, and that the three immediately suc- 
ceeding were a gradual and successive enlargement on this and on each 
other’s volume. In the museum of Mr. Koch, at St. Louis, there is a 
young head, the long diameter of which is 18 or 20 inches, where the fact 
of four co-existent teeth on each side of each jaw is exhibited. This spe- 
cimen, with a dozen lower jaws of different ages and sizes, enables us to 
trace, with some accuracy, the stages of dentition, until it reaches the 
large and solitary grinder of ten inches in length on each side. Judging 
from these phases of dentition, Dr. Horner infers that the entire amount 
of teeth was at least 24; he is disposed, indeed, to think that the number 
may have been greater than this; perhaps 28, and possibly 32. 

Dr. Horner makes some observations on some specimens of lower jaws 
in Mr. Koch’s museum in St. Louis, in which there was a solitary tusk on 
the right side, and alludes to the embarrassments that their existence oc- 
casions in regard to the Tetracaulodon of Godman; whether, for example, 
we are to consider them merely as abnormous types of that animal, as 
known mastodons, or as still another species to which, if such, the name 
Tetracaulodon might be attached. Dr. Horner confesses himself unable 
to suggest a probable solution of these questions, and states, in connection 
with them, that Mr. Koch has the lower part of the head of a mastodon of 
middling size, in which, from the intermaxillary bone, as usual, protrudes 
a tusk, which measures thirty inches long by four inches in diameter; but 
the tusk exists only on the left side, there being not even a vestige of alve- 
olus on the right. 

It is very far from being certain, Dr. Horner adds, that any example 
exists of the upper jaw of the Tetracaulodon ; the presence of tusks in both 
jaws at once has therefore to be yet proved. 

The committee consisting of Prof. Bache, Dr. Patterson, and Mr. Lu- 
kens, to whom was referred the paper, entitled ‘ sige vanbis to deter- 
mine the magnetic intensity at several places in the United States, with 
some additional observations of the magnetic dip, by Elias loca pro- 
fessor of mathematics and natural philosophy in Western NESS Col- 
lege,” recommended the same for publication in the Society’s Transac- 
tions, which was ordered accordingly. 

The following is an abstract of the results of observations contained in 
this memoir. " 

. Magnetic Intensity —T he horizontal intensity was observed by an 
apparatus similar to the one used by Prof. Hansteen. Three small nee- 
dles furnished to the author by Prof. Renwick, and made under the direc- 
tion, respectively, of Professor Hansteen, Major Sabine, and Prof. Henry, 
were employed. ‘The commencing semi-arc of vibration was, in every 


Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 379 


case, 30°, and each series included 320 oscillations, the instant of the 
completion of every tenth vibration being noted. No correction, there- 
fore, is applied for the arc of vibration.. The times were observed at Dor- 
chester, Princeton, and Philadelphia, by a chronometer, and at the other 
stations by a lever watch, which, at Hudson, was compared with the ob- 
servatory clock before and after the observations. The author remarks, 
that “at the remaining stations there is a little uncertainty with regard 
to the time, yet it is thought its influence upon the results will not be 
great.” 

The correction for temperature, for each of the needles, was obtained 
by direct experiment, and gave the following coefficients :— 

For the Hansteen needle, .000191 ; for the Sabine needle, .000328; 
for the Henry needle, .000116. The results of observation are reduced 
to a standard temperature of 60° Fah. 

The author gives the reasons which induce him to apply no correction 
for the change of magnetism in the needles. ‘The observations for hori- 
zontal intensity were principally made in September and November, 1839. 

The stations of observation at different places were the same as form- 
_ erly described, (Am. Phil. Soc. Trans.) except at Dorchester, which was 
near Mr. Bond’s observatory. The details of the observations are given, 
and from the mean of those for horizontal intensity, combined with the 
dips formerly observed, the author gives the total intensities, taking New 
York as-1.803, according to the determination of Major Sabine, and re- 
ferring to the unit established by Humboldt, as follows :— 


Horizontal Intensity. Dip. Total Intensity. 
New York, 96707 Ta: O22 1.803 
New Haven, 92364. - 73 26.7 1.780 
Dorchester, ~ .88182 74 16.0 1.786 
Providence, 89830 73 59.6 oe 789 
Princeton, 97414 72 A771 1.807 
Philadelphia, 1.00000 72 07.0 1.788 
Hudson, - 97344 72 47.6 1.807 


The author remarks that Hudson, Ohio, and New York, thus appear to 
have sensibly the same magnetic dip and intensity. He concludes this 
part of his memoir with a comparison of his intensity observations with 
those of Professors Bache and Courtenay. 

2. Magnetic Dip.—T his section commences with an account of obser- 
vations of the magnetic dip, made at Hudson, Ohio, in different azimuths, 
to try the figure of the axles of the dipping needles. ‘The results for nee- 
dle No. 1 were quite satisfactory, and for needle No. 2, showed a differ- 
ence in the extremes of 12.7’: upon a review of the whole, the author con- 
siders them as justifying confidence in the needles used. 

The following determinations of the dip are next given :— 


380 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 


i Latitude. Longitude. Date. Magnetic Dip. 
Hudson, Ohio, 41°15’ N. 81°26  W. April 15, 1840, 72° 53.2’ 
Aurora, aay, 202 ny, SE 420 Sept. 8. “ — 72 45.5 
Windham,  “ 41 15 81 03 oo Be Se aie A 
- Bazetta, Sy tl 20 AO Ar Se et NTN SOY) 
Kinsman, WA 30 80 34 SEO. 5 ek ea 
Hartford, ee) NS) 80 34 een (eae OED) 
Warren, Aw 1G 80 49 LE 6 Sai 
Cleveland, “ 41 30 81 42 FO Oo eS ee 
Bedwrds, . .¢. 7.41.24 81 32 OR eC OO ae 
Twinsburgh, “ 41 20 81 26 ORG a aes 
Tallmadge, ‘“ 41 06 81 26 Fo OB ee a) sae 


Shalersville, ‘“ 41 15 S113 9 Oct 15, ° 1°, 2 obits 
Streetsboro’, “ 41 15 81 20 A Gs eee Oe eae 
Tallmadge, “ 41 .06 81 26 SSL," itt ald eo AS 

‘Mr. Walker read a communication, entitled “ researches concerning 
the periodical meteors of August and November, by Sears C. Walker,” 
which was referred to a committee. 

Prof. Bache brought before the society an instrument for measuring the 
changes in the vertical components of the force of terrestrial magnetism, 
which he described as combining the principles of the vertical force in- 
strument of Prof. Lloyd, with that of reflection adopted in the magnetom- 
eters of Prof. Gauss, and which had been made for him by Mr. Saxton. 

Prof. Bache stated, that having found difficulties in the use, especially 
by his assistants, of the vertical force instrument invented by Prof. Lloyd, 
and made for the magnetic observatory at the Girard College, by Robin- 
son, of London, he had applied, in June last, to Mr. Saxton, to construct 
the instrument now presented to the notice of the society. The details 
had been matured by conference with Mr. Saxton. The magnetic bar, 
placed and supported as in the instrument of Prof. Lloyd, carries a mirror 
upon its axis. The mode of adjusting the position of the centre of gravity 
of the needle does not differ materially from that adopted in the instru- 
ment referred to. The needle is raised off the agate planes by the action 
of a screw, raising a bar which supports two small cups adapted to receive 
two projecting pins on the arms of the magnet. ‘This magnetometer is 
observed from a distance, like those of Prof. Gauss. Prof. Bache ex- 
plained the mode of adjusting the instrument, and of placing the scale and 
telescopes. 

Prof. Bache called the attention of the society to a diagram represent- 
ing the changes of magnetic declination, as recorded at the magnetic ob- 
servatory of Mr. Bond, at Cambridge, and at the Girard College, on the 
magnetic term day of May, 1840, and showing that the changes attending 
the aurora are not peculiar to one locality, but that, as observed at differ- 
ent places, they are parts of a great magnetic disturbance. 


Proceedings of Scientific Societies. ~ 881 


The two curves thus presented agreed remarkably in all their general 
features, showing, as a general result, similar motions of the needle at the 
two places in direction, though not always proportional in amount. They 
presented remarkable differences in the absolute times at which these 
movements had taken place at the two stations, the similar movements 
differing frequently five minutes, (with opposite Suis) and in a few cases 
as much as ten minutes in time; in cther cases being simultaneous. The 
period at which the needle had attained, suddenly, its greatest deviation 
from the true meridian, was ten minutes earlier in absolute time at Cam- 
bridge, than at Bhiladelpiis: 

Dr. Demmé referred to the contents of a circular letter from Germany, 
in which it was stated, that a number of gentlemen of Stuttgart had unt- 
ted, under the name ‘‘Societas Bibliophilorum Stuttgartie,” to publish 
historical and antiquarian works, which are either out of print, or have 
never been printed. 

- The society at Stuttgart will begin to publish as soon as they have pro- 
cured five hundred subscribers. The subscription is one pound sterling, 
for which the subscriber will receive one copy; and no more copies will 
be printed than are subscribed for. 

Dec. 18.—T he committee, consisting of Dr. Patterson, Prof. Bache, and 
Mr. Lukens, to whom was referred the communication of Prof. Henry, 
entitled “‘ Contributions to electricity, No. [V., on electro-dynamic induc- 
tion,” reported in favor of publication, which was directed accordingly.* 

The committee, consisting of Mr. Nuttall, Mr. Lea, and Dr. Coates, to 
whom was referred a communication by Miss Margaretta H. Morris, on 
the Cecidomyia Destructor or Hessian Fly, reported im favor of publica- 
tion, which was ordered accordingly. 

The committee express the opinion, that should the observations of Miss 
Morris be ultimately proved correct, they will eventuate in cor usiderable 
benefit to the agricultural community, and, through it, to the public. 
Miss Mortis believes she has established, that the ovum of this destructive 
insect is deposited by the parent in the seed of the wheat, and not, as pre- 
viously supposed, in the stalk or culm. She has watched the progress of 
the animal since June, 1836, and has satisfied herself that she has fre- 
quently seen the larva within the seed. She has also detected the larva, 
at various stages of its progress, from the seed to between the body of the 
stalk and the sheath of the leaves. In the latter situation it passes into 
the pupa or “‘ flaxseed state.”” According to the observations of Miss Mor- 
ris, the recently hatched larva penetrates to the centre of the straw, where 
it may be found of a pale greenish-white semi-transparent appearance, in 
form somewhat resembling a silk-worm.’ From one to six of these have 


* We omit the abstract of this paper, as it will appear in full in this Journal. 


Vol. xt, No. 2.-—Jan.-March, 1841. 49 


382 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 


been found at various heights from the seed to the third joint: they would - 
seem to enter the pupa state about the beginning of June. 

This fly was not observed by Miss Morris to inhabit any other plant 
than wheat. 

To prevent the ravages of this destroyer of the grain, it will be proper 
to obtain fresh seed from localities in which the fly has not made its ap- 
pearance. By this means the crop of the following year will be uninjured ; 
but in order to avoid the introduction of straggling insects of the kind — 
from adjacent fields, it is requisite that a whole neighborhood should per- 
severe in this precaution for two or more years in succession. This re- 
sult was obtained, in part, in the course of trials made by Mr. Kirk, of 
Bucks county, Pa., with some seed-wheat from the Mediterranean, in and 
since the year 1837. His first crop was free from the fly, but it was grad- 
ually introduced from adjacent fields; and in the present year the mis- 
chief has been considerable. As Miss Morris states that the fly has never 
made its appearance in Susquehanna and Bradford counties, seed-wheat, 
free from the fly, might be obtained from these, and probably from other 
localities. 

The committee recommend that the conclusion of Miss Morris “ may 
be subjected to the only efficient test—repeated observations and effective 
trials of the precaution she advises.” 

The committee, consisting of Prof. Rogers, Dr. Bache, and Mr. Booth, 
on a communication, entitled, “on the perchlorate of ethule or perchloric 
ether, by Clark Hare and Martin H. Boyé,” reported in favor of publica- 
tion, which was ordered accordingly. 

In the above paper, the mode of obtaining the perchloric ether, by sub- 
jecting a mixture of sulphovinate of baryta and perchlorate of baryta to 
distillation, is first described. The authors next detail the precautions to 
be attended to in preparing and experimenting upon this highly explosive 
compound. ‘They afterwards describe the appearance and properties of 
the substance which ranks in that class of organic salts, denominated 
ethers. tis a colorless, transparent liquid, heavier than water, and sol- 
uble in alcohol, from which it may be precipitated again, by the addition 
of water. An alcoholic solution of the hydrate of potassa has the power 
of decomposing it, forming perchlorate of potassa and alcohol. The most 
characteristic property of the compound is its tendency to explode from 
the slightest causes. 

Dr. Patterson called the attention of the society to the subject of the 
evolution of electricity from steam, mentioned at the last meeting, and 
stated that the experiments made lately in England had been successfully 
repeated by Mr. Peale, Mr. Saxton, and himself, at the United States’ 
mint. 

Dr. Patterson said, that their first attempts were to collect electricity 
from the steam as it issued from a gauge-cock, near the surface of the 


Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 383 


water, in the boiler; but in this case the steam was always accompanied 
by a spray of water, and the experiments failed. They also failed when — 
the steam was of a low temperature, as it was then condensed immedi- 
ately upon leaving the boiler, so as to form a cloud of vesicular vapor. 
In both these cases, the electricity, if evolved at all, would be led back to 
the boiler—the spray and the vesicular vapor being, as is well known, 
electrical conductors. 

When, on the other hand, high steam was drawn off from a stop-cock 
far removed from the water in the boiler, it was observed to issue, for 
some distance, in the form of a transparent gaseous vapor, and, in this 
case, any insulated body on which it was condensed was always found to 
be charged with electricity. ‘Thus, if the experimenter stood on an in- 
sulating stool, or even on a box or ladder of dry wood, and held an iron 
ladle, or any other conductor, in the issuing steam, the conductor and the 
operator became so fully charged with electricity, that thick sparks of a 
half, three-quarters, and in some instances a whole inch in length, were 
drawn off; the Leyden jar charged; the shock given to several persons 
holding hands, &c. The electricity thus produced was found to be al- 
ways positive. 

Dr. P. said, that one of the most important conclusions to which the ex- 
periments had led, was, that true gaseous steam is a non-conductor of 
electricity. If it had not been so, the apparatus would not have been in- 
sulated, and the electricity excited would have been carried back to the 
metallic boiler, and thence to the earth. 

