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( 
‘ 


oe aah 
ee | THE ee ae 
AMERICAN JOURNAL 
: a i 
SCIENCE AND ARTS. m= 
CONDUCTED BY ‘ fy : 


v ‘NEW HAVEN: 


PROFESSOR SILLIMAN 


AND 


BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr. 


hae 
VOL. XLIL—APRHs 1842. 


‘ 


(TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY.) 


aE 


' Sold by B. & W. NOYES.—Philadelphia, CAREY & HART, J.S. LITTELL 


. 


and ORRIN ROGERS, No. 67 So. Second St.— Baltimore, Md., N. HICKMAN. 
—New York, CARVILL & Co., No. 108 Broadway, THEODORE FOSTER, 
corner of John St. and Broadway, and G. S. SILLIMAN, No. 49 Wall St.— 
Boston, C. C. LITTLE & Co.—London and New York, WILEY & PUTNAM, 
No. 35 Paternoster Row, London, and 161 Broadway, New York.—Paris, 
HECTOR BOSSANGE & Co., No. 11, Quay Voltaire.—Hamburgh, Messrs. 
NESTLER & MELLE. ; 


PRINTED BY B. L. HAMLEN. jeeennsnrtt ss 
NN INSTITU, x 
“ Zo 10. 
i LX a 
| UK 


heme 
ae 


ere 


Art. I. 


Xd. 


XI. 


XII. 


. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII. 


-_—_———_— 


NUMBER I. 


Notes of a Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of 
North Carolina, é&c.; with some remarks on the Bot- 
any of the higher Alleghany Mountains ; by Asa Gray, 
Me Des = i 2 S 2 


. Account of three undescribed Plants of Central Ohio ; 


by Wm. S. Sutrrvant, - : 3 b 


. Notes upon the Geology of the Western States; by James 


Hatt, - - - : : S 


. On the Perchlorate of the Oxide of Ethule, or Perchloric 


Ether ; by Crarxk Hare and Martin H. Bove, - 


. A new Demonstration of the Principle of Virtual Veloci- 


ties; by Prof. THEopoRE Strone, ~— - - - 


. Solution of a Functional Equation, which has been em- 


ployed by Poisson in demonstrating the parallelogram 
of forces; by Grorce R. Perxins, A.M.,~ - - 


. Experiments on Bichlorure of Sulphur and certain car- 


bures of hydrogen ; by Prof. F. CHEver, - - 
Continuation of the Remarks made upon Arsenic, con- 
sidered in a medico-legal point of view; by J. Law- 
RENCE SmitH, M.D., - - - - - 


. Remarks upon an examination of the Peroxide of Man- 


r 4 
ganese ; by Henry C. Lea, - - - - 


. A Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria, with 


some account of the most interesting species which 
have been found in a recent or fossil state in the United 
States ; with two plates, by Prof. J. W. Bartey, : 
Description of Eight new Species of Shells, native to 
the United States; with a plate, by Henry C. Lea, - 
Observations on the Storm of December 15, 1839; by 
Wivuiam C, Repriexp, A. M., - - - 
Temperature of the cities of Rome, (Italy,) and New 
York; by JEremian Van Renssevaer, M. D., - 


Page. 


69 


71 


75 


8] 


88 
106 
112 


120 


Likes 


iv 


XIV. 


XV. 


XVI. 


XVI. 


XVIII. 


CONTENTS. 


Observations and Experiments on Light; by Prof. Sam- 
veL Apams, M.D.,_ - - - - - 
The Birds of America, from drawings made in the Uni- 
ted States and their Territories ; by Joun James Aupv- 
Bon, F.R.S., - - - - a 
Notice of Fossil Bones from Oregon Territory ; by H. C. 
PERKINS, - - MS eat Ae i 3 
Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms, with 
some strictures upon his reasoning; by Prof. Ropert 
Hare, M. D., - - 2 - - 
Abstract of the Proceedings of the Eleventh Meeting of 
the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 


. On the Remoyal of Carbonic Acid Gas from Wells, &c., 


and Spontaneous Combustion in Wood Ashes; by Prof. 
Ouiver P. Hussarp, M. D.—Combustibility of Wood 
Ashes; by Dr. Joun T. PLumMer, - - - 


. On the use of Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead, - 
. On the Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842; by R. T.P., - 
. Bibliographical Notices :—Endlicher’s Enchiridion Bo- 


tanicum : Lindley’s Flora Medica, 182.—Lindley’s Ele- 
ments of Botany, 183.—Botanical Teacher for North 
America, 184.—Hooker’s Journal of Botany, 185.— 
The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 186.— 
Archiv fur Naturgeschichte: Repertorium fur Anato- 
mie und Physiologie der Gewachse: Lectures on the 
Applications of Chemistry and Geology to Agriculture, 
187.—Lyell’s Principles of Geology, Lyell’s Elements 
of Geology, 191.—Notes on the Use of Anthracite in 


the Manufacture of Iron: American Almanac and Re- — 


pository of Useful Knowledge for the year 1842: Prof. 
Park’s Pantology, 192. 


MiscELLANIES.—On the supposed conversion of Carbon into Sili- 
con, 193.—Curious Microscopic Fungus: Yellow Showers 
of Pollen, 195.—Brief Strictures on Art. XV, Vol. xxxiv, of 
this Journal, 19'77.—Sunset at the West, 200.—Shooting Stars 
in June, 201.—Shooting Stars of August 10, 1841: Meteor- 
ology, 202.—Fall of a Meteoric Stone at Griineberg in Sile- 
sia: Meteorite in France: Another Meteorite in France: 
Remarks and suggestions with regard to the proper con- 
struction and use of apparatus for solidifying” carbonic acid, 


Sd 


Page. 


123 


130 


136 


140 


147 


165 
169 
175 


CONTENTS. 


203.—Alabaster in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, 206.— 
Tubular concretions of Iron and Sand from Florida, 207.— 
Spark Extinguisher, 209.—Destructive Thunder Shower, 
210.—Elementary composition of vegetable tissue, 212.— 
Mr, Lyell and Mr. Murchison, 213.—Carburetted Hydrogen 
encased in spheres of Carbonate of Lime: Society of North- 


ern Antiquaries: Barometrical Observations made to ascer- 
tain the Level of the Dead Sea, 214.—Picture of a Parthian 
Archer, 215.—Correction, 216. 


Arr. I. 


VII. 


VU. 


XII. 


ee 


NUMBER II. 


A Notice of Prof. Augustine Pyrame De Candolle; by 
Georce B. Emerson, “ $ 3 


. Geological Reports of the State of New York for 1840, 
. On the Manipulations of the Dipping Compass; by Prof. 


Joun Locke, M. D., - - : 


. The Involution of Polynomials ; by Wm. J. Lewis, 
. Notice of a Hurricane that passed over New England 


in September, 1815; by Noyes Daruine, Esq., - 


. A New Method of determining the quantity of Nitrogen 


in Organic Compounds; by Drs. Varrentrapp and 
Witt. ‘Translated from the original in the Annalen der 
Chemie und Pharmacie, by J. Lawrence Smirtz, M. D., 
A Letter to Wm. Whewell, Professor of Moral Philoso- 
phy in the University of Cambridge, England, in reply 
to certain allegations and arguments advanced in a 
pamphlet entitled a Demonstration that all Matter is 
Heavy ; by Prof. Roperr Harz, M. D., - - 
Integration of a particular kind of Differential Equations 
of the second order; by Prof. THEopDoRE STRONG, 


. Notice of the Zoological Writings of the late C. S. Rafi- 


nesque ; by 8S. 8S. Hatpeman, - - - 


. Sir M. Faraday’s answer to Dr. Hare’s second Letter, 
. Meteorological Observations, made at the Mines of San 


Fernando, situated in the Partido de la Manicaraqua, 
Island of Cuba; by Joun H. Biaxe, - - 
Reply to Dr. Hare’s Objections to the Whirlwind Theo- 
ry of Storms; by W. C. RepFIELD, - - - 


Page. 


217 
227 


235 
239 


243 


253 


260 


273 


280 


291 


292 


299 


Me ' 
vi Pam CONTENTS. * 


XU Abstract of the Pateciinlae of the Eleventh oe 
of the British Association for the Advancement of Sci- 


ence, held at Plymouth, September, 1841, _ - - 317 
XIV. An Astronomical Machine, the Tellurium; by Epwin nage 
C. Leepom, M. D.,— - 3 : : -938%4 
XV. Abstract of a Meteorological-Journal, for the year 1841, 
kept at Marietta, Ohio; by 8. P. Hinpreru, M.D., -— 344 
XVI. The Glacial es of Prof. ae ; by CHARLES 
MAcLaREN, - - - - - - 346 
XVII. On a New Species of Trilobite of very large size; by 
Prof. Joun Locks, M. D., - - - - 366 
XVIII. Register of the Thermometer from 1830 to 1839, kept 
at Boston, Mass. ; by J. P. Hatt, - - - 368 
XIX. Chemical Examination of Bituminous Coal from the pits 
of the Mid Lothian Coal Mining Company, south side 
of James River, fourteen miles from Richmond, Vir- 
ginia, in Chesterfield County ; by Prof. B. Sinuman 
and Prof. O. P. Huzparp, - - : - 3869 


XX. Bibliographical notices :—Linnzeus’s Botanical Writings: 
Index to De Candolle’s Prodromus, 375.—Kunth, Enu- 
meratio Plantarum: Loudon’s Arboretum et Fruticetum 
Britannicum, 376.—Steudel’s Nomenclator Botanicus: 
Torrey and Gray’s Flora of North America: Mr. Nut- 
tall’s Edition of Michaux’s Sylva Americana: Bo‘ari- 
eal Teacher, 377.—Agassiz’s Monograph of the Echi- 
nodermata, 378.—Boston Journal of Natural History, 


379.—Harris’s Report on the Insects of Massachusetts, 


injurious to Vegetation: Rogers’s Letters on the Man- 
ufacture of Iron, 380. 


MiscELLANIES.—Protest of Mr. Charles V. Walker, 383.—Min- 
eralogical Notices, 386.—Infusorial Animals: Coal Mines in 
Cuba, 388.—Encouragement for the Fine Arts: Geological 
Survey of Louisiana, 390.—Preparation of Freshwater Shells 
for the Cabinet, 391.—Bones of the Orycterotherium : Note 
to Mr. Lea’s paper on New Species of Native Shells, 392.— 
Facts connected with a stroke of Lightning, 393.—Separa- 
tion of Silver or Gold from Lead, 394.—Suggestions on the 
total Solar Eclipse of July, 1842, 395.—Meteors of April 
18-20, 1841, 397.—Shooting’Stars of Dec. '7, 1888, 398.— 

y Np, 


age 


CONTENTS. 


Determination of Longitude by Shooting Stars: Ancient Me- 
teorological Memoranda, 399.—Description of Russell’s Pla- 
netarium, 400.—Abstract of Mr. 8. C. Walker’s paper on the 
Periodical Meteors of August and November, 401.—Baro- 
metric Minima of Feb. 15-20, 1842, 402.—Meteorite of Cha- 
teau-Renard, 403. 


ERRATA. 


Page 162, 1. 11, for zs read are. 
308, 1. 7, for outward read onward. 
‘* bottom line, for parts read posts. 


Vol. 40, p. 352, 1. 27, for Saturday read Friday. 
Vol. 41, p. 155, 1. 24, for hundredths read thousandths, 


vil 


THE 
AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. 


Arr, I.—WNotes of a Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of 
North Carolina, §c.; with some remarks on the Botany of 
the higher Alleghany Mountains, (in a letter to Sin Wo. J. 
Hooker); by Asa Gray, M. D. 


- Tne peculiar interest you have long taken in North American 
botany, and your most important labors in its elucidation, indicate 
the propriety of addressing to yourself the following remarks, re- 
lating, for the most part, to the hasty collections made by Mr. 
John Carey, Mr. Jas. Constable and myself, in a recent excursion 
to the higher mountains of North Carolina. Before entering upon 
our own itinerary, it may be well to notice very briefly the trav- 
els of those who have preceded us in these comparatively unfre- 
quented regions. The history of the botany of the Alleghany 
Mountains, would be at once interesting, and on many accounts 
useful to the cultivators of our science in this country ; but with 
my present inadequate means, I can only offer a slight cou 
tion towards that object. 

So far as I can ascertain, the younger (Witt1am) Bartram, was 
the first botanist who visited the southern portion of the Allegha- 
ny Mountains. Under the auspices of Dr. Fothergill, to whom 
his collections were principally sent, and with whom his then sur- 
viving father had previously corresponded, Mr. Bartram left Phi- 
ladelphia in 1773, and after travelling in Florida and the lower 
part of Georgia for three years, he made a transient visit to the 

Vol. xr11, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 1 


2 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


Cherokee country, in the spring of 1776. In this journey, he as- 
cended the Seneca or Keowee River, one of the principal sources 
of the Savannah, and crossing the mountains which divide its 
waters from those of the Tennessee, he continued his travels 
along the course of the latter to the borders of the present State of 
Tennessee. Finding that his researches could not safely be ex- 
tended in that direction, after exploring some of the higher moun- 
tains in the neighborhood, he retraced his steps to the Savannah 
River, proceeding thence through Georgia and Alabama to Mobile. 
His well-known and very interesting volume of Travels,* contains 
numerous observations upon the botany of these regions, with oc- 
casional popular descriptions, and in a few cases Latin characters 
of some remarkable plants; as, for example, the Rhododendon 
punctatum (which he calls R. ferrugineum), Stwartia pentagyna 
(under the name of S. montana), Azalea calendulacea (which he 
terms A. flammea), 7'rautvetteria, which he took for a new spe- 
cies of Hydrastris, Magnolia auriculata, &c. He also notices 
the remarkable intermixture of the vegetation of the north and 
south, which occurs in this portion of the mountains; where 
Hlalesia, Styrax, Stuartia, and Gelsemium,t (although the lat- 
ter “is killed by a very slight frost in the open air in Pennsylva- 
nia,” ) are seen flourishing by the side of the birches, maples, and 
firs of Canada. 

1 should next mention the name of Anpré Micuavux, who, at 
an early period, amidst difficulties and privations of which few 
can now forman adequate conception, explored our country from 
Hudson’s Bay to Florida, and westward to the Mississippi, more 
extensively than any subsequent botanist. A few of his plants 
have not yet been rediscovered, and a considerable number 
remain among the rarest and least known species of the Uni- 
ted States; it may therefore be useful to give a somewhat par- 
ticular account of his peregrinations, especially through the moun- 
tain region which he so diligently explored, and in which he 


* Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida, 
the Cherokee country, §-c.; by Witt1sm Bartram. Philadelphia, 1791. 

t Dr. Torrey has directed my attention to an unaccountable mistake into which 
the learned Endlicher must have fallen, in describing the fruit of Gelsemium, par- 
ticularly in the supplement to his Genera Plantarum (p. 1396), where it is estab- 
lished as a new tribe of Apocynacee@, and a fruit of two follicles, as well as comose 


seeds, attributed to it! So far as they extend, the characters given by Jussieu and 
Richard are correct. 


Botanical E'xcursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 3 


made such important discoveries. For this purpose, I am for- 
tunately supplied with sufficient materials, having had the op- 
portunity of consulting the original journals of Michaux, pre- 
sented by his son to the American Philosophical Society. Iam 
indebted for this privilege, to the kindness of John Vaughan, 
Hsq., the Secretary of the society, who directed my attention to 
these manuscripts, and permitted me to extract freely whatever 
{ deemed useful or interesting. The first fasciculus of the diary 
is wanting ; but we learn from a chance record, as well as from 
published sources,* that he embarked at L’Orient on the 29th of 
September, 1785, and arrived at New York on the 13th of No- 
vember. ‘The private journal from which the following infor- 
mation is derived, commences in April, 1787; prior to which 
date he had established two gardens, or nurseries, to receive his 
collections of living plants, until they could be conveniently 
transported to France—one in New Jersey, near the city of New 
York; the other about ten miles from Charleston, South Caro- 
lina. Into the latter, it appears, he introduced some exotic trees, 
which he thought suitable to the climate; and the younger Mi- 
chaux, who vRited this garden several years afterwards, men- 
tions two Ginkgos (Salisburia adiantifolia), which in seven 
years had attained an elevation of thirty feet; also some fine spe- 
cimens of Sterculia platanifolia, and a large number of young 
plants of Mimosa Julibrissin, propagated from a tree which his 
father had brought from Europe. From this stock, probably, the 
latter has been disseminated throughout the Southern States, and 
is beginning to be naturalized in many places. 

I have no means of ascertaining what portions of the country 
Michaux had visited previously to April, 1787, when he set out 
from Charleston on his first journey to the Alleghany Mountains, 
by way of Savannah, ascending the river of that name to its 
sources ia the Cherokee country, and following very nearly the 
route taken by Bartram eleven years before.t He reached the 


* Vide Michaux, Flora Boreali-Americana'; Introd. See also A Sketch of the 
progress of Botany in Western America, by Dr. Short, in the Transylvania Journal 
of Medicine, No. 35; and in Hooker’s Journal of Botany, for November, 1840. I 
am informed that an interesting notice of Michaux is contained in the 8th volume 
of the Dictionnaire Encyclopedique de Botanique, (under the head of Voyageurs ;) 
a work which unfortunately I am not able at this moment to consult. 

t In this journey he was accompanied by his son, who shortly afterwards re- 
turned to Europe. Before they reached Augusta, their horses were stolen, a mis- 


4 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


sources of the Keowee River on the 14th of June, and was con- 
ducted by the Indians across the mountains to the head of. the 
Tugaloo, (the other principal branch of the Savannah,) and 
thence to the waters of the Tennessee. After suffering much 
inconvenience from unfavorable weather and the want of food, 
he returned to the Indian village of Seneca by way of Cane 
Creek, descended along the Savannah to Augusta, and arrived at 
Charleston on the first of July. His notes, in this as well as 
subsequent journeys to the mountains, often contain remarks 
upon the more interesting plants he discovered; and in some 
cases their localities are so carefully specified, that they might 
still be sought with confidence. On the 16th of July he em- 
barked for Philadelphia, which he reached on the 27th; and, 
after visiting Mr. Bartram, travelled to New York, arriving at the 
garden he had established in New Jersey about the first of Au- 
gust. Returning by water to Charleston the same month, he 
remained in that vicinity until February, 1788, when he em- 
barked for St. Augustine, and was busily occupied, during this 
spring, in exploring East Florida. His journal mentions several 
sub-tropical plants, now well known to be indigeflous to Florida, 
but which are not noticed in his Flora; such as the Mangrove, 
Guilandina Bonduc, Sophora occidentalis, two or three Ferns, 
and especially the orange.* Leaving Florida at the beginning 
of June, he returned by land to Savannah and Charleston, where 
he was confined by sickness the remainder of the summer. Late 
in the autumn, however, he made a second excursion to the 
sources of the Savannah, chiefly to obtain the roots and seeds of 
the remarkable plants he had.previously discovered. He pursued 
the same route as before, except that he ascended the Tugaloo, 
instead of the Seneca or Keowee River, crossing over to the-lat- 
ter; and, climbing the higher mountains about its sources in the 
inclement month of December, when they were mostly covered 
with snow, he at length found some trees of Magnolia cordata, 
to obtain which was the principal object of this arduous journey. 


fortune which, it appears from Michaux’s remarks, was of no uncommon occur- 
rence in those days; and they were obliged to pursue their journey to that place 
on foot. On the way, he discovered ‘a shrubby Rumex,’ which he terms Lapa- 
thum occidentale; doubtless the Polygonella parvifolia of his Flora, and also the 
Polygonum polygamum of Ventenat. . 
* «Les bois etoient remplis d’oranges aigres,”’ etc. Michaux, Mss.—See also 
Bartram’s Travels ; and Torr, §& Gray, Flor. of North America, I, p. 222. 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 5 


Retracing his steps, he reached Charleston at the end of Decem- 
ber, with a large collection of living trees, roots, and seeds. The 
remainder of the winter Michaux passed in the Bahama Islands, 
returning to Charleston in the month of May. TEarly in June he 
set out upon a journey to a different portion of the mountains of 
North Carolina, by way of Camden, Charlotte, (the county seat 
of Mecklenburg, ) and Morganton, reaching the higher mountains 
at “ Turkey Cove, thirty miles from Burke Court House,” (prob- 
ably the head of Turkey Creek, a tributary of the Catawba,) on 
the 15th of June. From this place he made an excursion to the 
Black Mountain, in what is now Yancey County, and afterwards 
to the Yellow Mountain, which Michaux at that time considered 
to be the highest mountain in the United States. If the Roan be 
included in the latter appellation, as I believe it often has been, 
this opinion is not far from the truth; since the Black Mountain 
alone exceeds it, according to Prof. Mitchell’s recent measure- 
ments. Descending this elevated range on the Tennessee side, 
and travelling for the most part through an unbroken wilderness, 
near the end of June he reached the Block House on the Hol- 
ston, famous in the annals of border warfare. Several persons 
had been killed by the Indians during the preceding week, and 
general alarm prevailing, Michaux abandoned his intention of 
penetrating into Kentucky, and resolved to botanize for a time 
in the mountains of Virginia. He accordingly entered that State, 
and arrived on the first of July at ‘‘ Washington Court House, 
premiere ville dans la Virginie que l’on trouve sur la cote occi- 
dentales des montagnes, en sortant de la Carolinie Septentrio- 
nale.” 'To this he adds the following note: ‘ Premiere ville, 
si ’on peut nommer ville une Bourgade composée de douze mai- 
sons, (log-houses.) Dans cette ville on ne mange que des pain 
de Mays. Il n’y a viande fraiche, ni cidre, mais seulement du 
mauvais Rum.” Abingdon, the county seat of Washington 
County, is now a flourishing town ; but Michaux’s remarks are 
still applicable to more than one premiere ville in this region. 
Irom this place he continued his course along the valley of Vir- 
ginia throughout its whole extent, crossing New River, the Roa- 
noke, and passing by Natural Bridge, Lexington, Staunton, and 
Winchester; thence by way of Frederick in Maryland, and Lan- 
caster, Pennsylvania, he arrived at Philadelphia on the 21st of 
July, and at New York on the 30th. In August and September 


6 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


he returned to Charleston by way of Baltimore, Alexandria, Rich- 
mond, and Wilmington, North Carolina. In November, he re- 
visited the mountains explored early in the preceding summer, 
passing throngh Charlotte, Lincolnton, and Morganton, to his 
former head-quarters at Turkey Cove ; from whence he visited. 
the north branch of Catawba, [North Cove, between Linville 
Mountain and the Blue Ridge ?] the Black Mountain, Toe River, 
&c.; and returned to Charleston in. December, with two thou- 
sand five hundred young trees, shrubs, and other plants. From 
January until April, 1791, this indefatigable botanist remained in 
the vicinity of Charleston ; but his memoranda for the remainder 
of that year are unfortunately wanting. The earliest succeeding 
date I have been able to find, is March 27th, 1792, when he sold 
the ‘Jardin du Rov’ at Charleston, and going shortly afterwards 
by water to Philadelphia, he botanized in New Jersey and around 
New York until the close of May. In the beginning of June, he 
visited Milford, Connecticut, to procure information from a Mr. 
Peter Pound, who had travelled far in the northwest; and at 
New Haven took passage in a sloop for Albany, where he arrived 
on the 14th of June, (having botanized on the way at West 
Point, Poughkeepsie, &c. ;) on the 18th, he was at Saratoga; on 
the 20th, he embarked at Skenesborough, (Whitehall,) botanized 
more or less on both shores of Lake Champlain, reaching Mon- 
treal on the 30th of June, and Quebec on the 16th of July.* 
The remainder of this season was devoted to an examination of 
the region between Quebec and Hudson’s Bay; the botany of 
which, as is well known, he was the first to investigate. His 
journal comprises a full and very interesting account of the phys- 
ical geography and vegetation of that inclement district. 

Leaving Quebec in October, and returning by the same route, 
we find our persevering traveller at Philadelphia early in Decem- 
ber. It appears that he now meditated a most formidable jour- 
ney, and made the following proposition to the American Phi- 
losophical Society :—“ Proposé a plusieurs membres de la So- 
ciété Philosophique les avantages pour les Etats-Unis. d’avoir 


* Among the plants collected in this journey, he particularly mentions having 
found Aconitum uncinatum near Quebec; but in the Flora no other locality is 
given than the high mountains of North Carolina. Major LeConte found it sev- 
eral years ago in the southwestern part of New York, and Mr. Lapham has re- 
cently detected it in Wisconsin. 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 7 


des informations geographiques des pays a l’ouest de Mississippi, 
et demandé qu’ils alent a endosser mes traites pour la somme de 
£3600, si je suis disposé a voyager aux sources du Missouri, et 
méme rechercher les rivieres qui coulent vers Vocean Pacifique. 
Ma proposition ayant été accepté, j’ai donné a Mr. Jefferson, Sec- 
retaire d’Etat, les conditions auxquels je suis disposé a entrepren- 
dre ce voyage. .... Joffre de communiquer toutes les connoi- 
sances et informations geographiques a la Société Philosophique ; 
et je reserve a mon profit toutes les connoisances en histoire nat- 
urelle que j’acquirerai dans ce voyage.” Remaining at Philadel- 
phia and its vicinity until the following summer, he set out for 
Kentucky in July, 1793, with the object of exploring the Western 
States, (which no botanist had yet visited,) and also of conferring 
with Gen. Clarke, (at Mr. Jefferson’s request, ) on the subject of 
his contemplated journey to the Rocky Mountains, &c.. He 
crossed the Alleghanies in Pennsylvania, descended the Ohio to 
Louisville, Kentucky, traversed that State and Western Virginia 
to Abingdon, and again travelled through the Valley of Virginia 
to Winchester, Harper’s Ferry, &c., arriving at Philadelphia on 
the 12th of December of the same year. Conferences respecting 
his projected expedition were now renewed, in which Mr. Genet, 
the envoy from the French republic, took a prominent part ; but 
here the matter seems to have dropped, since no further refer- 
ence is made to the subject in the journal; and Michaux. left 
Philadelphia in February, 1794, on another tour to the Southern 
States. In July of that year, he again visited the mountains of 
North Carolina, travelling from Charleston to Turkey Cove by 
his usual route. On this occasion he ascended- the Linville 
Mountain, and the other mountains in the neighborhood; but 
having “differé a cause du manque des provisions,” he left his 
old quarters, (at Ainsworth’s,) crossed the Blue Ridge, and estab- 
lished himself at Crab Orchard on 'Toe River. From this place 
he revisited the Black Mountain, and, accompanied by his new 
guide, Davenport, explored the Yellow Mountain, the Roan, and 
finally the Grandfather, the summit of which he attained on 
the 30th of August.* Returning to the house of -his guide, he 


* Mis earlier journals are full of expressions of loyalty to the king under whose 
patronage his travels were undertaken ; but now transformed into a republican: 
“ Montée au sommet dela plus haute montagne de toute l’Amerique Septentrionale, 
chanté avec mon compagnon-guide Vhymne de Marseillois, et crié, Vive la Liberté et 


8 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


visited Table Mountain on the 5th of September, and proceeded, 
(by way of Morganton, Lincolnton, Salisbury, and Fayetteville, 
North Carolina,) to Charleston, where he passed the winter. © 
On the 19th day of April, 1795, our indefatigable traveller 
again set out, reached the Santee River at Nelson’s: Ferry, as- 
-cended the Wateree, or Catawba, to Flat-Rock Creek, visited Plat 
Rock,* crossed Hanging-Rock Creek, and ascended the Little Ca- 
tawba to Lincolnton. In the early part of May he revisited Lin- 
ville Mountain, the Yellow Mountain, the Roan, and some 
others, and then descended Doe River and the Holston to Knox- 
ville, Tennessee. 'Thence, crossing the Cumberland Mountains, 
and a wilderness one hundred and twenty miles in extent, he 
arrived at Nashville on the 16th of June, at Danville, Kentucky, 
on the 27th, and at Louisville on the 20th of July. In August 
he ascended the Wabash to Vincennes, crossed the country to the 
Illinois River, and devoted the months of September, October, 
and November, to diligent herborizations along the course of that 
river, the Mississippi, the lower part of the Ohio, and throughout 
the country included by these rivers. In December, he descended 
the Mississippi in a small boat to the mouth of the Ohio, and as- 
cended the latter and the Cumberland to Clarksville, which he 
reached on the 10th of January, 1796, after a perilous voyage in 
the most inclement weather. Leaving that place on the 16th, 
he arrived at Nashville on the 19th of January ; and after making 
a journey to Louisville and back again, he started for Carolina at 


la Republique Francaise.” If this enthusiasm were called forth by mere elevation, 
he should have chanted his pans on the Black Mountain and the Roan, both of 
which are higher than the Grandfather. 

* I believe this is the only instance in which the name of Flat Rock occurs in 
Michaux’s journal; it is in South Carolina, not far from Camden. Here, without 
doubt, he discovered Sedum pusillum, (Diamorpha, Nutt.) the habitat of which is 
said to be ‘in Carolina Septentrionali, loco dicto Flat Rock.” Mr. Nuttall, who 
subsequently collected the plant at the same locality, inadvertently continued this 
mistake, by assigning the habitat, “ Flat Rock near Camden, JYorth Carolina,’ as 
wel! in his Genera of N. American plants, as in a letter to Dr. Short on this sub- 
ject. (Vide, Short on Western Botany, in the Transylvania Journal of Medicine, 
and in Hooker’s Jcurnal of Botany, for Nov. 1840, p. 103.) Hence some confusion 
has arisen respecting the locality of this interesting plant, since there is botha 
Flat Rock, and a village named Camden in North Carolina, although the two are 
widely separated. After all, Pursh’s habitat, “on flat rocks in North Carolina, 
and elsewhere,” proves sufficiently correct, since Mr. Nuttall himself, and also 
Mr. Curtis, and others, have subsequently obtained it in such situations near Salis- 
bury in that state, and Dr. Leavenworth found it abundantly throughout the upper 
distriet of Georgia. , 


Sey 


~ 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 9 


the close of February, crossed the Cumberland Mountains early 
in March, reached Knoxville on the 8th, Greenville on the 18th, 
Jonesborough on the 19th, and on the 22nd, crossed the Iron 
Mountains into North Carolina, descended Cane Creek [which 
rises in the Roan,] and spent several days in exploring the moun- 
tains in the vicinity, with his former guide, Davenport. In 
April he returned to Charleston by his usual route; and on the 
13th of August embarked for Amsterdam in the ship Ophir. This 
vessel was wrecked on the coast of Holland, on the 10th of Oc- 
tober, and Michaux lost a part of the collections he had with 
him: on the 23rd of December, 1796, he arrived at Paris with 
the portion he had saved. ‘This notice of the travels of Michaux 
on this continent, will suffice to show with what untiring zeal 
and assiduity his laborious researches were prosecuted ; it should 
however be remarked, that greater facilities were afforded him, 
in some important respects, than any subsequent botanist has en- 
joyed; the expenses of his journey having been entirely defrayed 
by the French government, under whose auspices and direction 
they were undertaken. 

The name of Fraser, so familiar in the annals of North Amer- 
ican botany, ought, perhaps, to have preceded that of Michaux in 
our brief sketch; since the elder Mr. Fraser, who had visited 
Newfoundland previous to the year 1784, commenced his re- 
searches in the Southern States as early as 1785; and Michaux, 
on his first expedition to the mountains in 1787, speaks of hav- 
ing travelled in his company for several days. We believe, how- 
ever, that he did not explore the Alleghany Mountains until 1789. 
Under the patronage of the Russian government, he returned to 
this country in 1799, accompanied by his eldest son, and revisit- 
ed the mountains, ascending the beautiful Roan, where, ‘on 
a spot which commands a view of five States, namely, Kentucky, 
Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina and South Carolina, the eye 
ranging to a distance of seventy or eighty miles when the air is 
clear, it was Mr. Fraser’s good fortune to discover and collect 
living specimens of the new and splendid Rhododendron Cataw- 
biense, from which so many beautiful hybrid varieties have since 
been obtained by skillful cultivators.”* The father and son re- 


if Biographical Sketch of Joun Fraser, the Botanical Collector, in Hooker's Com- 
panion to the Botanical Magazine, 2, p. 300; an article from which I have derived 
nearly all the information I possess respecting the researches of the Frasers in this 
Vol. xu, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec, 1841. 2 


10 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


visited the Southern States in 1807; and the latter, after the de- 
cease of the father in 1811, returned to this country, and contin- 
ued his indefatigable researches until 1817. : 

- Many of the rarest plants of these mountains were made eens 
especially to English gardens and collections, by Mr. Joun Lyon, 
whose indefatigable researches are highly spoken of ‘by Pursh, 
Nuttall and Elliott. It is very probable that he had visited the 
mountains previous to his assuming the charge of Mr. Hamilton’s 
collections near Philadelphia, which he resigned to Pursh in 1802. 
Ata later period, however, he assiduously explored this region, 
from Georgia as far north at least as the Grandfather Mountain ; 
and died at Asheville, in Buncombe Co., North Carolina, some- 
time between 1814 and 1818. 1am informed by my friend, the 
Rev. Mr. Curtis, that his journals and a portion of his herbarium 
were preserved at Asheville for many years, and that it is proba- 
ble they may yet be found. 

Micuavx the younger, author of the Sylva Americana, who 
accompanied his father in some of his earlier journeys, returned 
to this country in 1801, and crossed the Alleghany Mountains 
twice; first in Pennsylvania on his way to the Western States, 
and the next year in North Carolina, on his return to the sea-board. 
In crossing from Jonesboro’, ‘Tennessee, to Morganton, by way of 
Toe River, (not Doe River, as stated in his Travels, ) he accident- 
ally stopped at the house of Davenport, his father’s guide in these 
mountains. The observations of the younger Michaux on this 
part of the Alleghany Mountains, in achapter of his Travels de- 
voted to that subject, are mainly accurate. 

‘In the beginning of 1805,” Pursu, as he states in the pre- 
face to his Flora, ‘‘ set out for the mountains and western territo- 
ries of the Southern States, beginning at Maryland and extending 
to the Carolinas, (in which tract the interesting high mountains 
of Virginia and Carolina took my particular attention,) and re- 
turning late in the autumn through the lower countries along the 
sea-coast to Philadelphia.” This plan, however, was not fully 
carried out, since he does not appear to have crossed the Alle- 
chanies into the great Western Valley, nor to have botanized 
along these mountains farther south than where the New River 


country, and to which the reader is referred for more particular information. A 
full list of the North American plants introduced into England by the father and 
son, 18 appended to that account. 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 11 


crosses the Valley of Virginia. At any rate, it is certain that the 
original tickets of his specimens in the herbarium of the late Prof. 
Barton, under whose patronage he travelled, as well as those in 
Mr. Lambert’s herbarium, furnish no evidence that he extended 
his researches into the mountainous portion of North Carolina; 
but it appears probable (from some labels marked Halifax or 
Mecklenburg, Virginia, ) that he followed the course of the Roa- 
noke into the former State. His most interesting collections were 
made at Harper’s Ferry, Natural Bridge, the Peaked Mountains, 
(which separate the two principal branches of the Shenandoah, ) 
the Peaks of Otter, in the Blue Ridge; also, Cove Mountain, 
Salt-Pond Mountain, and Parnell’s Knob, (with the situation of 
which I am unacquainted,) the region around the Warm Sul- 
phur Springs, Capon Springs, the Sweet Springs, and the 
mountains of Monroe and Greenbrier Counties. 

Early 1a the present century, Mr. Kin, a German nurseryman 
and collector, resident at Philadelphia, travelled somewhat ex- 
tensively among the Alleghany Mountains, chiefly for the pur- 
pose of obtaining living plants and seeds. He also collected 
many interesting specimens, which may be found in the herbaria 
of Muhlenberg and Willdenow, where his tickets may be recog- 
nized by the orthography, and the amusing mixture of bad Eng- 
lish and German, (with occasionally some very singular Latin,) 
in which his observations are written. 

In the winter of 1816, Mr. Nurratx crossed the mountains of 
North Carolina from the west, ascending the French Broad River 
(along the banks of which he obtained his Philadelphus hirsutus, 
éc.) to Asheville, passing the Blue Ridge, and exploring the 
Table Mountain, where he discovered Hudsonia montana, &c., 
and collected many other rare and interesting plants.* 

As early as 1817, the mountains at the sources of the Saluda 
River were visited by the late Dr. Macsrive, the friend and cor- 
respondent of Elliott; who, in the preface to the second volume 
of his Sketch, renders an affecting and most deserved tribute to 


* The spur of the Blue Ridge from which the picturesque Table Mountain rises 
like a tower, is called by Mr. Nuttall, the Catawba Ridge. 1 am informed, how- 
ever, by my friend Mr. Curtis, who is intimately acquainted with this interesting 
region, that it is not known by that name, but is called the Table Mountain Ridge. 
Its base is not washed by the Catawba River, but by its tributary the Linville. 


12 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


his memory, and acknowledges the important services bina he 
had rendered to that work during its progress. sates 

The name of Rarrtnesque should also be mentioned in wibes con- 
nexion; since that botanist crossed the Alleghanies four or five 
times between 1818 and 1833, (in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and 
the north of Virginia,) and also explored the Cyne sigteecs 
tains. ' 

A few years since, the Peaks of Otter, in Virginia, were visi- 
ted by Mr. S. B. Bucxtey; and still more recently the same bot- 
anist has explored the wilco tic in the upper part of Alabama 
and Georgia, and the adjacent borders of North Carolina. Among 
the interesting contributions which the authors of the Flora of 
North America have received from this source, 1 may here men- 
tion the Coreopsis latifolia of Michaux, which had not been 
found by any subsequent botanist, until it was observed by Mr. 
Buckley in the autumn of 1840. 

No living botanist, however, is so well acquainted with the 
vegetation of the southern Alleghany Mountains, or has explored 
those of North Carolina so extensively, as the Rev. Mr. M. A. 
Curtis; who, when resident for a short time in their vicinity, 
visited as opportunity occurred, the Table Mountain, Grandfather, 
the Yellow Mountain, the Roan, the Black Mountain, &c., and 
subsequently (although prevented by infirm health from making 
large collections) extended his researches through the counties of 
Haywood, Macon, and Cherokee, which form the narrow south- . 
western extremity of North Carolina. To him we are indebted 
for local information which greatly facilitated our recent journey, 
and, indeed, for a complete itinerarium of the region south of Ashe 
County. But, as the latter county had not been visited by Mr. 
Curtis, nor so far as we are aware by any other botanist, and be- 
ing from its situation the most accessible to a traveller from the 
north, we determined to devote to its examination the principal 
part of the time allotted to our own excursion. 

Intending to reach this remote region by way of the Valley of 
Virginia, we left New York on the evening of the 22d of June, 
and travelling by rail-road, reached Winchester, a distance of 
three hundred miles, before sunset of the following day. At 
Harper’s Ferry, where the Potomac, joined by the Shenandoah, 
forces its way through the Blue Ridge, in the midst of some of 
the most picturesque scenery in the United States, we merely 


Botanical E'zcursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 13 


stopped to dine, and were therefore disappointed in our hope of 
collecting Sedum telephioides, S. pulchellum, Paronychia dicho- 
toma, and Draba ramosissima, all of which grow here upon the 
rocks. We observed the first in passing, but it was not yet in 
flower. On the rocky banks of the Potomac below Harper’s 
Ferry, we saw for the first time the common Locust-tree (Robi- 
nia Pseudacacia) decidedly indigenous. It probably extends to 
the southern confines of Pennsylvania; and from this point south 
it-is every where abundant, but we did not meet with it east of 
the Blue Ridge. From Winchester, the shire-town of Frederick 
County, we proceeded by stage-coach directly up the Valley of 
Virginia, as that portion of the State is called which lies between 
the unbroken Blue Ridge and the most easterly ranges of the 
Alleghanies. From the Potomac to the sources of the Shenan- 
doah, it is strictly speaking a valley, from twenty to thirty miles 
in width, with a strong, chiefly limestone soil of great fertility. 
It is scarcely interrupted, indeed, up to where the Roanoke rises ; 
but a branch of the Alleghanies intervenes between the latter 
and New River, as the upper part of the Great Kenhawa is term- 
ed, from which point it loses its character in some degree, and is 
exclusively traversed by the western waters. 'The same valley 
extends to the north and east through Maryland and Pennsylva- 
nia, and even into the state of New York, preserving throughout 
the same geological character and fertile soil. Our first day’s ride 
was to Harrisonburg, in Rockingham County, a distance of sixty 
nine miles from Winchester. From the moment we entered the 
valley, we observed such immense quantities of Echium vulgare, 
that we were no longer surprised at the doubt expressed by Pursh 
whether it were really an introduced plant. This “vile foreign 
weed,” as Dr. Darlington, agriculturally speaking, terms this sho wy 
plant, is occasionally seen along the road-side in the Northern 
States; but here, for the distance of more than a hundred miles, 
it has taken complete possession, even of many cultivated fields, 
especially where the limestone approaches the surface, presenting 
a broad expanse of brilliant blue. It is surprising that the farm- 
ers should allow a biennial like this so completely to overrun the 
land.. Another plant much more extensively introduced here 
than in the north, (where it scarcely deserves the name of a nat- 
uralized species,) is Bupleurum rotundifoltum, which in the 
course of the day we met with abundantly. The Marubium 


14 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


vulgare is every where naturalized; and H'uphorbia Lathyris 
must also be added to the list of naturalized plants. The little 
Verbena angustifolia is alsoa common weed. We collected but 
a single indigenous plant of any interest, and one which we by 
no means expected to find, viz. Carer stenolepis of 'Torrey,* 
which here, as in the Western States, to which we supposed it 
confined, takes the place of the northern C. retrorsa. We search- 
ed for its constant companion, C. Shortii, and the next day we 
found the two growing together. During the day’s ride, we ob- 
served that the bearded wheat was almost exclusively cultivated, 
and were informed that it had been found less subject to the rav- 
ages of the “Fly,” than the ordinary varieties; which may be 
owing to the recent introduction of the seed of the bearded vari- 
ety from districts unmolested by this insect. 

The following day we travelled only sixteen miles on our roufe, 
but from Mount Sidney made an interesting excursion on foot to 
Weyer’s Cave, one of the largest, and certainly the most remark- 
able grotto in the United States. It has been so often described 
as to render any account on our part superfluous. Near the cave 
we saw. some trees of Tilia hetorophylla, Vent. ('T. alba, Michz. 
f. sylv. ?) and collected a few specimens with unopened flower- 
buds. It appears to be the most abundant species along the moun- 
tains. : 

Our ride next day offered nothing of interest. Near Staunton, 
we saw some patches of Delphinium Consolida, where it was 


*Tt is the C. Frankit of Kunth (1837,) and of Kunze’s Supplement to 
Schkuhr’s Caricography, where it is well figured: it was distributed among Dr. 
Frank’s plants under the name of C. atherodes, and with the locality of Baltzmore 
in Pennsylvania! 1 had always supposed it to be derived from some part of the 
Western States ; but since it abounds in the Valley of Virginia, it may have been 
collected near Baltimore, Maryland! By the way, we hope the excellent collec- 
tions distributed from time to time by the Unio Itineraria are in general, more 
correctly ticketed than poor Frank’s small collection from the United States. Not 
to venture beyond the Carices, we may remark that the plant distributed under the 
name of C. blanda is C. Careyana, Dewey; their C. plantaginea is C. anceps, and 
their C. Vleckii is a variety of the same; their C. tribuloides, Wahl., a variety of 
C. festucaceu ; their C. depauperata var, Americana (C. Hitchcockiana of Dewey) 
is alarge form of C. oligocarpa, Schk. (the true C. oligocarpa of Schkukr, but 
not of other authors, being a small state of Prof. Dewey’s C. Hitchcockiana ;) and 
that the C. Ohiotica, (formosa, Dewey ?) Hochst., is C. Shortit. This last, we may 
add, is the C. formosa of Kunth’s Cyperographia, which will account for the dis- 
crepancy between his description and that of Dewey’s C. formosa. ‘The C. juncea 
of Willdenow and of Kunth is, I am confident, only C. brachystachys, and not of 
American origin. 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 15 


pretty thoroughly naturalized in the time of Pursh. We did not 
observe Spirea lobata, which Michaux first met with in this vi- 
cinity, and which Pursh, as well as later botanists, found in vari- 
ous parts of the valley. Passing the town of Lexington in the 
evening, we arrived at the Natural Bridge towards morning, 
where we remained until Monday, and had an opportunity of 
botanizing for a short time before we left. On the rocks, we 
found plenty of Asplenium Ruta-muraria, Sedum ternatum, 
and Draba ramosissima with ripe fruit: in the bottom of the 
ravine, directly under the stupendous natural arch, (the point 
which affords the most impressive view of this vast chasm,) we 
collected specimens of Heuchera villosa, Michz., in fine flower 
on the 28th of June; although, in the higher mountains of North 
Carolina, where it also abounds, the flowers did not appear until 
near the end of July. This species is excellently described by 
Michaux, to whose account it is only necessary to add, that the 
petals are very narrow, appearing like sterile filaments. Although 
a smaller plant than HT. Americana, the leaves are larger, and 
vary considerably in the depths of the lobes. It is both the A. 
villosa and H. caulescens of Pursh, who probably derived the 
latter name from the strong elongated rhizoma, often projecting 
and appearing like a suflrutescent stem, by which the plant is 
attached to the rocks; since he does not describe the scape as 
leafy, nor is this at all the case in the original specimens. The 
HZ. caulescens «. of Torrey and Gray’s Flora,* with the syno- 
nym, must also be united with HZ. villesa, which in that work is 
chiefly described from specimens collected by Dr. Short in Ken- 
tucky, where every thing seems to grow with extraordinary lux- 


*'The specimen from Mr. Curtis, the only one from the mountains of North 
Carolina which these authors had before them, and which they correctly enough 
considered as the H. caulescens of Pursh, is in too advanced a state, and:had lost 
from age most of the shaggy rusty hairs which so copiously clothe the petioles and 
lower part of the scape; and the leaves being smaller and more sharply lobed, it 
was not recognized as the same species with the luxuriant Kentucky plant; but 
was partly confounded with a different and larger-flowered species, the H. cau- 
lescens 8. Torr. & Gray, 1. c. from Buncombe county. The latter (A. Currism, 
Torr. & Gray, ined.) has flowers quite as large of those of H. Americana, spat- 
ulate-lanceolate petals (apparently purple) which scarcely exceed the lobes of the 
calyx ; and the filaments, which are less exserted than the styles, are pubescent un- 
der alens. The aid of its discoverer, however, is needed to complete the character 
of this species, the radical leaves being imperfect in our solitary specimen, and the 
cauline pair which it presents may very probably not be of usual occurrence. 


16 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


uriance. With these, the plant we collected entirely accords, 
except that the leaves are mostly smaller, and more deeply lobed ; 
but this character is not constant.* Soon after leaving Natural 
Bridge, we observed indigenous trees of the Honey Locust, 
( Gleditschia triacanthos, ) also Aisculus Pavia? and, in crossing 
valley of James River, we noticed the Papaw (Uvaria triloba,) 
and Negundo. The road-side was almost everywhere occupied 
with Verbesina Sitegesbeckia, not yet in flower; and in many 
places with Melissa (Calamintha) Nepeta, which Mr. Bentham 
has not noticed as an American plant, although Pursh has it asa 
native of the country. It was, however, doubtless introduced 
from Europe, but is completely naturalized in the Valley of Vir- 
ginia, in Tennessee, and in North Carolina east of the. Blue 
Ridge. 

On Tuesday, the 29th of June, we crossed the New sane 
arrived at Wytheville, or Wythe Court House, towards evening ; 
and at Marion, or Smythe Court House, on the Middle Fork of 
the Holston, early the next morning. The vegetation of this 
elevated region is almost entirely similar to that of the Northern 
States. The only herbaceous plants we noticed, as we passed 
rapidly along, which we had not seen growing before, were Ga- 
lax aphylla, and Silene Virginica: the showy deep red flowers 
of the latter, no less than the different habitus, caused us to won- 
der how it could ever have been confounded with the Northern 
S. Pennsylvanica. The only forest-tree with which we were 
not previously familiar, was the large Buckeye, (4sculus flava,) 
which abounds in this region, and attains the height of sixty to 
ninety feet, and the diameter of two to three feet or more at the 
base. 

At Marion, we determined to leave the valley road, and to 
cross the mountains into Ashe county, North Carolina; the niorn- 
ing was occupied in seeking a conveyance for this purpose. 
With considerable difficulty we at length procured a carry-all, 


* Much to our disappointment we did not meet with Heuchera hispida, although 
I have since learned from an inspection of Barton’s herbarium, that we passed 
within a moderate distance of the place where Pursh discovered it. The habitat 
given on the original ticket, ‘‘ High Mountains between Fincastle and the Sweet 
Springs, and soine other similar places,” we here cite, with the hope that it may 
guide some botanist to its re-discovery. ‘The habitat in Pursh’s Flora, “ High 
mountains of Virginia and sci e is probably a mere guess, so far as relates to 
the latter State. 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 17 


(a light covered wagon. with springs, drawn by a single horse, ) 
capable of conveying our luggage and a single person besides the 
driver, a simple shoemaker who had never before undertaken so. 
formidable a journey, and who accordingly proved entirely want- 
ing in the skill and tact necessary for conducting so frail a vehi- 
cle over such difficult mountain tracks, for roads they can scarcely 
be called. We had first to ascend the steep ridge interposed be- 
tween the Middle and the South Forks of the Holston, called 
Brushy Mountain, during the ascent of which we commenced 
botanizing in earnest. The first interesting plant we met with 
was Sazifraga erosa of Pursh, but only with ripe fruit, and even 
with the seeds for the most part fallen from the capsules. The 
same locality also furnished us with a few specimens of the pretty 
Thalictrum filipes, Torr. & Gr. (to which the name of 7 
clavatum, DC. must be restored,) a plant which abounds along. 
all the cold and. clear brooks throughout the mountains of North 
Carolina; where it could not well have escaped the notice of Mi- 
chaux, in whose herbarium DeCandolle found the specimen (with 
no indication of its habitat) on which his 7. clavatum was es- 
tablished. The authors of the Flora of North America, having 
only an imperfect fruiting specimen of their 7. filipes, and not 
sufficiently remarking the discrepancies between the 7° clava- 
tum, Hook. fl. Bor-Am. and the figure and description of De 
Candolle’s plant, in regard to the length of the styles, assumed the 
former to be the true 7’. clavatwm, and described their own plant 
as a new species. But our specimens accord so perfectly with 
the figure of DeLessert, (except in the greater, but variable length 
of the stipes to the fruit, and in the veining of the carpels, which, 
doubtless by an oversight of the artist, is omitted in the figure, ) 
as to leave no doubt of their identity. The subarctic plant may 
be appropriately called 7. Richardsoxit, in honor of its discov- 
erer; and some few particulars should be added to DeCandolle’s 
character of our own plant.* The flowers of this species are 


* Tuaticrrum cLavatum (DC.): glaberrimum, doribus hermaphroditis laxe 
corymbosis, filamentis clavatis, antheris ellipticis muticis, carpellis (5—10) stipita- 
tis stellatim patentibus clavato-lunulatis compressis leviter nervosis stylo brevissi- 
mo Vix rostellatis, caule gracili inferne nudo, foliis biternatis petiolatis, foliolis ro- 
tundis crenato-incisis lobatisve subtus glaucis.—T. clavatum, DC. syst. 1. p. 171; 
DeLess. ic. 1. t,6,non Hook. '. filipes, Torr. & Gray, fl. N. Am. 1. p. 38. 

Hab. ad fontes umbrosos rivulosque montium Virginie (comitatu Grayson) et 
Caroline Septentrionalis frequens. 

Vol. xn1r, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec, 1841. 3 


18 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


uniformly perfect, as indeed they are figured by DeLessert, al- 
though DeCandolle has otherwise described them. It isa slender, 
delicate plant, from eight to twelve, or rarely exceeding eighteen 
inches in height, with pure white flowers. During this ascent 
we collected Gakwm latifolium, Michz., just coming into flower ; 
and we subsequently found this species so widely diffused 
throughout the mountains of North Carolina, that we were much 
surprised at its remaining so little known since the time of Mi- 
chaux. On a moist rocky bank by the road-side, we gathered 
some specimens of a Scutellaria, which did not again occur to 
us. It proves to be a species mentioned by Mr. Bentham under 
S. serrata, and subsequently described by Dr. Riddell with the 
name of S. savatilis;* which apparently is not of uncommon oc- 
currence westward of the Alleghany Mountains. It is a slender 
plant, from six to twenty inches high; and the stems often pro- 
duce slender subterranean runners from their base. We here 
also collected Asarum Virginicum, Linn. in similar situations. 
In the higher mountains, the northern A. Canadense takes the 
place of the former species, while A. arifolium, Miche. seems to 
be confined to the lower country.| The banks of the shady 


* S. saxatinis (Reddell, suppl. cat. Ohio plants, 1836, p. 14): pilosiuscula 
vel subglabra, caule adscendente, foliis petiolatis membranaceis cordato-ovatis grosse 
crenatis superioribus cordato-oblongis obtusis, floralibus ovato-oblongis breviter pe- 
tiolatis integerrimis pedicellos plerumque superantibus, racemis laxis, floribus op- 
positis subsecundis, corolla breviter bilabiata, galea rectiuscula. 

Ab S. serrata diversa tam floribus quam foliis: ad S. violaceam (Ind. Orient.) 
accedere videtur, ut dixit cl. Benth. (Lab. gen. et sp. p. 434, adnot. sub S. serrata.) 
Corolla eOmiipollicaria, Jabio inferiore tubo superne Prieto triplo breviore, 
galea vix incurva. Achenia valde tuberculosa. 


t-If Decaisne’s Heterotropa be retained as a distinct genus, which it probably 
should be, the character must be somewhat modified, and two. of our American 
species foeend toit; although the name will be unmeaning as applied to the latter. 
According to this view, the differential characters of the two genera may be pre- 
sented as follows: 


ASARUM. = Tourn., Linn. excl. spec. 


Perigonium campanulatum, tubo cum ovario connato, limbo tripartito. Stamina 
12: filamenta subulata, libera, vel basi styli subadnata: anthere breves, extror Se, 
connectivo longe subulato superate. Ovarium perigonio adnatum : styli in colum- 
nam crassam ies breviter 6-lobam concreti, stigmatibus papillosis desinentes. 
(Herbe Europez et Boreali-Americanz.) 


1. A. Evrorxum (Linn.) : filamentis liberis stylum zquantibus, 


2. A. Canavense (Linn.) : filamentis imis styli basi adnatis eoque brevioribus. 
—Quid est 4: Canadense, Thunbergii? ° 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 19 


and cool rivulets which we crossed every few minutes during our 
ascent, were in many places covered by the prostrate or creeping 
Hedyotis. serpyllifolia, Torr. § Gr. (Houstonia serpylilifolia, 
Michz.,) which continues to flower sparingly throughout the sum- 
mer. This pretty plant has quite the habit of Arenaria Balea- 
rica; and the root is certainly perennial. We found it very 
abundant in similar situations, throughout this mountain region. 
Towards the summit of thisridge, we first met with the Magno- 
lia Frrasert, (M. auriculata, Bartr.,) which resembles the Umbrel- 
la-tree (Magnolia Umbrella,) in the disposition of its leaves at 
the extremity of the branches. This, as well as M. acumi- 
nata (the only other species of Magnolia that we observed,) 
is occasionally termed Cucumber-tree ; but the people of the 
country almost uniformly called the former Wahoo; a name 
which in the lower part of the Southern States is applied to 


HETEROTROPA. (Morr. et Decaisne.) 


Perigonium ventricosum, trilobatum, fere liberum. Stamina 12: filamenta bre- 
vissima vel subnulla, dilatata, ovario accreta: anthere (loculi lineares) extrorse, 
quandoque alterne subintrorse ; connectivum muticum, vel appendice brevi auctum. 
Ovarium basi imo perigonii tubo adnatum: styli 6, discreti, in appendicem bilo- 
bum ultra stigmata extrorsa plus minus producti. (Herbe Japonice et Boreali- 
Americane. Folia sepius variegata.) sa 

§ 1. Perigonium urceolatum, fauce constricta. Stamina 6 stigmatibus opposita 
filamentis triangularibus, antheris subintrorsis ; 6 alterna sessilia, antherts extror- 
sis.—Hetxurotropa, Morr. § Decaisne, in ann, set. nat. (n. ser.) 2. p. 314. t. 10. 

1. H. asarorwexs (Morr. & Decaisne, I. c.): perigonii lobis late ovatis subcor- 
datis patulis, staminibus 6 ad stigmata respondentibus appendiculo brevissimo re- 
flexo, alternis ‘ appendiculo ovato erecto ovario affixo,’ stylis obcordatis.—Asarum 
Virginicum, Thunb. fl. Jap. p. 190. 


§ 2. Perigonium breviter trilobatum, fauce aperta. Stamina consimilia, fila- 
mentis brevissimis : anthere omnes extrorse.—HomoTRoPa. 

2. H. arrroLra: perigonio tubuloso-urceolato limbo brevissimo, antheris appen- 
diculo brevi crasso superatis, alternis eodemque stigmatibus adhzrentibus, stylis 
brevibus crassis cornibus ultra stigmata breviter aut vix productis, foliis hastato- 
cordatis.—Asarum arifolium, Micha. ; Hook. exot. fl. 1. t. 40. 

3. H. Vireinica : perigonio breviter ventricoso-campanulato, antheris muticis, 
stylis ultra stigmata longe rostratis apice bifidis, foliis rotundato-cordatis glabris.— 
Asarum Virginicum, Linn. 

The line of dehiscence of the cells of the alternate anthers in Heterotropa asa- 
roides, is said.to be nearly lateral, or slightly introrse ; so that this character is not 
strongly marked, and probably will not be deemed of sufficient consequence to 
separate generically our two species from the Japanese plant. On the other hand, 
if it should be thought inexpedient to divide a genus so well marked by habit as 
Asarum, my two sections of Heterotropa would form subgenera of the former. 


20 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


-Ulmus alata, or often to all the elms indifferently. The bit- 
ter and somewhat aromatic infusion of the green cones of both 
these Magnolias in whiskey or apple-brandy, is very extensively 
employed as a preventive against intermittent fevers; an use 
which, as the younger Michaux remarks, would doubtless be 
much dks frequent, if, with the same oer ee = 
aqueous infusion were substituted. ‘ 

Nearly at the top of this mountain we overtook our eee 
driver, awaiting our arrival in perfect helplessness, having con- 
trived to break his carriage upon a heap of stones, and to over- 
throw his horse into the boughs of a prostrate tree. So much 
time was occupied in extricating the poor animal, and in tempo- 
rary repairs to the waggon, that we had barely time to descend 
the mountain on the opposite side, and to seek lodgings for the 
night in the secluded valley of the South Fork of the Holston. 
In moist shady places along the descent of this mountain, and in 
similar situations threughout the mountains of North Carolina, we 
found plenty of the northern Listera convallarioides, in fine state,” 
entirely similar to the plant from Vermont, Canada, Newensde 
land, and the Northwest Coast, and agreeing completely with the 
figure of Swartz, (in Weber §° Mohr, Beitrige zur Naturkunde 
1. (1805) p. 2. t. 1,) and the recent one of Hook. Flora Boreali- 
Americana. I\t is difficult to conceive why Willdenow should 
cite the Ophrys cordata of Michaux under the E’'pipactis conval- 
larioides of Swartz, while there is so little accordance in their 
characters; but this has not prevented Pursh from combining 
the specific phrase of the two authors.into one, while he assigns 
a locality for the plant, (New Jersey,) where the Listera conval- 
larioides certainly does not grow. The Rev. Mr. Curtis, I be- 
lieve, first detected the plant in these mountains. 

The next day, (July 1,) we crossed the Iron Mountains (the 
great chain which divides the states of North Carolina and Ten- 
nessee, and which here forms the northwestern boundary of 
Grayson County, Virginia,) by F'ox-Creek Gap, and traversing 
the numerous tributaries of the North Fork of New River, which 
abundantly water this sequestered region, we slept a few miles 
beyond the boundary of North Carolina, after a journey of nearly 
thirty miles. It must not be imagined that we found hotels or 
taverns for our accommodation; as, except at Ashe Court House, 
we saw no house of public entertainment from the time we left 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 21 


the Valley of Virginia until we finally crossed the Blue Ridge 
and quitted the mountain region. Yet we suffered little incon- 
venience on this account, as we were cordially received at the 
farm-houses along the road, and entertained according to the 
means and ability of the owners ; who seldom hesitated either to 
make a moderate charge, or to accept a proper compensation for 
their hospitality, which we therefore did not hesitate to solicit, 
from time to time. On the Iron Mountains, we met with inal 
all the species we had collected during the previous day, and with 
a single additional plant of much interest, viz. the Boykinia aco- 
nitifolia, Nutt. We found it in the greatest abundance and lux- 
uriance on the southern side of the mountain, near the summit, 
along the rocky margins of a small brook, which for a short dis- 
tance were completely covered with the plant. It here attains 
the height of two feet or more; the stems, rising from a thick 
rhizoma, (and clothed below, as well as the petioles, with decid- 
uous rusty hairs,) are terminated by a panicle of small cymes, 
which at first are crowded, but at length are loose, with the flow- 
ers mostly unilateral. ‘The rather large, pure white petals are 
deciduous after flowering, not marcescent asin Sazifraga and 
Heuchera. We did not again meet with this plant; but Mr. 
Curtis collected it several years ago near the head of Linville 
River, and Mr. Buckley obtained it in the mountains of Alabama. 
It also extends farther north than our own locality ; for, although 
not described in his Flora, Pursh collected it on the Salt-Pond 
Mountain in Virginia.* Ihave little doubt that the Sazifraga 
Richardsonii would be more correctly transferred to Boykinia, 
as well as the S. ranunculifolia ; and, since the S. elata of Nut- 
tall, in Torrey and Gray’s Flora, is referred to Boykinia occiden- 
talis, in the supplement to that work, no pentandrous Saxifrage 
remains, except the ambiguous S. Sudlivanti, Torr. §& Gr. 
But the authors of the Flora, having received fruiting specimens 
of this interesting plant, do not hesitate to remove it from the 
genus to which it was provisionally appended, and to dedicate it 


* The specimen in Prof. Barton’s herbarium (in fruit), is ticketed by Pursh: 
“ Heuchera villosa, Micha.? Salt-Pond Mountain under the naked knob, near a 
spring. This spring is the highest I have seen.”’—I know not the exact situation 
of this mountain, from which Pursh obtained many interesting plants. The 
Boykinia aconitifolia, 1 may remark, would be a very desirable plant in cultiva- 
tion, and might be expected to endure the winter of New York or Philadelphia: 
it would certainly flourish in England. 


22, Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


to their esteemed correspondent, the promising botanist who dis- 


covered it.* 

While descending the mountain on the opposite wre we stale 
with Clethra acuminata, a very distinct and almost arborescent 
species, which is well characterized by Michaux. 'The flowers 


were not yet expanded ; but towards the end of July we obtained 


from other localities specimens in full flower, while the racemes 


and capsules of the preceding year were still persistent. ‘The 


conspicuous bracts, it may be remarked, are as caducous in the 


wild, as they are said to be in the cultivated plant ; usually falling 


before the flower-buds have attained their full size. We also 
saw Campanula divaricata, Michx., not yet in flower; and ob- 
tained fruiting specimens of the Convallaria umbellulata, Michz., 
(Clintonia, Raf., not of Dougl.) While the character in Mi- 
chaux is drawn from this species, the ‘planta Canadensis’ there 


mentioned is the nearly allied Dracena borealis of the Hortus 


Kewensis. The two species are mixed in Michaux’s herbarium ; 
and, although the latter is almost exclusively a northern plant, 
we found the two species growing together on the Grandfather, 
Roan, and other high mountains of North Carolina. 'Towards 
the base of the mountain we saw for the first time the Pyrula- 
ria of Michaux ( Oil-nut, Buffalo-tree, §c. Hamiltonia oleifera, 
Muhl.); alow shrub which is not of unfrequent occurrence in 
rich shady soil. Its geographical. range extends from the Chero- 
kee country on the confines of Georgia, (where the elder Mi- 


*SULLIVANTIA. Torrey §& Gray, fl. N. Amer. suppl. ined. 


Calyx inferne imo ovario adnatus, limbo quinquefido, Petala 5, spathulata, un- 
guiculata, integra, summo calycis tubo inserta, marcescentia. Stamina 5, laciniis 
calycinis breviora: anthere biloculares. Styli 2, breves ; stigmatibus simplicibus. 
Capsula calyce inclusa, bilocularis, birostris, polysperma, rostris intus longitadinali- 
ter dehiscentibus. Semina adscendentia, scobiformia; testa membranacea, relaxata, 
utrinque ultra nucleum ovalem alatim producta. Embryo cylindricus albumine 
vix brevior.—Herba humilis, in rupibus calcareis Ohionis vigens ; radice fibrosa 
perenni; foliis plerisque radicalibus, rotundato-reniformibus, inciso-dentatis sub- 
lobatisve, longe petiolatis; scapo gracili, decumbente; floribus parvis, (corolla 
conspicua, alba,) cymuloso-paniculatis, post anthesin in apicem pedicellorum arcte 
deflexis. 


S. Onronrs.—Saxifraga ? Sullivantii, Torrey & Gray, fl. N. Amer. 1. p. 579. 


Genus a Sazifraga precipue diversum staminibus petalis i isometis, et seminibus 
scobiformibus ; a Boylaria calyce fere libero, atque seminibus ; ab Heuchera capsula 
biloculari, etc.; a Leptarrhena staminibus 5, antheris bilocularibus, et seminibus 
alato-marginatis, nec utrinque subulatis. 


-e 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. «23 


chaux discovered it on his earliest visit to the mountains, and 
where Mr. Curtis has recently observed it,) to the western ranges 
of the Alleghanies of Pennsylvania in lat. 40°, where it was 
found by the younger Michaux.* It flowers early in the season, 
and the oleaginous fruit in the specimens we collected had at- 
tained the size of a musket ball. 

In wet places, on the very borders of North Carolina, but still 
within Virginia, we first met with 7’vautvetteria palmata and 
Diphylleia cymosa ; the former in full flower, the latter in’ fruit. 
Trautvetteria, which I doubt not is more nearly allied to Thalic- 
trum than to Cimicifuga or Actzea, was collected by Parsh in Vir- 
ginia, both on the Salt-Pond Mountain and the Peaks of Otter. 
The Diphylleia is confined to springy places, and the margin of 
shaded mountain brooks, in the rich and deep alluvial soil which 
is so general throughout these mountains, never occurring, per- 
haps, at a lower elevation than three thousand feet above the 
level of the sea. It is a more striking plant than we had sup- 
posed ; the cauline leaves (generally two, but sometimes three in 
number, ) being often two feet in diameter, and the radical, which 
are orbicular and centrally peltate as in Podophyllum, frequently 
still larzer; so that it is not easy (at this season) to obtain man- 
ageable specimens. 'The branches of the cyme are usually red- 
dish or purple, and the gibbous, deep blue and glaucous berries 
are almost dry when ripe. ‘The latter often contain as many as 
four perfect seeds; and it is proper to remark that the embryo is 
not ‘very minute,’ as described in the Flora of North America ; 
but, in the ripe seeds recently examined, is one-third the length 
of the albumen, as stated by Decaisne, or even longer. The co- 
tyledons are elliptical, flattish, and nearly the length of the thick, 
slightly club-shaped radicle. 'The whole embryo is also some- 
what flattened; so that when the seed is longitudinally divided 
in one direction, the embryo, examined in place, appears to be 
very slender, and to agree with DeCandolle’s description. The 
albumen is horny when dry, and has a bitter taste. Along the 
road-side, we shortly afterwards collected the equivocal Vaccinium 
erythrocarpum of Michaux, or Oxycoccus erectus of Pursh; a low, 
erect, dichotomously branched shrub, with the habit, foliage, and 

fruit of Vacciniwm, but the flowers of Oxycoccus. It here oc~ 


* Travels to the Westward of the Alleghany Mountains, §-c., Engl. Ed. p. 57, ete. 


24 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


curred at a lower elevation: than usual, scarcely more than three — 
thousand feet above the level of the sea, and in a dwarfish state 
(about a foot high): subsequently we only met with it on the 
summit of the Grandfather and other mountains which exceed 
the altitude of five thousand feet, where it is commonly three or 
four feet high. We were too early for the fruit, a small, red or 
purplish berry, which does not ripen until August or September. 
It has an exquisite flavor, according to Pursh, who found the 
plant on the mountains of Virginia: but our friend Mr. Curtis 
informs us that is rather insipid, and entirely destitute of the fine 
acidity of the Cranberry. ret 
- On the 2nd of July we continued our - journey (11 miles) tc to 
Jefferson or Ashe Court-House, a hamlet of twenty or thirty 
houses, and the only village in the county. Intending to make 
this place our head-quarters while we remained in the region, we 
had the good fortune to find excellent accommodations at the 
house of Col. Bower, who evinced every disposition to further 
our inquiries, and afforded us very important assistance. We 
may remark, indeed, that during our residence amongst the 
mountains, we were uniformly received with courtesy by the in- 
habitants; who for the most part wanted the general intelligence 
of our obliging host at Jefferson, and could scarcely be made to. 
comprehend the object of our visit, or why we should come from 
a distance of seven hundred miles, to toil over the mountains in | 
quest of their common and disregarded herbs. Curiosities as we 
were to these good folks, their endless queries had no air of im- 
pertinence, and they entertained us to the best of their ability, 
never attempting to make unreasonable charges. A very fastid- 
ious palate might occasionally be at a loss; but good corn-bread 
and milk are everywhere abundant ; the latter being used from 
preference quite sour, or even curdled. Sweet milk appears to 
be very generally disliked, being thought less wholesome, and 
more likely to produce the ‘milk sickness,’ which is prevalent in 
some very circumscribed districts; so that our dislike of sour, 
and fondness for sweet milk was regarded by this simple people 
as one of our very many oddities. Nearly every farmer has a 
small dairy-house built over a cold brook or spring, by which the 
milk and butter are kept cool and sweet in the warmest weather. 
We botanized for several days upon the mountains in the im- 
mediate neighborhood of Jefferson, especially the Negro Moun- 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 25 


tain, which rises abruptly on one side of the village, the Phe- 
niz Mountain, a sharp ridge on the other side, and the Bluff, a 
few miles distant in a westerly direction. The altitude of the 
former is probably between four and five thousand feet above the 
sea; the latter is apparently somewhat higher. They are all . 
composed of mica-slate; and we should remark, that we entered 
upon a primitive region immediately upon leaving the Valley of 
Virginia. ‘The mountain-sides, though steep or precipitous, are 
covered with a rich and deep vegetable mould, and are heavily 
timbered, chiefly with chestnut, white oak, the tulip-tree, the cu- 
cumber-tree, and sometimes the sugar-maple. Their vegetation 
presents so little diversity, that it is for the most part unnecessary 
to distinguish particular localities. Besides many of. the plants 
already mentioned, and a very considerable number of northern 
species which we have not room to enumerate, we coilected or 
observed on the mountain-sides, Clematis Viorna in great abun- 
dance; Tradescantia Virginica ; Iris cristata in fruit ; Hedyotis 
(Amphiotis) purpurea, which scarcely deserves the name, since 
the flowers are commonly almost white; Phlox paniculata ? 
Aristolochia Sipho, without flowers or fruit; Azbes Cynosbati, 
rotundifolium, Michx., (R. triflorum, Willd.) and prostraium, 
I’ Her. ; Allium cernuum, and tricoceum ;* Galax aphylla ; La- 
gusticum acteifolium, the strong-scented roots of which are ea- 
gerly sought and eaten by boys and hogs ;+ the Ginseng, here 
called sang, (the roots of which are largely collected, and sold 
to the country merchants, when fresh for about twelve cents per 
pound, or when dried fob triple that price ;)) Menzzesia globula- 
ris, mostly in fruit; and the showy Azalea calendulacea, which 
was also out of flower, except in deep shade.{ In the latter sit- 


* The latter is known throughout this region by the name of Ramps ; doubtless 
a corruption of Ramsons, the popular appellation of 4. wrsinwm in England. 

+ It is here termed Angelico; while in Virginia it is called JVondo. Bartram, 
(Travels, p. 45, and p. 367,) who found it in Georgia, notices it under the name of 
Angelica nivale, or White-root of the Creek and Cherokee traders: “ Its aromatic 
carminative root is in taste much like that of the ginseng, though more of the 
taste and scent of anise-seed : it is in high estimation with the Indians as well as | 
white inhabitants, and sells at a great price to the southern Indians of Florida, 
who dwell near the sea-coast, where this never grows spontaneously.” Bar- 
tram, l. c. 

t Bartram well describes this species, under the name of Azalea flammea, or 
fiery Azalea. “The epithet fiery I annex to this most celebrated species of Aza- 
lea, as being expressive of the appearance of its flowers; which are in general of 

Vol. xuu1, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 4 


26 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


uations we found an arborescent tetramerous species of Prinos, 
(in fruit only;) with large and membranaceous ovate leaves. 
The same species has been collected on the Pokono Mountains 
in Pennsylvania, by Mr. Wolle, and on the Cattskills by Mr. 8. 
T. Carey. We should deem it the P. levigatus of Pursh, (not 
of Torr., Fl. Northern States,) on account of the solitary and 
Eahapksilic fertile flowers, as well as the habitat, were not the 
flowers of that species said to be hexamerous. 

In damp, very shady places high up the Negro Nicstsditi we 
saw an Aconitum not yet in flower ; and on moist rocks near the 
summit, obtained a few fruiting specimens of a Sarifraga which 
was entirely new to us. Ina single, very secluded spot on the 
north side of this mountain, not far from the summit, the rocks 
were covered with a beautiful small Fern, which proves to be 
the Asplenium Adiantum-nigrum of Michaux, the A. monta- 
num, Willd., an extremely rare plant. It is certainly distinct 
from the A. Adiantum-nigrum; being not only a much smaller 
and more delicate species, (two to four inches high,) but the 
fronds are narrower, the pinne ovate and much shorter, 3-5- 
parted, with the pinnulee toothed or incised at the apex. 

The Veratrum parvifiorum, Michx., is of frequent occurrence 
throughout this region, but was not yet fully in flower, so that 
our specimens were not collected, until near the end of July. 
The plant is excellently described in the Flora of Michaux, 
where it is probably with justice referred to Veratrum rather 
than to Melanthium ; since the divisions of the perianth (yel- 
lowish-green from the first,) are wholly destitute of glands, and 
only differ from Veratrum in being stellate, and tapering at the 
base. I may here remark that the name Melanthium must un- 


the color of the finest red-lead, orange, and bright gold, as well as yellow and 
cream-color. These various splendid colors are not only in separate plants, but 
frequently all the varieties and shades are seen in separate branches on the same 
plant ; and the clusters of the blossoms cover the shrubs in such incredible pro- 
fusion on the hill-sides, that suddenly opening to view from dark shades, we are 
alarmed with the hee of the woods being set on fire. This is certainly 
the most gay and brilliant flowering shrub yet known; they grow in little copses 
or clumps, in open forests as well as dark groves, with other shrubs, and about 
the bases of hills, especially where brooks and rivulets wind about them; the 
bushes seldom rise above six or seven feet in height, and generally but three, four, 
or five, but branch and spread their tops greatly ; the young leaves are but very 
small whilst the shrubs are in bloom, from which circumstance the plant exhibits 
a greater show of splendor,”——Bartram’s, Travels, p. 323. 


a 


Botanical Hxcursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 27 


doubtedly be retained for M. Virginicum and M. hybridum. 
Some years since, in re-arranging the North American species of 
this family, I followed Roemer and Schultes in adopting the ge- 
nus Leimanthiwn of Willdenow, without considering that Me- 
lanthium was established by Clayton and Gronovius on M. Vir- 
ginicum, and thus taken up by Linneeus, with the addition of a 
Siberian plant, which belongs to Zigadenus.* The Melan- 
thium Capense, (Androcymbium, Willd.) was added some time 
afterwards. 2 
The rocky summits of the mountains afforded us Sedum tele- 
phioides ; Heuchera villosa; Paronychia argyrocoma, which 
forms dense silvery tufts on the highest and most exposed peaks ; 
Veronica officinalis, serpyllifolia, and agrestis, (all certainly na- 
tive;) Lycopodium rupestre, in a very beautiful state, and on the 
Phem« Mountain we found a solitary specimen of ZL. Selago ; 
Arabis lyrata, with perfectly accumbent cotyledons; Potentilla 
tridentata, which we only saw on the Bluff Mountain ; Wood- 
sia tlvensis ; Saxifraga leucanthemifolia, which not. unfrequently 
attains the height of two feet, with a large and slender effuse 
panicle; Dzervilla trifida, entirely resembling the northern. plant ; 
Pyrus melanocarpa ; Sorbus Americana, 8. microcarpa ; Rho- 
dodendron Catawbiense, just out of flower, while &. mazi- 
mum, extremely abundant along the streams and mountain-sides, 
was only beginning to expand its blossoms.+. In such situations, 
also, we found a marked dwarfish variety of Hedyotis purpurea, 
growing somewhat in tufts, and scarcely exceeding four or five 
inches in height. The flowers, which are deep pink, while in 
the ordinary form of this region they are nearly white, present 
the dimorphism which obtains in several sections of the genus ; 
the stamens in some specimens being inserted in the throat of 
the corolla and exsert, while in others they are inserted near the 
base of the tube and included; in the former the style is uni- 
formly short and included, and in the latter long and somewhat 
exserted. These two forms were often seen growing side by 


* The Helonias glaberrima, Bot. Mag. t. 1680, on which Zigadenus commuta- 
tus, of Schultes is founded, is Z. glaucus ; the specimens came from Fraser’s nur- 
sery, but doubtless were not derived from the Southern States. Helonias bracteata, 
Bot. mag. t. 1703, is Z. glaberrimus, Michz., not fully developed. 