Dr. P. thought it most probable that the electricity, in these experi- 
ments, was evolved by the condensation of the steam—the phenomenon 
being analogous to the evolution of latent heat by the same condensation. 
He remarked, that as the steam within the boiler was surrounded by con- 
ductors, it could not be supposed to contain free electricity, and that on 
leaving the boiler, the only sources to which the electricity could be as- 
cribed, seemed to be the condensation of the steam, the oxidation of the 
iron against which it impinges, or the friction of the steam against the air 
as it rushes through it. 

To show that oxidation was not the source of the electricity, the exper- 
imenters caused the steam to strike upon a large bar of fine gold, (400 oz. 
in weight,) and the generation of electricity was as abundant as when 
they employed an oxidizable metal. The electricity was also evolved by 
the insulated operator simply holding his hand in the steam as it issued ; 
in which case the steam was condensed upon the hand, and the whole 
person became charged. Dr. P. stated, that this was, in fact, the experi- 
ment accidentally made near New Castle, in England, and which has at- 
tracted so much attention. 

To show that the electricity was not caused by the rushing of the 
vapor through the air, Dr. P. said that an apparatus was made, consisting 


384 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 


of a pipe connecied with the stop-cock on the boiler, a portion of about - 
ten inches in length, near the upper end, being of glass, to produce insu- 
lation, and the remainder cf lead, wound into a helix, like the worn of-a 
still. ‘This helix was immersed in a bucket of water and snow. When 
the steam was admitted, it became entirely condensed within the pipe, so 
that there was no rush through the air; yet the production of electricity 
was as abundant as with the former arrangements. 

Dr. P. took notice of experiments made, half a century ago, by Volta 
and Saussure, and afterwards by Cavallo, which proved, to their satisfac- 
tion, that electricity was evolved during evaporation and condensation, 
but which have since been called in question by Pouillet and others, who 
assert that a mere change of state, not accompanied by chemical change, 
never gives rise to electricity. He considered the experiments, now 
made on a large scale, as favoring, if not confirming, the first opinions 
entertained on this subject. 

Dr. P. referred to the satisfactory manner in which these new experi- 
ments seem to explain the sources of electricity in the thunder storm, and 
in volcanic eruptions. 

He then related an experiment in which an insulated iron ball, and 
afterwards a bar of gold, was heated, and a small stream of water poured 
on it, so as to be formed into steam at its surface. The first experiments 
seemed to show that the metal was charged with negative electricity, but 
subsequent trials threw doubts upon this conclusion. 

Dr. P. also described experiments made to determine whether electri- 
city was given off during the solidification of liquids,—the substances 
used being melted lead, silver, and gold. In every case, however, the 
gold-leaf. electroscope failed to exhibit the presence of any electricity. 

Prof. Henry stated that he had not seen the sparks from steam; but 
that he had obtained feeble electricity from a small ball, partly filled with 
water, and heated by alamp. He agreed with Dr. Patterson in the opin- 
ion, that the source of the electricity was the change of state, but from 
water to vapor. ‘There was, however, some doubt on the subject; Pouil- 
let had denied the evolution of electricity from the evaporation of pure 
water. ‘The facts were interesting, particularly on account of the great 
intensity of the electricity. The results, obtained by the philosophers, 
which had been mentioned, indicated electricity of very feeble tension, 
which could only be observed by the most delicate instruments, but here 
the sparks were an inch in length. If the vaporization of the water 
were shown to be the source of the electricity, Prof. Henry thought that 
the phenomena might be readily explained by the beautiful theory of Bec- 
querel, in regard to the production of the great intensity of the electricity 
in the thunder cloud. According to this theory, each particle of the 
vapor carries up with it into the atmosphere the free electricity, which it 
receives at the moment of the change of state: this, being diffused 


Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 385 


through the whole capacity of the air, is of very feeble intensity, although 
of great quantity; but the condensation of the vapor into a cloud affords 
a-continuous conductor, and consequently the electricity of all the parti- 
cles of the interior, according to the well known principles of distribu- 
tion, rushes to the surface of the cloud, and hence the great intensity of 
the lightning. According to this hypothesis, the insulated conductor, 
placed in the steam, would act not only as a collector, but also as a con- 
denser of the free, but feeble electricity of the vapor. 

Prof. Henry farther stated, in connection with this subject, that he had 
been informed by several persons, that they had obtained sparks of elec- 
tricity from a coal stove during the combustion of anthracite. A case 
had been stated to him several years ago, which he mentioned to his 
friend, Professor Bache, who informed him that a similar one had fallen 
under his own notice, in which, however, Prof. Bache had succeeded in 
tracing the electricity to the silk shirt of the person who drew the spark. 
Another case had lately been reported to him by an intelligent gentleman, 
of a stove burning bituminous coal, on board of a steamboat on the Ohio, 
which afforded amusement to all the passengers during the voyage, by 
giving sparks of electricity whenever it was touched. 

In connection with the facts that had been stated of the production of 
electricity from steam, Prof. Henry observed that he was now inclined to 
believe that electricity may also be evolved during the combustion of coal 
in a stove. But what, he asked, is the source of electricity in this case ? 
Is it combustion, the evaporation of the moisture, or the friction of the 
hot air on the interior of the pipe? 

Dr. Goddard stated, that in the case of a stove, pretty well insulated, 
his family had amused themselves with drawing sparks half an inch or 
three quarters of an inch long; and that similar sparks were obtained 
from the frame of a looking-glass over an open grate, in the house of Dr. 
Norris, of this city. 

Professor Bache remarked, that in the case referred to by Prof. Henry, 
in which sparks of electricity were obtained from a stove, he had satisfied 
himself that these were owing to the experimenter wearing a silken 
shirt :—an experimenter, not similarly clad, being unsuccessful. 

Dr. Hare ascribed the incredulity and the opinions which he had ex- 
pressed, when this subject was brought before the society by Mr. Peale, 
at the last meeting, to a misapprehension, on his part, as to the circum- 
stances. He considered that the fact of electricity being developed in 
the case adduced, was established. He alluded to the almost incredible 
case of a lady, who, agreeably to evidence mentioned in Silliman’s Jour- 
nal, Vol. xxxi1, gave off sparks of electricity. He stated also the result 
of an experiment to discover whether electricity was given off during the 
rapid evaporation of a saline solution. ‘There was no evidence of excite- 
ment. ‘The vessel was of glass. 


386 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 


Mr. Lea had frequently observed sparks from a common grate. 

In reference to the results of experiments by Dr. Patterson, in which 
no evidence of the development of electricity was observed in metals, 
whilst undergoing a change from the liquid to the solid state, Dr. God- 
dard observed, that in cases of crystallization on the large scale, as of 
nitre, in the extensive chemical works of Mr. Wetherill, a beautiful flash 
of electrical light was apparent. 

Professor Rogers suggested, that in ordinary combustion there may be 
a constant development of electricity, and that means may possibly be 
found to render it apparent by perfect insulation. 

Professor Henry stated that Pouillet had found that electricity is devel- 
oped by the combustion of charcoal, and he offered some suggestions as 
to the mode of rendering the electricity, given off from a stove, apparent, 
by insulating it both above and below. 

Dr. Emerson thought that the change of state from solid to liquid, and 
from liquid to solid, might account for various electrical phenomena pre- 
sented by the animal body. Dr. Hare suggested the difficulty, that the 
human body is a good conductor; and that without a peculiar organiza- 
tion, analogous to that with which nature has endowed the Torpedo or 
Gymnotus, it is inconceivable that electrical discharges could arise from 
vital organization. He believed it was admitted by electricians, that 
there could be no electrical excitement without the existence of the oppo- 
site electricities. Agreeably to the published facts of the case to which 
he had alluded, the lady was permanently in one state of excitement, gen- 
erating electricity, as animal heat is generated, and throwing off the 
excess in sparks. 

In the case of the Gymnotus, the intensity, Dr. Hare remarked, is so 
low that sparks are with difficulty rendered apparent at a kerf made by a 
knife in tinfoil; of course the sparks alleged to be given by the lady, 
were vastly more intense. I*rom the Gymnotus, sparks could only be 
received by forming a circuit with a portion of the organic series situate 
parallel to the spine. Contact in a transverse direction was not produc- 
tive of any discharge. 


Il. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. Com- 
piled from the records of the society. 


May 20, 1840.—J. E. Tescyremacuer, Esq., in the chair. 


Dr. Enocu Hate read a letter from Rev. Thomas S. Savage, M. D., a 
missionary at Cape Palmas, West Africa, accompanying which was a val- 
uable donation of entomological and other specimens. ‘The following is 
the portion of the letter relating to the specimens. 


Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 387. 


Mt. Vaughan, near Cape Palmas, West Africa, Jan. 15th, 1840. 


Dear Sir.—I send five specimens of the Calandra palmarum or palm weavel. 
This insect inhabits the Elais Guineénsis, the palm tree from which the natives ob- 
tain their palm oil. It lives upon the juices of the tree, which, as they exist in 
their natural state, are exceedingly sweet and pleasant. It penetrates the cabbage 
by its rostrum, and is Lhus often found in the act of sucking the natural palm wine. 
I am informed by the Africans that the male is distinguished from the female, by 
being of a smaller size; the female is provided with a tuft of yellow hair upon the 
upper edge of the beak and the tibia of the fore leg. The larve and the fully de- 
veloped insect are eaten by the natives, and in either state are considered a deli- 
cacy ; they are eaten uncooked or roasted, with pepper and salt. ‘They are taken 
by the aged and impotent for their supposed aphrodisiac powers. 

There is also a smaller species of Calandra, which is very destructive to the 
rice ; it is probably the C. granaria of Europe. 

The best and rarest of the Lamellicornes which [ have transmitted to you, are 
three specimens of the Scarabeus Goliathus of Lin. and Drury. This species has 
received the different generic names of Cetonia, Fab. and Olivier, Goliathus, La- 
marck and Duncan, and more recently Hegemon from Dr. T. W. Harris, of Har- 
vard University. The larger specimen seems to be the Cetonia cactcus, Fab. and 
Oliv., first described by Voét in 17385, and erroneously supposed to be a native of 
America. (See Hope’s Coleopterist’s Manual.) This is positively pronounced by 
the natives to be a male, of which there can be no doubt, from what is known of 
the sexual distinctions among the group of Lamellicornes. The two smaller spe- 
cimens are undoubtedly the females of the larger specimen; they are evidently 
identical with the insect described by Hope as C. princeps, and which on dissec- 
tion proved to be a female; and uncertain whether it had been previously de- 
scribed, he gave it the above name provisionally. The natives declare very posi- 
tively that it is the ** woman” of the larger specimen. ‘They are both found on 
the same tree and have the same habits. They are not found immediately on the 
coast, but some miles back from the sea. They abound in January, February and 
March, and are easily obtained when the natives cut the forest trees preparatory to 
planting their rice. Yours, &c. Tuos. S. SavaGe. 


Dr. T. W. Harrts stated that he regarded the specimen described by 
Dr. Savage as the Golhathus, the most valuable addition which had ever 
been made to the entomological cabinet; he thought it distinct from the 
cacicus, the latter wanting the spots on the shoulders which existed in the 
specimen under consideration. He regarded it as an undescribed species. 

Dr. J. Wyman, exhibited the cranium and drum of the howling mon- 
key, Stmia seniculus, Buff., a donation to the cabinet from F. W. Cragin, 
M. D. of Surinam. The cranium is remarkable for the great obliquity of 
the face, the facial angle being only 30°. When placed in its natural po- 
sition, the occipital hole is found to be on a level with the superior part of 
the orbit, and instead of being situated in the plane of the base of the skull 
as in most of the other quadrumana, it forms aright angle with it as in 
the rodentia. The lower jaw is excessively developed both in its body 
and branches, having a surface almost equal to that of the cranium. The 
branches of the lower jaw form two walls of a large cavity, in which is 
contained the body of the hyoid bone, modified in a most remarkable man- 


388 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 


ner. The body or central portion of the hyoid bone is transformed into a 
bony box of an ovoidal shape, the parietes being very thin and elastic. 
Posteriorly this box is provided with a large opening of a quadrangular 
shape; on each side of this orifice are two articulating surfaces for the 
cornua of the hyoid bone. The following are the dimensions of the box, 
antero-posterior diameter, 22 inches; vertical, 2! inches; transverse, 2}. 

According to the dissections of Cuvier, the right ventricle of the larynx 
communicates freely with the cavity of the bone; the left ventricle ter- 
minating at the bone without entering it, so that the vocal organs were not 
symmetrical, presenting a remarkable exception to the characters of the 
organs of animal life. It is to this remarkable modification of the organs 
of voice, that the howlers are indebted for the power which they possess of 
making those loud, hoarse and disagreeable sounds which are capable of 
being heard at the distance of half a league. They are in the habit of 
congregating in trees at sunrise and sunset or at the approach of a storm, 
and of uttering prolonged and frightful howls. 


July 15th, 1840.—C. K. Dittaway, Esq., in the chair. 


Dr. D. H. Srorer read descriptions of eleven species of fishes from the 
western rivers, by Dr. J. P. Kirtland, of Ohio, each description being ac- 
companied by an accurate drawing. The names of the species were as 
follows; Ammocetes concolor, Raf.; Coregonus albus, Les.; Esox rcticu- 
latus, Les.; Esox estor, Les.; Mostra edentata, Raf.; Notuus flavus, 
Raf.; Rutilus Storer, Kirt.; Pimelodus nebulosus, Les.; Salmo namy- 
cush, Pen.; Pimephalis promelas, Raf.; Labrax : 

An elaborate review of Richard’s work on the Conifer, was read by 
Geo. B. Emerson, Esq., president of the society. : 

Dr. J. Wyman, exhibited specimens of wood, pine cones, and acorns, 
taken from an excavation in Lowell, near the junction of the Concord and 
Merrimack rivers. They were found buried in sand at the depth of about 
25 feet, several feet below the level of the surface of these rivers. Large 
trunks of pine trees were found in the same locality, also large quantities 
of leaves arranged in layers or strata. One of the most interesting objects 
met with in this locality, was the epidermis from the shell of a Unio, this 
preserving its shape entire, although the shells had disappeared. ‘These 
cuticular coverings were found in great numbers; but in no instance was 
the shell found in connection with the epidermis, this portion having prob- 
ably been decomposed. 