+ These shrubs here bear the name of Laurel; while the Kalmia latifolia is 
universally called Ivy, or Ivy-bush. 


28 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


side, and appeared to be equally fertile. The Amianthiwm mus- 
cetoxicum, which is common in the low country of the Southern 
States, we here found only in the rich open woods of the Bluff 
Mountain, and in-similar places farther south. ‘The flowers are 
pure white or cream-color, in a dense and very showy raceme, at 
length changing to green. The cattle, which roam in the weods 
for a great part of the year, are sometimes poisoned by feeding, 
as is supposed, on the foliage of this plant during the autumn: 
hence its name of Fall-poison. The wild Pea-vine, which is so 
highly prized as an autumnal food for cattle, is the Amphicar- 
pea.* The Lily of the Valley, (Convallaria majalis,) which 
we occasionally met with in fruit, appears to be identical with 
the European plant. It extends from the mountains of Virginia 
to Georgia, where it was long ago noticed by the younger Bar- 
tram. We also collected a handsome Phlox, of frequent occur- 
rence in rich woods, which differs from P. Carolina (with 
which it has perhaps been confounded) in its perfectly smooth 
stem, and broader, less pointed calyx-teeth. The leaves are 
sometimes an inch in width, and four or five in length; the 
uppermost often ovate-lanceolate, and more or less cordate at 
the base. : 

A species of Carer, nearly allied to C. gracillima, occurs in 
the greatest abundance on all the higher mountains of North 
Carolina, forming tufts on the earth or on rocks, and flowering 
throughout the summer. On this account it is called C. estiva- 
lis by Mr. Curtis, who discovered it several years since, and 
pointed out its characters.;| We also met with C. canescens, 


* ¢¢ In the large woods, the surface of the soil is covered with a species of wild 
peas, which rise three feet above the earth, and of which the cattle are very 
greedy. They prefer this pasture to every other, and when removed from it they 
fall away, or make their escape to return to it.”—Michaux, (F. 4.) Travels, p. 316. 

+ C. mstivatis (M. 4. Curtis, ined.) : spicis 3-5 gracilibus laxifloris suberec- 
tis, infima pedunculata, ceteris subsessilibus, suprema androgyna inferne mascula, 
bracteis inferioribus foliaceis vix vaginantibus superioribus setaceis, perigyniis 
ovoideis trigonis basi apiceque acutiusculis obsolete nervosis glabris ore subintegro 
squamam ovatam obtusam (nunc mucronatam) duplo superantibus, stigmatibus 
tribus, vaginis foliorum inferiorum pubescentibus. 

Hab. in montibus altioribus Caroline Septentrionalis ubique. Julio-Augusto 
floret.—C. gracillime nimis affinis ; at diversa, culmis foliisque gracilioribus, vagi- 
nis infimis pubescentibus ; bracteis vix vaginantibus ; spicis angustioribus et laxi- 


floris erectis, superioribus brevissime pedunculatis ; acheniis oblongo-ovoideis ma- 
gis stipitatis, 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 29 


Linn. ex Boott, (C. Buxbaumii, Wahl.) and C. conoidea, Schk., 
on the moist, grassy brow of a precipice of the Bluff; and to- 
wards the base of the Negro Mountain, we observed C. virescens 
and C. digitalis, Willd. 

Ina cool, sequestered brook, we found the true Cardamine 
sha iieiilin: Michz., growing like a Water-cress, (for which it 
might be substituted, as its leaves have exactly the same taste,) 
but producing numerous stolons two to three or more feet in 
length. These runners arise not only from the base of the stem, 
but from the axils of the upper leaves, and very frequently from 
the apex of the weak ascending raceme itself, which is thus pro- 
longed into a leafy stolon, hanging down into the water or mud, 
where it takes root. Its habit and appearance are so unlike even 
the summer state of our northern C. rhomboidea, that we could 


The figure of C. gracillima, in Prof. Kunze’s Supplement to Schkuhr’s Carices, 
is excellent, except that the immature peryginia are represented with more distinct 
beaks than J have ever seen. To this genus, already perhaps the most extensive 
in the vegetable kingdom, after Seneczo, Mr. Sullivant has recently added another 
species, an account of which may be appended to this note. As Dr. Boott had 
already dedicated it to the zealous discoverer, without being aware that he had 
distributed it under another name, I trust I may be allowed to publish the notes 
of this sedulous caricographer unchanged : 

“€. Surrivanti (Boott): spica mascula solitaria cylindrica, foemineis 3-5 cy- 
lindricis erectis gracilibus pedunculatis laxifloris, superioribus contiguis, infima - 
remota longe pedunculata basi attenuata, stigmatibus tribus, perigyniis ellipticis 
brevi-rostratis emarginatis pellucido-punctatis apice marginibusque piloso-hispidis’ 
squamam ovatam ciliatam hispido-mucronatam subequantibus. 

* Culmus bipedalis, gracilis, triqueter, pilis albis sparsis longis scabriusculus, 
pars spicas gerens 2-9-uncialis. Folia 2 lin. lata, culmo br eviora, marginibus ner- 
visque scabris. Bractea infima vaginans, lines ,culmum adequans, relique sen- 
sim breviores, superiores evaginate demum setaceez. Spica mascula uncialis, vix 
lineam lata, sessilis vel brevi-pedunculata : squamz mutice, obtuse, apice cilio- 
late, nervo scabro, pallide castanee. Spice foeminez 3-5, laxiflora, 1-14 uncias 
longe, 1-1} lineas late ; superiores contigue ; infima remota (uno exemplo basi 
composita): squame pellucide ciliolate, nervo viridi scabro, hispido-mucronate. 
Pedunculi scabri, superiores sensim breviores. Perigynium (vix maturum) 13 
lin. longum, % lin. latum, viride, enervium? apice hispidulum, ciliatum, brevi- 
stipitatum, squamam subequans vel eo paululum lJongius. Achenium immatu- 
rum.’ —Boott wn litt. ’ 

Hab. in sylvaticis prope Gilopalivéds Ohionis, ubi detexit W. S. Sullivant, cum 
C. pubescente, C. gracillima, etc. vigens. Affinis C. arctate (C. syhasnees auct. 
Amer.) ex cl. Boott.—In exemplis nuperrime receptis, perigynia satis matura sunt 
ovato-elliptica, lata, compresso-plana, enervia (marginibus exceptis), apice vix 
rostrata. 


30 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


not hesitate to consider it a distinct species. ‘The subjoined di- 
agnostic character will doubtless suffice for its discrimination.* 

On the 7th of July, we started for the high mountains farther 
south, having hired a cumbrous and unsightly, but convenient 
tilted waggon, with a pair of horses and a driver, (who rode one 
of the horses, according to the usual custom of this region,) for 
the conveyance of our luggage, and which afforded us, at inter- 
vals, the luxury of reposing on straw at the bottom, while we 
were dragged along the rate of two or three miles per hour. 

Our first day’s journey, of about twenty four miles, was some- 
what tedious, as:we found no new plants of any interest. We 
saw, however, a variety of Lonicera parviflora? with larger 
leaves and flowers than ordinary, the latter dull purplish; prob- 
ably the Caprifolium bracteosum, var. floribus violaceo-purpureis 
of Michaux. The following morning we reached the Watauga 
River (a tributary of the Holston) ; and leaving our driver to fol- 
low up the banks of the stream to the termination of the road at 
the foot of the Grandfather, we ascended an adjacent mountain, 
called Hanging-rock, and reached our quarters for the night by 
a different route. The fine and close view of the rugged Grand- 
father amply rewarded the toil of ascending this beetling cliff, 
where we also obtained the Gewm (Steversia) radiatum, probably 
the most showy species of the genus. ‘The brilliant golden 
flowers have a disposition to: double, even in the wild state, in 
which we often found as many as eight or nine petals. ‘This 
tendency would doubtless be fully developed by cultivation. 
Around the base of these mountains we saw Blephilia nepetoi- 
des, and another Labiate plant not yet in flower, which we took 
for Pycnanthemum montanum, Michz. — ; 

The next day (July 9th) we ascended the Gr bes @: 
highest as well as the most rugged and savage mountain we a 
yel attempted; although by no means the most elevated in 


* CaRDAMINE ROTUNDIFOLIA (Michz.): glaberrima decumbens, stolonibus re- 
pentibus, radice fibrosa, foliis omnibus conformibus (radicalibus sepe trisectis, seg- 
mentis lateralibus parvis,) petiolatis rotundatis pleruamque subcordatis integriuseu- 
lis vel repando sinuatis, siliquis parvis stylo subulatis, stigmate minuto, semini- 
bus ovalibus.—C. rotundifolia, Micha. fl. 2. p. 30; Hook. bot. misc. 3. t. 109. (statu 
vernali: in exemplis Carolinianis folia caulinia magis petiolata); Darlingt. fl. 
Cest. ed. 2. p. 384. C. rotundifolia y. Torr. & Gray, fl. N. Amer. 1. p. 83. 

Hab. in rivulis fontibusque opaculis montium Caroline, Virginie, Kentucky, et 
in Pennsylvania. 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 31 


North Carolina, as has generally been supposed.* It is a sharp 
and craggy ridge; lying within Ashe and Burke Counties, very 
near the northeast corner of Yancey, and cutting across the 
chain to which it belongs (the Blue Ridge) nearly at right an- 
gles. It is entirely covered with trees, except where the rocks 
are absolutely perpendicular; and towards the summit, the Bal- 
sam Fir of these mountains, Abies balsamifera, partly, of Mi- 
chaux’s Flora (but not of the younger Michaux’s Sylva) the A. 
Fraseri, Pursh, prevails, accompanied by the Abies nigra or 
Black Spruce. The earth, rocks, and prostrate decaying trunks, 
in the shade of these trees, are carpeted with Mosses and Lich- 
ens; and the whole presents the most perfect resemblance to the 
dark and sombre forests of the northern parts of New York and 
Vermont, except that the trees are here much smaller. The re- 
semblance extends to the whole vegetation; and a list of the 
shrubs and herbaceous plants of this mountain would be found 
to include a large portion of the common plants of the extreme 
Northern States and Canada.+ Indeed the vegetation is essen- 
tially Canadian, with a considerable number of peculiar species 
intermixed. Under the guidance of Mr. Levi Moody, we fol- 
lowed the Watauga, here a mere creek, for four or five miles 
along the base of the Grandfather, until we reached a ridge 
which promised a comparatively easy ascent. In the rich soil 
of this ridge, at an elevation of about four hundred feet above 
the Watauga, we found one of the plants which of all others 
we were desirous of obtaining, viz. Carer Fraseriana. Mr. 
Curtis had made diligent but ineffectual search for this most sin- 
gular and rarest of Carices, along the ‘Catawba near Morgan- 
ton,” and “near Table Mountain,” where Fraser is said to have 


* According to Prof. Mitchell’s barometrical measurements, the Grandfather 
attains the altitude of five thousand five hundred and fifty six feet above the sea ; 
the Roan, six thousand and thirty eight feet; and the highest peak of the Black 
Mountain, six thousand four hundred and seventy six feet, which exceeds Mount 
Washington in New Hampshire: (hitherto accounted the highest mountain in the 
United States,) by more than'two hundred feet.—See American Journal of Science 
and Arts, Vol, xxxv, p. 377, 

+ Among the northern species which we had not previously observed in this 
Pei gians we may mention Carex flexuosa, C. plantaginea, C. scabrata, C. intumes- 
cens, Oxalis Acetosella, Streptopus roseus, Viburnum lantanoides, and Platanthera 
orbiculata in the finest condition, and in greater profusion than we ever before met 
with this, the most striking of North American Orchidacez. 


32 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


discovered it; and we believe that no subsequent botanist has 
ever met with it, except Mr. Kin, whose specimen in Muhlen- 
berg’s herbarium is merely ticketed ‘ Deigher waili in der Wil- 
ternus.” Muhlenberg assigns the habitat, “Tiger Valley, Penn- 
sylvania;” but Kin probably obtained his plant in T'ygart’s Val- 
ley, Virginia, a secluded vale among the western ranges of the 
Alleghanies, (in Randolph County,) not far from Greenbrier 
Mountains, and other localities visited by this collector, as his 
tickets prove. Kin cultivated the plant for some time at Phila- 
delphia, where it was seen by several botanists, and among them 
by Pursh, who took it for the Mapania sylvatica of Aublet; a 
mistake which he did not discover whilst writing his Flora in 
Europe, although he had the cultivated Carex Fraseriana be- 
fore him. We were too late for good specimens, but succeeded 
in obtaining a considerable number with the fruit still adherent. 
The plant grows in tufts, after the manner of C. planiaginea ; 
the evergreen leaves are a foot or more in length, and often an 
inch and a half in width, with singularly undulate margins; the 
slender scapes are naked, except towards the root, where they 
are sheathed by the convolute bases of the leaves. ‘I'o the de- 
scription of the spike, fruit, &c., we have _ of es conse- 
quence to add. 

Long before we reached the summit we again met - the 
new Savifraga,* which we had previously gathered on the 
mountains near Jefferson; but we now found it in great abund- 
ance, both in flower, and with mature fruit.. It grew in the 


* Saxmrraca Careyana (spec. nov.): foliis radicalibus longe petiolatis glabris 
(tenuibus) ovato-rotundis grosse crenato-dentatis basi truncatis vel subcordatis, 
scapo gracili nudo apice paniculato-cymoso, floribus effusis, pedicillis filiformibus, 
petalis lanceolato-oblongis sessilibus sepala recurva plus duplo superantibus, car- 
pellis discretis turgidis demum divaricatis calyce liberis.—Variat 1, scapo petiolis- 
que glabriusculis: 2, seapo, pedicillis, neenon pagina foliorum pilis viscosis pubes- 
centibus: 3, scapo foliis aut. bracteis foliaceis 1—2 instructo: 4, foliis ovalibus ob- 
longisve, nunc argute dentatis, in petiolum plus minus attenuatis. 

Crescit in rupibus humidis opacis altissimorum montium comitatus Ashe, pre- 
sertim ad montem Grandfather dictum, alt. 3500—5000 pedes. Junio floret.— 
Werba spithamea, rarius pedalis.. Flores parvi. Petala consimilia, sessilia, subtri- 
plinervia, alba, immaculata. Filamenta subulato-filiformia. Carpella ovoidea, 
stylis brevibus apiculata, (stigmatibus submerassatis,) basi vix aut ne vix coalita, 
ad maturitatem per totam suturam ventralem dehiscentia, ut im pleris Saxifragis 
plus minus apocarpeis. Semina ovalia, striis elevatis denticulatis (per lentem au- 
gentem) longitudinaliter notata.—Species distinctissima, habitu ad sect. Hydate- 
cam, sed characteribus ad Micranthem accedens. 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 33 


greatest profusion on the dripping face of a rocky precipice near 
our encampment for the night; on the northwestern side of the 
mountain, five or six hundred feet beneath the highest summit. 
The vegetation is here so backward, that the Sazifraga leucan- 
themifolia growing on the brow of this precipice was not yet in 
blossom, and the Saxifraga erosa, Pursh, in the wet soil at its 
base was scarcely out of flower, while at the foot of the moun- 
tain it had long since shed its seeds. -We were therefore enabled 
to satisfy ourselves that S. erosa belongs to the section Hydatica, 
and that the S. Wolleana, Torr. § Gray, from a mountain near 
Bethlehem in Pennsylvania, is only a variety of this species. 
Pursh gathered his plant in Virginia, ‘ out of a run near the road 
from the Sweet Springs to the Union Springs, five miles from 
the former.” But if this species be the Robertsonia micranihi- 
Jfoha of Haworth’s Succulent Plants, as is most probable, and 
consequently the Aulaxis micranthifolia of this author’s subse- 
quent Enumeration of Saxifragaceous plants, it must have been 
introduced into the English gardens by Fraser, as early as 1810.* 
We know not how such a common plant could have escaped the 
notice of Michaux. Under the name of Lettuce, the leaves are 
eaten by the inhabitants asa salad. At this place. we also saw 
an Umbelliferous plant not yet in flower, which we believe to 
be Contoselinum Canadense, Torr. & Gray, (Selinum Cana- 
dense, Michx.,) a very rare plant in the extreme Northern States 
and Canada, to which we had supposed it exclusively confined. 
We found plenty of Cimicifuga Americana, Michr., but were 
obliged to content ourselves with specimens not yet in flower, 
and with vestiges of the last year’s fruit. It should be collected 
in September. 

We were also too early in the season for Chelone Lyoni, 
Pursh, which we found in abundance between the precipice 
mentioned above and the summit of the mountain, with the 
flower-buds just beginning to appear. Mr. Curtis remarks that 


* The only important discrepancy respects Haworth’s character, ‘¢ Corolla ir- 
regularis, petalis 2 inferioribus elongatis divaricantibus gracilioribus,” and ‘ Flo- 
res albi, rubro minute punctati;’’ while the petals in our plant are very nearly 
equal and similar, and pure white, except the yellow spot at the base. Aulaxis 
nuda, Haworth, t. c. (of unknown origin,) appears to be the more ordinary and 
nearly alates form of this species. Mr. Don’s description of S. erosa, proba- 
bly drawn from ihe cultivated plant, also differs from our plant in several minor 
points. 

Vol. xu, No. 12-Oct-Dec. 1841: 5 


34 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


Mr. Nuttall could not have met with this exclusively mountain 
plant near Wilmington; and also, that the C. Lyoni of Pursh 
and the C. latifolia of Muhlenberg and Elliott, are doubtless 
founded upon one and the same species. Both, indeed, are said 
to have been collected by Lyon, and the leaves vary fede: ovate- 
lanceolate or oval with an acute base, to ovate with a rounded, 
but scarcely cordate base. Pursh’s character is drawn from a 
cultivated specimen. Here we again met with the Aconatum 
previously observed in similar situations on the Negro Mown- 
tain, and which, being then only in bud, we took for the A. 
uncinatum, a species collected in this region by Michaux, and 
‘recently by Mr. Curtis and other botanists. We were greatly 
surprised, therefore, to find that our plant, here just coming into 
blossom, had cream-colored flowers, very different from those of 
A. uncinatum, and more nearly resembling those of A. Lycocto- 
num.* -On our return to Jefferson, we obtained good specimens 
at our original locality, where it is very abundant. The weak 
stems, at first ascending, become prostrate when the plant is in 
flower, and frequently attain the length of seven or eight feet. 
As the stem does not climb, and its flowers are so different from 
those of A. uncinatum, it can hardly be the plant mentioned by 
Pursh under that species, which he saw at the foot of the Peaks 
of Otter, and about the Sweet Springs, in Virginia. It may be 
remarked, that the ovaries of A. uncinatum are often nearly 
glabrous, and the claws of the petals entirely so: the seeds are 

strongly plicate-rugose, with a wing-like margin on one side. 


* AconITUM RECLINATUM (spec: nov. § Lycoctonum) :-caule elongato decum- 
bente foliisque palmatifidis glabris, lobis divaricatis cuneatis apicem versus incisis, 
racemis paniculisve divergentibus laxifloris (floribus albidis), bracteolis minimis, 
galea horizontali conico-cylindracea ore obliquo, Jabio cucullorum obecordato ab 
ungue distante, calcare adunco, filamentis edentulis, carpellis glabris 2-4-sper- 
mis, seminibus (immaturis) squamoso-rugosis. 

Hab. in opacissimis sylvis ad montes Negro Mountain et Grindfuiher dictos, 
alt. 4000—5000 pedes. Julio—Augusto floret.—Caulis flaecidus, adscendens vel 
declinatus, denique procumbens, 3-8-pedalis, ramis gracilibus, seu paniculis laxi- 
floris, divaricatis. Folia flaccida; inferiora longe petiolata, (circumscriptione sub- 
orbiculari,) profunde 5-7-fida ; segmentis interdum 2-3-lobatis, apice inciso- 
dentatis, dentibus mucronatis ; summa subsessilia, 3-5-partita; venis et pagina 
quandoque superiori tenuissime pubescentibus. Pedicelli sparsi (pedunculique 
puberuli,) flore longiores, bracteolis 2-3 minimis stipati. Flores minores quam 
in A, Lycoctono, albi vix flavidis tincti (in siccis leviter purpurascentes) 5 sepalis 
intus pilis aureis barbatis. Galea primum adscendens, mox horizontalis, rostello 
brevi rectiusculo. Unguis petalorum medium cuculh adfixus: saccus angustus, 
ore valde obliquo in labium obcordatum expanso. Ovaria tria, 4-6-ovulata. 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 35 


~ Near the summit of the mountain, we saw immense quantities 
of a low but very large-leaved Solidago, not yet in flower, which 
I take to be the |S. glomerata of Michaux, who could not have 
failed to observe such a conspicuous and abundant plant, espe- 
cially as it must have been in full blossom at the time he as- 
cended this mountain. It does not, however, altogether accord 
with Michaux’s description, nor does that author notice the size 
of the heads, which in our plant are among the largest of the 
genus. Specimens in flower were procured by Mr. Curtis, who 
visited this mountain at a more favorable season. With the lat- 
ter, we found a Geum, which Mr. Curtis had formerly observed 
on the Roan Mountain, (where we afterwards met with it in 
great abundance, ) and referred, I think correctly, to Gt. genicula- 
tum, Michz., although that species is said to have been collected 
in Canada. 'The lower portion of the style is less hairy in our 
specimens than in Michaux’s plant, a difference which, if con- 
stant, is perhaps not of specific importance. In the subjoined 
character, I have supplied an inadvertent omission in the FYora 
of North America, where the sessile head of carpels, which so. 
readily distinguishes this species from Gt. rivale, is not men- 
tioned.* Here we again found Vaccinium erythrocarpum, as 
already mentioned ; and obtained beautiful flowering specimens 
of Menziesia globularis, a straggling shrub which in this place 
attains the height of five or six feet. 


* Geum GENIcuLAtUM (Micha.): capitulo carpellorum sessili, articulo styli 
superiore plumoso inferiorem pubescentem excedente, achenio hirsuto, petalis 
cuneato-obovatis (nunc emarginatis aut leviter obcordatis) exunguiculatis calycem 
zquantibus; floribus mox erectis. é 

8. Macrranum: articulo styl | inferiore sursum glabrescente.—G. Macreanum, 
M. A. Curtis, in litt. 

Crescit in Canada ex Michaux: an recte ? Var. 8. in umbrosis ad montes 
Grandfather et Roan, Caroline Septentrionalis, alt. 55 00—6000 pedes, ubi impri- 
mis detexit cl. Curtis. Julio floret.—Caulis 2-3- -pedalis, gracilis, foliosus, inferne 
pilis rigidiusculis retrorsis, superne pilis mollibus patentibus erebmenGe villosus. 
Folia membranacea; radicalia nune palmatim 3-secta, nunc interrupte pinnati- 
secta, haud rariusque indivisa vel sublobata in eodem stirpe ; caulinia trisecta tri- 
lobatave, lobis acutis ; superiora sessilia. Flores minores et numerosiores quam 
in G. rivali: petala albida, venis purpurascentibus. Styli pars inferior portione 
plumosa primum multo, postremum modice brevior, in exemplo Michz. manifeste, 
at juxta apicem parce piloso-pubescens ; in var. 8, superne glabrata. 

Should the Carolina plant hereafter prove to be a distinct species; it will of 
course retain the name proposed by Mr. Curtis, in honor of his friend and former 
associate in botanical labors, Dr. James F. McRee, of Wilmington, North Carolina. 


86 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


. The only unwooded portion of the ridge which we ascended, 
an exposed rock a few yards in extent, presents a truly Alpine. 
aspect, being clothed with Lichens and Mosses, and with a dense 
mat of the mountain, Leiophyllum, a stunted and much branched 
shrub (five to ten inches high,) with small coriaceous leaves, 
greatly resembling Azalea procumbens.* The much denser 
srowth, and the broader, more petiolate, and perhaps uniformly 
opposite leaves, as well as the very different habitat, would seem 
to distinguish the mountain plant from the LZ. bucifoliwm of the 
Pine Barrens of New Jersey, &c.; but, although I think the 
learned DeCandolle has correctly separated the former, under the 
name of L. serpyllifolium, (Ledum serpyllifolium, L’ Her. ined.) 
it is not easy to find sufficient and entirely constant distinctive 
characters ; since the sparse scabrous puberulence of the capsule 
may also be observed upon the ovary of the low-country plant, 
in which the leaves are, likewise not unfrequently opposite; and 
no reliance can be placed on the length of the pedicels. 'The 
synonomy requires some correction: the Ledum buxifolium of 
Michaux (in summis montibus excelsis Caroline), and of Nut- 
tall, (so far as respects the plant which “is extremely abundant 
on the highest summits of the Catawba Ridge,” that is, on Ta- 
ble Mountain, ) as well as the Leiophyllum buxifolium of Ellott, 
(from the mountains of Greenville district, South Carolina, ) must 
be referred-to L. serpyllifoium, DC. We were too late to ob- 
tain the plant in blossom, excepting one or two straggling spe- 
cimens; but we were so fortunate as to procure a few flowering 
specimens of Ahododendron Catawbiense. 

I should have remarked, that so much time was cbietipicl in 
the ascent of this mountain as nearly to prevent us from herbor- 
izing around the summit for that day; since we had to descend 
some distance to the nearest spring of water, and prepare our en- 
campment for the night. ‘The branches of the Balsam afforded 
excellent materials for the construction of our lodge, the smaller 
twigs with large mats of moss stripped from the rocks furnished 
our bed, and the dead trees supplied us with fuel for cooking our 
supper, and for the large fire we were obliged to keep up during 


* We are confident that the latter does not grow on the Grandfather Mountain, 
as is stated by Pursh, on the authority .of a specimen collected by Lyon; and have 
little doubt that he adibals for it this species of Letophyllum. Vide Pursh, Elona 
Amer. Sept. 1. p. 154, and p. 301. 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 37 


the night. We re-ascended the summit the next morning, and 
devoted several hours to its examination, but the threatening 
state of the weather prevented us from visiting the adjacent 
ridges, or the southern and eastern faces of the mountain, and 
Wwe were constrained to descend towards evening to the humble 
dwelling of our guide, which we reached before the impending 
storm sominanncule : 

Our next excursion was to tive Roan Mountain, a portion of 
the elevated range which forms the boundary between North 
Carolina and Tennessee, distant nearly thirty miles southwest 
from our quarters at the foot of Grandfather by the most direct 
path, but at least sixty by the nearest carriage road. We trav- 
elled for the most part on foot, loading the horses with our port- 
folios, paper, and some necessary luggage, crossed the Hanging- 
rock Mountain to Elk Creek, and thence over a steep ridge to 
Cranberry Forge, on the sources of Doe River, where we passed 
the night... On our way, we cut down a Service-tree, (as the 
Amelanchier Canadensis is here called,), and feasted upon the 
ripe fruit, which throughout this region is highly, and indeed 
justly prized, being sweet with a very agreeable flavor; while 
in the Northern States, so far as our experience goes, this fruit, 
even if it may be said to be edible, is not worth eating. As ‘ Sar- 
vices’ are here greedily sought after, and are generally procured 
by cutting down the trees, the latter are becoming scarce in the 
vicinity of the ‘plantations,’ as the mountain settlements are uni- 
versally called. Along the streams we met with the mountain 
species of Andromeda ( Leucothoe,) doubtless Pursh’s A. axillaris ; 
but whether the original A. azillaris of the Hortus Kewensis 
pertains to this, or to the species of the low country, I cannot at 
this moment ascertain. A portion of Pursh’s character seems 
also to belong to the low country rather than the mountain spe- 
cies, and the two are by no means clearly distinguished in sub- 
sequent works. The leaves, in our specimens, are oblong-lan- 
ceolate, finely acuminate, the margins closely beset throughout 
with spinulose-setaceous teeth; and the rather loose spicate ra- 
cemes, (the corolla having filen y are neatly half the length of 
the leaves. 

Hitherto we had searched in vain for the Astzbe Bevtentlres 
but we first met with this very interesting plant in the rich avg 
moist mountain woods between Elk Creek and Cranberry Forge, ~ 


38 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


and subsequently in similar situations, particularly along the | 
steep banks of streams, quite to the base of the Roan. Mr. Curtis 
found it abundantly near the sources of the Linville River, and 
at the North Cove, where it could not have escaped the notice 
of Michaux; and it is doubtless the Spirea Aruncus var. her- 
maphrodita of that author. It indeed greatly resembles Spirea 
Aruncus, and at a distance of a few yards is not easily distin- 
guished from that plant, but on a closer approach the resem- 
blance is much less striking. Michaux appears to have been the 
original discoverer of this plant, and from him the specimens 
cultivated in the Malmaison Garden, and described by Ventenat 
under the name of Tvarella biternata, were probably derived. 
It was afterwards collected by Lyon,* and described by Pursh 
from a specimen cultivated in Mr. Lambert’s garden at Boynton. 
We noticed a peculiarity in this plant, which explains the dis- 
crepancy between Ventenat and Pursh, (the former having fig- 
ured it with linear-spatulate petals, while the latter found it apef- 
alous,) and perhaps throws some additional light upon the genus. 
The flowers are diecio-polygzamous, the two forms differing from 
each other in aspect much as the staminate and pistillate plants 
of Spirea Aruncus. In one form, the filaments are exserted to 
twice or thrice the length of the calyx, and the spatulate-linear 
petals, inconspicuous only on account of their narrowness, are 
nearly as long as the stamens: .the ovaries are well-formed and 
filled with ovules, which, however, so far as I have observed, are 
never fertilized; and the stigmas are smaller than in the fertile 
plant, and not papillose. In the other or fertile form, both the 
stamens and the petals are in an abortive or rudimentary state, 
and being shorter than the sepals, and concealed by them in dried 
specimens, are readily overlooked; the stigmas are large, trun- 
cate, and papillose, and a portion of the ovules become fertile. 
The Japanese species (Hoteta Japonica, Morr. § Decaisne, the 
Spirea Aruncus of Thunberg,) appears to have uniform and 
perfect flowers ;+ but the species from Nepal (Aséizlbe rivularis, 


* Muhlenberg’s specimen was also received from Lyon. The only habitat 
cited in this author’s Catalogue is Tennessee, and we ourselves collected it within 
the limits, as well as on the borders of that State. The late Dr: Macbride found it 
in South Carolina, near the sources of the Saluda. 

+ “ Flores in meo Japonico specimine omnes inveni hermaphroditos, nec ullos 
pelygamos.” Thunberg, Flora Japonica, p. 212, sub Spirea Arunco. ; 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 39 


Don, the Spirea barbata of Wallich, but not of Lindley,) is 
probably polygamo-dicecious, like our own species; at least, the 
_ flowers are apetalous in a fragment given me by Prof. Royle, and 
the stamens mostly equal in number to the sepals. I have no 
doubt that these three species belong to a single and very natu- 
ral genus, for which the name of Asti/be must be retained; for I 
see neither justice nor reason in superseding the prior name, as 
suggested by Endlicher,* on account of the incompleteness of 
the character, which correctly describes one state, at least, of the 
plant intended, by the subsequent Hfofeta, the character of which 
is equally incomplete, when applied to the whole genus.t The 


* “Si, quod nune asserunt auctores, Hoteia et Astilbe, Don, revera plante conge- 
neres, posterius incomplete ab auctore suo descriptum supprimendum , et prius egre- 
gie stabilitum servandum erit.’” Endl. Gen. Suppl. p. 1416. 

. + Since the above remarks were written, I have seen in the Annales des Sei- 
ences Naturelles for January, 1841, M. Decaisne’s additional Note sur les genres 

Astilbe et Hoteta, in which the two genera are still held to be distinct, the latter in- 
cluding the North American plant, as originally proposed by this author. The char- 
acters of his two genera (excluding such as are common to both) are merely these: 

Astitpz. Flores hermaphroditi, vel sepe stam. abortu feminei. Petala nulla. 
Stamina 5. 

‘Hotxia. Flores hermaphroditi. Petala5, angusta. Stamina 10, quinque pe- 
talis opposita breviora. ie 
_ Since, then, it appears that the .2stzlbe rivularis is more or less diwcio-polyga- 
mous, the view I had already taken is certainly confirmed; and when this acute 
and justly distinguished botanist becomes acquainted with the two states of the 
American species, and considers that the stamens of the original 4stilbe are proba- 
bly sometimes double the number of the sepals, as described by Don, he will doubt- 
less come to the same conclusion. . The diagnostic characters of the three species 
may be thus expressed. 

ASTILBE, Hamilton, cx Don; Torr. & Gray. (Hoteia, Morr. & Decaisne.) 

1. A. rrvunaris (Hamilton, Don) : floribus sepe dicecio-polygamis, calyce 4—5- 
partito imo ovario tantum adnato, petalis (an semper?) nullis, staminibus 4-5 
nunc 8 (ex Don.)—Spirea barbata, Wall. cat. ; Camb. in Jacquem. bot. p. 48. t. 58 
ex Decaisne. : “ 

Hab. in montibus Nepalensibus. 

2. A. DECANDRA (Don) : floribus dicecio-polygamis, calyce 5-partito imo ovario 
tantum adnato, petalis anguste lineari-spathulatis (in pl. fert. subnullis), staminibus 
10 (in pl. fert. abortivis).—Spirzeea Aruncus var. hermaphrodita, Miche. Tiarella 
biternata, Vent. hort. Malmais. t.34. Astilbe decandra, Don; Torr. § Gray, fl. 
N. Amer. 1. p. 589. Hoteia biternata, Decaisne, in ann. sci. nat. (ser, 2.) 2. t. 11. 
f. 11 & 12, & 7, p. 36. 

Hab. in montibus Caroline et Tennessee. : 

3. A. Japonica: floribus hermaphroditis, calycis profunde quinquefidi tubo 
basi ovarii adnato, petalis oblongo-spathulatis, staminibus 10,—Spirea Aruneus, 
Thunb. fl. Japon. p. 211, non Linn. S. barbata, Lindl, bot. reg. t. 2011, non Wall. 
Hoteia Japonica, Morr. & Decaisne, in ann. sei. nat. (ser. 2.) 2. t. 11, & 7. p. 36. 

Hab. in Japonia. 


40. Botanical Excursion to the M ountains of North Carolina: 


number of genera which are either divided between North Amer-~ 
ica, Japan, and the mountain-region of central Asia, or have 
nearly allied species in these countries or in the two former, is 
very considerable: in other cases a North American genus is re- 
placed by a nearly allied one in Japan, &c., as Decumaria by 
Schizophragma, Schizandra by Spherostemma, Hamamelis 
by Corylopsis, &c. Ihave elsewhere alluded to this subject, 
and shall probably consider it more particularly on some future 
occasion. che 
Our next day’s journey was a Cranberry Forge to. Crab 
Orchard on Doe River, in Tennessee, and up Little Doe River to 
’Squire Hampton’s, where we took a guide and ascended the 
Roan, While ascending the Little Doe River, about three miles 
from its junction with the larger stream of that name, at one of 
the numerous places where the road crosses this rivulet, we 
_ again met with Carex Fraseriana. ‘The plant did not appear 
to be so abundant in this Tennessee locality as at the Grand fa- 
ther, but itis doubtless plentiful on the mountain side just above. 
We ascended the north side of the Roan, through the heavy 
timbered woods and rank herbage with which it is covered; but 
found nothing new to us, excepting Streptopus lanuginesus, 
in fruit; and among the groves of Rhododendron maximum: 
towards the summit, we also collected Diphysciwm foliosum, a 
moss which we had not before seen in a living state. In more 
open moist places near the summit, we found the Hedyotis 
(Houstonia) serpyllifolia, still beautifully in flower, and the 
Geum geniculatum, which we have already noticed. It was 
just sunset when we reached the bald and grassy summit of this 
noble mountain, and after enjoying for a moment the magnificent 
view it affords, had barely time to prepare our encampment be- 
tween two dense clumps of Rhododendron Catawbiense, to col- 
lect fuel, and make ready our supper. The night was so fine 
that our slight shelter of Balsam boughs proved amply sufficient ;_. 
the thermometer, at this elevation of about six thousand -feet 
above the level of the sea, being 64° Fahr. at midnight, and 60° 
at sunrise. ‘The temperature of a spring just under the brow of 
the mountain below our encampment we found to be 47° Fahr. 
The Roan is well characterized by Prof. Mitchell, as the easiest 
of access and the most beautiful of all the high mountains of that 
_ region. ‘ With the exception of a body of [granitic] rocks, look-. 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 41 


ing like the ruins of an old castle, near its southwestern extrem- 
ity, the top of the Roan may be described as a vast meadow, 
[about nine miles in length, with some interruptions, and with a 
maximum elevation of six thousand and thirty eight feet,] with- 
out a tree to obstruct the prospect; where a person may gallop 
his horse for a mile or two, with Carolina at his feet on one side, 
and Tennessee on the other, and a green ocean of mountains 
raised into tremendous billows immediately about him. It is the 
pasture ground for the young horses of the whole country about 
it during the summer. We found the strawberry here in the 
greatest abundance and of the finest quality, in regard to both 
size and flavor, on the 30th of July.”* 

At sunrise we had fine weather and a most extensive view of 
the surrounding country; in one direction we could count from 
eight to twelve successive ranges of mountains, and nearly all 
the higher peaks of this whole region were distinctly visible. 
Soon, however, we wereenveloped in a dense fog which con- 
tinued for several hours, during which we traversed the south- 
western summit, and made a list of the plants we saw. The 
herbaceous plants of this bald and rounded summit are chiefly 
Aira flecuosa, Juncus tenuis, Carer intumescens, festucacea, 
estivalis of Mr. Curtis, and a narrow-leaved variety of C. Penn- 
sylvanica, the latter constituting the greater part of the grassy 
herbage, Luzula campestris, Lilium Philadelphicum and Can- 
adense, which here only attain the height of four to eight inches, 
Sisyrinchium anceps, Smilacina bifolia, Habenaria (Platan- 
thera) peramena, Veratrum viride, Helonias (Chamelirium) 
dioica, Osmunda Claytoniana, Linn. (O. interrupta, Michz.), 
Athyrium asplenioides, Pedicularis Canadensis mostly with pur- 
plish-brown flowers, now just in blossom, Trautvetterra palmata, 
Ranunculus repens, Thalictrum dioicum just in flower, Greum 
radiatum in the greatest profusion, (it was here that’ Michaux 
obtained this species,) Potentilla tridentata and Canadensis, 
Fragaria Virginiana, the fruit just ripe and of the finest flavor, 
Rubus villosus now in flower, Castilleja coccinea, Geranium 
maculatum, Clematis Viorna about eight inches high, Sanicula 
Marilandica, Zizia aurea, Heracleum lanatum, Hypericum 


* Prof. Mitchell of Chape! Hill University, in the Raleigh Register of Nov. 3d, 
1835, and in the American Journal of Science and Arts, for January, 1839. 


Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 6 


42 Botanical Excursion to the M aula North Carolina. 


corymbosum, with larger flowers than usual; a more upright 
and larger-leaved variety of Hedyotzs senpyllifalis @nothera 
glauca 6., Senecio Balsamite, Rudbeckia triloba, and a dwarf 
variety of R. laciniata, Liatris spicata, Cacalia atriplicifolia, 
Cynthia Virginica, Aster acuminatus, Solidago bicolor, S. spi- 
thamea, Curtis in Torr. § Gr. fi. ined., a very distinct dwarf 
species, S. Curtisii, Torr. & Gir. l. c. not yet in flower, and S. 
glomerata in the same state as at Grandfather Mountain ; also 
Savifraga leucanthemifolia, Sedum telephioides, Heuchera vil- 
losa, Polypodium vulgare, the dwarf var. of Hedyotis purpurea 
previously noticed, Scrpus cespitosus, and Agrostis rupesiris ! 
which are confined to the rocky precipice already mentioned. 
The only tree is Abies F'rasert, a few dwarf specimens of which 
extend into the open ground of the summit; and the following 
are all the shrubs which we observed, viz. Déervilla trifida, 
Menziesia globularis, Vaccinium erythrocarpum, Rhododendron 
Catawbiense, forming very dense clumps, Letophyllum serpylli- 
folium, Sorbus Americana, two to four feet high, Crategus 
punctata only a foot in. height, Pyrus arbutifolia var. melano- 
carpa, Ribes rotundifolium ; and alow and much-branched spe- 
cies of Alder, which Mr. Curtis proposes to call Alnus Mitchelh- 
ana, in honor of Professor Mitchell; but we fear it may prove to 
be a variety of what we deem the A. crispa, Ait. from the moun- 
tains of New, York, New Hampshire, &c., and Newfoundland, 
although it has more rounded leaves, with the lower surface 
nearly glabrous, except the primary veins; while in the former 
(to which the names of A. crispa and A. undulata are not very 
appropriate, ) the leaves are often, but not always, somewhat vel- 
vety-pubescent beneath. ‘To our list must be added an appa- 
rently undescribed species of Vaccinium, first noticed by Mr. 
Constable.* We made a hasty visit to the other principal sum- 


* Vaccinium ConsTasrat (spec. nov): pumilum, foliis deciduis ovalibus palli- 
dis subtus glaucis reticulato-venosisque glanduloso-mucronatis integerrimis vel ob- 
soletissime serrulatis ciliatis, racemis brevissimis sessilibus, bracteis squamaceis 
parvis caducis, corollis brevissime eypindricis, antheris inclusis muticis, ovariis 10- 
locularibus, loculis pluri-ovulatis. 

In summo jugo ‘ Roan Mountain’ dicto, (Tennessee et Carolina Septentrionali,) 
ad alt. 6000 pedes. Julio floret.—Frutex 1-3-pedalis, erectus, ramis griseo-virid- 
ibus teretis. Folia sesqui-biuncialia, lato-ovalia vel elliptica, urinque sepius acuta, 
glabra, nisi costa supra puberula et margines ciliati, subsessilia, infra saturate 
glauca. Racemi 5-10-flori, sepe corymbosi, ad apicem ramulorum anni prace- 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 43 


mit, where we found: nothing that we had not already collected, 
excepting Arenaria glabra, Michz., and descended partly by 
way of the contiguous Yellow Mountain. 

Retracing our steps, we returned the next day to the foot of 
Grandfather, and reached our quarters at Jefferson the second 
day after. We had frequently been told of an antidote to 
the bite of the Rattle-snake and Copper-head, (not unfrequent 
throughout this region,) which is thought to possess wonderful 
efficacy, called Turman’s Snake-root, after an ‘Indian Doctor,’ 
who first employed it; the plant was brought to us by a man 
who was ready to attest its virtues from his personal knowledge, 
and proved to be the Silene stellata! Its use was suggested by 
the markings of the root beneath the bark, in which these people 
find a fancied resemblance to the skin of the Rattle-snake.. Near- 
ly all the reputed antidotes are equally inert ; such herbs as Im- 
patiens pallida, &c. being sometimes employed ; so that we are 
led to conclude that the bite of these reptiles is seldom fatal, or 
even very dangerous, in these cooler portions of the country. ~ 

About the foot of the Roan and Grandfather, we obtained a 
few specimens of Pycnanthemum montanum, Michz. (Monar- 
della, Benth.) just coming into blossom. Our plant accords with 
Michanx’s description, except that there are frequently two, or 
even three axillary heads besides the terminal one. ‘The flow- 
ers have altogether the structure of Pycnanthemum, and the up- 
per lip of the corolla is entire ; so that it cannot belong to Mo- 
nardella, although placed as the leading species of that genus. 


dentis solitarii vel aggregati. Bacce immature cerulee, glauce, limbo calycis 
majusculo coronate, decem- (nunc abortu quinque ?) loculares ; loculis pleio- 
(3-6?) spermis. - 

Prof. Dunal (in DC. prodr. 7. p. 566,) notices as an extraordinary exception to 
the character of Vaccinium, a species with an 8 to 10-celled fruit and a single? 
seed in each cell. The first-named character is not unfrequent in the genus; sey- 
eral of the more common species which I have cursorily examined, exhibit a more 
or less completely 8-10-celled ovary, but with many ovules in each cell. There 
is a small group, however, (Decacumna, Torr. § Gr. ined.) presenting a differ- 
ent structure, which is best exemplified in V. resinosum, it. ‘The 10 carpels of this 
species, enclosed in the baccate calyx, are very slightly coherent with each other, 
and become ¢rustaceous or bony nuts, each containing a single ascending seed. 
The same is the case in what I take to be V. dumoswm and V. hirtellum ; and 
probably in some other species which have the leaves sprinkled with resinous 
dots. V. frondosum, Willd. (which is the V. decumerocarpon of Dunal,) is sim- 
ilar in structure, except that the carpels appear to be more coherent and less in- 
durated. - 


AA Botanical Becursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


As to the species from which Mr. Bentham derived the generic 
name, (Pycnanthemum Monardella, Michz.,) 1am by no means 
certain that it belongs either to Pycnanthemum or Monardella. 
The specimen in the Michauxian herbarium is not out of flower, 
as has been thought, but the inflorescence is undeveloped, and 
perhaps in an abnormal state. In examining a small portion 
taken from the head, I found nothing but striate-nerved bracts, 
obtuse and villous at the apex, and abruptly awned; the exterior 
‘involucrate and often lobed; the innermost linear, and tipped 
with a single awn. The aspect of the plant, also, is so like Mo- 
narda fistulosa, that I am strongly inclined to think it a some- 
what monstrous’ state of that, or some nearly allied species ; in 
which case, the genus Monardella should be restricted to the Cali- 
fornian species. Pursh’s P. Monardella, I may observe, was col- 
lected beneath the Natural Bridge in Virginia, where we also ob- 
tained the plant, and subsequently met with it throughout the 
mountains. It is certainly a form of Monarda fistulosa, accord- 
ing to Mr. Bentham’s characters ; but the taste is much less pun- 
gent, the throat of the calyx less strongly bearded than is usual 
in that species, and the corolla nearly white. We thought it 
probably a distinct species; but these differences may be ow- 
ing to the deep shade in which it commonly occurs. The P. 
Monardella ‘of Elliott, according to his herbarium, is’ identical 
with that of Pursh: We collected in Ashe County several other 
species of Pycnanthemum, and in the endeavor to discriminate 
them, we encountered so many difficulties that I am induced to 
give a revision of the whole genus.* 


* ConsPEcTUS PYcNANTHEMORUM. 


§ 1. Calyx viz bilabiatus ; dentibus bracteisque subulato-aristatis, rigidis, nudis, corollam 
@quantibus. Verticillastri densi plerumque terminules. Ovaria barbata. Folia subpetiolata, 
rigida. . 

1. P. anistatum (Michz.): foliis breviter petiolatis ovato-oblongis acutis subserratis 
basi rotundatis cauleque tenuissime canescenti-tomentosis vel glabris.—P. setosum, Nuie. 
in jour. acad. Philad. 7. p. 100, excl. syn. Pursh. Origanum incanum, Walt. herb. 

Hab. a Nova Cexsarea ad Floridam.—Polia floralia nune candicantia. 


9. P. nyssopiroLium (Benth.): foliis subsessilibus lineari-oblongis obtusis subinteger- 
rimis cauleque glabris vel tenuissime subtomentoso-canescentibus.—P. aristatum, Pursh, 
(fide, spec. in herb. Lamb..et herb. Bart.,) Nuit. et Ell. 

Hab. a Virginia usque ad- Floridam et Louisianam.—Due species arcte affines optime 
dignoscuntur in Benth. Lab. genset spec. Stamina e fauce corolle subexserta. 


§2. Calyx bilabiatus ; nempe, dentibus (plerumque subulatis, sepe pilis rigidiuscults bar- 


batis,) 3 superioribus in labio’ superiore bast coalitis. Verticillastri cymosi, laxi. Ovaria 
se@pius barbait. Folia petiolata. , 


Botanical Hxcursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 45 


Some additional plants were obtained around Jefferson, which 
were not previously in blossom, such as Campanula divaricata ; 
Cacalia reniformis ; Silphium perfoliatum ; the larger form of 
Coreopsis auriculata, with nearly all the leaves undivided ; the 


3. P. atBescens (Torr. § Gray, fl. N. Amer. ined.): verticillastris cymosis, dentibus 
ealycis zqualibus triangulari-lanceolatis brevibus obtusiusculis muticis, foliis oblongis 
ovato-lanceolatisve subserratis utrinque acutis supra glabris subtus canis. 

Hab. in Louisiana, Ingalls, Hale, et Alabama, Gates.—Minus per totum quam P. znca- 
num; foliis superioribus, ut in aliis utrinque candidis, czteris cauleque pube brevissima 
incanis. Ovaria ad apicem brevissime barbata. 

4. P. 1ncanum (Miche.): verticillastris cymosis, dentibus calycis subsequalibus lanceo- 
lato-subulatis, apice plerumque I-2-setosis, foliis ovato-oblongis remote serratis basi ro- 
tundatis pubescentibus subtus albo-tomentosis, floralibus utrinque candidis. 

Folia ampla. _Ovaria ut vidi villoso-barbata, non “apice attenuata, appendice paleaceo 
acuminata.’’—Mihi ignotum est P. Loomisii, Nutt. in jour. acad. Philad. 7. p. 100, quod in 
characteribus datis omnino P. incano convenit. 


5. P. Tutiia (Benth.) : verticillastris cymosis, (floribus omnino explicatis in ramos sub- 
simplices arete secundis,) dentibus calycis bilabiati subsequalibus e basi lanceolata longe 
subulato-aristatis bracteisque apicem versus pilis longis barbatis, 2 inferioribus tubum 
squantibus, foliis oblongis acutis vel acuminatis subserratis petiolatis cauleque villoso- 
pubescentibus, floralibus dealbatis.—Tullia yeaa aaa) Leavenworth, in Sill. jour. 
20. p. 343, ¢. 5. 

Variat 1, calyce imberbi, fide Benth. Lab. duper p. 728 (Carol. Austr. Mitchell) ; 2, foliis 
ovato-oblongis basi aut rotundatis aut acutis (sic legimus in comitatu Ashe, et invenit cl. 
Curtis in com. Burke, Carol. Sept.);°3, foliis lanceolatis utrinqgue acutis vel attenuatis 
(cum precedente legimus). In stirps Leavenworthu. (ad Paint Mountain, Tennessee Ori- 
ent. exeunte Octobri decerpta), rami fructiferse, cyme subsimplices elongati sunt, densi- 
flori, floribus sessilibus arcte secundis.—Exstat specimen in herb. Bart. cum schedula, “ P. 
montanum? Miche. in Virginia juxta Staunton,” manu Purshii inseripta. Dentes caly- 
cini attenuato-subulati, pilis setiformibus longissimis articulatis plerumque barbati; 2 in- 
feriores labium superius subsequantes, nunc paulo superantes. Ovaria pilis paucioribus 
barbulata. 


6. P. puBiuM (spec. nov.): verticillastris cymosis, dentibus calycis bilabiati subulatis 
bracteisque pilis longis barbatis, 2 inferioribus tubo labioque superiore brevioribus, foliis 
lanceolatis utrinque acutis eabinleaeaniiny’ glabriusculis. petiolatis, caule villoso-pubes- 
cente. 

Hab. in Carolina Sentanionall; comitatu Ashe, cum P. Tullia et P. piloso 8. vigens, 
ubi legimus ad finem Julii—P. Tullig nimis affinis, sed differt, (an satis ?) foliis angustio- 
ribus fere integerrimis, nunquam incanis vel dealbatis, dentibus calycis brevioribus et in- 
wqualibus, ovariis calvis nec barbulatis, etc.—Folia 2-2-pollicaria, semipoll. lata, acutis- 
sima, ad venas pl. m. pubescentia. Bractex et corolla precedentis. 


7. P. ctanopopiorpEs (Torr. & Gray, fl. N. Amer. wed.) : verticillastris contractis, 
dentibus calycis subzequalibus brevibus subulatis bracteisque canescenti-pilosis, foliis 
oblongo-lanceolatis utrinque acutiusculis subserratis breviter petiolatis supra glabratis 
subtus cauleque molliter pubescenti-villosis. : 

Hab. in siccis circa urbem Novum Eboracum et in Nova Cesarea. Augusto floret.— 
Caulis pedalis et ultra, pube molli laxa vestitus, subsimplex. Folia 2-3-pollicaria, nun- 
quam dealbata ; pagina superiore spe glabra ; inferiore, presertim ad costam et venas 
villoso-pubescente. Bractez breviores quam in precedente, et minus barbate. Dentes 
calycis tubo fere dimidio breviores, 3 superiores basi satis coaliti. Stamina modice 
exserta. Ovaria barbata—Stirpes angustifolie versus sequentem, latifolie ad P. tnca- 
num tendentes vel transeuntes ? 


46 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


glabrous and narrow-leaved variety of C. senifolia (C. stellata, 
Nutt.) which alone occurs in this region; Melanthium Virgini- 
cum, which is a very handsome plant, with the flowers cream- 
colored when they first expand; and Stenanthium angusizfo- 


-§3. Calyx subequaliter dentatus. Verticillastri lave capituliformes, plerumque terminales,. 


corymboso-paniculati. Bractee floribus breviores. Ovaria sepius calva. Foha vix spetio- 
lata. 

8. P. TORRE (Benth.): calyce subsequaliter dentato, Heaibes subulatis bracteisque 
pubescenti-canescentibus, foliis lineari-lanceolatis oblongo-linearibusve glabriusculis acu- 
tis vix serratis basi in petiolum brevissimum sensim angustatis, caule stricto pubescente. 
—P. Virginicum, Nutt. gen. 2. p. 33? 

Hab. in Nova Czsaréa, et circa urbem- Novum Eboracum, ubi frequens ; etiam in Caro- 
lina Australi, ex Benth. Lab. suppl—Facies aliquantum P. lanceolati, sed facile distin- 
guitur; foliis longioribus (minus rigidis) basi longe attenuatis, verticillastris contractis 
nec capitatis, bracteis plerisque subulatis haud adpressis, dentibus calycis gracilioribus, 
corolla ampliore magis ringente, et staminibus exsertis. 


9. P. pruosum (Nutt.): calyce subineequaliter dentato, dentibus ovato-lanceolatis acutis 
bracteisque canescenti-villosis, foliis lanceolatis subintegerrimis basi acutis subsessilibus 
caule ramisque erectis molliter pubescentibus aut villosis, floralibus nunquam dealbatis.— 
P. muticum, Benth. Lab. p. 329, partim.—Variat, 1, calyce fere equaliter 5-dentato ; 
2, dentibus calycinis 3 superioribus basi manifeste coalitis ; et, ni fallor, 

8. LEPTODON: calyce fere zqualiter dentato, dentibus longioribus e basi lato acumina- 
tis vel subulatis bracteisque (acuminatis) villoso-canis——An species ? 

Hab. in civitatibus occidentalibus, ab Ohio et Tennessee ad Missouriam et Arkansam. 
Var. 8. in comitatu Ashe, Carol. Sept. legimus: etiam cl. Boykin e Georgia misit.—Spe- 
cies ab P. mutico certissime diversa, habitu, pubescentia, foliis minus rigidis basi angus- 
tatis, dentibus calycis dense villoso-barbatis, ete. ete. Ovaria apice obsolete barbulata. 


10. P. muticum (Pers.): calyce #qualiter dentato, dentibus triangulari-ovatis brevibus 
bracteisque muticis pube brevissima canescentibus, foliis rigidis ovatis vel ovato-lanceo- 
latis acutis seepius serratis basi rotundatis (nunc subcordatis) sessilibus subpetiolatisve, 
inferioribus cauleque laxe paniculato glabris aut tenuiter subtomentosis, summis dealba- 
tis—Brachystemum muticum, Michz. fi. 2. P. 6. t. 32. Pycnanthemum muticum, Benth. 
l. c. partim ? 

Hab. Massachusetts usque ad Louisianam.—Folia 1-3-uncialia,; nune exacte ovata, nune 
ovato-oblonga vel sublanceolata, interdum serrata ut in icone Michz., haud rarius serra- 
turis sparsioribus vel obsoletis, basi semper rotundata. Verticillastti capituliformes, 
pauci, parvi, bracteis acutis calycem equantibus. Ovaria calva. 


$4. Calyx equaliter dentatus. Verticillastri dense capituliformes, bracteis rigidis adpres- 


sis suffulti, numerosi, paniculato-corymbosi, fere omnes terminales, nunc subfasciculati. Co- 
roll labia brevia. Ovaria calva. Folia sessilia, angusta, crebra. 


11. P. LaNcEoLATUM (Pursh): dentibus calycis brevibus triangularibus (sepe acutis) 
bracteisque ovato-lanceolatis villoso-tomentosis, foliis lanceolatis linearibusve integerrimis 
rigidis glabriusculis basi obtusis sessilibus, caule ad angulas pubescente.—Brachystemum 
Virginicum, Michz. 

Variat foliis nunc lato-lanceolatis, nune anguste linearibus, rarissime (spec. in herd. J. 
Carey, vidi) subserratis. Stamina sepius inclusa, haud rarius vel duo vel omnia exserta, 
labia corolle subsquantia ! 


12. P. Linirotium (Pursh): dentibus calycis lanceolato-subulatis bracteisque (e basi 
ovata vel lineari subaristatis) rigidis glabrescentibus, foliis anguste linearibus rigidis in- 
tegerrimis sessilibus canleque glabris. 

Stamina nunc inclusa, nune subexserta. 


Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 47 


lium, Gray, which is doubtless. the Helonias sraminea of the 
Botanical Magazine. We also made an excursion to the White 
Top, in Virginia, twenty miles: northwest from Jefferson ; a moun- 
tain of the same character as the Roan, but on a smaller scale, 
and with the pasturage of its summit more closely fed. We 
were not rewarded, however, with any new plants, and the 
cloudy weather obscured the prospect, which is said to be very 
extensive. On our return, we found Cedronella cordata, Benth., 
nearly out of flower, with runners often two or three feet in 
length. Mr. Bentham has omitted to mention the agreeable bal- 
samic odor of the genus, which in our plant is much less power- 
ful than in C. triphylla. We saw plenty of Cimicifuga Amer- 
icana, but the flowers were still unexpanded. Our endeavors to 
obtain the fruit of Crmicifuga cordifolia (common in this region, ) 
were likewise unsuccessful ; without which it is not always easy 
to distinguish this species from C. racemosa. 'The leaflets of 
the former are frequently very large, the terminal ones resem- 


$5. Calyx equaliter dentatus. Verticillastri dense corymbost, terminales, paniculati, brac- 
teis lavis, interioribus brevissimis. Ovaria calva. Folia brevia, remotiuscula, sessilia. 

13., P. nupum (Nutt.): glabrum pallide virens, dentibus calycis triangulari-lanceolatis 
brevibus.pilosis, bracteis exterioribus lanceolato-linearibus interioribus brevissimis subu- 
latis, foliis ovato-oblongis integerrimis sessilibus, caule simplici stricto. 


$6. Calyx equaliter dentatus. Verticillastri (ampli) subglobosi, bracteis plurimis suffult., 
solitarti terminales, aut sepius in azillas foliorum parium 2-3 supremorum arcte sessiles. 
Ovaria barbata. Folha subpetiolata. 

14. P. monranum (Michz.) : capitulis globosis, bracteis acutissimis villoso-ciliatis ex- 
terioribus ovatis intimis linearibus, dentibus calycis brevibus acutis, foliis ovato-lanceola- 
tis serratis acutis inferioribus basi rotundatis cauleque glabris.—P. montanum, Nuit. gen. 
2, Dp: 33, et, sic opinor, Micha. fl. 2. p. 8: igitur Monardella montana, Benth. Lab. p. 331. 

Hab. in altis montibus Caroline, Michaux. Ad jugum quod dicit “ Catawba Ridge,” 
Carol. Sept., Nuttall. Ad radices montium Grandfather, Roan, etc., legimus, et olim in- 
venit Curtis. Julio-Augusto floret—Caulis 1-3-pedalis, simplex vel ramosus. Folia sub- 
membranacea; inferiora 2-3-pollicaria, lanceolato-ovata, basi rotundata, petiolo brevi: 
superiora magis lanceolata, sensim acuminata, basi acuta subsessilia ; pagina superior, 
rami, et spe bractes, dum soli exposite, purpurascentes. Bractese acuminatissime ; 
extimz flores equantes. Calyx tubulosus, pilis conspersus, denique subglabratus ; den- 
tibus brevibus triangularibus acutis. Corolla cerina, intus maculis purpureis notata, rin- 
gens; labio inferiore profunde trilobato, lobo medio longiore ; superiore integro! Stam- 
ina longule exserta: anthere loculis parallelis. Styli lobi (ut in ceteris Pycnanthemis) 
sepe inequales. ~ Ovaria apice villoso-barbata. 


Species inquirende. 


P. MONARDELLA, Michz. Verisimiliter est Monarde species! (cf. adnot. supra.) Cer- 
tissime Monarda est P. Monardella, Pursh ! (fide herb. Lamb. et herb. Bart.) etiam Elliottii ! 


P. VERTICILLATUM, Pers. (Brachystemum verticillatum, Micha. fl. 2. p. 6. t. 31) est 
species mihi valde dubia. An recte cl. Benthamius ad P. lanceolatum attulit ?> 


48 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 


bling the leaves of the vine in size and shape, as remarked by © 
DeCandolle; in one instance we found them ten inches in diam- 
eter; but dee are generally much smaller and more divided, 
apparently passing into the former species. The number of the 
ovaries does not afford marked characters, since the lowest flow- 
ers of C. racemosa sometimes present two, while the upper ones 
of C. cordifolia are almost always monogynous. i 

We were too early in the season for several interesting plants, 
especially Composite, and did not extend our researches far 
enough south to obtain many others; such as Hudsonia mon- 
tana, which appears to be confined to Table Mountain, Ahodo- 
dendron punctatum, Stuartia pentagyna, Philadelphus hirsutus, 
Silene ovata (which Mr. Curtis found in Buncombe and Hay- 
wood Counties), Berberis Canadensis (which however Pursh 
collected on the mountains of Greenbrier in Virginia), Parnassia 
asarifolia, (which according to Mr. Curtis first appears in Yancey 
County, but Pursh procured it from “ mountain.runs on the Salt 
Pond Mountain, Virginia, and on the top of the Alleghanies near 
Christiansburg,’’) and, above all, the new Zhermopsis ! ('T’. Caro- 
liniana, M. A. Curtis, mss.) recently discovered by our friend Mr. 
Curtis, in Haywood and Cherokee Counties. We were likewise 
unsuccessful in our search for a remarkable undescribed plant, 
with the habit of Pyrola and the foliage of Galax, which was 
obtained by Michaux in the high mountains of Carolina. ‘The 
only specimen extant is among the ‘Plante incognite’ of the 
Michauxian herbarium, in fruit only; and we were anxious to 
obtain flowering specimens, that we might complete its history ; 
as [have iong wished to dedicate the plant to Prof. Short, of 
Kentucky, whose attainments and- eminent services in North 
American botany are well known and appreciated both at home 
and abroad.* 


* SHORTIA. Torrey § Gray. 


Calyx quinquesepalus ; sepala imbricata, squamacea, striata, persistentia, exteri- 
ora ovata, interiora oblonga. Corolla... Stamina ...Capsula calyce brevior, 
subglobosa, stylo filiformi (subpersistente) superata, trilocularis, loculicide trival- 
vis, valvis medio septiferis, placenta centrali magna persistente. Semina multa, 
parva; testa nucleo conformis. Embryo teres, rectiusculus, albumine brevior.— 
Herba cxspitosa? subacaulis, perenni, glabra; foliis longe petiolatis, rotundatis, 
subcordatis, apice nunc retusis, crenato-serratis, crenaturis mucronatis ; scapis uni- 
floris, nudis, apicem versus squamoso-bracteatis. 

S. Garaciroxia, Torr, & Gray.—(V. spec. sicc. in herd. Miche., cum, schedula, 
‘Hautes montagnes de Carolinie. An Pyrola spec. ? an genus novum?’) 


Three new Plants of Central Ohio. ie 


_ We left this interesting region near the end of July, returning 
to New. York by way of Raleigh, Richmond; &c.; and founda 
marked change in the vegetation immediately on crossing the 
Blue Ridge. I cannot extend these remarks to the plants ob- 
served in our homeward journey, except to mention that the 
Schrankia of this part of the country, which extends to the east- 
ern slope of the Blue Ridge, is the S. angustata, Torr. & Grr. ; 
at least we observed no other species. This is doubtless the S. 
uncinata of DeCandolle ; but not, I think, of Willdenow. I may 
here remark, that the reticulate-leaved species, (S. wncinata, 
Torr. § Gr.) is the Leptoglottis of DeCandolle, (Mem. Legum.) 
as I have ascertained from a fragment of the original specimen in 
the rich herbarium of Mr. Webb, which that gentleman obli- 
gingly sent me; but I find no neutral flowers or sterile filaments 
in the numerous specimens of this plant, from different localities, 
which I have from time to time examined. 


Arr. If.—Account of three undescribed Planis of Central Ohio ; 
by Wa. 8. Sutiivanr. 


1. Arasis PATENS (sp. nov.): erecta, pilis rigidiusculis simpli- 
cibus furcatisve undique vestita, foliis radicalibus rosulatis petio- 
latis, mediis oblongo-ovatis grosse dentatis auriculato-amplexicau- 
libus, summis lineari-oblongis subintegris, pedicellis flore majus- 
culo (albo) longioribus, siliquis patentibus sursum curvatis stylo 
conspicuo rostellatis. 

Hab. Rocky banks of the Scioto River, near Columbus, Ohio. 

Obs. The far less numerous siliques, widely spreading and 
with an upward curvature, and tipped with distinct somewhat 
clavate styles, as well as the larger flowers, will readily distin- 
guish this species from A. hirsuta, with which it has perhaps 
been confounded. It has nothing of the strict habit of that spe- 
cies. The septum of A. patens presents descending, rather 
straight, and broken lines of tubuli, which anastomose and _pro- 
duce irregular oblong areole, parallel with the septum. In A. 
hirsuta the aredle are amorphous, on account of the very tortu- 
ous, anastomosing lines of tubuli. The septum of A. levigata 
has a straight central line, or raphe, extending throughout its 
whole length, with reticulations like those of the last species. 

Vol. xnu1, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 7 


50 Three new Plants of Central Ohio. 


Dr. Torrey has given some interesting remarks on this subject, 
in the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural oe ae = 
A, p. 88. 


2. Fepra umpmucara (sp. nov.): fructu subgloboso- inflato gla- 
bro apice unidentato antice profunde umbilicato, loculis sterilibus 
fertili multoties majoribus, bracteis subspatulato-linearibus eciliatis, 

Hab. Around Columbus, Ohio. 

Obs. This species has the appearance of F'. radzata, and F’. 
Fagopyrum, Torr. 5: Gray (which also occurs in the central 
part of Ohio,) but is more nearly allied to F. pumila, of the 
south of Europe. The inflated sterile cells are in contact from 
top to bottom, and have a common dissepiment, (which, how- 
ever, is often wanting or incomplete in the full-grown. fruit,) but 
there is a deep circular depression in the middle of the anterior 
face. The flattened fertile cell is one-nerved on the back, under 
a lens; and is produced at the apex into a blunt, somewhat con- 
spicuous tooth. 


3. ELErocHARIS COMPRESSA (sp. nov.): culmis cespitosis valde 
compressis (in siccis spiraliter tortis), spica oblongo-ovata acuta, 
squamis ovato-lanceolatis acutis ad apicem sepissime bifidis, 
staminibus 3, stylo trifido, achenio obovato-pyriformi trigono 
punctatulo nitido apice in breve collum basi styli abbreviato-con- 
ica coronatum constricto, setis nullis. 

Hab. Wet places in the Darby Plains, fifteen miles west of 
Columbus, Ohio. 

Descr. Culm ceespitose, 12-18 inches high, slender, a 
compressed, strongly striate, closely invested at the base with a 
single, horizontally truncate sheath. Spike 3-5 lines in length, 
oblong-ovate, terete, acute, many-flowered. Scales ovate-lan- 
ceolate, acute, of a rather firm texture, dark purple on the back, 
with a broad white transparent margin, entire, except the apex, 
which (even in the young state) is deeply 2-cleft, the segments 
contorted. Bristles none. Achenium obovate, pyriform, obtusely 
triangular, of a light golden color, shining, minutely pitted lon- 
gitudinally ; the raised margins of the pits traversing it in undu- 
lating lines. Tubercle fuscous, small, not one-sixth the length 
of the achenium, which is contracted into a short neck be- 
neath it. 


aS f 


Notes upon the Gebeewes: the Western States. 51 


_ Obs. This distinctly marked species approaches the H. tricos- 
tata of 'Torrey’s Monogr. N. Amer. Cyper. p. 310. It was er- 
roneously inserted in my Catalogue of Plants in the Vicinity of 
Columbus, under the name of HL. tortilis, Schultes. 


_'T'wo plants, which have been supposed to be nearly or alto- 
gether confined to Arkansas, are also natives of central Ohio ; 
one, the showy H'irysimum Arkansanum of Nuttall, has already 
been noticed; the other is the E’ulophus Americanus of the 
same author, which I have collected in the Darby Plains, about 
fifteen miles from Columbus; and Dr. Short has also detected 
it in the southern parts of Kentucky. 


Ericenta, Nutt. This genus, which exhibits an union of the 
campylospermous and ccelospermous structures, has been incor- 
rectly described as destitute of vittz. It has, however, three to 
four vitte in each interval, and six to eight in the commissure. 


Varerrana crtiatTa, Zorr. §& Gray. This interesting plant is 
polygamo-dicecious, at least in the Ohio localities, with the pis- 
tillate flowers not more than half the size of the staminate ; just 
as in V. dioica, tuberosa, tripteris, and several other European 
species,—fide Koch, Synop. Fl. Germ. et. Helv. p. 337. 


Art. IIIl.—Notes upon the Geology of the Western States ; by 
James Hatx, State Geologist of New York. 


Havine made during the last spring a tour of exploration 
through the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, a part of Michigan, 
Kentucky and Missouri, and the territories of Iowa and Wiscon- 
sin; a few observations upon the geology of this region may not 
be unacceptable to the readers of the American Journal of Sci- 
ence. ‘The tour was commenced with a view of tracing the 
rocks of New York westward, and of ascertaining how far the 
grouping adopted in the reports already made, was applicable in 
the western extension of the series. Another object which was 
deemed of great importance, was that of clearly ascertaining and 
defining the true position of the rock in which the lead ore of 
Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa is found. . : 

Much doubt and perplexity has arisen among geologists as 
well as others, in attempting to harmonize the geological reports 


52 Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. 


of the different states; it being evident that the same rock was 
known under different names, and the descriptions in many cases 
being inapplicable to the same in other places from the great 
change in lithological character. 'Thus far, little attempt has 
been made to identify the particular rocks of the lower forma- 
tions in distant localities by their fossils. In this condition of 
‘things we have the ‘cliff limestone” of Prof. Locke, a name 
applicable in Indiana and Ohio—and equally applicable, as will 
be seen, to another rock on the Mississippi river—and the ‘ blue 
limestone” of the same report, given as the lowest member of 
the series in Ohio. Thus according to the report just quoted, 
and which in fact gives a very accurate account of the rocks of 
the state, we have in Ohio only two limestone formations, 
whereas in New York we have three very important ones, with 
some minor beds. "These are, Ist. The limestone along the Mo- 
hawk valley, the principal member of which is termed by Mr. 
Vanuxem, the “‘ Mohawk limestone,” a name which with much 
propriety might be applied to the whole mass, forming the Mo- 
hawk group. This would include the Mohawk, Birdseye, and 
Trenton limestones, and the calciferous sandrock might also be 
included as the lower member of the group. 2d. The Niagara 
group, called in the reports Lockport limestone and Rochester 
shale. 3d. The ‘“ Helderberg limestone group” of Mr. Mather, 
including all those limestones of Schoharie and the Helderberg 
mountains, or all the rocks between the Onondaga salt group and 
the fossiliferous shales of Ludlowville, Moscow, &c. Between 
either of these groups in New York, there are thick deposits of 
other rocks, (shales and sandstones,) while in Ohio, the two 
limestones there named are separated only by a few feet, accord- 
ing to the report. Now it becomes very important to know, to 
which of the New York groups these two masses belong, and 
whether, in progressing westward, certain groups become more 
or less important. We have already seen from the New York 
reports, enough to anticipate that great changes might be ex- 
pected when we should trace the same rocks over twice or thrice 
the extent of that state. 

The extension of the great coal basin of Pennsylvania be- 
came another object of interest, from the fact that it borders the 
southern counties of New York, the lower member of the ear- 
boniferous system extending within that state, and for the most 


Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. 53 


part resting upon what has been very appropriately termed the 
Chemung group. This latter object was the one first taken up, 
and the junction of the two formations traced with as much care 
through Ohio as it has been in Pennsylvania and New York. 
Again, after the reappearance of the carboniferous group in In- 
diana, the same line of observation was taken up and followed to 
the Mississippi river. ‘Throughout the whole of this great ex- 
tent, the fundamental rock of the system maintains its position 
and essential characters in a remarkable degree. 'The coarse 
gray or drab sandstone and conglomerate of southern New York 
and Pennsylvania, is perfectly represented throughout the coal 
region of the west. 

It may not be improper to state here, that the great coal basin 
of Pennsylvania and Ohio terminates to the east of the centre of 
the latter state, following a general S. W. and N. E. direction. 
Nearly along the boundary line between Ohio and Indiana, and 
in the same general direction, there is an anticlinal axis, throwing 
off the strata in opposite directions, and if ever the upper masses 
existed, elevating them so much that they have been swept off. 
Near the centre of Indiana the carboniferous rocks again appear, 
occupying the southwestern part of that state and a large portion 
of Illinois, extending in a narrow belt across the Mississippi river. 
The coal of Kentucky and 'Tennessee may be considered a part 
of the same basin, separated only by the Ohio river. The coal 
basin of Missouri is entirely distinct, being separated by the ele- 
vation of the lower rocks; the same may be said of the Michi- 
gan coal basin, which is separated from that of Indiana and Iili- 
nois, by an axis running more nearly in an east and west direction. 

In tracing the rocks of this great western region, the carbon- 
iferous group forms a good starting point, and having no hypo- 
sene rocks, nor even the lower members of the transition or Silu- 
rean system, except at a few distant points, this becomes of the 
greatest importance. The conglomerate, sometimes a coarse 
grey sandstone with lines of cross stratification, is the most prom- 
inent member of the series, and the one which can best be traced 
over a great extent of country. On the Cuyahoga river in Ohio, 
it is seen to great advantage at the falls and other places, having 
a thickness of about one hundred feet: from this place it extends 
S. W. towards the Ohio river, and is visible in abrupt cliffs in 
many of the southern counties. In Indiana and Illinois it is 


5A Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. 


seen along the Ohio, and at Hawesville and “ places on the 
Kentucky side of the river. . ype 

In this notice, I shall present only some of the results of my 
observations; the details of each rock, with other matter, will 
form the subject of a more extended notice hereafter. © : 

I have already stated that the conglomerate or fundamental 

‘member of the coal formation is every where to be recognized, 
whenever we come to that point in the series; it is identical 
with a rock of the same character in southern New York, and 
the bordering counties of Pennsylvania, and holds the same po- 
sition, preserves the same. essential characters, and contains the 
same fossils. The lower coal beds can be seen immediately suc- 
ceeding this rock at the falls of Cuyahoga river, on the farm of 
Henry Newberry, Esq., and also in Jackson, Lawrence and other 
counties of Ohio. The same may be seen at Hawesville, Ky., 
and on the opposite side of the river in Indiana. With the ex- 
ception of the space occupied by lower rocks in western Ohio 
and eastern Indiana, this rock forms a continuous mass of re- 
markably uniform character, from the eastern part of Penney 
nia to the Mississippi river. 

The old red sandstone group in its red color, and bearing scales 
of Holoptychus and other fishes, I have already stated in my 
report, thins’ out on the Genessee river in Alleghany county in 
New York, and does not appear again between that place and 
the Mississippi river, in the direction of my observations. Neither 
in western New York nor in Ohio, so far'as I have seen, is there 
any rock separating the Chemung group from the conglomerate. 

The Chemung group belongs to the old red or Devonian sys- 
tem, and which in New York Mr. Lyell recognizes as bearing a 
most striking lithological similarity to the lower part of the old 
red sandstone in Forfarshire and other parts of Scotland, both in 
the grey thinly laminated sandstones and associated green shales. 
This group extends westward through Ohio, bearing its most 
essential characters, but there and in Indiana, more than in most 
parts of New York, it becomes more evidently distinct from the 
Silurian system. The rocks of this group may be seen in Ohio 
at the Cuyahoga falls, occupying a thickness of not much more 
than one hundred feet, while in New York it cannot be less than 
one thousand or fifteen hundred feet. At Akron, and numerous 
other places to the southwest of this, along the western margin 


Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. § 55 


of the coal-field, the same rocks can be seen. Near the Cuya- 
hoga falls, and along the river below, at Newburgh, and at sev- 
eral other places, may be seen the equivalents of the Portage and 
Gardeau rocks of the New York reports, but of greatly dimin- 
ished thickness. 'The Portage sandstone, however, is in con- 
siderable force in many places in Ohio, being known as the 
“Waverly sandstones” of the geological reports. This term has 
also been erroneously applied to a portion ef the conglomerate of 
the coal group when free from pebbles. The Chemung, Portage, 
and Gardeau groups form the only rocks seen along Lake Erie 
shore, from Dunkirk in New York to Cleveland, Ohio, and they 
extend still farther west until the limestone from beneath rises 
to the surface. ‘These three groups in Ohio present no essential 
differences, and may without impropriety be considered as one, 
the lower part being mostly of shale, the middle of sandstone, 
and the upper part of shales and flagstones. Fossils are not 
abundant in the upper member, and no other than fucoides ap- 
pear, except very rarely in the two below. In the Ohio reports, 
all these rocks are usually spoken of as non-fossiliferous. 