J. E. Tescuemacuer, Esq., made a report on some seeds and plants 
from New Zealand, which had been forwarded to Thos. A. Greene, Esq. 
of New Bedford; these plants and seeds were referrible to the following 
genera, Lpogon, Mongleria, Petrophila, Leptospermum, Melaleuca, Ver- 
ticordia, Acacia and Trichinium. The flora of New Zealand is not yet 
generally known in Europe by botanical description. Dr. Endlicher has 


Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 389 


given an excellent description of some of the plants, and Baron Hugel, 
Robt. Brown, Lindley, and Hooker, of others; many species however re- 
main undescribed. 


Aug. 19th, 1840.—Gro. B. Emerson, Esq., President, in the chair. 


Dr. D. H. Storer reported on the reptiles presented to the cabinet by 
Dr. Savage of Western Africa. This collection consisted of thirteen spe- 
cimens, each a distinct species, and only one of which was previously in 
the cabinet ; they were all referrible to the genera Monitor, Agama, and 
Scincus, among the Saurians; Acontias, Crotalus, Nata and Coluber, 
among the Ophidians; there was but one Batrachian and that belonging 
to the genus HZyla. ‘Three species of fish accompanied the collection, be- 
longing to the genera Pettus, Julis and Scarus. 

Dr. I’. A. Eppy exhibited a specimen of the plant known by the name 
of “ slink weed,” which is supposed to have the property of inducing abor- 
tion. He stated that a meadow in which this plant was common had 
gone into disuse, from the fact that the cows habitually cast their calves 
after feeding upon the herbage : this effect was attributed to the presence 
of this plant. He believed it to be identical with Lythrum verticilla- 
tum, L. 


Dec. 16th, 1840.—Tuomas Butrinen, Esq., in the chair. 


Mr. J. EK. Tescuemacner made a verbal report on some botanical spe- 
cimens from Arkansas and other western states, presented to the society 
by Mr. Edward Tuckerman, Jr. He showed that the Ergrinum Arkan- 
sanum agreed in its botanical characters with EL. Perofskianum from Er- 
boul, excepting that the leaves in one are more uncinate than in the other. 
Mr. T. exhibited dried specimens of the leaves of the Wepenthes distiliato- 
ria, or pitcher plant; this is a dicecious plant, allied to the Sarracenia of 
this country. The cups formed by the leaves are constantly filled with 
water secreted by glands on their inner surface; also the fruit of the Cal- 
amus rudentum or rattan. This is one of the Palmacee, its fruit a cat- 
kin, spathes numerous; ovarium 3 celled; berry one seeded. 

Dr. D. I]. Srorer exhibited a specimen of the Polyodon foliaccus, 
Lacep. This is characterized by the form of the rostrum, which is long 
and flat, extending some distance beyond the head, which is commonly 
known by the name of “ fadole,” the use of which is not well ascertained. 
It is however seen thrusting it into the mud in obtaining its food. 

Dr. A. A. Goutp laid on the table the following species of shells from 
the Altamaha river, in Georgia, presented to the Society by Jas. Hamil- 
ton Couper :—Unio spinosus; U. Shepardianus; U. obesus; U. splen- 
didus; U. Hopeionensis; WU. dolabriformis; U. lugubris ;—-also the 
Anodonta gibbosa of Say. 

Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1841. 50 


390 Proceedings of Scientific Socteties. 


Jan. 20th, 1841.—Gro. B. Emerson, Esq., President, in the chair. 


The President exhibited the seed vessel of the Nelumbium luteum from 
the Missouri river. The WV. luteum belongs to the natural order of the 
Nymphywacez of De Candolle, of which the number of species is small. 
It is mentioned by Pursh as occurring in ponds in the neighborhood of 
Philadelphia, where from its isolated situation, he supposed it must have 
been carried by the Indians. It is mentioned by Prof. Hitchcock as oc- 
curring in Haddam, Conn. The seed vessel is of a conical shape, the 
base being perforated by about twenty orifices opening into as many cells, 
each containing a single seed resembling an acorn in shape. This is well 
figured by Bauhin, and is designated by him as the Faber Egyptiaca. 
The WN. lutewn is described by Mr. Nuttall as bearing the largest of Amer- 
ican flowers, the magnolia excepted. Dr. F. A. Eddy states that from 
descriptions given him by others, he had no doubt that this plant ex- 
isted in Smithfield, R. I. 

Dr. J. Wyman exhibited the cranium of the Stenorhynchus leptonyx of 
Blainville, recently presented to the society’s cabinet by Dr. J. B. John- 
son of New Bedford. This species is well distinguished from all the 
other Phocide, by the remarkable form of its molar teeth, all of them 
having the crown deeply trifid, so as to form three sharp conical points, 
the two exterior of which are bent towards the median line, and the cen- 
tral and longest one having its point curved backwards. ‘The cranium of 
this species was first figured by Sir Everard Home in his Comparative An- 
atomy, and in the Philos. Transactions, for 1822. It was afterwards 
more accurately described by Blainville, by whom it received the specific 
name of leptonyx; his description was drawn from another specimen in 
one of the French museums. ‘The animal to which this cranium belongs 
is an inhabitant of the southern Pacific seas, and its habits are not 
known. 

Mr. J. E. Tescuemacaer exhibited the following specimens of mine- 
rals lately received from Dr. Monticelli, some of which are entirely new 
in this country, viz. Gismondine in Thompsonite, regarded by Brooke 
and acknowledged by Monticelli as synonymous with Phiilipsite and Aris- 
ite; Christianite which, according to the Berlin mineralogists is synony- 
mous with Fosterite; Humite; Biotine in brilliant white crystals; Mon- 
ticellite, of which there is no description; Hauyene in dodecahedral crys- 
tals; chloride of copper. Mr. Teschemacher had also been informed by 
Dr. Monticelli, that the sulphurets of zinc and lead had been met with 
in lava; it was difficult to account for the presence of these substances, 
inasmuch as they are volatilized by a temperature equal to that of melted 
lava. 


Bibliography. 391 


Art. XIV.—Bibliographical Notices. 


1. Plante Javanice Rariores, descripte iconibusque illustrate, quas 
in Insula Java, annis 1802-1818, legit et investigavit Tuomas Horse- 
FIELD, M. D.: e siccis descriptiones et characteres plurimarum elabora- 
vit JoanneEs I. Bennetr; observationes structuarum et affinitates preser- 
tim respicientes passim adjecit Ropertus Brown. London, fol. Part I, 
1838; pp. 104, tab. 1-25.—Part II, 1840; pp. 90, tab. 26-40. This 
work is filled with profound observations upon various points in systematic 
and structural botany, by Mr. Brown, and his worthy associate, Mr. Ben- 
nett, (the present secretary of the Linnean society,) who has elaborated 
the greater portion of the work. In a note annexed to his revision of the 
Cyrtandree, which occupies a portion of. the second part, Mr. Brown has 
contributed a series of condensed, but most important remarks upon the 
structure of the ovarium, placentz, and stigmata; and has also expressed 
his dissent from a recent theory respecting the origin of ovula, (advocated 
by Schleiden, Endlicher, Lindley, &c.) viz. that the ovula do not belong 
to the transformed leaf or carpel itself, (except, perhaps, in a few cases,) 
but are borne on the axis, or on processes of the axis united with the car- 
pels ; a view which the analogy of ovula with buds would readily sug- 
gest. Mr. Brown defends the prevalent theory, in the following brief re- 
marks. “That the placente and ovula really belong to the carpel alone, 
is at least manifest in al] cases where stamina are changed into pistilla. 
To such monstrosities I have long since referred in my earliest observa- 
tions on the type of the female organ in phenogamous plants, (in Linn. 
Soc. Trans. vol. 12, p. 89,) and since more particularly in my paper on 
Rafilesia : (ibid, vol. 13, p. 212,) the most remarkable instances alluded 
to in illustration of this point being Sempervivum tectorum, Salix oleifolia, 
aud Cochlearia armoracia; in all of which every gradation between the 
perfect state of the anthera, and its transformation into a complete pistil- 
lum, is occasionally found.” The third and concluding part of the work 
is said to be in progress. 


2. Hooker's Icones Plantarum: Part VII. In former numbers of 
this Journal we have already directed the attention of American botanists 
to this excellent work, and mentioned the plan upon which it is con- 
ducted. The seventh part, containing 50 plates, (viz. tab. 301 to 350,) 
includes perhaps fewer North American species than usual. Among 
them, however, are figures of our three species of the singular genus 
Cercocarpus ; and also of five Californian Composite, viz: Actinolepis 
multicaulis, DC., Madaraglossa heterotricha, DC., Hartmannia? pun- 
gens, Hook. & Arn., Monolopia minor, DC., and M. major, DC. Plate 
323 represents a species of the genus Garrya, from the mountains 
of Jamaica! “The very remarkable genus to which this plant belongs, 


392 Bibliography. 


was established by Dr. Lindley in 1834, on a new plant of North Califor-- 
nia, found by Mr. Douglas, but discovered many years previously by Mr. 
Menzies, in his voyage with Capt. Vancouver, and existing in several her- 
baria to which he liberally presented it. It was, therefore, a matter of 
great astonishment to me, to find the same genus in a plant of Jamaica, 
to which Dr. M’Fadyen directed my attention about four years ago, and 
which is here represented. Mexico, however, which may be reckoned 
an intermediate country, is now known, by the exertions of Mr. Hartweg, 
to produce three other species, which are described by Mr. Bentham in 
his excellent Plante Hlartwegiane. Mr. Skinner has lately sent me a 
species, in fruit only, from Guatemala.” ook.—A portion of the volume 
is devoted to some interesting plants from Van Dieman’s Land, described 
and figured by Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, the naturalist of the British Scien- 
tific Expedition, commanded by Capt. James Ross, now in the Antarctic 
sea. 


3. The Linnea; edited by D. F. L. Von Scutecurenpat. (Halle.) 
Contents of the 4th, 5th, and 6th numbers of the 13th volume; for 1839. 

On Waldstcinia trifolia ; by Dr. Koch, of Erlangen. (With a plate.) 

On the fountain of Antritz, near Gratz, (Styria,) in relation to its veg- 
etation; by Prof. Unger, of Gratz. 

On Saracha and Physalis; by Prof. Bernhardt. 

Annual Report on the Flora of Hercynia; by £. Hampe. (Aug. 1839.) 

Remarks on the genus Grubbia of Endlicher; by J. 2°. Klotzsch. 

Monstrosities in plants; collected by Dr. Von Schlechtendal. 

Prodromus Monographie Lemnacearum, or Conspectus Generum at- 
que Specierum; by MZ. J. Schleiden. [The Lemnacee, following De 
Candolle, are considered as a tribe of Aroidew; and the genus Lemna is 
divided into four genera, viz. 1. Wolfia, of Horkel; 2. Lemna, (L. 
minor and L. trisulca;) 3. Telmatophace, (founded on L. gibba;) 4. 
Spirodela, (founded on L. polyrhiza.) There is a translation of this me- 
moir, in the Annals of Natural History, for December, 1849. | 

On two very remarkable instances of vegetable transformation; by 
Garden-inspector Weinmann, of Pawlowsk. 

Enumeratio Artemesiarum quas nondum vidit, W. de Besser. 

De Plantis Mexicanis a Schiede and Car. Ehrenbergio aliisque collectis, 
&c.; by Dr. Von Schlechtendal. 

Explanation of the irregularity in Papilionaceous flowers; by H. Wal- 
pers; (with a plate.) 

Animadversiones critice in Leguminosas Capenses; by G. W. Wal- 
pers. 

Upon some peculiarities in the growth of arborescent dicotyledonous 
plants; by Dr. Becks, of Miinster. 

De Galphimiis Mexicanis annotationes; by #. Th. Bartling. 

On Pinus pumilio; by H. R. Geppert. 


Bibliography. 393 


Remarks on the family Piperacee; by Prof. Kunth. [Apparently a 
monograph of the order, occupying the whole of the sixth or last number 
for 1839. ] 

The Linnea: contents of parts 1-4, for 1840. 

Scholium to Hampe’s Prodromus Flore Hercynie; by Dr. Wallroth. 

De Plantis Mexicanis, &c., continued; by Dr. Schlechtendal. 

Upon the genus Tetradiclis ; by Dr. Bunge; (with a plate.) 

Conferva Lehmanniana, a new species, described by Dr. Lindenberg ; 
(with a plate.) 

On the structure of the stems of Isoétes lacustris; by Prof. Mohl; 
(with a plate.) 

On the Hausschwarm, [a kind of Fungus;| by Schwabe. 

Synopsis Desmidiearum hucusque cognitarum; by I. Meneghint. 

On the proper place of several families of plants in the natural system. 
(Anonymous.) 

Some new Diatomacee of the Eastern coast of Adriatic; by Hya- 
cinth, Ritter Von Lobarzewski ; (with 3 plates.) 

On the movement of the fluid in Closterium Lunula; by the same; 
(with a plate.) 

On a collection of plants from Bahia; by Dr. Schiechtendal. 

Observationes Botanice; by the same. 

Compositarum novarum decades, offert Dr. G. Walpers. 

Annual Report on the Flora of Hercynia, &c.; by E. Hampe. 

On the Carices of Thunberg’s Flora Capensis; by Dr. Schlechtendal. 

On a monstrosity of the leaves of Trifolium repens; by Dr. G. Wal- 
pers. 

Observations on the variation of the Willows; by £. Hampe; with 
additions by the Editor. 

Four new species of Mammillaria; by C. Ehrenberg. 

There are also copious bibliographical and miscellaneous notices ap- 
pended to each number. 


4. Wikstrém; Annual Reports to the Royal Swedish Academy of 
Science, on the Progress of Botany. The latest volume we have re- 
ceived, is the Annual Report for the year 1837, presented to the Swedish 
Academy in March, 1838, and published (in the Swedish language,) at 
Stockholm, in 1839. It forms an octavo volume of 612 pages: it gives 
a well arranged account of all the botanical works published during the 
year 1837, so far as they were known to the editor. This work is trans- 
lated into German, from year to year, with some additions, by Dr. 
Beilschmied of Breslau, to whom we are indebted for a German edition of 
the Report for 1821, 1822, and 1824, (Breslau, 1838, forming a volume 
of 230 pages;) that for 1831, (Breslau, 1834, 200 pages;) and that for 
1835, (Breslau, 1838,) which forms a volume of about 420 pages, with 
copious indexes, &c. 


394 Miscellanies. 


MISCELLANIES. 
DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. 


i. Exploring Expedition.—T he annexed is the official account of the 

discoveries made by the exploring squadron in the antarctic regions. 
United States Ship Vincennes, March 10, 1840. 

Sir,—I have the honor to report that having completed our outfits and 
observations at Sydney, N.S. W., the exploring squadron under my com- 
mand, composed of this ship, the Peacock, Porpoise, and Flying Fish, 
sailed in company on the 24th of December, with my instructions to pro- 
ceed south as far as practicable, and cruise within the Antarctic Ocean. 
Copies of the instructions were forwarded to you with my despatch, 
No. 57. 

We continued in company until the first of January, when we parted 
company with the Flying Fish, and with the Peacock, in a fog, on the 
third. 

I then steered, with the Porpoise in company, for our first rendezvous, 
Macquain’s Island, and from thence to Emerald Island, our second ren- 
dezvous, having passed over the supposed locality of the latter in long. 
162° 30! E., lat. 57° 15’ S., without seeing land or meeting with the 
Peacock or Flying Fish. 

On the 10th of January, being in lat. 61° S., we fell in with the first 
icelands, and continued steering to the southward among many icebergs, 
which compelled us to change our course frequently in avoiding them. 

On the 12th we ran into the bay of field ice in long. 164° 53’ E., and 
lat. 64° I1’S., presenting a perfect barrier to our progress further south ; 
a heavy fog ensuing, during which we parted company with the Porpoise, ~ 
her commander having directions to follow my written instructions in 
that event. 

I had determined to leave each vessel to act independently, believing 
it would tend to give, if possible, a greater degree of emulation to us all; 
and being well satisfied that owing to the ice and thick weather, it 
would be impossible to continue long in company, I deemed it preferable 
to hazard the event of accident, rather than embarrass our operations. 

I therefore submit the details of the proceedings of this ship, as they 
will, without doubt, nearly coincide with the movements of the other ves- 
sels of the squadron, the reports from which will tend to verify our opera- 
tions. 

After an unsuccessful attempt to penetrate through the ice on the 12th 
of January, we proceeded to the westward, working along with head 
winds and fogs, and on the 16th we fell in with the Peacock in long. 157° 
43! E., lat. 65° 26'S. 


Miscellanies. 395 


On the morning of the 19th of January, we saw land to the south and 
east, with many indications of being in its vicinity, such as penguin, seal, 
and the discoloration of the water, but the impenetrable barrier of ice 
prevented our nearer approach to it, and the same day we again saw the 
Peacock to the south and west. We were in long. 104° 27’ E., and lat. 
66° 20'S. 

On the 22d we fell in with large clusters and bodies of ice, and innu- 
merable ice islands, and until the 25th were in a large bay formed by ice, 
examining the different points in hopes of effecting an entrance to the 
south, but were disappointed. We here reached the lat. 67° 4’, in long. 
147° 30’ E., being the farthest south we penetrated. Appearances of 
distant land were seen in the eastward and westward, but all points ex- 
cept the one we entered, presented an impenetrable barrier. We here 
filled up our water tanks with ice taken from an iceberg alongside the 
ship. 

We made our magnetic observations on the ice. The dipping needles 
gave 87° 30! for the dip, and our azimuth compass was so sluggish on 
the ice, that on being agitated, and bearing taken again, it gave nearly 
three points difference; the variation being 12° 35’ E. A few days 
afterwards, about one hundred miles further to the west, we had no varia- 
tion, and thence it rapidly increased in westerly variation, from which I 
am of opinion that when in the ice bay we could not have been very far 
from the south magnetic pole. This bay I named Disappointment Bay, 
as it seemed to put an end to all our hopes of further progress south. 

On the 27th we fell in with the Porpoise, in long. 142° 20! E., and lat. 
65° 54’ S., and parted company shortly afterwards. 

On the 28th, at noon, after thirteen repulses, we reached long. 140° 
30’ E., and lat. 66° 33’ S., where we again discovered land bearing south, 
having run over forty miles, thickly studded with icebergs. The same 
evening we had a heavy gale from the southeast, with snow, hail, and 
thick weather, which rendered our situation very dangerous, and com- 
pelled us to retrace our steps by the route which we had entered. During 
this gale we were unable to see the distance of a fourth of a mile, con- 
stantly passing near icebergs which surrounded us, and rendering it 
necessary to keep all hands on deck. On the morning of the 30th the 
gale abated, and we returned by the same route to reach the land, when 
the dangers we encountered among the ice the preceding night, and our 
providential escape, were evident to all. 

We ran towards the land about fifty miles, when we reached a small 
bay pointed by high ice cliffs and black volcano rocks, with about sixty 
miles of coast in sight, extending to a great distance towards the south- 
ward, in high mountainous land. 

The breeze freshened to a strong gale, hist prevented our landing, 
and compelled us to run out after sounding in thirty fathoms water; and 


396 Miscellanies. 


within two hours afterwards the ship was again reduced to her storm 
sails, with a heavy gale from the southward, with snow, sleet, and a 
heavy sea, continuing thirty-six hours, and if possible more dangerous 
than that of the 28th and 29th, owing to the large number of ice islands 
around us; after which I received reports from the medical officers, rep- 
resenting the exhausted state of the crew and condition of the ship, of 
which the following are extracts: 

The medical officer on duty, reported, under date of the 31st January, 
that “the number on the sick list this morning is fifteen; most of these 
cases are consequent upon the extreme hardship and exposure they have 
undergone during the last gales of wind, when the ship has been sur- 
rounded with ice. The number is not large, but it is necessary to state 
that the general health of the crew is, in our opinion, decidedly affected, 
and that under ordinary circumstances the list would be very much in- 
creased, while the men, under the present exigencies, actuated by a laud- 
able desire to do their duty to the last, refrain from presenting themselves 
as applicants for the list. 

“Under these circumstances we feel ourselves obliged to report, in our 
opinion, a few days more of such exposure as they have already under- 
gone, would reduce the number of the crew, by sickness, to such an ex- 
tent as to hazard the safety of the ship and the lives of all on board.” 

After which, the surgeon, being restored to duty, reported to me as 
follows: 

“T respectfully report that, in my opinion, the health of the crew is 
materially affected by the severe fatigue, want of sleep, and exposure to 
the weather, to which they have lately been subjected; that a continu- 
ance of these hardships, even for a very short period, will entirely dis- 
qualify a great number of men for their duty, and that the necessary at- 
tention to the health of the crew and their future efficiency and useful- 
ness, demands the immediate return of the ship to a milder climate.” 

Deeming it my duty, however, to persevere, I decided to continue, and 
steered again for the land, which we had named the Antarctic Continent. 

We reached it on the 2nd of February, about sixty miles to the west- 
ward of the point first visited, where we found the coast lined with solid, 
perpendicular ice cliffs, preventing the possibility of landing, and the 
same mountains trending to the westward. From thence we proceeded 
to the westward along the ice barrier, which appeared to make from the 
land, until the third, when we again encountered a severe gale from the 
southeast, with thick weather and snow until the 7th of February, when 
it cleared up sufficiently to allow us to see our way clear, and we again 
approached the perpendicular barrier of ice, similar to that which we had 
previously seen as attached to the land ; the same land being in sight ata 
great distance. We stood along the barrier, about seventy miles to the 
westward, when it suddenly trended to the southward, and our further pro- 


Miscellanies. 397 


gress south was arrested by a solid barrier or field of ice. After an un- 
successful examination for twenty-four hours in all directions, we con- 
tinued to the westward along the barrier, as usual, surrounded by ice 
islands. 

On the &th and 10th (being on the 8th in longitude 127° 7’ east, lati- 
tude 65° 3’ south,) we had similar appearances of distant mountains, but 
the compact barrier extending from east to west by south, prevented a 
nearer approach. 

On the night of the 9th February, being the first clear night for some 
time, we witnessed the aurora australis. 

We continued on the 10th and Lith westward, with southeast winds, 
and fine weather, close along the barrier, which was more compact, with 
immense islands of ice enclosed within the field ice. 

On the 12th we again saw the distant mountains, but were unable to 
effect a nearer approach, being in long. 112° 16’ E., lat. 64° 57’ S., and 
I was again compelled to go on to the westward. 

The ice barrier trending more to the southward, induced me to hope 
that we should again succeed in approaching nearer the supposed line of 
coast. On the 13th, at noon, we had reached long. 107° 5’, lat. 65° 11! 
S., with tolerably clear sea before us, and the land plainly in sight. I 
continued pushing through the ice until we were stopped by the fixed 
barrier about fifteen miles from the shore, and with little or no prospect 
of effecting a landing. 

I hauled off for the short night, and the next morning made another at- 
tempt at a different point, but was equally unsuccessful, being able to ap- 
proach only three or four miles nearer, as it appeared perfectly impenetra- 
ble. Near us were several icebergs, colored and stained with earth, on 
one of which we landed, and obtained numerous specimers of sandstone, 
quartz conglomerate and sand, some weighing an hundred pounds. This, 
T am well satisfied, gave us more specimens than could have been ob- 
tained from the land itself, as we should no doubt have found it covered 
with ice and snow one hundred or more feet in thickness. We obtained 
a supply of fresh water from a pond in the centre of the same island. 
Our position was long. 106° 40’ E., lat. 65° 57’ S., and upwards of sev- 
enty miles of coast in sight, trending the same as that we had previously 
seen. - 

Although I had now reached the position where our examinations were 
to terminate by my instructions to the squadron, I concluded to proceed 
to the westward along the barrier, which continued to be much discolored 
by earth, and specimens of rock, évc. were obtained from an ice island. 
A sea leopard was seen on the ice, but the boats sent did not succeed in 
taking him. 

On the 17th February, in long. 97° 30’ E., lat. 64° S., land was again 
seen at a great distance towards the southwest. We now found ourselves 

Vol. xt, No, 2.—Jan.—March, 1841. 51 


398 Miscellanies. 


closely embayed, and unable to proceed in a westerly direction; the ice 
barrier trending around to the northward and eastward, compelled us to 
retrace our steps, We had entered a deep gulf on its southern side, and 
it required four days beating along its northern shore to get out of it. Du- 
ring this time our position was critical, the weather changeable, and little 
room in case of bad weather. It fortunately held up until we found our- 
selves again with a clear sea to the northward. 

The ice barrier had now trended to about sixty-two degrees of latitude ; 
the wind having set in from the westward with dark weather, and little 
prospect of seeing the and or making much progress to the westward 
prior to the Ist of March, thereby losing time which might be spent to ad- 
vantage for our whaling interests at New Zealand, I determined to pro- 
ceed to the north on the evening of the QIst. 

There was a brilliant appearance of the aurora australis on the 17th 
February, in lon. 97° 39’ E., lat. 64° S.; also on the 22d Feb. in 103° 
30' E., lat. 58° 10’ S.; on the 25th Feb. in 117° 31’ E., lat. 58° S.; and 
on the Ist March, in lon. 147° E., lat. 49° 30'S. 

The result stated in this report leads me to the following conclusions :— 

Ist. Irom our discoveries of the land through forty degrees of longitude, 
and the observations made during this interesting cruise, with the simi- 
larity of formation and position of the ice during our close examination of 
it, I consider there can scarcely be doubt of the existence of the Antarctic 
continent, extending the whole distance of seventy degrees from east to 


west. 
2d. That different points of the land are at times free from the ice 


barrier. 

3d. That they are frequented by seal, many of which were seen, and 
offer to our enterprising countrymen engaged in those pursuits, a field of 
large extent for their future operations. 

Ath. That the large number of whales, of different species, seen, and 
the quantity of food for them, would designate this coast as a place of 
great resort for them. ‘The fin-backed whale seemed to predominate. 

We proceeded on our cruise to the northward and eastward with strong 
gales, until we reached the latitude of certain islands laid down on the 
charts as the Royal Company’s Islands, about six degrees to the west- 
ward of their supposed locality ; I then stood on their parallel and passed 
over their supposed site, but we saw nothing of them, or any indication of 
land in the vicinity. I feel confident, as far as respects their existence in or 
near the longitude or parallel assigned them, to assert that they do not exist. 

The last ice island was seen in latitude 51° south. A few specimens 
of natural history were obtained and preserved during the cruise. 

As I conceive it would be unbecoming in me to speak of our arduous 
services, the report and accompanying chart of our cruise must speak for 
us; but I cannot close this report without bringing to your notice the 


Miscellanies. 399 


high estimation in which I hold the conduct of the officers, seamen, and 
marines, during this antarctic cruise, the manner and spirit, together with 
the coolness and alacrity with which they have met the dangers and _per- 
formed their duties. I trust that they will receive from the government 
some gratifying notice of it. All J can say in their favor would fall far 
short of what they deserve. 

I shall ever bear testimony that they have proved themselves worthy of 
the high character borne by our countrymen, and the navy to which they 
belong. 

T have the honor to be, sir, most respectfully your obedient servant, 

CuarLes WIiLKEs, 
Com’g Bigplorins Expedition of the United States. 
To the Hon. James K. Paulding, Sec’y of the Navy, Washington City. 

Note.—A fter cruising among the isles of Oceanica, the squadron arrived 
at the Sandwich isles, October, 1840, having sustained the melancholy 
loss of Lieut. J. A. Underwood, and midshipman Wilkes Henry, who 
were murdered July 25, by the natives at Malao, one of the Fejee isles. 


2. Theory of Water Spouts and Tornadoes—A few weeks since a~ 
large kettle of water, which having been used for washing, was covered 
with a thick smooth scum of curdled soap, was hanging over the kitchen 
fire, and though there was no ebullition, a dense volume of steam was 
rising from it, and with a rapid whirling motion ascending the chimney. 
My attention was drawn to it from the fact, that the movement of the 
steam was affording additional proof of the general course of all atmos- 
pheric currents from right to left, according to the theory of Mr. Redfield, 
a theory, of which thus far, we have frequently noticed the verification. 
The steam whirl formed immediately over the surface of the kettle, and 
made a column some two or three inches in diameter, for about eighteen 
inches in length, when it disappeared behind the mantle of the chimney. 
In the centre of the whirling column of steam, which rotated with aston- 
ishing rapidity, a clear space could be seen, distinctly marked by a differ- 
ence in color, showing that the pillar wasa tube. As in obedience to the 
different currents of air in the room, the column changed its position over 
the surface of the kettle, we observed the movement was accompanied at 
times with a curious agitation, which at first was supposed to be mere 
ebullition; but from its being always under the centre of the column, be- 
ing most violent where the whirl approached nearest its surface, and shift- 
ing position with it, was soon perceived to be owing to that. 