The casts of mud furrows which in New York form the dis- 
tinguishing character of the Gardeau mass, are in Ohio equally 
continued through the Portage and Chemung groups, shewing 
there at least, that some of the same causes were in operation 
during the deposition of the three. These casts of mud furrows 
present some interesting features in the rocks of New York, 
which will be more fully explained at another time. 

These groups reappear on the western side of the axis in In- 
diana, all together occupying less than three hundred feet in 
thickness. It is here that we first discover evidences of a very 
important change. The upper part of the mass, which I con- 
ceive to be the same as the Chemung, is quite sandy, with a few 
traces of fossils characteristic of that group in New York, with 
here and there thin seams or wedgeform layers of limestone, 
made up of crinoidal fragments and broken shells, portions of the 
mass being often oolitic. These thin layers contain a species of 
Productus, differing from any in the Chemung of New York. 
Finally, we discover a mass of limestone eleven feet thick, inter- 
stratified with the sandstone, the lower or smaller portion com- 
posed mostly of fragments of organic remains, while the upper 
portion is a perfect oolite. Other thinner masses are seen inter- 


56 Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. 


stratified with the sandstone, and a few shells and corals are 
found in them; and whenever the thin layers of limestone dis- 
appear, the same fossils are found in the sandstone. ‘These char- 
acters are distinctly seen near New Albany, in the hills known 
as the Knobs, to the northwest of the village. 
. Farther to the west and northwest, and above the. sanilediitie 
extending along the Ohio, on both sides, and into the states of 
Illinois and Kentucky, there appears as a distinct and import- 
ant mass, a limestone resembling that interstratified with the 
sandstone just noticed. The lower part of this limestone is com- 
pact, very fine grained, and some portions fit for lithographic 
stones ; the upper part is coarser, often containing chert or horn- 
stone, and finally the uppermost layers are oolite. It everywhere 
contains the Pentremite and a peculiar coralline fossil, the Archi- 
medes of Le Seur, besides Cyathophyllum and several shells of 
the genera Terebratula and Delthyris. On the Mississippi it con- 
tains two or more species of Productus, a large Delthyris, and a 
peculiar crinoidal fossil. In the oolitic portion, I saw a single 
species of trilobite and afew small shells. This limestone can 
be traced along the Ohio, upon both sides, almost uninterruptedly 
as far as Leavenworth, fifty miles below New Albany ; it there 
passes beneath the conglomerate, showing very clearly its posi- 
tion in regard to the latter and the Chemung group. Beyond 
this it does not uniformly appear; the conglomerate, and in some 
places, as at Hawesville, Ky., the coal formation coming to the 
level of the river. It reappears again about Shawneetown in 
Tllinois, and is visible on one or both sides, almost continuously 
to the mouth of the river. In ascending the Mississippi above 
the mouth of the Ohio, it soon appears, forming cliffs which, be- 
low St. Louis, attain the height of from one hundred and fifty to 
two hundred and fifty feet above the level of the water. ‘These 
cliffs are turned to very important economical purposes ; small 
buildings are erected upon the top, where lead is melted for shot 
making ; the cliff serves the purpose of a high tower, the shot 
being received below on the margin of the river. This limestone 
extends along the Mississippi to near the mouth of Rock river. 
We have then throughout all this great extent of country, from 
central Indiana to beyond the Mississippi river, a limestone dif- 
fering entirely in all its most essential characters, and emphat- 
ically in its position, from. any in New York. Among its fossils 


Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. 57 


are a few which appear to be identical with those of the carbon- 
iferous limestone of Europe, and one of these I am not able to 
distinguish from Producta hemispherica.* 

IT have here already pointed out the relative position of three 
successive formations; first, the old red sandstone group, corres- 
ponding both in its upper and lower part with the same series in 
Europe; secondly, a limestone, which is clearly the equivalent of 
the carboniferous limestone ; and thirdly, a conglomerate which 
is the fundamental rock of the coal formation, and may therefore 
represent the millstone grit of Great Britain. It thus becomes 
quite unnecessary in this place to point out the striking similarity 
in position and other characters of the great coal formation, with 
that of Great Britain and other parts of Europe. 

Continuing the groups of New York as the standard of refer- 
ence, we next arrive, in the descending order, to the great group 
of fossiliferous shales so well developed along Cayuga and Sen- 
eca lakes, and known as Marcellus, Skaneateles, Ludlowville, 


and Moscow shales, which, for the sake of brevity, I shall speak 
of under the name of the Ludlowville group. 'This great group, 
which occupies in New York a thickness not less than one thou- 
sand feet, and contains a greater number of individual fossils than 
nearly all the other groups, thins out in its western prolongation, 
losing at the same time its distinctive paleontological character, 
so that when we ayriye at the falls of the Ohio, (Louisville, Ky., 
and New Albany, fa-,) it is represented by one hundred and four 
feet of black shale,+ nearly or quite destitute of fossils. Farther 
west this shale descends beneath the higher groups, and I was 
not able to discover it on the Mississippi. 

The “‘ Helderberg limestone group” follows in the order of suc- 
cession: next below is the “ Onondaga salt group,” and below 
this, the. Niagara limestone and shale group. In New York, 
these form three very distinct and important masses, extending 
over great areas and with very considerable thickness. ‘The first 
is in greatest force in the Helderberg mountains, in Albany 
county, and in Schoharie, where the whole thickness is four 
hundred or five hundred feet. This group gradually thins west- 


* T have since been able to identify several other species of fossils ftom this rock 
with those of the carboniferous limestone of England. 

t I am indebted to Dr. Clapp of New Albany, who has bored through this shale, 
for this accurate information of its thickness. 

Vol. x11, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 8 


58 Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. 


ward, only two or three of its members baer a at 
the Winget river. sie siahabdlieiicinse 

The second or “ onindade salt Brot is in “er — 
about the central part of New York, being about one thousand 
feet thick, consisting mostly of shales and marls containing the 
gypsum beds, and all the important salt springs of the state. In 
the eastern part of the state it is nearly lost from thinning out, but 
westerly it suffers but little diminution as far as the Niagara river. 

The Niagara limestone and its accompanying shale, are’ 
scarcely ——s in the eastern part of New York, and even 
as far west as the centre, they form only masses of a few feet in 
thickness. The whole however gradually increases westward, 
and on the Niagara river, as well as at Lockport, the two masses 
are not less than two hundred feet thick. sabe chda 

These three groups are traced far into Canada with little vari- 
ation, except that the Niagara limestone becomes thicker and the 
shale more caleareous. ‘The line of outcrop or strike of this 
limestone is from Rochester westward, along a terrace known as 

the mountain ridge and which extends by Lewiston and Queens- 
ton into Canada, “nih is eS traced as far as the head of 
Lake Ontario. . : 

Near the western end of Lake Erie the Niagara enastatte 
appears above the surface of the water, having been elevated, 
and forms a continuation of the axis Beniie alluded to, as adn 
ing from Lake Erie to the S. W., along the OP tunis of Ohio and 
Indiana. In the central and reste parts of Ohio it is the most 
important rock, and is designated the ‘‘cliff limestone” by Prof. 
Locke. Among its numerous localities may be named Spring- 
field, Dayton, the vicinity of Columbus, and several places in 
Adams county. In Kentucky, at Louisville, and the falls of the 
Ohio, at Madison and other places in ee it 2 Seeger as the 
limestone of greatest thickness. 

In examining the upper part of the “ cliff limestone” I fot 
it, so far as lithological characters are concerned, a ‘continuation 
of the Helderberg group, the Onondaga salt formation having 
thinned out almost entirely, having in fact no representative ex- 
cept a thin layer of water-lime, which is seen at the falls of the 
Ohio and the canal below Louisville, but in other localities is of 
less importance and often scarcely to be recognized. We have 
here then this condition of things—the Niagara limestone, 


Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. 59 


which commences in the eastern part of New York, a very in- 
significant mass, acquiring a great thickness, and becoming the 
most prominent limestone ; the salt group, almost entirely thin- 
ned out, or so far as to be generally overlooked; and the great 
mass of the Helderberg limestone, so far thinned. out as to ap- 
pear an integral part of the Niagara mass, and if we did not know 
that in. the state of New York it is separated by one thousand 
feet of rocks, indicating an enormous period of time as having 
elapsed between the termination of one and the commencement 
of the other, it. might seem right to merge it in the Niagara 
limestone. 

Farther westward, in the northern part of the state of Illinois, 
and in the territories of Wisconsin and Iowa, the Niagara lime- 
stone becomes still more important, increasing as far as the Mis- 
sissippi river, where it is several hundred feet thick, and accord- 
ing to Prof. Owen’s report, from barometrical. observations made 
by Dr. Locke, five hundred and fifty feet. This statement I am 
able to verify to a great degree, but the uppermost one hundred 
feet should be credited to the Helderberg group, and to the cor- 
nitiferous mass of Eaton, which caps many of the high mounds 
of this region. Throughout this great extent of country and for 
many miles west of the Mississippi, the upper beds of the true 
Niagara limestone are characterized by containing the Catenipora 
escharoides, and often a Retepora, above which are the thin mass 
of water-lime and the fossiliferous portions of the Helderberg 
group. ‘The Catenipora is the characteristic fossil of the upper 
part of the Niagara limestone in western New York, and so far 
as | know is confined to this rock. Its geographical range. is 
therefore immense, when we consider the small thickness to 
which it is restricted. 

‘The thickness of the Niagara limestone is not its most impor- 
tant character. It preves on examination to be the lead-bearing 
rock of the west, a fact which I had previously anticipated from 
the same rock every where containing the sulphurets of lead and 
zinc in western New York—sometimes in isolated particles or 
small masses, or here and there a few crystals in a cavity, or in 
thin veins in what appeared like fractures or fissures in the rock ; 
in truth, presenting the aspect of a metalliferous rock, and indu- 
cing the belief that under the proper conditions it might become 
highly so. Leaving out of view the limits of districts or states, 


60 Notes upon the Geolozy of the Western States. 


the Niagara is the most important limestone east of the Missis- 
sippi river, both as regards the extent of surface pie pee it, 
its thickness, and its mineral contents. 

It would be quite out of place at present to go into details re- 
garding the lead mines, and the zinc and copper ores, which equal- 
ly belong to this rock, as I shall have occasion to speak of these 
again in connexion with other facts relating to this subject. 

The shale of Rochester, Lockport, and Niagara Falls, accom- 
panies the Niagara limestone every where as it does in New York, 
but at the west it forms a very insignificant mass, generally not 
more than twenty five or thirty feet thick, and bearing the char- 
acter of the upper portions of the same shale in New York, be- 
ing a harsh, sandy-like rock, crumbling on eae to fasineoad 
and almost destitute of fossils. a NS 

The “ Protean group,’’* or the green shales, Disneamidtas lime- 
stone, and iron ores, are nearly or quite wanting, being only par- 
tially seen in a few places in Ohio, and forming nothing worthy 
of notice farther west, so faras my knowledge extends. The 
peculiar fossil of this group, Pentamerus oblongus, or a species 
so similar that Tam unable to distinguish it, occurs in the Niag- 
ara limestone in Iowa, and also in Ohio, as I am informed, not 
having myself seen it in the latter place. Should such be the 
fact, it proves the existence of this shell for a long sas after 
the destruction of the same in New York. 

In the state of New York the Protean group is anidentadl bi 
the red shales and sandstones of Medina, the sandstone of Sal- 
mon river, and the shales and sandstones of Pulaski. These 
rocks occupy the basin of Lake Ontario, forming the southern, 
eastern, and western, and more than half the northern boundary 
of the lake, and may very appropriately all be merged in one 
group, the Ontarzo. In Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and Illinois, 
the red shale and sandstone, forming so thick a mass on the south- 
ern shore of Lake Ontario, has entirely disappeared. Some small 
portions of the Salmon river and Pulaski rocks are visible, but 
the great mass filling the place of these is limestone in thin beds, 
with alternating layers of green shale. In many places thin 
wedgeform masses of gray sandstone are attached to the layers 
of limestone, and here and there a distinct stratum may be seen, 
with the same species of fucoides as characterize this group in 


* The iron formation of western New York. 


Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. 61 


New York. This mass is the ‘blue limestone,” of Prof. Locke, | 
in the Ohio reports, but not, as has been supposed, a member of 
the Mohawk group, but a limestone and shale series, represent- 
ing what in New York is ashale and sandstone group. The 
fossils are essentially the same. Pterinea carinata, Cyrtolites or- 
natus, Bellerophon bilobatus, Leptaana ————? Trinucleus, and 
Graptolites, are the fossils which characterize equally rocks holding 
the same place in New York. 'T'wo or more species of Isotelus are 
frequently found in the same rocks. The Isotelus in New York 
is a characteristic fossil of the Trenton limestone. This group 
is well developed, forming high, abrupt cliffs on the Ohio below 
Portsmouth, and at Cincinnati ; also at Maysville, Ky. and Mad- 
ison, Ind. At either of these places many other fossils are found 
besides those enumerated. In the higher beds are Delthyris and 
Orthis, one species of the latter genus the same as occurs in the 
Niagara group in New York. 

At Newport, Ky. opposite to Cincinnati, and at one or two 
other places in this vicinity, there is a green shale with the Tri- 
arthrus, Graptolites, and a few encrinal joints, shewing the same 
assemblage of fossils and in the same: position as the ‘ Utica 
slate” of New York. 'The rock below this, which is seen in 
place only during low water of the Ohio, is a shaly limestone, 
with shells and great numbers of the fragments, with sometimes 
perfect specimens of the Isotelus; Dr. Locke of Cincinnati has 
a very large individual of this genus. This rock is probably the 
equivalent of the Trenton limestone of New York. 

The Ontario and Mohawk groups are both seen on the Missis- 
sippi above Dubuque, containing as elsewhere, a large number of 
fossils.* At the same place and below these rocks, there is a mass 
of sandstone, but I have not been aie to identify it with any 
mass farther east. 

My examinations were not pesiewitda far enough to the north 
to discover the lower members of the transition or Silurian sys- 
tem, which doubtless would be found there. I have sufficient — 
data to feel entirely satisfied of the results of these examinations 
as here given. These may be of some use, particularly as re- 
gards the readers of the geological reports, where it is not only 
desirable to give extended views, but also to explain, as far as 
possible, the rocks now known by different names. 


* At this place the mass appears much thinner than farther eastward. 


62 Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. 


The result shews very clearly that there are two great lime- 
stone formations occupying the valley. of the Mississippi, and 
that the lead-bearing limestone is not the same as that immedi- 
ately underlying the coal formation.* In some places, both these 
limestones are very similar, and in the absence of the neighbor- 
ing rocks or fossils, might be mistaken without careful observa- 
tion. Both are often light colored, a fact which is common to 
nearly all the western rocks as compared. with those of New York. 
From the light color and magnesian character of the Niagara 
limestone, it has been erroneously considered as holding the place: 
of the magnesian limestone of Europe, the true position of whien 
is known to be above the coal formation. = 

- The facts here stated show a great diminution, first of sandy 
matter, and next of shale, as we go westward, and in the whole, 
a sreat increase of calcareous matter in the same direction. A 
large portion of that mass known as Medina sandstone is shale, 
and in New York is of great thickness, while it has entirely dis- 
appeared westward. ‘The Onondaga salt group, essentially a 
clayey or shaly one, is in its greatest force in central New York, 
while it is entirely wanting westward. 'The fossiliferous shales. 
of the Ludlowville group, as already stated, are at the falls of the 
Ohio, represented by alittle more than one hundred feet, and far- 
ther west by still less. Again, all those of the Gardeau, Portage, 
and Chemung groups, seem almost obliterated and to give place 
to an enormous mass of limestone, which poes* on increasing 
westward as far as known. us 

The name “cliff limestone,” of Prof. Locke, is very appro- 
priate for what I have here termed the Niagara limestone, so far 
as the western part of Ohio and part of Indiana are concerned, 
and I own that after examining these districts I was much grati- 
fied with the name. But after seeing a limestone much higher 
in the series already described, forming cliffs for several hundred 
miles along the Mississippi, the name seems of doubtful propriety. 
The name “scar” or cliff limestone of English authors, is ap- 
plied to one much higher in the series than that alluded to, so 
that the name having once been used for another rock, renders 
its adoption for this improper. 

Albany, September 16, 1841. 


* The lead-bearing rock of Missouri is a a didercat one from that of Iowa, Wis- 
consin, and Illinois, 


<> Perchlorate of the Oxide of E'thule, 8c. 63 
ree IV.—On the Perchlorate of the Ovide of Hthule, or Per- 
. chloric Ether ; by Cuarx Hare and Marrin H. Boys. 


Read before the American Philosophical Society, Dec. 4, 1840. 


Tue energetic properties of perchloric acid, and its stability, 
compared with the other compounds of chlorine with oxygen, 
led us to the belief that this acid might be combined with the 
substance which performs the part of a base in that class of or- 
ganic salts which are generally designated by the name of ethers, 
and for which Berzelius, in consequence of his theoretical views, 
has adopted the name of oxide of ethule. For this purpose a 
concentrated solution of perchlorate and sulphovinate of barytes, 
in equivalent proportions, was subjected to distillation. The 
sulphovinate of barytes may be considered as a double sulphate 
of barytes and the oxide of ethule; and we anticipated. that, 
when heat was applied, adouble decomposition would take place 
between the latter and the perchlorate of barytes. So long as 
the salts remained in solution, no reaction occurred, but as soon 
as they became solid in consequence of the distillation of the 
water, a reciprocal decomposition ensued, and a sweet ethereal 
liquid distilled into the receiver. This liquid is the perchlorate 
of the oxide of ethule. 

As this substance is extremely explosive, it is s necessary in or- 
der to prepare it with safety, to operate on small quantities. We 
have employed from seventy to ninety grains of crystallized sul- 
phovinate of barytes, with an equivalent proportion of perchlo- 
rate of barytes ;* but we would recommend, especially on the 
first performance of the experiment, the employment of consid- 
erably smaller quantities. The salts should be intimately mixed 
ina mortar, and placed in a small retort attached to a refrigera- 
tor containing ice, and a receiver similarly cooled. The retort is 
to be heated in an oil-bath, in which a thermometer is suspended, 
so as to indicate the temperature. A wooden screen, furnished 
with openings covered with thick plate-glass at such intervals as 


* The amount of barytes in the perchlorate should be ascertained by an experi- 
ment, as it retains water with great tenacity. It may be worth while to mention, 
that the perchlorate of potassa cannot be substituted for the perchlorate of barytes, 
since the sulphovinate is decomposed without acting on it. We were equally un- 
successful in an attempt to procure the ether by the distillation of ‘perchlorate. of 
barytes and concentrated sulphovinic acid. 


64. Perchlorate of the Oxide of Ethule, &§c. 


to afford a full view of the different parts of the apparatus, should 
be erected in front of it, and strings passed around the screen and. 
attached to a bar traversing on a pivot, and supporting an argand 
spirit lamp, by which heat is communicated to the oil-bath, so as 
. to enable the flame of the lamp to be removed from or Saling to 
the apparatus, according to the indications of the thermometer, 
without exposing the person of the operator. After the heat has 
reached 212° F., below which the salts employed do not react on 
each other, it should be raised very gradually, and the distillation 
finished below 340° EF. Under these circumstances but little 
danger is to be apprehended from the retort, but the ether in the 
receiver must be treated with the greatest caution, since it has 
exploded in our hands in attempting to remove it with a pipette 
from the stratum of water which covers it. 'This water, there- 
fore, should be removed by the cautious use of strips of blotting 
paper, moistened at the end, and introduced into the tube em- 
ployed as a receiver. » 

To avoid the danger attendant on the ‘abmacmctit of the sthics 
in its pure state, it may be received in strong alcohol, since it is 
not explosive when dissolved in alcohol. If the experiment be 
performed with seventy grains of sulphate of barytes, from one 
to two drachms of absolute alcohol will be found sufficient for 
this purpose. By the addition of an equal volume of water, the 
ether may subsequently be separated from this solution, in small 
quantities, for the purpose of examination. But, in this case, a 
loss of ether is sustained by the decomposing influence of the 
water employed. aie 

The perchlorate of ethule obtained in this way is a transpa- 
rent, colorless liquid, possessing a peculiar, though agreeable 
smell, and a very sweet taste, which, on subsiding, leavesa biting 
impression on the tongue, resembling that of the oil of cinnamon. 
It is heavier than water, through which it rapidly sinks. 9 It ex- 
plodes by ignition, friction, or percussion, and sometimes without 
any assignable cause. Its explosive properties may be shown, 
with but little danger, by pouring a small portion of the alco- 
holic solution into a porcelain capsule, and adding an equal vol- 
ume of water. The ether will collect in a drop at the bottom, 
and may be subsequently separated by pouring off the greater 
part of the water, and throwing the rest on a moistened filter, 
supported by a wire. After the water has drained off, the ‘drop 


Perchlorate of the Oxide of Ethule, §c. 65 


of ether remaining at the bottom of the filter may be exploded, 
either by approaching it to an ignited body, or by the blow of a 
hammer. We are induced to believe that, in explosive violence, 
it is not surpassed by any substance known in chemistry. By 
the explosion of the smallest drop, an open porcelain plate will 
be broken into fragments, and by that of a larger quantity, be 
reduced to powder. In consequence of the force with which it 
projects the minute fragments of any containing vessel in which 
it explodes, it fs necessary that the operator should wear gloves, 
and a close mask, furnished with thick glass-plates at the aper- 
tures for the eyes, and perform his manipulations with the inter- 
vention of a movable wooden screen.* : 

In common with other ethers, the perchlorate of ethule is in- 
soluble in water, but soluble in alcohol; and its solution in the 
latter, when sufficiently dilute, burns entirely away without ex- 
plosion. It may be kept for a length of time unchanged, even 
when in contact with water; but the addition of this fluid, when 
employed to precipitate it from its alcoholic solution, causes it 
to be partially decomposed. Potassa, dissolved in alcohol, and 
added to the alcoholic solution, produces, immediately, an abun- 
dant precipitate of the perchlorate of that base, and, when added 
in sufficient quantity, decomposes the ether entirely. It would 
appear, therefore, impracticable, to form either perchlorovinates or 
perchlorovinic acid. 

We have subjected the perchlorate of ethule to the heat of 
boiling water without explosion or ebullition. 

It may be observed that this is the first ether formed by the 
combination of an inorganic acid containing more than three 
atoms of oxygen with the oxide of ethule, and that the chlorine 
and oxygen in the whole compound are just sufficient. to form 
chlorohydric acid, water and carbonic oxide with the hydrogen 
and carbon. 

The existence of a compound of the oxide of ethule with an 
acid containing seven atoms of oxygen, led us to attempt to com- 
bine, by the same method, this base with nitric acid. For this 
purpose we subjected a mixture of sulphovinate and nitrate of 
barytes to the same treatment as described above, but the reac- 


* Having suffered severely on several occasions from the unexpected explosion 
of this substance, we would earnestly recommend the operator not to neglect the 
precautions mentioned above. 


Vol. xu, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 9 


66 Demonstration of the Principle of Virtual Velocities. 


tion, even when conducted with the greatest possible care, is 
destructive, hyponitrous ether and gaseous matters being the 
principal products obtained. Nor were we more successful in our 
attempts to procure a sulphurous. or seein boule ether by the 
same process. 


Arr. V.—A new Demonstration of the Principle of Virtual Vee 
locities ; by Prof. Turopore Stroné. 


Let any body or system of bodies, (or material points,) be af- 
fected by the forces P, Q, R, and so on; imagine points consid- 
ered as fixed to be taken in the lines in which the forces act, and 
let p denote the distance of the point of application of P, from 
the point taken in the line of its action, g the distance of the 
point of application of Q from the point taken in the line of its 
direction, and so on; and suppose the points to be so assumed 
that P, Q, &c. shall tend at the same time to increase each of the 
distances p, q, &c. or to decrease them, (the positions of the fixed 
points in other respects being supposed arbitrary): we shall re- 
gard each force and distance as positive, and it is manifest that 

the equilibrium consists in the relation of the forces to each other 
being such that their actions shall not alter any one of the dis- 
tances p, q, &c. 

We shall denote the sum of the products Pp, 1 &c. by M 
and we shall have Pob+Qq+&c.=M, (1,) then if the forces bal- 
ance each other, p, g, &c. will each be constant. 

We shall suppose that p, q, &c. are each constant, and that P, 
Q, &c. become P+P’,Q+Q’, &c. but that p, ¢, &c. are yet 
each constant; also that M becomes M+ M’; then (1) will become 
(P+P’)p+(Q+4+Q’)¢4-&c.=M-+M’, which by (1) reduces to 


: : M’ 
Pp +Q/q+&c.=M’, (2); if we multiply (1) by mM We get 
PW QM’ 
Pwet+t —+&c.=M’, which must evidently be identical with 
(2), so as . leave p, g, &c. each arbitrary, hence the coefficients 
of p must be equal, also those of g must be equal, and so on: 
7% NY Q’ WM’ 
ep =w Q=M and so on. Hence it is evident that P’, 


oe, é&c. have all the same sign, and that they have the same pro- 


Demonstration of the Principle of Virtual Velocities. 67 


portions among themselves that P, Q, &c. have ; also if any one of 
them as P’ is=0, then each of the others and M’ will =0, as evi- 
dently ought to be the case, for when a system of forces as P, Q, R, 
&c. is in equilibrium, the equilibrium will not be disturbed by ap- 
plying another system of forces, as P’, Q’, &c. which are propor- 
tional to P,Q, R, &c., to the same. points severally, and in the 
same directions or in directions which are exactly opposite, &c. 

We shall use 6, (the characteristic of variations,) when prefixed 
to any quantity to denote any indefinitely small variation of the 
quantity, the variation being supposed to be positive when the 
quantity is increased, and negative when it is decreased. Sup- 
pose then that the forces. balance each other, and that the body 
or system of bodies, receives a very small change of position, 
(consistent with its conditions, or with the mutual connections 
of its parts in the case of a system,) and that in consequence of 
the change of position p, q, &c. become p+ 4p, g-++6q, and so on, 
and that P, Q; é&c. become P-+9P, Q@+06Q, &c., also that M be- 
comes M+0M; then (1) will be changed to (P+0P). (p+dép)+ 
(Q+9Q) . (¢+0q)+&c.-=M-+9M ; now since OP, op, &c. are 
each supposed to be indefinitely small, the products dP . dp, 
dQ . oq, &c. will be indefinitely smaller than poP, Pop, and so on, 
and are hence to be rejected; .". rejecting these products and re- 
ducing by (1), the above equation will become pdP+9q9Q+&c. 
+ Pop + Qoq+&c.=0M, and if we assume poP-+9qdQ +&c.=0M, 
(3), we get Pop +Qiq+&c.=0, (4). Now it is evident (as in 
(2),) since p, q, &c. are the same in (3) as in (1), that we may 
suppose the forces 0P, dQ, &c. to be applied at the same points 
and to act in the same lines as P, Q, &c. severally, by neglecting 
quantities of the order of the products 5P . 6p, 6Q . dq, &e.; 
hence OP, 0Q, &c. will have the same sign, and the same propor- 
tions among themselves that P, Q, é&c. have; .°. when the forces 
balance each other, changing the position of the body or system 
(as above, in consequence of which, the small forces, 0P, 0Q, &c. 
are introduced), does not affect the equilibrium; and (4) which 
is called the principle of virtual velocities, will have place when 
the forces P, Q, &c. balance each other, as we proposed to prove; 
and it may be observed that op, 9g, &c. are called the virtual 
velocities of the points of application of P, Q, &c. 

Conversely if (4) has place, the forces will balance each other. 
For if they do not balance, let the body or point to which P is 


68 Demonstration of the Principle of Virtual Velocities. 


applied move with the force P’, and that to which the foree Q is 
applied move with the force Q’, and so on, and suppose the bodies 
or points’ describe the very small spaces p’, q’, &c. in the same 
time; then if the forces P’, Q’, &c. are applied in directions 
which are directly opposite to their several directions they will 
balance the forces P, Q, &c.; hence if 5p, 5g, &c. are the virtual 
velocities of the points of application of P, Q, &c. if we assume 
mp’ for the virtual velocity of P’ when it is applied in a direction 
exactly opposite to its direction, mq’ will be the virtual velocity 
of Q’ when it is changed to the opposite direction, and so on. 
Hence by (4), since the system is in equilibrium, we shall have 
Pop +Q0q+ &c.+P/mp'+Q/mq’+&c. =0, but by supposition 
Pdp+Qoq+&c.=0, -°2 Pmp’+Q/mq' + &c.=0, or P’p’+Q/q/+ 
é&c.=0; now it is evident that P’ has the same sign as p’, Q/ the 
same sign as q’, and so on; hence the equation cannot hold good, 
(since its terms have all the same sign which is +,) unless P/p’ 
=0, Q/q'=0, and so on; .*. P’=0, or p’=0, or both=0, but on 
either supposition, the body to which the force P is applied is at 
rest, and in the same way the body to which Q is applied is at 
rest, and soon; .". when the equation of virtual velocities has 
place, the forces balance each other, as we proposed to prove. 


Application. 

Let P, Q, R, be three forces applied to a material point, and 
(for simplicity ) suppose the directions of P and Q to be perpen- 
dicular to each other and parallel to two rectangular axes z and 
y, drawn in their plane through any given point taken for their 
origin, and suppose that P and Q, act in the directions of x and 
y, positive ; then when there is an equilibrium between P, Q, R, 
it is evident that R must act in the same plane with P and Q, in 
a direction which is directly opposite to their resultant; also that 
R will be of the same magnitude as the resultant. 

Let « and y be the co-ordinates of the point of application, 
(which is supposed to be within the angle formed by the positive 
co-ordinates, ) of the forces when referred to the aforesaid axes ; 
take the distances a and 6 reckoned from the origin in the axes 
of « and y, such that a@ is greater than z, b greater than y, then we 
shall have p=a—x, g=b —y; also let a’, b’, be the co-ordinates of 
any fixed point in the line of direction of R, then evidently a is 


less than x, and 0’ is less than y; .*. r=4/(2@—a’)? +(y—0’)2; the 


Solution of a Functional Equation. 69 


forees are supposed to tend to diminish the distances p, q, r, and 
by (4) we get Pop + Qdq+Ror=0, (5). 

Now since a, b, a’, b’, are each invariable (because they sed 
long to fixed ene we have 0p = — ox, 0g = — Oy, Or = 


c— N65. = fit 0. : 
Rpngelinasiehec ts and ne oa these values (5) be- 


comes — Por — Qiy =" ogee Roy=0, or (7=“p _p) 


b/ 
de is R aa hence, since ox, dy are arbitrary and 
y — 5 
r 


—q/ 
RoP=0; 


‘ 6 
independent of each other, we must have 


= bf 
—Q=0, or pa.> R, ... P? +Q?=R?, (8), 
: z= a’)? b oS =o! 
since rigey ose also s= (9) ; hence from (8) 


and (9) it is evident that if two forces are represented in quantity 
and directions by the two sides of a rectangle, their resultant is 
represented in quantity and direction by the diagonal which pass- 
es through the angle formed by the two sides that represent the 
forces. 

For other applications of (4) we shall refer to the Mécanique 
Analytique of Lagrange, and the Mécanique Céleste of La Place, 
especially to the first volume of the former work. 


Arr. VI.—Solution of a Functional Equation, which has been 
employed by Poisson in demonstrating the parallelogram of 
forces; by Guorcr R. Perkins, A. M. 


Poisson, in his able Traité de Mécanique, (see second edition, 
Vol. I, p. 44 et seq.) has given a beautiful demonstration of the 
parallelogram of forces. He makes his demonstration rest upon 
the determination of yx, so as to satisfy the condition, 

grpz=o(r+-z)+Hr—z) (1). 

He says, gv =2cos. av, will satisfy (1), and he further says, 
that no other value of gx will satisfy it; but he does not show 
how he determined this value of gz; but seems to have obtained 
it by induction. Neither does he show why there may not be 
other values of gv, which will satisfy (1). 


70. Solution of a Functional E'quation. 


We propose to determine the nature of gx by rigorous analysis. 
From the nature of the function ¢(¢+z)+9(%¢—z), which 
constitutes the right hand member of (1), we know that its se- 
cond differential, with reference to z, is the same as its second 
differential, with reference to z; therefore the second differential 
of yxpz, which constitutes the left hand member of (1), with re- 
ference to z, is the same as its second differential, with reference 
to z; hence we have the following condition : 
ad? .9& d?.9z 
92.72 = 98. Gee (2); 
Pe | Nitedape d?.9 
or, which is the same thing, 72 +9 = d= ee (3). 
_ Now, since the left hand member of (3) is a function of x alone, 
and the right hand member is a function of z alone, it follows 
that each member is equal to a constant emi which we will 


d?. 
denote by a?; then we shall have 90 = =a? (A). 


' d.px d.gx d?.px 
Multiply (4) by 292. and we get 2. oe Seales 


d.gu 
2a° gr. a. (5). 


d. 
Integrating (5) and adding the constant c, we get ee = 
a*(gv)?+c (6), or, by a slight reduction, we obtain dz= 
ad.or (7 
Varenyee \ 


1 ee ao 
Integrating (7) we get ¢= vlog. ¢ (Vara eta. we) (8), 
where c’ is another constant. — : 
Multiplying (8) by a, and passing from logarithms to exponen- 


ax Ae Ser a 
tials, we get e =c' (Vary feta. a) (9), where e is 
such, that hyp. log.e=1. } 
Dividing (9) by c’ and transposing, we get Va?(gr)?+c= 
ax j 


we —a@.9e (10). 


—_ 


Squaring (10) and reducing, we get 
2a G0 8) Peers Rag 
BW Lame 8 Be Guys 


Experiments on Bichlorure of Sulphur, &c. 71 


= On | 
Dividing (11) BY. Sy .e we obtain 


1 ax —ax 
ihe, —cc/? .e (12). 
This is the complete form of the function sought, since it con- 
tains the two arbitrary constants c and c’; substituting this func- 
tion in (1) it becomes 


1 a(%+2) = a(x=2) a(e-Z) —a(£4.2) 
male —cc’? .e —cc'?.e +c7c4.e = 
1 a(z+2) —a(x42) a(a-2z) —a(x-2) 
aie —cc’*.e ‘ +e a Cae a (13). 


If we equate the co-efficients of the like terms of (13), we 
7 
shall find that c= —4a?, ¢’ ap. substituting these values of 
az —ar 
cand c’ in (12) we find pr=e +e (14). 
It now remains to find the value of a. 


When r=5 = 90°, the two forces oppose each other, and then 


gz=0; substituting these values in (14) we get 


bra TW 
= —5.4 
Te cer garage) ik 
eae oe gives a=V —1; therefore (14) finally becomes 
av —1 pay op , 
qr =e ‘iy e =2eos.¢ (16); this value of gr= 


2 cos. v agrees with Poisson’s value yr =2 cos. av, since he shows 
that it is necessary to take a=1. Moreover it is evident that no 
other value of gx can be found which will satisfy the conditions 
of the question, since equation (12) is in its most general form. 


Arr. VIL.—E'xperiments on Bichlorure of Sulphur and certain 
carbures of hydrogen, made in the laboratory of Jefferson Col- 
lege (Louisiana); by Prof. F. Cuever. 


A current of bicarbure of hydrogen being brought to bear on 
some bichlorure of sulphur, under the influence of the solar rays, 
the gas was absorbed in considerable quantities with a great 
throwing off of heat. The liquid, at first of a very deep pome- 


72 Eixperiments on Bichlorure of Sulphur, Sc. 


granate red, gradually became orange colored, then of a yellow 
orange color. The light refracted by the ball containing the 
bichlorure, assumed the finest violet hue, like that produced by 
vapor of iodine. This color lasted a very long time. 

Among the vapors thrown off at first, the writer thought he 
remarked chlorohydric ether and sulphohydric ether. ‘These va- 
pors made the water through which they passed milky, but this 
effect soon ceased. ‘Towards the end of the operation, the gases 
evolved burned with a very fuliginous flame, like bicarbure of 
hydrogen, pure; however they by no means had the same smell. 
There appearing to be no absorption, the liquid was gradually 
heated to bring about absorption, by producing an atmosphere 
of vapors; suddenly the yellow liquid assumed a raspberry red 
color, but no marked absorption was effected. Its bulk was very 
viscous like a thick syrup; its smell was penetrating and very 
enduring, similar to that of blackberries or raspberries ; its flavor 
was at first sweet, then very pungent. 

The next day, a deposit was found of a number of small nee- 
dle-shaped crystals of a deep brown. 

Neither water, alcohol, nor ether, appears to dissolve these 
crystals to any decided amount ; however, alcohol discolors them, 
whilst it colors itself and leaves a drop of red liquid by evapora- 
tion. Water casts off from the alcoholic solution a white pow- 
dery deposit, and leaves a red drop at the bottom of the vessel. 
Nitric acid, cold, appears not to act, but warm, it dissolves the 
crystals and gives a yellow sediment of sulphur. 

The crystals, having been several times washed with alcohol, 
assumed a light chocolate color; after being strained through 
pieces of blotting paper, they were discolored, leaving on the 
paper a very volatile oil which rapidly disappeared, but there 
remained a red stain on the paper, which shows that the volatile 
oil is distinct from that species of coloring matter. The crystals 
strained through paper, were placed in the pneumatic vacuum in 
the presence of sulphuric acid and moist fragments of potash ; 
the surface of the acid became of a dbaidodls roseate hue and 
besprinkled with small oily drops; the potash had absorbed 
some of the chlorine. These crystals were then pretty white, and 
burned in a very lively manner, bubbling up and emitting a flaniie 
which betokened the presence both of sulphur and of a resinous” 
matter. Sulphuric acid appears powerless on these crystals, un- 


it tac on Bichlorure of Sulphur, &c. 73 


less it be that it discolors them. Another part of the crystals, 
having undergone a potash solution, gave a solid and very gluey 
deposit of a dirty yellow; the solution became yellowish; the 
_ sides of the vessel, in which the operation was performed, became 
very greasy, the deposits, as well as the potash solution, had a 
very strong and decided smell of cucumber. 

The red liquor, in the midst of which was the mass of sibel 
slightly smoked in the open air, though its point of ebullition 
was pretty high; its density is greater than that of sulphuric 
acid, but a part floats even above the water, which beiokens a 
complex liquid ; it is insoluble in water and in ether, but. rather 
soluble in alcohol ; however, the alcoholic solution having evap- 
orated, appears to — the liquor untouched; water brings about 
a banedar deposit of a currant red. 

This liquid, on distillation, gives a yellowish oil of a flavor 
acrid, pungent, and very pion it reddens the blue Laaihioy 
dinabilexs by free chlorohydric acid. 

The writer further made bichlorure of sulphur prepared cold, 
react on two other carbures of hydrogen, oil of naphtha, and es- 
sence of turpentine, both as highly rectified as possible. With 
the oil of naphtha, the action is lively, and accompanied by a 
marked ebullition; the temperature rises rapidly, and a consid- 
erable quantity of chlorohydric acid is thrown off. A black de- 
posit of a very glutinous nature was obtained ; the liquid as- 
sumed a very brown red color. The whole, being distilled, gave 
a yellowish liquid, which, being washed with water, furnished 
a yellowish and glutinous mass, floating on the liquid; it was 
sulphur impregnated with a very volatile oil, rapidly disappear- 
ing from the paper used for straining, and without any sediment. 
This mass undergoing a warm preparation with alcohol, consid- 
erably diminished in bulk, and, after cooling, oily drops gathered 
on the surface. Ether dissolves this species of oil better than 
alcohol; what remained undissolved by the ether, still betokened, 
on being burned, the presence of a resinous matter ; it was then 
subjected to the influence of boiling nitric acid, which left a 
globule of sulphur. The washings of the distilled liquid con- 
tained much chlorohydric acid and also some sulphuric acid. 

The deposit left in the cucurbite became blacker and more 
plentiful; it burned like resin, and did not appear to contain sul- 
phur; it is soluble in nitric acid, warm, and by evolving after a 

Vol. xx11, No. 1.—Qct.-Dec, 1841. 10 


74 Experiments on Bichlorure of Sulphur, &c.. 


suitable evaporation, it deposits very long needle-shaped crystals 
of perfect whiteness; these crystals are of a — bitter allies 
and have no feature ad acidity. 

With the essence of turpentine, the reaction is’ ete tw 
multuous, the vessel in which the operation was made, was sunk 
in cold water, and yet the matter boiled up considerably ; the 
mass became very viscous, but it remained homogeneous. Dis- 
tillation was performed; a great quantity of chlorohydrie vapors 
were thrown off by the draught tube ; a pomegranate-red liquid 
condensed in the recipient ; this liquid exhaled a stinking smell, 
pretty similar to that from the products of the distillation of ani- 
mal matter. A very black sediment remained at the bottom of 
the cucurbite. On applying nitric acid to this mass, no needle- 
formed crystals were obtained as with the naphtha; the wash- 
ings of the distilled liquid gave a very viscous reddish mass, 
which sank to the bottom, instead of the floating nb mass 
obtained with the palate. mn 

Not having at my disposal the means and enplianaes for pro- 
ceeding to organic analyses, I have been unable to ascertain the 
composition of the different products to which the reactions 
above described gave rise, a composition, the knowledge of which 
is indispensable to a correct appreciation of these preducts. In 
publishing this memorandum, I have therefore had no other ob- 
ject in view but to point out a few facts relating to the action of 
bichlorure of sulphur on carbures of hydrogen, facts which have 
appeared to me worthy to engage the attention of chemists, and 
susceptible of being connected with one another, and brought 
under the laws of a common theory. 

Deprived of the apparatus and reactives necessary for this 
study, I have deemed it my duty to give publicity to an entirely 
novel subject of study, which, in my opinion, holds out a cer- 
tainty of important discoveries, and I hope and trust that some 
American chemist, placed in circumstances more favorable, and 
especially one more skillful, will, by following up this subject of 
inquiry, ere long enrich the science with several new and. inter- 
esting combinations. 7 


Remarks upon Arsenic. 75 


ee ae eens ee 


Arr. VIU.—Continuation of the Remarks made upon Arsenic,;* 
considered in a medico-legal point of view; by J. Lawrence 
. Smrru, M. D. of Charleston, 8. C. 


_ Messrs. Editors—Since my last letter on this subject, there has 
been a great deal of important matter brought to light by those 
of this place (Paris) who were interested with this subject, and I 
had prepared a detailed account of what had been done, and was 
on the point of sending it, when the report of the committee ap- 
pointed by the Academy of Sciences to examine into this ques- 
tion made its appearance. 1 therefore have been induced to send 
this instead of the other, as it will encroach much less upon your 
Journal, and as also containing statements that are more to be 
relied on. 

In the examination of poisoning by arsenic, all the excrements, 
such as matter vomited, urine, é&c., as well as all parts of the 
body itself, present matter for investigation. 'The method by 
which they all are examined, is essentially the same, each one 
exacting the same careful but not difficult manipulations; no 
great chemical knowledge being necessary to carry them out, and 
the reagents used are such as are to be found at every druggist’s 
shop. : 

Manner of destroying the animal matter.—Our first and most 
important step, in fact one without which it is impossible to pro- 
ceed, is to rid ourselves of the organic matter that forms:a large 
part of the liquids and solids that are to be examined, (the liquids 
should always be evaporated to dryness and treated as the solids 
are.) In my last letter was stated, what was then considered the 
best method of carbonizing the animal matter; but since MM. 
Danger and Flandin have described another, which from the re- 
port of the committee of the Academy, is almost as simple a one 
as can be desired, it being greatly superior to that by nitric acid 
and nitrate of potash in many points of view, which will be evi- 
dent to all those who may wish to compare them. 

“The matter being placed in a capsule of porcelain, (evapora- 
ting dish,) we add to it about one sixth of its weight of sulphu- 
ric acid, and heat slowly until sulphuric acid vapors. begin to ap- 


uy, 


* See this Journal, Vol. xx, p. 278. 


76 Remarks upon Arsenic. 


pear. The matterenters first into solution, and then becomes 
‘carbonized during the concentration of the liquid, which we con- 
tinue to evaporate, stirring at the same time with a glass rod. 
The carbonization takes place without any swelling up of the 
materials, (as is the case when nitric acid is used.) The action 
of the heat is prolonged until the carbon appears friable and al- 
most dry. The capsule is now left to cool, and then there is 
added to the carbon about the same quantity of nitric acid as we 
did of sulphuric acid in the first part of the operation. This 
serves to convert the arsenious into arsenic acid, which latter is 
much more soluble than the former: we again evaporate to dry- 
ness, and treat the residue with boiling water, which dissolves 
the arsenic acid only, and is always perfectly limpid, and some- 
times colorless; and this liquid also, when introduced into a 

apparatus, peeiniets no froth.” ae 

‘‘'This process is much preferable to the carbonization by nitric 
acid, for we can more easily manage the operation, and a much 
less quantity of reactives is required, (an important consideration ») 
and there never is any deflagration.” 

MM. Danger and Flandin recommend the use of a much small- 
er quantity of nitric acid than has been stated, but from the pro- 
duction very often of phosphite and sulphite of ammonia during 
the action of the sulphuric acid upon the animal matter, it is ve- 
ry necessary that there should be sufficient nitric acid to convert 
these compounds into phosphate and sulphate of ammonia, for 
otherwise our experiments would be singularly confused, as will 
be shown a little farther on. It would appear that the arsenious 
acid in the operation just stated, would be evaporated along with 
the sulphuric acid, but some experiments performed by the cem- 
mittee before mentioned, with reference to that point, show that 
no danger need be apprehended on that score. 

T have now stated the best method to pursue, in Becta a 
liquid that may contain all the arsenic in combination with any 
organic matter, and also one that is proper to be introduced into 
Marsh’s apparatus. The next question that most naturally arises 
is, what form of this apparatus is the one that is most calculated 
to give us accurate results? The committee of the Academy of 
Sciences have also occupied themselves with this question, and 
the following is a detailed account of the instrument that has 
received their approval. 


Remarks upon Arsenic. ried 


» AA, an ordinary phial with a large mouth having a capacity of 
from ten to sixteen ounces, in which the gas is generated ; B, a 
tube little less than half inch in diameter traverses the cork and 
reaches nearly to the bottom of the phial; it is for the purpose of 
introducing the liquid to be examined and the sulphuricacid. C, 
another tube of a much small diameter, and bent at an obtuse 
angle; this serves to conduct the gas into a tube D, about ten 
inches long and an inch in diameter, filled with cotton or asbes- 
tus. E is a glass tube, (it is to be preferred if it be of refracting 
glass ;) its internal diameter should not be more than from one 
twelfth to one tenth of an inch, and its extremity should be 
drawn out to a capillary opening. F isa bent sheet of tin per- 
forated with two holes, and which serves to support that part of 
the tube heated by the alcoholic lamp G. 


phial should be left empty. 'The zinc and liquor to be tested are 
first introduced. The tube E is then heated by the lamp, after 
which we introduce slowly the sulphuric acid through the tube 
B. The gas being generated, it first traverses the tube D, where 
it deposits most of its moisture, as well as that portion of the 
liquor which passes out of the phial along with the gas. ‘The 
gas arriving at the point of the tube E that is heated, is decom- 
posed, and the arsenic deposits itself a little further up the tube, 
in the form of a metallic ring. The gas that passes out of the 
extremity is inflamed, and any arsenic that may still remain 
combined with it, is received on a porcelain surface. 

This is*the method of operating, that seemed to the committee 
most likely to give delicate and accurate results. ‘They seem to 
think that fused chloride of calcium is not to be preferred to the 
cotton or the asbestus; but from many experiments that I have 


78 Remarks upon Arsenic. 


made, it would appear that it was; for the gas passing over the - 
chloride of calcium is deprived entirely of its moisture, which 
does not happen in the other case; and the dryness of the gas 
must evidently augment the delicacy of the instrument, for if the 
gas contain moisture when it arrives at the point where it is de- 
composed, the arsenic, as it is liberated, will combine with the 
oxygen of the moisture, forming arsenious acid, which possesses 
no metallic lustre, and if the quantity of arsenic be infinitely 
small, I see no reason why it all should not undergo this change ; 
at any rate, the tube D, let it contain any matter that mise serve 
to dry the gas, is of essential importance. stat 

Another remark to be made about this apparatus is, that some- 
times all the arsenuretted hydrogen is not decomposed, and it not 
unfrequently happens that a portion of that decomposed, is thrown 
out at the extremity of the tube along with the gas. ‘To obviate 
these little inconveniences, I have used the following means, 
which appear to be of some service. In the interior of the tube 
E, at the point where it is heated, are placed very small fragments 
of charcoal, that have been heated to redness in a close vessel 
before being introduced, and bending the same tube, as is seen in 
abe, under the figure before described. 'The arsenic being col- 
lected in the tube E, as just mentioned, is described as follows: 

Ist. By its colotibiig| 

2d. By its becoming changed into a white volatile poms 
when the tube, open at both ends, is heated in an inclined 
position. 

3d. If we introduce a little nitric acid into the tube it dieciti 
the arsenic, converting it into arsenic acid, and if this nitric acid 
solution be evaporated to dryness in a capsule, taking care to add 
a few drops of hydrochloric acid to the nitric acid before com- 
mencing the evaporation—(the reason of this precaution is, that 
most nitric acid of commerce contains an organic substance, 
which gives to the residue a more or less black appearance, and 
by the addition of a few drops of hydrochloric acid chlorine is 
generated, which serves more or less to destroy this substance, 
and therefore afford us a whiter residue)—the residue will give a 
red precipitate if we add toit a drop or two of a concentrated 
solution of silver, aud it is often well to place asmall crystal of 
nitrate of silver in the capsule before the sclution is added, ues it 
tends to render the test more delicate. 


Remarks upon Arsenic. 79 


- 4th. We may collect the arsenate of silver thus formed, mix 
it with a little black flux, introduce it in the bulb by the extrem- 
ity a of the tube ab, (which extremity is to be subsequently 
closed by being heated,) and then heat the bulb, the arsenate 
will be decomposed, and the arsenic will make its appearance in 
the form of a metallic ring in the capillary portion of the tube 6. 


_ In experimenting with Marsh’s apparatus, we should of course 
be sure of the purity of the materials used in generating the hy- 
drogen gas, as well as of those used for carbonizing the animal 
matter. We should submit them all to the same examination 
alone, as we did in company with the substance which was the 
object of our experiment, that is to say, we should evaporate to 
dryness the same quantity, or even more sulphuric and nitric acids 
and water than was used, and test it with the same quantity of 
zine... It must be understood at the same time, that all the re- 
agents should be tested before as well as after the experiment. 

In my last letter, I mentioned that it was generally supposed 
after the experiments of M. Orfila and others, that the bones con- 
tained arsenic, and it was also believed that the muscles did; 
there having been obtained taches resembling in some degree 
those of arsenic, which, I gave then as my opinion, were no 
doubt caused by the sulphur and phosphorus contained in the 
muscles. 

MM. Danger and Flandin have been occupying themselves 
particularly with the investigation of the question of the exist- 
ence of arsenic normally, in the animal economy. In their ex- 
periments they found that by taking a small portion of a muscle, 
and carbonizing it imperfectly, they were able to obtain taches 
resembling in all respects those of arsenic, but which in reality 
were not, for they ascertained that they were produced by the 
sulphite and phosphite of ammonia and an animal volatile oil, 
formed during the imperfect carbonization; and also by the aid 
of about one grain and a half of each of these salts and eighteen 
drops of spirits of turpentine, they formed these taches in con- 
siderable quantity; they have stated that they resemble in all 
respects those of arsenic, but no one accords with them on that 
point. The committee of the Academy of Sciences stated what 


80 Remarks upon Arsenic. ° 


follows, (which I have convinced myself is correct.) ‘That the 

taches obtained from phosphite and sulphite of ammonia and tur- 
pentine, differ from those of arsenic—Ist. By being but partially 
soluble in cold nitric acid, and 2d. By the nitric acid solution 
when evaporated to dryness, giving with nitrate of ~—e a ee 
low and not a red precipitate.” 

MM. Danger and Flandin, and still later the committee so 
often referred to, have examined also the bones, but were no 
more successful in tracing the presence of arsenic in them than 
they were in the case of the muscles. M. Orfila, one of the first 
who stated that they did contain arsenic, is no longer of his origi- 
nal opinion; so that at present the question of the existence of 
normal arsenic in the animal economy, is resolved in the nega- — 
tive; and happy it is for the medico-legalist that he is not embar- 
rassed on that point. I may also add that humanity should re- 
joice at it, for did arsenic exist in the body normally, and was it 
generally known, its use as a destructive agent would be consid- 
erably extended, and those using it in a criminal way, might very 
justly suppose, that if they were suspected and tried, nothing 
would be easier for an ingenious attorney, than to snatch him 
from the hands of justice, by forcing certain doubts from the 
most skillful medico-legalist ; but whereas, as the question now 
stands, facts are too easily brought to light and too well substan- 
tiated, that a doubt should be left upon the mind of any one. 

‘There have been many other taches mentioned, but as they all 
except one, depend upon the liquid of the apparatus being thrown. 
out by the gas upon the cooling surface, where any metallic salt _ 
that it may contain is subsequently decomposed by the hydrogen, 
no notice shall be taken of them, as the tube D (in the apparatus 
figured) prevents altogether, any thing of the kind happening. 
The tache excepted is that produced, when we use a surface 
whose glaze contains lead or tin in considerable quantity; the 
flame of the hydrogen reduces these metals at that point of the 
surface upon which it is directed, and gives rise to a tache more 
or less brilliant, although very easily distinguished from that of 
arsenic by being non-volatile, and insoluble in nitric acid. 

As regards the tache produced by antimony, there is nothing to 
be said ; for when we treat the matter for examination by sulphu- 
ric and nitric acids, antimony, if it be present, is converted into 
antimonious acid, which is insoluble in water; so there is no dan- 


Examination of the Peroxide of Manganese. 81. 


ger of introducing it in the apparatus, and moreover, the tests 
already mentioned, are sufficient to enable us to distinguish be- 
tween’ antimony and arsenic. ! 

I shall conclude what I have to say on 1 this ibis with. the 
résumé of the report of the Academy of Sciences. 

“'The committee, resuming the instruction contained in this 
report, think that Marsh’s process, applied ;with all the precautions 
which have been indicated, satisfy the demand of medico-legal 
researches, in which the quantity of arsenic, which it is attempt- 
ed to exhibit, is always much superior to that which the delicacy 
of the apparatus exhibits; (;,5457¢ of arsenic acid existing in a 
liquid, is about the extent of the delicacy of the apparatus.) 
At the same time it must be well understood, that it is always 
to be employed as a means of concentrating the metal, in order 
to study its chemical characters,-and that we should consider as 
nothing, or as extremely doubtful, the indications which it fur- 
nishes, if the deposit which is formed in the anterior part of the 
tube, does not permit the experimenter, on account of its very 
small quanity, to verify ina precise manner, the chemical charac- 
ters of arsenic.” ; 

“ We will add that in the greater number of cases of poisoning, 
the examination of the matter vomited, and of that which re- 
mains in the intestinal canal, will convince the experimenter of 
the presence of the poison, and that he will have only to proceed 
to the carbonization of the organs, in cases where the first efforts 
have been fruitless, or in those very rare cases, where presumed 


circumstances of poisoning shall indicate to him the necessity.” 
Paris, June 28th, 1841. 


Arr. 1X.—Remarks wpon an eramination of the Peroxide of 
Manganese; by Henry C. Lea. 


Ir is of great importance, both to the practical and: theoret- 
ical chemist, to have the combinations which the different me- 
tals form with the acids, investigated, in order that the proper 
degree of confidence may be reposed in the various theories 
which have been formed from time to time by so many celebra- 
ted chemists. It is with this view alone that I consider these 
examinations as worthy of being published, as I unfortunately 

Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.—Dee. 1841. 11 


82 Examination of the Peroxide of Manganese. 


had not time to pursue them far enough to afford any very defi- 
nite result. They may however serve to point the way to some 
one who has sufficient zeal for the science, to carry them out to 
some more useful end than I cou!d hope to attain. I must here 
make my acknowledgments to Prof. Booth, in whose laboratory, 
and with whose assistance, these examinations were made. 
The peroxide of manganese has never been investigated, as 
its existence has until lately been questioned by some of the first 
chemists in Europe, and the tendency of its salts to convert 
themselves into proto-salts, contributed to render it problematical 
whether it was not merely the protoxide disguised. It can be 
obtained in various ways, but the most convenient is to calcine 
the proto-nitrate gently until the nitrous acid ceases to be given 
off. A less troublesome method is to heat the common black or 
deutoxide, until part of its oxygen is given off, but this method is 
uncertain, as too great a heat converts it into the manganoso- 
manganic oxide, and it is almost impossible to obtain the black ox- 
ide free from admixture with iron. When obtained by calcining, 
its color is of a deep black, and sometimes shining; but when 
precipitated from a liquid, as the permanganate of potassa, it is of 
a dark brown. It has sometimes been found native, and is then 
known to mineralogists under the name of Braunite. It unites 
with water and forms the hydrate, which may be readily produ- 
ced by precipitating the hydrated protoxide from a proto-salt, and 
exposing it to the action of the atmosphere. Obtained in this 
manner it appears under the form of a brown powder, but when 
found native, it is black and erystallizes sometimes in acicular 
crystals, and sometimes in octahedra, resembling in this state the 
deutoxide. ‘The peroxide is composed, according to the caleu- 
lations of Berzelius, of 43.37 of oxygen to 100 of manganese. 
With the different acids it has very various actions ; with some 
it is converted into protoxide, forming proto-salts; while with 
others it immediately forms per-salts, which seem to have no reg- 
ular color, some being red, while others are nearly white, brown, 
or yellowish; a dirty white is however the most usual appearance. 
IT have found it to be the case, that most vegetable acids which 
convert the peroxide into protoxide by giving off oxygen, when 
acting upon the deutoxide, will form per-salts by the loss of oxy- 
gen. They all contain a very great excess of acid, without the 
presence of which the peroxide seems incapable of forming any 


Examination of the Perovide of Manganese. 83 


salt. The best test I have met with for distinguishing them 
from the soluble proto-salts, to which they in appearance bear a 
great similarity, is the yellow prussiate of potash. With the per- 
salts it gives a greyish green precipitate, while with the protox- 
ide solutions the precipitate formed is white or whitish pink. 
The hydrochlorate of platina is also a good test for them, as with 
them it forms a yellowish precipitate, but with those of the prot- 
oxide, it forms none. 

Sulphuretted hydrogen.—W hen this gas is passed over the per- 
oxide placed in a tube, which at the same time is heated, the gas 
is decomposed, sulphur and water are given off, and the oxide is 
converted into a sulphuret of a light green color. The gas 
must be passed over until the tube becomes cool, for if the sul- 
phuret be exposed to the air while hot, it inflames, acting the 
part of a pyrophorus. When digested in fuming nitric acid, a 
violent action takes place, the sulphuret is decomposed and con- 
verted into a proto-salt, and all the sulphur is precipitated. Ana- 
lyzed in this manner, it gave 9.6 per cent. of sulphur, and when 
heated in the open air until the sulphur was burnt out and the 
oxide converted into manganoso-manganic oxide, it yielded 100 
per cent. of manganoso-manganic oxide, which contains 72.178 
per cent. of metallic manganese. Now 9.6 of sulphur will com- 
bine with 16.51 of manganese, which makes 26.11 per cent. of 
sulphuret. There then remains 55.67 per cent. of manganese, 
which, if considered as manganoso-manganic oxide, would form 
an oxy-sulphuret, containing 


Sulphuret of manganese, - - - 26.110 
Manganoso-manganic oxide, - - 71.893 
98.003 


Thus in the operation, both the oxide and sulphuretted hydro- 
gen are decomposed. ‘The oxide is partly reduced to manganoso- 
manganic oxide, and partly to metallic manganese. ‘The sul- 
phur from the sulphuretted hydrogen is mostly driven off, but 
some of it combines with that part of the oxide which has been 
converted into the metal, while the oxygen from the. oxide, and 
the hydrogen from the gas, unite and pass off under the form of 
steam. This oxy-sulphuret very much resembles the substance 
formed by gently calcining the red sulphuret ina close vessel, 
(during which operation sulphuretted hydrogen is given off,) but 


84 Examination of the Peroxide of Manganese. 


it upon analysis gave but 92.857 per cent. of. iigctiesc “mans 
ganic oxide, while the first forms 100. Hh 

- Cyanogen.—When cyanuret of potassium is avon bij: a dba 
tion of a per-salt of manganese, the cyanuret is precipitated under 
the form of an extremely fine greyish green powder, which re- 
mains suspended in the liquid for some time. 

_ Sulphuric acid.—The persulphate may be fone tay asind 
ing the black oxide in sulphuric acid for several days in the cold, 
or when peroxide is placed in dilute acid, it is formed in a few 
hours, but when the peroxide is used, there is a greater excess 
of acid. This solution is of a beautiful carmine red, but if the 
oxide be that precipitated from the permanganate of potassa, the 
solution has somewhat of a violet tinge. It has so great a ten- 
dency to convert itself into protosulphate, that it can neither be 
evaporated nor crystallized, and it cannot be kept for any time, as 
it is decomposed in the course of two or three weeks. This 
change may be accelerated by the addition of alcohol. 

Sulphate of manganese and potassa.—This salt, which is the 
manganese-alum, may be formed, according to Mitscherlich, by 

adding a concentrated solution of sulphate of potassa to one of 
persulphate of manganese. It crystallizes of a violet brown sists 
and is decomposed by the addition of water. 

If bisulphate of potassa be digested upon deutoxide of man- 
ganese, there is a strong action, which results in the formation of 
-a double salt, which, upon evaporating, remains under the form 
of a somewhat crystalline mass of a dirty white color, and a 
pleasant acid taste; it reddens litmus paper, and shows.the reac- 
tion of the peroxide with yellow prussiate of potassa, and does 
not seem to be decomposed by water; but it is most likely the 
manganese-alum of Mitscherlich. 

Nitric acid.—When nitric acid is digested upon peroxide of 
manganese, it does not form a per-salt, but the nitrate may be 
made by adding nitrate of lead to the Meier of manganese, 
until they are both neutralized. 

Hydrochloric acid.—lf this acid be digested upon per or deut- 
oxide of manganese, there is a perchloride formed of a dark 
brown color, and which decomposes immediately by the applica- 
tion of heat, or in a week or two, in the cold... There then re- 
mains protochloride, while chlorine is evolved. When evapora- 
ted to dryness, we obtain crystals of protochloride of a fine pink. 


Examination of the Peroxide of Manganese. 85 


Dr. John passed chlorine through a solution of three hundred 
grains of protochloride, dissolved in 12 oz. water, cooled to 419. 
‘The liquid: gradually congealed as the operation proceeded, and 
produced a yellowish crystalline mass, which melted at a tem- 
perature alittle above 41°. It was decomposed by evaporation.* 
This may only have been the perchloride, surrounded. by liquid 
chlorine, for when I repeated this experiment, at a temperature 
above 41°, I obtained a yellowish crystalline mass, which, how- 
ever, on being placed between blotting paper to dry it, proved 
that a yellow liquid imparted that color to the salt, which itself 
was pink. I did not however observe that it was decomposed 
by evaporation. 

Sulphurous acid.—This acid has no action upon the peroxide, 
even when passed over it inia heated tube; and with the deut- 
oxide it forms proto-hypo-sulphate. I do not think that the per- 
sulphite can be formed unless by double decomposition with 
some other salt. 

Carbonic acid.—It has no action upon the peroxide, and as 
far as I have observed, it cannot be made to combine with it. 
The brown substance mentioned by Thomson, (Chem. Inor. 
Bodies, Vol. II,) and formed by decomposing the persulphate of 
manganese by carbonate of potassa, is most probably an hydrate 
of one of the oxides. 

Phosphoric acid.—When digested upon peroxide, this acid 
forms a pink: solution, giving the per reaction with tests, and 
which upon evaporation leaves an uncrystallizable pasty mass, of 
a pink or violet color, which becomes colorless in a short time, 
most probably by decomposition. 

Boracic acid.—The borate can be readily formed by dissolving 
the peroxide in boracic acid. The solution thus formed by evap- 
oration leaves a whitish crystalline mass, soluble both in nitrie 
and muriatic acid. ! 

Arsenious acid.—When peroxide is digested in arsenious acid, 
they unite and form asoluble pinkish white salt. 

If bi-arsenite of potassa be digested upon peroxide of man- 
ganese, it forms a double salt, being arsenite of manganese and 
potassa. 


* Berzelius, Traité de Chimie, Tom. IV, p. 170. 


86. Examination of the Peroxide of Manganese. 


Chromic acid.—Chromic acid seems to have no action upon — 
the peroxide, but a chromate may be formed by digesting the 
peroxalate in chromic acid. ‘The solution is of a dark chestnut 
brown, but it cannot be evaporated or crystallized, as it is ieee: 
posed by the application of heat. | ae 

Bichromate of potassa has no action upon the deutoxide vi 
manganese. 

Oxalic acid.—This acid as a violent effect upon the perox- 
ide. Oxygen is given off, the insoluble protoxalate is precipita- 
ted, while a soluble peroxalate remains in solution. By careful 
evaporation it may be crystallized, but it is very apt to be de- 
composed, forming an insoluble salt, most probably the protoxa- 
late. It dissolves in muriatic and nitric acid. It was analyzed 
by dissolving and precipitating the oxalic acid by chloride of cal- 
cium; while another portion was calcined and converted into 
manganoso-manganic oxide. ‘Treated in this manner it showed 
27.4348 per cent. of oxalic acid, and 8.5 of manganoso-manganie 
oxide =11.73 of peroxide. This leaves a very large per centage © 
for water of crystallization. ‘Thus 


Oxalic acid, - - - - = 27.4348 
Peroxide of manganese, - - os 11.7300 
Water and loss, - - - - 60.8352 

100.0000 


The 11.73 of oxide, requires very nearly 16. of oxalic acid; 
which leaves 11.4348 of free acid, so that this salt, in common 
with the others, possesses a great excess of acid. 

If binoxalate of potassa be digested upon the deutoxide of man- 
ganese, in the cold, a pink colored solution is formed, which by 
standing becomes yellow, letting fall a pink powder. If the so- 
lution of the binoxalate be hot, the action is very violent, and 
the resulting solution is yellow. By evaporation it leaves a erys- 
talline, almost tasteless mass, partly white and partly green, and 
which is readily dissolved in water. 

Acetic acid.—Glacial acetic acid does not form a per-salt when 
digested on peroxide of manganese. 

Tartaric acid.—lIf this acid be digested upon peroxide, oxy- 
gen is given off and the prototartrate is formed. But if we dis- 
solve deutoxide instead of peroxide, a pertartrate results, which 
on being evaporated leaves the salt of a light yellow or straw 
color. 


_ Examination of the Peroxide of Manganese. 87 


Bitartrate of potassa, particularly if warm, dissolves the deut- 
oxide of manganese with considerable energy, at the same time 
evolving oxygen and forming a tartrate of manganese and potassa, 
which isa highly crystalline brownish mass, of hardly any flavor, 
and soluble both in nitric and hydrochloric acids. 

Benzoic acid.—When benzoic acid is boiled with peroxide of 
manganese, there is a benzoate formed, slightly soluble in water. 
Thus obtained, it is a dirty white substance, of a crystalline ap- 
pearance. 

Succinic acid.—This acid forms a protosuccinate when di- 
gested upon peroxide, but with the deutoxide, it, like tartaric 
acid, forms a per-salt, which is soluble in water, c: a ails 
color, crystalline and very acid. 

Pirenie acid.—This like the last forms a per-salt with the 
deutoxide, and a proto-salt with the peroxide. ‘The resulting so- 
lution, by evaporation, leaves the salt somewhat crystalline, 
whitish brown, and quite acid. 

Citric acid.—With citric acid, both the per and deutoxide act 
as towards the last. ‘The percitrate obtained from the deutoxide 
is a brown, gummy, seemingly uncrystallizable mass, of a pleas- 
ant acid taste, slightly deliquescent, and is soluble, although not 
very readily, in both nitric and muriatic acids. 

Gallic acid.—The pergallate of manganese may be obtained 
by dissolving the peroxide in gallic acid. The solution thus ob- 
tained is of a deep brown color, and the salt obtained by evapora- 
tion is nearly black. It does not appear to crystallize. 

These are all the acids, of which I have been able to note the 
action with the per or deutoxide of manganese. I have followed 
Berzelius in calling peroxide, that one which might perhaps be 
more correctly termed sesquioxide, as its formula is Mn, but as it is 
very similar to the analogous oxide of iron, also termed peroxide, 
and. as it is the highest oxide of manganese which forms combi- 
nations with acids, it seems best to apply the term of peroxide to 
this, and super or binoxide to the black oxide of commerce. 

If time should favor me, I propose to pursue the above subject, 
asit is probable that much remains to be determined, concerning 
the compounds of manganese, before we can say with eased 
that we are acquainted with the metal. 


Philadelphia, May 8th, 184}. 


88 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 


Arr. X.—A Sketch of the Infusoria, of the family Bacillaria, 
with some account of the most interesting species which have 

- been found in a recent or fossil state in the United States ; by 
J. W. Batuey, Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Geol- 
ogy, in the United States Military Academy. 


Parr I1.* 


Havine given in the preceding part of this memoir, some ac- 
count of those Bacillariae which belong to the section Desmidi- 
acea, I continue the subject in the present part, by Bescn Ee the 
Bacillariae of the section Naviculacea. 

As all the species referred to this section have siliceous cov- 
erings, they often occur in a fossil state, and hence their study is 
of peculiar interest to the geologist. In beauty of form and ele- 
gance of structure, they will bear comparison with almost any class 
of organized beings. 


Secr. I. NAVICULACEA. 


PyxIpicuna. 


Free, carapace simple, bivalve (siliceous) separate, sited 
(may be compared to a Gaillonella with perfect spontaneous divi- 
sion or without division. ) 

1. Pywidicula operculata. (Pl. 2; fig. 1 and 1 a.) Body spherical, 
divisible into two premep Hones carapace hyaline, internal organs green- 
ish yellow, y45 to zg line. 

I have seen hemispheres, probably derived from this species, 
among fossil infusoria from Manchester, Mass., &c. 

2. Pywidicula globata. This name has been given to globular bodies 
found in flint. Beautiful figures of them by Bauer, will be found in 
Pritchard’s Hist. Infusoria, pl. 12, figs. 506 to 509. It is now suspect- 
ed that these bodies are the gemmules of sponges, as the ramified tubes 
of sponge are often found preserved in the same pieces of flint. 

3. Pyeidicula? (Pl. 2, fig. 2, a, b.) The spheroidal bodies repre- 
sented by these figures, occur in the tertiary infusorial stratum discovered 


* Since the second part of this memoir was ready for the press, I have received 
Pritchard's beautiful work entitled “ History of Infusoria living and fossil.’”’ I have 
gladly availed myself of the onportunity to introduce here many of the novel 
facts which it contains. Many of these facts will be given in the form of notes, 


as time does not now allow me to incorporate them in this sketch in any other 
form. 


Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 89. 


by Prof. W. B. Rogers in Virginia.* Of the real nature of these 
bodies lam quite uncertain; they agree however with Pyxidicula, in 
separating into two hemispherical portions. The surface is beautifully 
marked with rows of circular or hexagonal spots. or cells, resembling 
those on the beautiful species of Coscinodiscus which accompany these 
bodies in the same deposit. 
) GaAILLONELLA. , 

Free, carapace simple, bivalve (siliceous), form. cylindrical, 
globular or discoid, producing chains [long articulated cylinders] 
by imperfect spontaneous division. : 

1. Gaillonella moniliformis. (Pl. 2, fig. 3.) _Corpuscles smooth, 
cylindrical, short, conical at the sides and truncate, form octangular [?] 
circular when seen endwise, ovaries green, 75 line. Ehr. Meloseira 
moniliformis, Ktz., Linn., 1833, Pl. 17, fig. ‘71.  M. nummuloides, 
Grew. in Brit. Flora, V, p. 401. 

This very beautiful species grows only in salt or brackish wa- 
ter, and occurs in great abundance in various places in the United 
States. I first noticed it several years ago, among specimens 
of Algee from Providence, R. I. I subsequently found it almost 
covering the bottom. and shores of Providence Cove at low tide. 
I found it again in vast quantities, in salt ditches near the railroad 
at Stonington, Conn., where it formed large fleecy masses, some- 
times of several feet in extent. Still more recently I have found 
it at Staten Island, and also, much to my surprise, sixty miles up 
the Hudson River near West Point. 

The form is not strictly octangular, but at first appears so, in 
consequence of the two minute projections of the delicate trans- 
verse ridges seen near the ends of each of the two globules be- 
longing to a joint. 'They do not change their form when heated 


* For an account of this truly interesting discovery, see Report on Geology of 
Virginia for 1849. The infusorial strata of Virginia are of great interest from 
their vast extent, and from being the first infusorial deposits noticed in this coun- 
try, of @ period anterior to the present epoch. I am indebted to Prof. Rogers for 
specimens from various localities, and with his permission I include in this memoir, 
figures drawn by myself of several of the interesting forms found in these beds. 

+ The Flora and Fauna of the Hudson River at West Point would, in a fossil 
state, be rather puzzling to the geologist, on account of the singular mixture of 
marine and fluviatile species. While Vallisneria and Potamogeton grow in such 
vast quantities in many places as to prevent the passage of a boat, and the shore is 
covered with fluviatile shells, such as Planorbis, Physa, &c. in a living state ; we 
yet find the above fresh-water plants entangled with bunches of marine Algz, such 
as Enteromorpha, Ectocarpus, &c., and ofien covered with marine parasitic zoo- 
phyte3 and marine infusoria (Achnanthes, Gaillonella, Echinella, Naunema, &c.; 


Vol. xu11, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 12 


90 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 


to redness, nor by action of hot hydrochloric acid. They fuse 
with effervescence with carbonate of potassa, and the fused mass 
when treated with hydrochloric acid gives silica in abundance. 
There can, then, be no doubt that the glass-like filaments of this 
species are siliceous. Our species agrees in all respects with au- 
thentic European specimens (in Herb. Tor.) collected by Hoff- 
man Bang, at Hofmansgave. 

2. Gaillonella aurichalcea. (PI. 2, fig.4,4 a?) Corpuscles Sam: 
gated, cylindrical, truncate, flattened smooth, contiguous, a simple or 
double pierced furrow in the middle of the body, ovaries greenish, be- 
coming golden yellow when dry, ;4z line. Conferva orichalcea, Ag., 
Syst. Alg. p. 86. Meloseira orichalcea, Ktz., Limn., 1833, p. 72, ane, 
Pl. 17, fig. 68. 

Our species (Pl. 2, fig. 4, a, b,) agrees so closely with Walden 
ficure 68, even in the branching character and occasional produc- — 
tion of large globular joints, (see (c) in fig. 4,) that I feel little 
hesitation in considering it as the G. aurichalcea, although 1 am 
unable to perceive the “sillon percé” alluded to by Ehrenberg in 
his specific character. This species might easily be mistaken for 
a Conferva. It often forms bluish green masses, of full a foot in 
extent, and while fresh it is quite as flexible as any Conferva ; 
but on drying, it becomes of a light brassy yellow color, and is 
then excessively fragile. There is much variation in the diame- 
ter of the filaments, and in the relative length of the joints. ‘The 
filaments which have the smallest diameter, have, eenerally, the 
longest joints. They retain their forms when heated to white- 
ness, and when treated with strong nitric acid. This species oc- 
curs in springs, rivulets, &c., and appears as common in this 
country as in Europe. In (PI. 2, fig. 4, b,) is represented a spe- 
cies of Gaillonella apparently distinct from figs. 4 and 4 a. It 
shows the pierced furrows and agrees in most respects with the 
figure of G. aurichalcea given by Ehrenberg in his memoir en- 
titled Die Fossilen Infusorien und die lebendige Dammerde, Pl. 
1, fig. 23. It is possibly, only a state of our species above refer- 
red to. It occurs in ponds near West Point. 


while the rocks below low water mark are covered with Balani and minute coral- 
lines, and the marine flora is represented by vasi quantities of a very elegant Poly- 
siphonia, nov. sp.?) abundance of Enteromorpha intestinalis, Ectocarpus siliculosus, 
and an elegant Alga, apparently identical with Delesseria Leprieurii of Montagne, 
which was first detected on the shores of Cayenne. (See Annales des Sciences 
Naturelles, 2d series, Bot., tom. 18, p. 196, and pl. 5.) 


Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 91 


3. Gaillonella distans. (Pl. 2, fig. 5.)  Corpuscles. cylindrical, 
short, truncate and flattened on the ends, smooth, with two pierced fur- 
rows, always separated in the middle, 5+, to 74 line, usually 4. 

_ This species occurs in vast quantities in the fossil state in Ku- 
rope. It constitutes a large portion of the slate of Bilin and Cas-. 
sel, and of the ‘ Berghmehl” or “fossil farina” of various locali- 
ties. It occurs in most of the specimens of American fossil in- 
fusoria, which I have seen. It is particularly abundant in the 
specimens from Manchester, Mass., which are chiefly composed 
of exceedingly minute frustules of this species. It forms here, 
a true fossil farina, almost as light as flour, and containing ina 
cubic inch many hundred millions of these minute siliceous shells. 
It occurs in a living state at West Point. 