The appearance was as if a man’s hand was moved under the surface, 
at times protruding his forefinger upwards, and lifting the scum, or rather 
forcing the finger through it to its full extent. It occurred to us at once 
as a fine illustration of the commencement of a water spout, and we con- 
tinued our examination for some time until the general motion of the sur- 


400 Miscellanies. 


j 


face by boiling prevented any very marked action of the whirl. As the 
rising fluid evidently ascended the clear space in the centre of the cone or 
column, it was certain that the column was hollow, and that within the 
whirl there was a diminished atmospheric pressure. During the times that 
the water mounted the highest, (which was between four and five inches, ) 
there was a violent agitation of the surface in the immediate vicinity of, 
or beneath the base of the rotating column, and a careful examination 
showed that small pieces of the foam were occasionally wrested from the 
upper part of the rising water and instantly disappeared. It could not be 
seen that there was any distinct rotation to the elevated water, which 
swayed and bent with the column of steam. 

Tt appeared to us that from this incident, simple and trifling as it may 
appear in itself, some valuable inferences may be drawn. The origin of 
waier spouts, In connection with whirlwinds, and the laws that regulate 
the ascent of water, were well exhibited. That water should ascend to 
the height it evidently does in water spouts at sea, by atmospheric pres- 
sure alone, is not to be supposed; but it is atmospheric pressure that 
forces the water into the hollow at the base of the cone, and places it in a 
position to be first acted upon and then lifted by the whirling air. When 
once the upward current is established, there seeins to be no difficulty in 
continuing it; and, as the water thus lifted must return to the earth by 
being thrown without the upper circumference of the whirl, or when the 
column is suddenly separated, by pouring downward with the same volume 
with which it was rising, it accounts for the deluges of water that at times 
accompany water spouts. 

The action or ascent of the water within the tube also showed that the 
atmospheric pressure was greatly lessened or removed in the interior of 
the whirl, and thus explained satisfactorily many of the phenomena that 
accompany tornadoes or whirlwinds. ‘Thus it has always been found in 
violent tornadoes, that the windows or gables of buildings that were near 
the centre of the line of the whirlwind, are almost invariably burst out- 
wards, and frequently directly in the face of the advancing storm. This 
was particularly noticed at the destruction of Natchez, and at Shelbyville, 
and cannot be well accounted for in any other way than by the violent 
expansion of the air within the buildings, when the outer pressure is sud- 
denly taken off. 

In many storms or tornadocs, the thunder does not appear in distinct 
explosions, nor the lightning in separate flashes. On the contrary, there 
is a continued blaze of fire in the cloud and the roll of thunder is inces- 
sant. In such cases, effects are observed which indicate in the line of 
the storm the continued action of electric energy, and give reason to sup- 
pose that the ascending column produced by the whirl forms a perfect 
conductor, along which the electric fluid descends continuously and not 
in successive masses. Thus in most tornadoes the trees within their 


Miscellanies. 401 


range that are not torn up, have their leaves scorched and withered as if 
a fire had passed over them, and iron substances, such as farming im- 
plements, always exhibit unequivocal evidence of having been submitted to 
electrical action. ‘This was particularly noticed in the tornado near New 
Haven. That such is the case, the fact, that in such tornadoes occurring 
in the night the central part of the whirl appears like a pillar of fire or 
heated iron, is conclusive evidence. Of such appearance the tornado at 
Shelbyville, and the one described by Arago near Paris, are examples. 
If a stream of smoke from a chimney, or a column of heated air from 
grain or hay in a barn are such conductors, as experience shows them 
to be, there can be no doubt that such a column as is formed in a whirl- 


wind, reaching from the earth to the heavens, would form one still more 
efficient. W. G. 
Otisco, N. Y. Jan. 1841. 


3. Notice of anew variety of Beryl,* recently discovered at Haddam, 
Conn.; by Joun Jounstron, A. M., Professor of Natural Science in the 
Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. ; Corresponding Member of the 
New York Lyceum of Natural History.—Read before the Lyceum, Jan. 
11th, 1841.—This mineral which I propose to notice, evidently helongs 
to the species beryl, with which it closely corresponds in its natural prop- 
erties; but differs from it in color and in the great perfection and exqui- 
site finish of the crystals, as well as some other peculiarities to be hereafter 
noticed. 

The color is mountain green, or perhaps better, milky mountain green, 
all the crystals possessing a peculiarity which is best described by this 
word. One terminal plane in nearly all the crystals is perfect, and, like 
the other faces, possesses an exquisite polish. In most of the crystals the 
peculiar milkiness ceases near the terminal face, which presents the ap- 
pearance, as an individual remarked, of having been veneered with green 
glass. Sometimes this transparent portion is a quarter of an inch thick, 
but usually it is about the thickness of window glass, which it much re- 
sembles. The hardness is about 7.5, which is the same as that of com- 
mon beryl. The specific gravity of four specimens was found to be as 
follows, viz. 2.716, 2.717, 2.719, 2.716; that of the common bery] is from 
2.678 to 2.732. 

On the lateral faces of many of the crystals are numerous rhombic fig- 
ures, produced by crystallization, like the faces of rhombohedra, which 
may be supposed to be contained within the crystals, but having their 
faces a little elevated above those of the former. This appearance, which 
it is believed has not been observed in the common beryl or the emerald, 
seems to indicate that the rhombohedron is the primary form of this spe- 


* See Vol. xxxvill, p. 68, of this Journal. 


402 Miscellanies. 


cies, and not the hexagonal prism, as has generally been supposed. A 
few specimens have been found striated longitudinally like ordinary crys- 
tals of the species. . 

The accompanying figures represent three of the best specimens I have 
obtained of the natural size. 


= 134° 36 
= 149 40 
= 127 44 


A single attempt at analysis has been made, but without obtaining re- 
sults in any respect peculiar; a more critical analysis is desirable. 

The first specimens of this mineral were discovered in the winter of 
1837-8. They occur in a vein of feldspar which traverses one of the 
gneiss quarries on the east side of the Connecticut river, nearly opposite 
the Congregational meeting house* at Old Haddam. 

Specimens continued to be found, though not very plentifully, for two 
years or more, but none as I can learn have been found for a year past; 
and the best ones are now held very high by the workmen of the quarries. 

Wesleyan University, May, 1340. 

T cannot learn that any more specimens have been discovered since the 
above date.—Jan. 7, 1841. 


4. Meteorology.—We invite the attention of our readers and corres- 
pondents to a project for generalizing the history of meteoric phenomena, 
and invite their communications, in compliance with the request of our 
correspondent, Mons. Morin, engineer of bridges and causeways, and 
correspondent of the meteorological society of London, who dates from 
Veroul, 220 miles N. E. of Paris. 

As you have been so kind as to view with a favorable eye my meteor- 
ological undertaking, I have the honor to solicit you to engage the rea- 


* Within six or eight rods of this house is the chrysoberyl locality, at which 
several other minerals are also found, as the columbite, automolite, zircon, &c. 


Miscellanies. 403 


ders of your scientific Journal to give the history of seasons in America, 
from the year 1600 to the present year, and to communicate to you the 
results of their researches. 

I have these observations in the United States since the year 1793 to 
the end of 1837, and some in 1739. I have very few from 1758 to 
1600, and few from 1758 to 1793. In the mean time, the recitals of epi- 
demics, of voyages and travels, the history and statistics of agriculture, 
of the sciences, and of chronology, either printed or in manuscript, may 
supply the place of regular observations. It will promote these research- 
es, to furnish the means of making them, by pointing out the works 
where the information may be found. 

If I can compile this history for the entire surface of the globe, I think, 
that by means of tables announced in my eighth memoir, we shall be 
able to predict the seasons for future times. For those years or points of 
time where information is deficient, I think that the deficiencies can be 
theoretically supplied. 

Will you, then, I beseech you, by means of your Journal, engage your 
readers to occupy themselves with this history of the seasons in America, 
and to communicate to that work the result of their labors? I observe in 
No. 57, p. 182, (Vol. xxviii,) of your Journal, that New Haven possesses 
meteorological observations for 70* years. 

Can you procure for me the thermometrical mean for December, for 
each of those years? J intend to prepare the history of the seasons back 
as far as 1150; as far as regards America, I think it may be carried back 
to the year 1500. 


5. Royal Scciety of Northern Antiquaries.—The labors of this enter- 
prising and distinguished society merit an extended statement at our 
hands, but owing to the pressure of other contributions, we are unable to 
give more than a very brief notice. 

This society, as is well known, has its seat at Copenhagen, and ranks 
among its members many eminent and efficient historical investigators of 
various countries. Its primary object is to bring to light, and to publish 
with the necessary illustrations, all ancient documents relating to the his- 
tory and early literature of Scandinavia. It goes farther, and has, with 
great zeal and ability, prosecuted its inquiries into the history of the 
Northern adventurers in other countries, especially in America and in 
the British isles. 'The society is one of the oldest antiquarian associa- 
tions in Europe, and has been uncommonly active and successful. Asa 
partial result of its labors, it has already issued more than forty volumes, 


*The passage alluded to by M. Morin, mentioned the cold 70 years ago, but we 
are not aware that the observations have been regularly continued; we believe 
they are tolerably continuous for the 40 years past.— Eds. 


A404 Miscellanies. 


replete with historic lore.* Of these the most interesting to us is the 
Antiquates Americane, sive Scriptores Septentrionales rerum Antc-Co- 
lumbianarum in America, (Hafnie, 4to. 1837, pp. 486:) This consists 
of ancient Icelandic histories regarding America, composed chiefly of 
Narratives of Voyages made to this country by the Northmen, in the 10th, 
Ith, 12th, and 15th centuries; of course long before the time of Colum- 
bus. These are illustrated by critical and historical notes, geographical 
discussions, &c., concerning the voyages, settlements, and migrations of 
the NNorthmen, and with especial reference to the monumental vestiges 
still remaining in America. The famous inscription on the Dighton 
rock, (Beverly, Mass.,) is interpreted to assert that Thorfins (who was 
chief of the colony which went from Greenland to Vinland A. D. 1007,) 
with a company of 151 men, took possession of the country. After the 
most laborious research, the editors come to the conclusion that Vinland 
Jay at the head of Narragansett Bay, in Rhode Island. Whatever opin- 
ion on this subject may finally be considered the true one, the volume in 
question must be esteemed a most valuable contribution to our history. 

In addition to its other publications, the society has proposed to issue 
their Transactions and Researches concerning the earlier history and 
antiquities of Northern Europe and America, in two simultaneous peri- 
odical works, to be entitled Annals and Memoirs. In the Annals, con- 
tributions of the above mentioned nature will be received in Danish or 
Swedish, (and occasionally in Icelandic,) and wherever it may appear 
desirable, maps will be given, and also Delineations of Antiquities, and 
of the Monuments of ancient times. The Memoirs, which are insepara- 
bly connected with the Annals, will comprise similar contributions in 
English, French, or German, either original or translated. In English, 
e. g. will be from time to time inserted the result of the continued inves- 
tigations and researches of the Society’s Committees on the Historical 


*The following is a list of some of the publications referred to. Fornmanna 
Sogur, or the historical Sagas recording events out of Iceland, in the original Ice- 
landic, or Old-Northern text; complete in 12 vols. 8vo. Price, vellum paper, &33, 
common paper, $22. 

Scripta Historica Islandorum, the same Sagas translated into Latin, with a criti- 
cal apparatus ; 12 vols. 8vo, 

Oldnordiske Sagaer, the same translated into Danish; 12 vols. 8vo. Price, com- 
mon paper, $17. 

Fereyinga Saga, or the history of the inhabitants of the Faroe Islands, in Ice- 
landic, the Faroe dialect, and Danish, and with a map of the islands; 8vo. &1.79. 

Fornaldar S6gur Nordrlanda, vol. 1-3, being a complete edition, in 8vo., of the 
mytho-historical Sagas. 

Krakumal sive Epicedium Ragnaris Lodbroci, or Ode on the heroic deeds and 
death of the Danish king, Ragnar Lodbrok, in England; in Icelandic, Danish, 
Latin, and French; 8vo. $2. 

Nordisk 'Tidsskrift for Oldkyndighed, Archeological Transactions ; 3 vols. 8vo. 
$4.75. 


Miscellanies. 405 


Monuments of Greenland, and on the Ante-Columbian History of Amer- 
ica. Of the Annals, one number in 8vo. isto be published yearly, be- 
ginning with 1836, and of the Memoirs, a similar number every second 
year, commencing with 1838. 

We trust that this important society will continue to be regarded with 
favor by the American people; and that our literary institutions and 
public libraries will not fail to furnish themselves with its valuable publi- 
cations. 


6. Fossil Remains in Lenoir County, N. C—Extract of a letter to the 
editors from Joun Limper, dated Strabane, Lenoir county, N. C., June 
1Cth, 1839.—This location was discovered by Mr. Richard Rouse, the 
owner of the land, when digging a dike to drain a bog. ‘The location is 
near the summit level between the Neuse and North East rivers. It is 
on a branch of the Neuse, three miles from it, and at least one hundred 
feet above it, and about sixty miles west of Pamlico Sound. 

The upper stratum of earth is about three feet in depth, and is the com- 
mon soil of the region, viz. a fine white sand and vegetable matter. The 
next stratum is of about the same depth, and is composed almost entirely 
of shells, of a great variety of species; and a still greater variety of sizes. 
These are cast together in every manner, lying in every position, and 
shells in shells. Next is a stratum of yellowish clay only a few inches in 
depth, and containing bones of enormous size. Below this is a stratum of 
black clay impenetrable by water; depth unknown. This also contains 
a few bones and in a more perfect state. 

On the first of June I visited this location in company with Mr. Rouse, 
and in two hours we found bones enough for a load to transport home in 
our arms. Among them was a piece of a rib-bone about two feet in length, 
which measures three and a half inches in width, and about two and a half 
in thickness. We also found a tooth of a triangular shape, which is four 
inches across the base, and about five in length. Mr. Rouse informed 
me that he had found a part of a tooth, which must have belonged to one 
four times as large as the one I found: and that he had found a vertebra 
eight inches in diameter. ‘These bones are found in all the strata, but 
the largest are the lowest. Of the quantity of shells it may not be amiss 
to say, that there are millions of bushels, and they are beginning to be 
used for manure. 


7. Removal of Fishes——In Dr. Storer’s report on the subject of fishes, 
given at page 378 of the last volume, he remarks, that the only instance 
with which he was acquainted of the successful removal of a species of 
fish from one body of water\to another in this country, was that of the re- 
moval of the Perca flavescens from Rockonkoma to Success pond on 
Long Island, by Dr. Mitchill. 

Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1841. 52 


406 Miscellanies. 


About fifteen years since Mr. Robert Kinyon, then living at the village 
of Amber on the east shore of the Otisco Jake, 11 Onondaga county, de- 
termined to make an effort to introduce into its waters, yellow perch from 
the Skaneateles, in the waters of which they abound; and pickerel from 
the cluster of lakes or ponds that constitute the extreme northern sources 
of the Tioughuioga branch of the Susquehanna river, in some of which 
this fish is very plentiful. Neither of these fishes had been seen in the 
Otisco; but suckers, an occasional white fish from the lakes, and the 
delicious speckled trout abounded in its waters, as well as the smaller 
fishes common to all our lakes. In the Skaneateles, only three miles dis- 
tant, were found the perch and the salmon trout, both strangers to the 
Otisco. A dozen perch of medium size were caught with hooks, put in a 
barrel of water, and transported from one lake to the other without diffi- 
culty. The third year from their removal the Otisco seemed to be filled 
with them ; and I have frequently heard it remarked, that in that and the 
succeeding year, the perch both for size and numbers exceeded that of 
any year since in these respects. If we may speak of our own piscatory 
labors, we may say they were decidedly more successful in those years so 
far as this fish was concerned, than they have ever been since. A quan- 
tity of the pickerel were the same season introduced in the same way, but 
they have not multiplied; indeed we have never heard of a fish of this 
kind being taken in the Otisco. 

The fine trout that formerly were caught in the lake avd oradually 
become scarce, and are now very rarely taken. This by some has been 
attributed to the introduction of the perch; but it is believed a more sat- 
isfactory cause is to be found in the perseverance and success with which. 
the trout was pursued when entering the inlets or making its beds on the 
shores in October and November, for the purpose of spawning. Very few 
that entered the streams escaped, and in this case, the capture of one was 
frequently the destruction of a thousand. 

We have known the common dace and bullpout of this Jake, trans- 
ported some three or four miles to a mill pond, in which they have multi- 
plied to a great extent; the former filling the streams both above and be- 
low the pond, while the latter preferred the deep water and muddy bottom 
of the pond to the clear water of the streams. We imagine there are few 
if any of our fresh-water fishes, that may not be successfully removed to 
other locations, should it be found desirable. W.G. 

Otisco, N. ¥Y. Jan. 1841. 


8. Stars missing.—In the volume of Greenwich Astronomical Obser- 
vations made in 1838, (published in London, 1840, 4to.) the following 
stars are reported as having been repeatedly sought for, but without 
SUCCESS : 

A star A.R. 2h. 9m.; N.P.D. 24° 31’, observed with Ramsden’s sector, 
in the Ordnance Survey of England. 


Miscellanies. 407 


A star A.R. 5h. 2m. Sts.; N.P.D. 71° 43’, whose occultation by the 
moon was observed by Mayer, 1756, September 15. (See Mr. Baily’s 
edition of Catalogue, Mem. Astron. Soc. Vol. iv.) 


9. Ice formed at the bottom of a river.—In the Journal for April, 1839, 
page 186, is a letter from Mr. Sheffey on the subject of ice found at the 
bottom of rivers and seas. The explanation of this perhaps, is, that the ra- 
pidity of the current prevents ice forming on the surface; but at the bot- 
tom where friction makes the current much less rapid, it becomes possible 
for the water to turn into ice. If I remember rivhtly, this is an explana- 
tion I heard in Prof. Jameson’s Nat. Hist. class, Univ. Edinb. The same 
reason will apply to seas, where the agitation on the surface prevents 
freezing; but at the bottom where the water is still, ice is found. 

Kingston, U.C., Nov. 5, 1840. T. Srratton. 


10. Depth of the Occan.—The sea was recently sounded by lead and 
line, in lat. 57> south, and long. 85° 7’ west from Paris, by the officers of — 
the French ship Venus, during her voyage of discovery; at a depth of 
3470 yards, or 2: miles, nu bottom was found. The weather was very 
serene, and it is said that the hauling in of the lead occupied sixty sailors 
more than two hours. In another place in the Pacific Ocean, no bottom 
was found at the depth of 4140 yards—W. Y. Jour. of Com. Nov. 17, 
1849. 


11. Obituary of Ebenezer P. Mason.—Died at Richmond, Va., on the 
26th of December, 1840, Mr. Ebenezer P. Mason, in the 22d year of his 
age. His last work, the conclusion of an Introduction to Practical As- 
tronomy, (Svo. pp. 141,) was finished only three weeks before his death. 
From the biographical sketch prefixed to this work by Prof. Olmsted, we 
make the following extracts, in the expectation that an extended memoir 
will appear in some future number. 

“Immediately after completing this treatise, (which he could not be 
persuaded to leave unfinished,) Mr. Mason yielded to the solicitations of 
his relatives at Richmond, Va., who had for some time been urging him 
to hasten to that milder climate, with the hope of preserving, or at least of 
prolonging, his valuable life. In less than two weeks after he reached 
his friends, he experienced a sudden prostration, and quietly sunk into the 
arms of death. 

““'The present treatise on Practical Astronomy was chiefly written in 
the spring of 1840, before his health failed, Early the ensuing summer 
symptoms of consumption began to develop themselves; and hoping to 
receive benefit from the invigorating climate of Maine, and eager to em- 
brace every opportunity for making astronomical observations, he obtained 
the post of assistant in the Commission under Prof. Renwick, which ex- 


AOS Miscellanies. 


plored the northeastern boundary of the United States during the last 
autumn. Sustained by a temper remarkably cheerful. and resolute, he 
was able to fulfil the duties of his appointment ; but on his return, the 
latter part of October, it was manifest that his disease had made regular 
progress and was carrying him to the grave. 

“Young Mason was truly a man of genius: and short as was his ca- 
reer as an astronomer, he accomplished enough to inspire in his scientific 
friends the highest expectations of his future eminence in the exalted 
study to which he had devoted himself. The peculiar assemblage of fac- 
ulties requisite to form the great astronomer, is seldom found united in 
the same individual, comprising as it does so many of the higher attributes 
of genius,—a hand of exquisite delicacy to construct and adjust,—an eye 
endued with extraordinary powers of vision to observe,—an 2ntéellect the 
most profound to follow out all the consequences of astronomical discov- 
ery; and that unconquerable enthusiasm which is regardless of loss of 
rest, of exposure by night, and even of life itself. ‘These qualities were 
severally possessed by Mr. Mason in an unusual degree ; but it was their 

striking and harmonious union, which, from the time I first discovered it, 
led me to recognize in him the promise of one probably destined to en- 
large the boundaries of astronomical science.” * * * 

“This work will, I think be found, on trial, more peculiarly adapted to 
the exigencies of young students of practical astronomy, than any similar 
treatise hitherto published ; and I cannot but believe that all who peruse 
it, will unite with me in deploring the untimely fate of a youth, who has 
given such signal proofs of his capacity to attain to the highest walks of 
astronomy.” 


12. Supplementary Note to Prof. Adams’s Catalogue of the Mollusca 
of Middlebury, Addison Co., Vt. (See pp. 271, 273.) 

Note to Pupa milium.—“ By the kindness of Prof. Bronn, of Heidel- 
berg, Germany, I have just received specimens of Pupa minutissima, 
Hartm., Rossm., &c. (v. Desh. in Lam. An. sans Vert., Pupa, No. 46,) 
which are very similar in size and form to P. milium, but in other res- 
pects widely distinct. ‘Ten specimens weigh .06 gr., or .006 gr. each. 
The remark of Deshayes is ‘cette espéce est certainement l’une des plus 
petites du genre.’ ” 

Note to Hehz striatella, Anth—‘ Prof. Bronn has sent me from Stiria, 
Austria, specimens of this species labelled ‘ Hf. ruderata, Studer. They 
do not differ in any respect from American specimens, except that one of 
them has a tinge of green. Anthony’s description was published Jan- 
uary, 1840. The description of the European author I have not seen; 
but as the shells were packed by Prof. Bronn only three months later, 
there is scarcely a doubt that the name A. ruderata has the priority.” 

Middlebury, february 10, 1241. Cc. B.A 


INDEX TO VOLUME XL. 


A 
Abbot, J. H., new electro-magnetic | 


struments, 104, : 
note on pneumatic paradox, 144. 
Acteon, two species of, described, 94. 
Adams, C. B., on the mollusca of Mid- 
dlebury, Vt., 266, 408. 
Agricultural survey of R. I., 182. 
Agriculture, chemistry of, by Liebig, 177. 
Alcchol, action of on alkalies, 216. 
American Philos. Soc., proceedings of, 
27, 374. 
Ammonia, its existence in the atmos- 
phere, 180. 
Analysis of alluvium of the Nile, 190. 
soils, 189, 198. 
Anamitic and Latin Dictionary, notice 
of, 43. 
Antarctic continent, discovery of, 394. 
Anthracite coals, analyses of, 373. 
Arsenic, how detected in the body, 278. 
how counteracted, 292. 
Ashes, volcanic, shower of, 198. 
Atomic theory, Daubeny’s work on, 197. 
Aurora Australis, 398. 
Borealis, 204, 206. 
of May 29, 1840, 48, 337. 


B. 


Bache, A. D., observations of magnetic 
dip, 374. : 
magnetic intensity 
in Europe, 30. 
Barium, extrication of, 293. 
Barometer, siphon, temperature of mer- 
cury in, 2a). 
Benedict, F. N., on corrections of siphon 
barometer, 250. 
Bergen, N. J., zeolites found at, 69. 
Beryl, new variety of, 401. 
Bibliographical notices, 165, 391. 
Blumenbach, J. F., death of, 219. 
Blunt, E., cbservations of solar eclipses, 
29 
Bonnycastle, Chas , insufficiency of Tay- 
lor’s theorem, 42. 
power of fluids in mo- 
tion, 32. 
Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., 196. — 
Soc. of Nat. Hist., proceedings of, 
386. 
Botanical herbaria of Europe, 1. 
Botany, Hooker's Journal of, 172. 
of north part of N. America, 173. 


Bourne, A., on glass for optical instru- 
ments, 207. 


Bourne, W. O., on localities of zeolites.69. 


Bowman, J. E., on fossil infusoria, 174. 
Boyé on a perchloric ether, 50, 382. 
Brewster, Sir D., on decomposition of 
glass, 324. 
hourly meteorological ob- 
servations, 321. 
@ rings of polarized light in 
decomposed glass, 325. 
musce volitantes, 333. 
line of visible direction, 
334. 
vision with the head in- 
verted, 343. 
British Association, proceedings of 10th 
meeting, 308. 
Buccinum, new species of, described, 100. 


C. 


Calcium, extrication of, 293. 

Cancellaria, new species of, described, 99. 

Candles, burning, motion of particles in, 
48. 


Canker worm, parasite of, 211. 
Chase. Capt., on volcanoes of Hawaii,117. 
Chemistry, organic, of Liebig, 177. 
Chinese writing, nature of, 37. 
Coal, anthracite, analyses of, 373. 

containing iodine, 217. 
Cold-Bokkeveld meteorite, 199. 
Colors, inability to distinguish, 54. 
Columba migratoria, roosts of, 348. _ 
Comet, Galle’s second, notice of, 40. 
Comets, new, 207. 

tails of, remarks on, 59. ~ 

Compass, invention of, 242. 
Conchology of Middlebury, Vt., 266. 
Condensation of vapor, effects of, 44. 
Conus, new species of, described, 103. 


D. 


Daguerreotype and its applications, 137. 

Daubeny on the atomic theory, noticed, 
197. 

Dead sea, level of, 213. 

Deflagration of carburets, phosphurets or 
cyanides, 303. 

Dip, magnetic, in the United States, 85, 
149, 374. 

Du Pasquier on iodine as a reagent for 
hydrosulpburic acid, 123. 

Du Ponceau on Chinese system of wri- 
ting, 37. 

E. 


Earthquakes, 204, 206, 376. 
Eclipses, solar, observations of, 29. 


410 


Elaterite, 215. 

Electricity from steam, 382. 

Electro-magnetic instruments, 104. 
machines, laws of, 339. 

Electrotype, 157. 

Embalming, process for, 194. 

Praeners Genera Plantarum noticed, 

174. 

Engraved plates copied by galvanism,157. 

Eocene fossil shells from Ala., 92. 

Erman on the meteors of August, 53. 

Espy’s theory of storms. 327. 

Ether, perchloric, 50, 382. 

European herbaria, account of, 1. 

Exploring Expedition, discoveries of, 394. 


he 


Fishes, removal of, 405. 
Fluids, power of, in motion, 32. 
Forbes’s report on meteorology, 318. 
Forshey on a great mound in Adams co. 
Miss., 376. 
Fossil caoutchouc, 215. 
infusoria in England, 174. 
remains in North Carolina, 405. 
shells from Alabama, 92. 


G. 


Galle’s three comets, 40, 207. 
Galvanic casting, 157. 
Galvanic deflagrator of the Lowell In- 
stitute, 48. 
Gannai’s process for embalming, 194. 
Gaylord, W., on removal of fishes, 405 
theory of tornadoes, 399. 
Geological report of Indiana, noticed,133. 
Michigan, 136. 
New York, 73. 
Ohio, 126. 
Glass, decomposition of, 324. 
for optical instruments, 207. 
Gold in France, 216. 
Goode, W. H.,0n the Daguerreoty pe,137. 
Gray, Asa, account of botanical works, 
165, 391. 
C. 8S. Rafinesque, 221. 
notices of European herbaria, 1. 
Guillemin on tea plant in Brazil, 167. 
Gypsum, mode of its fertilizing land, 180. 


Hi. 


Hail, shower of, 346. 
Halo around the sun, 25. 
Hare, Clark, on perchloric ether, 50, 360. 
Hare, R., on changes in atmospheric va- 
por, 44. 
deflagrating apparatus, 303. 
extrication of alkalifiable met- 
als, 293. 
potassium, 27. 
silicon, 28. 
Hawaii, volcanoes of, 117. 
Hays, Dr., on inability to distinguish col- 
ors, 04. 


INDEX. 


Bo radiant, Prof. Powell's report on, 
313. 


of the moon’s rays, 315. 
Herbaria of Europe, notices of, 1. 
Herrick, E.C., meteoric observations,203. 
parasite of Gcometra verna- 
ta, 211. 


349. 
Hessian fly, notice of, 381. 
Hildreth, S. P., meteorological journal 
for 1840), 345. 
Hooker, W.J., Flora Boreali- Americana, 
noticed, 173. 
Icones Plantarum, noticed, 391. 
Journal of Botany, 172. 
Horner, W. E., notice of remains of mas- 
todon, 56. 


star-showers of former times, 


on dental system of masto- 

don, 377. 