4. Guailionelia varians. (Pl. 2, fig. 6, a, b.) Corpuscles flat on 
each end, cylindrical surface smooth, ends with fine radiating lines, 
ovaries yellow or green, 7$z to gy line. 

Our fiz. 6, represents a species which is not uncommon in 
ponds near West Point. The discoid surfaces of the individuals 
show minute radiating lines quite distinctly. 

5. Gaillonella sulcata. (Pl. 2, fig. 7,a,b?) IT noticed frag- 
ments of this species two years ago in peat from a salt marsh 
near Stonington, and among marine Alge in the same vicinity. 
{ had prepared a sketch and description of it for this memoir, 
before I heard of the discovery of the infusorial stratum of Vir- 
ginia. J was, therefore, agreeably surprised to find, on inspect- 
ing specimens of the fossil infusoria from Richmond, Rappahan- 
nock Cliff, &c., that this species was very abundant in them. <A 
careful comparison of the recent specimens from Stonington, 
and the fossil specimens from the tertiary of Virginia, has left no 
doubt in my mind of their specific identity. The following is 
the account of the recent specimens, written several months be- 
fore the reception of the Virginia fossils. 'They consist of frus- 
tules, each of which is divided by a transverse line ; the cylindrz- 
cal surface of each frustule has a great number of parallel lines 
in the direction of the axis, and the ends or flat surfaces show a 
rim having lines corresponding to those on the cylindrical surface ; 
within this rim is a diaphragm having minute radiating lines. 
Chains of thirty or forty individuals are not unfrequent in the in- 
fusorial earth of Richmond, particularly in the upper part of the 
stratum. These are doubtless the “oblong cylinders” alluded to 
by Prof. W. B. Rogers in his Report on the Geological Survey of 


92 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 


Virginia, p. 39. Ehrenberg gives the following description of 
Gaillonella sulcata, a fossil species occurring in the schist. of 
Oran ; from this description I suspect it to be closely allied to our 
species, and therefore copy its specific characters for the. ‘en, el 
of comparison. ws ae 

“¢ Gaillonella sulcata. Corpuscles cylindrical, short, truncate at the 
two ends and flattened, furrowed across and si; form of cells” (sillonnés 
en travers et sous forme de cellules,) gs to 74 line.* fexieguy 

6. Gaillonella? ————. _ (Pl. 2, fig. 8.) Corpuscles long, cylindti- 
eal, with two lines of constriction, adhering by alternate angles so as to 
form long zigzag chains, and occasionally auricled. 

The curious bodies represented in Pl. 2, fig. 8, appear to partake 
of the characters of both Gaillonella and. Bacillaria, showing 
the cylindrical corpuscles of the former, united by alternate an- 
gles, as in many species of the latter. It is, perhaps, related to 
Diatoma auritum of Lyngbye, which is described as having the 
“joints quadrangular, rounded, with an auricle at each angle,” 
and of which Greville remarks that the auricular appendages of 
the angles give to the frustules the appearance of ‘“ microscopic 
woolpacks.” Having seen no figure or specimen of D. auritum, 
I cannot decide as to its identity with our species; I believe, how- 
ever, that ours must be different, both from its abundance and 
from the remark of Kutzing (Linnea, 1833, p. 585) that D. au- 
rilum probably belongs to the Desmidiacee. 

Our species consists of large cylindrical siliceous joints, eile 
adhering together by alternate angles in a zigzag manner. Most 
of the frustules show two lines of constriction, as shown in the 
figure. 'The connection of the frustules is by a very conspicuous, 
flexible hinge-like ligament, which often gives to the joints an au- 
ricled appearance, which makes the comparison of them to ‘ mi- 
croscopic woolpacks,” or rather bales of cotton, not inappropriate. 

The joints usually contain a yellow or ochraceous substance, 
arranged in a stellate manner, and not unfrequently this appears 
to be composed of minute globules, (ova?) as shown in the fig- 
ure. This species occurs, in vast quantities, in the Hudson River, 
at West Point. It may be found in some places at low tide, giv- 


* In Pritchard’s History of Infusoria, Recent and Fossil, I finda figure of Gazlle- 
nella suleata, which leaves no doubt that our fossil specimens from Richmond, as 
well as our recent ones from Stonington, belong to this species. The living ani- 
mals have also been detected at Cuxhaven, by Ehrenberg. See appendix to Pritch- 
ard’s work, p. 434. 


Sketch of the Infusoria of the Samily Bacillaria. 93 


ing to the shores a ferruginous color in spaces even as much as a 
hundred square yards in extent. 

7. Gaillonelia ferruginea. Corpuscles very minute, convex on the 
ends, ferruginous, oval, smooth, having the form of articulated threads, 
often united, almost branching, zo!5q to. zoo line. 

_ Ehrenberg states with a mark of doubt, that it occurs in all 
ferruginous waters; fossil in bog iron ore; and in the yellow 
opal of Bilin. A copy of Ehrenberg’s figure may be seen in 
Lyell’s Elements of Geology, p. 39, (Am. Edit.) and in Pritch- 
ard’s Hist. Inf. fig. 129-130. I have often seen in bogs and 
small streams, large quantities of a ferruginous colored floculent 
matter which dispersed with great ease when touched, and in 
which I have sometimes been able to see, by means of the micro- 
scope, excessively minute filaments which were apparently mo- 
niliform. I believe these filaments to be the G. ferruginea of 
Ehrenberg, which is the same as the Oscillatoria ochracea of va- 
rious algologists. The filaments are fragile and incombustible, 
and are said to be composed of silicate of iron. (See Pritchard’s 
Hist. Inf. p. 199 and 200.) 


ACTINOCYCLUS. 


Free, carapace simple, bivalve, (siliceous) form cylindrical, 
(discoid) divided internally by several radiating partitions ; spon- 
taneous division imperfect in form of a chain. 

_ Ehrenberg mentions seven species, viz. A. ternarius, A. qua- 
ternarius, A. quinarius, A. senarius, A. septenarius, A. octonarius, 
and A. denarius, distinguished respectively by the number of 
cells formed by the radiating partitions. Several species occur in 
the “schiste of Oran” in Africa, in a formation which M. Rozet 
considered as tertiary, but which Ehrenberg suspects is more 
nearly connected with the chalk. 

‘It appears to me to be an interesting fact, that the remarkable 
marine infusorial deposit discovered by Prof. W. B. Rogers in 
the tertiary formation of Virginia, appears to agree with the in- 
fusorial conglomerate of Oran, in containing several species of 
Actinocyclus, together with Graillonella sulcata, and beautiful — 
punctate discs, which I suspect belong to the genus Coscinodis- 
cus. Ihave seen no account of this last genus, but its name 
appears peculiarly appropriate to the szeve-like discs which form 
so large a portion of the infusorial stratum of Richmond, Va. 
Ehrenberg mentions Coscinodiscus patina as predominating in 


94 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 


the deposits of Oran, Zante, Caltasinetta, &c. (See Weaver’s 

View of Ehrenberg’s Observations in Lond. and Ed. Phil. Journ. 
for May, 1841, p. 393.) In figs. 9, 10, and 11, are represented sev- 

eral fossil species of Actinocyclus from Richmond, Va.; the same 

species also occur fossil in cliffs on the Rappahannock River. In 

figs. 12, 13, and 14, are represented the discs which I believe 

to belong to the genus Coscinodiscus. When perfect, the form 

seems to be that of a torus, having the circular bases covered with — 
hexagonal or circular spots, which present considerable variety. 
in their size and arrangement in different specimens. ‘The most 

usual disposition of the spots is in rows corresponding with the 

radii, as shown in the large specimen fig. 14. In consequence of 
this arrangement, they also form beautiful spiral rows in other 

directions, so that the curves present no inconsiderable resemblance 
to those often seen on the back of watches; at other times the 

spots are found to form three sets of lines, making angles of 60° 

and 120° with each other, as shown in fig. 12, and on others the 

spots are disposed without much apparent regularity, frequently 

having a star-like figure in the centre. ‘The spots are so small 

on some of the discs, as to be almost invisible even by the high- 

est magnifying powers; on others, as in fig. 14, they are quite 

large and distinctly hexagonal. The largest discs have not al- 

ways the largest spots. ‘There are certainly several species of 

this genus in the infusorial stratum of Richmond, Va., but as I 

_ have not seen Ehrenberg’s account of the European species, I 

cannot venture to name our own. 

Note, October 10th, 1841.—Since. the above was ready for 
the press, I have seen in the appendix to Pritchard’s History of 
Infusoria, living and fossil, some interesting statements of recent 
discoveries by Ehrenberg, with reference to the genera of Acti- 
nocyclus and Coscinodiscus. It appears that these genera, which 
were first discovered in a fossil state in the schiste of Oran, Cal- 
tasinetta, Zante, &c., have also been recently found in sea water, 
and that many of the living species are identical with the fossil 
ones; indeed, Ehrenberg states that Actinocyclus senarius, Cos- 
cinodiscus patina, and G'aillonella sulcata, species now living, 
may be shown as the chief forms met with in the chalk marls 
of Sicily, and also that the species of the chalk formations are 


yet to be found as crowds of living creatures in the waters of 
our seas. 


Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 95 


I select from the species of Coscinodiscus, described by Eh- 
renberg, the following, as apparently identical with American 
species from Richmond, Va. In connection with the description, 
I give a reference to figures drawn by me from fossil American 
species, long before pesegiics s characters for the species were 
received. 

- Coscinodiscus Viiewteis (Pl. 2, fig. 12, a, B.). Carapace marked 
by small cells disposed in a series of parallel and transverse lines. 
Found fossil in the chalk marl of Caltasinetta, and in the live 
condition at the Cuxhaven. The cells in this species form par- 
allel lines in whatever direction they may be viewed. In large 
aud well preserved fossil specimens, as many as twenty five 
openings Were seen near the circumference. Within the live 
forms, numerous yellow vesicles are sometimes seen, as in Gail- 
Jonellas .Dianieter ‘of \fossil;-272cth) tom, ith ;® living: 25th 
to ;4,th. Fossil at Richmond, Va. 
Coscinodiscus radiatus.  ( Pl. 2, fig. 14.) \Carapace large, 
marked with cells of moderate size, disposed in lines radiating 
from the centre. ‘Towards the margin the cells become smaller 
in size. Very abundant in fossil state at Oran, alive near Wis- 
mar and Cuxhaven, ;1,th to =4,th. Fossil at Hichinand, Va. 

Coscinodiscus Argus, (? var. of C. radiatus.) Carapace with 
large cells at the centre, and smaller ones at the cireumference, 
the order of the rays being often interrupted. 

Fossil at Oran and Caltasinetta in chalk marl, living in sea 
water at Cuxhaven. 'The cells of the discs from Oran vary very 
much in size. The ova are of a greenish color in the living 
forms, which are very rare. Diam. ;34,th to z},;th. Fossil at 
Richmond, Va. 

Coscinodiscus oculus-iridis.  Carapace marked with rather 
large radiant cells, except near the centre and circumference, 
where they are smaller. Someof the larger cells in the centre 
form a sort of star. Fossil in the chalk marl of Greece; alive 
near Cuxhaven. Diameter, ;1;. This large species is curiously 
marked, whilst under the microscope, with colored rings, which 
are apparently caused by the peculiar arrangement of the cells. 
There are generally from five to nine large cells at the centre. 
Specimens are found in the infusorial stratum of Richmond, Va., 
which have the star-like centre and prelaaty ee to puis 
species. 


96 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 


Coscinodiscus patina. (Pl. 2, fig. 13, a. b.) Carapace large, 
cells of moderate size disposed in concentric circles. Cells smaller 
towards the circumference. Fossil in chalk marl of Zante, alive 
at Cuxhaven. The young and vigorous specimens of live indi- 
viduals are completely filled with yellow granules, whilst the 
older ones have an irregular granulated mass within them. Di- 
ameter, ;2,th to ,1,th. Fossil at Richmond, Va. Our, figure 
shows a small specimen. oe 

‘Of the genus Actinocyclus, Ehrenberg describes saneial new 
species, which have been found fossil in the chalk marls of Oran, 
Caltasinetta, &c., and living in sea water at Cuxhaven, Chris- 
tiana and 'Tjérn. Several of these species have no. partitions, 
but have surfaces marked with minutely punctate rays. The 
great variety which occurs among the forms of Actinocyclus, 
found fossil at Richmond, leave no doubt in my mind, that all 
of Ehrenberg’s species will be found among them. Talso be= 
lieve that I have seen a living species of this genus, or of Cos- 
cinodiscus, in the ooze of the Hudson River, near West Point. 

For Ehrenberg’s characters for the new species, see Pritchard’s 
Hist. Inf., p. 428-429. 

Navicuna. 

Free, separate or binary, carapace simple, bivalve or multivalve 
(siliceous) having six [?| openings; never united in form of a 
chain by perfect spontaneous diviszon. 

On these characters as given by Ehrenberg for the genus Na- 
vicula, I would remark that there do not appear to be any true 
valves or parts capable of separation without fracture, although 
each species will usually break along certain lines or edges into 
a definite number of parts. I have not been able to satisfy my- 
self of the existence of six openings in NV. viridis, (see remarks 
concerning that species,) and with regard to the species ever 
forming chains, I can state that it is not rare to meet with four, 
sometimes even eight united laterally. I have even seen them 
thus united in the fossil state. 

a. Having transverse striae, (internal cells,) subgenus Sirinttle 

Navicula viridis. (Pl. 2, fig. 16, a,b.) Striate, carapace straight, 
lateral faces truncate at the ends, ventral faces rounded at the ends, 
fifteen strize (cells) in zdoth of a line. Length, 5) to 4 line. 

This beautiful species is one of the largest and most abundant, 
both in the recent and fossil state. It occurs all over Europe, and 


Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 97 


is equally diffused in this country. I have myself observed it in 
Maine, Massachusetts, New York, Ouisconsin and Virginia. ° It 
is easily recognized by means of its large size and beautifully 
marked ventral faces. The striee seen on these faces may cor- 
respond to internal cells, but I believe them to be linear openings 
in the carapace itself, as may easily be seen on the fragments of 
fossil specimens. ‘There are three rounded spaces on each ven- 
tral face, which I think have been mistaken for openings, but 
which appear to me to be thicker portions of the carapace. One 
of these spaces is in the middle, and the other two at the extrem- 
ities of the striated surfaces, and they are connected by a very 
delicate double line (canal?) A similar structure is seen on sev- 
eral other species of Navicula, Coceconema and Gomphonema. 
The real orifices are shown at ¢,¢, c,c,in our fig. 16, 6. Moving 
particles somewhat like those of Closterium may sometimes be 
seen neat the extremities. In fig. 17, a, b, Pl. 2, T have copied 
from Ehrenberg, (Die Fossilen Infusorien und die lebendige Dam- 
merde, Berlin, 1837, Pl. 1, fig. 19,) a sketch in which he repre= 
sents the organs of motion, the stomach &c. of this species. The 
reference letters having been omitted by the engraver of Ehren- 
berg’s plate, I have been obliged to insert them according to what 
I believe was their intended position. 

The following is a translation of Pecnber: explanation of 
this figure. (See fig. 17, Pl. —.) 

‘A living specimen of Navicula viridis, in which by the injec- 
tion of indigo are distinctly to be seen; the stomach v, the two 
great spherical sexual glands s s, and the lamelliform extensions 
of the green ovarium, 0’ mouth opening, o’ sexual opening? 
a, a, a, a, four movement openings, p the pediform organs of mo- 
tion. ‘The visible currents on the body, both when SregninG and 
at rest, are denoted by arrows.” 

2. Navicula viridula.. Carapace straight, lanceolate, linear, very 
slender, truncate at the ends, flattened on one side, lanceolate and ob- 
tuse on the other, 13 to 15 strie in =25 line, sig tos, line. Frustulia 
viridula, Ktz., Linn. 1833, Pl. 13, fig. 12. 

Ehrenberg mentions this as one of the species detected by him 
among fossil infusoria from West Point. Kutzing’s figure does 
not allow me to determine with certainty, which of the various 
forms occurring at West Point, belongs to this species, 

Vol. xiur, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 13 


98 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 


3. Navicula (PL. 2, fig. 18.) . This figure represents a pan- 
duriform species, very much contracted in the middle. | wee occurs in 
peat from a salt marsh near Stonington, Conn. 

4. Navicula (Pl. 2, fig. 19.) This species « occurs s with the 
last, and is sagteee a state of it resulting from its complete spontaneous 
division into two individuals by the contraction at the middle. ji 

5. Navicula (Pl. 2, fig. 20.) This resembles the preced- 
ing very much, but is a fresh-water species, occurring in ponds near 
West Point, also in streams in Virginia. 

6. Navicula? striatula. (PI. 2, fig. 21, a, b.) I refer to this genus 
with much hesitation the very elegant and interesting species shown by 
fig. 21 a, 6. It is easily known by a set of peculiar and beautiful un- 
dulating ridges, represented in the figure, and which give to the margin 
of the form a ruffled appearance, in whatever position they are ob- 
served. One of the faces (a) is lanceolate, the other (b) is somewhat — 
wedgeform, with both ends obtusely truncate. The lanceolate face 
shows a set of fine lines apparently proceeding from the ridges above 
referred to, and reaching nearly to the middle line of the face. I have 
sometimes seen two. individuals united laterally by their lanceolate 
faces, producing a very beautiful form. All the individuals which I 
have seen, have been free, without pedicel, and when living, their spon- 
taneous motions were very distinct. I have found it in a living state in 
fresh-water ponds and streams near West Point, also in Mountain Run, 
near Culpepper Court House, in Virginia; and I detected it in a fossil 
state among other fossil infusoria from Bridgewater, Mass. (See figs. 
6 and 7, Pl. 20, of Hitchcock's Final Report on Geology of Madeat 
chusetts. ) 

In Pritchard’s History of inilcoe: I find two figures repre- 
senting NV. striatula, which leave no doubt that ours is the same 
species. (See Hist. Inf. Pl. 3, fig. 137, 138.) The following 
interesting remarks with regard to the organs of locomotion i in 
this genus, are also taken from this work. 

“‘In the small pools left by ebb of the tide near Cuxhaven, 
Dr. Ehrenberg remarked numerous little bodies, apparently simi- 
lar to Navicula (Surirella) elegans and N. striatula, but which 
from their comparatively very great size and structure of lorica, 
were easily distinguishable from the latter upon closer examina- 
tion. One of these ribbed glass-like creatures was, besides its 
size, remarkable for its great mobility, and Dr. E. was enabled 
to investigate its system of locomotion much more satisfactorily 
than he had hitherto done in any of the genus. This organ he 
states was very different, both in form and size, to what he had 


Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 99 


before noticed in that genus. Instead of a snail-like expanding 
foot, long delicate threads projected where the ribs or transverse 
marks of the shell join the lateral portion of the ribless lorica, 
and which the creature voluntarily drew in or ertended. An ani- 
malcule ,,th of a line long, had twenty four for every two plates, 
or ninety six in the total; and anteriorly, at its broad frontal por- 
tion, four were visible. It is probable that this creature may form 
the type of a special group of the Bacillaria.”” 

7. Navicula (Pl. 2, fig. 22.) This small species of Navi- 
cula with striate faces, is not uncommon in the infusorial stratum ef 
Richmond, Va. 

6. Without transverse striz. 

8. Navicula (Pl. 2, fig. 23, a,b.) This species is distin- 
guished by having two grooves which cross each other at right angles 
on the ventral face, presenting a cruciform appearance, and dividing 
this face into four equal portions, which are without strie. It is a con- 
Spicuous species in many American specimens of fossil fresh-water 
infusoria, and is very common in the living state. I have found it in 
New York, Ouisconsin and Virginia. 

9. Navicula sigma. (PI. 2, fig. 24, a, b.) Smooth, carapace lance- 
olate, sigmoid, not striate, linear, lanceolate on the straight side. 

Our figure represents a sigmoid species, found among marine 
Algee at Stonington, Conn. A somewhat larger sigmoid species 
occurs in the infusorial stratum of Richmond, Va. 

19. Navicula 2 (PL. 2, fig. 25, a, b.) This very remark- 
able form I detected among fossil infusoria, from the infusorial stratum 
of Richmond, Va. It is lanceolate when seen on one side; on the 
other side it presents the curious outline shown in fig. 6. 

Note.—This may possibly belong to Ehrenberg’s new genus 
Zygoceros, which is described as having a compressed Navicula- 
shaped carapace ; each end provided with two perforated horns. 
(See Pritchard, l. c. p. 427.) 

In addition to the American species of Navicula above de- 
scribed, Ehrenberg mentions the following as occurring in a fossil 
state at West Point, viz. 

N. alata, nov. sp. 
N. amphyoxys. 
N. Suecica. | 

Iam, however, ignorant of their specific characters; I have 
met with many species besides those referred to in-the present 
memoir, but omit them, as my present object is to present only 
the most interesting forms. 


\ 


100 = Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 


Evunorta. 


Free, single or binary, carapace simple, bivalve or multivalve 
(siliceous) prismatic, four openings on the same side, two at each 
end, ventral side flattened, back convex and often sana. never 
catenate by perfect spontaneous division. 

1. Eunotia arcus. (Pl. 2, fig. 26, a,b.) Striate, carapace semi- 
lanceolate, elongated, two terminal knobs arcuate, 11 striz in ;2, line. 

Ehrenberg mentions £. arcus as occurring among fossil infv- 
soria from West Point. I presume that our figure, which rep- 
resents a form very common both in the recent and fossil state in 
He United States, belongs to this species. 

. Eunotia diodon. (Pl. 2, fig. 29.) Striate, carapace elongated, 
esti side flattened, shes bidentate at the middle of the back, Sa 
strize in ;2,5 line, »y to = line. 

-Hab. West Point, fide Ehrenberg. Pasta the same as fig 
29, which is common both recent and fossil at West Point, and 
elsewhere in the United States. 

3. Eunotia tetraodon. (Pl. 2, fig. 31.) Striate, carapace semi- 
‘lunar, short, flattened or concave on the ventral side, four rounded teeth 
on the convex back, 23 strize in dg line, gs to z& line. 

Common among fossil infusoria tour Manchester, Mass., and 
West Point, N. Y. The living species occurs at West Point. 

4. Eunotia pentodon. (Pl. 2, fig. 32.) Striate, carapace semi-lu- 
nar, short, five teeth on the convex back, 23 striz in +4, line. 
~ Fossil at Manchester, Mass. Living at West Point. 

5. Eunotia serra. (Pl. 2, fig. 33.) Striate, carapace linear, slightly 
curyed, twelve to thirteen rounded teeth on 1 the convex x back, 19 strie 
in zd, line, = to >; of a line. 

~ Our figure is from specimens found fossil in Massachusetts. I 
have also received it from various other localities. . . 

I strongly suspect that the number of the teeth on the back of 
the four last described species of Eunotia, is liable to variation, 
and that the number of species has in consequence been made too 
sreat. See remarks in Final Report on Geology of Massachu- 
setts, Vol. II, p. 310, et seq. 

6. Eunotia ———. (Pl. 2, fig. 27, a, b.) This species was found 
in water from a brackish ditch in New Jersey, which was sent to me 
for examination by Dr: Torrey. It is concave on one side, convex on 
the other, with a slightly elevated and widened portion in the middle. 
It is also minutely striate. 


Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 101 


CocconEIs. 


Fr ee, eile, carapace simple, bivalve (szdiceous ) Basehor or 
hemispher ical, a single opening in the middle of both sides of 
each carapace (?), never double or catenate by spontaneous di- 
vision. 

1, Cocconeis? (Pl. 2, fig. 34.) Represents what I believe to be a 
species of Cocconeis.. I found it adhering to a small marine Alga from 
the eastern shore of Florida. 

Peautiful figures of Cocconeis (Campylodiscus) clypeus, drew 
by FE’. Bauer, will be found in Pritchard’s Hist. Inf., Pl. 12, fig. 
516—518. 1 have received fine specimens of these elegant fos- 
sils from E. J. Quekett, Esq., of London. 


2. 
BactLuaria. 


Free, (never fixed) carapace simple, bivalve or multivalve (stli- 
ceous) prismatic, forming chains or zigzag polypidoms by im- 
perfect spontaneous division of the carapace and perfect division 
of the body. 

1. Bacillaria paradoxa. (P\.2, fig. 35.)—The standard bearer.— 
Striate, carapace linear, very slender, often fifteen times longer than 
broad, yellow, frustules very active, g5 to 7, line. Syn. Vibrio paz- 
illifer, Muller. See Encyl. Meth. Pl. 3, fig. 16 to 20. 

I first detected this species in October, 1840, among Alge 
from the Hudson River, near West Point. I am informed by 
Dr. P. B. Goddard of Philadelphia, that it also occurs in abund- 
ance near that city. It is a very interesting species, presenting 
by its curious motions and paradoxical appearance, an object well 
calculated to astonish all who behold it. At one moment, the 
needle-shaped frustules lie side by side, forming a rectangular 
plate ; suddenly, one of the frustules slides forward a little ways, 
the next slides a little also, and so on through the whole number, ~ 
each however retaining a contact through part of its length with 
the adjoining ones. By this united motion the parallelogram is 
changed into a long line; then some of the frustules slide together 
again, so that the form is then much like a standard. Similar 
motions are constantly going on, and with such rapidity that the 
eye can scarcely follow them. ‘There are few more interesting 
objects for the microscope. 

Several of the positions of these singular productions are well 
represented by Miller. (See Enc. Meth. Vers. Pl. fig. 16—20.) 


102 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 


Miller found his specimens abundant on Ulva latissima ; 1 found 
mine pretty common among Enteromorpha, Polysiphonia, and 
Potamogeton, which grow together in brackish water on se 
flats in the Hudson River, near West Point. 

2. Bacillaria? tabellaris. (P1. 2, fig. 36, a, 6.) Smooth, carapace 
linear, narrow, swollen in the middle, aacaae into quadrangular plates 
of variable length, ovary lobed and yellow, »/5 to gb line, (width of 
filament.) Syn. Diatoma flocculosum, Kutz., Linn. 1833, Pl. 17, fig. 67. 
Diatoma flocculosum, Greville, in Brit. Flora, Vol. V, p. 406. 

This species is very common in all parts of the United States 
which I have visited. It is easily recognized by its zigzag 
chains, composed of plates (individuals) of various width, which 
have the middle and two outer edges considerably thickened, as 
is sown in the side view, fig. 36, 0. 

In fig. 37, a, b, is represented what I believe to be the full 
grown state of the species. It at first view appears very distinct 
from fig. 36; but on examination, we fiud the same thickening 
of the middle and ends, and similar transverse lines. ‘The two 
varieties or states occur together; both are also found fossil. 
They are very abundant in ditches and ponds near West Point. 

8. Bacillaria (Pl. 2, fig. 38.) This is a marine species, 
which I found at Stonington, Conn., and Staten Island, N. Y., adhering 
to filamentous Algee. It is distinguished by having on each half of its 
frustules two lines which commence near the centre and run straight 
and parallel, until they arrive near the extremities, when they suddenly 
become falcate for a short distance, and then resume their original di- 
rections. The curved portions of the lines have some resemblance to 
the upper portion ofa pair of tongs. The position of these lines is very 
similar to those on Bacillaria Meneghinii. (See Schlechtendal’s Lin- 
nea, 1840, Tab. IV, fig. 1.) ; 

TESSELLA. 


Free, carapace simple, bivalve or muitivalve (siliceous) pris- 
matic, compressed in form of plates, forming zigzag polypidoms 
by imperfect spontaneous division of the body, and perfect divi- 
sion of the carapace. The chains have spontaneous motion. 

Tessella catena. (Pl. 2, fig. 39?) Carapace lamelliform, often 
broader than long, 4—24 longitudinal series of transverse striee, 10 strize 
in =d> line. 

Fig 39 is copied from a species, of which I found a few indi- 
Gidtials adhering to a dried Alga from Stonington, =“ It ap- 

. pears to belong to J. catena. ea 


“Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 103 


Faugiila A. 


_ Free, carapace simple, bivalve or multivalve, (siliceous) ties 
matic, forming chains resembling fragile ribbons, resulting from 
the imperfect division of the carapace and body. 

1. Fragillaria pectinalis.. (Pl. 2, fig. 40.) Striate, corpuscles 
broad, 2 to 4 times longer than broad, swollen and lanceolate on the 
lateral side, ovary yellow, 735 to 3, line. 

The flat ribbon-like filaments of this species are very common 
in ponds, and slow running streams near West Point, and they 
often form masses as much as a square foot in extent. The fila- 
ments are of a yellowish green color, and resemble flat ribbons 
crossed by transverse parallel lines. Great variety occurs in the 
size and form of the frustules, but they are generally much longer 
than wide. Very minute strie may often be distinctly seen on 
the edges of the frustules, as represented in our figure, but some- 
times it requires a high magnifying power and skillful manage- 
ment of the light to render these apparent. 

The masses composed of these filaments dry to a glistening 
silvery mass, which is exceedingly fragile, and which is un- 
changed by fire or nitric acid. 

This species is not unfrequeht in the fossil state, but the 
chains are then usually broken up. 

Pl. 2, fig. 41, represents a variety (?) of this species with very 
narrow (asetes each of which when living, was marked with 
two yellowish spots, (ovaries?) Perhaps this is F. bipunctata. 
It occurs abundantly at Detroit, Mackinaw, and West Point. 

2. Fragillaria trionodis. Ehrenberg mentions this species as oc- 
curring in a fossil state at West Point. [am ignorant of its characters, 
and may have confounded it with #. pectinalis, to which species all the 
varieties occurring at West Point appear referable. 


MeRIpDIoN. 


Free, carapace simple, bivalve or multivalve (siliceous) pris- 
matic, wedgecform, forming fragile spiral chains which often ap- 
pear like complete circles, and which result from imperfect spon- 
taneous division. 

Meridion vernale. (Pl. 2, fig. 42, a,b.) Corpuscles wedgeform, 
striate, anterior end truncate and dentate, polypidom spiral, often ap- 
pearing perfectly circular, ,5 to sy le. MM. circulare, Agardh. M. 
circulare, Kutzing, Linn. 1833, Pl. 15, fig. 37. . 


104 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 


This is one of the most beautiful of the fresh-water infusoria, 
and excites great admiration in all who behold its elegant form 
and markings, under a good microscope. It occurs in immense 
quantities in the mountain brooks around West Point, the bot- 
toms of which are literally covered in the first warm days of 
spring, with a ferrnginous colored mucous matter, about one 
quarter of an inch thick, which, on examination by the micro- 
scope, proves to be filled with millions and millions of these 
exquisitely beautiful siliceous bodies. Every submerged stone, 
twig, and spear of grass, is enveloped by them, and the waving 
plume-like appearance of a filamentous body covered in this way, 
is often very elegant. 

The spiral or helicoidal form of the chains is not easily per- 
ceived, unless the chains are thrown on edge, (as in fig. 42, b.) 
This is easily effected with Chevalier’s compressor. 

Alcohol completely dissolves the endochrome of this species, 
and the solution when evaporated, leaves a greenish resinous 
mass. ‘he frustules, after the action of alcohol, are as colorless 
as glass, and resist the action of fire and nitric acid. 

. End of the Naviculacee. 


Explanation of the figures of Plate 2.—The figures which accom- 
pany this memoir, were all drawn by the aid of a camera lucida, and 
to the same scale as was used in the plates of the first part of this 
sketch. ‘That scale is shown in fig. 15, which represents =49,ths of a 
millimetre, magnified equally with the drawings. In the sketches, a 
represents the side of the animal usually seen, 0, the other side. 

Fig. 1. Pyxidicula operculata, fossil from Manchester, Mass.—flu- 


viatile. 
Fig. 1. a. Pyxidicula operculata? fossil from Massachusetts. 


Fig. 2. a, b. Pyxidicula? Fossil in infusorial stratum at Richmond, 
Virginia. 

Fig. 3. Gaillonella moniliformis, recent, marine. 

Fig. 4. 4a. Gaillonella aurichalcea, recent, fluviatile, at ¢ is seen a 
globular joint. 

Fig. 4. b. Gaillonella aurichalcea? recent, fluviatile. 

Fig. 5. Gaillonella distans, recent and fossil, fluviatile. 

Fig. 6. a, 6. Gaillonella varians, recent and fossil, fluyiatile. 

Fig. 7. a, 6. Gaillonella suleata. Fossil at Richmond, Va., recent, 
marine at Stonington, Conn. a, jointed cylinder composed of several 
individuals ; , base of one of the joints. 

Fig. 8. Gaillonella ? Recent, brackish water of Hudson River 
at West Point. 


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ER ON AMERICAN BACILLARIA . 


PAP 


Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 105 


Fig. 9, 10. Actinocyclus. Fossil at Richmond, Va. 

Fig. 11. a, b. Actinocyclus. ..a, base ; 6, side view, showing the al- 
ternate elevations and depressions which cause the light and dark por- 
_tions seen on a. Fossil at Richmond. 

Fig. 12. Coscinodiscus lineatus. Fossil in tertiary infusorial strata 
of Virginia, at Richmond, and on Rappahannock River. 

Fig. 13. Coscinodiscus patina. With the preceding. 

Fig. 14, Coscinodiscus radiatus. With the preceding. 

Fig. 15. Scale representing 49,ths of a millimetre, magnified 
equally with the sketches. 

Fig. 16. a, b. Navicula viridis, recent and fossil, fluviatile, c, A cre, 
the orifices. 

Fig. 17. a, 6. Navicula viridis, copied from Ehrenberg. See page 97. 

Fig. 18. Navicula , marine, at Stonington, Conn. 

Fig. 19. Navicula , marine, with the preceding. 

Fig. 20. Navicula , fluviatile, West Point, &ec. 

Fig. 21. a, 6. Navicula striatula, fluviatile, recent and fossil. 

Fig. 22. Navicula , fossil at Richmond, Va. 

Fig. 23. a, 6. Navicula > fluviatile, recent and fossil. 

Fig. 24. a, 6. Navicula sigma? marine, Stonington. 

Fic. 25. a, o. Navicula , fossil at Richmond, Va. 

Fig. 26. a, b, c. Eunotia areus, fluviatile, recent and fossil. c, cross 
section. 

Fig. 27. a, 6, c. Eunotia 
section. 

Fig. 28. Eunotia monodon, 

Fig. 29. Eunotia diodon, 

Fig. 30. Eunotia triodon, 

Fig. 31. Eunotia tetraodon, 

Fig. 32. Eunotia ck i 

Fig. 33. Eunotia serra, 

Fig. 34. Cocconeis , marine, Florida. 

_ Fig. 35. Bacillaria paradoxa, marine, Hudson river. 


Fig. 36. a, b. Bacillaria tabellaris, } fluviatile, recent 
Fig. 37. a, b. Bacillaria tabellaris, full grown ? and. fossil. 
Fig. 38. Bacillaria , marine, at Stonington, Conn. Recent. 
Fig. 39. Tessella catena? marine, at Stonington, Conn. Recent. 
Fig. 40. Fragillaria pectinalis, 
Fig. 41. Fragillaria bipunctata ? 
Fig. 42. a,b. Meridion vernale, fluviatile, recent, and fossil in fragments. 


Vol. xu1, No. 1.—Oct.—Dec. 1841. 14 


, brackish ditches, N. Jersey. c, cross 


fluviatile, recent and fossil. 


} fluviatile, recent and fossil. 


106 Description of Bight new Species of Shells. — 


Art. XI.—Description of Hight new Species of Shells, neato’ to 
the United States ; by Henry C. Lea, Philadelphia. 


"Tue study of the marine shells native to the coast of the Uni- 
ted States, has till lately been somewhat neglected. While our 
rivers, particularly the western and southern ones, have presented 
to the conchologist a series of shells, remarkable for their size 
and beauty, the productions of our coast, more especially towards 
the north, are usually small and plain in appearance. A few of 
the larger and more showy species were described by Lamarck and 
other European writers, and in our own country, Mr. Say early 
began to investigate them with great zeal. He was followed by 
Messrs. Barnes, Conrad and others, and of late years many have 
been described by Col. Totten, Dr. Gould, Messrs. Adams, Cou- 
thouy, and others. ‘There can be hardly any doubt however, that 
many still remain undescribed. Some of the species have a very 
wide range along the coast. In Delaware Bay I have found the 
Actaon trifidus, Totten, Cerithiwm terebrale, C. nigrocinctum, and 
C. Greenii, Adams. The Buccinum ornatum, Say, is found in 
the southern states, and in New England, and I have a specimen 
from the West Indies. The Cerithium Sayii, Menke, although 
so plentiful in New England, I have not observed here. ‘Those 
among the following species, which are marked from Delaware 
Bay, were found in the sandy mud adhering to the Ostrea Cana- 
densis, Lam. 

Genus Cyrena.—Lamarck. 


C. purpurea. Pl. 1, fig. 1.* 


C. testa rotundato-triangulari, sequilaterali, sub-inflata, sub-cras- 
sa, diaphana, et purpurea et alba, polita, striis transversis; natibus 
prominentibus ; margine non crenulato. 

Shell rounded-triangular, equilateral, sub-inflated, somewhat 
thick, partly ptirple and partly white, with transverse strie ; beaks 
prominent ; margin not crenulated. | 

Length ‘07. Breadth -07. Diam. -04 of an inch. 

Hab. Delaware Bay. Cabinet of I. Lea. 

Remarks.—This beautiful little species of Cyrena, has much 


* The smallest figures are of the natural size ; the three large ones, in outline, 
in figs. 5,7 and 8, are merely to show the shape of the mouth. 


=~ ae 


P gh ie: e j j 
Am. Sour: Science karts. Vol. AMI plate. = 


: ’ *, 
Pe, : 
as vy Ld * : 


e 


o 


1. Qvrenu purpurea. 5. Caryvchiune exttle. 
2. Hodtola cliiptica. 6, Lastthea sordida., 
3, A puler . | 

4, Creptdula acute. ) 


7. dctaon parvis. 


8. Ceritthtwm canceliatupe. 


Ht. CLhew, del. PS Dural, Leth Pits 


So - SCO 
. 


Description of Eight new Species of Shells. 107 


resemblance to the Venus gemma of Totten. Indeed I consid- 
ered it as such for some time, until 1 was able to obtain a view 
of the teeth, which prove it to be a Cyrena. It may, however, 
‘be also distinguished from the Venus gemma, by its equilateral 
form, and want of crenulations on the margin. The beaks are 
rounded at the summit. It has usually a dark purple mark along 
the posterior margin, which gradually fades off, and the anterior 
portion of the shell is whitish. Occasionally, however, it is 
nearly all purple, but darker towards the posterior margin, and I 
have one specimen which is pinkish. The strie are perfectly 
regular, and at even distances. It is, I believe, the smallest Cy- 
rena yet noticed. 


Genus Mopiota.— Lamarck. 
M. elliptica. PI. 1, fig. 2. 


M. testa transversa, elliptica, sub-inflata, pellucida, purpureo- 
maculata, polita, radiatim striata postice et antice ; valvulis tenui- 
bus; natibus sub-prominentibus; margine crenulato postice ac 
antice ; margarita diaphana et nitente. 

Shell transverse, elliptical, sub-inflated, pellucid, marked with 
purple, polished, radiately striate posteriorly and anteriorly ; 
valves thin; beaks somewhat prominent; margin crenulated 
posteriorly and anteriorly ; nacre diaphanous, shining. 

Length 075. Breadth -1. Diam. -025 of an inch. 

Hab. Delaware Bay. Cabinet of I. Lea. 

Remarks.—The area of the valves is divided into three fan- 
shaped compartments by the striae, of which the anterior con- 
tains about seven, and the posterior about twenty-four. The 
purple marks in some specimens are so numerous, as to completely 
cover the shell, while others are nearly free from them. They 
are frequently zigzag. ‘The dorsal margin appears to be slightly 
crenulate. It is.strongly allied to the Modtola discers, nera and. 
discrepans, and might be confounded with the young of either 
of those shells. But its size appears constant, as I have taken 
them at various seasons of the year; in addition to which the 
difference in shape and marking, and the want of transverse ney 
will distinguish it. 


M. pulex. Pl. 1, fig. 3. 
M. testa transversa, obovata, levi, polita, viridescente, diaphana, 
lineis purpureis ornaté; valvulis tenuibus ; natibus sub-promi- 
nentibus, sub-acutis. ; 


108 Description of Eight new Species of Shells. 


Shell transverse, obovate, smooth, polished, greenish, diapha- 
nous, marked with purple lines; valves thin; beaks somewhat 
ei, sub-acute. : 

piles: ‘O08. Breadth -15. Diam. :05 of an inch. 

Var. a. Minore, compressiore, castaneo- brunnea, sine _lineis 
si aaaioons 

~ Smaller, more compressed, chestnut-brown, without — lines. 

Hab. Delaware Bay. Cabinet of I. Lea. 

Remarks.—This species varies very much, both in fonts ani 
color. The var. « may perhaps prove a species. ‘The markings, 
as in the preceding species, are frequently zigzag. ‘There are 
transverse lines of growth, only visible with a powerful micro- 
scope. In form it somewhat resembles the Modiola tulipa. It 
might be confounded with the very young of Mytils edulis, but 
the difference in color and shape, as well as in the position of the 
beaks, will distinguish it on a very slight examination. 

Genus Crepiputa.—Lamarck. 
C. acuta. PI. 1, fig. 4. 

C. testa ovata, valde convexa, sub-tenui, levi, externé fusca, 
intus tenebroso-castanea; epidermide luteo-fusca ; apice acuto, 
recto; cyatho sub-triangulari, albido, diaphano, sub-convexo, 
vix aquali trienti teste longitudinis ; apertura elliptica. 

Shell ovate, very convex, somewhat thin, smooth, externally 
brown, internally dark chestnut; epidermis yellowish brown ; 
apex acute, straight ; cyathus sub-triangular, whitish, diaphanous, 
somewhat convex, scarcely equal to a third the length of the 
shell; mouth elliptical. 

Length -17. Breadth -1. Height ‘05. Length of cyathus 
-05 of an inch. 

Hab. Delaware Bay. Cabinet of I. Lea. 

Remarks.—This little species of Crepidula belongs to the Cre- 
pipatella, Lesson, a sub-genus of Calyptrea. The color inter- 
nally varies from a chestnut brown to a horn color with brown 
marks. ‘The cyathus or diaphragm, in common with our other 
species, is convex, the convexity usually ending at a regular line, 
about one fifth from one side, beyond which it is flat ; it also gen- 
erally comes a little further down on one side than on the other. 
It is usually very regular in its form. It bears a slight resem- 
blance to the Crepidula glauca, but that shell is flatter when 
young than when old; besides which, the acute apex, less width, 
and want of transverse lines, will immediately distinguish it. It 


Description of Hight new Species of Shells. 109 


however approaches most nearly to the Crepidula convera, and in- 
deed it is with some doubt that I separate it. But the two sides are 
alike in their curvature, the outside smooth, the cyathus diapha- 
nous and not so deeply situated, the color usually much darker, 
and the apex straight. Besides this, its habitat seems different, 
our species being found clinging to the Ostrea Canadensis, while 
the C. convera, according to Dr. Gould, is found upon sea-weed. 
and stones at the roots of sea-weed. 
Genus Carycutum.—Leach. 
C. exile. Pi. 1, fig. 5. 

C. testa ovato-conica, valde elevata, sub-perforata, diaphana, 
albida, longitudinaliter striata; spira obtusa; anfractibus senis, 
convexis ; suturis impressis; apertura elliptica, integra, dentibus 
tribus ;.labio valde reflexo. 

Shell ovately conical, much elevated, sub-perforate, diapha- 
nous, whitish, longitudinally striate; spire obtuse; whorls six, 
convex; sutures impressed ; mouth elliptical, entire, with three 
teeth ; lip much reflexed. 

Length -075. Breadth -025 of an inch. 

Hab. Under dead leaves and mould,‘on the Wissahiccon creek, 
near Philadelphia. Cabinet of I. Lea. 

Remarks.—This beautiful little shell bears a strong resem- 
blance to the Pupa exigua of Say, and it is with some doubt 
that I propose it. he chief points in which it differs from that 
shell are the following. The lip is continuous round the mouth, 
and not interrupted by the last whorl, as is the case with the 
Pupa, thus being a true Carychium; the lip is flattened, the 
number of whorls is greater, there is a tooth on the outer lip, the 
size is smaller, and the shape more elongated. It also nearly ap- 
proaches the Carychium minimum, Leach, an European shell, 
but may be easily distinguished by its striae, shape, number of 
whorls, perforation, and teeth. The tooth on the outer lip is very 
variable, being sometimes almost obsolete and sometimes larger 
than those on the inner one. Of the two teeth on the inner lip, 
one is placed at the middle, and the other very near the base of 
the mouth, and so far in as to be almost invisible on a front view. 
The mouth is -02 of an inch in length. It appears to be the 
only true Carychium yet found in the United States, its small 
perforation, hardly amounting to an umbilicus, not being suffi- 
cient to separate it from that genus. In its shape and mouth it 
strongly resembles the genus Clausila, but it wants the clausum, 


110 Description of Hight new Species of Shells. 


the distinctive mark of that curious and interesting genus. I. 
have only met with it on the Wissahiccon, where it does not 
seem to be very common. 


- Genus Pastruea.—Lea. 
P. sordida. PI. 1, fig. 6. 

P. testa ovato-conoidea, perforata, tenui, albida, diaphana, leevi, 
polita; spira obtusa; anfractibus quaternis, convexis; suturis 
sub-profundis ; apertura elliptica, intus alba; columella levi. 

Shell ovately conical, thin, perforated, whitish, diaphanous, 
smooth, polished ; spire obtuse ; whorls four, convex ; sutures some- 
what deep ; mouth elliptical, white within ; columella smooth. 

Length -075. Breadth 025 of an inch. 

Hab. Near Boston. Cabinet of I. Lea. 

Remarks.—I found this shell among a number of specimens of 
Cerithium Sayti, sent to my father by Mr. Adams from Boston. 
It might be mistaken for a very young specimen of Act@on trifi- 
dus, Totten, but that species has the fold on the columella, the 
same shape and the transverse striz, even in its youngest state. 
In the present species, the mouth is acute above and slightly 
rounded below, and is ‘037 of an inch in length. It may perhaps 
be considered as the smallest of our marine shells yet described. 

‘There has been great confusion among concholegists respect- 
ing the group of shells to which this species belongs. Lamarck 
placed some marine shells in the genus Melania, but the differ- 
ence which must exist between species breathing fresh and salt 
water, would in itself warrant their separation. The genus H'u- 
lima, Risso, may perhaps embrace the Pasithee, but in the for- 
mer the mouth is often not effuse, the labrum slightly thickened, ' 
there are non-secund varices, and the spire is frequently curved. 
Lowe has lately made a genus Parthenia, which only differs 
from Hulima in being white, and having cancellations. This 
does not seem sufficient to warrant a generic distinction. The 
genus Rissoa, Fremenville, closely resembles the Eulima, and 
will also take in part of the Cingula, Fleming, which however 
may be distinguished from others, by having the lip continuous 
posteriorly. ‘The Hydrobia, Hartmann, according to Dr. Gould, 
seems to be the same as the Cingula. The Twurritella, La- 
marck, having the mouth non-effuse, is easily separated from the 
rest. ‘The Pasithea differs from these in its effuse mouth and 
acute outer lip, The iso, Risso, only differs from it in the 
large umbilicus. The Pyramis, Brown, judging from the refer- 


Description of Hight new Species of Shells. 111 


,enees made to it by Dr. Gould, seems to differ from it but slightly. 
"The Acteon, De Montfort, (Zernatella, Lamarck,) is easily dis- 
tinguished from these genera by the fold on the columella, and it 
unquestionably has priority over Odostomia, Fleming, and Ja- 
minia, Brown. ‘There are also the genera Truncatella, Cho- 
ristoma, Alvania and Aemea, which I have only met with* as 
synonymes to Rissoa. 


Genus Actmon.—De Montfort. 
A. parvus. Pl. 1, fig. 7. 

A. testa acuto- conoidea, sub-tenui, levi, alba, umbilicata; spira 
acuta; anfractibus quinis, chalets: suturis linearibus ; rte 
anfractu sub-angulato; umbilico parvo; apertura ovata, effusa ; 
columella uniplicata ; labro acuto. 

Shell acutely conical, somewhat thin, smooth, umbilicated ; 
spire acute; whorls five, flattened ; sutures linear ; last whorl sub- 
angular; mouth ovate, somewhat effuse; columella with one 
fold; outer lip acute. 

Length :075. Breadth ‘037 of an inch. 

Hab. Delaware Bay. Cabinet of I. Lea. 

Remarks.—In this little species there is nothing very remark- 
able. The mouth is -025 of an inch in length, and not very 
acutely angular above. It appears to have a thin, horny opercu- 
lum, though from the extremely small size of the shell, I cannot 
be certain as to that point. ‘The only one of our species with 
which it can be confounded, is the Actgon trifidus, Totten, but 
the umbilicus, want of transverse striae, and the difference in the 
shape of the mouth, will immediately distinguish it from that 
shell. It bears considerable resemblance to one or two fossil spe- 
- cles described by M. Grateloup,} from near Dax, in France. 

Genus CeritHium.—Brugurere. 
C. cancellatum. Pl. 1, fig. 8. 

C. testa turrita, sub-tenui, tenebroso-fusca, sub-perforata, cancel- 
lata, sulcis longitudinalibus, striisque transversis; spira acuta; 
anfractibus octonis, convexis ; suturis sub-profundis; basi brun- 
nea ; apertura elliptica, supra angulata, infra sub-canaliculata ; co- 
lumella brunnea; labro acuto; operculo nigro. 

Shell turrited, somewhat thin, dark brown, sub-perforate, can- 


* The three first genera in Philippi’s ‘“‘ Enumeratio Molluscorum Sicilie,”’ and 
the last in Cuvier’s “Animal Kingdom.” 
t Transactions of the Linnean Society of Bordeaux, for November, 1838. 


112 Observations on the Storm of Dec. 15, 1839. 


cellated, with longitudinal sulcations, and transverse striae; spire 
acute; whorls eight, convex; sutures somewhat deep; base 
brown ; mouth. elliptic, angular above, sub-canaliculate below ; 
columella brown ; outer lip acute; operculum black. 

Length -15. Breadth ‘05 of an inch. 

Hab. Delaware Bay. Cabinet of I. Lea. 

Remarks.—The transverse striz are usually almost Keo on. 
the upper whorls, while the longitudinal sulcations become en- 
tirely so on about the last whorl and a half. ‘lhe striz are con- 
tinued to the very base, which together with the columella are 
brown. The color of the last whorl and a half is generally 
yellowish, while the rest of the shell is dark brown. 'The lower 
whorls are frequently much more convex than the upper. ‘The 
mouth is -05 of an inch in length, and 025 wide. I at first mis- 
took this shell fora Turritella, from the fact of the canal not 
being added until the shell has attained its full growth. This 
species might be regarded as consisting of dwarf specimens of the 
Cerithium Sayii, Menke, but it is not more than half the size of 
that shell, its whorls are more convex, its cancellations more ob- 
solete, and the shape of the canal is totally different, being much 
longer and less oblique. It resembles it however in its mode of 
growth, the lower whorls being entirely different from the upper. 

Philadelphia, May 17th, 1841. 


Art. XII.— Observations on the Storm of December 15, 1839; 
by Witu1am C. Reprrevp, A. M.* ' 


Read before the American Philosophical Society, Jan. 15, 1841. 


In the table and map which are annexed to these remarks will 
be found the observations, which have been obtained of the di- 
rection of wind in this storm, in the states of Connecticut, Rhode 
Island, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and parts of the states of 
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York. 

The arrows on the map denote, approximately, the direction of 
wind, at or near the hour of noon, at the several places of observa- 
tion. The concentric lines, drawn at intervals.of thirty miles, were 
added, not as precisely indicating the true course of the wind, but 
to afford better means of comparison for the several observations. 

It will be seen, that of forty-eight distinct sets of observations, 
which are comprised in the annexed schedule, about thirty are 


* From the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. © 


Observations on the Storm of Dec. 15, 1839. 113 


derived from the meteorological journals of scientific and intelli- 
gent observers, or from the log-books of vessels exposed to the 
storm; and I take this occasion to offer my thanks to the gen- 
tlemen who have so kindly furnished me with their observations. 

The position assumed for the axis of the gale, at noon, should, 
perhaps, be nearly in line with the position of the ship Morrison 
and Cape Cod Bay ; at which places the wind was then blowing 
from opposite points of the compass, but, as may be seen, not in 
actually opposing directions. ‘The Morrison was from China, 
bound to New York; and I have reason to believe that her posi- 
tion at noon may be safely relied on. ‘The violence of the gale 
was here so great that the ship, as I am informed, was lying to 
without canvass. ‘This-ship had encountered the western side 
of the gale, suddenly, at 7, A. M., and the sun shone chiefly un- 
obscured during the greater part of the day. 

‘The gale was severe over the entire surface comprised in the 
map, except, perhaps, on its extreme northern and northwestern 
portions, and excepting, also, the lighter winds which were ob- 
served near the apparent axis of the gale, in the region of Buz- 
zards’ and Cape Cod bays, &c., in the afternoon and evening. A 
very heavy fall of snow accompanied the gale in the states of 
Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and 
Maine ; also, in some parts of New York and southern Vermont. 
Some snow also fell in the western and northern parts of New 
York and Vermont, but attended with more moderate and varia- 
ble winds, chiefly from the north and west. 

The southwesterly and southerly winds, which connect the 
westerly with the southeasterly winds in the circuit of rotation, 
are found at Nantucket in the afternoon, by the farther advance 
of the storm, and also in the log-books of a number of vessels 
whose positions were eastward and southward of the ship Morri- 
son, but beyond the limits of the map. 

The barometric minimum, as in other storms, appears to have 
nearly coincided, in its progress, with the apparent axis of the gale. 

My main object in collecting the observations contained in the 
subjomed schedule, has been to establish the course of the wind 
in the body or heart of the storm at a given time, and apart from 
all other considerations. Iam in possession, however, of more 
extended observations of this gale. Many of these appear to 


agree with some of the filets characters or modes of action 
Vol. xzir, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841, 15 


Bits tli 


114 Observations on the Storm of Dec. 15, 1839. 


which pertain, more or less, to many of the storms or gales that 
visit the United States and other regions. . These characters have 
claimed attention from almost the earliest period of my inquiries. 

1. The body of the gale usually comprises an area of rain or 
foul weather, together with another, and pemaps equal, or pune 
area of fair or bright weather. — me His 

2. The fall of rain or snow often extends, in some ‘izeeton, 
padi beyond the observed limits of the gale. sah 

3. The gale itself not unfrequently exhibits an appaieuitlied un- 
equal extent of action, or degree of violence, on different sides of 
its apparent axis of rotation. ' 

This peculiarity, as well as the secu, is most common in 
Winter storms, and in those which sweep over an extensive con- 
tinental surface ; and, like other irregularities, is less noticeable 
in the storms which are traced solely on the ocean. re 

4. The barometric indications of a gale commonly exten 
een beyond the observed limits of its action.. 

5. The body of the gale constitutes a determinate heen Or 
stratum of moving air; and of this sheet or stratum a large por- 
tion sometimes overlies another and more quiescent stratum of 
air, the latter having, perhaps, a different motion ; as may be of- 
ten observed in the common winds of the temperate and higher 
latitudes : in which. case the gale is either not felt at the surface 
of the earth, or the observed changes of wind are found, in Fey, 
iugcoflimaable to. the whirlwind theory. 

6. Owing to the convergent and somewhat variable courses of 
storms in the extra-tropical latitudes, as well as to their unequal 
rates of progress, two storms will sometimes cover, in part, the 
same field, one of which will overlie the other, and, perhaps, 
thin out at its margin, in the same manneras common winds. 
‘This, also, may occasion a different order of change in the ob- 
served winds and weather from that which is commonly noticed 
ina regular whirlwind storm. 

Owing to such causes, the oscillations of the barometer are of- 
ten irregular ; and this is particularly noticeable in the higher 
latitudes. 

7. In most gales of was there is, probably, a siboriiiiate mo- 
tion, inclining gradually downward and inward in the circumja- 
cent air, and in the lower portions of the gale; and a like degree 
of motion, spirally upward and outward, in the central and higher 
portions of the storm. 'This slight vorticular movement is be- 


Observations on the Storm of Dec. 15, 1839. 115 


Neva to contribute. largely to the clouds and rain which usually 
accomipany a storm or gale; and is probably due, in part, to the 
excess of external atmospheric aie on the outward portions 
of the revolving storm. 

8. In storms which are. oveatly apie there is sometimes 
found an extensive area of winds of little force and variable di- 
rection, lying within the circuit of the true gale, and attended 
throughout with a depressed state of the barometer. ‘This more 
quiescent portion of air in the centre of a gale has been found to 
extend, in some cases, toa diameter of several hundred miles. 

In the case now before us, the direction of the arrows repre- 
senting the course of the wind at noon, as carefully drawn on a _ 
larger map, shows an average convergence, or inward inclination, — 
of about six degrees. But it is not deemed safe to rely upon this 
result in a single case, which is liable to be affected by the errors 
of observation and the deflecting influences of the great’valleys 
and lines of elevation, as well as by the errors of approximation 
which often arise from referring all winds to eight, or, at most, to 
sixteen points of the compass. | 

It is not intended, on this occasion, to support the foregoing 
characteristics by such extended details of evidence as their dis- . 
cussion would necessarily demand ; and they are mentioned here 
only because the true character of the rotation in these gales, as 
well as the necessary or incidental connexion of this rotation 
with other phenomena which attend them, has seemed to be of- 
ten misapprehended. 

As relates to the whirling or rotary action in the case before 
us, it may be remarked, that had we obtained no observations 
from the northwestern side of the axis of this gale, it would 
have been easy, in the absence of more strictly consecutive ob- 
servations than are usually attainable, to have viewed the initial 
southeasterly wind of the gale,* and the strong northwesterly 
wind which soon followed, as two distinct sheets or currents of 
wind, blowing in strictly opposing directions; and if we could 
so far lose sight of the conservation of spaces and areas, the laws 
of momentum and gravitation, together with a continually de- 
pressed barometer within the storm, we might then have suppos- 
ed one of these great winds, if not both, to have been turned 


= 


* Observed between the coast of Massachusetts and latitude 25° N. 


116 Observations on the Storm of Dec. 15, 1839. 


upward by an unseen deflection, and doubled back upon itself in 
the higher atmosphere. But the case neither calls for nor admits 
these speculations. If, however, the axis of this gale had chan- 
ced to pass westward and northward of our limits of correct ob- 
servation, in pursuing its northeasterly course, as did, perhaps, 
that of the storm of December 21st, 1836, which has been ably 


examined and discussed by Professor Loomis,* it is, in such case, — 


more than probable that its whirlwind character would not have 
been established. ee . 

[ Note.—It having been claimed that this and other storms had 
been found to blow inward, towards some central point or line, I 
was induced to prepare and make public, shortly after the occur- 
rence of this storm, a statement of observations on the direction 
of the wind at or near sunset, from such evidence as was then 
in my possession, and illustrated by a small geographical sketch 
or diagram. To this sketch, which is here subjoined, I have 
now added the latest observations on the 15th, at the following 
places, viz. Culloden Point, Worcester, position of ship Morrison, 
Stratford, Fire Island, Keene, West Point, Salem, N. Y., and the 
position of the barque Ann Louisa. It will be seen that the as- 
sumed axis of the storm on this sketch is more advanced in its 
northeasterly course than appears in the larger diagram of the 
observations made at noon, as seen on the following page. 


I have seen no satisfactory evidence that the revolving charac- 
ter has been wanting in any active American. storm.—w. c. R.] 


* Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. Vol. VII, p. 125-163. 


yi ™. 


Showing ee of heWind 
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Dec.151839 
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120 Temperature of Rome and New York. 


Arr. XIII.—Temwperature of the cities of Rome (Italy) and 
New York; by Jerumian Van Renssetarr, M. D. (now resid- — 
ing in Bale ) 


TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. 


Sir—It was deemed advisable early last year that one of my 
children should pass some time in a milder climate than we enjoy 
in New York, and I determined to take my family to France, 
Switzerland, and Italy. 

When the cold weather drove us from Floretice i in December, 
we found at Rome that delicious temperature, and mild, balmy 
air so grateful to the invalid, and there we spent the residue of 
the season. Indeed, the effects were so cheering, that I have 
come to this city to make the necessary arrangements for a resi- 
dence of some years in that delightful climate. 

Since my return, very many applications have been made for 
a comparison of the climates of New York and Rome. It so 
happens that I have with me a fragment of a register I kept in 
the latter place, and have prefixed to it an extract from a meteo- 
rological journal most accurately kept by a highly intelligent and 
observing lady of this city—thus showing the temperature of 
each place. I send them to you for insertion, should you deem 
them of sufficient importance or interest to occupy a page or two 
of your valuable Journal. 

The range of the thermometer speaks for itself; but I may add, 
that vegetation continued green, the orange-trees under our win- 
dows were covered with fruit, and many of our rose-bushes were 
never without flowers during the winter. The inhabitants nev- 
ertheless called it a bad season. 

For incipient diseases of the chest, the climate is admirable, 
and therefore Iam induced to remain. 'These maladies are very 
rare among the natives, as may be learned from the fact that at 
the general hospital, Santo Spirito, where there are eighteen hun- 
dred beds, besides two hundred kept for accidents, and where all 
disorders are admitted, amounting to nearly twenty thousand in 
the year, the number of patients with diseases of the chest and 
lungs in 1840 was one hundred and seventeen. 

Although little proficient in botany, the beauties of the rasan. 
ble inp don delight and instruct me, and it was an amusement 


Temperature of Rome and New York. 121 


in my walks and drives on the lawns and at the villas, to watch 
the progress of vegetation in the budding and blossoming of 
plants, and 1 often put my observations on paper. Perhaps the 
few notes I made may be interesting to some of your readers 
who worship at the shrine of Flora, while not forgetful of Hy- 


geria. 
New York, July 22, 1841. 


1841.} new york. ROME. 
“Jan. |Lowest./Highest.|Lowest, Highest. OBSERVATIONS. 
5th} 6°) 23°} 45°} 58° (deg. Fahr.) Thunder in erent 
Oth 15—|.45 | 4o.|.50> "Thunder. 
7th) 42 | 52 | 42 | 48 
8th} 42 | 49 | 40 | 44 /Thunder. 
9th| 33. | 41 | 4L | 43 
10th} 33 | 36 | 43 | 45 
lith| 33 | 38 | 47 | 54 
12th) 34 | 42 | 47 | 56 
13th} 33: | 34. | sour 49 
14th) 29 | 32 | 47 | 52 
15th} 28 | 33° | 47 | 57 
16th| 27 | 44 | 48 | 56 
17th 33 4-47 | Assy 55 
18th} 22 | 24 | 43°} 57 
19th| 11 | 24°} 45 | 58 
20th| 18 | 30 | 42 | 57 
Zist| 25 |.36 () 37-1 57 
22d | 32 | 35 | 40 |}:46 
23d | 2732 "| 39-|-48 
24th] 27° | 40 | 35 | 48 
Mah Sh) \-39 4 39} AS N. York. Rome. 
26th) 28 | 388 | 33 | 42 Fine days, 12 13 
27th) 33 | 39 | 28° | 42 Rain or snow, 15 16 
28th] 34.|.42 .p 40} 47 Foggy, 4 overcast, 2 
29th) 31 | 34 | 39 | 47 — — 
30th|-32 ° |. 39° 1.93. |-38 31 31 
31st} 28 | 40 | 34 | 44 


Vol. xtu1, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 


16 


122 Temperature of Rome and New York. 


1841. | NEW YORK. | ROME. 
Feb. |Lowest. | Highest./Lowest,/Highest. 


OBSERVATIONS. 


WN. York. “Rom 


Ist | 319 35° 37° 440 . é. 
PEL SHOR a PEIBG 39 45 Fine days, 6 Oy 
3d 30 40 39 50 Rainy days, 12 abi 
4th | 23 | 29 37 48 Cloudy days, 10 8 
5th | 22 31 48 56 — _—, 
6th | 26 37 51 60 : 28 28 
7th | 32 36 48 62. {Daisies in profusion. a“ 

8th | 25 36 53 59 
9th | 26 32 51 59 
10th | 26 31 47 60 
lith | 12 19 43 59 
12th 6 16 40 51 
13th 7 21 49 59 
WAthe elds, to Qi. 52 57 Blue violets in abundance. 
15th | 12 25 51 56 |Ranunculus do. 
16th 15 30 49 54 
17th | 28 41 59 66  |Almond trees in full bloom. 
18th | 18 30 - 59 69 |Hyacinths. 
| 19th | 27 39 57 66 |Peach trees in full bloom. 
20th 22 38 53 66 
Qist | 31 45 51 64 are! 
Qed 733 40 51 64  |Anemonies. ued 
23d 33 50 51 66 ee ND |: 


Sok [dD | Bt ad be Netada ihe evenshe: 8 
26th | 30 42 43 54 | Hail in the evening. 


B41. tag! 


1 NEW YORK. ROME. 


March.|Lowest.|Highest.|Lowest. Highest. OBSERVATIONS. : 
Ist’ | 37° 520° 38° 48° |Lauristina, which had flowers all Winter, was 
2d 35 48 26 49 now covered with them. 


4th | 30 40 45 52 |Cherry trees in full bloom. 

5th | 19 31 43 56 |Pear trees do. 

6th | 25 34 45 59 |Hyacinths, jonquils, tulips. 

7th | 32 42 45 64 |Star-flower, cyclamene, stock-gillies. 
8th | 33 38 44 60 |Hawthorn in full bloom. 

9th | 31 38 44 62 Plumb trees in full bloom. 


Apple trees in full bloom. In the valley of the 

12th | 27 32 38 59 Rhone, near Marseilles, I saw them in bloom! 
on the 8th of April. | 

13th | 31 38 45 60 Strawberries in full bloom. Camations. - 


17th 19 30 45 63 ~ |Periwinkle. 


25th | 41 60 “52 70 i N. York. Rome. 
26th | 41 62 47 68 Fine days, 12 27 
27th | 50 63 47 66 Rainy days, 11 1 
28th | 47 62 49 Le Gbaw Cloudy days, 8 3 
29th | 37 39 51 66 ae oat 
30th 35 40 51 64 31 31 


Observations and Experiments on Light. 123 


Art. XIV.— Observations and Experiments on Light ; by Sam- 
_ vew Apams, M. D., Professor of Chemistry and Natural History 
“in Illinois College, Jacksonville, Ill.* 


Sometime in July, 1838, while on a mineralogical excursion, I 
accidentally noticed the wing-feather of a bird lying upon the 
ground; and being struck with the delicacy of its tints, I took it 
up to examine it. Observing that the vane of the feather ap- 
peared very thin and nearly transparent, I held it between my 
eye and the sky, which was very clear with the exception of a 
few fleecy clouds, that contrasted finely with its rich blue. I 
was very much interested to observe, that the clouds and all light 
colored objects, which were highly illuminated, were seen through 
the vane of the feather beautifully fringed with the colors of the 
rainbow. I supposed that this phenomenon depended upon the 
peculiar structure of the vane of the feather, and intended to in- 
vestigate it as soon as I could find leisure. I did not, however, 
resume the subject till accident again called my attention to it. 

_ About the 20th of June, 1839, while walking in the College 
grove, | happened to observe lying upon the ground some wing- 
feathers of the Jay, which reminded me of my former experiment. 
I collected the feathers, and after observing the same phenomena 
that I had noticed on the former occasion, I held the vane of the 
feather between my eye and the sun, and was greatly surprised 
at the gorgeous display of colored spectra that were seen through 
it, arranged in the most exact mathematical order. 'The sun was 
seen in its natural position, slightly tinged with red, with its 


* To the Editors of the American Journal of Science and Arts. 


Messrs. Editors—When ‘“ Observations and Experiments on Light’’ were for- 
warded to you for publication in the Journal of Science, I was not aware that 
Fraunhofer had anticipated the leading investigations of that communication. 
Pressing engagements, and frequent attacks of intermittent fever, prevented me 
from making so full an examination of the works of others on tlie subject as was 
desirable. I have since ascertained, that Fraunhofer has anticipated the leading 
results of my observations, in a series of experiments made by him by passing a 
beam of light through gratings, and examining the spectra produced througha 
telescope. (Herschel‘on Light, § 740, et seq.) I donot find, however, that the 
effect of the feather upon light has been before noticed, or that Fraunhofer ever 
exhibited the spectra upon a screen. You will oblige me by appending this as a 
note to my communication.« Yours, &c. ! Samurt ApAms, 

Illinois College, May 21, 1841. 


124 Observations and Huperiments on Light. 


brightness considerably dimmed, and formed the intersecting 
point of two rows of colored spectra, that crossed each other 
nearly at right angles. One of the rows of spectra formed a very 
acute angle with the shaft of the feather at its outer extremity, 
and the other was nearly at right angles with the shaft. In each 
colored spectrum the side nearest to the sun wasa mixture of vio- 
let and the contiguous rays of the prismatic spectrum, while the 
side farthest from the sun was uniformly red. The sun was 
slightly clouded when I made my first observations. Afterwards, 
when the sun shone perfectly clear, I observed that the angular 
spaces formed by the intersection of the two rows of colored 
spectra were occupied by less brilliant spectra, arranged in the 
same order as the two rows above described. 

On Monday, the Ist of July, 1839, I varied the experiments 
above described, by making my observations upon the flame of a 
lamp, instead of the sun. I found an advantage in this, as it en- 
abled me to change the distance of the luminous object at plea- 
sure. In looking through the vane of the wing-feather of the 
wild pigeon at the flame of the lamp, TI observed spectra, colored 
and arranged similarly to those which I saw when looking at the 
sun. I first looked at the lamp at the distance of eight or ten 
feet, and saw the two rows of colored spectra above described 
entirely distinct from each other, with some faint appearances of 
spectra in the angular spaces near the lamp. ‘As I approached 
the lamp, (holding the feather to my eye and looking at the 
flame, ) the colored spectra in the two rows gradually approxima- 
ted to the flame of the lamp and to each other, their colors at the 
same time becoming less distinct and approaching to white light, 
while the spectra in the angular spaces became more perceptible. 
As I receded from the lamp, the spectra in the two rows receded 
from the central flame and from each other, their colors at the 
same time becoming more distinct, and the spectra in the abe 
spaces gradually fading away. 

My next step was, in connection with my colleague, Prof. 
Sturtevant, to ihitodtncé a small beam of light into a dark room 
by passing it through the vane of the wing-feather of the Jay. 
We observed colored spectra arranged upon a screen in the man- 
ner described above. In the experiments which I first performed, 
the eye was the dark chamber and the retina the screen. 


Observations and Experiments on. Light. 125- 


From reflecting upon these phenomena and conversing with 
Prof. Sturtevant upon the subject, I was convinced that they 
were to be referred to difraction, produced by the passage of light 
through the minute foramina formed by the crossing and inter- 
locking of the barbules of the feather. This conviction was 
strengthened by ‘a microscopic examination of the vane of the 
feather, which exhibited an extremely minute lattice-work be- 
tween the barbs of the feather, formed by the crossing of the 
barbules, and by noticing that the lines, in which the colored 
spectra were arranged, were perpendicular to the bars of the lat- 
tice. The similarity between the arrangement of the colors 
in the spectra upon the screen, and those of the external frin- 
ses produced by difraction, could not fail to be observed, and to 
incline me to the opinion that the law of interference establish- 
ed by Dr. Young, had something to do with the production of 
the chromatic spectra. I was confirmed in this opinion by a 
series of experiments and measurements performed by Prof. Stur- 
tevant and myself, by which we ascertained, that corresponding 
spectra received upon a screen at different distances from the 
feather, were not arranged in straight lines, but in curves. The 
curves seemed to belong to the hyperbola, and the latter to be 
formed by the section of a very acute cone. This is what might 
have been expected, as our experiments were performed upon 
parallel rays. 

In order to understand the application of the law of interfer- 
ence* to the production of colored spectra by the feather, it will 
be necessary to recur to the fundamental facts of difraction. Let 
it be borne in mind, that when a beam of light falls upon the 
edge of an opaque body, the rays which pass by the edge are di- 
vided into two portions, one of which is bent into the shadow of 
the opaque body, and the other is bent outward from the body. 
This separation of a beam of light into two parts is called défrac- 
tion. For the sake of brevity and clearness I shall, in my sub- 
sequent remarks, speak of those rays which are bent into the 
shadow of the opaque body as inflected rays, and of those which 
are bent outward as deflected rays, and I shall use the terms 2n- 
flection and deflection in strict accordance with these definitions. 
The plane of difraction is a plane passing through an inflected 


* See Interference in Brewster's Optics, and Herschel on Light. 


126 Observations. and Experiments on Light: 


anda deflected ray which have diverged from the same point, 
and is always parallel to and passes through the unmodified beam 
of light. When the difracting edge is a straight line, the plane 
of difraction is always perpendicular to a plane passing through 
the difracting edge and the corresponding outline of its shadow. 
In an irregular or curved difracting edge the same law will hold 
with regard to any indefinitely small portions of it, which may 
be assumed as straight lines. ’ 

Iam aware that the terms inflection mis difraction are need as 
synonymous by many who have written upon the subject of light. 
But without the definitions and limitations, which I have just 
indicated, I should be compelled. to resort to cireumlocutions, 
which might render ambiguous the explanations which I am 
about to give of the phenomena of the feather. Again, lam not 
aware that the law which regulates the position of the plane of 
difraction has been stated by any other writer, although it is fairly 
inferrible from the facts which they have brought forward, as 
well as from experiments performed by myself, and which I hope 
to notice more fully in a subsequent communication. It will be 
seen in the sequel, that. the law which regulates the position of 
the plane of difraction determines the angle, which the two rows 
of colored spectra make with each other. . 

Let us now turn our attention to the lattice-work fermen by 
the crossing of the barbules of the feather, and inquire how the 
light passing through a single opening would be affected. The 
openings of the lattice are of course one of the four varieties of 
‘the parallelogram. ‘The angles of these openings differ in the 
feathers of different birds, and in different feathers of the same 
bird. Let abcd represent one of these openings; and let us sup- 
; pose a beam of light passing through it perpendicular tothe 

plane of the paper. It is evident that each of the sides of 
© the opening will bea difracting edge ; and if we take any 
two opposite sides ab, de, the inflected rays of one side will be bent 
in the same direction. as the deflected rays of the other, and will 
be liable to interfere with each other, and produce colored fringes 
upon a screen placed to receive the difracted light, and these frin- 
ges would extend on each side of the opening in a line perpen- 
dicular to the two sides in question. 'The same will be true of 
the other two sides ad, bc, and thus we should have two rows of 
colored fringes, whose lines of direction would be perpendicular 


o———— 


, 


- Observations and Experiments on Light. 127 


respectively to the parallel sides of the opening, and consequently 
erossing each other at angles equal to those of the opening. But 
a part of the light would pass through the centre of the opening 
unbent, and. would form upon the screen a white image at the in- 
tersecting. point of the two rows of colored fringes. Thus it 
will be seen, that a beam of light passing through a single open- 
ing of the kind above described, would be divided into nine parts, 
four being produced by the inflection of the four sides, four more 
by the deflection of the same, and one being the remains of the 
beam that pass on unmodifiéd. . Now let us suppose that a beam 
of light, instead of passing through a single opening, passes 
through an extremely minute lattice, containing an indefinite 
number-of such openings, asin the case of the feather. As all 
the bars of the lattice are parallel respectively to those which sur- 
round each individual opening, it is evident that the general ef- 
fect upon the beam will be the same as that of a single opening, 
with this difference, that the range within which interference 
would take place, would be greatly enlarged, by enabling the in- 
flected and deflected rays from different openings to interfere with 
each other ; and thus the fringes, which are scarcely perceptible, 
when formed by a single opening ora single edge, become bril- 
lant spectra, when a beam of light is passed through a lattice of 
the kind described. All this is realized in the experiments with 
the feather. It is proper to remark, however, that the central 
white image is probably not formed entirely of unmodified light, 
but is partly produced by light slightly inflected by the opposite 
edges of the bars of the lattice, and corresponding with the in- 
ternal fringes, first explained by Dr. Young upon the principle of 
interference. It is not improbable, that some of the deflected 
rays fall within the central white image and add to its brightness. 
The faint spectra in the angular spaces may be explained by sup- 
posing that they are formed by light, which has undergone two 
inflections or two deflections, or one inflection and one deflection, 
by two contiguous bars of the lattice. 

It should be noticed here, that all the colored spectra, as well as 
the central white one, are considerably elongated in a direction 
perpendicular to the barbs of the feather. With a very delicate 
feather and a small luminous object, the eye can easily distinguish 
a row of colored spectra arranged in the same direction. This is 
what might have been expected, and gives us some idea of.the ef- 


128 Observations and Experiments on Light. 


fect produced by passing a beam of light between extremely minute 

parallel bars arranged in the same plane very close to each other. 
The sun, moon, stars, the flame of a lamp, a small aperture in a 
dark room, é&c., are convenient objects to be examined with the 
eye through the vane of a feather. When we wish to examine 
a luminous object through the vane of a feather, one of a dull or 
dark color should be chosen, as a white feather transmits so much 
light, as soon to exhaust the sensibility of the retina. For form- 
ing colored spectra on a screen a white feather is preferable. 
Those feathers taken from the wing and tail, whose vanes ap- 
proach the nearest to a plane, give the most regular arrangement 
of the spectra. ‘The feathers of small birds, from the greater 
minuteness and delicacy of their structure, produce the most bril- 
liant and extensive colors. We see here the same principle, 
which Dr. Young applied to the construction of the Hriameter.* 
In_ looking through the vane of a feather at a bright object, the 
most brilliant spectra are seen on the side towards the outer edge 
of the feather. 'This may be owing to the thinning out of the 
feather towards the edge. 