Horsefield’s Plante Javanice noticed, 
391 

Horticultural experiments, 197. 

{ubbard, O. P., notice of geological re- 
ports, 73, 126. 

Humic acid, 178. 

Hydrosulphuric acid, reagent of, 123. 


I. 


Ice on bottoms of rivers, 407. 
India, culture of silk and cotton in, 39. 
Indiana, geological survey of, 133. 
Infusoria, fossil, in England, 174. 
Insects, African, 387. 

observations on, 146. 
Intensity, magnetic observations on, 31, 

56. 


Iodine as a reagent for hydrosulphurie 
acid, 123. 
in coal, 2)7. 
Iriscope, 334. 
Iron mine hill in Rhode Island, 185. 
native and meteoric, 366. 


J. 


Jackson, C. 'T., survey of Rhode Island, 
182. 

Jacobi on electro-magnetic machines, 
339. 

Johnston, J., new variety of beryl, 401. 

Jones’s Outline of the animal kingdom, 
noticed, 196. 

K. 

Kangaroo, six new species of, 217. 

Kelley, E. G., on volcanoes of Hawaii, 
117. 

King, A. T., account ofa solar halo, 25. 

Kirtland, J. P., noticesin ornithology,19. 

on western fishes, 388. 

Klaproth on the invention of the mari- 

ner’s compass, 242. 


Koch, A., collections of remains of mas- 


todons, &c., 56. 


Kunze on Caricography, noticed, 174. 


INDEX. 


L. 


Latitudes of several places in the United 
States, 43. 
Lea, H. C., descriptions of fossil shells,92. 
Lea, Isaac, notice of the oolitic formation 
in America, 41. 
new species of Colimacea, 28. 
on Patella amena, 31. 
Lea, M. C., analyses of anthracite coal, 
373. 
on southern coal field of Penn. 370. 
Level of the Dead sea, 213. 
Liebig on chemistry of agriculture, 177. 
Limber, J., fossil remains in N. C., 405. 
Linneus, herbarium of, 2. 
Littrow, death of, 220. 
Locke, John, observations of magnetic 
dip, 149. 
magnetic intensity, 56. 
Longitudes of several places in the Uni- 
ted Staies, 43. 
Loomis, E., observations of magnetic dip, 
§5, 380. 
magnetic intensity, 378. 
on the storm of Dec. 20, 1836, 34. 
Lowell Institute, galvanic deflagrator, 48. 


M. 


Magnetic dip in the U. S., 85, 149. 

intensity in Europe, 30. 

U. States, 56, 378. 

observations, system of, 48,339. 
Magneto-electric instruments, 104. 
Magnetometer, new, 380. 
Mariner's compass, invention of, 242. 
Mason, E. P., observations on nebulz, 37. 

obituary notice of, 407. 

Masonite, anew mineral, 186. 
Mastodon bones, notice of, 56. 

dental system of, 377. 
Mercury, temperature of, in a siphon ba- 


All 


|Moquin-Tandon’s Enumeratio Chenopo- 
dearum, noticed, 174. 

Morin on meteorology, 402. 

Morris, Miss M. H., on the Hessian fly, 
381. 

Mound, great, in Adams co. Miss., 376. 

Musce volitantes, cause of, 323. 


N. 


Natural Hist., Bost. Jour. of, 196. 
Society of, 386. 

Nebula, observations on, 37. 

Necrology, 218, 407. 

Nelumbium luteum, 390. 

New York, geological report of, 73. 


rometer, 250. 
Meteoric iron, analysis of, 369. 
observations, 201, 203. 
showers of former times, 349. 
Meteorite of Cold-Bokkeveld, 199. 
Meteors of August, 51, 261. 
Meteorological observations, reduction 
of, 311. 
hourly, 321, 322. 
inquiries, 402. 
notes, 204. 
Meteorology, Forbes’s report on, 318. 
of Perth, 342. 
journal for 1840, at Mari- 


etta, 345. 
Michigan, geological survey of, 136- 
Mitchell, Wm., remarks on the tails off 
comets, 59. 
Mitra, three species of, described, 101. 
Mohs, F., death of, 220. 
Mollusca of Middlebury, Vt., 266. 
Monkey, howling, notice of, 387. 
Moon, heat of her beams, 315. 


Northern antiquaries, society of, 212, 
402. 
Numbers, interesting properties of, 112. 


oO. 


Observatory erecting near Glasgow, 344. 
to be built in Philad., 375. 

Ocean, depth of, 497. 

Ohio, geological survey of, 126. 

Olmsted, D., meteors of November, 202. 

Oolitic formation in America, 41. 

Creare chemistry by Liebig, noticed, 
177. 

Ornithology, notices in, 19. 

Ores ether and chlorine, compound of, 
215. 


P. 


Parasite of eggs of the canker worm, 211. 
Parker, Capt., on volcanoes of Hawaii, 
117. 
Parker, Peter, on volcanic ashes, 198. 
Pasithea, three species of, described, 92. 
Patterson, Dr., on electricity from steam, 
382. 5 
Payen on woody tissue of plants, 176. 
oe G. R., on properties of numbers, 
112. 
Pigeons, roosts of, in Ohio, 348. 
Plants, spiritual life of, 170. 
Pleurotoma, new species of, described, €8. 
Plummer, J. T., horticultural experi- 
ments, 197. 
observations on insects, 146. 
Pneumatic paradox, note on, 144. 
Poisson, death of, 220. 
Potassium, process for obtaining, 27. 
Powell’s report on radiant heat, 313. 
Preservation of timber, 213. 
Proceedings of Am. Phil. Soc., 27, 374. 
Bost. Nat. Hist. Soc., 386. 


R. 
Rafinesque-Schmaltz, C. S., writings of, 
SO 


Rain, excessive falls of, 326. 
~ Phillips’s researches on, 326. 
Rhode Island, survey of, 182. 


412 


s. 


Salisbury, E. E., abstract of Klaproth on) 
the invention of the compass, 242. 
Savage, T.S., on African insects, 387. 
Scalaria, two species of, described, 93. 
Schlechtendal’s Linnea, noticed, 392. 
Scientific memoirs, foreign, 308. 
Shells, fossil, from Ala., described, 92. 
new, described by I. Lea, 38, 
of Middlebury, Vt., account of, 
266, 408. 
Shepard, C. U., on native and meteoric: 
iron, 366. 
Shooting stars, list of showers of, 349. 
of August and Noy., Jbl, 201. 
Silk, culture of in India, 39. 
Silliman, B. Jr., on the "electrotype, 157. 
analysis of alluvium of the | 
Nile, 190. 


Silurian system of rocks in N. Y., 77. 
Smith, H. L , observations on nebule, 37. 
Smith, J. L., detection of arsenic, 278. 
Smith, William, death of, 219. 
Society of Northern antiquaries, 212, 403. 
Soils, analysis of, 189, 198. 
Spe teeee , burning, moving particles i a 
14 

Spiritual life of plants, 170. 
Star-showers of former times, 349. 
Stars, nomenclature of, 310. 

catalogues of, 310, 312. 

missing, 406. 
Steam, electricity from, 382. 
Steam vessel crossing the Atlantic in 


1819, 34. 


Stendel’s Nomenclator Botanicus, noti-| 


ced, 174. 
Storm of Dec. 20, 1836, account of, 34. 
Storms, Espy’s theory of, 327. 
Stratton, W. T., on ground ice, 407. 
Strontium, extrication of, 293. 
Subterranean temperature, 


report on, 


INDEX. 


Sugar, artificially made, 216. 
Sulphuric acid, new process for, 214. 
iSun seen of a blue color, 323. 
T: 
Taberd’s Anamitic and Latin dictionary, 
43. 

Tails of comets, remarks on, 59. 
Taylor’s theorem, discussion of, 42. 
Tea plant in Assam, 165. 

Brazil, 167. 
Ter ebra, two species of, described, 100. 
Timber, preservation of, 21 
Tornadoes, illustration of, 399. 
|Triton, new species of, eseribed: 99. 


| 


\'Trochus, as 68 96. 
| Turbinella, ag se 08. 
Turbo, OG Cr 9d. 

| Turritella, three species of, described, 96. 


V. 


| Vision with the head inverted, 343. 

|| Volcanic ashes, shower of, 198. 

|| Voleanoes of Hawaii, 117. 

| Voluta, new species of, described, 1083. 

| Von Martius on the spiritual life of plants, 
170. 


W. 


Walker, S. C., on meteors of August, 
1840, 51. 
Waterspout, illustration of, 399. 
rotation of, 324, 332. 
Waves, report on, 323. 
| Wikstrom’s report on botany, 393. 
| Wind, comparative force of, 322. 
Winthrop, John, ancient meteorological 
| notes, 204. 
| Woody tissue of plants, 176. 
;Wyman, J., notice of the howling mon- 
key, 387. 


| Z. 
|i Zeolites, locality of, 69, 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO CORRESPONDENTS, FRIENDS 
AND STRANGERS. 


Remarks.—This method of acknowledgment has been adopt- 
ed, because it is not always practicable to write letters, where 
they might be reasonably expected; and still more difficult is it 
to prepare and insert in this Journal, notices of all the books, pamph- 
lets, &c., which are kindly presented, even in cases, where such no- 
lices, critical or commendatory, would be appropriate ; for it is often 
equally impossible to command the time requisite to frame them, or 
even to read the works; still, judicious remarks, from other hands, 
would usually find both acceptance and insertion. 

In public, it is rarely proper to advert to personal concerns; to 
excuse, for instance, any apparent neglect of courtesy, by pleading 
the unintermitting pressure of labor, and the numerous calls of our 
fellow-men for information, advice, or assistance, in lines of duty, 
with which they presume us to be acquainted. 

The apology, implied in this remark, is drawn from us, that we may 
not seem inattentive to the civilities of many respectable persons, au- 
thors, editors, publishers, and others, both at home and abroad. It 
is still our endeavor to reply to all letters which appear to require an 
answer; although, as a substitute, many acknowledgments are made 
in these pages, which may sometimes be, in part, retrospective.— 
Eds. 


SCIENCE.—FOREIGN. 


Societé Royale des Antiquaires du Nord. Rapport des Séances 
Annuelles de 1838 et 1839. From the Soctety, and from Dr. J. 
Porter. 

The Mineral Structure of the South of Ireland: by Thos. Weaver, 
Esq. From the Author. 

On the Bowlder Formation ; by Charles Lyell, Esq. From the 
Author. 

L’Institut, Nos. 334 and 342. 

Experimental Researches in Electricity; by Sir MW. Faraday. 
15th, 16th, and 17th series, and Index from 1 to 14. From the 
Author. 

Extrait des Statuts Constitutifs de la Societé des Antiquaires du 
Nord, with a report of the anniversary meeting of 1838, 1839, and 

I 


“ee 


a list of works published by the Society at Copenhagen; avec la 
liste des membres fondateurs. Report addressed to the British and 
American members, August, 1830. See p. 212 of this No. 

Instructions for the Multiplication of Works of Art in’ Metal by 
Voltaic Electricity ; by Thomas Spencer, of Liverpool: forming 
Part IV of Griffin’s Scientific Miscellany. Glasgow. 8vo. pp. 62. 
Price 3s. From the Author. 

Phrenological Journal published at London, for January, April, 
and July, 1840. From the Editor, Hewitt Cottrell Watson. 

On the Dimipnution of Temperature, with Height in the Atmos- 
phere at different seasons of the year; by Prof. James D. Forbes. 

Researches on Heat, fourth series ; on the Effect of the Mechan- 
ical Texture of Screens on the immediate transmission of Radiant 
Heat; by Prof. James D. Forbes. 

Account of some additional experiments on Peresiris Magne- 
tism, made in different parts of Europe in 1837; by Prof. James 
D. Forbes. All from the Author. 

Michellotti on Utalian Fossils and Shells. From the Author. Re- 
ceived through Dr. Mantell. 

Fossils of Piedmont ; by and from Sig. Michellottz. 

A Sketch of the Geology of Surrey ; by and from Dr. Mantell. 

A Description of the Plesiosaurus Macrocephalus, in the collec- 
tion of Viscount Cole; by Richard Owen, Esq. From Dr. Man- 
tell. 

Note on the dislocation of the tail at a certain point observable 
in the skeleton of many Ichthyosauri; by Richard Owen. From 
Dr. Mantell. 

On the relation between the Holy Scriptures and some parts of 
Geological Science; by Rev. J. Pye Smith. 2d edition, 12mo. 
pp. 925. From the Author. 

Report of the ninth meeting of the British Association, held at 
Birmingham in Aug. 1839. S8vo. pp. 315. Price 13s. 6d. From 
the Association, through Messrs. R. & J. E. Taylor, London. 

Report on the Tea Plant of Upper Assam; by Wm. Griffith. 
From the Author. See this No. p. 165. 

Hospital Reports of the Medical Missionary Society in China. 

Bulletin de la Societé Geologique de France, &c. ; tome dixieme, 
1838 and 1839. 8vo. pp. 517. Paris. From the Society. 


SCIENCE.—DOMESTIC. 


Report on the Geological and Agricultural Survey of the State of 
Rhode Island; by Charles T. Jackson, M. D. 8vo. pp. 312. B. 
Cranston & Co. Providence. From the Author. See p. 182 of 
this No. 

The Elements of Geology for popular use ; by Charles A. Lee, 
M. D. From the Author. 

Theory of the Daguerreotype process; by and from Wm. FE. A. 
Akin, M. D. 


3 


Catalogue of specimens, Mineralogical and Geological, collected 
by Wm. Maclure ; arranged for distribution by David D. Owen, 
New Harmony, la. Three copies. 

Observations of the Magnetic Intensity at twenty one stations in 
Europe; by Prof. 4. D. Bache. From the Author. 

Transactions of the New Haven County Agricultural Society. 

Outlines of Prof. Olmsted’s Lectures on Meteorology. 

A Lecture on Medical Science and the Medical Profession in 
Europe and the United States; by Harvey Lindsay, M.D. Wash- 
ington. From the Author. 

The Constitution, Middletown. From Dr. J. Barratt, with an 
account of the Solidification of Carbonic Acid Gas. 

First Principles of Chemistry; by Prof. Renwick. From the 
Author. Dec. 1840. 18mo. pp. 444. New York. 

History of Embalming, translated from the French of J. N. Gan- 
nal, by Dr. Harlan. Phil. 1840. 8vo. pp. 264. From the Trans- 
lator. 

North American Botany ; by Pref. Eaton and Dr. Wright. From 
the publisher, E. Gates. Received May, 1840. 

Catalogue of Plants found near Milwaukie, W. T.; by J. A. 
Lapham. From the Author. 

On the Storm which was experienced throughout the United 
States about the 30th of December, 1836; from the Transactions 
of the Am. Phil. Soc.; by Elias Loomis. From the Author. 

Additional Qbservations of the Magnetic Dip in the United States ; 
from the Transactions of the Am. Phil. Soc.; by Elias Loomis, 
Professor in Western Reserve College. 

Constitution and By-Laws of the National Institution for the pro- 
motion of Science, established at Washington. 

The Physiology of the Skin; by J. J. Metealf, of Mendon. 
From the Author to the Yale Natural History Society. 2 copies. 

Army Meteorological Register. From Dr. Thos. Lawson, Sur- 
geon General. 

Meteorological Journal for November. From Prof. Loomis. 

Instructions and observations concerning the use of the Chlorides 
of Soda and Lime; by 4. G. Labarraque. Translated from the 
French by Jacob Porter. Three copies from the Author, for the 
libraries of the Connecticut Academy, Yale Nat. Hist. Society, and 
Yale College. 

Boston Journal of Natural History, containing papers and com- 
munications read before the Boston Society of Natural History, &c. 
Vol. Ill, No. 3. Boston, 1840. Little & Co. pp. 124. See 
this No. p. 196. 

A Monograph of the Limniades or edn aten univalve shells of 
North America; by S. S. Haldeman, Member of the Philadelphia 
Academy of Natural Sciences. No.2. 5 colored plates. Phila. 
Jan. 1841. Price $1 to subscribers, $1 25 to others. From the 
Author. 


4 


The American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge for 
the year 1841. Boston. D.H. Williams. pp. 312, 12mo. Price 
$1. From the compiler, Mr. J. E. Worcester. 

Proceedings of the Am. Philos. Society for Nov. and Dec. 1840, 
Vol. I, No. 14, with Index for 1838, 1839, and 1840. pp. 46, Svo. 
From the Society. 

Report of Prof. F. R. Hassler on the Coast Survey of the U. 
States, and on the preparation of Standard Weights and Measures. 
From Hon. W. W. Boardman, M. C. 


MISCELLANEOUS.—FOREIGN—BOOKS AND NEWSPAPERS. 


Publishers’ Circular. Bent’s Monthly Literary Advertiser. 
Catalogue of Engtish Books for sale by Wiley & Putnam. 
Do. printed for the University of Oxford. 

Catalogues of Books belonging to John Robinson, London. 

Also for sale by R. Baldock, and by H. G. Bohn, London, and 
by Wiley & Putnam, New York. 

Catalogue of Dr. Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopeedia. 

Catalogue of Books for sale by Baynes & Son, and by J. New- 
man, London. Catalogue of Sultaby & Co., London. Catalogue 
of Books, typographical, classical and miscellaneous, for sale by John 
Bryant, London. All from Messrs. Wiley & Putnam. 

Anti-Slavery Reporter, (British.) 

The Liverpool Journal. From Mr. Spencer. 

Singapore Newspapers and Chinese Magazines. From Mr. Wil- 
Jiams. Of the latter, 2 Nos. of 1838, 7 Nos. of 1837, 1 No. of 
1835, 1 No. of 1834, 1 No. of 1833. Also, a table of contents of 
No. 7, July, 1838, and of No. &, August, 1838, as follows : 

Contents of No. 7—Art. 1. Congress of the United States of 
America. 2. History. 3. The Chow Dynasty. 4. Emigration. 
5. Trade. 6. Discovery of new countries. 7. Anatomy. 8. Mo- 
ney. 9. Answer of a nephew to his uncle. 10. Public affairs. 

Contents of No. 8—Art. 1. On Poetry. 2. An Ode. 3. His- 
tory. 4. The Chow Dynasty. 5. Hospital. 6. Jurors. 7. Trade. 
8. A nephew to his uncle. 9. Miscellaneous. 


MISCELLANEOUS.—DOMESTIC. 


Report on the Tobacco Trade between the United States and 
foreign countries. From 7. H. Osborne, M. C. 

Address at the consecration of Harmony Grove Cemetery, Salem, 
Mass. ; by Hon. Judge D. A. White. From the Author. 

Palfrey’s eulogy on President Kirkland. From the Author. 

The ‘Christian World,” No. 1, Vol. 1. Published at Philad. 

Message of the President of the U. S. to the two Houses of Con- 
gress at the commencement of the 2d session, Dec. 9, 1840, with 
the yearly reports. Washington. Doc. No. 2, pp. 541. From 
Hon. J. Trumbull, M. C. 


3) 


An Address before the Saratoga Baptist Association, N. Y.; by 
Rev. A. Maclay, A. M. From the Author. : 

Speech of Hon. D. Webster on the President’s Message in U. S. 
Senate. From Hon. W. W. Boardman, M. C. 

Introductory Lecture before the Medical Class of the Maryland 
University, 1840. 

Catalogus Collegii Dickinsoniensis. From J. M. Caldwell. 

New Philosophy of Mind; by John Stearns, M.D. ‘Two cop- 
ies from the Author. 

Report on the mineral lands of the United States. From 7. H. 
Osborne, M. C. 

Speech of Mr. Davis, of Mass., on the Sub-Treasury Bill. 

Catalogue of Brown University. From George Chase. 

Democratic Press, New York. 

Catalogue of Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. From Prof. 
Hubbard. 

Twentieth Annual Report of the American Education Society. 

Fifteenth Annual Report of the Boston Prison Discipline Soc’ty. 

Extracts from the correspondence of the Am. Bible Society. 

Review of the late canvass, and B. Wickliffe’s speech on the 
negro law; by C. Clay. 

Advertisement of a new series of the American Journal of Med- 
ical Science. 

Catalogue of the Officers and Alumni of Rutgers’ College, N. B. 
1840. 

Yale Literary Magazine, Vol. VI, Nos. 1 and2, 1840. From the 
Editors. 

Reports made to the Providence Atheneum, Sept. 25, 1840. 

Oration before the American Institute; by Professor C. Mason. 
From the Author. 

Annual Report of the acting superintendent of Indian Affairs for 
Michigan. From the superintendent, Henry R. Schoolcraft. 

Catalogue of Skulls of men and the inferior animals, in the collec- 
tion of Samuel G. Morton, M. D., (for sale.) From the Author. 

Statement of the origin, history, and present condition of the 
New Haven Young Men’s Institute. 

Correspondence between a committee and the pastor of Hollis 
Street Society upon the view of a second ecclesiastical council. 
From Rev. J. Pierpont. 

The Voyage of Life, a series of allegorical pictures; by Mr. 
Cole, description from the painter. 

Dentist’s Mirror, Vol. I, No. 1, Boston. 

Agricultural Addresses, delivered before the Agricultural Societies 
of New Haven, Norwich, and Hartford, Ct., in Sept. and Oct. 1840; 
by Rev. Henry Coleman, Agricultural Commissioner of Massachu- 
setts. 2copies from the Author. 

John Lee’s letters to Judge Story on the errors of Blackstone and 
his editors. From the Author. | 


6 


Letter to the President of the United States on the disputed ter- 
ritory ; by and from John Lee. 

Report of the Directors of the Gammeeninr Retreat for the In- 
sane. From Dr..4. Brigham, Hartford, Ct. 


SPECIMENS.—FOREIGN. 


Volcanic Ashes which fell on the deck of the Niantic, from Can- 
tonto N. Y. From Dr. Parker. See this No. p. 198. 

A suite of Nova Scotia minerals. From the Rev. N. W. Coster, 
of Parrsborn, N. S. 


SPECIMENS.—DOMESTIC. 


Portions of the tusk of a mastodon. From Jsaac Mills, Esq. 

Fresh-water and land shells from the neighborhood of Chillicothe, 
Ohio, 20 orders, 14 sub-genera, 101 species, and 453 specimens, 
for the junior Editor of this journal. From 4. Bourne, Esq., Chil- 
licothe, Ohio. 

A fine lumbar vertebrum of a Mastodon, with perfect spinous pro- 
cesses and articulating surfaces. From Messrs. North ssh Stanley, 
New Britain, Conn. where it was found. 


NEWSPAPERS.—DOMESTIC. 


Texas Register, two numbers. 

Alexandria Gazette. From Tho. Blagden, Washington. 

American Anti-Slavery Reporter, 4 Nos. Genesee Slavery Re- 
porter, Nos. 1, 2. Ohio Observer, 2 Nos. 

Hartford Review, containing an account of the Rock of De Kalb. 
From C. Whittlesey. 

Anti-Slavery Reporter, Nos. 10, 11. 

Milwaukie Advertiser, Dec. 19, with Governor’s Message on the 
Geological Survey of Wisconsin Territory. From J. A. L. 

New York Weekly Messenger. 

Galena Democrat, with an article on Mining; by §S. Taylor. 
From John V. Ingersoll. 

The Sun, Baltimore. From H. W. Ellsworth. Baltimore Sun, 
with a notice of the Henslalion of Swedenborg’s Economia Regni 
Animalis. 

New York Cones and Enquirer. From G. S. Silliman. 

Ohio Observer, Milwaukie Observer. From Charles J. Lynde, 
Esq. 
elecraph and Texas Register. 

Massachusetts Abolitionist. From J. E. Fuller. 

Cleveland Daily Herald. From Dr. Kirtland, with account of 
a death from fire in digging for a well, caused by a candle coming 
in contact with carburetted hydrogen mixed with common air. 

Daily Pennant, St. Louis. From Charles C. Whittlesey, con- 
taining meteorological observations made by Dr. Brown. 


Aral 


VI. 


XII. 


XI. 


XIV. 


CONTENTS. 


S atemnemmmnen:< commen 


Notices of European Herbaria, particularly those most in- 
teresting to the North American Botanist, 


. Fragments of Natural oe by Prof. J. P. Kihe 


M. D., 


: Decoiptiee of a Halo or "Coane of great colbadar: aracie 


ed at Greensburgh, Westmoreland County, Pa ; by At- 
FreD T’. Kine, M. D., 


. Extracts from the Proceeds of the ‘Aakeheas Philosoph- 


ical Society, 


. Additional Remarks on the Tails of Romeia: ; a Witte 


Mircue.., 


. Notice of a Locality of Zeolived a at Bere, Ben 


County, New Jersey ; by Wm. Oban Bourne, 


. Notice of the Geological Survey of the State of New You. 


presented to the Legislature, Jan. 24, 1840; by Prof. OL- 
iver P. Husparp, M. D., 

On the Magnetic Dip in the United srte: by Prof mite 
Loomis, 


. Description of some new species of Paci Shells, from tie 


Eocene, at Claiborne, Alabama; by Henry C. Lea, 


. A Description of several New Electro-Magnetic and Mee 


neto-Electric Instruments and Experiments; by Josera 
Hate Aszot, 


. Development of some interesting Properties of Numbers? 


by Georce R. Perkins, 

Remarks on the Geological Fentnres of the Talend of Oty! 
hee or Hawaii, the largest of the group called the Sand- 
wich Islands, with an account of the condition of the 
Volcano of Kirauea, situated in the southern part of the 
Island near the foot of Mouna Roa; by Epwarp G. KEL- 
DEY, : : 4 : : : : : : 
The employment of Iodine as a reagent for Hydrosulphu- 
ric Acid; by M. Atpuonse pu PasaquiEr, 

Notice of Geolosieal Surveys. I. Of the State of hig 
II. Of Indiana. II. Of Michigan; by Prof. Oxtver P. 
Huszarp, M. D., 4 ; ; 5 ; 


104 


112 


117 


123 


126 


il CONTENTS. 
Page. 
XV. The Daguerreotype and its Applications ; by W. H.Goopz, 137 
XVI. Supplementary Note to the Article on the Pneumatic Par- 
adox in the last number of this Journal ; by JosepH Hatz 


ABEOT; |. 144 
XVII. Miscellaneous Obeaaume on Insets, & ae ; by Dr. ‘oa : 
T. PLummMrr, . 146 


XVIII. On Terrestrial Maencten! by Prof Joun Teoeices M. D.. 149 
XIX. Electrography or the idceaenee ; by the Junior Editor, 157 
XX. Bibliographical notices :—Report on the Tea Plant of Up- 
per Assam, 165.—Report of M. Guillemin, 167—The 
Spiritual Life of Plants, 170.—The Journal of Botany, 
&c., 172.—Hooker’s Flora Boreali-Americana, or the Bo- 
tany of the Northern parts of British America, 173.—End- 
licher’s Genera Plantarum : Enumeratio Chenopodearum : 
Stendel’s Nomenclator Botanicus: Caricography: Fossil 
Infusoria in England, 174.—Chemical composition of cel- 
lular and woody tissue in Plants, 176.—Organic Chemis- 
try in its applications to Agriculture and Physiology, 177.— 
Report on the Geological and Agricultural Survey of the 
State of Rhode Island in 1839, 182.—History of Embalm- 
ing and of Preparations in Anatomy, Pathology, and Natu- 
ral History, including an account of a new process for Km- 
balming, 194.—A General Outline of the Animal King- 
dom: Boston Journal of Natural History, 196.—Supple- 
ment to the introduction to the Atomic Theory, 197. 


a 


Miscetianies.— Horticultural Experiments, 197.—Volcanic Ash- 
es, 198.—African Meteorite of Cold Bokkeveld, 199.—Fur- 
ther account of the Shooting Stars of August, 1840, 201.— 
Meteors of November, 202.—Meteoric Observations in Octo- 
ber and December, 1840, 203.—Meteorological Notes in 1741— 
1757, 204.—Galle’s Three Comets: New Comet: Manufac- 
ture of Glass for Optical Instruments, 207.—Parasite of the 
egos ofthe Geometra vernata, 211.—Circular of the Royal 
Society of Northern Antiquaries, 212.—Level of the Dead 
Sea: Preservation of Timber: Preservation of Timber long 
sunken under water, 213.—New process for making Sulphu- 
ric Acid, 214.—Oxalic Ether with Chlorine: Elaterite, or Fos- 
sil Caoutchouc, 215.—Gold in France: Artificial preparation 
of Sugar: Action of Alcohol upon Alkalies, 216.—Iodine in 
Coal: Six new species of Kangaroo, 217.—Proceedings of the 
Tenth Meeting of the British Association: Necrology, 218. 


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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY IN. ITs. “APPLICATIONS, TO AGRICULTURE me 44 
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