If the above explanation of the phenomena of the feather be 
correct, it follows, that if an opaque screen be perforated with 
circular holes sufficiently minute and near to each other, it would 
produce a succession of colored rings. When a beam of light 
passes through a lock of cotton, wool, or raw silk, inflection and 
deflection will take place in every possible direction, producing a 
blending of all the colors into white light in the centre, anda 
succession of colored rings in receding from the centre. As in 
the feather there is a regular arrangement of the difracting fibres, 
there is acorresponding arrangement of the colored spectra. ‘The 
explanation of the colored rings produced by transmitting a beam 
of light through a lock of cotton, &c., applies to those produced 
by transmitting a beam. rong a plate of glass covered with fine 
particles. 

Having satisfied myself with regard to the structure of the 
vane of the feather, and the mode in which it operates in produ- 
cing colored spectra, I concluded, that, if that structure could be 
imitated by any artificial contrivance, the same effects might be 
produced as by the feather. I shall not detain the reader by de- 


-* See Brewster’s Optics. 


Observations and E'xperiments on Light. 129 


tailing all the expedients which I resorted to in the subsequent 
course of my experiments, but will endeavor to indicate some 
modes of imitating the structure and effects of the vane of the 
feather more perfectly than can be done by-any means which are 
at my command. Let it suffice to say, in the mean time, that 
silk cloth of a close and delicate texture, a dense gauze of fine 
wire, and similar contrivances, answer as clumsy substitutes for 
the vane of the feather. 
The difficulty of obtaining the necessary. materials, and of 
commanding the requisite mechanical skill, has prevented me 
from executing the most desirable plans, that have presented 
themselves to my mind. A convenient mode of arranging paral- 
lel fibres is, to bend a steel wire thus, C_ and wind.a fine 
sill thread or delicate wire across its vinci) sides. With a con- 
trivance of this kind I was able to produce a row of spectra or 
fringes in-a line perpendicular to the parallel fibres. I made use 
of a fine silk thread, but it is manifest, that fibres more minute, 
skilfully arranged, would greatly increase the brilliancy of the 
phenomena. In this case, it will be seen that the rays undergo 
two difractions in the same plane. ‘The second set of fibres 
would increase or diminish the effect of the first set, according as 
its difracting influence coincides with, or counteracts that of the 
first ; and it is probable, that both of these effects are produced 
upon different rays. <A preferable construction would be to take 
a rectangular metallic frame and wind the finest platinum wire 
across two of its parallel sides, so close as just to admit the pas- 
sage of light between the parallel-turns of the wire. The wire 
may be fastened by metallic bars screwed down upon it, where it 
erosses the exterior sides of the frame, and then one set of the 
parallel turns of the wire may be cut away, so as to leave only 
one set to act upon a transmitted beam of light. 'T'wo of these 
contrivances might be placed together and turned upon each other, 
so that the parallel wires in one could be made to cross those of 
the other at any convenient angle, and thus the phenomena of 
the feather would be imitated. The crossing of the wires might 
be secured by winding the same frame in opposite directions, fas- 
tening the wires and cutting them away on one side in the man- 
ner above described. The first method, however, is preferable, 
as it admits the change at pleasure of the angles at which the 


two sets of parallel wires cross each other. This apparatus 
Vol. xniz, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 17 


130 Notice of Audibon’s Birds of America. 


would probably be rendered more perfect by using” fine hair, or 
wool, or better still a single thread of the silk worm, instead of a 
platinum wire. As difraction takes place at the edges of trans- 
parent'as well as opaque bodies, probably an apparatus of the 
kind above described, made of very fine spun glass, would exceed 
all others in delicacy and power, as refraction in this would co- 
operate with difraction. Since writing the above, Prof. Sturte- 
vant has suggested the mode of fastening parallel fibres into a 
wooden frame by gluing pieces of wood upon its exterior sides. 
I have acted upon this suggestion and constructed an instrument 
with fine silk thread, which, though immensely inferior to the 
vane of the feather, produces phenomena similar in kind. 

As my frontier location deprives me of the means of attaining 
the desirable perfection in the constructions which I have de- 
sctibed, it is hoped that others more favorably situated, will be 
able to realize what I have hinted at above. It remains to be 
determined, whether art, in the construction of a difracting m- 
strument, will ever attain to that perfection which is presented to 
us by the hand of nature in the vane of the feather. Even with 
the latter we are able to render the chromatic effects of difraction 
and interference as conspicuous to a class of students as those of 
refraction. Prof. Sturtevant lectured a few days ago upon the 
phenomena of the feather for the first time, to the great satisfac- 
tion of his audience. s 

During the progress of the above investigations, several inqut- 
ries have arisen, which Prof. Sturtevant and myself are now 
pursuing, and one or both of us may be expected to be heard 


from again upon this subject. 
Illinois College, April 16, 1841. 


Arr. XV.—The Birds of America, from drawings made in the 
United States and their Territories ; by Joun James Aupuson, 
F.R.S8. Lond. and Ed., &c. &c. Vol. If. New York, pub- 
lished by J. J. Audubon: Philadelphia, J. B. Chevalier. 


Tur extended notice we gave a year since of the general de- 
sign of this work, and our full account of the author, his personal 
history, the surpassing merits of his former work, and the promise 
of equal excellence given to the public by the first volume of the 


Notice of Audubon’s Birds of America. 131 


present, render it unnecessary that we should devote much space 
or time to the volume before us.. To praise it is no longer neces- 
sary; for since we essayed our feeble tribute in commendation of 
the undertaking of our enterprising and. gifted countryman, the 
public have given indubitable assurance that his labors have been 
appreciated, in a manner alike satisfactory to the publishers, as it 
insures the liberal remuneration of the publication, and to the 
author, showing as it does, that it can hardly be said of him that 
he “is not without honor save in his own land.” Since the com- 
pletion of his first. volume he has received no less than three hun- 
dred and ninety five new subscribers, of whom nearly one half 
are in the single city of Boston; a fact highly creditable to the 
liberality and intelligence of that city. Mr. Audubon has now 
nearly a thousand subscribers to his work; an instance of liberal 
support of a work on natural history certainly without a parallel 
in the New World, and hardly with one in the Old. 'This insures 
the success of the undertaking far beyond the most sanguine an- 
ticipation of the author, and enables him to continue to make 
marked and decided improvements in the publication as it advan- 
ces. Although severe domestic afflictions have meanwhile bow- 
ed him to the earth, under the visitation of an overruling Provi- 
dence; although the hand of sickness and disease, added to the 
combined death of two of his children by marriage, have con- 
tributed to render the task rather a means of relief from painful 
thoughts than the pleasant employment it once was, we witness 
no abatement in the interest or the value of the work. ‘The text 
is, as ever, replete with a vast amount of new and important facts, 
while the plates, except in one or two instances, continue to im- 
prove as the work advances. 

The second volume contains seventy plates, one hundred and 
thirty six figures of birds, besides a very large number of draw- 
ings of plants, insects, nests, &c. &c.; all this, with the text, 
furnished for the low sum of fourteen dollars—less than the cost 
would be for a-single plate! The birds represented in the pres- 
ent volume are of seventy species, embraced in families of the 
wood-warblers, creepers, (including wrens,) titmice, warblers 
and thrushes. These families are those adopted by Mr. Audubon, 
and are like those of no other work, but are nearly similar to 
those of Mr. Swainson. We have already expressed our disap- 
probation of the system by which the present work is arranged. 


132 Notice of Audubon’s Birds of America. 


We shall not, therefore, repeat those objections. . We will only re-" 
mark that we see nothing in the present volume to induce us to 
change our opinion ; nothing to make good to us the loss of the 
usual division into orders ; nothing to reconcile us to the countless 
subdivisions into genera on grounds that, to our eyes, seem mere 
specific differences. If any genus would justify this subdivis-- 
ion, it is the old and immensely large one of Sylvia. But 
it appears to us to be even far better to retain the old genus 
in this case, large as it is, in point of numbers, than to subdi- 
vide it into genera with so little perceptible variation one from 
another, as exist in the generic characters of Myiodioctes, Syl- 
vicola, T'richas, Helinaia, Mniotilta, &c. &c.; and certainly, it 
is far better than to create such specific genera as the last. We 
have, however, only our regret to express. We intend to con- 
vey no censure for the adoption of this perplexing system, hav- 
ing already explained why it was, to some extent, hardly a 
matter of choice with the author. Of the seventy species de- 
scribed in the second volume, no less than twenty six are not to 
be found in the work of Wilson, and of these, seventeen are to 
be found in no other works on American ornithology than — 
of Mr. Audubon. 

Besides these important discoveries of new species, the work 
embodies a large number of interesting, important and novel facts 
with regard to old species. In some instances where differences 
arising from age and sex have been the means of deceiving natu- 
ralists, and leading them to divide one species into two or more, 
these mistakes have been detected and pointed out in the present 
work. We will mention a few of the more important. 

The bird described as a new species by Audubon, inthe first 
volume of Ornithological Biography, as Muscicapa Selbii, is the 
young of the hooded warbler, Sylvia cuculata of Wilson, and 
S. mitrata of Bonaparte. 

The Sylvia Vigorsi of the same has been ascertained to be not 
a new species, but the young of the pine-creeping warbler, Sy/l- 
via pinus of authors. 

The Sylvia autumnalis of Wilson, Bonaparte, Nuttall, Audu- 
bon and all others, is pronounced to be the young of the hemlock 
warbler, Sylvia parus. We must confess we are somewhat stag- 
gered at this annunciation, and although we doubt not the writer 
believes he had good grounds ‘for his decision in the case, we 


Notice of Audubon’s Birds of America. 133 
must confess that, familiar as we have been with the 8. autwn- 
nals, we never imagined that its claim to a distinct species ever 
would be questioned. We have seen it repeatedly in August and 
September on its way south, but never does the writer re- 
member to have scen it in company with the Sylvia parus. » It 
may be the case, but we are not yet satisfied that it is so. 

The Sylvia rara is the young male of S.azurea. Both birds, 
under both names, are to be found in Bonaparte and in oe 'S 
Biography. 

The Sylvia Childrenii of Audubon’s Biography, is the imma- 
ture bird of the common summer yellowbird of authors. This 
is an important correction, as writers have since been misled by 
the error. It has been adopted by Nuttall, as wellas by Rev. Mr. 
Peabody, in his report on the birds of Massachusetts. As the 
bird breeds, to the certain knowledge of the writer, in this imma- 
ture plumage, it is impossible for beginners not to be perplexed 
without the knowledge of this fact, namely, that the absence of 
the reddish spots on the breast ene it to be a young bird, and 
not a different species. 

The Sylvia palmarum of Bonaparte, is the same bird with 
the S. petechia of the same as well as of other authors. 

The Sylvia pusilla of Wilson, and the S. sphagnosa of Au- 
dubon, Nuttall, and Bonaparte, are not new species, but identical 
with Sylvia Canadensis of authors. ge are young birds in 
different states of plumage. 

The Sylvia tigrina of Bonaparte is not the same with the bird 
described under that name by Gmelin and Latham, but is iden- 
tical with Sylvia montana of authors. : 

-'The bird described by Audubon as a new species, under the 
name of Sylvia Roscoe, is the young of the common Maryland 
yellow-throat. ‘This too, is an important correction. 

These are some of the more important corrections of errors of 
former works, to be found in the volume on our table. They 
are all important, and possibly further investigation may add to 
their number, and thus reduce yet more the number of species. 
It will be remembered that this reduction is one of the most 
difficult for naturalists to determine correctly. Writers are much 
more prone to create new species than to cancel previous ones 
and to study out their identity with others. ‘The young stu- 
dent, therefore, owes Mr. Audubon a debt of gratitude for much 
labor and perplexity saved him by these investigations. 


134 Notice of Audubon’s Birds of America. 


In his history of the chestnut-sided wood warbler, our author 
says: ‘‘ Where this species goes to breed Iam unable to say, for to 
my enquiries on this subject I never received any answers which 
might have led me to the districts resorted to by it. I can only 
suppose, that if it be at all plentiful in any part of the United 
States, it must be far to the northward, as I ransacked the borders 
of Lake Ontario, and those of Lake Erie and Michigan, without 
meeting withit. I do not know of any naturalist who has been 
more fortunate, otherwise I should here quote his observations.” 
The writer is somewhat surprised at this, as the bird; although 
rare, is still occasionally to be found breeding in Massachusetts. 
He has known of several nests having been discovered in the 
vicinity of Boston, and is under the impression that he furnished 
Mr. Audubon, by letter, with a description of a nest and its eggs, 
which were five in number. Both were very similar to the nest 
and eggs of the summer yellowbird, Sylvia estiva, and he re- 
grets that as the egg of the bird is-still in his possession, he was 
not aware of the desired information in time to furnish it for the 
text of the present work. 

In his account of the Sylvia estiva, so universally and so fa- 
miliarly known in this portion of the country as the summer yel- 
lowbird, Mr.Audubon speaks at some length of the ingennity 
so often displayed by individuals of this species, in evading the 
burthen of the cow bunting. Although not a summer passes 
that we do not hear of several instances of the remarkable fact, it 
does not seem to be so generally known as so interesting a display 
of instinct would seem to deserve. To escape the burthen, both 
of hatching the eggs and rearing the young of the cow blackbird, 
feterus pecoris, the bird displays the surprising ingenuity narrated 
in the following extract: ‘Mr. Nuttall was the first naturalist 
who observed the very curious method in which it contrives to 
rid itself of the charge of rearing the young of the cowbird.. ‘It 
is amusing,’ he says, ‘to observe the sagacity of this little bird 
in disposing of the eggs of the vagrant and. parasitic cow troopi- 
al. ‘The egg deposited before the laying of the rightful tenant, 
too large for ejectment, is ingeniously incarcerated in the bottom 
of the nest, and a new lining placed above it, so that it is never 
hatched to prove the dragon of the brood. Two instances of 
this kind occurred to the observation of my friend, Mr. Charles 
Pickering; and last summer I obtained a nest with the adventi- 


Notice of ‘Audubon’s Birds of America. 135 


tious egg about two thirds buried, the upper edge only being 
visible, so that, in many instances, it is probable that this species 
escapes from the unpleasant position of becoming a nurse to the 
sable orphan of the cowbird. She, however, acts faithfully the 
‘part of a foster-parent when the egg is laid after her own.’ 

“The following note from my friend Dr. TT. M. Brewer, shows 
_ that this little bird is capable of still greater exploits. ‘There is 
a very interesting item in the history of the yellow-poll warbler, 
which has been noticed only within a few years, and which is 
well deserving of attention, both for the reasoning power which 
it exhibits, and for its uniqueness, for it is not known, I believe, 
to be practiced by any other bird. © I allude to the surprising in- 
genuity with which they often contrive to escape the burthen of 
rearing the offspring of the cow troopial, by burying the egg of 
the intruder. I have known of four instances in which single 
eggs have been buried by the yellowbird, and building a second 
story to her nest and enclosing the intruder between them. In 
one instance, three of the Sylvia’s own eggs were thus covered 
along with that of the cow blackbird; and in another, after a 
blackbird’s egg had been thus concealed, a second was laid, 
which was similarly treated, thus giving rise to a three storied 
nest. 'This last you have in your possession, and will, 1 hope, 
give to the world a drawing, as well-as a complete description of 
it.’ ee x % * % * 

“The fabric alluded to above may be thus described. A nest 
of the usual form had been first constructed, of which the exter- 
nal diameter was three inches. It is composed of cotton rudely 
interwoven with flaxen fibres of plants, and lined with cotton of 
a reddish color, with some hairs round the inner edges. The egg 
of the cowbird having been deposited in this nest, another of a 
larger size, three inches and three quarters in external diameter, 
has been built upon it, being formed of the same materials, but 
with less of the flaxen fibres. ‘The egg is thus surmounted by a 
layer three quarters of an inch thick, and was discovered by 
opening the lower nest from beneath. It is agglutinated to the 
lining of the nest; having been addled and probably burst. In 
this second nest a cowbird had deposited an egg, which was, in 
like manner, covered over by a third nest, composed of. the same 
materials, and of nearly the same size as the second.” 


136 Fossil Bones from Oregon Territory. 


_ It may not be amiss for the reviewer to add to the above account, 
that the above triple nest was foundin Roxbury, Mass. ; the cotton 
of which it was built had been easily obtained by the bird, the 
family near whose house it was found having freely distributed 
pieces of that article on adjacent trees and bushes, forthe express 
purpose of being used for nests by the birds. In the third story 
of this nest a brood of four young yellowbirds had been reared 
before the nest was taken. 

In speaking of the prairie warbler, Siypluic discolor, Mr. ilies 
bon says: “I never saw it farther east than the ridges of the 
Broad Mountain, about twelve miles from Mauch Chunk.’ It 
is not an uncommon bird in New York, Connecticut, and Mas- 
sachusetts; we have known of its ncodlinis in oS xe: these, 
states. 

There are many, very many interesting portions of this =a 
descriptive of the habits and peculiarities of the genera which i 
contains, we should delight in transferring to our pages did the 
nature of our Journal permit.. Wherever they referred to impor- 
tant discoveries we have already briefly mentioned them, and 
our limits forbid us to do more ; more especially after having, in 
a previous number, ee spoken so much 7 extenso of the 
general subject. 

A third volume of this work is already half completed. When 
it is concluded we intend to refer to the subject again, and to con- 
tinue our analysis of the new and important facts on ornithology 
furnished by the author. Tull then we must bid him once more 
adieu, with the full assurance that if his present work continues 
to improve as it has done, he will not fail to add even to his pres- 
ent fame—what we were once disposed to believe impossible. 


Arr. XVI.—WNotice of Fossil Bones Hin Oregon Territory, in 
a letter to Dr. C.-T. Jackson; by H. C. Perxins. j 


My dear Sir—Havine recently received, by the generosity 
of Capt. John H. Couch, of this place, several fine specimens of 
fossil remains, some of which would seem to be somewhat rare, 
and perhaps unique, when viewed in relation to their locality at 
least, I herewith send you a short history and description of the 
specimens, together with drawings of the most interesting, in the 


Fossil Bones from Oregon Territory. 137 


hope and with the desire, if they are not what I have supposed 
them to be, that some one better acquainted with the subject may 
aid in determining the animals to which they once belonged. 

‘The remains were found by Mr. Ewing Young, in December, 
1839, on the Walhammet or Multnomah river, a tributary of the 
Columbia, in latitude 44° N. “'They were,” to use his own 
words, “about twelve feet under the earth.” Among them I 
find a part of the tusk, an upper second, and a lower third molar 
of the fossil elephant, one of the tarsal bones of the fossil ox, 
which I should judge, comparing this bone with the correspond- 
ing one of an ox weighing over eight hundred pounds, could not 
have weighed less than fourteen or sixteen hundred pounds, be- 
sides several fragments of the shafts of bones, which I am una- 
ble at present to determine. But the greatest interest attaches 
to the tooth and large fragments which Iam now about to de- 
scribe. 


Fig. 2. 


The tooth to which I refer, as you will see by Fig. 1, is pris- 
matic, fluted, and quadrangular. Its length is two inches and 
nine tenths, its breadth at the widest part, from a to 0, six eighths 
of an inch ; the outside of the tooth resembles fine ivory. With- 


in this is the bony or coarse ivory. Upon looking at the crown 
Vol. xin, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 18 f 


138 Fossil Bones from Oregon Territory. 


of this tooth you will perceive four facets looking towards each. 
other, with an intervening, transverse, polished furrow ; and it is 
to this part to which I would especially invite attention, anda 
careful comparison with the generic characters of Megatherium 
as given by Fischer,* which I quote: .“Dent prim et lan 5; 
molares +=+, obdueti, tritoris, coronide nunc plana transversim 
sulcata, nune medio excavata marginalis prominalis.” ‘The lower 
part of the tooth is of the same shape and size as the crown, with 
a conical cavity at its base... It isa tooth of the eee (Owen), 
Megalonyx (Harlan)? 

The larger fragments above alluded to are two in nutabey 
which from their striking resemblance to the extremities of the 
humerus, I cannot but consider as portions of that bone. (See 
Fig. 2.) A, head of the bone; B, the greater, C the smaller tu- 
berosity. The length of the largest fragment (from A to D) is 
fourteen inches; its breadth measured across the tuberosities, 
seven and a half inches; the diameter of the head of the hume- 
rus, four and a half inches; the circumference of the body of the 
bone just below the tuberosities, fourteen and a half inches; from 
the summit of the external tuberosity to the prominence E (see 
Fig. 4) on the front of the bone, twelve inches. There are the 
remains of a large protuberance on the outside of the humerus, 
a little more than half way down the body of the bone, which 
bears a strong resemblance (if my memory does not fail me) to 
a marked projection on the humerus of the Orycteropus. Some 
small portions of the front and back of the body of the bone are 
wanting; but the lowest parts on the sides correspond with the 
fractured surface of the lower extremity, which I meals now de- 
scribe. 

On this portion are to be seen the external (F') and internal 
(G) condyles, and the articulating surface of the elbow joint (H.); 
and on the back part, Fig. 3, a large deep hollow, I, for the re- 
ception of the olecranon process of the ulna; the internal larger 
half of the articulating surface (Fig. 2, a) presents the appear- 
ance of a hinge joint, and seems well adapted for progression, 
while the outer half presents a large smooth, round ball, (Fig. 2, 
b,) upon which the head of a radius might freely roll. The 
breadth of this fragment measures across the condyles, eleven 


* Penny Cyclopedia, under Art. Megatherium. 


Fossil Bones from Oregon Territory. 139 


and a quarter inches; across the articulating surface, six inches; 
re (from D to H_) is six inches. : 
i Fig. 3. ; Fig. 4. 


The structure of the upper and lower articulating surfaces, the 
great size and outward situation of the great tuberosity, the prom- 
inence on the outer part of the bone, together with the marked 
resemblance, so far at least as the adaptation of means to ends 
goes, between this bone and that of the ant-eater, led me to ima- 
gine that it was probably the humerus of a large animal which 
had the power of abdueting the bone somewhat, of freely rota- 
ting the fore-arm, and who obtained his food by digging. Whe- 
ther it belonged to the same animal with the tooth above de- 
seribed, which I suspect may have been the case, I have not the 
means of determining with certainty. There are apparent and 
essential differences between Cuvier’s plate of the humerus of 
the Megatherium and the specimen under examination, although 
there appears to be some considerable resemblance. It still less 
resembles that of the fossil elephant, or any other I can find fig- 
ured. My means of reference however are so scanty, that it 
would be folly for a tyro in paleontology to attempt to name it, 
and I must leave it for you and others better qualified to say to 
what genus it belongs, if not to some one of the. megatherioid 
tribe. 


140 Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms. 


Should these specimens be considered of sufficient interest by 
scientific gentlemen, it would afford me great pleasure, on being 
informed of the fact, to exchange casts of them as soon as prac- 
ticable, for other fossil remains or casts, and to learn their opin- 
lions upon the subjects of this communication. 

Newburyport, Mass., June 2, 1841. 

P.WS. addressed to the Editors, Sept. 8, 1841.—Since my com- 
munication was sent to Dr. Jackson, I haste discovered among 
the fragments of bone in my possession, the body of a dentate 
vertebra, and what appears to be part of a clavicle, which, from 
their strong external resemblance in color and texture, would 
seem to have belonged to the same animal with the humerus. 


Arr. XVIIL—Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms, 
with some strictures upon his reasoning ; by Roprrt Hare, 
M. D., Prof. of Chem. in the Univ. of Pennsylvania. 


1. Mr. Reprieip’s idea, that tornadoes and hurricanes are all 
whirlwinds, involves some improbabilities. It requires that, du- 
ring every hurricane, there should be blasts of a like degree of 
strength coinciding with every tangent which can be applied to 
a circle. Thirty two ships equidistant from the axis of gyration, - 
and from each other, should each have the wind from a different 
point of the compass with nearly equal force. The only modifi- 
cation of which this view of the case admits, is that resulting 
from the progressive motion which tends to accelerate the wind 
on the side on which this motion concurs with that of the whirl, 
and to retard it upon the other side. Moreover, as respects any 
one station, the chances would be extremely unfavorable that the 
same hurricane should twice proceed from the same quarter! 
Yet in the course of time it would be felt, at any station, to pro- 
ceed from many different directions, if not from every point of 
the compass. 

2. The fact that during the same storm different vessels various- 
ly situated are found to have the wind in as many different direc- 
tions, may be explained by the afflux of winds from all quarters 
to a common focal area, as well as by supposing them to be in- 
volved ina great whirlwind. Mr. Redfield has alleged that he 
observed proofs of gyration in the effects of the New Brunswick 


Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms. 141 


tornado; but I think that the survey of Bache and Espy, shows 
that it would be inconsistent with the facts to suppose such a mo-. 
tion, unless as a contingent result, and that it could only be a cas- 
ual effect of the currents rushing towards the axis of the tornado. 

3. Being of opinion that calorific expansion is inadequate to 
explain the afflux of wind towards the equator, the same author 
alleges that “the space previously occupied by the atmosphere, so 
left behind is by the centrifugal action of the earth’s rotation, con- 
stantly supplied from higher latitudes.” 

A, I presume that the meaning of this allegation is, that the cen- 
trifugal force communicated to the air at the equator by the di- 
urnal revolution of the earth, lessening the gravity of the air thus 
affected, causes it to rise and give place to those portions of the 
atmosphere, which existing where the diameter of the earth is 
less, have less rotary motion. Admitting an afflux to arise in this 
way, could it have any other effect than that of accumulating air 
over the equator, compensating by quantity and altitude for the 
loss of weight arising from a greater centrifugal force pertaining 
to that region? But on the other hand, if we attribute the ascent 
of the air at the equator to heat, the theory of calorific circulation 
will account for the continuance of the process. 

5. In ascribing the prevalence of westerly winds in the upper 
regions of the atmosphere to the deflection of the trade winds by 
our mountains, Mr. Redfield’s explanation harmonizes with the 
theory of Halley. In fact as the water accumulated by these 
winds, in the Gulf of Mexico, is productive of the Gulf Stream, is 
it not reasonable that there should be an aerial accumulation and 
current, corresponding with that of the aqueous current which is 
designated by the name above mentioned? But not perceiving 
that the trade winds cannot be explained without the agency of 
temperature, Mr. Redfield, in the following paragraph, rejects the 
influence of heat. 

6. “To me tt appears that the causes of the great storms may 
be considered to indicate with entire certainty the great law of cir- 
culation in our atmosphere, and that the long cherished theory, 
which is founded on calorific rarefaction, must give place to a 
more natural system of winds and storms, founded mainly upon 
more simple conditions of the great laws of gravitation.” . 

7. It would seem from this paragraph, as well as others, that Mr. 
Redfield considers gravitation, uninfluenced by heat or electricity, 


142 Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms. 


mainly the cause of atmospheric currents. But in the absence of 
calorific and electrical reaction, what other effect could gravita- 
tion have unless that of producing a state of inert quiescence. 
The part which it performs in the mechanism of nature is well 
illustrated by that which it performs through the medium of a 
clock weight, which is of no use without being wound up. 

8. It is remarkable that the author after ascribing the trade 
winds to momentum, as the antagonist of gravitation, loses sight 
of it in this summing up of the causes of atmospheric currents. 

9.. If, as Mr. Redfield alleges, the minuteness of the altitude of 
the atmosphere in comparison with its horizontal extent, be an ob- 
jection to any available currents, being induced by calorific rarefac- 
tion, wherefore should not momentum, or any other cause dimin- 
ishing or counteracting the influence of his favorite agent, gravity, 
be on the same account equally inefficient ? 

10. Assuming that the motion of the air in hurricanes, is abwaiys 
gyratory, Mr. Redfield considers gyration as a cause of these ter- 
rible meteors. How far his language on this subject is reasona- 
ble or consistent, may be seen from the following paragraph, 
which I quote fromone of his essays. See this Journal for 1834, 
Vol. xxv, p. 125. : 

11. “ Notwithstanding these general and determinate horizon- 
tal movements, the equal distribution of the atmosphere over the 
surface of the globe, which results from gravitation, tends to pre- 
vent any very rapid or violent motion in any specific direction, and 
consequently to prevent violent and destructive winds. But owing 
to the tendency of all fluid matter to run into whirls or circuits, 
when subject to the influence of unequal or opposing forces, a rota- 
tive movement of unmeasured violence ts sometimes produced. 
This peculiar movement, which in its most active state is some- 
times distinguished by the name of tornado or hurricane, assumes 
every possible variety of position, appearance, velocity and extent, 
and is the only known cause of violent and destructive winds or 
zempests.” 

12. Agreeably to this paragraph, gravitation in lieu of being, as 
previously alleged, the main basis of winds and storms, tends to 
produce that equal distribution of the atmosphere over the surface 
of the globe on which I have insisted. 

13. But if neither gravity, nor calorific expansion, nor electri- 

city, be the eause of winds, by what are they produced ? 


| 


Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms. 143 


14. He alleges that all fluid matter has a tendency to run into 
whirls or circuits, when subject to the influence of unequal or 
opposing forces; and that, in this way, a rotative movement of 
unmeasured violence is sometimes produced. 

15. If this were true, evidently whirlpools or vortices of some 
kind, ought to be as frequent in the ocean, as agreeably to his ob- 
servation, they are found to be in the atmosphere. 'T‘he aqueous 
Gulf Stream, resulting from the impetus of the trade winds, ought 
to produce as many vortices in its course as the aerial currents de- 
rived from the same source; especially as in the ocean, the great 
laws of gravitation have full liberty to act, without any important 
interference from calorific changes, to which the advocates of the 
agency of such changes in producing wind, will not ascribe much 
efficacy where non-elastic fluids are in question. 

16. There are few vortices or whirlpools in the ocean, because 
there are in very few cases descending currents, to supply which 
the confluence of the surrounding water is requisite. Of course 
vertical currents cannot arise from any imaginable cause. 

17. The conflict of opposing or unequal forces does not produce 
curvilinear motion unless there be a successive deflection ; as in 
the case where it results from centripetal force, or the influence of 
gravity upon a projectile. If one of two opposite forces be less 
than the other, retardation will ensue, and a lateral current or 
currents, carrying off the excess of momentum. If currents en- 
counter each other obliquely, a diagonal current will result. I 
doubt if a whirlpool ever takes place without a centripetal force 
resulting from a vacuity. 

18. But the author has not informed us how these unequal or 
opposing forces are generated in the atmosphere. Without any 
assigned cause, he appeals to “certain unequal or opposing: forces 
by which a rotatiwe movement of unmeasured violence is produ- 
ced ;” this rotative movement, although alleged to be an effect 
in the first instance, is stated subsequently to be “the only known 
cause of violent and destructive winds or tempests.” 

19. In a memoir on the causes of tornadoes, and in some subse- 
quent communications published in the 'T'ransactions of the Amer- 
ican Philosophical Society, and republished in this Journal; vari- 
ous facts and arguments were mentioned tending to prove that 
the proximate cause of the phenomena of a tornado is an ascend- 
ing current of air, and the afflux of wind from all points of the 
compass to supply the deficiency thus created. 


144 Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms. 


20. In this mode of viewing the phenomena, no difference of © 
opinion exists between Espy and myself, however we may differ 
respecting the cause of the diminution of atmospheric pressure 
within the track of a tornado, which gives rise to the ascending 
current. : 

21. I adduced several facts, upon the authority of the accurate 
survey made by that gentleman and his associate, proving that the 
effects were, in some cases, inconsistent with the existence of a 
whirl; and I mentioned one which could not be explained without 
attributing it toa gyratory force. Hence I was led to consider gy- 
ration as a casual, not an essential feature in the meteors in ques- 
tion. It appeared reasonable to suppose that the conflict of conflu- 
ent streams of air, rushing towards an axis moving progressively, 
might be productive of a whirling motion. The contortion of 
six feet of the upper part of a brick chimney upon the lower por- 
tion, so as to cause the corners of either portion to project beyond 
the sides of the others, was deemed inexplicable, without ascri- 
bing it to a gyratory force. Subsequently, however, it occurred 
to me that this fact was more likely to be the result of a local 
than of a general whirl; since, in the latter case, the chimney 
could not have been twisted as described without being precisely 
at the centre of the whirlwind. That such could have been its 
position, appeared to me to be extremely improbable, and had it 
been so situated, as the whirlwind was estimated to be moving 
progressively, at the rate of seventeen, miles per hour, it is to me 
incomprehensible how the portion which was dislocated could 
have eseaped an overthrow. Evidently, although twisted upon 
its base while concentric with the axis of gyration, it would in 
one second of time have been twenty feet upon the windward 
side of it, and consequently subject to the tangential force of the 
whirlwind. I adduce this, as well as other facts, to prove, that 
in tornadoes and hurricanes, there are local whirls, causing bod- 
ies, which are of a nature to favor an electrical discharge, to be 
particularly affected. 

22.. A fact. irreconcilable with a general whirling motion, has 
been recorded by Messrs. Espy and Bache. A frame building was 
so situated as to be protected by another edifice in one direction 
from the suction of the tornado, and yet.was exposed to its influ- 
ence as it. advanced, and as it moved away. Hence two of the 
four posts, on which the frame rested, were so impelled by the 


Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms. 145 


wind as to make furrows in the ground, of which one was nearly 
at right angles to the other. Evidently such furrows could not 
rise from the transient tangential impulse of a whirlwind. 

23. Mr. Redfield admits that the confused directions of fallen 
bodies is distinctly recognized by all the parties to this inquiry. 
Conceding, that amid this confusion, he has been enabled, by a 
survey, to show that the directions in which certain trees fell are 
consistent with their having been subjected to a whirlwind, it 
does not demonstrate gyration to be an essential feature of torna- 
does. It is sufficiently accounted for by considering it as a for- 
tuitous consequence of the conflux of currents rushing into a 
space partially exhausted. - 

24. Mr. Redfield adopts the singular determination of not noti- 
cing “the insuperable difficulties” of the hypothesis which he has 
undertaken to set aside. As the advocates of the disputed hypoth- 
esis are not aware of any such difficulties, is it correct to allege 
their existence, without mentioning the facts and arguments 
which justify this allegation ? 

25. Without repeating here the evidence and the reasoning 
which I have already published on this subject, I will advert to one 
fact which is utterly irreconcilable with Mr. Redfield’s “rotary 
theory;” I allude to the statement of a most respectable witness, 
that while the tornado at Providence was crossing the river, the 
water which had risen up as if boiling within a circle of about 
three hundred feet, subsided as often as a flash of lightning took 
place. Now supposing the water to have risen by a deficit of 
pressure resulting from the centrifugal force of a whirl, how 
could an electrical discharge cause it to subside ? 

26. [have already, I trust, sufficiently shown that the saat 
tion which Mr. Redfield dicniiiis with the title of his “‘theory of 
rotary storms,” amounts to no more than this, that certain imagin- 
ary nondescript unequal and opposing forces produce atmosphe- 
ric gyration, that these gyrations by their consequent centrifugal 
force, create about the axis of motion a deficit of pressure, and 
hence the awful and destructive violence displayed by tornadoes 
and hurricanes. 

27. I cannot give to this alleged theory the smallest importance, 
while the unequal and opposing forces, on which it is built, exist 
only in the imagination of an author who disclaims ‘the agency 


either of heat or electricity. But admitting a whirlwind to be 
Vol. xin, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 19 


146 =. Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms. 


produced, not by a deficit of pressure about the axis, but by un- 
equal and opposing forces acting externally, in any competent 
way whatever, is it not evident that any deficit of pressure about 
the axis, consequent to the resulting centrifugal force, could only 
cause in the atmosphere a descending current, while it could not 
tend in the slightest degree to carry solids or liquids aloft? It must 
be obvious, that the stratum of air on the earth’s surface, partak- 
ing of the circular motion, must also partake of the centrifugal 
momentum, aud of course would have the inverse of any dispo- 
sition to rush towards the axis so as to be productive of a vertical 
blast. Meanwhile the air being rendered rarer by the centrifugal 
momentum imparted as above alleged, ponderable bodies envel- 
oped by it would have their gravity less counteracted than usual, 
and consequently far from acquiring any tendency to rise, would 
be unusually difficult to elevate. 

28. I cannot help thinking that as respects the application of his 
“rotary theory” to account for the upward movement which ap- 
pears to be essential to tornadoes, these arguments will amount 
to a “‘reductio ad absurdum.”’ 

29. Mr. Redfield infers that the whirlwinds of which he assumes 
the existence, have a property which he alleges to be observable 
in ‘all narrow and violent vortices,” viz..“a spiral involute motion 
quickened in its gyrations, as it approaches towards the centre of 
the axis or whirl.”* But is it not evident, that if any fluid mass 
be made to revolve by unequal and opposing forces, or by any other 
than those resulting from the centripetal force, caused, as already 
described, by suction at the axis, the gyration will not quicken, in 
proportion as the gyrating matter may be nearer the centre ; but on 
the contrary, will be slower as the distance from the axis may be 
less? It appears to me that the only case in which gyration is 
found to quicken in proportion as the matter involved approaches 
the vortex, is that which results from a confluence caused by an 
ascending or descending current at the axis of the whirl. 

30. So far therefore as Mr. Redfield’s observations confirm the 
idea that the whirling motion in tornadoes quickens towards the 
centre, it tends to confirm the opinions which he combats, and to 
refute those which he upholds. 

31. Although the efforts which I have made to show that the 
phenomena of tornadoes and hurricanes arise from electrical reac- 


* See this Journal, Vol. xxxr, p. 130. 


Proceedings of the British Association. JAT 


tion should not be successful, I think it will be conceded that any 
theory of storms which overlooks the part performed by electri- 
city must be extremely defective. 

32. Both by Messrs. Espy and Redfield the influence of this 
agent in meteorological phenomena is entirely disregarded, al- 
though with the storms which have been especially the subject 
of their lucubrations, thunder and lightning and convective dis- 
charge are most strikingly associated. 


Arr. XVII.—Abstract of the Proceedings of the Eleventh Meet- 
ing of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. 
Prepared from the Report in the London Atheneum. 


Tue eleventh meeting of this Association was held at Ply- 
mouth, during the week commencing July 29, 1841. The at- 
tendance was large, and the receipts at the meeting amounted to 
£1280. ‘The value of the property of the Association is £6955 
9s 1ld. During the year, £1235 10s 11d have been expended 
for scientific purposes. ‘The amount appropriated for similar uses 
during the coming year, is £3033 9s 8d. 

At the general meeting on the evening of the 29th, the Presi- 
dent, Prof. Whewell, on taking the chair, delivered an eloquent 
address on the objects and progress of the Association. A large 
portion of this interesting address was inserted in our last number. 

Lord Francis Egerton was chosen President for the year ensu- 
ing. ‘The next meeting will be at Manchester in June, 1842. 


Sect. A. Mathematics and Physics. 


The committee on the reduction of the stars in Lacaille’s Ca- 
lum Australe Stelliferum, reported, that the observations are re- 
duced, all the computations executed, and the arranged catalogue 
completed and delivered to Mr. Baily, to be employed in the con- 
struction of the extended edition of the Catalogue of the Astro- 
nomical Society. 

The Reduction of the Stars in Lalande’s Histoire Celeste, 
will be finished before the next meeting of the Association. 

The Extended Catalogue of Stars of the Royal Astronomical 
Society, will be completed in a short time. 

The following is the report of a committee consisting of Sir 
J. Herschel, Mr. Whewell, and Prof. Baily, for revising the no- 


148 Proceedings of-the British Association. 


menclature of the Stars. “As regards the collection of syno=— 
nyms, the detection of errors in mistakes of entry, copying, print- 
ing, or calculation, and their rectification, and the ‘vestriction 
within their just boundaries, of the existing constellations, the 
work of your committee has been progressive. * * As regards 
the revision and re-distribution of the southern constellations, a 
catalogue has in the first place been prepared of all the stars 
within the circle of 70° S. P. D., down to the fifth magnitude, 
with their present actual magnitudes, as determined by a series 
of observations, made expressly for that purpose, which catalogue 
is in course of printing and publication by the Royal Astronomi- 
cal Society. With the magnitudes of this catalogue, a chart has 
been constructed, of which several copies have been made, and 
have been employed for the purpose of grouping the stars in vari- 
ous ways, (without regard to existing constellations,) and with 
reference only to forming among themseives the most compact 
and striking groups which their distribution in the heavens ad- 
mits, and which the correctness obtained in the magnitudes has 
now, for the first time, rendered practicable. After trying many 
systems and arranging the groups in a great variety of ways, 
your committee have agreed on adopting, as the boundaries of 
the new regions into which they propose distributing the south- 
ern stars, only ares of meridian and parallels of declination for a 
given epoch; thus including each region within a quadrilateral 
rectangular figure, whose angular points being tabulated in R. A. 
and Decl., may be treated as artificial stars, and thus brought up 
by the usual tables of precession to any other epoch, their situa- 
tion among the stars being unchanged. Thus it will become a 
mere matter of inspection of a catalogue arranged for the original 
epoch, (which they propose to be that of the Royal Astronomical 
Society’s forthcoming new Catalogue,) which region any given 
star shall belong to. Proceeding then to assign more particularly 
the limits of the several regions, they have succeeded in forming 
an arrangement, in which (subject to such revision and modifica- 
tion as may arise between this and their final Report,) they feel 
disposed to rest. * * As respects the nomenclature of the new 
regions, the committee are at present engaged in considering it ; 
but some principles which will probably influence their recom- 
mendation when the subject is sufficiently advanced for that step, 
are stated in a paper, which will appear in the forthcoming vol- 


Proceedings of the British Association. 149 


ume of the Transactions of the Roy. Ast. Soc. But there is the - 
same necessity, (grounded on the incorrectness of magnitudes, as 
laid down in all existing charts,) for a revision of the northern as 
well as southern stars in this respect. It therefore becomes 
worthy of consideration, whether a similar plan may not advan- 
tageously be carried into execution in both hemispheres. And as 
at all events, the actual state of the celestial charts in both is such 
as to admit of great improvement from an assemblage of more 
correct photometric data, a general review of all the stars, down 
to the fifth magnitude, with this especial object in view, has 
been undertaken by one of the members of the committee, con- 
ducted on the same plan, the principle of which is explained in 
the paper alluded to. This review is in a state of considerable 
advancement, and should circumstances and weather favor, will 
probably be completed before the next meeting.” 

On the reduction of Meteorological. Observations made at the 
Solstices and Hquinoves. Sir J. Herschel reported, that the 
whole number of series in hand, amounts to more than three 
hundred, being the results of observations at about sixty stations. 
During the past year, Mr. Birt has been employed in tabulating, 
reducing, projecting and comparing the barometric curves, a pro- 
cess which has been completed for the whole of the American 
group, (which is by far the most numerous and consecutive,) for 
the years 1835, 1836, 1837, and for March, 1838, comprising 
eighty eight series made at twenty eight stations. * * The 
tabulated results of these reductions and their projected curves 
accompanied the Report. 

The Astronomer Royal made report on the publication of the 
Hourly Observations made at Plymouth, under the superintend- 
ence of Mr. W. 8. Harris. 1. The first. series of observations 
for the thermometer extends from May, 1832, to Dec. 1836, and 
contains readings for every hour of the day and night. The 
means of the readings are taken for each day, and for each hour 
the means of groups of ten or eleven days are taken. 2. The 
second series extends from Jan. 1837 to Dec. 1839, and contains 
readings of the wet and dry thermometer for every hour of the 
day and night. The means of the readings are taken for each 
day. .3. The barometrical observations extend from Jan. 1837 
to Dec: 1839, and contain readings of the barometer and attached 
thermometer for every hour of the day and night. 'The means 


150 Proceedings of the British Association. 


are taken for each day. It was recommended that all these ob- 
servations be printed in full. 

Sir D. Brewster made a Provisional Report on the Houriys Me- 
teorological Observations at Inverness and Unst.- The hourly ob- 
servations at Inverness were recommenced Nov. 1, 1840; but a 
difficulty presented itself to their renewal at Kingussie, which it 
was not easy to overcome. ‘The observations have in consequence, 
been transferred to Balta Sound, in Unst, the most northern of the 
Shetland Islands, already distinguished in the history of science 
by astronomical observations: made there in 1817 and 1818, by 
M. Biot and Capt. Kater. Dr. Edmonston, of Buness, undertook 
to superintend the observations, which were begun early the pres- 
ent year. The Isle of Unst being in N. lat..60° 40’, Leith in 
55° 58’, and Plymouth in 50° 22’, and all of them nearly in the 
same meridian, a series of peculiarly valuable hourly observations 
will now be obtained. ad 

Prof. Whewell delivered Reports on the tide-observations made 
at Bristol and at Leith. At the former station particular atten- 
tion has been given by Mr. Bunt to the effect produced by chan- 
ges of atmospheric pressure on the heights of high water. After 
a discussion of numerous observations, he concludes that the wa- 
ter is depressed by atmospheric pressure ,almost exactly as much 
as it would be raised in the tube of a water-barometer. From 
observations made at the latter station, Mr. Ross had made an 
investigation of the corrections of the height and time of high 
water due to lunar parallax and declination. 

A committee (of which Sir D. Brewster was chairman) re- 
ported on the question how far the desiderata in our knowledge 
of the condition of the upper strata of the atmosphere may be 
supplied by means of ascent in balloons or otherwise, and also 
reported brief directions for such observations, with the probable 
expense of the necessary instruments.—The principal objects re- 
quired, are to determine the progression of temperature, and the 
law of the distribution of vapor, in ascending from the surface of 
the earth to the upper regions of the atmosphere. Observations 
of the thermometer and dew point should be unremitted during 
the whole time both of the ascent and descent, and of course, 
must be accompanied by simultaneous observations of the barom- 
eter; one person’s time should therefore be wholly devoted to 
these objects. The prevailing forms and structure of the clouds, 


Proceedings of the British Association. 151 


their internal motions if any, the number of strata which may be 
detected, and the number and direction of the currents which 
their motion may indicate, will also form interesting objects of 
observation in conjunction with the preceding. Cotemporaneous 
observations will of course be made on the earth, during the time 
_of the aérostatic voyage, which will possess a greatly increased 
interest if circumstances shall permit it to take place on the day 
when hourly meteorological observations are made at all the prin- 
cipal observatories of Europe, according to the plan laid down by 
Sir J. Herschel. Portions of the air should be brought down, 
for examination, from the highest elevations ; and this may prob- 
ably be best effected by taking up several glass balloons or bottles 
carefully gauged, fitted with stop-cocks, and filled with water. 
The water should be allowed to run out at the proper station, and 
the stop-cocks closed. Experiments upon the radiation of heat 
would be interesting, although there are probably no known 
means of instituting them with all the accuracy which could be 
desired. 'T'o these observations might be added, others of great 
interest upon the electricity of the atmosphere, by dropping wires 
into clouds, or from stratum to stratum of cloudless air, and ex- 
aminigg the nature of the electricity of their extremity by means 
of a very delicate electroscope, but the observer’s attention must 
not be distracted by a great variety of objects. It would be de- 
sirable that two observers, stationed at the extremities of an accu- 
rately measured base, should take the altitudes of the balloon, at 
the instants the observations of pressure and temperature were 
made. 

The committee, of which Sir J. Herschel is chairman, for su- 
perintending the scientific cooperation of the British Association 
in the system of simultaneous observations in Terrestrial Mag- 
netism and Meteorology, made a report, of which the following 
is the principal part : 

Your committee, referring to their last report for the history of 
the magnetic operations in progress up to that time, have to state, 
in continuation, that the magnetic observatory at St. Helena was 
finished, and the instruments established in August, 1840,—at 
Toronto in September, and at Van Diemen’s Land in October of . 
the same year. 'The observatory at the Cape of Good Hope was 
completed and in activity at the commencement of March in the 
current year, under the superintendence of Lieut. Eardley Wil- 


152 Proceedings of the British Association. 


mot. From each of these stations, returns have been regularly 
received since their respective dates of completion. Previous to 
this, there had been received returns of seven months of obser- 
vations in a temporary observatory at Toronto, and of six at St. 
Helena. All the observations, as soon as received, have been 
regularly transmitted to Prof. Lloyd, and after examination by 
him, handed over to Col. Sabine, under whose superintendence, 
assisted by Lieut. Riddell,—(the state of whose health, has un- 
fortunately compelled his return from Toronto,) they will be 
published, Government having, on the application of the Royal 
Society, taken upon themselves this additional expense. In con- 
sequence of this arrangement, the reduction and. printing of the 
observations are now in progress. ‘The portable observatories of 
the Hrebus and Terror were put up at Kerguelen’s Land, and 
also at Van Diemen’s Land. At the former station, the May and 
June terms were observed,—at the latter, those of August and 
September, 1840. During the stay of the expedition at these 
stations, the magnetometers were observed hourly ; and the reg- 
ular work of the observatory at the latter station under the direc- 
tion of Lieut. Kay has been begun, and will be continued on 
this doubly laborious plan of hourly intervals for the ordinary ob- 
servations, while on the term-days, all the three magnetometers 
will be observed at the same instants of time, but at intervals of | 
_ two and a half minutes,—the means of confronting this vast in- 
crease of labor being supplied by the colonial government, as 
administered by that ever active and zealous friend of science, 
Sir J. Franklin. In addition to this, and for the sake-of mul- 
tiplying occasions for observing the correspondence of magnetic 
perturbations with auroral discharges, one hour out. of every 
twenty four, (viz. from lh. 50m. P. M. to 2h. 50m. P. M. Got- 
tingen mean time, commencing from Jan. 1, 1841,) will be oc- 
cupied with observations of the magnetometers, at intervals of 
two and a half minutes, in this order, viz. Bifilar, declination ; 
Vertical force, declination; B,D; V, D, &c. It is to be hoped 
that some of the European observatories will, at least occasionally, 
furnish observations in correspondence with these. 

The first report of Lieut. Ludlow, the director of the Madras 
Observatory, and the first month’s observations, have been receiv- 


ed. It commenced regular observations on the Ist of January, 
1841. 


Proceedings of the British Association. 153 


_ Of the foreign European observatories, Brussels, (M. Quetelet :) 
Prague, (Herr Kreil:) and Milan, (Sig. Carlini:) have regularly 
forwarded the term observations for each month to the Royal So- 
ciety. ‘The Cadiz observatory, (M. Montajo,) has been furnished 
with all necessary instruments. 

Under the head of Observatories entirely new, your committee 
have to announce the establishment of a private one at Havanah, 
by Drs. Belot and Jorg. 

‘The term-days of May and August, 1840, have been both re- 
markable for the magnitude of the disturbances. Mr. Riddell 
has undertaken to have all the observations of these two days 
projected in curves, which will probably be soon completed. 

‘M. Kupffer reports that the observations in the magnetic ob- 
servatory at St. Petersburgh commenced Jan. 1, and at Caterine- 
burgh, March 10. In the course of the summer, they will be 
commenced at Helsingfors; and at Tiflis, in all probability, du- 
ring the autumn. The total number of magnetical observatories 
which may be at present reckoned on as brought, or about to be 
brought, into effective codperation, is fifty one. 

On the 12th of November, 1840, the Hrebus and Terror left 
Hobart 'Town for their first summer’s research in the Antarctic 
Circle, leaving Lieut. Kay with Messrs. Dayman and Scott as 
his assistants, in charge of the observatory at Ross Bank. On 
board, and during temporary sojourns of the expedition on land 
or ice, the observations will be made on the same enlarged plan 
as at Hobart Town. The first term will, in all probability, have 
been observed in November at the Auckland Islands. The first 
point to be determined would be, the point of maximum inten- 
sity in the southern hemisphere, the meridian of which had been 
indicated by the daily observations in the passage from Kergue- 
len’s Land to Van Diemen’s Land, leaving only its latitude un- 
decided. Having accomplished this, they will proceed, as rap- 
idly as circumstances will permit, to seek and determine the po- 
sition of the point of vertical dip. ‘The observations at'sea, it 
should be mentioned, succeed to the fullest extent of the most 
sanguine expectations; so much so, that the three magnetic ele- 
ments are daily observed on board, with a precision perfectly ad- 
equate to the actual demands of magnetic science. f 

Intimately connected with a system of simultaneous ehserwa- 


tions at central stations, is the subject of magnetic surveys of the 
Vol. xuur, No. 1.—Oct.—Dec. 1841. 20 


154, Proceedings of the British Association. 


surrounding districts: . It is only by-reference to such central 
stations as zero points, that itinerant determinations can be di- 
vested of the influence of temporary and casual magnetic de- 
rangements, and brought into comparability with the general 
magnetic system of the globe. It is, therefore, of the utmost 
importance, that every advantage should be taken of the present 
fortunate conjuncture to secure the whole benefit of the simulta- 
neous system, and to extend it from points over districts. Itine- 
rant observations, made on a connected system, and precisely si- 
multaneous with those at fixed observatories, will acquire, (if aec- 
curately made,) all the value of stationary ones, becoming zpso 
facto, and at each instant, reducible to a central station. .More- 
over, by this means alone can the amount of station error for each 
element, at the central stations themselves be ascertained; by 
-which is meant, all that part of each resolved element of the mag- 
netic force, which not being participated in by the surrounding 
district, must be attributed to attractions merely local and acci- 
dental. Without such surveys, executed at some epoch, this 
error cannot be even approximately fixed. If executed at this 
particular time, not only will it be settled with precision, but the — 
surveys will become an independent part of the whole mass of 
observation, and be rendered infinitely more valuable as data for 
future reference, than they could possibly be if deferred till after 
the conclusion of the stationary observations. 

Under this impression it is highly gratifying to your committee 
to be enabled to announce that one very important survey of this 
kind,—that of the British possessions in North America—has, on 
the application of the President and Council of the Royal Soci- 
ety, been undertaken by government, on a scale both liberal and 
satisfactory—a young, ardent and instructed officer, Lieut. Young- 
husband, R. A., qualified for the work by a residence and prac- 
tice in magnetic observation in the observatory at oronto,— 
having been added to the establishment of that observatory, with 
a view to this especial service, for three years, with a non-commis- 
sioned officer as his assistant, furnished with every instrumental 
requisite, a liberal provision for travelling expenses, and with the 
promise of gratuitous canoe conveyance, from the Hudson’s Bay 
Company, in the territories belonging to them. In anticipation, 
moreover, of a similar magnetic sarvey of South Africa, though 
as yet no formal application for such a survey has been made, the 


Proceedings of the British Association. 155 


Master-General of Ordnance has ordered a second officer of ‘Ar- 
tillery, (Lieut. Clerk,) to be attached to the observatory at the 
Cape of Good Hope. 

» The magnetic survey of British Couper has been undertaken 
‘by Mr. Schomburek, one of the commissioners appointed by Gov- 
ernment to determine the boundaries of that province. he Af- 
rican Expedition has also been supplied, by Government, with the 
necessary instruments for observation. From the scientific zeal 
which distinguishes many of the officers of that expedition, scarce- 
ly inferior to that zeal in the cause of humanity which has led 
them to enter on so perilous a service, results highly valuable to 
magnetic science may be expected. 

Mr. Caldecott, astronomer to his Highness the Rajah of 'T'ra- 
vancore, has also declared his intention to undertake the magnetic 
survey of Southern India; while in the north of that empire we 
may expect, from the zeal and energy of Capt. Boileau, that no 
exertions-on his part will be wanting to secure a ee advan- 

tage in that quarter. 

In all such surveys, it is highly desirable that a regular and’ 
concerted system of observation should be followed, and above 
all things that the condition of exact conformity to the hours of 
simultaneous observation should be adhered to; as well as that, 
if practicable, all determinations of important points, intended to 
be made with particular care and exactness, should be performed 
on the term-days ; which object, by the exercise of a certain de- 
gree of forethought in laying out the plan of travel, may doubt- 
less be accomplished in the great majority of instances. 

The President submitted a series of curves, prepared by Lieut. 
Riddell, representing the simultaneous changes of the magnetical 
elements, observed at Toronto, Dublin, Brussels, Prague, Milan, 
St. Helena, and Van Diemen’s Land, on the 29th of May and 
29th of August, 1840. He remarked that one of the chief ob- 
jects kept in view in the arrangement of the great system of com- 
bined observation now in operation, was the extension of the plan 
of simultaneous observations at short intervals of time, first laid 
down by Gauss. 'The results of this system had been, thatthe 
observed changes of the magnetical elements were strictly simul- 
taneous at the most remote stations at which observations had 
been hitherto made; and that these changes followed in all cases 
the same laws, the representative curves being similar to one an- 


156 Proceedings of the British Association. 


other in all their inflexions, and differing only in the magnitude 
of the change. This similarity had been found to extend to the 
utmost limits of Europe, and to hold at stations as remote as Dub- 
lin, Petersburgh, and Milan. — It became, therefore, a question of 
great interest in the extension of this system to still more distant 
stations, to determine whether there were any and what limits 
‘to this accordance. ‘The question was determined by the very 
first results of the observations recently established by the British 
government, and the observations first mentioned, were selected 
as elucidating it im a very marked manner. The magnetical dis- 
turbances which occurred on these days were among the most 
eonsiderable which had been as yet observed. On the former 
day, (May 29, 1840,) the declination at. Toronto underwent a 
sudden change, amounting to 1° 52/ in about twenty minutes of 
time, while the disturbance of the horizontal force was-so great 
as to carry the magnet beyond the limits of its scale. On the 
latter day, (Aug. 29, 1840,) the greatest change‘of the declination 
amounted to 1° 26’ at Toronto, and to 1° 18’ at Dublin. The 
greatest change of the horizontal intensity at the former station 
amounted to .028, or about one thirty sixth part of the whole in- 
tensity: while at Dublin the change was even greater, and ex- 
tended beyond the scale of the instrument. It is probable that 
an attentive comparison of the curves may iead to many impor- 
tant results; but there are some which appear upon a cursory 
mspection, which Mr. Lloyd said he should now notice. The 
first was, that the greater magnetic disturbances appeared to be 
synchronous at the most distant stations. This important fact 
is exhibited much more evidently in the changes of horizontal 
intensity than in those of declination, and if verified by further 
eomparisons, leads to the conclusion, that the principal. forces 
whieh disturb the magnetic equilibrium of the earth, are not of 
local agency. The next circumstanee which merited attention 
was, that the order of the changes was no longer regulated by 
the same law at very remote stations; the representative curves 
exhibiting none of that similarity already referred to, which was 
shown within the limits of Europe, and the epochs of the sue- 
cessive Maxima and minima presenting no agreement whatever. 
This important fact was first. brought to light in the course of a 
series of simultaneous observations, made by Prof. Bache at Phil- 
adelphia, and by himself at Dublin, in November, 1839, in the 


Proceedings of the British Association. 157 


hope of determining differences of longitude by means of the 
corresponding movements of the magnet at the two. stations. 
The changes observed in the observations at present under con- 
sideration, were however far greater in magnitude, and placed 
the phenomenon in a much stronger light. ‘The last circumstance 
to which Mr. L. invited attention was, that the curves of horizon- 
tal intensity presented, at remote stations, a much nearer agree- 
ment than those of declination: from which it may be inferred 
that a true knowledge of the nature and laws of the disturbing 
causes will be better attained by the examination of intensity 
changes, (including, of course, those of the vertical intensity, ) 
than those which are dependent solely on the direction of the 
acting forces. 

The President also laid on the table the curves representing 
the changes of» magnetic declination, observed at Cambridge, 
Massachusetts, by Mr. W. C. Bond and Prof. J. Lovering, on the 
term-days of May and October, 1840. ‘The corresponding obser- 
vations made at Toronto by Lieut. Riddell, were laid down ina 
curve in connection with the latter. ‘The results exhibited the 
same close agreement in the forms of the curves, and in the 
epochs of the successive maxima and minima as had been already 
noticed in Europe, although, (as before remarked, ) all resemblance 
between this and the European system of changes is nearly ob- 
literated. Cambridge is distant about five hundred miles from 
Toronto: the mean declination at the former place is now 9° 20/ 
West. 

Sir D. Brewster presented the following report on the State of 
the Inquiry into the action of gaseous and other Media on the 
Solar Spectrum. In prosecuting this inquiry, my attention has 
been principally directed to the action of the earth’s atmosphere 
upon the solar spectrum, and I hope to be able to present to the 
next meeting of the Association a map of the bands produced by 
atmospheric absorption. I have also made considerable progress 
in constructing a map of the spectrum containing the numerous 
lines and bands produced by the action of nitrous gas. In sub- 
mitting to examination several other gaseous media, my results 
have been principally of a negative character ; but in my experi- 
ments with solid and fluid media, I have been led to many posi- 
tive and interesting results. In order to obtain additional accu- 
racy of observation,-particularly near the extremities of the spec- 


158 Proceedings of the British Association. 


trum, Mr. Dollond has constructed for me some important pieces 
of apparatus for directing and condensing the solar rays; and I 
have recently obtained from Mr. Herz, of Munich, a very large 
prism, to be used with the telescope, and a-series of smaller prisms 
for constructing a prismatic cylinder for the purpose of expanding 
or magnifying particular parts of the spectrum. sje 

Prof. Whewell stated that the times of high water on the east 
coast of Britain, and the north coast of Belgium, Holland, and 
Germany, had led him to the conclusion that there must le to- 
wards the middle of the German Ocean, a central space, in which 
the rise.and fall of the tide vanishes. He presented a letter writ- 
ten by Capt. Hewett, who was lost in H. M. 8. Faery, in the 
German Ocean in 1840. Capt. H. had endeavored to decide the 
point by a series of observations, the details of which are given 
in the letter, and afford strong confirmation of the views of Prof. 
Whewell. : . “ied 

Mr. J. Scott Russell read a Notice Supplementary to the former 
Report on Waves, containing results of experiments made during 
the year. i 

Mr. W. 8. Harris communicated a report on the working of 
Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth during the year past. He 
exhibited the curves for the ‘year on a diagram twelve feet high 
by seven wide, ared tape line showing the total effect. The 
instrument, after having undergone certain improvements, appears 
now to be entirely satisfactory. ‘The mean result of the year’s 
observations, shows at Plymouth an annual movement of the air 
from the 8. 8. E. toward the N. N. W. nearly. If we connect 
this fact with the results obtained from the hourly meteorological 
observations at the Dock-yard, we are entitled to say, so far as 
our experiments extend, that there is an annual movement of the 
atmosphere in this latitude towards the north, under a mean pres- 
sure of 29.9 inches nearly, taken at the level of the sea, anda 
mean temperature of 52° Fah. Having traced an annual move- 
ment in the air, it remains to determine its rate of motion. |'This, 
although at first sight a difficult matter, he hopes to accomplish 
by a mode of experiment now in progress. 

Further Researches on Rain, by John Phillips, and at Harraby, 
near Carlisle, by Joseph Atkinson, Esq. At previous meetings 
of the Association, Mr. P. had offered a series of experiments on 
the quantities of rain received on equal horizontal areas, at differ- 


Proceedings of the British Association.  . 159 


ent/ heights from the ground, from which it appeared that more: 
was received near the surface of the earth than at higher points., 
Further experiments show that these results vary much with the 
nature of the gauge employed, and with the local situation of 
their exposure. The globular rain-gauge of Dr. Robinson was 
explained. A globe of copper stands on a stem with a funnel, so 
as to leave exposed to the rain its upper part ; the rain, as it trick- 
les down the globe, is caught by the funnel; when the wind is 
high, the drops, as they collect below, are in danger of being 
blown: off, unless the funnel extends out so as to stand under 
about one quadrant of the globe, thus leaving about 270° expos- 
ed. In this way, the copper globe always presents a nearly equal 
. cross section to the descending rain, whether the rain-drops fall 
in vertical lines, or in lines considerably inclined. This gauge 
had been fitted up on the flat roof of the observatory at Armagh, 
in the close vicinity of an ordinary horizontal gauge, the mouth 
of which exposed exactly one hundred square inches: the diam- 
eter of the globe had also been so regulated as to expose exactly 
an equal cross section. Except during the violent gale of Janu- 
ary 6, 1859, he had never found the rain to be blown out ofthe 
receiving funnel of the globular gauge. It had been set up since 
Sept. 1838, and the mean result was, that the ratio of the quan- 
tity received by the globe gauge to that received by the ordinary 
gauge is almost exactly 2: 1; this ratio, however, was very much 
departed from, on one occasion, during a very severe gale in No- 
vember, 1839, in which the barometric column descended rapidly 
to a very low point, the globular gauge received 0.76, while not 
one drop had entered the horizontal gauge beside it: the curvets 
upon the roof, doubtless, having given rise to this remarkable 
circumstance, in the manner described by Prof. Bache, of Phila- 
delphia. - 

Mr. 'T’. Hopkins presented a paper on the Influence of Moun- 
tains on Temperature in the Winter in certain parts of the north- 
ern hemisphere. Mr. H. stated, that between the latitudes of 
40° and 70° North, there is in the same parallels, a great differ- 
ence of temperature, particularly in the winter, amounting in 
some cases to as much as 40° or 50° F'. . The western coasts of 
the two continents are much warmer than the eastern, and the 
winds generally blow from the sea to the western coasts; and it 
has been inferred that the prevailing winds passing over sea to the 


160 5 $Proceedings of the British Association. 


western coasts, and over land to the eastern, is the cause of the - 
difference in the temperature. ‘This inference, is not however in 
accordance with facts, as the low temperature is not proportional 
to the distance from the western coast. 'Throughout this part of 
the northern hemisphere, it is found that climate has certain rela- 
tions to the elevation of land, not simply arising out of the ‘ele- 
vation of that’part of the earth’s surface above the general level, 
but out of the influence which the elevation exercises on se 
atmosphere. After an extensive discussion of facts, Mr. H. con-— 
siders himself warranted in concluding that the great difference 
in the winter climates of certain parts of the northern hemis- 
phere, is attributable to elevations of land- intercepting and con- 
densing atmospheric steam, and thus rendering those parts wet 
and warm, while cutting a the supply from the more — 
parts, — them dry and cold. 

On the theoretical computation of Refractive Indices, iy Prof. 
Powell.—In the Report on Refractive Indices, which the author 
had presented to the Association, his professed object extended only 
to exhibiting the results of observation without any reference to 
theory. Since that report was made, he has devoted his attention 
to the subject of their theoretical computation, and it is the object 
of the present communication to state very briefly the progress 
made in it. The results in the Report on Indices are classified 
under three heads: 1, those of Fraunhofer; 2, those of Rudberg; 
3, those derived from the Jatest observations of the author, eom- 
prising many new results, swperseding former ones; and others, 
the combined results of several sets of earlier observations com- 
pared with later. ‘The first series was compared with theory, 
1, by the authcr in the Phil. Trans. 1835, but only by an ap- 
proximative and tentative method; 2, by Mr. Kelland, by a direct 
and exact method in the Camb. Trans. Vol. 6; 3, for the rays 
D and C only, by Sir W. R. Hamilton in the Phil. Mag., 3d 
series, Vol. 8; 4, by M. Cauchy in the Nouv. Exerc. livre 3-6, 
by a most exact and elaborate process. 'The second series has 
been computed only by the author, by the same approximative 
method as the first, in the Pil. Trans. 1836, whence it was re- 
printed in PiseendTPs Annalen. Some of the first results be- 
longing to the third series were computed by the author, by Sir 
W. R. Hamilton’s method; in the Phil. Trans. 1837, and three 
of the higher cases, in which discrepancies appeared, were recom- 


Proceedings of the British Association. 161 


puted by Mr. Kelland’s method in the Phil. Trans. 1838. Thus 
it was desirable to recompute series 2, by an exact method, and 
necessary to calculate all the new and zmproved results of series 3. 
This the author has now done, by means of Sir W. R. Hamil- 
ton’s formula, and for the sake of uniformity has included series 1. 
The results agree perfectly with observation, except in the most 
highly dispersive cases. But here it is found that if an empirical 
change be allowed in one of the constants for each medium, a 
sufficiently close accordance is obtained. 

Prof. Powell also communicated a paper on the refraction of 
heat, and one on certain points of the Wave Theory of Light. 

Prof. Whewell gave an abstract of a Report on the present 
state of our theoretical and experimental knowledge of the laws 
of Conduction of Heat, by Prof. Kelland.—The problem, in the 
solution of which consists the mathematical theory of heat, is the 
following :—Having given the state of heating, or the variation 
of that state from time to time, at one or more points of a homo- 
geneous body of given form and dimensions, to find the perma- 
nent or variable temperature at every other point. ‘Thus a ring 
is kept at a certain temperature at one point, and it is proposed to 
discover: 1. What is the variation from time to time of the tem- 
perature at every other point. 2. What is the ultimate tempera- 
ture to which that at any given point approaches, as the time 
during which the constant heating of one point has been kept up, 
is increased. From this statement it will appear that the experi- 
mental facts on which the theory must rest, are the answers. to 
the following questions. 1. According.to what law does a heated 
body lose its temperature to the air, or other medium or space, by 
which it is surrounded? 2. According to what law is the tem- 
perature transmitted from point to point of a body? On the cor- 
rectness of the answers which may be assumed as given to these 
questions, depends the applicability of the results obtained to the 
state of things in nature. The Report then proceeded to show 
what answers have been given to the above questions by different 
theorists, and to explain the evidence on which their truth was 
supposed. to be established. 

On the temperature of the Air in hareer Minster, by Prof. 
Phillips. It may be remarked that the vastness and loftiness of 
the interior of York Minster renders the air within it, in a great 


degree, free from violent local draughts, and yet subject to a con- 
Vol. sun, No. 1.—Oct.—Bee. 1841, 21 


162 Proceedings of the British Association. 


tinual gentle circulation. . While the observations were) taken, 


(1808-1811,) the building was not heated, and the lights used 


were a few scattered tapers.. It appears, that from nearly the end 


of March to nearly the end of August, the air within the Minster 
was colder than the mean temperature of the air without; and 
from nearly the end of August to nearly the end of March, 
it was warmer. Dr. Robinson remarked, that by a slight modi- 
fication, these observations might be made subservient to the 
purpose of determining the rate at which the several strata of air 
as you ascend, alter their temperatures as the conditions upon 
which their equilibrium depend; is varied; which determination 
would have an important bearing on the subject of atmospheric 
refractions. aig 

Prof. Lloyd communicated a paper containing the J?esults of 
some investigations on the phenomena of thin plates in Polarized 
Light. 


Prof. Wartmann, of Lausanne, read.a paper on what he calls, 


Daltonism. One of the most extraordinary affections to which 
the eye is subject, is an incomplete vision of colors, which has 
been called Daltonism, after.the celebrated Professor, who was 
the first to describe it in an exact manner. He then laid before 
the meeting, an extract from a more extended work, containing 
in substance, the following observations. The Daltonians form 
two classes ;—that of the dichromatics, who discern only two 
colors, generally black and white, and who appear endowed with 
a remarkable faculty of vision in a state of darkness: and that of 
the polychromatics, who have the definite perception of at least 
three colors. Daltonism is not always hereditary; it does not, 
even, always date from birth. Decided colors appear black to 
many Daltonians, if they be not illuminated by a very brilliant 
light. ‘The number of colors of which the polychromatic Dal- 
tonians are sensitive, is not constant ; some only see three, others 
four, among which blue and red may be expressly mentioned. 
The extremes of red and violet are often not distinct; a fact 
which the Professor thought to have a connection with the ques- 
tion of the number of elementary colors. The degree of polish 
of the colored. surface has an influence on the appreciation of 
colors. Some Daltonians have an equal cognizance of the bright- 
ness and the discoloration of supplementary tints, which we do 
hot recognize as such. ‘Two colors appear to us blended by a 


Proceedings of the British Association. 163 


succession of intermediate tints, which the Daltonians see in con-= 
trast. The Daltonians see exactly as we do, the mixed rays dis- 
covered in the spectrum by Fraunhofer, at least in all that portion 
which appears to them illuminated. 

Prof. Whewell, after mentioning some cases of persons affected 
with this peculiarity, remarked that he doubted the propriety of 
the name now given to this defect: few persons would desire to 
be immortalized through the medium of their defects ; and Dal- 
ton; least of all, requires such a means of handing down his name 
to posterity. 

“Mr. Dent presented a paper on the preservation of steel chronom- 
eter balance springs, by forming upon them a thin coat of pure 
gold, by means of the electrotype process. Prof. Christie read a 
paper on the preservation of magnetic needles and bars from oxi- 
dation, by the same process. 

On the relation of Sturm’s Ausihary Functions to the Roots 
of an Algebraic Equation, by Prof. Sylvester. The author wish- 
ed to bring to the more general notice of mathematicians, his 
discovery of the real nature and condition of the auxiliary func- 
tions, so called, which Sturm makes use of in locating the roots 
of an equation: these are obtained by proceeding with the left 
hand side of the equation, and its first differential co-efficient, as 
_if it were our object to obtain their greatest common factor; the 
successive remainders, with their signs alternately changed and 
preserved, constitute the functions in question. Each of these 
may be put under the form of a fraction, the denominator of 
which is a perfect square, or in fact the product of many ; like- 
wise the numerator contains a huge heap of fractions of a similar 
form. These, therefore, as well as the denominator, since they 
cannot influence the series of stgns, may be rejected; and fur- 
thermore, we may, if we please, again make every other function, 
beginning from the last but one, change its sign, if we consent 
to use changes, wherever Sturm speaks of calculations of sign, 
and vice versa. The functions of Sturm thus modified and 
purged of irrelevancy, the author, by way of distinction, and 
still to attribute honor where it is really most due, proposes to 
call “Sturm’s Determinators,” and proceeded to lay bare the in- 
ternal anatomy of these remarkable forms. 

Prof. Moseley gave an account and drawing of a machine for 
calculating the nwmerical values of Definite Integrals. 'The 


a Proceedings of the British Association. 


object of the machine is to apply to the numerical calculation of 
definite integrals, a principle first suggested by M. Poncelet for 


the registration of dynamometrical admeasurements, which has - 


been applied by M. Morin to an instrument called the Compteur, 
for registering the traction of loaded carriages upon common 
roads, and during the last year, by a committee of the Associa- 
tion, to a permanent registration of the work of the steam upon 
the piston of a steam engine. 

On determining distances by the, aid of the Telescope, by 
Mr. Bowman. 'The principle of this method was to observe the 
number of divisions of a graduated staff placed at a distance ; 
and considerable ingenuity is shown in determining the distance 
by making the necessary corrections on this observed number. 
The author thinks his method would be more accurate in sur- 
veying than the actual measurement by the chain, particularly 
in.uneven ground ; and asserts that the error in taking any dis- 
tance could not exceed the thousandth part of the entire distance ; 
hence, by dividing the entire distance, even when large, into a 
number of parts, he conceives that great precision would be at- 
tained. . 
Sir J. Herschel transmitted fifteen specimens of colored pitti 
graphic copies of engravings and mezzotintos, into the prepara- 
tion of which no metallic ingredient enters, the whole being 
tinted with substances of vegetable origin variously prepared. 
The rays of the spectrum which have eaten away the lights in 
these photographs, are neither the so-called chemical rays beyond 
- the violet, nor the calorific rays beyond the red. 'The action is 
confined almost entirely to the luminous rays, and of these more 
especially to those rays of the spectrum whose union forms a 
color supplementary to that of the ground-tint ; a circumstance, 
which, considering the great command of color which this new 
variety of the photographic art affords, holds out no slight hope 
of a solution of the problem of a phatentareee ineemo xe of 
natural objects in their proper colors. 


(To be concluded in the next number.) 


<3 ge 


- ® ~ 
Removal of Carbonic Acid Gas from Wells. 165 


Art. XIX.—On the Removal of Carbonic Acid Gas from 
| Wells, Sc., and Spontaneous Combustion in. Wood Ashes ; by 
Ottver P. Hussarp, M. D., Prof. of Chem., Min. and Geol. in 

Dartmouth College. 
Combustibility of Wood Ashes; by Dr. Joun T. Puummer, of 
Richmond, Indiana. 


_ Tur following verbal statement I received from Dr. S. E. Hale, 
a graduate of the Medical School of Dartmouth College: While a 
student at Burlington, Vt., a deep well in the yard of the stable 
connected with the hotel was to be cleaned. A man was about 
to descend for this purpose, but, at the suggestion of Mr. Hale, 
waited till he could test the well for carbonic acid gas. A light- 
ed candle was adjusted, and on lowering it with a cord, it was 
extinguished at the very mouth of the well. He then applied the 
remedy, gntted charcoal, as recommended by me in this Journal, 
(Vol. xxxvu, p. 206,) and entirely removed the gas, so that the 
candle burned clearly in every part above the water, which was 
some twenty or more feet from the surface of the ground; and 
the man descended with impunity and accomplished his object. 
This well was situated at nearly the lowest part of the yard, and 
in the vicinity of abundant sources of carbonic acid from the de- 
composition of animal manures, and may be a constant reservoir 
for the accumulation of the gas. Though this be a strong ease, 
yet in all cases the successful use of the charcoal once should 
not prevent its repeated application, even at short intervals, if oc- 
casion required. 

1. Spontaneous Combustion in Wood Ashes.—In September, 
1840, my attention was called by a soap-boiler, who was re- 
moving ashes froma brick arch in my cellar, to a remarkable 
phenomenon he had just observed in the ashes in his cart he 
had last brought out. I applied my hand to a spot as directed, 
and found the heat so great I could hold it there but a moment 
at a time; and on examination of the ashes in the arch from 
which these last had been taken, I found the same heat limited 
to asmall area in the centre of the bottom, which was now cov- 
ered by a small quantity of ashes remaining, from twelve to four- 
teen bushels.- The ashes formed a heap two feet thick on an 
area of about four feet by two feet. They were made of maple 
wood alone, burned in close stoves, and were very heavy, and the 


od ’ 
166 _ Spontaneous Combustion. » 


heat was found in no other portion of them. 'Those at the bot- 
tom were at least one year old, and my family having been ab- 
sent during the summer, none had been added, excepting a very 
small quantity on the surface a few days previous, for more than 
three months. 

The burning of boxes and casks in which ashes are very com- 
monly kept, is usually, perhaps generally with truth, attributed 
to the burning coals taken up with the ashes. Suspecting this 
cause, I searched thoroughly for ignited coals among the heated 
ashes in the cart and also in the arch, and found no vestige of 
coals in any state. It is not probable that any small quantity of 
ashes removed at one time from the stoves, even if hot and min- 
gled with live coals, and added to a heap on its surface as usual, 
should have retained its heat till covered by succeeding additions, 
and this heat have remained so pent up for a'year, and not rather 
have been conducted to the whole mass, and thus entirely dissi- 
pated. Besides, the combustion of the wood in my stoves is very 
complete—the coals are consumed, and the ashes are commonly 
removed before making the fire in the morning, and at considera- 
ble intervals ; so that, though I made no examination, it seems 
there could have been but an extremely small portion of combus- 
tible vegetable matter remaining unconsumed. ‘The floor of the 
arch and cellar is sand, and unusually dry; there is nothing pecu- 
liar in the circumstances of the arch, and I cannot but attribute 
the occurrence to an unknown cause, which in time would have 
resulted, as in the following instance, in #35 

2. Spontaneous Combustion.—This instance came under the 
immediate observation of Rev. President Lord, of Dartmouth 
College, a few years since. He noticéd for two or three days, 
throughout his house, that well known and peculiar odor of hot 
or ignited ashes, unaccompanied by smoke or the odor of burning 
wood. After repeated and unsuccessful examinations had been 
made for the cause, attention was finally drawn to the ashes ina 
corner of the cellar, which were found in a state of complete 
ignition. On being stirred with a stick, the fire, it was found, 
pervaded the whole mass, some twenty five bushels, and it was 
extinguished by an abundance of water. This heap had been 
accumulated during the two years previous. ‘They lay upon 
the bottom of the cellar, which was moist, and surrounded on 
three sides with brick; nothing intervened between them and 
the floor above, and there seemed great reason to fear the house 


Combustibility of Wood Ashes. » 9m. 
would have been burned but for this timely discovery. If ashes 
are liable to such spontaneous ignition, and there is nothing in 
these cases known that is peculiar, it suggests the propriety of 
arching all receptacles for them if in a cellar, and the necessity 
of keeping them always in receptacles constructed of incombus- 
tible materials. It is hoped that similar occurrences will be re- 
corded for the more clear elucidation of this obscure subject. 

The editors have received a notice of two similar occurrences, 
ina letter from Dr. John 'T. Plummer, Richmond, Indiana. 

3. Combustibility of Wood Ashes.—Several years ago, a large 
wooden box, standing in an old frame building, back of my 
dwelling house, and containing ashes, was discovered to be on fire. 
Before the fire was extinguished, a hole ten or twelve inches in 
diameter had been burned through one side of the box, and the 
flames had seized the building. On strict inquiry of the family 
that then lived in my house, I was assured by every individual 
with one accord, that no ashes had been emptied into the box for 
at least two weeks; the box having been filled for that length of 
time, the ashes had been thrown elsewhere. I could not doubt 
the veracity of my tenants, and therefore was led to attribute the 
phenomenon to an incendiary act, to some chemical change in 
the contents of the box, or to hot ashes thrown in and the fact 
being forgotten by the members of the family. 

To satisfy myself respecting the origin of the fire, I emptied 
the box, and was at once convinced that the combustion had com- 
menced within it. "The hole burned through the side of it, was 
near the bottom, and widened inward like a funnel, presenting 
some resemblance to the holes in the shelf of a pneumatic cistern. 
The outside of the box was charred where the flames passed up. 


Outside view. Inside view. 


The inquiry having been conducted thus far, I was induced to 
reflect whether an ignited coal could remain buried in ashes to 
the depth of two feet, in a state of inaction for a fortnight. If 
this were possible, why should it ultimately become such a source 


168 — Combustibility of Wood Ashes. 

of danger, while the box and its contents continued undisturbed ? 
With this inquiry in my mind, I made a memorandum of the 
event in my common-place book, and left the subject for future 
reflection and research. Years passed, and the memorandum fre- 
quently met my eye as I occasionally turned over the leaves of 
my manuscripts; butit did not obtain any particular attention. 

4, A few months ago, however, I had cause to congratulate 
myself for having made a careful record of the phenomenon re- 
ferred to. Our domestic informed me, perhaps two months since, 
that the ash-box, (a transverse section of the trunk of a very 
large sycamore,) had “burnt through near the bottom.” The 
former occurrence of the same kind, presented itself vividly 
to mind, and I eagerly repaired to the late scene of combustion to 
pursue my original inquiry, believing the cause, whatever it might 
be, to be the same-in both instances. The domestic had poured 
a large quantity of water upon the ashes in the morning when 
she detected the fire, and she supposed every spark had been ex- 
tinguished. I found, however, that the ashes were now, in the 
evening, insupportably hot ; and by means of.a spade, I ascer- 
tained that the heat extended throughout the mass; the blade 
when drawn out, hissed when spit upon. I thoroughly drench-~ 
ed the ashes, and then sat down to reflect upon the phenomenon. 

It soon occurred to me, as highly probable, that ashes, when 
taken from the fire-place, contain a considerable quantity of car- 
bonaceous matter in a state of minute division; that ignition of 
these particles might exist without being apparent to the eye; 
that this ignition might be communicated very slowly to the car- 
bonaceous powder in surrounding cold or extinguished ashes, and 
thus fire be conducted gradually to large coals, and te the wood- 
en vessel containing the ashes. : 

To determine the correctness of my conjecture, I sifted through 
the finest Chinese sieve I could procure, some ashes which had 
been taken from the fire-place the day before, and weighing 642 
ers. subjected them to heat in a Hessian crucible. _ In a short 
time the crucible became red hot; but no redness was visible in 
the ashes. At this stage of the process, I thrust a beech splinter 
into the ashes, (being careful not to touch the crucible,) and dz 
immediately took fire... After allowing the crucible to cool, I 
weighed the contents, and found they had lost 12 ers. The 
quantity of comminuted carbon no doubt varies in different par- 


—- 


Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead. 169 


cels of ashes; it is sufficient, if it exists in ignitible quantities, 
and the particles are in ignitible proximity. It must be remem- 
bered, that we should add to this fine combustible matter the 
large coals and coarse powder separated by the sieve. 
~ It may be proper to add, that the wood we consume, is prin- 
cipally beech, sugar tree, and hickory. 

Thus it appears : 
_ 1. That wood ashes contain a considerable quantity of finely 
divided coal. 

2. That the ashes may be sufficiently hot to ignite this coal, 
without themselves being at red heat. 

3. That the progress of this ignition is slow ; and the combus- 
tion may extend throughout a large mass of ashes, without warn- 
ing, until it reach some inflammable material. 

IT have assumed as true, for I suppose it will scarcely be denied, 
that the loss in the contents of the emcible; was owing to the 
consumption of carbon.* 

If my deductions from this humble, but I hope useful research, 
are correct, if is not safe to deposit hot ashes even in the middle 
of the largest bulk of cold ashes; for although the fresh ashes 
may not rest against wood, and may appear securely remote from 
it, yet it is surrounded by and reposes upon combustible materi- 
als, which may, as in these two instances, conduct the invisible 
fire to inflammable bodies around, and box and buildings be in- 
volved in sheets of flame. Joun. T. Plummer. 

June 12th, 1841. 


Art. XX.—On the use of Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead. 


Tne reduction of lead ore is effected in a great variety of fur- 
naces, many of them primitive and simple; others requiring great 
expense in erection, and. much practical experience in the man- 
agement. Yet these latter often give no better results than the 
original ‘log furnaces’ of our western pioneers. ‘The great saving 
of labor and certainty of product effected by the furnace described 
below, induces the preparation of this. article for publication. 


* Dr. Plummer does not state whether the ashes employed in his trial, were 
heated to expel hygrometric moisture before weighing, which seems cuseitial to 
the accuracy of the results.— Eds. 

Vol. xt, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. a2 


170 Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead. 


Should the writer be able to repay thereby a moiety of debt which — 
is constantly accruing against him by the scientific labors’ of 


others, as published in your Journal, he will be much gratified. — 

To reduce the sulphuret of lead, merely requires that the 
sulphur should be disposed of by combustion; hence a process 
so simple is partially effected by the most gue means. Yet 
it can only continue successful, when the heat is not so high as 
to fuse the galena, and when all parts of the ore undergoing the 
process, are well supplied with atmospheric air to effect this com- 
bustion. Ifthe blast be heated and made to diffuse itself equally 
through the whole ‘charge,’ carrying with it the flame of light 
fuel, pine or other light wood leaving but little coal, the reduction 
of the ore is effected with an economy and dispatch, hitherto un- 
known in the processes of reducing this metal. The following 
is a description of the hot blast furnace, used at Rossie in the state 
of New York. 'The form of the furnace is not new.- 


Fig. 1. 


1869 
Beale ( ' ith ant aad 
Scale of inches. 

A (fig. 1,) is a cast iron reservoir twenty four inches square and 
twelve inches deep, the iron of the sides and bottom is two inches 
thick ; to this is attached the hearth B, with flanges projecting at 
the sides, the whole twenty two inches in length, and including 
the flanges thirty two inches wide. ‘The hearth descends about 
one inch in twelve, and has a groove for the melted lead to dis- 
charge into the reservoir C, in which it is kept fused by a small 
fire under it. D, is a cast iron air-chest, making an iron wall four- 
teen inchés high, above the sides of the reservoir. It is six inch- 
es thick outside; the iron being about three fourths of an inch 


Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead. 171 


thick, leaves the inside space about four and a half inches by 
twelve and a half. 'The blast passes into this chest by a pipe at 
E and out at F', whence by a curved pipe it is discharged into the 
fire through a ‘twyer’ cast in the air-chest at G, two inches above 
the level of the lead reservoir. 


The lead reservoir A (fig. 2,) is filled with metallic lead, which 
in the process of smelting continues in a state of fusion, and while 
the furnace is used is not withdrawn. 'The ‘charge’ in the pro- 
cess of smelting, floats upon the melted lead, and the metal as 
smelted falls into it, flows over and discharges through the groove 
in the hearth. In working the furnace, the smelter throws im- 
mediately in front of the blast, two or three billets of light wood, 
say two inches in diameter and sixteen inches long, upon which 
are thrown up the ‘charge’ in process, and fresh galena, filling 
the furnace near even with the top of the air-chest and sloping 
down to the hearth. ‘The blast being let on, strikes upon the 
billets of wood and is thus diffused evenly through the whole 
charge, carrying with it the flame of the fuel. 

It will be perceived that the air passing into the hollow chest, 
acts as a refrigerator upon the inner walls, and thereby prevents 
their being heated so high as to combine with the sulphur, by 
which they would soon be destroyed; and also by preventing an 
accumulation of heat in the walls, keeps the furnace of a uniform 
temperature, which if not thus moderated would soon run so high 
as to fuse the galena and thus check the smelting. 


172 Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead. 


The air by thus passing through the hollow chest, becomes 
heated, and being thrown in this state through the mass of burn- 
ing sulphuret, reduces it in a great measure, by the combustion 
of its own fuel, the sulphur, the quantity of wood consumed 
being less than one fourth of a cord for the product of 2000 lbs. 
pig lead. 'The fuel used is wood only, and that of the lightest 
kind ; coal or other concentrated fuel gives a heat too intense near 
the blast, and reduces the product in a given time, from one third 
to one half. 

In operating the furnace, it is necessary to charge it about once 
in ten minutes, which is done by drawing the ‘charge’ forward 
upon the hearth, (the blast having been previously shut off by a 
valve, to protect the smelters, ) billets of wood are thrown in, in 
front of the ‘twyer,’ and the charge thrown back with the requisite 
quantity of fresh mineral, when the blast is again let on. ‘The 
furnaces continue to run thus, without intermission, night and 
day for six days in the week. 

The economy and efficiency of this furnace will be understood 
from the following facts. In smelting about 5,000,000 lbs. of 
lead at the Rossie smelting works, the average product at each 
furnace was about 7,500 Ibs. for each day of twenty four hours. 
Number of men employed, two.at a time, four in all at each fur- 
nace. Amount of wood consumed, three fourths of a.cord per 
day. The cost of mere smelting, not-reckoning use of works, 
cost of creating blast or superintendence, was as follows: 


* 


Two smelters at $1,50 per day, j : $3,00 
Two assistant do. 1,00 ru , 2,00 
Three fourths cord prepared wood, at $2, 00, 1,50 

$6.50 


for a product of 7,500 Ibs. or about $1,75 per ton. 
Pr eparation of the ore.—W here saving of labor is so great an ob- 


ject as it is in this country, it may not be uninteresting to describe — 


the method and machinery used for preparing the ore at Rossie. 
The smelting works are situated at a water power upon Indian 
River, at a convenient distance from the mines. The ore in the 
mines lies in a matrix of cale spar, through which it is scattered 
in erystals of all sizes and proportions, from galena with a small 
per cent. of gangue, to gangue with a very small per cent. of gale- 
na, so that a large proportion of the diggings require to be crushed 
and washed in order to procure the whole product of the mines. 


ea ie) 


Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead. 173 


Fig. 3 is a crusher of cast iron. Into this the ore and gangue 
is thrown, and reduced so that none of it is larger than half inch 
cubes, and. as little of it crushed very fine, as possible. 


Fig. 3. 


Sengle crusher used at Rossie.—a, driving pinion, b, wheel attached to lower 
erusher ¢. d; upper crusher, filled with lead and sstotalied down by lever d. 
Whole pressure of the crusher 2 Sa, 4000 Ibs. 


Fig. 4. 


Fig. 4 is a bucket sieve; A, a square box with iron bottom, per- 
forated with small holes, suspended in the vat of water, B, in 


» 


174 Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead. 


which it is agitated by cam C. The diggings from the crusher 
being: thrown into this sieve and the lever let into the cam, the 
contents of the sieve immediately arrange themselves in strata 
according to their relative gravities; first, clean gangue on the 
surface, next, ‘middlings,’ being spar with particles of ore attach- 
ed, (these are thrown back to be recrushed,) next, lead ore, the 
surface of which has more or less gangue adhering, the lower 
strata nearly pure. ‘The ore as smelted, contains from five to ten 
per cent. of calc spar adhering and scattered through it. ‘The 
- mineral which passes through the sieve is taken from the vat 
and washed in a stream of water upon an inclined table, both so 
eraduated that the ore remains near the stream and the impuri- 
ties may be carried off. 

The Rossie Lead Mines.—Of the bubbles of ’36 and 37, per- 
haps none was more wnmercifully inflated than that of the Rossie 
lead stock. Itis unfortunate for the mining interest in that very in- 
teresting and promising region, that this remarkable mine should 
have become by a ten years’ lease the property of a company, 
and thus made at once the victim of speculation. In taking out 
the ore for the first one hundred feet in depth, little expense was 
necessary, and the product and profits were large. At the depth 
now attained, say from one hundred and seventy five to two hun- 
dred feet, permanent and adequate machinery and good engineer- 
ing are required, having reference to working the mine for a long 
series of years. 'The investments necessary for this can hardly 
be looked for until the fee of the land and the rights to the mine 
are owned by the same person or company. The amount of lead 
smelted from these mines in 1837 and 1838, was 4,137,871 lbs. ; 
in 1839, about 1,200,000 lbs.; in 1840, about 400,000 lbs. 

The primitive rock, (hornblende gneiss,) in which this mine 
lies, has but few fissures through which water is discharged, and 
hence is easily kept free. It is already wrought. one hundred 
feet below Indian River, which flows some eighty rods distant. 
Whatever may be the difficulties of the present unfortunate tenure 
of this valuable mine, there is little doubt that it will eventually 
be efficiently wrought and yield a uniform and adequate return. 
The vein descends perpendicularly ; the quantity of ore ina given 
space holds about the same, and in all probability is inexhaustible. 


Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842. 175 


» Arr. XXI.—On the Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842. 

A torau eclipse of the sun at any particular-place is so unfre- 
quent, that only a small part of the inhabitants of the earth ever 
has an opportunity of beholding this, the most sublime of celes- 
tial phenomena. In April, 1715, the sun was totally eclipsed in 
London, and in May, 1724, in Paris; but from those years to 
1900, or during nearly two centuries, the shadow of the moon 
neither has, or will pass over either of those cities.. Nor have we 
been in this respect, more fortunate. . A total eclipse took place 
in Massachusetts and the central part of New York on June 16th, 
1806 ; another occurred in part of South Carolina and Georgia on 
Nov. 30th, 1834; the third, during this century, will be total in 
part of North Carolina, and will happen on Aug. 7th, 1869; the 
fourth, on May 27th, 1900, will be total in part of Virginia; and 
as the average width or diameter of the moon’s shadow on the 
earth, may be considered about one hundred miles, it is evident 
that during the nineteenth century, not more than one quarter of 
our territory between Maine and Florida, will see a total eclipse. 
Strictly speaking, the darkness during a total eclipse, is not as 
has been supposed, nearly or quite total; since the moment the 
moon completely obscures the sun, she appears to be surrounded 
by a mild but beautiful effulgence, which though not too brilliant 
to be beheld by the naked eye, sheds sufficient light to render 
objects distinctly visible. At Boston, in 1806, it is said, about as 
much light remained, during the total obscuration, as is given by 
the moon when full, and in Beaufort, S. C., Nov. 30, 1834; only 
two planets and four stars of the first magnitude were seen, though 
one of them, Antares, was then only six degrees from the sun. 
But, although nearly twenty eight years will elapse before the next 
passage of the moon’s shadow over the United States, on the eighth 
of next July, in a considerable portion of continental Europe, the 
sun will be totally eclipsed. ‘That this phenomenon will be ob- 
served with interest by those of our countrymen, favorably situ- 
ated, cannot be doubted, and it is therefore hoped that the follow- 
ing results, deduced from along and careful computation, may be 
useful to those readers of fhe Journal, who may wish to behold the 
complete obscuration of the sun, and who are in doubt whither 
to proceed. On this oceasion the centre of the shadow will first 


176 Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842. 


touch the earth at sunrise, at a point in the Atlantic Ocean situ- 
ated in lat. 37° N., long. 10° W. from Greenwich, or two degrees 
west of Portugal; it thence passes across the southern part of that 
kingdom, diagonally across Spain, the south of France, Sardinia, 
Lombardy, Austria, the north of Hungary, Austrian Galicia, the 
south of European Russia, the southwest of Russia in Asia, the 
Chinese Empire and part of the North Pacific, to a point im lat. 
15° N., long. 148° E., where it will leave the earth at sunset, 
three hours and five minutes after it first touched it, on the coast 
of Portugal, and after describing a circuit of about ten thousand. 
miles. The width of the shadow will, as usual, vary somewhat 
in its passage across the earth, but in Italy and Germany, it will 
be a little more than one hundred geographical miles, so that if 
the path of the centre be carefully marked on a good map, and 
other lines be drawn parallel thereto, to the north and to the 
south, at the distance of about fifty miles therefrom, the places 
at which the eclipse will be total, will be easily ascertained, un- 
less situated like Venice, just within, or like Ofen, just without, the 
limit of the shadow, about which there is some doubt, in conse- 
quence of a possible difference between the tabular and observed 
latitude of the moon. In this manner it will be seen, that in 
addition to the places herein after enumerated, the eclipse will 
probably be total at St. Ubes, Evora, and Elvas in Portugal; at 
Badajos, Truxillo, Toledo, Urgel and Gerona in Spain; at Per- 
pignan, Carcassone, Montpelier, Avignon, Nismes and Toulon in 
France; at Alessandria, Asti, Cremona, Lodi, Mantua, Parma, 
Placenza, Saluzzo, Savona and Tortona in Italy; at~ Brixen, 
Bruck, Clagenfurth, Judenburgh, Marburg, Trent and Villach in 
Austria; at Orel, Penza and Tambow in Russia; and that the 
shadow will pass near the city of Nankin and the island of Chu- 
san, in China. 

As the approaching eclipse will excite great interest throughout 
Europe, and especially in those places where it will be total, it is 
earnestly hoped that particular attention will be paid by those 
favorably situated, and in possession of suitable instruments, to 
the determination of the correctness of a recent suggestion, that 
the irregularities so frequently noticed at the second and third 
contacts of nearly central eclipses, and at all the contacts of the 
transits of Venus, may be seen or not at the pleasure of the ob- 
server, according as the color of the dark glass, he applies to his 


Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842. | Le: 


telescope, is red or green. ‘These irregularities, as seen by many, 
have been minutely described by Francis Baily, Esq. of London, 
in an article in the tenth volume of the Memoirs of the Astro- 
nomical Society, although it particularly relates to the appearan- 
ces, observed by himself, in the south part of Scotland, during 
the eclipse of May 15th, 1836, which was annular there. Many 
of the appearances described by Mr. Baily, were seen through a 
red glass at the second and third contacts of the eclipse of Feb. 
12th, 1831, which was annular in the southeastern part of this 
State. Shortly afterwards, however, it having been ascertained 
that a double screen, composed of one light red and one light 
green glass, would not only render the light of the sun very 
pleasant to the eye, but would far better-define the limbs, and 
would sometimes even enable me to see a small spot, that was 
invisible through the dark red. alone, a screen of that kind was 
adapted to the telescope, and was used for the partial eclipses of 
1832 and 1836, and those that were central in 1834 and 1838. 
Through this screen no one of the irregularities described by 
Mr. Baily, has ever been perceived, although carefully looked for. 
Indeed so remarkable was the difference between the observed 
and expected appearances of the sun’s limbs at the second and 
third contacts at Beaufort, S.C. on Nov. 30th, 1834, that even 
then, asuspicion was excited that the entire absence of all distor- 
tion or irregularity in the cusps, just before and after the total 
obscuration, was to be attributed to the color of the screen ; espe- 
cially since other observers in the vicinity of Beaufort saw through 
red screens, many or most of the usual phenomena. — This suspi- 
cion was strengthened by the observations on the large but not 
central eclipse of May, 1836; it was therefore communicated to 
several of our astronomers, who paid particular attention to it, at 
the formation and rupture of the ring on Sept. 18th, 1838. In 
Philadelphia and its vicinity there were many observers, provided 
with telescopes of nearly equal optical capacity, but protected by 
screens of different colors. ‘The result appears to be, that in every, 
or nearly every instance in which the red glass was used, many 
or all of the usual irregularities were seen, whilst those observers 
who used yellow or green screens, saw these appearances either 
greatly modified or not at all. At Princeton, near the northern 
boundary of the ring, two skilful astronomers, provided with 33 
feet telescopes by Dollond and Fraunhofer, were enabled dis- 
Vol. xt11, No. 1.—OQct.—Dec. 1841. 23 


178 Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842. 


tinctly to see some of these appearances through the red eye-piece 
of the former, though none was visible through the green screen 
of the latter instrument. At Washington, where the eclipse was 
nearly central, no distortion of the limb of the moon could be 
seen through the double screen above mentioned, and the cusps 
of the stn just before and after the ring, were as pointed as nee- 
dles. The Committee of the Philosophical Society of Philadel- 
phia, in their report on this eclipse, say, ‘‘ This suggestion is one 
of great importance, as it seems to furnish evidence of the exist- 
ence of a lunar atmosphere, through which, as through our own, 
the red rays have the greatest penetrative power. © It also leads 
to new views concerning the cause of the remarkable appearances 
of the beads of light and the dark lines frequently noticed; since 
it shows that their appearance may be completely modified by a 
change in the color, and consequently in the absorbing power of 
the screen glass through which they are observed.” It is be-_ 
lieved that on another account will this suggestion if well founded 
be of great importance, viz. in its obvious tendency to diminish 
if not wholly remove, the discordancies not unfrequently found 
in the best observations on solar eclipses and transits of Venus, 
and which with regard to the latter in 1761 and 1769, were so 
great as materially to diminish the value of this method of deter- 
mining the distance between the earth and the sun. 

The elements of the eclipse were computed from the lunar tables, 
both of Burckhardt and Damoiseau, and as they appeared to differ 
in their results by about 13” of longitude, the mean or average 
of the results was adopted, which it is hoped will be found more 
conformable to observation. As these tables are adapted to the 
meridian of Paris, the time of that meridian has been retained, 
but the longitudes of the places are counted from Greenwich, 
which is 2° 20’ 23” west of the former. The ellipticity was 
considered ;3;th. But no correction was applied for irradiation 
and inflection, which if allowed would cause the eclipse at each 
place to begin about ten seconds later, and to end about eleven 
seconds earlier than the time herein after stated. ‘The latitudes 
and longitudes of the several places, were with a few exceptions, 
taken from the English and French Nautical Almanacs. 


Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842. 179 


Path of the Centre* of the Moon’s Shadow over the Earth, during the 
Total Eclipse of the Sun of July Vth, (July y 8th, Civil Time,) 1842, 
Mean Astronomical Time. ' 


5 \__ Welipse | Eclipse 
Central. at Latitude. Longitude. Central, at Latitude. Longitude. 
hom. s. } PN h. m. s. fs 
17 42 40 37 6.7 N.| 10 22.1w. |] 18:10 0 52 19.2N.| 35 30.5 x. 
17 42 45 38° (5.3 8 7.9 18 11 0 52 28.8 36 23.6 
17 42 50 38 29:7 711.5 18 12 0 52 37.8 37 26.0 
17 42 55 33 49.9 6 24.9 1813 0 52 46.3 38 22.8 
17 43 (0 39 6.9 5 45.7 138 14 0 52 94.2 39 19.1. 
17 435 39 21.2 5 12.5 1815 0 53 1.6 40 14.8 
17 43 15 39 45.8 4 15.0 18 16 0 53. 8.5 41 10.0 
17 43 30 490 16.8 3. 1.9 1817 0 | 53149 42 4.7 
17 43 45 40 43.1 1 59.7 18 18 0 53 20.9 42 58.8 
17 44 0 41 6.6 1 4.0 18:19 0 53 26.4 43 52.4 
17 44 15 41, 28.0 0 128 18 20 0 53 31,5 44 45.5 
17 44 30 41 47.5 0 34.45, 18 21 0 53. 36.1 45 38.2 
17 44 45 42 54 1 18.5 18°22 0 53 40.3 46 30.4 
17 45 0 42.221 2 0.0 18 23.0 03 44.2 47 22.1 
17 45 30 42 52.8 3 17.5 18 24 0 53 47.6 48 13.4 
17 46 0 43 21.2 4 28.5 18 25 0 53 50.7 49 4.2 
17 46 30 43 47.0 5 34.5 18 26 0 53 53.5 49 54.5 
17 47 (0 44 10.9 6 366 18 27 0 53 55.9 50 44.3 
17 47 30 44 33.3 7 35.7 18 28 0 53 58.6 51 33.7 
17 48 0 44 54.3 8 32.2 18 29 0 53 39.8 52) 22.7 
17 48 30 45 14.2 9 263 18 30 0 04.13 53 11.3 
17.49 0 45 33.0 10 18.2 18 31 0 54 2.1 53 59.7 
17 49 30 45 50.9 11 8.3 18 32 0 54 2.5 54 47.7 
1750 0 46 8.0 11 56.7 18 33 0 54 2.6 55 35.3 
17 50 30 46 244 12 43.7 18 34 0 54 24 56 22.6 
1751 0 46 401 | 13 29.6 18 35 0 D4. 1.7 57 9.5 
17 51 30 46 55.2 14 14.3 18 37 30 5358.8 09 5.1 
17°52 0 AT O77 14 57.9 18 40 0 do 54.1 60 58.4 
17 52 30 47 23.7 15 40.6 18 42 30 53 47.7 62 49.3 

LAP 93 OF 4). AZ 37:2 16 22.4 18 45 0 53 39.6 64 37.8 
17 53 30 47 50.2 Vix 23815 18 47 30 53 30.0 66 24.1 
17.54 0. 48 2.7 17 43.8 18 50 0 53 18.8 68 8.1 
17 54 30 48 14.8 18 23.5 18 52 30 53 6.1 69 50.0 
1755 0 48 266 | 19 25 18 55 0 5251.9 GAO 
17 55 30 48 38.0 19. 40.9 18 57 30 52 36.2 73° 7.4 
17 56 0 48 49.1 20 18.7 19 0 0 52 19.0 74 43.0 
17 36 30 48 599 20 55.9 19 2 30 52 0.5 76 16.6 
17 57 (0 49 10.3 21 32.6 19 5 0 51 40.9 77 48.3 
17 57 30 49 20.4 22 8.8 19 7 30 51 20.0 79 18.0 
17°58 0 49 30.2 22 44.5 19 10.0 50 57.8 80 46.0 
17 58 30 49 39.7 23 19.8 19 12 30 50 34.5 82 12.2 
1759 0 49 49.0 23 54.7 1915 0 50 10.0 83 36.8 
17 59 30 49 58.0 24 29.2 19 17 30 AQ 44.4 84 59.7 
18 0 0 50. 6.7 25 3.3 19 20 0 49 17.8 86 21.1 
138 1 0 59 23.5 26 10.6 19 22 30 48 50.2 87 41.1 
182 0 50 39.4 27 16.8 19 25 0 A8 21.5 88 59.6 
18 3 0 50 54.4 28 21.8 19 27 30 47 51.8 90 16.8 
18 4 0 51 8.6 29 25.7 19 30 0 AZ 21.0 91 32.8 
18 5 0 ol 22.1 30 28.6 19 32 30 46 49.3 92 47.7 
13 6 0 SL 34.8 31 30.6 19 35 0 46 165 $4 1.5 
182750 St 46.9 32 31.8 19 37 30 45 42.7 95 14.4 
18 8 0 51 58.3 33 32.1 19 40 0 45 8.0 96 26.4 
48) 39. 5:0 52 9.E 34 31.7 19 42 30 44, 32.3 97 37.7 


* The path of the centre is expressed, not in degrees, minutes, and seconds, but 
in degrees, minutes, and tenths of a minute. 


180 Solar Eclipse of July Sth, 1842. 


Table continued. 2 pe gee 
Helipse ; a ae Eclipse eM a Bite 
Central, at Latitude. Longitude. Central, at Latitude. Longitude. 


h. m. s. Sie Bye sie bh. m. s. ty 1 

19 45 0 43 55.6n.| 98 48.55.|| 20 27 30 $0 20.1N.| 130 0.72. 
19 47 30 4317.9 99 58.7 20 30 0 29 14.1 121 378 
19 50 0 42 39.3 101 8.5 20 32 30 28 41 123 22.3 
19 52 30 41 59.5 102 18.1 20 35 0 26 49.3 125 16.8 | 
19 55 0 41 18.7 103 27.6 20 37 30 25 28.0 127 245 
19 57 30 40 36.8 104 37.1 20 38 45 24 44.2 128 34.4 
20 0 0 39 53.7 105 46.8 20 40 0 23 57.7 129 49.5 - 
20 2 30 39 9.4 106 57.1 20 41 15 23 81 131 12.0 
20 5 0 33. 23.9 108 7.9 20 42 30 22 14.0 132 44.5 
20 7 30 37 37.1 109 19.4 20 43 45 21 139 134 30.5 
2010 0 36 49.0 110 31.8 20 45 0 20 5.8 136 34.9 
20 12 30 35 59.4 111 45.6 20 46 15 18 420 139 15.1 
2015 0 35 8.0 113° (1.2 20 47 0 17 36.1 141 27.8 
20 17 30 34 148 114 18.8 20 47 30 16 34.8 143. 35.3 
20 20 0 33 19.7 115 38.9 20 47 50 1516.1 146 33.8 
20 22 30 32 22.4 V7 21 20 47 52 14 45.5 147 44.2 
20.25 0 31 22.7 118 29.1 | 


Duration of the central eclipse on the earth, 3h, 5m. 12s. 


Phases of the Eclipse at some of the cancel Cittes of Bure at 
which it will be Total, in Mean Time. 


Brescia. Genoa. Gratz. Lemberg. Madrid. | 
Latitude, . 5 b 45°32! 19!/44°241 181 47° Al GIN 49° 1! 42! 40CR4! 57 
Longitude, . : = 10 13 31 | 8 54°23 (15 27 23° )24° 2 534) BAL 52 

be ome se | bo mss. om. Si nahi, as. hh. m. 8. 
Beginning, . 5 24 3|5 17 45 | 5 46 12 | 6 24 38 |before s.r: 
Beginning of total darkness, 6 19 18 | 6 12 53 | 6 43 14 | 7 24 83 | 5 18 45 
Nearest approach, 6 20 31 | 6 13 42 | 6 44 29.) 7 25 58 | 5 19 38 
End of total darkness, 6 21 44} 6 14 31 | 6 45 44 | 7 27 24 | 5 20 30 
Eclipse ends, ; : 7 21 49 | 7 14 87 | 7 47 52.) 8 32 32 | 6 15 36 
Duration of total darkness, 2 26 1 38 2 30 2 ot 1 45 
Duration of eclipse, . 1 57 46 | 1 56 42) 2 140/2 7 54 
Distance of north limbs, 3911 | 68.50 | 52/83) 42.147 17.1180 
Distance of centres, . - 1.00 28. 81 Il. 53 0. 84 18. 70 
Distance of south limbs, 41. 11 10..88 | 29. 82 | 44.15 | 55. 20 
Point first touched, . _ 40.94 39.01 39.99 49.04 

Marseilles: Milan.” | Nice. Padua. Pavia. 
Latitude, . 3 : 43°17" 50145028" 11! 43°41 581145924! Q/45°]1" GI! 
Longitude, . = . 5 22 15 | 9 11 48 | 7 16 55 |11 521819 9 25 

h. m. s. | hom. s. | bh. m. s. |h. om. -#. | he ms. 
Beginning, . 5 316) 5 20 2/510 51|5 30 14 | 5 19 34 
Beginning of total darkness, 557 3/615 4/6 5 36 | 6 26 28 | 6 14 28 
Nearest approach, . 558 4/61611/6 6 14] 6 27 12] 6 15 40 
End of total darkness, 559 5161718/6 6 52] 6 27 56 | 6 16 52 
Eclipse ends, : 6.57 25|717 4) 7 6 20) 729 9) 716 32 
Duration of total darkness, 2% 2 214 1 16 1 28 2 24 
Duration of eclipse, .. 1.54 9/157 2/1 55 29) 1 58 55 | 1 56 58 
Distance of north limbs, 56.771 25."06 | 72.28 | 72.1191 371/29 
Distance of centres, . 17. 96.) 14. 83 33.05, | 32. 47 2. 6DSs 


Distance of south limbs, 20. 85 |. 54. 72 6. 18 7. 97..|, 42.450) 
Point first touched, . 39.98 - | 41.93 38.°9 38.°9 40.95 


Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842. 181 


Table continued. 


{ Pressburg. -Tarin. Venice. Verona. Vienna. 
Latitude, ‘ 48° 813011450 4! Gl! 45°25! 551! 45°96" 8 "48°12! 35/! 
Longitude, : : 17 6 28) 7 42 6 {12 20 21 {10 59 13 |16 22 58 


hem. se |b. m: ss. ich. m. os. | Wom. si 2)h.om. s. 
Beginning, . 554 6)]5 13 55 | 5 32 6} 5 26 50 | 5 51 18 
Beginning. of total ceishaies, 6 51 44|6 8 35 | 6 28 49 | 6 22 26 | 6 48 58 
Nearest approach, 6 52 59| 6 9 35 | 6 29 IL | 6 23 33 | 6 49 57 
End of total darkness, 6 54 14] 6 10 34 | 6 29 33 | 6 24 40 | 6 50 55 
Eclipse ends, é 756 56) 7 9 53 | 7 31 23 | 725 91] 7 53 36 
Duration of total darkness, 2 30 1 59 Q 44 214 1 57 
Duration of eclipse, . 2 250) 1 55 58 | 1 59 17 | 158 19) 2 218 
Distance of north limbs, 2076 | L772) 79025 | 56.155...) 13.166 
Distance of centres, . 14.03. | 21. 82 38. 72 | 16. 29 | 28. 00 
[Distance of south limbs, 55. 82 61. 36 1. 81 23. 97 | 69. 66 


oint first touched, . 41.°0 41,% 38.07 39.°6 41.°5 


“The point on the sun’s disc first touched by the moon, or at 
which the eclipse will begin, is counted from the vertex to the 
right hand, as seen through a telescope that does not invert. The 
longitudes of all the places, except Lisbon and Madrid, are east 
of Greenwich. At Lisbon the sun will rise at 4h. 44m., nearly 
totally eclipsed. At the following places the eclipse will be 
nearly, but not quite, total. 


Places. if: Nearest approach. |Dist. of centres.) Difference S. D.| 
h. my, Ss. 
Cracow, na A 64'62 42'53 
Innspruck, 6 27 33 61.09 40.59 
Kremmunster, . 6 40. 3 55.30 A116 
Lisbon, . 4 57 42 46.49 35.15 
Ofen (Buda), 12 VES 45.76 42.12 
| Trieste, 6 35 33 51.93 40.84 


Elements of the Eclipse, Mean Time at Paris. Solar Elements. 


Longitude. Right Ascen, | Declination. |Sidereal time. 

! ; |b. m. sec. 
16 40 105 32 15.80 106 Bl 41 32|52 33 :17:85/7 2 52.81/©’s Latitude -+0//.06 
17 00)105 33° 3.48)106 52 32.60/22 33 1235/7 2 56.10)‘ Hor. Paral. 8/44 
18 00j105 35 26.51)106 55 6.4322 32 55.7417 3 5.95)“ S. diam. 15! 45//.37 
19 06/105 37 49.55) 106 57 40.26/22 32 39.11/7 3 15.81 |Obliquity 23°27’ 38" 28 
120 0U}105 40 12.59/107 00 14.04/22 32 2245/7. 3 2566 
3 
3 


21 00)105 42 .35.63)107 2 47.86/22 32 5.76)7 35 52 
22 OO|105 44 58.68)107 5 21.69/22 31 49.05)7 45.38 


Lunar Elements. 


_ Longitude. Latitude. Right Ascen. { Declination. | Hor. Par. | Semi-Diam. 

h. m. } / I / u 
1 16 40 104 07 18. 17\-436 49! "34 105 JA 25. bg 33 19 17/51 59 54.77 | 16 19.56 
17 00 |104 19 23.66) 35 42.61/105 37 23.05/23 16 53.97) 59 55.22) 16 19.68 
18 00 |104 55 41.24) 32 22.20/106 16 14.40/23 9 36.59) 59 56.50 | 16 20.04 
19 00 1105 32 0.39) 29 1.51/106 55 3.20/23 2 9.46) 59 57.77) 16 20.39 
2) 60 106. 8 21.03) 25 40.54/107 33 49.30/22 54 32.56} 59 59.01 | 16 20.72 
21 00 |106 44 43.09) 22 19.31)108 12 32.55)22 46 46.02) 60 00.21 |-16 21.04 
22 00 |107 20 651). 18 57.73|108 51 12.70/22 38 49.83 60. 01.41 | 16 21.35 


Boston, December 6, 1841. ; oe. P: 


182 +. Bibliography. 


Art. XXIL— Bibliographical Notices. ees 


1. Enchiridion Botanicum ehibens Classes et Ordines Plantarum, 
accedit Nomenclator Generum et officinalium vel usualium indicatio ; 
auctore Strep. Enpiicuer, M.D. Botanices in facult. med. Vindob. 
Prof. Leipsic and Vienna, 1841. pp. 763, 8vo.—This distinguished 
botanist, having taken the chair in the University of Vienna, so long 
filled by the late Baron Jacquin, has prepared an excellent text-book, 
on the same plan as Lindley’s Introduction to the Natural System. 
The author’s own arrangement in his Genera Plantarum, is of course 
followed, and the detailed characters of the classes and orders are 
taken from that work. A list of the genera, with their subdivisions 
and principal synonyms, is given under each order; the affinities of 
the latter are briefly discussed; its geographical distribution noticed ; 
its general properties and uses indicated, followed by a condensed but 
carefully digested account of all its useful products, and especially 
those employed in medicine. We know not where so much important 
information is to be found within such a narrow compass. We observe 
that Prof. Endlicher, following out his views upon the subject of vege- 
table impregnation, viz. that the pollen-grains are the veritable ovula, 
has in this work substituted the term géemmule in place of the latter, 
and restored the old name of germen for the ovarium ! 


2. Flora Medica; a Botanical Account of all the more important 
Plants used in Medicine, in different parts of the world; by Joan 
Linptey, Ph. D. &c. London, 1838. pp. 656, 8vo.—Our notice of 
this work is somewhat tardy ; but it is probably not yet as well known 
in this country, at least to the medical profession, as it deserves to 
be. Its object is to furnish good systematical descriptions of medici- 
nal plants, including those employed'in the popular practice in differ- 
ent countries, as well as those which have found a place in treatises on 
materia medica. Not being himself a medical man, the author adopts 
the motto: ‘¢ Certa feram certis autoribus ; haud ego vates’”—but there 
is no lack of. original investigation in the discussion of numerous ques- 
tions, which must be settled rather by botanical than pharmaceutical 
inquiry. ‘The arrangement of the author’s Introduction to the Natural 
System, second edition, is followed ; but, in order to suit the conven- 
ience of those readers who may prefer some other mode, the work is 
so printed that the different natural orders may be cut asunder and re- 
arranged ; in consequence of which many blank pages are left, and the 
size and expense of the work are unduly increased. Throughout Europe, 
we believe, no medieal faculty exists without a professorship of botany ; 


Bibliography. 183 


and every candidate for the doctorate, as well as every licensed apoth- 
ecary, is required to sustain an examination upon this science. In the 
United States, on the contrary, no medical college within our know- 
ledge, has a-separate botanical professorship, or requires any know- 
ledge of the science asa requisite for graduation ; and very few, in- 
deed, make provision for a course of botanical lectures! It would not 
be difficult to assign the principal causes of this neglect amongst us, 
of what is elsewhere deemed not only an important, but an indispensa- 
ble branch of medical instruction; but however this may be, we can- 
not believe that such a state of things will be much longer permitted to 
exist. 


3. Elements of Botany, structural, physiological, systematical, and 
medical ; being a fourth edition of the Outline of the First Principles 
of Botany; by Joun Linpuey, Ph. D., F. R.5., &c. &e. London, 
1841. pp. 292, 8vo.—The first part of this excellent text-book, con- 
sists of an amplified and corrected edition of Dr. Lindley’s celebrated 
Outlines of the First Principles of Botany. In its original form, this 
terse and perspicuous statement of the leading propositions of struc- 
tural botany, having been annexed to the American reprint of the first 
edition of the Introduction to the Natural System, is well known to the 
botanists of this country; many of whom, like the writer of this notice, 
derived from it their earliest ideas of the science, and have not forgot- 
ten the intense gratification which the first glimpse of the fundamental 
principles of structural and physiological botany afforded them. The 
third English edition was extended, so as to include a similar sketch of 
systematical botany, and the alliances of plants, in a tabular form; the 
latter being an amended translation of the author’s Néiaus Plantarum : 
this formed the Key to Botany for the use of Classes, (80 pages, 8vo.) 
published in the year 1835. In the present form, “the whole of the 
structural and physiological part has been corrected with great care, 
and made to include the most important views of modern physiologists, 
so as to present the reader with a view of the state of botanical know- 
ledge, in these departments in the spring of 1841,” and the whole is 
very fully illustrated with excellent wood engravings. The second 
part is devoted to. systematical botany, which is defined to be, ‘‘ the 
science of arranging plants in such a manner that their names may be 
ascertained, their affinities determined, their true place in a natural 
system fixed, their sensible properties judged of, and their whole his- 
tory elucidated with certainty and accuracy.” It is principally occu- 
pied with a plain and simple account of the natural families, as ar- 
ranged by the lamented De Candolle, with their characters and leading 
subdivisions, an enumeration of their typical genera, (which are mostly 


184 Bibliography. 


illustrated by wood cuts,) and a brief notice of their properties and 
uses. This is followed by the Alliances of Plants, a conspectus of the 
method for grouping the orders employed in the second edition of the 
author’s Introduction to the Natural System. ‘To this succeeds a sketch 
of a new distribution of the vegetable kingdom; in which the author 
gives prominence to some characters employed by Jussieu, &c., but 
which he had. until lately deemed of minor comparative importance. 
The plan now suggested may be easily made to harmonize with that of 
Endlicher. The portion denominated Medical Botany, consists of a list 
of the principal medicinal plants which are: known in a living state in 
Europe, arranged and numbered according to the author’s Flora Med- 
ica, with a brief indication of their properties and uses. 


4. Botanical Teacher for North America, in which are described the 
indigenous and common exotic plants growing north of Mewico ; by 
Lavra Jounson, under the supervision of Prof. A. Eaton. Second 
edition, Troy, 1840. pp. 268, 12mo.—On the first page of this work, 
our attention was arrested by a sweeping charge against the teachers 
of botany in this country, which in justice we shall extract verbatim : 
*«'The second set [of authors] are actuated by the sinecurism of bota- 
ny. ‘Their books are incongruous compilations, to be forced upon pu- 
pils by teachers. The teachers are mostly rewarded by book-pedlars, 
who are authorized to present them with a few copies and many compli- 
ments for this service. Neither of these kind of authors or teachers 
conceive it a duty to make practical botanists of their puplis. Students 
are made to believe, and so teach their students in turn, that said-off 
lessons make the botanist. Perhapsa few garden plants are sometimes 
shown as a fallacious pretence. Many hundreds of our schools, of 
fair names, have been occupied for years in this manner.” This is a 
very serious charge, if true, which we trust it is not, and is preferred 
in a very unqualified manner. - But if the books which these teachers 
impose upon their pupils are as worthless as the present volume, pitiable 
indeed is their condition, and small the benefit they are likely to derive 
from their study. The following morceau, extracted from the fourth 
page, will enable our botanical readers to judge for themselves. 

““The student, before he studies vegetable physiology, and natural 
alliances of plants, must understand the seed, with its astigmatous sacs 
or teste. The ovule (with all its appendages within the stigmiferous 
tunic or carpel) becomes the seed, with its testa or tripple [sic] cuticle, 
and its outer sacks. In case of the peach, the white meat is the seed; 
and the thin, brownish covering inside of the-shell, and the very smooth 
outside of the white meat, are; by some authors, called the quintine, 
quartine, and tertine coats. The shell (putamen) is the secwndine, 


Bibliography. 185 


and the outside rind is the primine. Between the rind (primine) and 
shell (secwndine) is the fleshy mass, or edible part. This is not con- 
sidered as one of the coats, being the fungus-like thickening of the 
rind. Asan edible fruit, the naming is different. Then the primine 
is called the exocarp ; the secundine, endocarp; and the interposed 
fleshy mass is the sarcocarp. The five coats which are made of the 
ovule, if it is true that they are always present, are exceedingly differ- 
ent in thickness. It may be well to imagine their existence, for the 
sake of convenient analogy, whether or not they have always been 
found. In case of the wheat, we find that a coat or two, (perhaps the 
whole five,) and the outside achenous or stigma-bearing one, produce, 
in miller’s language, shorts, bran, and kernelle, by grinding. But who 
can make out the achenous tunic, bearing the stigma, and within it the 
primine, secundine, tertine, quartine, and quintine? The nucleus or 
simple seed, (wheat,) we know to be principally amylaceous and glu- 
tinous albumen, from the quantity of flour it gives, which is almost a 
pure mixture of starch and gluten (paste).” 

Other paris of the work are consistent with this ludicrous jumble. 
Thus, on page 236, we read of the peach, We. that the. “seed is the 
putamen and its contents within the sarcocarp (fleshy part) of a drupe :” 
and on page 234, “all seeds have this outer tegument, (testa or pri- 
mines,) excepting the coniferee, as pine trees, &c.” Also page 2538, 
where the Coniferze are said to have “* seeds purely naked, not covered 
by testa, nor a skin-like envelope ;” and, lest the idea should not be 
distinctly apprehended, a note informs us, that ‘all seeds but those of 
this order have a testa, skin, or membranous covering. These, and 
these only, are truly naked. The gymnospermia of Class Didynamia 
are naked as it respects the pericarp. But the seeds of that order have 
the covering here referred to.” Parietal placenta, we learn from page 
6, “means that the placenta forms a kind of wall about ovules.” It 
can hardly be necessary to make further extracts to justify the remark 
which we premised, Ignorance of the rudiments of structural botany 
is of itself no disgrace ; but when young ladies write, and learned 
professors supervise such books as that before us, we are reminded of 
the title of a chapter, we believe in Fielding, “ showing that an author 
writes all the better for having some knowledge of the subject of which 
he treats.” 


5. Hooker’s Journal of Botany.—The fourth volume of this inter- 
esting periodical commenced with the number for June last ; which is 
occupied with a translation of a paper by Martius, on the Botany of 
Brazil, and with the first portion of a very important paper, by Mr. J. 


Smith, of Kew, entitled “ An arrangement and definition of the Genera 
Vol. xx11, No. 1.—Oct.—Dec, 1841. 24 


186 Bibliography. 


of Ferns, with observations on the affinities of each genus.” The lat 
ter is continued in the numbers for July, August, and September ; com- 
prising five of the seven tribes into which the Ferns of the first divis- 
ion, or Polypodiacee, (those with a vertical elastic ring to the spo- 
rangia,) are divided. The work exhibits infinitely more care and 
consideration than Presl’s Tentamen Pteridographie ; although some 
genera appear to be founded upon very slight technical distinctions. 
The first tribe, Polypodiee, is represented in the United States by 
Polypodium, Struthiopteris, Allosorus, (A. gracilis, J. Sm. = Pteris 
gracilis, Michx.) Notholena, (N: vestita, J. Sm. = Cheilanthes vestita, 
&c.) Teniopsis, (T. lineata = Vittaria lineata, Swartz,) ; 2d. Acrosti- 
chee, by a single Acrostichum ; 3d. Pteridee, by Pteris, Doodia, 


(Woodwardia Virginica, Swartz,) and Woodwardia, (W. onocleioides - 


and W. thelypterioides, Pursh ; but is the latter different from Doodia 
Virginica?) ; the 4th: Aspleniee, by Scolopendrium, Aspleniwm, (of 
which Athyrium is considered a section,) and Antigramma, (Aspleni- 
um rhizophyllum, Linn.,) but why was not the prior name of Campto- 
sorus retained for the genus? The 5th tribe, Aspidiee, includes Ono- 
clea, [for the confirmation of Mr. Smith’s conjecture respecting the 


Rhagiopteris of Presl’s Tent. Pterid. see notice of the latter work in - 


a former number of this Journal,] Woodsia, Cystopter t8s(C. fragilis 
and C. bulbifera,) Lastrea (= Nephrodium marginale, Michz., N. Gol- 
dianum, Hook. & Grev., N. Noveboracense, dilatatum, &c.,) and Polys- 
tichum, (Aspidium (Nephrodium, Miche.,) acrostichoides and A. acu- 
leatum.) It is but just that the name of Nephrodium, established by 
Michaux, should be employed, if employed at all, for some of the 
species originally comprised in that genus ; this name should therefore 
have been retained for either Polystichum or Lastrea, if the two last 
are really distinct genera. ‘The October number is nearly filled with 
a biographical sketch of the late Allan Cunningham, the botanical col- 
lector. It also contains an announcement of the death of Professor 
Dz CanpotLe, which mournful event took place.at Geneva on the a 
of September last. 


6. The Annals we Magazine of Natural History, (London: con- 
ducted by Sir W. Jardine, Mr. Selby, Dr. Johnston, Prof. Don, and 
Mr. Taylor,) for July last, contains an elaborate paper by Mr. Schom- 
burgk, on the Urari or Arrow poison of the Indians of Guiana, the 
Wouraly of ‘ Waterton’s Wanderings,’ with a description of the plant 
from which it is extracted. Mr. Schomburgk appears to be the first 
European who has seen the plant, (for neither Baron Humboldt nor Mr. 
Waterton met with it,) and gathered specimens: from the latter the 


plant has recently been figured in the eighth part of Hooker’s Icones 
Plantarum. 


— 


Bibliography. 187 


7. The Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, established and for the last six. 
years conducted by the late Prof. Wiegmann of Berlin, is to be contin- 
ued, as we learn from a late number of the Linnea, by Dr. Erichson, 
assisted by Dr. Grisebach of Gottingen, Prof. Siebold of Erlangen, Dr. 
Troschel of Berlin, Prof. A. Wagner of Munich, and Prof. R. Wagner 
of G6ttingen. Annual zoological and botanical reports will still be 
given: therlatter, furnished for some years past by the late Professor 
ome will hereafter be executed by Prof. Link. 


i 8. ne seliasi fiw Anatomie und Physiologie der Gewtichse, 
with annual reports, nearly on the plan of those of the late Prof. Meyen, 
‘generally known to English readers, through the translation published 
in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History,) is announced by the 
accomplished vegetable anatomist, Prof. Mehl of Tubingen, in the 
Linnea, part 3, for 1841. 


9. Lectures on the Applications of Chemistry and Geology to Ag- 
riculiure ; by Jamus F. W. Jounston, Professor of Chemistry and 
Geology in the University of Durham. Part J. On the Organic Ele- 
ments of Plants. New. York, Wiley & Putnam. 12mo. 1842.—It 
is a just remark, and those whom, it chiefly concerns are beginning to 
appreciate it, ‘‘that no department of natural science is incapable of 
yielding instruction,;—that scarcely any knowledge is superfluous—to 
the tiller of the soil.” The botanist, the chemist, or the geologist may, 
and indeed commonly does prosecute his laborious researches from the 
mere love of his favorite science : whatever personal advantage he may 
perchance derive, is small indeed, compared with what he might rea- 
sonably expect from the same industry and talent devoted to other pur- 
suits. But to no class, perhaps, are the results of scientific research 
SO practically 1 important as to the proprietors and cultivators of the soil ; 
for no art is so connected with all the natural sciences, and so lope: 
ent upon them for its advancement, as agriculture. Would the farmer 
know what vegetables, or what varieties are best adapted to a particular 
climate or soil; which require his richest, and which will thrive upon 
his poorest soils; which exhaust, and which on the contrary may be 
made to enrich his land; what treatment is necessary to perpetuate the 
choice varieties, produced by long cultivation, but which are continually 
liable to ‘run out,’ that is, to revert to their original state ; how the © 
properties of poisonous plants may be ascertained, or noxious weeds 
eradicated ; to these and numerous similar questions botany and vege- 
table physiology must render the only satisfactory answer. _ If his crops 
are threatened with destruction by insects, zoology alone can throw 
light upon their nature and habits, and instruct him how, to extirpate 


188 Bibliography. 


them. Would he know what varieties of domestic animals may be 
most advantageously raised for any particular purpose, or how certain 
qualities may be obtained by cross-breeding ; zoological knowledge 
will afford him important assistance. If it be desirable to ascertain 
whether a certain crop, or kind of fruit, may be expected to succeed in 
a given district; meteorology provides the data for resolving the ‘en- 
quiry, by giving the mean temperature of the year, -recording the 
greatest heat of summer and cold of winter for a series of years, the 
liability to sudden and great changes of temperature at particular sea- 
sons, the average quantity of rain which falls during each year, or 
month. These data, compared with the atmospheric condition of a 
country where the crop in question is successfully cultivated, afford the 
requisite information. ‘The nature of the soil no less demands the 
farmer’s attention; the character of the subsoil, and the results that 
may be expecfed from bringing it to the surface ; the cause of the di- 
versities which different portions even of the same field exhibit, where 
the land is to ordinary observation similar; these and similar” poe 
geology offers to explain. ; 

Moreover, if a soil be naturally barren, or be rendered so by a long- 
continued system of wretched tillage, like that which has impoverished 
extensive portions of our Southern States, it is very important to know 
whether it may be improved or reclaimed so as to repay the outlay, 
and how this may best be effected. Barrenness may be owing to the 
' presence of some injurious substance, or it may arise from the absence 
of an element that is essential to the production of a given crop. How 
is the cultivator to distinguish between these two cases, and apply to 
each the proper remedy? When a field is exhausted by over-cropping, 
how are we to ascertain what is exhausted, and consequently what must 
be restored to the soil before it can recover its former fertility? To 
these and to a thousand such questions, “‘ chemistry alone can and will 
give a satisfactory answer.” It is true that many useful results have 
been attained by mere accident, and pursued apart from all considera- 
tions of the why and wherefore ; but it is no less true that we know not 
half the value of any such discovery, until we understand the princi- 
ples upon which it rests, and can apply them intelligently to analogous 
cases. Gypsum, for instance, is found wonderfully to fertilize certain 
soils, while upon others it produces no good effect whatever. It is ob- 
vious that the farmer cannot derive the fullest advantages from this 
agent, nor be acquainted with all its useful applications, until he under- 
stands how its fertilizing effects are produced, and under what circum- 
stances it is useless or even injurious. And so likewise with respect to 
the use of marl, lime, and various manures; the mode of whose ope- 
ration can only be learned from chemistry and vegetable physiology. 


Bibliography. 189 


We need not therefore insist upon the utility of such works as the 
Agricultural Chemistry of Liebig, and the still more practical treatise 
of Brot Johnston. The latter is addressed, not to the philosopher, nor 
the student, but to the tiller of the soil himself. It consists of a series 
of lectures, delivered before a society of practical agriculturists; most 
of whom doubtless possess little or no knowledge of chemistry or 
geology. It was therefore necessary to begin with the simplest facts 
and principles of these sciences, to employ the most familiar illustra- 
tions, to use no unnecessary technical terms, and none at ail without 
previous explanation. In pursuance of this plan, Prof. Johnston has 
produced a work of the most interesting and popular character, com- 
pletely adapted to the end in view, and fully worthy of his reputation as 
a chemist. The first part of these lectures, the only portion which has 
yet been issued in this country, is devoted to a consideration of the 
organic elements and parts of plants, the properties of the elementary 
and compound bodies which enter into their substance, or contribute to 
their growth and nourishment; .to the general structure and uses of the 
several parts of plants; their mode of growth, and the manner in which 
their food is absorbed and assimilated. 

The second part, which we understand will soon appear, is to be de- 
voted to the inorganic elements of plants, and to the study of the soils 
from which these are derived; the constitution, origin, and methods of 
improving soils in different districts, and under unlike conditions, with 
the general relations of geology to agriculture. The third, to the na- 
ture of manures, their mode of action, &c.: the fourth and last, to the 
results of vegetation, the nature, constitution, and nutritive properties 
of different kinds of produce, especially in reference to their several 
equivalents or powers of supporting animal life; the feeding of cattle, 
the making of cheese, &c.; the constitution and differences of various 
kinds of wood, and the circumstances which favor their growth. After 
this general view of the plan and scope of the work, we think it quite 
unnecessary to give an analysis of the eight lectures of which the pres- 
ent portion is composed. In the first lecture, which is chiefly prelimi- 
nary, the author bestows a few thoughts upon the importance of agri- 
culture : 


‘¢ That art on which a thousand millions of men are dependent for their very sus- 
tenance—in the prosecution of which nine tenths of the fixed capital of all civili- 
zed nations is embarked—and probably two hundred millions of men expend their 
daily toil—that art must confessedly be the most important of all ; the parent and 
precursor ofall other arts. In every country then, and at every ronal the inves- 
tigation of the principles on which the rational practice of this art is founded, 
ought to have commanded the principal attention of the greatest minds, To what 
other object could they have been more beneficially directed? But there are pe- 
riods in the history of every country when the study of agriculture becomes more 


190 Bibliography. 


urgent, and in that country acquires a vastly superior importance. When a tract 
of land is thinly peopled, like the newly settled districts of North America, New 
Holland, or New Zealand, a very defective system of culture will produce food 
enough Aa only for the wants of the inhabitants, but for the partial supply of 
other countries also. But when the population becomes more dense, the same 
imperfect or sluggish system will no longer suffice. The land must be better till- 
ed, its special qualities and defects must be studied, and means must gradually be. 
agenied for extracting the maximum produce or every portion susceptible of 
cultivation.” 


The British Islands are in the latter condition. Supposing importa- 
tion from abroad not to have increased to any important extent, it ap- 
pears that the soil of Great Britain has, by improved management, been 
made to yield twice the quantity of food it afforded half a century ‘ago ; 
and the important question arises, whether the domestic supply may be 
expected still to increase in the same ratio with the population, or whe- 


ther the demands of the latter will not soon overtake the productive | 


powers of the land. In view of what has already been accomplished, 
and of the abundant room for further improvement, our author hints, 
that a portion of the strength expended by the agricultural interest in 
attempting to secure or maintain important political advantages in the 
state, might with propriety be devoted to the encouragement of experi- 
mental agriculture. The suggestion is as important as it is opportune. 
After presenting a plain account of the difference between simple and 
compound bodies, organic and inorganic matter, and briefly exhibiting 
the properties of the four organic elements of plants, viz. carbon, oxy- 
gen, hydrogen and nitrogen, Prof. Johnston concludes his first lecture 
with the following remarks : 


t Sich. are the several elementary bodies of which the organic or desifictibis 
part of vegetable substances is formed. With one exception they are known to 
us only re the form of gases; and yet out of these gases much of the solid parts 
of animals and of plants are made up. When alone, at the ordinary temperature 
of the atmosphere they form invisible kinds of air ; wien united, they constitute 
those various forms of vegetable matter which it is the aim and’ ond of the art of 
culture to raise with rapidity, with certainty, and in abundance. How difficult to 
understand the intricate processes by which nature works up these raw materials 
into her many beautiful productions—yet how interesting it must be to know her 
ways, how useful even partially to find them out! Pera me, in conclusion, to 
submit to you one reflection. We have seen that oxygen, idee and AieSeems 
are all gaseous substances, which when pure are destitute of color, taste, and 
smell. They cannot be distinguished by the aid of our senses. Man in a state of 
nature—uneducated man—cannot discern that they are different. Yet so simple 
an instrument as a lighted taper at once shows them to be totally unlike each other. 
This simple instrument, therefore, serves us instead of a new sense, and makes us 
acquainted with properties the existence of which, without such aid, we should not 
even have suspected. Has the Deity then been unkind to man, or stinted in his be- 
nevolence, in withholding the gift of such a sense? On the contrary, he has given 
us an understanding, which, when cultivated, is better than twenty new senses. 


Bibliography. 191 
The chemist in his laboratory, is better armed for the investigation of nature than 
if his organs of sense had been many times multiplied. He has many instruments 
at his command, each of which, like the taper, tells him of properties which nei- 
‘ther his senses nor any other oF his instruments can discover ; and the further his 
researches are carried, the more willing does nature seem to reveal her secrets to 
him, and the more saith do his chemical senses increase. Do you think that 
the rewards of study and patient experimental research are confined to the labora- 
tory of the chemist, and that the Deity will prove less kind to you, whose daily 
toil i is in the great laboratory of nature? As yet you see but faintly the reason of 
many of your commonest operations, and over the results you have comparatively 
little control: but the light is ready to spring up, the means are within your 
reach ; you have only to employ your minds as diligently as you labor with your 
hands, and ultimate success is sure.” 

Did our limits allow, we should be pleased to give, as specimens of 
the author’s happy style of discoursing popularly on scientific subjects, 
copious extracts from different portions of these lectures ; and espe- 
cially from the sections on the relations of water to vegetable life ; on 
the source whence plants derive their carbon, nitrogen, &c. ; on the 
absorbing and excretory powers of the root; and on the mutual trans- 
formations of lignin, starch, gum, cane-sugar, and grape-sugar; all of 
which subjects are treated with great clearness, and with consummate 
ability. But it is unnecessary to make large extracts from a book 
which we hope and trust will soon be in the hands of nearly all our 
readers. Considering it as unquestionably the most important. contri- 
bution that has recently been made to popular science, and as destined 
to exert an extensively beneficial influence in this country, we shall 
not fail to notice the forthcoming portions, as soon as they appear from 
the press. 


10. Parnciwres or Gronocy ; or the modern changes of the Earth 
and its inhabitants, considered as illustrative of Geology ; by CHARLES 
Lyset, Esq., F. R. S. Reprinted from the sixth English edition, from 
the original plates, and wood cuts, under the direction of the author. 
Boston, Hilliard, Gray & Co.: 1842. 3 vols. 12mo. 

Elements of Geology ; by Cuartes Lyset, Esq., F.R.S.;&c. Re- 
printed from the second London edition, from the original plates and 
wood cuts, under the direction of the author. Boston, Hilliard, Gray & 
Co.: 1841. 2 vols. 12mo. 

oe favorable opinion of the above productions has long since de 
repeatedly been expressed in former numbers of this Journal. Every 
geologist will be glad to find that we have now new and greatly im- 
proved editions of both, brought out in the exact form and appearance 
of the original. The principal changes are the removal from the Prin- 
ciples of the fourth book, which treated of tertiary strata, and the incor- 
poration of the most prominent facts in it with the Elements. The two 


192 Bibliography. 


works therefore now occupy ground entirely distinct. The Elements 
has grown from one volume, in which the first edition was published, 
into two, each equal to the former; while the Principles have been — 
brought down to the latest dates by the addition of much new matter, 
which has appeared since 1837, and some opinions formerly advocated 
are reclaimed as having been superseded by the advance of “a philo- 
sophy which never rests—its law is progress: a point which yesterday 
was invisible is its goal to-day, and will be its starting point to-morrow.” 


11. Notes on the use of Anthracite in the Manufacture of Iron, with 
some remarks on its evaporating power; by WautTeR R. JoHNson, 
A.M., &c. Boston, 1841. 12mo. pp. 156. C.C. Little & Jas. Brown. 

Every gleam of light on this important subject is most welcome to 
all who are interested in the prosperity and permanent advancement of 
this country. That which three or four years since was deemed im- 
possible, is now the subject of daily practice ; and the day is not far 
distant when the anthracite iron of Pennsylvania will supersede to a 
great extent the importation of the foreign article, by Bakes a 
home a cheaper and better. 

As the amount of experience in this new branch of metallurgic art 
is not great, there was no call fora great book. Prof. Johnson has 
therefore brought into a compact form all the information which could 
be collected on the subject, and tabulated the results of those blast fur- 
naces in Pennsylvania which are driven by anthracite, under all the 
heads most valuable to the practical man. Our limits do not admit 
any extension of this notice, or we would give an analysis of the con- 
tents of the volume, which we are now obliged to defer to another op- 
portunity. 


12. American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge for the 
year 1842. Vol. XIII. Second Series, Vol. 3: Boston: D. H..Wil- 
liams.—This volume contains the usual amount of interesting statistical 
matter, with the results of the new census, statistics of education, &c. 
The astronomical portion has changed hands this year, from Mr. R. 
T. Paine, who has so long and ably conducted it, to Prof. Peirce, of 
Harvard University. The high reputation of Prof. Peirce . insure 
every attention and improvement. 


e 


13. Prof. Park’s Pantology.—In our last, we inadvertently missta- 
ted Prof. Park’s classification of human knowledge, being misled by an 
error in the divisions of his tree of knowledge. We now give the order 


correctly. : 
A 


Miscellanies. 193 


First Province, PSYCHONOMY.—I.. Department, Guossonoey, in- 
cluding Grammar and Languages. II. Psycnonoey, including Rheto- 
ric, Logic, Phrenics, Ethics, and Education. III. Nomonoey, inclu- 
ding Law and Government, and Political Economy. IV. Txeoxoey, 
including Paganism, Mahomedanism, Judaism, and Christianity. 

Second Province, ETHNOLOGY.—V. Geocrapuy, including Sta- 
tistics, and Voyages and Travels. VI. Curonocrapuy, including Civil 
History, Chronology, and Antiquities. VII. Biograpuy, including Her- 
aldry, Autographics, and Sphragistics. VIII. Catnograpuy, including 
Poetry, Romance, and Miscellaneous Literature. 

Third Province, PHYSICONOMY.—IX. Maruemarics, soa 
Descriptive and Analytic Geometry, and the Calculus. X. Acroprys- 
1cs, or Natural Philosophy, including Astronomy and Chemistry. XI. 
Ipiopuysics, or Natural History, including Geology. XII. Anpro- 
pHysics, or the Medical Sciences, including Surgery. 

Fourth Province, TECHNOLOGY.—XIII. Axcurrecunics, or the 
Arts of Construction and Conveyance. XIV. Cureorecunics, Agri- 
culture, Manufactures, and Commerce. XV. Macuerecunics, or the 
Arts of War, by land and by sea. XVI. Catnorecunics, or the Fine 
Arts, exclusive of Poetry. é 


MISCELLANIES. 
_ FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC. 


1. On the supposed conversion of Carbon into Silicon, as stated 
to the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh, by Dr. Brown. See this 
Journal, Vol. xtz, p. 208." 


TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN, 
» Dear Sir—You are already aware, that in the beginning of last sum- 
mer, a paper written by Mr. Brown, and asserting as the result of a 
series of experiments, the formation of silicon, and its consequent 
identity with carbon, was presented to the Royal Society of Edin- 
burgh by Dr. Christison. Notwithstanding the improbability of this 
result, the high reputation of Dr. Christison as a chemist, and the belief 
that he must have entertained a very favorable opinion of the scientific 
acquirements of an experimenter whose conclusions, although of a 
character so extraordinary, he was willing to introduce to the world, 
impressed Dr. Mitchell of this city with the belief that the facts thus 
brought before the public, merited an examination, which might serve 
either to detect their error or confirm their truth. As I understand that 
you have expressed a desire to receive some account of the experi- 
ments which he undertook for this purpose, in which I had the honor 
Vol. xn11, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 20 


194 Miscellanies. 


of acting as an assistant, 1 have talent su my Len to give bine 
statement of their results. ~ j Gh Sides 

A considerable quantity of irl lice was fhidiet by exposing 
the bicyanide of mercury to a low red heat, according to the direction 
given by Brown, in an iron tube closed air tight by a plug of the same 
metal, traversed by a perforation filled with stucco. During the ope- 
ration the vapor of mercury with a part of the cyanogen, escaped 
through the orifice by passing through the pores of the stucco, while 
ihe remainder of that gas was converted into paracyanogen and re- 
mained in the tube in the shape of a black porous mass. So far, as 
might easily have been anticipated, the results obtained agreed with 
those indicated by Brown, as his coincided with those of previous ex- 
perimmenters. On exposing however the paracyanogen resulting from 
this process to heat in glass tubes, instead of the evolution of nitrogen 
and the conversion of the carbon into silicon, carburets of nitrogen, 
in which more or less cyanogen was present, were given off, and the 
residue appeared to consist of carbon and not of silicon. This result 
entirely agreed with the habitudes of paracyanogen, as described in 
works on chemistry, and was equally inconsistent with the statements 
of Mr. Brown. : 

With the view of making an experiment ona larger scale, which 
should prove decisive of the facts in question, the iron tube above de- 
scribed was again charged with five or six ounces of the bicyanide of 
mercury, and kept for several days at a heat just below redness. The 
vapor of mercury was given off through the stucco during the whole 
period, but as far as could be determined by the absence of odor and 
the application of a lighted taper of flame, unaccompanied by any 
cyanogen. This treatment should, according to the experiments of 
Mr. Brown, when continued durimg such a length of time, have been 
alone sufficient to determine the formation of silicon. The tube was 
then heated to redness in a wind furnace for four hours, and subse- 
quently kept at a white heat for as many more. On opening it, the 
whole of the materials were found to have been volatilized, while the 
iron of the tube remained unchanged, except that in one or two places 
a few scales had been formed. These, when detached and dissolved 
im muriatic acid, left a small quantity of the carbonaceous residue 
which remains after the solution of iron in that solvent. 

As the heat applied to the bicyanide before it was placed in the fur- 
nace, must necessarily have converted the greater portion of the cya- 
nogen which it contained into paracyanogen, and according to the ex- 
periments of Mr. Brown, should have worked the farther change of a 
considerable portion of the. carbon into silicon, while the sueceeding 
part of the process, if his views were correct, would have completed 


Miscellantes. 195~ - 


the latter transformation, the conclusion seems irresistible, that the es- 
cape of all the materials in the state of gas, while silicon, if produced, 
would necessarily have remained in the fixed and solid form, proves, 
as far asa negative is capable of being proved, the incorrectness of 
that gentleman’s experiments. Respectfully yours, Ciark Harz. 

_ Philadelphia, Sept. 12, 1841. 


2. Curious Microscopic Fungus, Craterium pyriforme. 


To Bi SILLIMAN, Jr.: Dear Sir—Specimens of this beautiful micro- 
scopic fungus, which were gathered on Clapham Common, England, 
by Dr. Manitell, in August, were received by me in a living state on the 
13th of November. _ In the letter accompanying them, Dr. M. remarks: 
“‘T send you a pebble or two of flint, to which is adhering that exquisite 
microscopic fungus, the Craterium pyriforme, which is as white as 
snow, and upon being punctured gives out a bright scarlet fluid. I have 
had pebbles on my mantlepiece for months, and yet the vegetable was 
alive and bled as usual. I therefore hope a voyage across the Atlantic 
willgpot destroy them, and that you will be able to see the phenomenon, 
which to those who have not seen it before is most striking... But. prob- 
ably you haye the species in your own country.” 

The specimens received were still alive, and exhibited the bleeding 
very beautifully. 

These specimens having made me acquainted with the form and 
mode of growth of this interesting plant, I was led to seek for it 
on our own rocks, and on the very first stone which I examined, 
and which I picked up within a hundred yards of my house at West 
Point, I found it growing abundantly. Further search showed that it 
is very frequent on the loose fragments of primitive rocks in this vicin- 
ity. To the naked eye it appears like snow-whiie specks, not more 
than one fourth the size of a pin’s head; when magnified it appears 
like a little cup, with a cover beautifully marked with radiating lines. 
On being punctured, it emits a blood-red liquid filled with sporules. It 
grows most abundantly in small crevices in hard siliceous stones. I do 
not find this species mentioned in Schweinitz’s Catalogue of American ~ 
Fungi. Je.W. BAey. * 

West Point, November 15, 1841. — ; 


3. Yellow Showers of Pollen.—In Vol. xxxix, page 399, of this 
Journal, we gave an account of a yellow substance fallen at Troy, 
N. Y., and then conjectured to be the sporules of Lycopodium. Sub- 
sequently, our correspondent, W. G. of Otisco, N. Y., sent us a note, 
suggesting that such showers of yellow matter were due to the pollen 
of the forest trees, and that they were more frequently observed after 
thunder gusts than at other times, because the pollen shaken from the 


196 Miscellanics. — 


trees by the wind, was collected by the rain and thrown up into masses. 
That this conjecture was correct, will be seen by what follows. = 

Last June our respected correspondent, Mr. W. H. Blake, of Boston, 
sent us an account of a shower of yellow matter which fell on board 
a vessel in Pictou harbor, on a serene night in June, and was collected 
by the bucket full and thrown overboard; some small portions came 
into Mr. Blake’s hands, and was by him examined chemically. It was 
found, on subjecting it to destructive distillation, to give off nitrogen and 
ammonia, and an animal odor; to form hydrocyanic acid by passing 
through hydrochloric acid, and to leave a considerable amount of phos- 
phate of lime on incineration. From these facts, Mr. Blake was in- 
clined to infer that it might be of animal origin—perhaps the ova of 
some insect. 

From the occurrence of these showers always in May or June, or 
about the time of the inflorescence of trees, we were inclined to believe 
that they were due to the pollen of plants, while the fact that nitrogen 
exists always in the albuminous parts of plants, served to account suffi- 
ciently for the chemical observations of Mr. Blake. We therefoxMisent 
to our friend, Prof. J. W. Bailey, both the powders of Troy and Pictou, 
that he might examine them by his powerful microscopes. In return 
we received the following satisfactory letter, addressed to the junior 
editor. | 

West*Point, September 22, 1841. 

My dear Sir—I received a few days since, your letter of the 17th, 
and its enclosures, which I hastened to subject, as you requested, to mi- 
croscopic examination. The powder which fell at Pictou, proved to 
be, as you suggested, of vegetable origin, being wholly composed of 
the pollen of some species of pine. ‘That this is its real nature, there 
can be no doubt; to convince you of this, I send you the following 
comparative sketches. 


= 


7 


Miscellanies. 197 


Fig. 1, represents pollen grains of Pinus rigida, taken from the flowers. 
Fig. 2, various pollen grains from the powder of Pictou. Fig. 3, pol- 
len found with fossil infusoria at West Point. That . 
these are all pollen grains of various species of pine, 
no one familiar with the peculiar pollen of Pinus 
can doubt. The analysis given by Mr. Blake, is 
not at all incompatible with this statement. Phos- 
phate of lime is a well known ingredient of pollen 
of pme. Dr. Dana found 3 per cent. of it in Pinus 
abies. The presence of nitrogen in pollen, is, as 
you remark, well known. bri 
With regard to the pollen from Troy, I believe it to be all pollen of 
various trees, but am not able to state positively what plants furnished 
it. 1 think no part of it can be sporules of Lycopodium, as our species 
of that genus do not flower until July or August ; whereas the powder 
in question fell in May. The species too of Lycopodium are scarcely 
abundant enough, I should think, to furnish such large amounts of the 
powder. I send you some sketches of the pollen grains of which the 
Troy powder is composed. The larger particles, (Fig. 4,) a, a, a, a, 
Fig. 4. 


compose the greater portion of the powder; I presume there would be 
no difficulty in identifying them with the pollen of some tree growing 
near Troy and flowering in May. The smaller particles 6, 6, 6, in 
their triangular shape, and the protrusion of pollen tubes from the an- 
gles, resemble the pollen of various plants of the natural family Ona- 
grariz. ‘The last figures are drawn to the same scale as those prece- 
ding, and were all sketched with the camera lucida eye-piece, and a 
moderate power of my Chevalier’s microscope. You will notice that 
there is no pollen of pine in the Troy powder. Believe me, very sin- 
cerely, your friend, J. W. Battey. 


4. Brief Sirictures on Art. XV, Vol. xxx1v, p. 169, of this Jour- 
nal.—Looking over the thirty fourth volume of the Journal, 1 met with 
a very interesting article on the Dry Rot. At variance with the pre- 


e 


198 Miscellanies. 


vailing opinion, the writer of that article believes that timber is most du- 
rable when obtained from trees cut during summer. J am not prepared 
to call in question the correctness of his belief; but on the contrary, 1 
am able to say, that as:far as my observations have been extended, they 
have proved corroborative of it. ‘There are some points, however, af- 
fecting his theory, which, I think, require further consideration. 

Agreeably to his view, the sap of vegetables is confined to the al- 
burnum during summer, but on the approach of frost, it retreats to the 
heart-wood, where it remains during winter. And thus, he supposes, 
the fluids of the tree continue to circulate between the heart-wood and 
alburnum year after year while the tree lives. As the writer speaks 
of the ‘‘ exact thickness of the alburnum,” I presume he means by the 
term alburnum, all the white-wood, or all those concentric layers which 
lie exterior to the colored central, portion of the trunk ; and from which 
they are separated by a well defined circle. If this presumption be- 
true, it appears to me that grave objections rest against his theory. 
The summer and winter reservoirs, which he appropriates to the sap, 
are not always of equal capacity ; indeed, they are very rarely, if ever, 
precisely so. Some trees between one and two feet in diameter, have, 
as I find by calculation, thirty eight times more alburnum than colored 
wood. Others, of smaller dimensions, on a transverse section of the 
trunk, show a mere speck of heart-wood, capable of holding not more 
than a two hundredth part of the fluids of the alburnum. If a deduc- 
tion be made from the capacity of the central wood, on account of su- 
perior density of structure, the difference will be still greater in the 
contents of the two reservoirs. ‘The author of this theory, (perhaps I 
ought to say hypothesis,) must then either find an autumnal outlet for 
the excess of moisture, or abandon his opinion. 

Again, phytologists tell us, without reserve, that heart-wood consists 
of “dead and fully formed central layers.” If all vital action has 
ceased in this portion of the tree, it is not only unnatural to suppose 
that living fluids are deposited for preservation in a dead receptacle, 
but it is difficult to conceive how these fluids are to be convey ee through 
lifeless channels. 

Yn his ninth paragraph, I was struck with the following extraordinary 
assertion: ‘The results of these experiments accord oan a known 
fact in regard to the sugar maple, namely, that no sap can be obtained 
from the tubes of the alburnum of that tree, and therefore they are 
obliged to bore the hole for the tube through the alburnum, into the 
heart-wood before it will run.” The truth is, that if the bark be re- 
moved from any part of the sugar tree, the slightest laceration of the 
alburnal vessels will produce, at the season of the year alluded to, a 
copious flow of ‘“ water.’ By means of a penknife, I have often cut 


through the bark of this tree and barely wounded the wood below, yet 
at this trifling outlet, the sugar water has continued to discharge itself 
all day. Waggons not unfrequently are driven over the exposed roots, 
so as te grind off the bark; and the hub is as often brought into con- 
tact with the tree, so as to rub the bark off from the trunk : from these 
wounds, there always flows, at the close of winter, sugar water enough 
to moisten the road for a considerable distance from the tree. Our far- 
mers in the west, where the Acer saccharinum abounds, never think of 
boring more than an inch or two into the tree ; the object being merely 
to secure a hold for the inserted tube. Were they to extend the boring 
into the heart-wood, they would not only soon destroy the tree, . but 
they would never be compensated for this additional labor ; and I ven- 
ture to say, they would not obtain one drop of fluid from the heart- 
wood ; whence, on the contrary, the writer before us, imagines all the 
sugar water is derived. -Cn warm days in winter, I have seen the stump 
and trunk of sugar trees cut down in that season, moistened from the 
bark to the central colored layers, by the water oozing from all parts of 
the alburnum; while the heart-wood, to ali appearance, was as “‘ dry 
as a broomstick.” I may add: it is well known that in summer, when 
the writer quoted supposes the sap to be restored to the alburnum, no 
fluid can be obtained from the tree by boring into it. 

The Acer saccharinum is one of those trees, whose colored centres, 
bear a very small proportion to the bulk of the alburnum. 

Perhaps in this connection, | may be allowed to make a collateral 
criticism upon a wood-cut in one of the early numbers of the Family 
Magazine. ‘The engraver, designing to illustrate the process of sugar- 
making, a very correct account of which is given in ‘the text, has rep- 
resented a laborer holding a tub with both hands, at the foot of a tree, 
from which issues a stream with such force as to form a parabolic curve : 
if I recollect rightly, another individual stands near with another vessel 
to slip under the jet, the moment the tub should become filled. We 
have no such trees as this, in the west. It is questionable whether the 
engraver ever made acquaintance with a sugar tree. ‘There is perhaps 
no art or study which is not facilitated or enhanced by the acquisition 
of general knowledge. 

The writer, in order to sustain his opinion, further remarks, proof 
**may be found in the practice of the pioneers of our western hard 
wood forests ; there, as I have been informed, they used to girdle their 
trees in the winter, for the very purpose of having them rot and fall 
down, and thereby save the necessity of cutting them.” The practice 
of girdling trees, is still prevalent throughout the west ; the object being 
to get rid of the timber with the least labor. But I am not aware that 
any theoretical views influence the workmen in selecting the winter 


200 Miscellanies. 


for this purpose; that season is chosen, as far as I have learned, simply 
because it is the most leisure period in the year. For the same reason, 
fire-wood is generally cut at that time. a 

The hop-hornbeam (Ostrya Virginica) is considered a very unfit 
species of wood for durability ; and is scarcely ever used on that ac- 
count. On the 26th of June, 1830, I had a tree of this kind cut 
down, the bark taken off, and the trunk, whose widest diameter was 
seven inches, converted into two posts and a rail. The posts, support- 
ing the rail, were set in the ground the next day. Here they remained, 
exposed to all the vicissitudes of weather, till last fall, when they were 
removed to make way for a neater fabric. ‘The paris inserted in the 
earth, were very much decayed and worm-eaten; but the exposed por- 
tions of the posts and the rail, although deeply cracked while seasoning 
in the air, were almost perfectly sound from the centre to the very exterior 
layers. Thus, contrary to the theory before us, the alburnum proved 
to be as durable as the heart-wood. A transverse section of one of the 
posts, shows an area of heart-wood, one third less than the alburnal area. 

This is an interesting question; and I hope it will receive a more 


accurate investigation. Joun T. PrumMeEr. 
Richmond, Ind., February, 1841. 


5. Sunset at the West.*—lIn a former number of this Journal, the fact 
of the splendid radiations of light at sunset, as it occurs in the siate of 
Illinois and west of several of the great lakes, was mentioned to show 
that the cause exists in the atmosphere or above the earth. One of 


these splendid sunsets was seen in this city on the 21st of August, 1840, 


The western horizon for 40° perhaps on the east side of the sun, and 
as many above it, was of a bright blood-red coler immediately after 
sunset, except where the blue light in three distinct radiations passed, 
as from the sun, in a perfectly straight line through it, and widening of 
course as it passed upwards. No line could appear more straight than 
that which bounded the blue light. The whole was brilliant. — 

In Illinois, a similar appearance is often seen on the east side of the 
horizon, directly opposite the sun, and as it has just disappeared below 
the horizon. My attention had been called to this fact by a friend from 
that state, a few days before I visited Niagara Falls. On the evening 
of September 9th, at the Falls, I had the pleasure of seeing this same 
phenomenon in the east. The sun set with no uncommon appearance, 
except the stream of white light which rose high towards the zenith 
from a thunder cloud behind which the sun disappeared a little before 
it came to the horizon. As I crossed from Goat Island just after sun- 


* 'Phis communication has been in our hands more than a year, but was over- 
looked until now.—Eps. 


2 
% 4 s 
4 e g 
ee an 


Miscellanies. 20L 


set, a strong red light over the sky south of east was. limited on the 
north by a bright blue radiation. On the north of that was a yellowish 
red radiation, then a radiation of blue light, and then a pale yellow 
light which extended quite across to the thunder cloud in the northwest, 
at an elevation of about 35°. This appearance was seen at the same 
time in this city. Is it not connected with the aurora borealis ? 


C. Dewey. . 
Rochester, N. Y., Sept. 17, 1840. 


6. Shooting Stars in June.—The following extracts from various 
sources, relating to shooting stars seen in different years about the 15th 
of June, are perhaps worthy of being published in connection, for the 
purpose of calling the attention of observers to this period. 

“E. C. Herrick. 


(1.) “ When we were between the Isle of Madeira and the coasts of Africa, we 
had slight breezes and dead calms, very favorable for the magnetic chservations 
which occupied me during this passage. We were never wearied of admiring the 
beauty of the nights; nothing can be compared to the transparency and serenity 
of an African sky. We were struck with the innumerable quantity of falling stars 
which appeared every instant. The farther progress we made towards the south, the 
more frequent was this phenomenon, especially near the Canaries. J have observed 
during my excursions that these igneous meteors are in general more common and 
luminous in some regions of the globe than in others; I have never beheld them 
so multiplied as in the vicinity of the voleanoes of the province of Quito, and in 
the part of the Pacific Ocean which bathes the volcanic coasts of Guatimala. The 
influence which place, climate, and seasons appear to have on tie falling stars, 
distinguishes this class of meteors from those which give birth to stones that fall 
from the sky, (aérolites,) and which probably exist beyond the boundaries of our 
atmosphere.’ "A. Von Humboldt’s Personal Narrative, trans. by Helen M. Wil- 
liams. 3d ed. Lond. 1822-9, Vol. 1, pp. 75, 76. 


_ The season which appears to be referred to in that part which I have 
put in italics, is from the 15th to the 20th of June, 1799. Possibly the 
original is somewhat exaggerated in the translation. 


(2.) “ We did not, in consequence, reach Koum Kale, till two in the morning, 
fof June 18, 1812,] when we found a boat waiting for us in which we went imme- 
diately on board the frigate, [anchored off the entrance into the Dardanelles.] 
During our passage there, I was surprised at the number of meteors, called falling 
stars, which [ observed in the clear sky: we were only half an hour rowing to the 
ship, and in that time I counted nineteen.”—Journal of « Tour in the Levant, by 
William Turner, Esq. Lond. 1820, 3 v. 8vo., Vol. I, p. 41. 

(3.) “ Here in the torrid zone, the sea of an indigo blue color, rolled in uniform 
waves, and began to shine generally, and with great splendor, during the night; 
a phenomenon which we had hitherto seldom observed. This magnificent appear- 
ance, the frequent lightnings, and innumerable falling stars, together with the 
greater sultriness of the air, seemed to indicate a higher degree of electricity im 
the element,’ &c.—Spir and Von Martius'’s Travels in Brazil, 1817-20, trans. 
by Lloyd. Lond. 1824, Vol. 1, p.105. [Refers to a date between June 12 and 15, 
1817.] 

Vol. xu, No. 2 —Oct.-Dec. 1841. 26 


202 ; Miscellanies. 


A day or two later, in lat. 10° N., lon. 234° W.: — hae 


Variable winds cool the atmosphere; numerous falling stars, coming particu- 


larly from the south, shed a magic light,” &c.—Jb. p. 110. Set 
About the first of July, 1817, when a little south of the equator : 
' © Falling stars illumined the night more frequently than in the northern zone, 
and generally fell towards midnight in the south, and towards morning in” the 
northeast.—Jb. p. 118. 
(4.) In an account of the meteoric shower of Nov. 18, 1832, ; as seen 
at Brussels, is this remark :— ‘A 
*T] en est qui ont prétendu se rappeler que les mémes signes avoient. precedé 


de quelques jours la bataille de Waterloo;”’—[June 18, 1815.] Gautier, in Bib. 
Univ. de Geneve, 51: 198. : 


7. Shooting Stars of August 10, 1841.—A few observations nae 
in this country on the meteors of August 10, 1841, were published at 
p- 399, of the last volume. The following European observations, 
communicated to me, with others, by M. Quetelet, agree with those 
above mentioned, in showing that the meteoric sprinkle of August 10th, 
did not fail the present year. It will be remembered that after 10h. 
45m. P. M. on the 10th, the moon, sixteen days old, was above the ho- 
rizon ; and further, that of the meteors visible at any time, one person 
cannot detect more than a fourth part. E. C. H. 

1. Ghent, Belgium. Professor Duprez, watching in the S. W. quad- 
rant, saw alone, during three hours, fifty eight shooting stars, as fol- 
lows: viz. from Sh. 30m. to 10h. six; 10h. te 11h. fifteen ; 11h. to 
12h. twenty four; 12h. to 12h. 30m. thirteen. Nearly all were very 
brilliant ; moving from N. E. to 8. W. and leaving luminous trains be- 
hind them. 

2. Parma, ltaly.. M. Colla, with a friend, observed on the night of 
Aug. 9, 1841, eighty shooting stars between 8h. 44m. and 2h. 14m. of 
the next morning ; on the night of the 10th, two hundred and eighty 
three, as follows: viz. from 8h. 47m. to 8h. 59m. five; 9h. to 9h. 58m. 
thirty five; 10h. Im. to 10h. 56m. forty one; 11h. Im. to 11h. 59m. 
thirty seven; Oh. 1m. to Oh. 58m. forty four; 1h. 2m. to Ih. 59m. forty 


four; 2h.2m. to 2h. 58m. forty three ; 3h. 2m. to 3h. 40m. thirty four. . 


On the night of the 11th, he observed eighty two, between 8h. 37m. and 
midnight. 


8. Meteorology.—In Vol. xu, p. 402, we gave a notice of the labors 
of M. Morin, of Vesoul in France, relative to a grand generalization of 
meteorological phenomena and the resulting laws, and added an extract 
of a letter from M. Morin to the senior editor. 

Tn a subsequent letter dated Vesoul, (220 miles northeast of Paris,) 
Oct. 5, 1840, the author earnestly solicits from American sources, ex- 


‘ 


bs 


Miscellanies. 203 


act and ample information, as far as attainable, relative 1o the meteoric 
phenomena in North America for the- years 1719, 1721, 1724, 1726, 
1731, 1733, 1738, 1749, 1763, 1764, 1766, 1769, 1776. 

If it should be in the power of any person to furnish the srshsetaii 
to M. Morin, either through this Journal or the mail, he will promote 
the common cause. His address is Vesoul, France, or care of M. Ca- 
roliare Jeewry, Bookseller, Quai des Augustins, No. 111. 


9. Fall of a Meteoric Stone at Grineberg in Silesia.—On the 22d 
of March, 1841, at 34 P. M., the inhabitants of Heinrichau, who were 
abroad in the fields, heard three heavy reports like thunder-claps in the 
air, and soon after, a whizzing noise which ended ina sound like that of 
a heavy body falling to the ground. The sky at the time was almost 
wholly clear. Some persons went in the direction from which the sound 
came, and after proceeding about one hundred and fifty paces, found a 
fresh hole in the earth, at the bottom of which, about half a foot below 
the surface, they found the stone which had just fallen. The stone 
(which is of the form of a four-sided pyramid) is evidently a fragment 
of a larger one which burst in the air; three of its sides are broken, the 
fourth is covered with the thin black crust peculiar to meteorites. It 
weighs two pounds four ounces. A fuller account of the occurrence, 
and of a chemical examination of the meteorite by Weimann, will be 

given hereafter.—Poggendorf’s Annalen, Mch. 1841. 


10. Meteorite in France.—Galignani’s Messenger mentions that at a 
late session of the French Academy, a communication was received 
from M. Delavaux, stating that on the 12th of June, (1841,) between 
one and two o’clock in the afternoon, the sky being without a cloud, an 
explosion was heard at Chateau Renard, in the department of Loiret, 
louder than seyeral pieces of artillery firing together. He suspected 
that this must have proceeded from an aérolite; and on going to the 
spot where the noise had been loudest, found there the marks where the. 
aérolite had struck the earth, as well as several fragments of such a 
body, lying about. Most of these fragments were small, but. one 
weighed thirty pounds, and another six pounds.—_New York Observer, 
Aug. 14, 1841. 


11. Another Meteorite in France.—A meteor of unusual size, being, 
according to some accounts, as big as a tun, fell near Bethune, (N. lat. 
504°, E. lon. 24°,) in the Pas de Calais, France, making a rushing noise 
like the passage of a hurricane.—J0., Nov. 13, 1841. 


12. Remarks and suggestions with regard to the proper construction 
and use of apparatus for solidifying carbonic acid; by J. Jonnsron, 


204 Miscellanies. 


A. M., Professor of Natural Science in the Wesleyan University, Mid- 
dletown, Ct.—The remarks I have to make, have reference to the con- 
ditions required in order to obtain the greatest quantity of liquid, and, 
as a matter of course, of solid carbonic acid, from a given Coen of 
materials. 

The different sets of apparatus for solidifying carbonic acd that. pete 
been made in this country, with one or two exceptions only, it is believed, 
have been constructed in every essential particular, precisely like that 
of Dr. Mitchell,* who enjoys the honor of having been the first in 
America to repeat the beautiful experiment of Thilorier. This appa- 
ratus accomplishes the. object perfectly ; but the quantity of solid acid 
obtained from it at a single charge, as it is ordinarily used, is probably 
considerably less than the same materials are capable of i by 
a little different management. 

In order to obtain the greatest quantity of the acid, in the liquid 
form, from a given quantity of materials, it seems to be requisite that 
three points be particularly attended to. First, the capacity of the re- 
ceiver should sustain a proper ratio to that of the generator ;t secondly, 
the quantity of materials used should be sufficient very nearly to fill the 
generator; and thirdly, the difference of temperature between the re- 
ceiver and generator, when the liquid acid is distilled ‘oe should be 
as great as practicable. 

As it regards the first point, without presuming to speak positively on 
the subject, my experience leads me to think the capacity of the re- 
ceiver should be about one sixth of that of the generator ; certainly it 
- should not exceed one fifth. In the apparatus used in this institution ,t 
the receiver is but little more than one seventh of the capacity of the 
generator, but at every operation, when the generator is properly 
charged, it is completely filled with the liquid acid, and the probability 
is that more might be obtained if it was a little larger. If however 
the capacity were more than just sufficient to contain the acid in the 
liquid form that distills over, all the additional space would of course 
be filled with the same acid in the form of gas but exceedingly dense, 
so as to cause an essential chmiaunon in the quantity of hanes In 


* Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. xx, p. 289, and Vol. xxx, p. 346, of this 
Journal, 

t Dr. Mitchell gave the name, generator, to the vessel: into which the bicarbo- 
nate of soda, sulphuric acid, &c. for forming the carbonic acid, are placed; and 
called that the recetver, into which the liquid acid is disti!led; and his terms have 
been universally adopted. 

{ Described in Vol. xxxvin, p. 257, of this Journal. It is there stated that the 
gaits of the receiver is about one pint, but it should have been three gills. 


The mistake was made by attempting to ascertain its oa by external meas-. 


urement, and calculating its solid inches. 


Miscelianies. 205 


Dr. Mitchell’s apparatus, the capacity of the receiver is about one fourth 
of that of the generator, which is probably so large as to occasion con- 
siderable loss in this way. 

But it is important also that there shoiild be no unnecessary space in 
the generator, or im other words, that the materials used to charge it, 
should very nearly fill it. After introducing the vessel of sulphuric 
acid and inserting the plug, there must of course remain a little space 
filled only with air; and this probably is necessary, for after chemical 
action takes place, the several substances formed appear to occupy a 
little more space than before. But if possible, the quantity of soda, 
&e. used, should be such that the sulphate of soda which is formed, and 
carbonic acid in the liquid state, should entirely fill the generator. If 
then the receiver is of the proper capacity, after the liquid acid is dis- 
tilled over into it, there will remain only the space it previously occu- 
pied in the generator to contain the gaseous acid, which of course must 
be lost; but this is the least loss which the nature of the case admits of. 

When our apparatus was first constructed, (the generator of which 
holds five pints,) we were accustomed to use at a charge two pounds 
of the bicarbonate, and sulphuric acid and water in proportion, from 
which we obtained but a very little of the liquid in the bottom of the 
receiver ; but upon increasing the quantity to two and a half pounds of 
soda, with sulphuric acid, &c. in proportion, we were at first a little sur- 
prised to see the liquid come over until the receiver was entirely full, 
and with such rapidity as to leave the impression upon the mind, that 
more might have been obtained if the receiver had been a little larger. 
Once or twice only we have made use of two charges of two ponnds 
of soda each, condensing the whole of the liquid acid obtained into the 
receiver, which, however, was then scarcely filled. If therefore we 
may put confidence in these results—and we believe they may be relied 
on—we arrive at this conclusion, that two and a half pounds of the 
bicarbonate of soda, with sulphuric acid, &c. in proportion, used ata 
‘single charge im an apparatus of the capacity of ours, will afford quite 
as much or more liquid carbonic acid, than five pounds of soda, &c. 
used at two separate charges. 

The third point mentioned above as requir ing attention, is the differ- 
ence of temperature between the receiver and generator during the 
distillation of the liquid acid mto the receiver. This may be accom- 
plished either by heating the generator or cooling the receiver, but the 
last is much the best method. Dr. Torrey informs me that he has 
sometimes surrounded the receiver with a powerful freezing mixture, 
with excellent effect. We might even unite the two methods, using 
proper precautions, but the enormous pressure of the gas increases so 
rapidly with the increase of temperature, that it can scarcely be con- 
sidered safe to apply heat to any part of the apparatus. 


206 Miscellanies. 


- After the liquid acid is obtained in the receiver, in order to. prevent 


ii waste of the solid by being blown from the cup as it forms, I find’ 


considerable advantage in having the cup made quite deep in proportion 
to its diameter, and allowing the liquid acid to escape from the receiver 
by as small a jet as possible. 


13. Alabaster in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky—Afier crossing 
within the cave, several streams in boats, an apartment has been reach- 
ed, the roof of which is decorated with the most gorgeous ornaments of 
alabaster, so much like a work of art as to surpass credibility. They 
are white and semi-transparent, and are thrown out from the rock in 
the form of rosettes, leaves, and curled enrichments of the composite 
capital in architecture. I have not had the pleasure of visiting the lo- 
cality myself, but send you this sketch from a collection of the orna- 
ments which I haye just seen in the cabinet of Miss Longworth of our 
city. These were procured 1 ina recent visit to the caves, by her sister, 
Mrs. Anderson, who has given me a verbal description of ‘* Cleayeland’s 
cabinet,” as the compartment has been denominated. I was at first 
at a loss to account for such beautiful formations, and especially for 
the elegance of the curves exhibited. It is however evident that the 
substances have grown from the rocks by increments or additions to the 
base ; the solid parts already formed being continually pushed forward. 
If the growth be a little more rapid on one side than on the other, a 
well proportioned curve will be the result ; should the increased action 
on one side diminish or increase, then all the beauties of the conic and 
mixed curves would be produced. The masses are often evenly and 
longitudinally striated by a kind of columnar structure, exhibiting a 
fascicle of small prisms, and some of these prisms ending sooner than 
others, give a broken termination of great beauty, similar to our form 
of the emblem of “ the order of the star.” The rosettes formed by a 
mammillary disk surrounded by a circle of leaves, rolled elegantly out- 
ward, are from four inches to a foot in diameter. Tortuous vines, 
throwing off curled leaves at every flexure, like the branches of a chan- 
delier, running more than a foot in length, and not thicker than the fia- 
ger, are among the varied frost-work of the alabaster grottoes ; common 
stalactites of carbonate of lime, although beautiful objects, lose by 
contrast with these ornaments, all of their effect, and dwindle into mere 
clumsy awkward icicles. In order to give yourselves and your readers 
some idea of the acanthus-like curl of some of the leaves, I send you a 
pencil sketch of one of them. It is the original scrap, and does the 
subject great injustice ; you will readily see that there are several ‘ un- 
conformable” lines, as at a, not in the original, but mere awkward at- 
tempts to hit the curve of beauty before me. Besides these there are 


he se Bye 


Miscellanies. 207 


tufts of “hair salt,” native sulphate of magnesia, depending like adhe- 
ring snowballs from the roof, and periodically detaching themselves by 
their own increasing weight. Indeed the more solid alabaster orna- 
ments become at last overgrown, and fall upon the floor of the grotto, 


which was found covered with numbers quite entire, besides fragments 
of others broken by the fall. It seems to me that geologically these 
elaborate works of fairy gnomes may be considered in part the effect 
of unbalanced pressure, either hydrostatic or solid, modifying chemical 
and mechanical action. While the arch of the dome sustains the solid 
mass above, any liquid or semi-liquid would be forced through the 
pores with a power proportionate to the depth of the cave beneath the 
surface, counter pressure being removed by the cavernous opening. 
Have the dynamics of deep pressure, liquefying or perhaps solidifying 
gases, &c. received the attention which is due to them in a geological 
point of view? Your much obliged friend, Joun Locke. 
Medical College of Ohio, Cincinnati, Oct. 26, 1841. 


14. Tubular concretions of Iron and Sand from Florida.—The fol- 
lowing statements respecting the subject named at the head of this ar- 


208. Miscellanies. 


_ ticle, are contained in a letter to the senior editor from Lt. James T. 
Gerry, of the navy, dated United States ship Warren, Rensacols Sept. 
14, 1840. ~. 
_ The soil in the vicinity, as ‘wath: as ares half a league 1 in fae interior, 
is ferruginous, and large detached pieces of good iron ore are fre-. 
quently found. The most remarkable character of the specimens is, 
that they form strata of regular horizontal tubes, proceeding from a 
bank of red sand into the river, and becoming harder in the water and 
in the weather. In every instance they were hollow, but when the spe- 
cimens were taken from the vicinity of the bank, the cavity was filled. 
with sand. 

Many tubes that appeared well formed; in the bank, with the exterior 
covering apparently perfect, would not bear removal, but crumbled 
with the pressure of the hand. The specimens taken from the river, 
three or four feet under water, were the most compact, and always 
exhibited the horizontal position like those above tide water. 

The beach is composed of sand, with the addition of the river de- 
posit of soft mud; the “‘ Rocky Point” being the only exception in the 
neighborhood, siiich extends about eighty yards into the river. 

After pulverizing any of the hardest masses of these ferruginous 
concretions, the resulting substance was, in every particular, like the 
great mass in the bank, except that it contained more iron. Nothing 
like petrifaction could be discovered in these concretions or in any body 
in the vicinity. Thus far Lt. Gerry. 

His last remark precludes the supposition that these concretions were 
formed around vegetable stems which have since decayed and been re- 
moved; and indeed there is not the smallest appearance of any foreign 
body in these remarkable tubes. They are of various dimensions, from 
the size of a goose quill to that of a finger, and even of a human arm ; 
we actually slipped one of them upon the fore arm to the elbow like a 
coat sleeve. Several tubes of different sizes sometimes occur in the 
same mass—some of them are straight and you can look through them ; 
others are tortuous and irregular in size as well as form ; sometimes 
flat, and again collapsing into a continuous mass without a cavity. In 
some of them there is recorded on the exterior the perfect ripple mark, 
waving in graceful curves as the waters fiowed with ceaseless attrition 
over their surfaces. i 

Some of the tubes are very firm, like a strongly coherent sandstone 
fully soaked with oxide of iron ; but in all, the magnifier, if not the 
naked eye, detects the grains of sand, invested with or penetrated by 
iron. 

The iron is in the condition of peroxide, and it is blended with the 
quartzose sand in every proportion, some of the sand and especially 
that in the tubes being almost white. 


Pg Oey tt EE NE ie RN TS Md aati iran f 
Me Bia Ne eae ee $49 
oo - ‘ ene 5 rf 


Fiscellanies. 209 


_ Ferruginous concretions are not uncommon, as in the columnar and 
pea-shaped argillaceous iron ores, in the bog ore, the ctite or eagle 
stone, and the hollow balls resembling bomb-shells; but for the form 
of the latter, and for the tubular structure now under consideration, it 
is not, perhaps, easy to offer a reasonable solution. 

‘There cannot, however, be a doubt that the iron has been brought in 
by water, and that the form which the concretion assumed has been 
determined by extraneous causes.—Senior Epiror. 


15. Spark Eatinguisher. 
Keene, N. H., July 19, 1841. 
, To the Editors of the American Journal of Science and Arts. 

Gentlemen—Annexed is a drawing of an apparatus, which I have tried 
ona small scale, for destroying the smoke and sparks of locomotive en- 
gines, and it operates effectually. It 
consists of a revolving fan, operating in 
a cylinder on the top of the chimney, or 
it may be placed in any other situation 
if it communicates with the smoke chest. 
B, the cylinder in which the fan revolves. 
A, the chimney of the engine. When 
the fan is in motion, -there is a rush of 
air through the apertures, C, into the 
cylinder, from whence it is driven 
through the funnel E. Now if a com- 
munication be made between the chim- 
ney and the opening C, by means of a 
funnel F, the operation will be mani- 
fest ; all the smoke and sparks will be 
drawn out of the chimney at D, through 
the funnel F, into the fan cylinder, from 
whence the pipe E may conduct them on the ground or to the fire; the 
wings of my fan are semi-cylindrical, with the concave side to the air. 
This form will throw off more air, and cause a stronger draught through 
C, which may be regulated by the velocity of the fan. The fan may 
be driven by the steam afier it passes the piston, by placing a small 
float wheel at the top of the eduction pipe; this pipe may be enlarged 
at the top so that the passage may not be diminished when the wheel 
is placed there ; the dotted lines in the drawing show the position of this. 
pipe in the chimney ; the wheel is placed in the large part g, and pro- 
pels the fan by means of a gear at the top of its shaft, shown at h in 
the figure ; the doors at the top of the funnel F may be raised while 
raising the steam. Ni alla 

Vol. xt, No. 1.—Cct.-Dee, 1841- 27 


210 Miscellanies. 


I trust, through the medium of your Journal, this will meet the eyes 
of some who are engaged in locomotive machinery, and will —_— 
plan on a large scale. , F. G, WoopwarD. — 

16. Destructive Thunder Shower.—The thunder storm of the eve- 
ning of September 14th, 1840, will long be remembered in the counties 
of Onedia, Madison, and Onondaga, in central New York, for the 
damage it occasioned in the burning of buildings and the destruction of 
animal life. ‘There were several circumstances attending this storm, 
which, from their peculiar character, appear to deserve a particular 
notice. 

The first of these was the low temperature, which had existed for 
several eis previous, as the following table will show. 


9 o’clock. 2 o'clock. Wind. 
September 11, 48° 48° N. W. 
Gini A, 48° BB N. 
¢ 13, 62° 68° N. 
6 14, 56° 65° N. 
So ea 50° 66° SWE: 


A temperature as low as this, has generally been deemed incompati- 
ble with the formation of thunder showers, much less of such an aston- 
ishing development of electricity as the evening of the 14th exhibited. 
All the days noted, with the exception of the first, which was cloudy 
with a little rain, were clear, and remarkably fine. 

Another novel circumstance was the firmness of the wind in the 
north for so long a period, and the approach of the shower from that 
quarter. A thunder shower in central New York from the north is a 
very rare occurrence, not witnessed oftener perhaps than once in fifteen 
years. The most common point of their appearance is from W. to 
8. W., eight out of ten perhaps rising within that part of the heavens. 
Observation has shown, that whatever may be the course of the lower 
currents of air, (and no less than four have been distinctly noticed, ex- 
isting at the same time,) the upper is almost invariably from the west ; 
and from some cause not perhaps as yet well understood, thunder storms 
rarely deviate essentially from this direction. 

Another remarkable feature of the shower was the total absence of 
any wind, so far as we observed, or have heard. ‘The clouds moved 
very slowly ; the rain poured dewn perpendicularly, and there were 
none of those fitful gusts, or sudden changes, that generally mark the 
violence and duration of our thunder showers. Very little commotion 
of any kind could be observed in the clouds, although the continued 
electric blaze showed their whole outlines distinctly. The development 
of electricity was wholly tnprecedented, and considering the low tem- 


4 


Miscellanies. Qt. 


perature, and the quarter of the heavens in which the shower origina- 
ted, is difficult to account for. It resembled one of those tropical 
storms which announce the breaking up of the dry, and the commence- 
ment of the wet season. 

About the middle of the afternoon of the 14th, masses of clouds were 


observed low in the N. and N. E., and the presence of the cirri con- 


nected with them, clearly indicated their character. At 5 o’clock dis- 
tant thunder could be heard; and at dusk the horizon from N. to N. E. 
was almost constantly illuminated by continued flashes of lightning. 
These seemed to originate mostly from two points, one nearly N. and 
the other about N. E.* | The movement of these clouds was so very slow, 
that the storm did not commence until past 9 o’clock in the evening, 
and was at its height from half past 9 till 10 o’clock. During the ap- 
proach and continuance of the shower, the appearance was strikingly 
sublime. There was scarce a moment in which streams of electric 
fluid were not pouring from the clouds in dazzling brilliancy ; and peal 
after peal succeeded each other with such rapidity, that the roar and 
rattle was continuous and deafening, and so violent that windows, build- 
ings, and even the solid earth, trembled with the concussions. It was 
not the deep rolling thunder of the summer cloud, in which only an oc- 
casional discharge of electricity reaches the earth; but those sharp, 
instantaneous and crashing reports, which told that the fire of heaven’s 
artillery was as effective as it was rapid. That such was the case is 
evident from the fact, that at one point in the south part ef Onondaga, 


the lightning struck no less than eight or ten times within a circle of a 


mile in diameter; and in another case, in a wood of only about thirty 
acres, it struck in no less than five different places. As already observ- 
ed, there was no wind, and the rain poured perpendicularly in sudden 
dashes ; now, as though the sluices of the clouds were opened, and then 
ceasing as totally as if they had been instantaneously closed. 

The destructive effects of the lightning show that the central points 


of the storm passed from the north; one, a little west of the central 


part of Onondaga county, and the other crossed in the same direction 
over Oneida and Madison counties. We have noticed in the journals 
of these three counties the destruction of no less than nmeteen barns, 
with sheds, cowhouses, &c., and in the county of Cortland, two barns, 
one dwelling house, and several outhouses; and every where in the 
course of the showers, great numbers of horses, cattle, sheep, and 
swine were killed. Fortunately, although several dwelling houses were 
struck, and many persons were knocked down or severely stunned, 
there were none killed, so far as we have learned. 


*It will be remembered that the place of observation was obey fifteen miles 
WwW. of 8. from Syracuse, Onondaga Co. 


© 


—. Miscellanies. 


According to the record of an eastern paper, the number of buildings — 


destroyed in the United States by lightning up to the first of September, 
had been about fifty; and of these, four fifths were barns. Several 
houses had been struck that.-were not burned, while a barn so visited 
rarely escaped. These facts, taken in connection with the destructive 
results of the storm of the 14th on barns, and the very great loss of 
property sustained, would seem to point out the imperative necessity of 
securing these buildings by rods, or the owners from loss by insurance. 
It cannot be too forcibly impressed on the mind of the farmer, who of 
all others is most liable to suffer in this way, that the danger of losmg 
his barn is much greater than that of having his house destroyed; and 
that their lability to destruction by lightning is most imminent at pre- 
cisely that period when, by the labors of the year, the greatest value is 
accumulated in them. ' 

It may be mentioned here as a singular fact, that on the evening of 
the 13th, cold and severe frost occurred at several points in the Caro- 
linas ; indicating a remarkable departure from the ordinary meteorolo- 
gical condition of the atmosphere at that season of the year, and possi- 
bly having some direct connection with that state of things which gen- 


erated such an unusual quantity of electricity at the north. W.G. 
Otisco, N. Y., January, 1841. ; rae 


17. Elementary composition of vegetable tissue.—M. Payen, has been 
engaged in the microscopical and chemical investigation of the different 


tissues, and has read some memoirs on the subject before the French 


Institute. He concludes, 1. That ce//ulose, which constitutes the mem- 


branes of plants, when purified from all encrusting or deposited matters, — 
is perfectly homogeneous in chemical composition throughout the whole 


extent of the vegetable kingdom. 2. That this substance, which may 
be represented by the formula C?4H18O9, H?0, is isomeric with starch, 
dextrine, and inuline. 3. That its physical properties, and doubtless 
its nutritive qualities, are modified by the degree of aggregation; when 
very dense, it resists different chemical agents and the digestive powers 
in a remarkable manner. 4. Medulline, fungine, lichenine, have no 
existence as distinct proximate principles; properly purified, they prove 
to be identical with cellulose. 5. Gluten does not form a tissue, but is 
an immediate principle, enclosed in the cells of the albumen of the 
seeds of many Cerealia. 6. Azotized substances accompany all yege- 
table productions, and are found in all cells in their forming state; but 
they are not a constituent of the membrane of cellular tissue, nor of 
any vegetable tissue. 7. Vegetable membrane may be thus. distin- 
guished from animal membrane: the former have a ternary composi- 
tion, from which nitrogen is excluded; the latter constantly offer a qua- 
ternary composition including nitrogen.— Vid. Ann. Sei. Nat. Aug. 1840. 


Ree ee 


a 
: 
c 


Miscellanies. * 213 


18. Mr. Lyell and Mr. Murchison.—Mz. Lyell, the distinguished Eng- 
lish geologist, now in the United States, having finished his course of 
lectures in the Lowell Institute in Boston, is warmly solicited by many . 
of the first citizens of Philadelphia, to repeat his lectures in that city ; 
we understand that he will comply with their wishes, and thus afford to 
them, as he has done to the citizens of Boston, a rich intellectual treat. 
Mr, Lyell’s lectures, like his writings, are analytical ; unfolding the co- 
pious and accurate results of his own wide-spread and scrutinizing re- 
‘searches in many countries, he leads his audience forward through the 
very paths which, for twenty years he has himself trod, in acquiring the 
knowledge whose rich stores he lucidly displays along with that which 
others have contributed. The elementary information which he im- 
parts, is the result rather than the text of his instructions. 

It were to. be desired that this highly gifted philosopher were al- 
lowed sufficient time to follow out this most instructive mode of teach- 
ing, until every department of the science shall have been fully iilus- 
trated ; when, in conclusion, a synthetical summary of general princi- 
ples, founded on the ample basis of his own detailed. and exact observa- 
tions, combined with those of other geologists, would present in one 
perspicuous and convincing view, the grand elements of the science. 
His pictorial illustrations are ample, and some of them of magnificent 
dimensions and imposing splendor. Mr. Lyell’s writings present a 
model of skillful analysis of geological phenomena, conducted with 


_ logical accuracy and with great candor. They are adorned by a style 


of elegant simplicity ; his Principles and Elements must ever stand in 
_ the highest order of scientific classical literature, and we trust that his 
active and successful researches will be continued for many years, 
cheered and aided as they are by one to whom, as the companion of 
his travels, all his views and efforts are as familiar as they are inter- 
esting. He now proceeds to the Southern States, as far as South Caro- 
lma and Georgia, and will return to give his course in Philadelphia in 
February. The Middle, Western and Northern States, and Canada, 
will occupy his spring and summer; and he will embark for England 
in August, at the end of a year from the time of his arrival. 

Mr. Lyell’s visit is most acceptable to the American geologists, who 
expect his presence and assistance in Boston, at their meeting, April 
25, 1842, and we trust that the subsequent year may afford them the 
additional gratification of the presence of Mr. Murchison, than whom 
no one is more eminent in active and successful labors in the common 
cause. This gentleman has just returned to England from a second 
visit to the Russian empire. ‘‘He has been to Moscow, and to the 
Asiatic flank of the Ural Mountains. His tour has been most success- 
ful, and he will be able to throw much light on the geology of a great 


214 Miscellanies. 


part of Russia. The emperor loaded him with honors and gave him eS 
every facility for travelling to any part of his vast empire.”* We me 


derstand that a canal was cut for his accommodation and that of M. Ver- 
neuil, his companion. 


19. Carburetied Hydrogen encased in spheres of Carbonate of Lime. 
—Extract of a letter to the Junior Editor, dated Boston, Sept. 22, 1841. 
_ My dear Sir—A short time since my attention was attracted by a 
few small white particles which had collected on some gas-light burners, 


and which on examination] was much surprised to find were lime. — 


The burners were more than a mile from the works, and I was satisfied 


it could have proceeded only from the purifyers, which contain lime. 


Pursuing the enquiry, I have discovered a great number of hollow 


spherical bodies, formed of carbonate of lime, and filled with carbu- ty, 
retted hydrogen. They are from jth to zjth of an inch in diameter, — 


and, the crust or shell being. thin, they are easily conveyed, by the 
current of gas flowing through the pipes, even to burners in chambers 
more than a mile distant. Yours, truly, Joun H. Biake. _ 


20. Society of Northern Antiquaries.—Extract of a letter from Prof. 
Charles C. Rafn, Secretary of the Royal Society of Northern Antiqua- 


ries, to Dr. Jacob Porter, of Plainfield, Massachusetts, dated Conseils 


gen, May 19, 1840. 


“¢ Are Frode and Semund Frode are the first, we know, who, ces 
the latter half of the eleventh and beginning of the twelfth century, 
exerted themselves for the preservation and promotion of the old Da- 
nish literature.. After them, in the subsequent centuries, follow a series ig: 
of meritorious individuals, in whose footsteps we are now treading, — 
making strenuous efforts in the same direction, and for the attainment 


of the same end. Through the combined exertions of active men, we 
have the satisfaction of seeing this noble literature by degrees awaken 
a greater interest, and acquire more numerous cultivators in both hemi 
spheres. It teigiecs us that you are inclined to take an active. phate 
m such exertions.’ 


21. Barometrical Observations made to ascertain ie Level of the 
Dead Sea.t 


TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. 


Sir—Thinking the following observations, made to ascertain the level — 


of the Dead ath might be interesting to you, | take the liberty to for- 
ward the same. They were made by Sir David Wilkie, W. Woodburn, 


* Letter from Dr. Mantell to the Senior Editor, dated Nov. 9, 1841, near London. 
+ This interesting communication has come to our hands just at the moment of 
closing the present number, orit should have been placed among our articles.—Eps. 


ie 


we 


Esq. and. ere in March last, as you will see by reference to 0 ihe 
datesie ‘Ax. : )) 
You will be concerned to learn, that the lbaicl gentleman who sug: 
eae these observations, (Sir David Wilkie,) recently died near Gib- 
§ sake on his return from.a visit to the Holy Land. He had secured a 
: large amount of memoranda at Jerusalem, Dead Sea, Bethlehem, and 
other places in Palestine, from which he hoped to create a new and 
better order of scripture painting ; in which, had his life been spared, 
he would undoubtedly have succeeded. But his work is done, and the 
: gifted pencil which has so often made the canvass breathe, is forever 
laid aside. With sentiments of respect, | remain your obedient and 


humble servant, E. R. Beapue. 
pee August 27, 1841. 


Barometrical Observations. 


Places. Barom. |Therm. Weather. Time. Remarks. | 
Jatta, 29.958} 593° fine Mar. Ist |Level of Mediter. 
Jerusalem, 27,438) 55$ fine fad 
St. Saba, 29.352| 68  |threat’ning rain} “ 4th 
Dead Sea, 31.372 | 68 do, wind n. ‘5th level of Dead Sea. 
One tale Hour above! Miaoars G6 rain 5th 
Jericho, 
oe Two hours farther up, [29.106] 674 fogey 6th 
Be Four anda an 98.406| 70 aaa ‘6th 
i above Jericho, 


Jerusalem, 27,278 | 6448 |} high wind. |: ** 6th 


aia 


Recapitulation, without reference to Thermometer. 


Jerusalem, higher than the Mediterranean, . ‘ 2,520 feet. 


St. Saba, , ce Me : : 0,606 “ 
Dead Sea, lower | Ce oe f i M2 2 it 
_ Jericho eC he Se cc : : 0,617 “* 


: 22: Picture of a Parthian Seas by David Scott.—Mr. John Dun- 
ay lop of Edinburgh, well known a few years ago as a most intelligent and 
amiable traveller in this country, has recently transmitted for the Trum- 
a bull Gallery of Yale College, a splendid picture by Mr. Scott, an artist 
of the Edinburgh school. This painting is three feet ten inches, by 
three feet three inches, and is superbly framed in the Elizabethan pattern. 
* Mr. Scott completed his studies at Rome, where he imbibed a decided 
partiality for the works of Michael Angelo, to the most beautiful of 
whose Sybils some resemblance is traced in the face of the Parthian 
archer. 
The figure is massy and powerful, like some of the forms of American 
Indians whom Mr. Dunlop had seen and admired beyond the Mississippi. 
In illustration of Mr. Scott’s genius, Mr. Dunlop has been so kind as to 
forward to us a copy in folio of twenty four engravings of designs by 


Miscellanies. i 215 


ce 


cea — Misceltanies. of 


is artist, illustrative’ of Coleridge’s ihc Mariner, which met ‘ise a 

ed approbation of the author of the ballad. There is great muscu- on cae 
lar and intellectual character in these designs; indeed, Mr. Scott i issaidto E 
have sacrificed much to form and character, foregoing the soft and beau- a 
_ tiful contrasts which are generally more delightful. Inthe Art Union,of 
London, a paper devoted to the fine arts, the intellectual power of Mr. 
Scott’s productions is fully appreciated. Among his late works, the 
Alchymist is distinguished. ‘The wily professor is swinging back in 
his chair amidst a crowd of votaries worthy of Chaucer’s fancy, and = 
holding in his hand some redoubtable elixir, whose virtues, known and ~ 
unknown, are sufficiently impressed on the arch chemist’s countenance.” 
The Parthian Archer is a figure of great force, and the splendid bow 
which he holds bent, with the arrow drawn to its head and ready to let 
fly, is after the representations of the Parthian bow found on ancient — 
vases. A drawing of it was furnished, last winter, to Mr. Dunlop, by Pi. 
Sir John Macniel, late ambassador to Persia. The bow is bent back- 
ward, and when unstrung takes the form of a C: “there is therefore 
more power exerted in the flexion than is apparent to the eye.” The 
admirer of Young’s Night Thoughts will recollect the allusion respect: 
ing our past thoughts and actions— 


«Whose yesterdays look backward with a smile, 
Nor like the Parthian wound him as they fly.” Psat ae 


23. Correction.—Messrs. Editors: Since writing my article upon the” 
Melanians, (Vol. x11, p. 21,) I have been able to examine living indi 
viduals of Melania undulata, Say ; and find that it is not congeneric with _ 
Nerita aurita, Mull., as I supposed from a comparison of the shells. 
The former is a true Melania, whilst the latter belongs to the Cerithida, _ a ao 
of which it constitutes a new genus, next to Pidernie. ee 

‘Genus Cuavicer. Shell like Melania, but with a smuated labrum, as 
and a sinus at its junction with the columella. Type, C. aurita: icon. 
Guerin’s Mag. pl. 12 and 13, the latter being C. tuberculosa. The 
characters of the animal are those given to Melania by Deshayes i i 
his edition of Lamarck, Vol. VII, p. 427, 8. 

Genus Trocutea. I propose this name for the genus of shells call- 
ed Planaria by Capt. Brown, the latter being preoccupied in zoology. 
Ex. T. alba, Brown’s Zool. Text-Book, pl. 86, fig. 17; T. nitens, Lea’s 


Contributions, pl. 4, fig. 118. Respectfully, 8. S. Hatpeman. 
Near Marietta, Pa. September 20, 1841. 


THE 


“AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. 


Arr. 1.—A Notice of Prof. Augustine Pyrame De Candolle ; by 
Grorcre B. Emerson, Pres. of the Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist. 


At a meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History, held in 
their hall, Nov. 17th, 1841, the President read portions of a letter 
from his friend, Edward Tuckerman, Jr., containing, together 
with many interesting facts relating to the botanists of England 
and France, the melancholy intelligence of the death of Dz Cay- 
poLLe. After reading this letter, the President went on to say: 

Thus has set one of the great lights of botany—a man, who, 
for the vastness of his works and the comprehensive idea he had 
formed of the extent and ends of the science, has not left his 
superior, hardly his peer. May I be allowed to take this occasion 
to say a few words upon the works and character, as a botanist, . 
of the man whose loss we are thus called to deplore. 

Avevustine Pyrame De Canpotie was born in Geneva in 1778, 
of an ancient family, which, as long ago as the sixteenth century, 
was distinguished in the republic of letters. From his earliest 
years he seems to have devoted himself to botany; for already 
in his twenty first year, in 1798, he published his History of Suc- 
culent Plants.* In the preface to this work he asks, in the sim- 


* Plantarum Historia Succulentarum, published in Paris by Dugour and Durand, 
in two folio volumes with colored plates. This contains descriptions of succulent 
plants, not of any one natural order, but of those having sufficient resemblance to 
be associated. They are mostly of the orders Crassulacew, Ficoidex, and Cacta- 
ce, with some species of aloes, and a few others. ‘They are precisely those 
plants of which it is important to have good figures, as of most of them it is nearly 

Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 28 


218 Notice of Prof. De Candolle. 


plest manner, indulgence for the youth of its author, at the same 
time admitting that every book must plead its own cause, and 
promising to endeavor to make up in zeal for the deficiencies of 
his experience and knowledge. There certainly could have been 
no affectation in this modesty, for it shows itself just. as clearly 
in every future work ; and that zeal must have been no less real 
which held out to the last years of his laborious life. 

'I'wo years after, in April, 1800, he laid before the National In- 
stitute, in manuscript, his Astragologia.* This was committed to 
Lamarck and Desfontaines, at that time two of the most distin- 
guished botanists of France, and who ever after seem to have 
been his firm and honored friends. ‘They reported very favora- 
bly upon the work, observing particularly upon the extent of his 
researches, and the exactness and precision of his descriptions. 
From this time he began to be well known, and from this, too, 
probably, dates his connection with Lamarck, with whom he was 
afterwards associated in editing the Flore Francaise. His connec- 
tion with Lamarck and with the Flore Francaise, was of momen- 
tous consequences to him. It was the first edition of this work, 
as he himself declares, which, by initiating him in lis youth into 
the elements of botany, decided his taste and his fate for life. 

It must have been about this period that he spent six years in 
traversing all the provinces of France.{ In every one he herbo- 
rized ; every where he studied the vegetation, and every where 
made, or obtained from public or private collections, specimens 
and documents. 

In 1804, he published in quarto his Essay upon the Medical 
Properties of Plants. It was his inaugural thesis on taking the 
degree of doctor in medicine in the Faculty of Paris. 

In the same year he delivered his first course of lectures on 
physiology, the substance of which he introduced in the ‘‘ Prinei- 


impossible to make dried specimens. Each is accompanied by a beautiful colored 
figure by Redouté. If it were intended, as it seems to be, to give a pretty full 
history of plants of this character, a comparison of it with the account of the same 
genera in the Prodromus, will show how immensely the species increased in num- 
ber in the interval which elapsed until the publication of the latter work. 

* Astragologia was published in Paris in 1802, in one volume folio, by Garnery, 
from the press of Didot. It contains descriptions of a great number of species, 
many of them new, of Astragalus and the allied, often gum-bearing Leguminose. 
It is illustrated with fifty plates by Redoute. 

t Preface to the sixth volume of Flore Frangaise, p. 10. 

{ Flore Frangaise, v1, preface, p. 7. 


Notice,of Prof. De Candolle. 219 


ples of Botany” prefixed to his edition of the Flore Frangaise, 
which was published immediately after. In this edition he ad- 
ded the surprising number of two thousand to the species of plants 
(twenty seven hundred) previously described in the Flora,* and 
in the sixth volume of the edition of 1815, he makes an addition 
of thirteen hundred more, thus raising the number of species be- 
longing to France, under the empire, when it comprehended the 
Italian and German provinces, to six thousand, about a fifth part 
of the total number of plants then known on the globe. 

In preparing this last edition, he had called to his aid all the 
best botanists of France, increased to a large number by the 
publication of the former editions of this very work; and he 
makes express acknowledgment by name, to forty three for 
France proper, ten for the Italian provinces, and five for the Ger- 
man. ‘These great additions were made with scrupulous care, 
for he introduces the description of no plant of which he had 
not an authentic specimen. 

It is not easy to say how it has happened that the Flore F'ran- 
caise has not attained a celebrity, owt of France, more nearly pro- 
portioned to its preéminent excellence.. It is, without question, 
the most complete Flora{ that has ever been made ; the Prelim- 
inary Discourse and the General Principles giving every thing 
that is necessary to an understanding of the work, and the ‘“ Ana- 
lytical Method” presenting the only tolerable substitute since the 
time of Linnzus, for the artificial system of that great man, in 
solving the first question that always presents itself in examining 
a plant—what is its name? The very fact that a single editor 
could have enlarged, by more than one half, the flora of his na- 
tive land, and that too the native land and the seat of the labors 
of Tournefort, the Jussieus and Lamarck, should have turned 
all eyes towards it. This side the ocean and the channel, in- 
deed, as beyond, all eyes have been occupied with the treasures 
that have been flowing in from both Americas, New Holland, the 
Pacific islands, Farther India, and the coast of Africa; and the 
Browns, and Hookers, and Grevilles, and Lindleys of England, 
and the Nuttalls, Elliotts, Bigelows, Torreys and Grays of America, 


* Flore Frangaise, p. 1. + Ibid. p. 9. ; 

{ The English Flora of Sir J. E. Smith, is a mere flora, and takes it for granted 
that the reader has learnt the principles of the science from some other source. 
Besides which, it gives nothing of the natural orders. 


220 Notice of Prof. DeCandolle. 


have had enough to do to examine and describe the plants they 
have been gathering, or that have been sent home to them. 

DeCandolle did not wait to ask how his labors were received 
abroad. In 1808 he became an inhabitant of Montpelier,* and 
took charge of the botanic garden there, which he raised to the 
highest perfection. For ten years from this time, he must have 
been beyond measure diligent. He thoroughly explored the 
south of France, gave courses of lectures at the Faculty of Med- 
ecine in Montpelier, published, in conjunction with Lamarck, a 
synopsis of the plants of the French flora, gave a catalogue of the 
plants in the botanic garden of Montpelier, published figures and 
descriptions of the rarer plants of France, several articles on geo- 
graphical and agricultural botany, in 1813 his Elementary The- 
ory of Botany,t and, in 1816, a second edition in octavo, of his 
‘“‘Hissay on the Medical Properties of Plants.” 

The object of this work,{ is to ascertain the relations which 
subsist between the medical properties of plants, their external 
forms, and their natural classification. The dedication is curious: 

“To the botanists who laid the foundation of the Theory of 
Natural Relations,—J. and G. Bauhin, Tournefort, Magnol, Ray, 
Morison, who had an anticipation of it; Bernard de Jussieu, 
who proved it; Adanson, who developed it ; Antoine-Laurent de 
Jussieu, who subjected it to fixed laws; Desfontaines, who con- 
nected it with vegetable anatomy; Richard, who threw light 
upon it by the analysis of fruits; Robert Brown, who extended 
it by the examination of the plants of New Holland.” 

Considering the uniform justice and generosity of De Candolle, 
this dedication is remarkable for its injustice in omitting the name 
of Linnzus, to whom, as he confesses in this very work,§ is due 
the first perfectly distinct enunciation of the principle which it 
is the object of the “ Essai” to prove—that plants of the same 
genus have the same properties ; those of the same natural order, 
similar properties; and those of the same natural class, some 
analogy in their properties; and he admits that Jussieu adopts 


* Flore Francaise, vi, 7. 

+ Théorie Elementaire de la Botanique. 1 vol. 8vo. A second edition was 
published in 1819. 

{ Essai sur les Propriétes Medicales des Plantes, comparées avec leurs formes 
exterieures et leur classification naturelle. Paris. Crochard, 1816. 

§ Essai, Introduction, p. 4. 


Notice of Prof. De Candolle. 221 


this opinion.* The omission is, moreover, inconsistent with the 
profound respect with which he always refers to the great sys- 
tematist. 

In the midst of and by means of this multiplicity of labor, 
DeCandolle was commencing what he meant to be the great 
work of his life, and what, if he had lived to complete it as 1t was 
begun, would have been far the most remarkable work on bot- 
any ever executed—I mean his Natural System of the Vegetable 
Kingdom.+ He seems to have entered upon it with a full sense 
of the greatness of the undertaking before him, and with a lofty 
and resolute, but ever modest purposet of devoting his whole 
strength and time, with all his immense resources and all the 
accumulated ability of a life devoted to the preparation, to its 
accomplishment. One is reminded of the heroic perseverance 
with which Saussure, from the banks of that same beautiful lake 
of Geneva, had for so many years cherished the firm resolve to 
scale Mont Blanc, and make known the new and strange phe- 
nomena which its naked top should present; or of that more 
than heroic purpose, cherished and kept still at heart through a 
whole life of preparation, of the far greater Milton, to achieve 
something worthy to be remembered in future years, and to place 
his hame with those of 


“Blind Thamyris and blind Meonides, 
Tiresias and Phineas, prophets old.” 


De Candolle’s plan was no less than to arrange and describe, 
in their natural orders, all known plants, giving to each order the 
fulness and completeness of a monograph. We who now look 
back upon his work, can see how far he soared above those whom 
he hoped to equal, Lamarck, Willdenow, Vahl, Persoon. Few 
works give us better executed examples of the Baconian method, 
of forming general conclusions from the careful observation of 
particulars, and thence going back and reexamining the particulars. 
He first minutely examined all the species of a genus, and thence 


* After quoting Ameen. Acad. v,-p. 148, for this opinion of Linnzus, he adds, 
“M. de Jussieu adopte la méme opinion.” Introduction, p. 5. 

t Regni Vegetabilis Systema Naturale, sive ordines, genera et species plantarum 
secundum methodi naturalis normas digestarum et descriptarum. Volumen Pri- 
mum, Parisiis, sumptibus sociorum Treuttel et Wurtz, 1818. 

{ Hane ipsam curam, hoc opus quod nemo apud nos, nemo apud veteres tenta- 
vit, timidus hodie aggredior. Prolegomena, p. 3. 


222 Notice of Prof. De Candolle. 


drew his generic characters. From a similar full examination of 
all the genera of an order, he drew the ordinal characters. This 
done, he returned to the genera and species, and rejected from the 
generic what had been sufficiently expressed in the ordinal, and 
from the specific, what had been distinctly stated in the generic 
characters. Thus, applying the highest logic to his work, he 
gave a model both of analytical and synthetical investigation, 
which has done much to raise botany to the rank which it holds 
among the sciences, and set an example by which every succeed- 
ing botanist has profited. 

Besides this general preparation, which involved many years 
of diligent and methodical labor in his study, he made special 
preparation which few, up to that time, had attempted. He 
visited and carefully examined all the herbaria, even at that time 
immense, of France and England. He noted their contents; 
and obtained the codperation of nearly all the distinguished bota- 
nists then living. Nor was it with living botanists and with her- 
baria alone that he had to do. He studied with minute and pa- 
tient care whatever had been previously written of plants. For 
evidence of the extent of his investigations, we have only to refer 
to his history of almost any plant he has described. For Hepa- 
tica triloba,* for example, he refers to volume and page, and ac- 
companying figure, if any, of more than thirty descriptions before 
the Species Plantarum of Linneus; to fifteen more under the 
name given in that work; to six additional ones, under other 
names; to five more for the American variety ; and he had be- 
sides examined six authentic specimens! 'Thus we have refer- 
ence to full sixty descriptions and six herbaria for a single plant. 

The first volume of the Systema was finished in-Geneva, to 
which place he had in this busy interval removed, interrupted, it~ 
is said, in the midst of his peaceful labors, by the demon of party 
spirit. It bears the date of October, 1816. It contains only five 
orders.t A second volume, containing six orders,{ and finished 
in the same elaborate manner, appeared in 1821.$ 


* Vide Reg. Veg. Vol. I, p. 216. 

+ Ranunculacez, Dilleniacee, Magnoliaceez, Anonacee, and Menispermee. 

+ Berberidex, Podophyllee, Nymphzacee, Papaveracee, Fumariacee, and 
Crucifere. 

§ A beautiful quarto volume of illustrations of the rarer and more curious plants 
described in the first volume of the Systema, especially of those in the herbarium 


Notice of Prof. De Candolle, 223 


But De,Candolle had undertaken a work perhaps beyond the 
strength of any man, whatever might be his capacity ; and I be- 
lieve no other volume has appeared. 

In November, 1823, he finished, at Geneva, the first volume of 
a work of infinitely less pretensions, undertaken at the urgent 
request of his friends, which he offered and intended only asa 
rapid survey of plants, to precede his great work, the completion 
of which he still kept in view. He gave it the modest title of 
Prodromus.* ‘The first volume, comprehending fifty four orders, 
was published in 1824,+ 

In the next year came the second volume, containing only ten 
orders, showing that his materials were rapidly accumulating un- 
der his hands, and that he had imperceptibly enlarged his plan. 
This was accompanied by a volume of Memoirs on the Legumi- 
nosee,t with numerous plates. In 1828, °30, 736, 737 and ’38, 
appeared successive volumes of the Prodromus, and within this 
period, ten memoirs on various subjects, with plates, now collected 
in one volume.$ : 

During all this time, his lectures were going on at the Museum 
in Geneva; among others, a course on agricultural botany, of 
the substance of which we have some portion in the graceful dress 
in which it is presented by Mrs. Marcet in that admirable volume 
which she called “‘ Conversations on Vegetable Physiology.”|| 


of De Lessert, was edited by B. De Lessert, with one hundred plates by Turpin, 
and published in Paris in 1820. A similar volume, still better executed, also un- 
der the direction of Turpin, and with one hundred of his engravings, and many 
beautiful dissections, was published by De Lessert in 1823, in illustration of the 
second volume of the Systema. 

* Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. Parisiis: Treuttel et 
Wurtz. Pars Prima, 1824. 

t In 1837, De Lessert published a third volume of Illustrations in the same style 
and of the same size of those just noticed, containing figures of some of the rarer 
plants in the first four volumes of the Prodromus, together with those of others 
not described in that work. f 

¢ Mémoires sur la Famille des Legumineuses. Paris: 70 planches, 4to. pp. 525. 

§ Collection de dix Mémoires pour servir 4 l’Histoire du Regne Végétal. Paris: 
Treuttel et Wurtz, 1828—1838. 

|| This has been published in this country under the title of “ Blake’s Bot- 
any’ by some person who has thus claimed a property of authorship in the 
book, on no better ground than his having interspersed questions which give not 
the slightest intimation of an acquaintance with the subject, and leave one doubt- 
ful whether he knew enough of it to distinguish a sedge from a bulrush, or a moss 
from a lichen. Would that this shameless kind of piracy were confined to a 
solitary case. 


224 Notice of Prof. De Candolle. 


‘In 1826 he had prepared for publication his work on the organs 
of plants,* another portion of his course of botanical lectures. 
Rich as they had become from his extensive reading, from observa- 
tion, and from the constant suggestions of his vigorous and original 
mind, it was no longer just to withhold them from the public. 
In this work on Organography, following out the hint given by 
the German poet Goéthe,} taking advantage of the light afforded 
by those who were successfully engaged in exploring the animal 
kingdom, and gathering conclusions from the immense number of 
new facts presented by other botanists, and by himself in prepar- 
ing the Prodromus, he exhibits a fuller and more philosophical 
view of vegetable structure, than had previously been given, in 
the language. 

Five years after, in 1831, he completed his great work on Veg- 
etable Physiology,{ also taken from his lectures, a rich storehouse 
of facts, upon the properties and functions of the organs of plants 
and the forces external and internal which act upon them. The 
title of Physiology he admits to be not the most proper which 
could be devised ; and he would have preferred that of Organo- 
dynamy—the forces of the organs, as more descriptive of the sub- 
ject of his treatise. 

One of the most interesting portions of this work, at least for 
the young philosophical student of botany, is the Appendix; 
marking out, as it does, the limits of the science in its most im- 
portant particulars, and indicating to the physiologist, the travel- 
ler, the cultivator, the chemist, and the natural philosopher, as 
well as to the botanist, to what points it is important that atten- 
tion should be directed, to advance still farther the boundaries of 
our knowledge. How many inquirers have these questions al- 
ready stimulated to action! Many of these questions he would 


* Organographie Végétale ou Description Raisonnée des Organes des Plantes. 
Deterville, Paris, 1827. 2 vols. 8vo. 

t Org. Veg. p. 8. 

t Physiologie Végétale, ou Exposition des Forces et des Fonctions vitales des 
Végétaux. Paris, 1832. 3 vols. 8vo. 

§ According to the idea of De Candolle, vegetable physiology is but one depart- 
ment of general physiology. It cannot be fully comprehended by one who is 
ignorant of its principles in their other forms. Adequately to understand the 
nature of plants, he must study atmospherical influences, the action of light, 
electricity and heat, the laws of chemistry, the nature of soils; and whatever can 
be known of the laws of life. 


Notice of Prof. De Candolle, 225 


himself have solved, but feeling that he had laid out more work 
than the longest life could suffice to execute, and anxious to com- 
plete the Prodromus, he frankly imparts his plans, his doubts, and 
his suspicions, hoping that younger and less busy laborers would 
clear up the one and complete the other. 

He more than once intimates his intention of following the 
publication of the Physiology with other works which should 
cover the whole ground he had gone over in his lectures. In the 
preface to the Physiology, he gives the titles of those which he 
intended, if time and health and will should serve, to send forth, 
to fillup the great plan he had laid down. To complete the 
fundamental portions, in addition to the two works he had al- 
ready published, he proposed to himself methodology, which 
should deduce from the study of the organs, the principles and 
methods of classification. For the principles on which this was 
to be executed he refers us to the ‘‘ Elementary Theory ;” for the 
conclusions, to the Prodromus. 

Among the accessory branches of the science, he includes, 

1. Botanical Geography, which, from the two preceding, infers 
the laws or general facts relative to the distribution of plants on 
the surface of the earth ;* 

2. Oryctological Botany, which would comprehend the history 
of fossil vegetables, considered in their relations both to the strata 
of the earth and to the forms of recent plants ; 

3. Historical Botany, exhibiting the steps by which botany 
has arrived at its present state. 

Among the practical parts, he reckons, 

1. Agricultural Botany, the application of the principles of the 
preceding to the culture of vegetables, on which he had twice 
given a course of lectures; 

2. Medical Botany, their application to medicine ; on which 
subject he apparently meant to enlarge the work already men- 
tioned, upon the medical properties of plants; 


* On this subject he had published, in 1809, the article ‘‘ Botanical and Agri- 
cultural Botany,” in the Dictionnaire d’ Agriculture, and in 1820, the article ‘¢ Bo- 
tanical Geography,” in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, besides the in- 
troduction to the second volume of Floré Frangaise, explaining the botanical map 
of France. . 

+ The article Phytography, in the Dictionnaire Classique d’Histoire Naturelle, 
contains an outline of this portion, extracted from his lectures upon the subject. 

Vol, xu, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 29 


226 Notice of Prof. De Candolle. 


3. Economical Botany, which was to comprehend the study 
of all the other modes of making plants subservient to the wants 
of man; a part of the subject which he looked upon as still to 
be written.* 

Such are some of the works he contemplated, which he had 
long familiarly considered, and for which his whole course of 
study had been a preparation. In what words can we sufficiently 
lament the loss to science and to humanity of a man who had 
laid out so broad a plan of useful labor, and had given such ex- 
amples of the manner in which he was hastening to complete it ! 
It is to be hoped that the manuscript notes of the extensive 
courses of lectures to which he refers, may supply his son, or 
some other equally competent person, with the means of filling 
up the outline he has sketched. 

‘Hight years of unremitted and obstinate labor had been con- 
secrated to the study of the immense family of the Composite. 
This intense devotion, the natural effect of his native and char- 
acteristic ardor, proved too much for his health, already affected 
by severe study, and undermined, it is said, by a constitutional 
‘malady. What constitution could have held up under labors so 
immense? We know not the particulars of his end; the burden 
was too great, and the body of the wise and strong man failed. 

It is impossible to estimate the extent and magnitude of the in- 
fluence of the writings and character of such a man as De Can- 
dolle. The science to which he devoted his life must always 
feel it; it cannot go back. His vast plan once laid down, noble 
spirits every where and in all future time will strive to realize it. 
His great idea of the science once spread before the world, no 
one can hereafter aspire to the worthy name of botanist, who is a 
mere collector and labeller of specimens, or a mere dissector of 
plants. He must aim to fill his mind with the extensive and va- 
rious and exact knowledge of other sciences, and of all parts of 
his own, which this great man has shown to be essential to an 
accomplished botanist. 


* From an article on the geographical distribution of the plants used as food, in. 
the “ Bibliotheque Universelle de Genéve,”’ for April and May, 1836, we conceive 
hopes that M. Alphonse De Candolle is engaged in a work of this kind. 

+ See Mémoire Neuviéme, in the volume of Memoires. If the Composite had 
been given with the same fulness and minuteness of description and referenco 
which characterize the Systema, they would have occupied twelve or fifteen vol- 
umes. 


Geological Reports of the State of New York. 227 


Gathering our materials only from his works, there is very much 
which we should delight to know, in regard to De Candolle, of 
which we are now almost entirely ignorant. We would gladly 
learn what was the discipline and what were the studies of his 
early years; whence he gained his beautiful and simple Latinity, 
whence the clearness and elegance of his style, and his severe 
and exact logic; by what wise arrangement of his hours he ac- 
complished so much, and made such attainments in the knowl- 
edge, not only of living plants, but of herbaria, and books, and 
various sciences. We know him asa philosopher and a botanist, 
and we understand and feel the power of his mind and the force 
of his genius. We would gladly see him in the higher relations 
of friend, and father, and citizen—we would know him asa man. 
We hope that we shall not long remain without a life of him by 
some one capable of understanding his works and appreciating 
his character. 


Art. II.— Geological Reports of the State of New York for 1840, 
communicated by the Governor to the Assembly, Feb. 17, 1841. 
[Assembly, No. 150. ]|* 


By these reports of the geological corps, the survey of the state 
is nearly completed, and after a partial continuance of the work 
for this season, the final report is to be made. The desired work 
on the geology of this great state may be anticipated in the be- 
ginning of the next year. It is generally understood that the 
final report will be made by the corps in the manner already 
done. I or the mineralogy, zoology, botany, and paleontology 
of the state, this is the proper course. It is to be hoped, how- 
ever, that the geology will not be divided into four great districts, 
but that the maps, and sections, and descriptions, will present be- 
fore the public one general view. This is the more important, 
as the four districts assigned to four principal geologists have no 
natural geological lines of separation, but are connected in the 
most intimate manner. ‘The importance of a chief geologist, or 
of the most complete harmony of views, becomes obvious, ex- 
tending, as do several of the strata or groups, through more than 


* Communicated for this Journal by the author. 


228 Geological Reports of the State of New York. 


one of the districts, the designations of the rocks, their position, 
connection, and organic remains, demand the language of one 
mind. Hoping for a harmonious and splendid work, let us take 
a brief review of the progress of the survey for the last year. 

As the general groups had already been announced, and are 
considered correct, the additions have been made chiefly from 
the filling up of the less observed parts of the state. 

1. Facts in respect to the salines at Onondaga lake. By bo- 
ring at Syracuse to the depth of two hundred and sixty five feet, 
one hundred feet deeper than any previous boring, brine of much 
greater strength was obtained. ‘Taking saturation at 100°, the 
old well yielded brine of the strength of 56°, on the scale; while 
the new well gives the strength of 78°, a difference of nearly 
forty per cent. The avérage number of bushels produced in the 
two preceding years, was 2,700,000; and this amount may now 
be greatly increased. 'The importance of the salines to the state 
and to the country, needs no remark, and the means of making 
them more valuable are ably considered by Dr. Beck, pp. 18-23, 
and by Prof. Vanuxem, pp. 141-5. 

2. The amount of hydraulic limestone in the western part of 
the state, and of nearly the same excellent quality. It lies at 
the base of the terrace of limestone, which is so prominent in 
Erie County, and may be traced from Niagara River to Cayuga 
Lake. It is attended every where “by numerous and copious 
sulphur springs,” or springs yielding sulphuretted hydrogen gas. 
From Black Rock eastward, it occurs in many places; abounds 
at Williamsville, where it is burned and ground for cement by 
thousands of barrels. It occurs at Rochester also. The differ- 
ence in the quality of the hydraulic lime is attributed more to the 
burning than to the stone itself. Many of the strata appear to 
srow thinner in the western district, and some to disappear. See 
Report, pp. 150-8, Hall. ‘This terrace bounds on the south all 
the beds of gypsum. p. 156. 

3. Discovery of abundance of primary limestone on the north 
and the west shores of Lake Janet, is of great importance to that 
part of the state-—Freport, p. 126, Emmons. 

The “steel ore” of the Duane bed is wrought at once into cut- 
ting instruments of fine quality. Prof. Emmons does not state 
that the ore is steel, or that it is made into steel, but the fact that 
good edge tools are formed of it. p. 134, 185. 


Geological Reports of the State of New York. 229 


A, 'The Trenton limestone is an important rock for its marble, 
in Schenectady County, and particularly in Saratoga County. It 
is a fine grained and durable stone. On one of the strata of it at 
Glen’s Falls on the Hudson, the upper surface contains marks 
“like those produced in soft mud by drops of rain.”—Reporé, p. 
97, Mather. Jtipple marks are shown on ‘brown sandstone on 
the road from Cattskill to the Mountain House, one mile above 
the toligate.” p. 85. The chloritic and talcose rocks of the west- 
ern part of the valley of the Hudson, are considered by Prof. 
Mather, as “metamorphic with intrusive rocks interstratified :” 
and he extends the metamorphic rocks into the western part of 
New England. pp. 95 and 96. In this opinion he is opposed by 
some of our distinguished geologists, and cannot be followed with- 
out far more and much stronger proof than has yet been offered. 
Indeed it seems obvious that the metamorphic theory is an easy 
method of breaking down the usual distinctions of the rocks. A 
fine section of the rocks ‘‘from the summit of the Cattskill Moun- 
tain, south of the Mountain House, to Cattskill Creek,” is given 
on pages 78-81, Mather. 

5. The report of the paleontologist contains very important 
matter, and some interesting corrections. 

Mr. Conrad distinguishes our rocks of the Silurian system, “ for 
the sake of convenience,” into three subdivisions, the Lower, 
Middle, and Upper, Silurian series ; it seems also to be quite a 
natural arrangement. ‘The danger is that the classification has 
been made too early, and that adequate examination has not set- 
tled the entire distinctness of all the series. A great proportion 
of them however are satisfactorily ascertained. There is some 
doubt about the termination upwards of the Lower series. It is 
limited by the Pentamerus oblongus limestone in the report, and 
the lowest stratum in the Mddle is made Rochester shale. If 
we understand it, this Pentamerus limestone at Rochester is to- 
wards the lower part of the shale, and at Lockport is found en- 
tirely above the Rochester shale, which is much thicker there 
than at Rochester; there would be no difficulty in the natural 
arrangement in making the Red or Medina Sandstone the upper 
stratum in the Lower Silurian. But the Pentamerus limestone 
must go with it, in whatever series it is placed. 

On p. 31 is a tabular view of the whole series, with the cor- 
responding rocks of Murchison, and the characteristic genera of 


230 Geological Reports of the State of New York. 


organic remains. 'The Rochester and gypseous shales are given 
as the equivalent of the Wenlock Shale of Murchison. The fos- 
sils placed against Nos. 7, 8 and 9, belong to the lower rocks, as 
Triarthrus and Isotelus to the Trenton limestones. Against No. 
9 should stand the shell Pentamerus oblongus, or if a trilobite 
must be introduced, it can be neither of those mentioned, but 
Asaphus longicaudatus. Where is the statement that the remains 
against Nos. 5-9 have been found even as high as the Rochester 
shale? 

The limestone of Tully, or Tully limestone, is considered as 
identified with the Aymesiry limesione of Murchison by two spe- 
cies of shells, Avicula reticulata and Atrypa didyma. p. 31. 

The fronds of Fucoides are often very prominent, but the 
structure like that of the rock in which they exist; of other 
plants, searely more than impressions remain. The petrifying 
material of the corals is commonly siliceous earth; but of the 
Crinoidea, is limestone, whether they lie in calcareous or siliceous 
rock. p. 40. 

Several new genera and many new species are described, and 
many yet remain for the final report. pp. 48-57. 

Several important corrections are announced. 

The Calymene Blumenbachii, as the trilobite in the Trenton 
limestone was called, Mr. Conrad considers a new and unde- 
scribed species; it is named by him Calymene senaria, from its 
place in so old arock. It no longer is an instance of an animal 
that “escaped into remote seas,” and lived in a much later era 
than its period of destruction here. ‘‘ Calymene platys of Green”? 
is stated to be C. Blumenbachi, and to agree with it in place 
also; so that this fossil is found where it ought to be, and no 
longer throws uncertainty over the age of our rocks. 

The evidence is now thought conclusive by Mr. Conrad against 
the existence of any fresh-water shells in the strata below the car- 
boniferous, “in which Uniones occur in Pennsylvania.” The 
supposed Unio in the sandstone at Medina turns out to be some- 
thing else, the Planorbis “ probably a Bellerophon,” and another 
to belong to an allied genus. ‘This correction is the more neces- 
sary as these shells ‘‘are associated with two marine genera, Lin- 
gula and Orthocera.” Probably the existence of fresh-water 
fossils in that sandstone had been a matter of high surprise to 
most geologists; the evidence decides the case. p. 41. 


Geological Reports of the State of New York. 231 


In former reports, Mr. Conrad has spoken of the Cambrian 
system below the Silurian, as being developed along the eastern 
part of the state, but in this report he speaks of the Silurian sys- 
tem as ‘‘composed of the oldest fossiliferous rocks yet discovered 
in North America.” p. 26. No reason is given for this change; 
whether Mr. C. now refers these rocks to the Silurian system 
itself, or considers them as metamorphic rocks of this formation. 
He states ‘the oldest fossiliferous rock hitherto known” in our 
country to be the ‘“‘calciferous sandstone” of Eaton, which con- 
tains “two species of Lingula, a small unzvalve, and something 
resembling fucozdal remains.” p. 28. Prof. Eaton speaks of or- 
ganic remains in a rock below this, and others have judged the 
same. ‘The final report will doubtless clear up this matter, which 
seems rather obscure. It does not follow because some remains 
have been found, that much more extensive and particular exam- 
ination will not discover others in the same or associated rocks, 
till we pass beyond the region of petrifactions. 

“ "The mixture of species” sometimes occurs “at the junction 
of two formations,” (groups.) ‘This fact shows the necessity of 
great care in the division into groups, and renders the “exact 
line of demarcation” between them somewhat uncertain. It is 
not necessarily opposed, however, to the notion that “sudden 
convulsions of the earth’s surface” have caused the destruction of 
most of the existing forms of life, nor does certainly prove that 
the temperature of the ocean has suddenly or gradually changed, 
because it is easy to see that many individuals might for a time 
withstand sudden or gradual changes or convulsions, unless it can 
be shown, as it cannot, that the convulsions were so great that the 
then existing forms of life must be destroyed by them. ‘The 
continuance of some species through several successive groups or 
formations, is a fact of similar consequence, and admits the same 
easy solution; it certainly is no obstacle to the stratigraphical 
arrangement, because such species have no characteristic value, 
they designate or characterize no particular group,—they belong to 
no particular rock, and need no minute observation to give them 
their due estimation. p. 26. 

There is a correction also of a former statement opposed to the 
notion of the impression of birds’ feet in sandstone. The termi- 
nations of the Fucoids ‘sometimes rudely resemble a human 
hand, whilst others are not unlike the foot-marks of birds.” p. 33. 


232 Geological Reports of the State of New York. 


Though these are maintained to be fucotdal remains in our sand- 
stone ; it is conceded, that the ‘curious foot-marks,” the Orni- 
thichnites described by Prof. Hitchcock in the new red sand- 
stone, “ peculiarly characterize that system.” p. 43. This har- 
mony of opinion is an indication of the firm foundation of this 
part of the science. 

The shells formerly referred to the genus J'erebratula, are said 
to belong to other and extinct genera. 'The mistake has not been 
made by our own geologists alone, if mistake it is. The shell 
remains, and a name so distinguished as that of Sowerby, sustains 
it. ‘True it may be, that what is now defined to be a T'erebra- 
tula, may not exist in our rocks; but to mention no more, Del- 
thyris ( Terebratula, Sow.) tripartita seems to be a common and 
widely spread species. p. 35. 

A conclusion drawn from the state of the organic remains, has 
great interest, viz. that the depositions took place ‘‘in the bed of 
an ocean, undisturbed by violent currents or greatly agitated wa- 
ters.” This is derived from the finely preserved parts of even 
fragile shells, only one stratum being known in the state as an 
exception, ‘‘where the shells are in a fragmentary condition.” 
p. 26, 7. ‘This is true also, as we know from a previous report, of 
only a small portion of the Pentamerus in the limestone at Roch- 
ester, the rock referred to. As in many others the “ valves of bi- 
valves are found apart,” so are they in this; often changed so 
that the hinge 1s fitted to the mouth; often the valves lie cross- 
wise ; more often piled above each other and petrified in masses, 
the convex matched into the concave side of another valve; often 
entire shells with their valves unmoved; and, often the surface 
of the stratum and sometimes the interior, with fragments of 
valves connected in any way. The indication of a disturbing 
power is here considerable. Is not the evidence far greater in 
the case of the encrinal limestone of Lockport, and the thin stra- 
tum of it at Rochester, where the fragments of the stems of en- 
crinites are promiscuously jumbled together, and the surface made 
up of portions of shells, porites, encrinites, &c.? Beautiful speci- 
mens of the polished encrinal limestone have been spread abroad 
from Lockport. 

The corrections already made are not more numerous or im- 
portant, than were to be expected from the state of geological 
knowledge when the survey had been in considerable part made. 


Geological Reports of the State of New York. 233 


Murchison’s work on the Silurian system had not appeared, and 
the field was new and to a great extent unexplored. After all 
that had been accomplished by Prof. Eaton in his survey of the 
strata along the Great Western Canal, and by others, the explo- 
ration, as connected with general geology, could scarcely be said 
to have been begun. Probably others yet remain to be accom- 
plished. 'T'oo many groups may have been formed. While Cryp- 
tolithus tesselatus retains its place with some others in the Llan- 
deilo flags and in the lower part of the Trenton limestone, and 
in that of the Mohawk at Fonda and in other places, that rock of 
Wales may yet find its equivalent in our series. The greater 
number and variety of our groups may not involve all those de- 
scribed by Murchison, but only the fullest examination should 
be satisfactory. 

Finally.. The discoveries which have been made by the pale- 
ontologist. ‘These are many, and of great interest. Omitting all 
the organic remains which have been identified with the Euro- 
pean, and the many new genera and species, there are several 
general facts of great value. 

First: The identifying of the sandstone of Blossburg, Penn. 
with the old red sandstone of Europe, a part of the Devonian 
system. The geological positions of the two rocks are very 
nearly or quite the same; and the remains of the fish, Holopty- 
chus nobilissimus, found before only in the old red sandstone, 
seem to settle the point conclusively. ‘The stumbling block of 
our geology is thus removed. ‘The Blossburg sandstone is the 
upper part of the Devonian system. ‘The Chemung group, as it 
is called in the geological reports, forms the lower part*of the 
Devonian, and is characterized by the same shells. pp. 42 and 43. 

Second: The carboniferous system in Pennsylvaaia and Ohio, 
contains many species of shells found in the same system in 
Europe. Even “at Engineer Cantonment, Missouri River,” the 
shells of the carboniferous system are found, as well as at Pitts- 
burgh and on the Alleghany Mountains. Eleven species are 
named as common to the carboniferous strata in our country and 
Europe. p. 43. 

‘Third: “ Well characterized and undoubted oolite, in the state 
of Ohio,” is for the first time announced in this report. p. 44. 
“Two European species of T'rigonia, both of which are re- 
stricted to the oolitic system,” are presented as the proof. It has 

Vol. xu11, No, 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 30 


234 Geological Reports of the State of New York. 


long been known that the oolite of Saratoga County sii not 
belong to the oolitic series of Europe. é 

Fourth: Eleven species of organic remains are given to iden- 
tify the lower cretaceous series of New Jersey, Delaware, and 
the Atlantic states further south, with that of Europe. p. 45. Mr. 
Conrad discovered the middle division of this series at Wilming- 
ton, N.C. The upper division is stated to exist in South Caro- 
lina and Georgia, and to abound “in the southern counties of 
Alabama and in Florida.” p. 45. 

Fifth: he “lower tertiary” was first noticed by Mr. Conrad, 
and shown to be the same with the ‘“ Hocene formation.” “In 
Georgia, and more rarely, in Alabama, a portion of the formation 
assumes the character of burr stone,’ containing beautiful shells 
finely “silicified,’”? which we admired years ago, and were com- 
pelled to separate the rock from the Paris burr-stone, which is des- 
titute of shells. On the Potomac, at Fort Washington, is the 
same lower tertiary, and at Claiborne, Alabama, Mr. C. found in 
it “about two hundred species of shells and corallines, many of 
which are identical with the Eocene species of Europe.” p. 46. 

Sixth: The rocks of the older Silurian system, terminating 
upwards with the Pentamerus oblongus limestone in this report, 
seem to be bounded on the south by the Mohawk River and the 
Erie Canal nearly, and which are covered by the mountain ridge 
at Lockport and Niagara River, &c., reappear “at Bedford 
Springs, and in the vicinity of Cincinnati, Ohio,” according to 
the discovered fossils. p. 32. Indeed, the organic remains at the 
west seem likely to identify more of the rocks. What an uplift- 
ing of ‘the strata in Ohio, must have taken place, or a mighty 
wearing away of the incumbent series which extend westward 
under the waters of Lake Erie, or a cutting off of the Silurian 
of this State from that of Ohio by the ridge through which the 
Niagara River passes. 

In conclusion, reference might be made to the unnamed fucoids 
of the Niagara sandstone, which are abundant below the lower 
falls of Genessee, and the numerous shells and fucoids above this 
sandstone, which remain to be identified or to increase the num- 
ber of the species. Standing as we do on these remains, the 
coming and final report is expected to reveal a world of mysteries 
and settle a host of difficulties. 


Manipulations of the Dipping Compass. 235 


At Lockport, is found a coralline, probably a Porites, which 
for distinction’s sake, I will call P. gypsea. It occurs alone, or 
with laminated gypsum, often clear and fine selenite, diffused 
through it; or rather, the petrifaction of carbonate of lime has 
been converted into the sulphate, and crystallized where it was 
formed. Sometimes this Porites is divided, as if by a saw, into 
separate portions, straight; and the sections at various inclina- 
tions to each other. The cuttings are narrow, sometimes a fourth 
of an inch wide. The gypsum still lies in many of these appa- 
rent straight cuttings or saw-cuts; in others the gypsum has been 
dissolved, and the cuts are empty. Some of the specimens have 
great beauty. It is evident that the petrifaction has undergone 
this operation. How should it be divided by these straight cuts? 
Could the sulphuric acid be generated in that place, and for any 
reason follow a course which appears to have been drawn by a 
Duley: 


Art. Iil—On the Manipulations of the Dipping Compass ; by 
Joun Locke, M. D., Prof. of Chem. in the Med. Coll. of Ohio, 
and Lecturer on Nat. Philos. in the Ohio Mechanics’ Insti- 


tute. 


Messrs. Silliman—Every practical magnetician is aware of 
the great difficulty in obtaining consistent results, with even the 
most improved dipping apparatus. In my late communications 
to your Journal, it appears that I have succeeded, with an appa- 
ratus made by Robinson of London, so far that the discrepancies 
between the results of the two needles used, seldom amount to 
one minute of adegree. In the same communications I alluded 
to some peculiar manipulations which I adopted first at Davenport 
in Jowa, in September of 1839, and to which I attributed the su- 
perior consistency of my subsequent results. Having been hon- 
ored with a verbal request by several distinguished collaborators, 
that I would communicate my views on this subject, I am indu- 
ced to lay before your readers the following remarks. 

In the instrument used by me, the dipping needle moves on 
small pivots supported by straight polished agate edges, on which 
they roll like a wheel upon a rail. As such a motion is not only 
rotary but progressive, the centre of the needle is carried out of 


236 Manipulations ‘of the Dipping Compass. 


the centre of the graduated circle, by the same rotation which 
brings it tothe true dip. ‘To restore the pivots to their place, two 
Vs and two inclined planes* raised by a lever engage them at 
their sides and at their ends, adjust them laterally and longitudi- 
nally, raise them just clear of the agate edges, and, by a reverse 
motion, lower and deposit them, and with them the needle in 
their proper places. Now the most objectionable anomaly has 
been, that when the same needle has been once adjusted by the 
Vs, read, and again simply raised by the Vs, and lowered appa- 
rently in the same place, and read again, there would be a dis- 
cordance in the readings, often amounting to five minutes of a 
degree. I felt the full weight of these anomalies in my first at- 
tempts to determine the dip, and found to my mortification, that 
the mean results of the usual eight reversals and sixteen readings, 
with two different needles, would sometimes differ as ramen as 
six minutes of a degree. 

I finally reflected that if the pivots could always be made to 
re-sit on exactly the same points, the readings must always agree, 
and that the apparent anomalies must arise from slight imperfec- 
tions of form, and slight and imperceptible, but really essential, 
changes of position of the points of support to the pivots. With 
this view I endeavored by all possible means, so to use the appa- 
ratus as to bring the bearings at the same points, and especially 
that the pivots should perform their rotations on the same trans- 
verse section; or, in other words, that the same ring or circle of 
their circumference, should always rest on the agate edges. To 
accomplish this, the following points received attention. 

1. The Vs and inclined planes, which raise and fix the needle 
to its place, were so adjusted as to allow of no shake or lateral 
motion of their own.t 

2. The distance between each agate edge and the inclined 
plane, opposed to the end of the pivot.operating as an end check, 
was made as nearly equal as possible. 

3. Although the pivots had some ‘end chase” or longitudinal 
freedom between the end checks yet in use, each pivot was al- 
ways slid over against one particular end check by means of a 


* These inclined planes slope up opposite the ends of the pivots, and are really 
two parts of a V widely separated. 

t Ihave lately examined one of Gambey’s instruments, which was decidedly 
faulty in this particular. 


Manipulations of the Dipping Compass. 237 


slight pressure with the pencil against the side of the needle ; 
say, when the face of the needle is westward the pivot is shoved 
over till it is checked on the west side, and when the face of the 
needle is eastward it is drawn over until checked on the eastern 
side. 

4. When the needle has been placed in the compass and its 
reading noted, it should not be immediately taken out and revers- 
ed, but be suffered to remain exactly on its bearings, and the 
compass be carefully reversed in azimuth, and with it, the needle, 
when the second reading should be made, after which the needle 
itself may be taken out and reversed. 'The reversals and read- 
ings will then have the following order: 

1. Face of the compass east, and face of the needle east. 

2. Face of the compass west, and face of the needle west. 

3. Face of the compass west, and face of the needle east. 

4. Face of the compass east, and face of the needle west. 

In the above, it will be seen that although the needle in rela- 
tion to the face of the instrument and to the “ points of compass” 
assumes four positions, yet to attain them it is removed from its 
place in the Vs but once, and that is between the second and 
third reading. 

I am aware that it may be objected to all of this, that although 
I may obtain consistent results, still they may not indicate the 
true dip, for if the pivots of each needle be alike, although not 
perfectly cylindrical, and alike placed with reference to the axis 
of the needle, the mean results would agree to the same error. 
To this objection we observe first, that it is by no means proba- 
ble that two pivots intended to be cylindrical should both assume 
another form, and both be exactly alike, and that these forms, 
even supposing them to be alike, should be alike placed in refer- 
ence to the needle’s axis ; and secondly, we would remark that 
although we may involve an error by our consistent mode of ob- 
servation, it would be a constant one, both in quantity and kind, 
might be ascertained by a great number of comparisons with the 
results of other instruments, or by other obvious means, and be 
corrected by a constant equation. 

As an example of the order of reversals observed by me, I 
give below the result of my observations at Baltimore, April 28, 
1841. 


238 Manipulations of the Dipping Compass. 


At the first square northeast of the Washington Monument, called Hows 
ard’s Woods. 6h. 37m. to Th. 47m. A. M. 


7 | Needle No.1. A North. | Needle No. 2. A North. 
E. E. | TOC 38), Be cial wale Als nun wal LO eee an 
Ww. Ww. 73 03.5 ‘Ww. w. 71 16 
Ww. E. 70 35.5 Ww. E. 71 30.5 
E. Ww. i232 05.0 E Ww. 71 08 
B North. B North. 
E. E. 2 52 E. E. 11.55. 
Ww. W. 69 53 WwW. W. Llgap. 
w. E. 72 36 WwW. E. 71 42 
E. W. 69 56 E. w. 71 34.5 
8)572 39.5 ‘B12 290 oe 
Mean=71 34.94 Mean = tl ao¥ 
Mean of No. 1=71 34.94 
2)143 08.64 


Mean total=71 34.32 


At the Botanical Garden of St. Mary’s College, Baltimore, April 28, 
1841. 12h. 50m. to 1h. 10m. P. M. 


"Needle No.1. A North, | Needle No.2. A North. | 
E. E. 70°35/.5 E. E. 719535 
Ww. Ww. 73 00 Ww. w. 71 44.5 
w. E. 70 35.5 w. E. 71 48.5 
E. Ww. 73 07 E. Ww. Fs Ui 

B North. B North. 

E. E. 72 46 E. E. Pb oes 
Ww. Ww. 70 20 Ww. Ww. 41 32.5 
Ww. E. 72 38.5 Ww. E 7132.5 
E. w. 70 14 E. Ww. C1 16.5 
8)573 16.5 8)573 10.5 
Mean=71 39.56 Mean=71 38.81 
Mean of No. 1=71 39.56 
2)143 18.37 


Mean total=71 39.18 _ 


At both localities Mr. Nicollet made observations on the same 
day and nearly at the same hours with a similar apparatus, ma- 
nipulating at my request in the same manner as I have just de- 
scribed. ‘The results were remarkably coincident, as have been 
others at the same localities. 


At Howard’s Woods At St. Mary’s College. 
By Prof. Bache, Aug. 38, 1840, 71934!.4| Prof. Bache did not observe at this locality. 
By Prof. Locke, April 28, 1841, 71 34.3} By Prof. Locke, April 28, 1841, 71°39/.2 


By Mr. Nicollet, April 28, 1841, 71 34.9) By Mr. Nicollet, April 28, 1841, 71 33.6 
By Maj. Graham, June 10, 1841, 71 31.9] By Maj. Graham, June are 1841, 71 33.8 


Involution of Polynomiais. 239 


Arr. IV.—The Involution of Polynomials ; by Wm. J. Lewis, 
Civil Engineer, Germantown, Penn. : 


Ir any binomial a+6 be raised by actual multiplication to the 
2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, and nth powers, we find that the first and second 
terms of the powers are a? +2ab, a°-++3a?b, a*+4a%b, a +5a‘b, 
and a"-++-na"~'6 respectively. 

Let it be required to raise to the 5th power any expression 
a+b+c+d-+e, consisting of at least five terms. 

Then considering 6+c+d-e first as one term, then as made 
up of b4+c+d-+e, and subsequently regarding de as one term; 
and retaining only the second term of the first involution, and 
the first and second of the others, we have 


atbte+dte’ 


=5a+btetd'et&e. — ( =5a‘te+&c.) 
=5.4a+b+e°det+&c. ( =5-da*de+&c.) 
=5:-4-3a+b'cde+&e. ( =5-4:3a?cde+&c.) 
=5:4:3 2abcde+ ke. (=5°4:3:2abede+&c.) 


P 
Hence, if P=coefficient of abcde, then will a= coefficient of 


: P ff of ab ne ff ‘6, and < 
a* bed, 9.3 —coell. of a®be, 534 =coe . Of a*b, an 2345 — 
coeff. of a>. 


If our root had consisted of more than five terms, P would 
have represented the coefficient of the product of any five terms, 


is Pe 
5) the coeff. of the product of a?, and three other terms, 9.9 the 


coeff. of a* multiplied by any two other terms, &c. 

The coefficient of a* bed is also the coefficient of ab*cd, abc?d, 
abed?, &c.; the coefficient of a%be is the coefficient of ab%e, 
abc*, abd?, &c.; and generally, any term can be substituted for 
ainthe above expressions. For either of the terms 8, ¢, d, e, 
can be placed first in the root, when it will be subject to the same 
operations as have been performed on a, and will consequently 
be substituted for it. Our remarks, therefore, in relation to the 
powers and coeflicients of a are equally applicable to the powers 
and coefficients of all the other terms. 


240 Involution of Polynonuals. 


We see that when the powers of a are connected with the pro- 
duct of other terms, a is changed into a? by dividing the coefii- 
cient of a by 2, a? into a? by dividing its coefficient by 3, &c. 
That is, the power of any term may be increased one by dividing 
ats coefficient by the index of the power to which it is to be raised. 

And conversely, the power of any term may be depressed one by 
multiplying its coefficient by the index of its power. 

We have not yet ascertained whether the law may be extend- 
ed to those terms in which the powers of two or more terms of 
the root are combined, as a?c?de, a?c?, &c. 

Let N be the coefficient of a?c?d, and put c=m-+n, then 
Na2c?d=Na2d m+n’? =2Na°*dmn+&c. Hence, N=4 coeff. of 
a?dmn=4 coeff. of a?cde. ‘Therefore, coeff. of a?c?d=4% coeff. 
of a*cde. 

Again, let m be the coefficient of a?c*, and putting c=m-+n, 
we have Ma?c?=Ma2m+n*=3Ma?m2n+&c. Hence, M=$ 
coeff. of a?m?n=#% coeff. of a2c?d. 


a 
Therefore the coeff. of a2c?=4% coeff. of ared=5% coeff. of 


1 P . 
a*cde=5 53 coeff. of abcde=5 53° A similar process applied to 


any combination of the powers of the terms of the root, will evi- 
dently show, that the coefficients are governed by the law which 
has been given. We remark then: 

1. That P, the coefficient of the product of as many terms of 
the root as there are units in” (the index of the power) =” 
n—1 n—2----- 3-21. 

2. That the coefficients of terms involving the powers of one 
letter and the product of others are obtained by dividing P by 2, 
this quotient by 3, this again by 4, &c., the last divisor being 
m —1, and the final quotient 7. 

3. That the coefficients of terms combining powers of two or 
more terms are obtained by dividing these results by 2, 3, 4---- 
nm —2 successively. 

4. That the coefficient of any term a”b’cd= 


= E RRM A ths 2c a i 
1,2,3 Tae mxX1, 2,3 -e<e-- r 1 2,3 ----- T an 
that the coefficient of a“bed=n n—1 n—2----- m+l. Ifthe 


root contains only a and J, or c, d, e, &c. are each =0, then all the 


Involution of Polynonvals. BAI 


terms containing these letters disappear from the equation, and 


n—1 ee n-1ln—2 
ghee ae 7 oe sa 


we have a+b’ =a"4+na"b+n 
a'-263+&c. in which n, n—1, n—2, &c. arise from the decrease 
of the powers of a, and the denominators from the increase of 
the powers of 6. ‘This is the well known Binomial Theorem. 

Put a+b°=a"-+na"™-'b + Aa*-2b2 + Ba" 363-+-Ca"-4b4+ &c. 

If a third term c is introduced, we shall have the following ad- 
ditional terms: 

2Aa"-2bc+-3Ba"~ *b2c+4Ca"-*b3c+5Da"-*b4ce+&c. 
If a fourth term d is now introduced, we shall have again as 
additional terms : 
2:3Ba"~ ?bcd+3-4Ca"—1b2cd 4+-4:5Da"-*b2cd+ &e. 
If a fifth term e, we must again add, 
2:3:4Ca"~ 4 bcde+3:4:5Da"-*b2cde+&c. 

We must not forget that there are several terms in the expres- 
sion for the power, involving like powers of different letters, (as 
a*b?cd, a*b‘4cd, ab?e*d, and abc?d*,) and having like coefficients; 
but only one of each of these terms has been given; this being 
sufficient to indicate the magnitude of all the coefficients. 

When 7 is large and the number of terms in tbe root is small, 
it is most convenient to find the coefficients vf a binomial, and 
afterwards obtain from these the additjsnal coefficients for the 
other terms, as shown in the last process. In many cases, how- 
ever, it is better to find the higher coefficients first. 

Example 1. Find the coefficients of a+b-+-c*. Here we have 


P=3 X2=6, _ 3, and the form of the power isa+b+c* = 


a°+3a?bc+ 6abc+ Ke. 
Ev. 2. Find the coefficients of a+6b+c+d*. 
Here P=4X%3x2= - - 24 | abcd 
P 
elt ra ha el ee ak a? be 
a= 12 
oe me yer neat 6 ab? 
P 3 
337 - - - - A ab 
Ez 
2-3: mila ina See eek ol 1 a* 


Hence a+6+c+d* =a! +4ab4+ 6a7b2 + 12a? be+2dabed + &c. 
Vol. xnu1, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1842, 31 


242 Involution of Polynomials. 


Ex. 3. Find the coefficients of a+b-+c+d-+e’. 
Here P=5X4X3X2xX1=120| abcde 


“ 60 2 bed 
7= - - - a*be 
— = - - 30 serie 
P 

og - - - 20] abc 
P 

fe eet 
p 

53-4 - - - 5! atb 
P 5 
PLE ry Tm ia AG ml 


Hence a+b+c+d+e’ Pare aE le Bich eae hee age 
+60a? bed + 120abcde+ &e. 

If the number of terms in the root is greater than the index of 
the power, the excess produces no change in the coefficients, as 
no more than letters can enter any term of the power. 

Ez. A. Find the coefficients of a+b+c+d°. 

The binomial cvefficients are 1, 6, 15, 20. The introduction 
of the third term c¢, gives us 2A=30, 3B=60. And the fourth 
term d, gives 2:3B=120, 2-4C=180. 

Hence a+b+ce+d° =a°+ba5h+15a4b? + 20a°b? + 30a%be 
+60a3b2c+120a? bed+180a?b2 ed + &c. 

Or we might have found P as before, observing that as two 
terms are deficient in the root, P must have at least two divisions 
before the consequent coefficient can enter into the expression of 
the power. 

P=6X5X4X3X2=720|  abcdef 


P 
a - - - 360! abcde 
P 
eam te - - 180| a?b%cd 
P 
as = - 120] a%bed 
P 


spe ee eNO Tarbe 


Hurricane in New England, September, 1815. 243 


fase = = 30 a‘be 
ere 4h2 
ea ae 

P 
SEE ight reeity Toes abe 


But e=0, and f=0. Hence, a+b+c+d* =a* + 6a5b + 
15a1b2+30a'be+ 60a?2b2c+120a2 bcd + 180a2b2cd+&c. 


Art. V.—Notice of a Hurricane that passed over New England 
in September, 1815; by Noyes Dartuine, Esq. 


1. Some circumstances attending this remarkable storm, induced 
me at the time, to make a collection and abstract of all the news- 
paper accounts of it which I could find. I was enabled from my 
situation, then in New York, to make the collection sufficiently 
ample to present a pretty full view of the storm in the greater 
part of its extent. Believing that the fruit of my labors may in- 
terest and perhaps be useful to those who are engaged in the in- 
vestigation of ‘ Atlantic hurricanes,” I am induced to offer it for 
publication. 

1. Accounts of the Storm at Sea. 


2. Lat. 17° 54’ N., lon. 63° 10’ W., Sept. 18. Schr. Phaeniz, St. 
Barts. Violent gale at that island on the 18th, which lasted thirty 
hours, from N. W.—W. and 8. Forty vessels driven ashore. 

3. Lat. 21° 18’, lon. 71° 5’, Sept. 20. Ship Wiliam, Turks 
Island. Violent hurricane at that island on the 20th from N. E. to 
S. W.; unroofed and blew down houses, &c. Lasted from morn- 
ing to 4 P. M. 

A, Lat. 32°, lon. 74° 50/, Sept. 22. Schr. Return, experienced 
a tremendous gale from 8. E., which compelled us to cut away 
foremast. About 4 P. M., very heavy sea struck her and carried 
away bowsprit, bulwarks, &c. If the gale had not abated, she 
must have gone down. Another account.—On Friday, 22d, Schr. 
was in lat. 339, lon. 749 55’.. At 6 A. M., a gale commenced at 
S. E., which continued with great violence till 7 in the evening. 
At 3 P. M. cut away foremast. 

5. Lat. 32° 25’, lon. 70° 10’, Sept. 22. Sloop Experiment, on 
the morning of the 22d was upset, in a heavy gale from N. W. 


244 Hurricane in New England, September, 1815. 


which lasted eight hours, and remained on beam ends twenty two 
hours and then righted. Captain and mate taken off the wreck by 
Schr. Nelson, on the 24th, in lat. 38° 2’, lon. 75° 15’. 

6. Lat. 33°, lon. 74°, Sept. 22. Schr. Rover, ina terrible gale 
on the 22d, lost main-mast and most of the canvass. 

7. Lat. 33° 10’, Sept. 23. Brig Sarah, from St. Pierre’s to New 
London; avery heavy gale and tremendous sea from S. E. to 
Ss. S. W. 

8. Lat. 34° 20’, lon. 70° 50’, Sept. 23. Schr. Indian Queen, ex- 
perienced a tremendous hurricane about 12 at night from E., and 
knocked on her beam ends. Gale lasted about four hours. An- 
other account says five hours. 

9. Lat. 34° 21’, lon. 71° 37’, Sept. 23. Brig George, experi- 
enced a tremendous gale from S. E., which lasted twelve hours. 

10. Off Cape Hatteras, Sept. 22d, Ship Minerva, in fifteen fath- 
oms water, encountered a tremendous gale from 8. E. to N. W., 
main topmast carried away. At 3 A. M. wind shifted to north- 
ward, and became more moderate.—Sept. 22d, Ship Phenir, 
experienced a most violent gale, which commenced at 8. E. and 
ended in four hours at E. 8. E. Lost topmasts, yards, é&&¢.—WSchr. 
Ruby, capsized on 22d. 

11. Lat. 36° 30’, lon. 74°, Sept. 22. Brig Morgiana, experien- 
ced a heavy gale, which swept the decks. 

12. Lat. 36° 44’, lon. 739 17’, Sept. 22. Schr. Thetis, experien- 
ced a heavy gale from N.N. E. Lost fore and main topinast, é&c. 
23d, night; Schr. Spartan, from Marseilles to Baltimore. Sept. 
2d, was in lat. 35° 58’, lon. 38°. On the 24th, was in lat. 37° 
32’, lon. 72° 14’. On the 23d in the night experienced a very 
heavy gale from S. E. and 8. 

13. Lat. 37° 30’, lon. 72°, Sept.23. Brig Stata’ in the Gulf 
Stream, experienced a Helen! gale which carried away mainmast, 
yards, sails, é&&c. On her beam ends a considerable time after the 
gale. Another account.—On the 23d commenced with strong 
gales from 8. E., close reefed topsails, &c.; at 3 P. M., took in 
fore topsails ; at 4, took in main topsail, gale increasing hove to; 
at A. M. brought her more head to the wind; at 1 A. M., bal- 
ance reefed the topsail; at 2, deck load shifting, cut away main- 
mast and she fell before the wind ; at 3 sea swept the deck ; at 10 
gale abated, sea continued very high and irregular, being in Gulf 
Stream. Wind now shifted to W. 8S. W. as judged, for the com- 


Hurricane in New England, September, 1815. 245 


pass would not stand at any point during the gale. Schr. Meri- 
no, from Port au Prince to Boston, was in lat. 37° 18’, lon. 74°, 
on the 24th; experienced a heavy gale, carried away deck load 
and bowsprit. . 

14. Off the Capes, Sept. 23. Schr. Traverse the Ocean, for Bal- 
timore, took the gale of the 23d, and was driven a long way S. ; 
split her sails, dc. 

15. Lat. 37°, lon. 76°, Sept. 23. Schr. Sally, experienced a 
heavy gale from E. N. E. to W., which lasted seven hours. 

16. Off the Capes of Delaware, Sept. 23, night. Brig Polly, 
nearly on soundings, experienced a severe gale from S. W., cut 
away foremast, lost sails, é&c. 

17. Off Barnegat. Schr. Alerander. A severe gale commenced 
from E. N. E., which continued till 7 A. M., when it calmed and 
directly afterwards came from W. N. W. with great violence; 
stove in bulwarks. Never experienced a more violent gale. 
Schr. Fair American, for Alexandria, on the 22d was in lat. 39° 
36’, lon. 70° 40’. Next day experienced a tremendous hurricane. 

18. Lat. 39° 45’, lon. 72° 17’, Sept. 23. Brig Connecticut, ex- 
perienced a gale in which she lost her bowsprit, &c. Brig Amigo, 
for New York, was in lat. 39°, lon. 71° 30’ on the 24th. ' Had 
a violent gale for four hours on the 23d. 

19. Lat. 40°, Sept..23. Brig Othello, for New York, in forty 
fathoms water; gale beginning from E. 8. E. and veering round to 
W.5. W., blowing a storm from 4 A. M. to noon. Coming into 
New York the 26th. Brig Morgiana, Sandy Hook, W. N. W. 
twenty leagues; upset about half past eight in a violent hurri- 
cane. 

20. Lat. 40°, lon. 72° 50’, Sept. 23. Brig Henrico, experienced 
_ the gale most violently. Ship Balloon, from Amsterdam to Phil- 
adelphia, was in lat. 40°, lon. 72° 3’, on the 24th. Experienced 
a severe hurricane from 8. EB. to S. W. on the 23d; lost main 
and fore topmasts. Another account.—Sept. 21, lat. 41°, lon. 64°. 
Sept. 24, lat. 39°, lon. 72°: severe hurricane on the 23d, from 
S. E. to 8. W. 

21. Lat. 40° 10’, lon. 70°, Sept. 22. Schr. Rising States, ex- 
perienced a heavy gale from E. N. E. to W. 8. W.; heavy cross 
sea running. Brig Abaellino, fifteen leagues westward of south 
shoals of Nantucket. Severe gale—carried away bulwarks. 

22. Lat. 41° 41’, lon. 60°, Sept. 22d. Zwo vessels spoke, but 
no mention of the gale. 


246 Hurricane in New England, September, 1815. 


23. Lat. 41° 51’, lon. 63° 45’, Sept. 22. Ship Mandarin, on 
the 22d, experienced a heavy rolling sea, but little wind; thes 
about one hundred and fifty miles S. E. of Boston. 

24. Lat. 42° 28’, lon. 66°, Sept. 23. Ship Thomas, wind from 
N. W. to E. and 8.3; part ne the day moderate, and part fresh 
breezes. 

25. Off Cape Ann, Sept. 23. Schr. Two Sisters, sixteen leagues 
off Cape Ann—felt nothing of the gale. 

26. Hast of Cape Ann, Sept. 23. Schr. Leopard, when five 
leagues E. of Cape Ann; experienced the gale very severely— 
thrown on beam ends. , Brig Caroline, two hundred miles N. E. 
of Boston, a fresh breeze from N. E. to S. 

27. Sept. 23. Ship Prudence, twenty leagues S. E. tea St. 
George’s shoals, had a tremendous swell from 8. W. and lay to 
under reefed mizzen stay-sail, expecting a gale, but had nothing 
more than a balanced reef breeze ; at midnight, set balanced reefs 
again, with strong westerly winds. 

28. Sept. 24. Brig Fredonia, on 23d in lat. 36° 51’, lon. 73° 
20’, and on 25th, Cape Henlopen, W. N. W. fifty miles; on 24th, 
a tremendous gale commenced at E. N. E. but shifted to N. W. 
Schr. Gov. Shelby, from Bordeaux to New York, arrived October 
5th. Sept. 18th, was in lat. 39° 40’, lon. 43° 30’; experienced 
the gale within two days’ sail of port, but received no injury. 
Since then, there has not been at sea a one knot breeze. Schr. 
Comet, from St. Barts to Baltimore: in the edge of soundings 
experienced a heavy gale; lay to ten hours—25th, took a piety 
26th, came into bay. 


2. Accounts of the Storm on Land. 


29. Philadelphia. Great part of Friday night (22d) wind, a 
gale from N. BK. with heavy rain. Early Saturday (23d) veered 
to N. W., and continued a gale, with torrents of rain, for several 
hours. Between 8 and 9 o’clock wind slackened, rain ceased, 
and clouds broke away in W. and 8. W. About noon weather 
clear and mild, with a gentle westerly breeze. During the after- 
noon the sun greater part of the time obscured with flying clouds 
from W. and N. W. 

30. New York. 'Thursday night? (21st) violent storm of wind 
and rain set in from N. EK. and continued till about 2 o’clock at 
night, when it suddenly shifted to N. and N. W., and blew with 


Hurricane in New England, September, 1815. 247 


increased violence. Friday (22d) gale all day from N. E. and E., 
with heavy and incessant rain. Gale increased in the evening, 
continued till 4 o’clock, Saturday. At 2o’clock in the morning 
backed round to N., and by 9 o’clock was at N. N. W., when it 
was most violent. In the course of the forenoon gradually backed 
round to. S. W. 

31. Bridgeport, Ct. Account is lost, but I find ina table which 
is subjoined, the following :—Wind N. E. at 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 2 past 
10, and N. W. at 11 o’clock, of 23d. 

32. New Haven, Ct. Friday night and Saturday morning (22d 
and 23d) severe storm of wind and rain. Did damage to roads 
and bridges, wharf inundated ; six and a half inches of rain fell 
during storm ; streams much swelled. Wind N. E. from morning 
of 22d to morning of 23d; noon of 23d W., evening S. W. 

33. Mariha’s Vineyard, Mass. Gale very severe. 

34. Lyme, Ct. Account lost, the following is from the table :-— 
Wind N. E. at 6 and 7 o’clock, S. E. at 8 and 9 o’clock of 23d. 

35. New London, Ct. Storm commenced on Friday (22d.) 
During that day and night a heavy fall of rain, wind N. B. Next 
morning (23d) wind increased, at 7 o’clock very violent, soon 
after almost a hurricane. -'The tide which commenced flood about 
6 o’clock, covered the wharves before 9, and at 10 o’clock had 
risen three or four feet higher than was ever known. The rise 
had been so rapid, that the buildings in Beech street were deluged 
before the inhabitants felt their danger, and in thirty minutes after 
danger was apprehended waves rose four to six feet in the streets. 
Now stores were falling, buildings unroofed, trees falling ; this 
destructive scene was short. Soon after 11 o’clock the wind 
shifted to the westward and abated, when the sea returned with 
the velocity it came in, though it should have run flood till 12; 
and the storm ceased. 'The destruction of trees in all towns in 
the neighborhood was immense. Intelligent farmers estimate 
half the best fruit and forest trees fallen. 'The showers which 
fell over this city and neighborhood were of salt water. The 
leaves of tender fruit trees and shrubs and of many forest trees, 
. without frost, shrunk in a few hours after the gale as though they 
had been scorched. During the strength of the wind, in the ed- 
dies, the air was extremely hot and suffocating.—Another account. 
For two or three days wind blew from N. E., not very hard ; 
about 8 o’clock it shifted to E., when its severity commenced. 


248 Hurricane in New England, September, 1815. 


Between 9 and 10 o’clock veered to S. E., when it blew most vio- 
lent.—October 4th. The brooks which run through this place 
continue brackish. Some wells in the country have become 
brackish. : | 

36. Stonington, Ct. Storm raged with great violence. Every 
vessel went ashore. Thirty buildings were destroyed or injured. 
The following is from the table :—Wind N. E. at.6, 7, 8, and 9 
o’clock, and S. E. at 10 o’clock. 

37. Newport, R. I. Commenced about 9 o’clock, wind 8. E. 
by S., and continued unabated two hours and a half, when it sub- 
sided. 5 

38. Norwich, Ct. Wind during most of the week blew moder- 
ately from the east with pleasant weather until Thursday, (21st, ) 
when it became cloudy and uncommonly raw and cold. Friday 
morning (22d) it began to rain and continued the whole day. 
At night blew fresh from N. E., gradually increasing till about 8 
o’clock, Saturday morning (23d) when it veered to E. 8. E., and 
blew with tremendous fury from that point to W. 8. W., till near 
12 o’clock, when it abated. Many trees were levelled. : 

39. Fair Haven, Mass. Morning, wind blew from 8. E., very 
hard. About 9 o’clock shifted to S. and remained two hours a 
tremendous gale. About 12 o’clock was 8. W. and continued so 
the rest of the day, blowing hard with heavy rain most of the 
time. Windows covered with salt water; trees turned black. 

40. New Bedford, Mass. Account lost; the following is from 
the table:—Wind 8. E. at 6 o’clock and continued there till 12. 

Al. Fast Greenwich, R. I. Gale commenced about 7 o’clock 
and continued till 12. ‘Tide rose seven feet higher than was ever 
known. Meeting-house unroofed. 

42. Warren, R. I. 'Tide rose about seven feet above common 
spring tide. ‘Trees, buildings, &c. demolished. 

43. Providence, R.I. At 7 o’clock, wind shifted from N. E. to 
S. E., at which point it seemed to be settled in the course of half 
an hour. At 8 o’clock, from being cold, the air became suddenly 
very warm; so much so, that standing by a window looking 
eastward, sensations were felt not unlike standing before an oven 
moderately heated. At 9 o’clock, scuds run very low; the sky 
when visible looked very glassy, something like brass. ‘The 
atmosphere seemed very much impregnated with saline particles, 
quite perceptible’to the taste. At 94 o’clock it blew a gale, and 


Hurricane in New England, September, 1815. 249 


continued to increase in violence till 11, when the wind shifted 
to S.; the tornado then began to abate. At 12 o’clock, wind 
veered to S. W. by S., when storm ceased. Another account :— 
A storm of rain from N. E. commenced on Friday, (22d,) and 
continued with little intermission till Saturday morning, (23d,) 
when wind was from EK. Between 8 and 9 o’clock wind shifted 
S. E., and continued to blow, increasing in violence, till 114, 
when it changed to W., and damage stayed. 

44, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Gale, but little or no damage done. 

45. Worcester, Mass. ‘Thursday [Friday?] evening (2\st) 
[22d ?] heavy storm (rain) commenced, with strong N. E. wind, 
which had been blowing twenty four hours before from that quar- 
ter. Early Saturday morning (23d) the wind increased, and rain 
descended in torrents, and continued with but short intermissions 
until about 103 o’clock, when the rain abated and the wind sud- 
denly shifted to 8. E. and blew a hurricane, blowing down trees 
and chimneys. We have traced a column of near sixty miles 
in width, with nearly the same devastation. . No parallel in this 
country. Period of destruction about one hour. Wind came in 
gusts with increasing violence until its utmost height, when it 
eradually subsided to a gentle breeze. A suffocating current of 
air, as from a hot bath, accompanied the middle stage of the tem- 
pest.. The destruction of forest trees incalculable. Grapes ina 
garden had a taste of salt on their surface. F locks of gulls were 
seen after the storm on Saturday, in a meadow near Worcester, 
and others about the same time in Grafton. ‘Toward evening 
they flew toward the sea. Water which fell in Uxbridge, Graf- 
ton, Worcester and Sterling, salt. 

46. Boston, Mass. Storm of rain from N. E. commenced on 
Friday, (22d); through the day moderate ; at night rain increased, 
and wind somewhat violent. During the night it abated. Sat- 
urday morning storm renewed its violence. Wind with accumu- 
lating severity from E. till near 11 o’clock. At this time shifted 
to S. E. but increased in violence until 12 o’clock, when it began 
to abate, and between 1 and 2 o’clock shifted toS. W. At 2 
o’clock danger from wind over, and at the close of the afternoon 
it had entirely subsided. About 12 o’clock, two hours before 
high water, when the gale from the S. E. was at its height, the 
tide rose very high. After change of wind it did not continue to 
rise; the wind compelled a fall earlier than natural. Glass-house 

Vol. xtir, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 32 


250 Hurricane in New England, September, 1815. 


blew down about 11 o’clock; trees were thrown down. Every 
substance exposed to rain incrusted with salt; windows lost their 
transparency from the salt; leaves have the appearance of frost. 
Same observed some miles interior. Another account :—Storm 
commenced at 4 o’clock from E., with heavy showers. At 9 
o’clock fresh gale from L. with slight rain; at + before 11 shifted 
to S. E. without rain, and by 12 o’clock a violent hurricane. At 
2 o’clock gale had abated; and at 6 o’clock moderate weather. 

A7. Salem, Mass. Saturday, (23d,) violent gale began about , 
9 o’clock, greatest fury about 113 o’clock. Began at 8S. E. and 
filled the air with rain as briny as the ocean. At the time of 
greatest violence changed to S. W., and then did greatest dam- 
age; it afierwards changed to 8.8. W., and before 3 o’clock the 
sun appeared. Not suffered as much as our neighbors. Loss of 
barns, out-houses, orchards and fences severely felt. Few vessels 
injured. Another account:—Morning, wind at E., about 11 
shifted to S. E.; between 1 and 2 o’clock got 8. W., and soon 
subsided ;: pleasant before night. 

48. Northampton, Mass. Storm very severe only on Satur- 
day (23d). 

AJ. Amherst, Mass. All the country within this place, Brook- 
field, Tolland, New London, New Bedford, tempest raged about 
equally. Great destruction of trees. The following is from the 
table :—wind at 1143 o’clock S. E.; at 14 o’clock subsided. 

50. Provincetown, and Wellficet, Cape Cod. The gale was but 
slightly felt. 

51. Troy, N. Y. Great rain, sudden and unusual rise in Hud- 
son River. Sunday, (24th,) most of the wharves covered several 
feet deep. 

52. Portsmouth, N. H. Buildings considerably injured. 

53. Counties of Bristol, Barnstable, Plymouth, Norfolk, 
Worcester, Middleser, E’'ssex and Hampshire, Mass. Reports 
that would fill columns. Damages pretty equally felt in injury of 
meeting-houses, dwellings, chimneys, barns, and trees. All fruit 
shaken off. In all places to leeward of salt water, pastures ruined 
by the salt spray, and the whole of trees and vegetables so blight- 
ed and changed as to exhibit the appearance of destruction by 
fire and smoke. 


Hurricane in New England, September, 1815. 251 


3. Accounts showing the force of the wind in several parts of 
Massachusetts. 


54. Abingdon. Church destroyed.—South Reading. Steeple 
blown down.— Wareham. Steeple blown down.—Cambridge- 
port. ‘Three dwellings demolished.—Dorchester. Seventeen 
houses unroofed, sixty chimneys blown over, and five thousand 
trees prostrated.—Cape Towns. No accounts of severe damage 
except at Sandwich.—Chelsea. Elm tree seventeen feet in girth, 
blown down.—Marblehead. Fourteen vessels on shore.— G'lou- 
cester. Vessels ashore, and buildings blown down.—Danvers. 
Storm violent, not greatly destructive. Pear tree imported and 
transplanted by Gov. Endicott in 1680 stripped of half its branch- 
es. Oaks that braved the tempest one hundred years thrown 
down.—Andover. Spray of salt water reached it, giving every 
thing it descended upon a saltish taste, and blighting every fibre 
of vegetation— Newburyport. Ornamental trees suffered much ; 
buildings injured.—Ipswich. Less damage done to vessels than 
other parts of our shore.—Lynn. Buildings suffered.— Wenham. 
Steeple blown down.—Saugus. Severe, trees blown down, 
barns, é&c.— Wells. One man killed by falling of a tree. 

55. I subjoin the table which I constructed, at the time of col- 
lecting the accounts, for the purpose of presenting a view of the 
storm simultaneously in different places, during the forenoon of 
the 23d September, 1815. 


View of the Hurricane in the forenoon of Saturday, Sept. 23d, 1815. 


Bee ta! ¢ g a 
- oO a a 7 (o) 7 . = 
MS rs) ° a at a 
3 S| | Paral ariel ase cai Sint NoMa Netti ila 
e : fo} b 
Sean dele) Ae elles Sees NES Leena Seo eas een Det [re 
Pe Ds eee deceee die gb esialflce 2 BB UB ea) ae) fies 
Sec itiree Wes |iensey lArsey sh eho (brates ,o iS SS pec) Sey o zB 
NE PCS to (a0 | la ST = PA 
A.M. 60’clock, E. | E. |N.E./N.E.S. ES. E. N.E.|N. E.|N. E,|N.E.| N. |Now. 
Ree oegial) abt E. | E. |N.E.|N.E.S. EJS, E. N.E.|N.E.|N.E.|N.E.| oN. |N.W. 
se S ek te E. | E. |N.E.|S. E.'S. E.|S. E. N.E./S. E.| E. |N.E.| N. |N.W. 
BO) us E. | E. |N.E.|S. E./S. E.| S. S.E. by S.|N. E.|s. E.| E. |N. E. N.N.W. 
oo) eS = S. E. 
PM OMMEE E. |. E. |N.E.\S. E.'S. E.| §S. S.E. by S.|S. E S. E.|N. E.| S. W 
“10h * Suny 
rete Ve E. |S. E.'S. E.|S. E.'S. E.| S. |S.E. bys. S. E.JN.E 
WOMEN LAGE S. E.|S. E. S. E.'S. E.| S. |S.E. by s. S. E.|N.w 
“]1Z “ Is. Els E.'S. E. 8. E.|S. E.| Ss. S.E 
Me Lt ist s age E. S. E.|S. E.'S. W. 
p.m. 1 Ue S. E.|S. E. Ss. WwW. 
“wis & S. w.|s. w. S.W. 
Be se Ss. Ww. f 
[ART eS ee ee eee 


252 Hurricane in New England, September, 1815. 


56. The following facts appear to me to be established by the 
foregoing accounts. 

Ist. The hurricane commenced in the West Indies, and moved 
northward at the rate of twelve or fifteen miles an hour. 

2d. Its course from St. Barts was about W. N. W. to Turks 
Island, and thence to Boston (nearly on the same meridian) it 
was a curve convex to the west. (See account of Schr. Sally, 
lat. 37°, lon. 76°, for the most western point of the curve.) 

3d. Previous to the arrival of the hurricane in New England, 
a N. E. storm had prevailed along the Atlantic coast for more 
than twenty four hours. (See accounts, New York, New Lon- 
don, Norwich, Worcester, and Boston.) 

Ath. For some hours previous to the hurricane, there was a 
great and rapid condensation of vapor, producing a heavy fall of. 
rain in the line of the N. E. storm. (See accounts, Philadelphia, 
New York, New London, Norwich, Worcester, Boston and Troy.) 

5th. ‘The hurricane (that is, the violent blow) was mostly from 
the 8. E., blowing into and at right angles to the N. E. storm, at 
its southern termination. 

6th. As the S. E. wind approached the line of the N. E. storm, 
it was deflected into an E. wind. (See table, Salem, Boston, and 
New London. )* 

7th. The general form of the hurricane in and about New 
England was that of an eccentric ellipse, with its longest diame- 
ter N. E. and S. W.; wind blowing N. E. on the N. W. side; 
N.N. W. and W. N. W. at its south end; 8. E. on its S. E. side,+ 
curving into an KB. wind at its junction with the N. E. current ; 
wind blowing from S. at the easternmost part of the hurricane. 
The whole. body of the hurricane, in this form, moved to the 
north nearly on the meridian. 


* May we not rather suppose that the more violent S. E. storm pursued its own 
course of rotation in this direction by E. and N. E. without regard to the previous 
N. E. wind which it had superseded ?—Eps. 

+ Did not this 8. E. wind pertain more nearly to the centre of the path of the 
hurricane? For we find that the ship Prudence, twenty leagues from St. George’s 
Shoals, had a tremendous swell from S. W., which would appear to have been 
produced on the S. E. margin of the gale.—Eps. 


Determination of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds. 253 


Art. VIL—A New Method of determining the quantity of Niiro- 
gen in Organic Compounds ; by Drs. Varrentrapr and WILL. 
Translated from the original in the Annalen der Chemie und 
Pharmacie, by J. Lawrence Smurru, M. D. of Charleston, S. C. 


Messrs. Editors—Iin this letter [ send you a translation of such 
parts of the original article of Drs. V. and W. as may enable one 
to thoroughly understand this valuable addition to what is already 
known upon the subject of organic analyses; neither the first nor 
the latter parts are here taken notice of, as the one is merely a 
detached account of the various processes that have been. pre- 
viously employed to estimate the quantity of nitrogen in organic 
compounds, and the other, the mention of some analyses made 
with the view of comparison, 

“'This method has for its basis the peculiar action of the hy- 
drated fixed alkalies, upon organic substances containing nitrogen, 
when subjected to a high temperature. It consists in the separa- 
tion of nitrogen in the form of ammonia, and estimating the lat- 
ter, either under the form of the muriate of platinum and ammo- 
nia, or from metallic platinum.” 

“Tf one melts an organic substance free from nitrogen, together 
with the hydrate of potash, the water of the potash becomes de- 
composed, (as Gay Lussac has shown,) its oxygen combines 
with the carbon and hydrogen of the organic matter, and its 
hydrogen passes off in the form of gas.” 

For a perfect result of the above nature a high temperature is 
required, as well as a considerable excess of potash. 

‘“‘ When on the contrary, the organic substance contains nitro- 
gen, the free hydrogen combines with it and forms ammonia. 
Since the observation of this fact, the only use that it has been 
put to, has been that of ascertaining the presence of nitrogen in 
an organic compound.” 

The first and chief difficulty that presented itself to Drs. V. 
and W.in making use of this method to estimate the quantity 
of nitrogen, was that when a substance was very rich in that 
element, the whole of it would not be converted into ammo- 
nia, but that a portion by combining with the carbon formed 
cyanogen, which would pass off or be converted into hydrocyanic 
acid, and the latter unite itself to the potash. But upon experi- 


254 Determination of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds. 


ment these gentlemen found, by employing a sufficient excess 
of hydrated alkali and a temperature not too low, that every 
cyanide and all other substances that contained nitrogen not un- 
der the form of nitric acid, would become decomposed by this 
means, and all the nitrogen be converted into ammonia. 

“Our method, which is based upon the peculiar property already 
stated of all substances containing nitrogen, in which this element 
does not exist in combination, under the form of nitric acid, con- 
sists in the complete interception of the ammonia, by means of 
hydrochloric acid, and subsequently weighing it in a solid form 
as chloride of platinum and ammonia.” 

The apparatus used by Drs. V. and W. is such as is represented 
in the annexed figures. It consists of a furnace, such as is ordi- 
narily used in organic analyses, with a tube of hard glass drawn 
out at its closed extremity. The length of this tube should be 


y 


\ hl AIH 
NA i 
iT 


from twelve to fifteen inches, and its inner diameter about three 
lines. 'To the open end of this tube is attached an apparatus, some- ~ 
what similar to Liebig’s alkali bulbs, but differently constructed to 
facilitate the pouring out of the liquid, which is placed within it, 
It is composed of three bulbs a, 6, c, the two first being about one 
and a quarter inches in diameter, and the latter about five lines. 
The tube connecting these bulbs is about a line in diameter, and 
drawn out at its extremity g by means of a spirit lamp. The bulbs 
are filled to about the height represented in the figure, with pure 


, 
Determination of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds. 255 


hydrochloric acid of the ordinary strength, and this part of the 
operation is done by agglying the mouth to the extremity d, and 
drawing the acid through the extremity g. 

“As means of decomposing the organic substance containing 
nitrogen, that is to say, of oxydizing its carbon and hydrogen, we 
make use of the hydrate of potash, or soda mixed with caustic 
lime, in such proportions, that the mixture when exposed to a 
strong heat will not melt, but only slightly run together. This 
mixture has the advantage of being easily pulverized, and of not 
attracting moisture very rapidly, and generally it is managed with 
the same facility as the bioxide of copper or the chromate of lead. 
We have preferred latterly the mixture containing soda, in prefer- 
ence to that with potash; because the hydrate of soda, on account 
of its smaller atomic weight, contains more water, and conse- 
quently more oxydizing material than the same weight of the 
hydrate of potash. Also the mixture of the hydrate of soda and 
lime attracts moisture less readily than that of potash and lime; 
and moreover, the hydrate of soda requires but twice its weight 
of anhydrous lime to form a mixture that will not melt at a red 
heat. For one part of potash three of lime are necessary. The 
easiest method of preparing it, is to slake the lime in a solution 
of known concentration, of either of the above alkalies; heat the 
mixture to redness in acrucible, and rub it toa fine powder. Or 
we may rub up quickly one of the alkalies (first melted and then 
cooled) in a warm mortar, and then mix intimately with it anhy- 
drous lime in the proper proportion. In this latter case, the lime 
must be first slaked and then heated to redness as a fine powder 
before being used. The mixture prepared in either of the above 
ways is once more heated to redness to drive away all mixture 
and then preserved in a well stopped phial.”’ 

In performing an analysis, the process is as follows : 

“The burning tube, clean and dry, is half filled with the alka- 
line mixture, and that is the measured quantity to be mixed with 
the substance about to be analyzed, which is first dried and 
weighed in the ordinary method. 'The quantity of the substance 
employed should vary according as it contains more or less nitro- 
gen. When rich in this element about three grains, but when 
its quantity is quite small about six grains should be used.” 

“The mixture of the weighed substance with the measured 
quantity of the alkaline powder, is done in a porcelain mortar 


- 


4 
256 Determination of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds. 


with a flat bottom, (which has been previously slightly warmed, ) 
and with a very gentle movement of thepestle. If these pre- 
cautions are strictly observed, no loss of material will result by 
_ its sticking to the sides of the mortar, or bottom of the pestle. 
If the mixture be pressed too hard, or if it be rubbed too fine, or 
if the mortar be not perfectly dry, a portion of the substance will 
adhere to its sides. After introducing the mixture into the burn- 
ing tube in the ordinary way, the mortar is rinsed with the alka- 
line powder, with which we fill the tube to within an inch of its 
mouth, in which is placed a loose stopper of asbestus that has been 
heated to redness and cooled.” 

The use of the asbestus is to prevent the gas that is generated, 
from projecting any of the powdered alkali into the apparatus con- 
taining the hydrochloric acid, which accident would of course 
cause a serious error in the result. 

“With a tight cork we unite the tube containing the mixture 
to the acid apparatus, and by warming slightly the bulb a, by 
bringing an ignited coal beneath it, we are able to ascertain whe- 
ther the apparatus is tight, for if so, the liquid will be chased from 
the bulb a. The tube is now heated as in the case of ordinary 
organic analysis, by placing ignited coals at the front part of the 
furnace, that contains none of the organic substance. The cork 
must be kept as warm as possible, so that it may contain no mois- 
ture, which by absorbing ammonia, may cause a loss of nitrogen. 
So soon as the first part of the tube is red hot, we carry the fire 
slowly back upon that part containing the substance.” 

‘Carbonic acid is formed, the oxygen in the water of the hy- 
drated alkali combining with the carbon of the substance, the free 
hydrogen combines with its nitrogen, and ammonia is formed, 
which is absorbed by the hydrochloric acid. Hydrogen or carbu- 
retted hydrogen (according as the substance contains more or less 
carbon ) is evolved, and this passing through the acid without being 
absorbed, enables us to see the progress of the burning.” 

“Tt may be well to remark, that a continued current of gas is 
evolved, but there need be no apprehension of the escape of the . 
ammonia, for its absorption is so complete and goes on with such 
rapidity, that one has rather to apprehend a recoil of the fluid; 
if the current of gas is only stopped for a moment, the fluid rises 
in the bulb a, and if the fire be carelessly attended to, it will 
enter the tube d, and thence the burning tube, rendering the ex- 


periment useless.” 
e 


Determination of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds. 257 


Drs. V. and W. state that when the body contains a large por- 
tion of nitrogen, this accident is more to be apprehended, and 
they recommend the mixing of an equal weight of some sub- 
stance free from nitrogen, as for instance, sugar, with the body 
containing nitrogen, and with the alkali lime, which by forming 
gases not absorbable by the acid, will cause no error, and prevent 
any accident. 

“ After the whole length of the tube is red hot and gas no 
longer generated, when all the carbon of the substance is burnt, 
and the mixture in the tube appears white, the small end of the 
burning tube is broken, and a quantity of air drawn through the 
burning tube, and absorption apparatus, in order to bring all the 
ammonia.in the tube in contact with the hydrochloric acid; the 
air is drawn through by means of the extremity g, a small tube 
containing potash being placed between it and the mouth, to pre- 
vent one from inhaling the acid vapors.” 

“We proceed to analyze fluids exactly as in the burming with 
the binoxide of copper. A little of the alkali lime is first intro- 
duced into the burning tube, and upon that is dropped the little 
bulb, containing the known quantity of the fluid to be analyzed, 
with its capillary extremity broken off, and then fill the tube as 
before with the alkali lime. 'The operation goes on more regu- 
larly, if we commence by heating the first third of the tube to 
redness, and then warming that part of the tube containing the 
bulb, from which the fluid is expelled, which disseminates itself 
over the middle part of the tube, without being decomposed ; if 
we now earry the fire from before backwards, a gentle and con- 
stant current of gas will be evolved.” | 

“‘ After the burning is complete, and the air passed through the 
apparatus, the contents of the absorption apparatus are emptied 
into a small porcelain capsule. With a dropping tube we intro- 
duce first into the apparatus, a mixture of alcohol and ether, 
which must be shaken backwards and forwards, and then added 
to the first fluid. The bulbs are now washed with water, until 
it affords no acid reaction, and all the washings added to the hy- 
drochloric acid containing the hydrochlorate of ammonia. The 
washing with alcohol and ether has for its object the dissolving 
of any carburetted hydrogen which may be formed during the 
burning, and by collecting in the bulbs would prevent the water 


from coming perfectly in contact with the sides, and thereby ren- 
Vol. xx11, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 33 


258 Determination of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds. 


dering a complete washing difficult. Seldom is more than an 
ounce to an ounce and a half of fluid needed for the removal of 
all the hydrochlorate of ammonia.” 

“To this fluid, now containing hydrochlorate of ammonia, an 
excess of a pure solution of the chloride of platinum is added, 
and it is then evaporated to dryness, either first by the aid of a 
spirit and then by a water bath, or entirely by the latter means. 
From a well conducted burning, the chloride of platinum and 
ammonia that is obtained, is always beautifully yellow; but if 
the material contained a great deal of carbon, or was burnt with 
difficulty, then the chloride of platinum and ammonia is of a 
darker color. This color though, has little or no effect upon the 
accuracy of the result, supposing the washing to have been care- 
fully done.” 

‘‘Upon the residue in the porcelain capsule, after it has cooled, 
amixture of two parts of absolute alcohol and one of ether is 
poured. ‘This dissolves the excess of the chloride of platinum, 
and no part of the chloride of platinum and ammonia. It is 
immediately known, whether there has been an excess of the 
chloride of platinum, by the fluid assuming a yellow color; if it 
is colorless, then there has been a deficiency.” 

“The washing of the residue is performed easiest by holding 
the capsule, after the fluid has been poured upon a weighed filter, 
perpendicularly over the same, and washing the precipitate in, 
with the solution of alcohol and ether. The filter must be 
washed by the same mixture until it passes without color or acid 
reaction. ‘The precipitate and filter are dried on a covered cap- 
sule or weighed tube at 212° Fah. and weighed. It is well, 
in order to continue the result, to decompose the chloride of pla- 
tinum and ammonia by heat, and out of the residue obtained, 
calculate again the quantity of nitrogen, and if the chloride of 
platinum was pure, the quantity of nitrogen calculated by this 
latter method will not differ from the double chloride.” 

In decomposing the chloride of platinum and ammonia, it must 
be done by heating it, enveloped in its filter, gradually to redness ; 
for if it be done too hastily, the vapor of the muriate of ammo- 
nia and chlorine will remove mechanically some of the platinum. 
The chloride of platinum used in this process, must be perfectly 
pure, and Drs. V. and W. state, that it is difficult to obtain spongy 
platinum without a trace of muriate of ammonia, by simply de- 


Determination of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds. 259 


composing the chloride of platinum and ammonia by heat. They 
therefore recommend that the spongy platinum used to form the 
chloride, should be well washed with hot distilled water, before 
being dissolved in the nitro-hydrochloric acid. 

“If we weigh the nitrogen as the chloride of platinum and 
ammonia, we have one hundred and seventy seven parts of it for 
every two thousand seven hundred and eighty eight of the double 
chloride, but if as metallic platinum, one hundred and seventy 
seven parts for every twelve hundred and thirty three of the 
metal.” 

“The weight of the chloride of platinum and ammonia remains 
constant under a long continued drying at 212° Fah., as well as 
that of the filter, after it has been completely washed. If there 
be a trace of acid remaining on the filter it becomes dark and 
friable.” 

I believe that now all the important steps in this operation have 
‘been fully detailed, and I shall conclude with a translation of a 
letter of Prof. Liebig’s, that was attached to the original publica- 
tion, in order that it may be seen, how highly this new method of 
estimating the quantity of nitrogen in organic bodies is esteemed 
by that distinguished chemist. 

“T have had the pleasure of being constantly present at the 
development of the experiments by which Drs. V. and W. by 
degrees have arrived at the method, which they have here de- 
scribed. [regard this new method of estimating nitrogen as one 
of the most important improvements in organic analysis, because 
it determines the quantity of nitrogen with a certainty and pre- 
cision which until now were wanting. ‘The whole opreation is 
completed in a few hours, and with all the accuracy of the deter- 
mination of the carbonic acid. I doubt not that this apparatus 
will very soon replace the ordinary method, to the contentment 
of all analytical chemists.—J. L.’’ 

The little experience and observation I have had of it, verify 
the opinion of Prof. Liebig, and in simplicity it is every thing 
that can be desired. 

Geissen, November, 1841. 


260 Prof. Wheweil’s Demonstration 


Art. VIL—A Letter to William Whewell, Professor of Moral 
Philosophy in the University of Cambridge, England, in 
reply to certain allegations and arguments advanced in a 
pamphlet entitled a Demonstration that all Matter is Heavy ;* 
‘by Rosert Hare, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania. 


1. Dear Sir—I thank you for your kind attention in sending 
me a copy of your pamphlet entitled a “ Demonstration that 
all Matter is Heavy,” comprising a communication made to the 
Cambridge Philosophical Society. 

2. I conceive that to demonstrate that all matter is heavy, is, in 
other words, to prove that all matter is endowed with attraction of 
gravitation, or that general property which, when it causes 
bodies to tend towards the centre of the earth, is called weight. 
Hence to assert that all matter is heavy, is no more than to say, 
that attraction of gravitation exists between all or any masses of 
matter. 

3. You say, “it may be urged that we have no difficulty in con- 
ceiving of matter which is not heavy.” I have no hesitation in 
asserting, that there should be no difficulty in entertaining such a 
conception ; since I cannot understand why any two masses 
may not be as readily conceived to repel as to attract each other, 

,or neither to atiract nor to repel. Is it not easier to imagine two 
remote masses indifferent to each other, than that they act upon 
each other? Is any thing more difficult to understand than that 
a body can act where it is not? 

4, Itisalso mentioned by you, that it may be urged “ that iner- 
tia and weight are two separate properties of matter.” Now I will 
not only urge, but also, with all due deference, will undertake to 
show, that the existence of inertia may as well be proven, and 
its quantity estimated, by means of repulsion as by means of 
attraction. - 


* Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 

+ We have thought that Dr. Hare’s letter would be better understood by our 
readers, if we republished the “‘ Demonstration” of Prof. Whewell, as it has prob- 
ably been seen by few personsin America. It will accordingly be found in full at 
the end of Dr. Hare’s letter—Eps. 


that all Matter is Heavy. 261 


5. Suppose two bodies, A and B, to be endowed with reciprocal 
attraction; or, in other words, to gravitate towards each other. 
Being placed at a distance, and then allowed to approach, if, after 
any given time, it were found that they had moved severally 
any ascertained distances, evidently their relative inertias would 
be considered as inversely as those distances. 

6. In the next place, let us suppose two bodies, X and Y, en- 
dowed with the opposite force of reciprocal repulsion, to be placed 
in proximity, and then allowed to fly apart. ‘The distances run 
through by them severally, being, at any given time, determined, 
might not their respective inertias be taken to be inversely as those 
distances ; so that the question would be as well ascertained in 
this case, as in that above stated in which gravitation should be 
resorted to as the test? 

7. It seems to me that this question is sufficiently answered, in 
the affirmative, in your second paragraph, page 7, (p. 269,) in 
which you allege, that “one body has twice as much inertia as 
another, if when the same force acts upon tt. for the same time, 
it acquires but half the velocity. This is the fundamental con- 
ception of inertia.” 

8. In the third paragraph, fourth page, (p. 261,) you say, “that 
the quantity of matter 1s measured by those sensible properties of 
matter which undergo quantitative addition, subtraction and di- 
vision, as the matter is added, subtracted or divided, the quan- 
tity of matier cannot be known in any other way ; but this mode 
of measuring: the quantity of matter in order to be true at all, 
must be true universally.” 

9. Also your fourth paragraph, fifth page, (p. 268,) concludes 
with this allegation, “and thus we have proved, that if there be 
any kind of matter which is not heavy, the weight can no longer 
avail us, in any case to any extent, as the measure of the quan- 
tity of matter.” 

10. In reply to these allegations let me inquire, cannot a matter 
exist of which the sensible properties do not admit of being 
measured by human means? Because some kinds of matter 
can be measured by “those sensible qualities which undergo 
quantitative addition, subtraction and division,” does it follow 
that there may not be matter which is incapable of being thus 
measured: And wherefore would the method of obtaining phi- 


262 Prof. Whewell’s Demonstration 


losophical truth be “ futile” in the one case, because inapplicable 
in the other? Because the inertias of A and B have been discov- 
ered, by means of their gravitation, does it follow that the inertias 
of X and Y cannot be discovered by their self-repellent power ? 
Why should the inapplicability of gravitation in the one case 
render its employment futile in the other? 

11. It is self-evident, that matter without weight cannot be 
estimated by weighing, but I deny that on that account such 
weightless matter may not be otherwise estimated. ‘The inertias 
of A and B cannot be better measured by gravitation than those 
of X and Y by repulsion, as already shown. 

12. You seem to infer, in paragraph second, page sixth, (p. 268, ) 
that we should be equally destitute of the means of measuring 
matter accurately, ‘ were any kind of matter heavy indeed, but not 
so heavy, in proportion to tts quantity of matter, as other kinds.” 

13. If in the case of all matter weight be admitted to be the only 
measure of quantity, it were inconsistent to suppose any given 
quantity of matter, of any one kind, to have less weight than an 
equal quantity of another kind; but upon what other than a 
conventional basis is it to be assumed, that there is more matter 
in a cubic inch of platinum than in a cubic inch of tin; ina 
cubic inch of mercury than in a cubic inch of iron? Judging 
by the chemical efficacy of the masses, although the weight of 
mercury is to that of iron as 13.6 is to 8, there are more equiva- 
lents of the latter than the former in any given bulk, since by 
weight twenty-eight parts of iron are equivalent to two hundred 
and two parts of mercury. 

14. Weight is one of the properties of certain kinds of matter, 
and has been advantageously resorted to, in preference to any 
other property, in estimating the quantity of the matter to which 
it appertains. Nevertheless, measurement by bulk is found ex- 
pedient or necessary in many cases. But may we not appeal to 
any general property which admits of being measured or esti- 
mated? Faraday has inferred that the quantity of electricity, is 
as the quantity of gas which it evolves. Light has been con- 
sidered as proportional in quantity to the surface which it illu- 
minates with a given intensity at a certain distance. The quan- 
tity of caloric has been held to be directly as the weight of 
water which it will render aériform ; and has also been estima- 


that all Matter is Heavy. 263 


ted by the degree of its expansive or thermometric influence. 
What scale-beam is more delicate than the thermoscope of Mel- 
loni? | 

15. In the last paragraph but one, seventh page, (p. 270,) you 
suggest, that “perhaps some persons might conceive that the 
identity of weight and inertia is obvious at once, for both are 
merely resistance to motion ; inertia, resistance to all motion, or 
change of motion ; weight, resistance to motion upwards.” 

16. 1 am surprised that you should think the opinion of any per- 
son worthy of attention, who should entertain so narrow a view 
of weight, as antagonist of momentum, as that above quoted, 
“that it is a resistance to motion upwards.” Agreeably to the 
definition, given at the commencement of the letter, weight, in 
its usual practical sense, is only one case of the general force 
which causes all ponderable masses of matter to gravitate 
towards each other, and which is of course liable to resist any 
conflicting motion, whatever may be the direction. When in 
the form of solar attraction, it overcomes that inertia of the 
planets which would otherwise cause them to leave their orbits, 
does gravitation “resist motion upwards 2” 

17. In the next paragraph you allege, that ‘there is a difference 
in these two kinds of resistance to motion. Inertia is instanta- 
neous, weight 1s continuous resistance.” 

18. It is to this allegation I object, that as you have defined 
inertia to be “ resistance to motion, or to change of motion,” it fol- 
lows that it can be instantaneous only where the impulse which 
itgpesists is instantaneous. It cannot be less continuous than the 
force by which it is overcome. 

19. Gravity has been considered as acting upon falling bodies by 
an infinity of impulses, each producing an adequate acceleration; 
bat to every such accelerating impulse, producing of course a 
“change of motion,” will there not be a commensurate resist- 
ance from inertia? and the impulses and resistances being both 
infinite, will not one be as continugus as the other ? 

20. I have already adverted to inertia as the continuous antag- 
enist of solar attraction in the case of revolving planets. 

21. Agreeably to Mossotti, the creation consists of two kinds of 
matter, of which the homogeneous particles are mutually repel- 
lent, the heterogeneous mutually attractive. Consistently with 


264 Prof. Whewell’s Demonstration 


this hypothesis, per se, any matter must be imponderable ; being: 
endowed with a property the very opposite of attraction’ of 
gravitation. 'This last mentioned property exists between masses 
consisting of both kinds of particles, so far as the attraction 
between the heterogeneous atoms predominates over the repul- 
sion between those which are homogeneous. It would foliow 
from these premises, that all matter is ponderable or otherwise, 
accordingly as it may be situated. 
22. Can the ether by which, according to the undulatory theory, 
light is transmitted, consist of ponderable matter? Were it so, 
would it not be attracted about the planets with forces propor- 
tioned to their weight, respectively? and becoming of unequal 
density, would not the diversity in its density, thus arising, 
affect its undulations, as the transmission of sound is influenced 
by any variations in the density of the aériform fluid by which 
it is propagated ? 
With esteem, 
I am yours truly, 
Rosert Hare. 


Demonstration that all Matter is Heavy. By the Rev. W1itLt1aAmM WHE- 
wet, B. D., Fellow of Trinity College and Professor of Moral 
Philosophy. [Read February 22d, 1841.] 


“The discussion of the nature of the grounds and proofs of the most 
general propositions which the physical sciences include, belongs rather 
to metaphysics than to that course of experimental and mathematiflll 
investigation by which the sciences are formed. But such discussions 
seem by no means unfitted to occupy the attention of the cultivators of 
physical science. The ideal, as well as the experimental side of our 
knowledge, must be carefully studied and scrutinized, in order that its 
true import may be seen; and this province of human speculation has 
been perhaps of late unjustly depreciated and neglected by men of 
science. Yet it can be prosecuted in the most advantageous manner 
by them only : for no one can speculate securely and rightly respecting 
the nature and proofs of the truths of science without a steady posses- 
sion of some large and solid portions of such truths. A man must be 
a mathematician, a mechanical philosopher, a natural historian, in order 
that he may philosophize well concerning mathematics, and mechanics, 


_ that all Matter is Heavy. 265 


and natural history; and the mere metaphysician who without such 
preparation and fitness sets himself to determine the grounds of mathe- 
matical or mechanical truths, or the principles of classification, will be. 
liable to be led into error at every step. He must speculate by means 
of general terms, which he will not be able to use as instruments of 
discovering and conveying philosophical truth, because he cannot, in 
his own mind, habitually and familiarly, embody their import in special 
examples. 

“¢ Acting upon such views, | have already laid before the Philosophical 
Society of Cambridge essays on such subjects as I here refer to; espe- 
cially a memoir ‘‘ On the Nature of the Truth of the Laws of Motion,” 
which was printed by the Society in its Transactions. This memoir 
appears to have excited in other places, notice of such a kind as to 
shew that the minds of many speculative persons are ready for and 
inclined towards the discussion of such questions. 1am therefore the 
more willing to bring under consideration another subject of a kind 
closely related to the one just mentioned. 

‘“¢ The general questions which all such discussions suggest, are (in 
the existing phase of English philosophy) whether certain proposed 
scientific truths, (as the laws of motion,) be necessary truths ; and if 
they are necessary, (which I have attempted to shew that in a certain 
sense they are,) on what ground their necessity rests. ‘These questions 
may be discussed in a general form, as I have elsewhere attempted to 
shew. But it may be instructive also to follow the general arguments 
into the form which they assume in special cases; and to exhibit, ma 
distinct shape, the incongruities into which the opposite false doctrine 
leads us, when applied to particular examples. This accordingly is 
what I propose to do in the present memoir, with regard to the propo- 
sition stated at the head of this paper, namely, that all matter is heavy. 

“ At first sight it may appear a doctrine altogether untenable to as- 
sert that this proposition is a necessary truth: for it may be urged, we 
have no difficulty in conceiving matter which is not heavy; so that 
matter without weight is a conception not inconsistent with itself; 
which it must be if the reverse were a necessary truth. It may be 
added, that the possibility of conceiving matter without weight was 
shewn in the controversy which ended in the downfall of the phlogiston 
theory of chemical composition; for Some of the reasoners on this 
subject asserted phlogiston to be a body with positive levity instead of 
gravity, which hypothesis, however false, shews that such a supposition 
is possible. Again, it may be said that weight and inertia are two sep- 
arate properties of matter; that mathematicians measure the quantity 
of matter by the inertia, and that we learn by experiment only that the 

Vol. xin, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 34 


266 Prof. Whewell’s Demonstration 


weight is proportional to the inertia; Newton’s experiments with pen- 
dulums of different materials having been made with this very object. 

“‘T proceed to reply to these arguments. And first, as to the possi- 
bility of conceiving matter without weight, and the argument thence 
deduced, that the universal gravity of matter is not a necessary truth, I 
remark, that it is indeed just to say that we cannot even distinctly con- 
ceive the contrary of a necessary truth to be true ; but that this impos- 
sibility can be asserted only of those perfectly distinct conceptions 
which result from a complete developement of the fundamental idea 
and its consequences. ‘Till we reach this stage of developement, the 
obscurity and indistinctness may prevent our perceiving absolute con- 
tradictions, though they exist. We have abundant store of examples 
of this even in geometry and arithmetic ; where the truths are univer- 
sally allowed to be necessary, and where the relations which are impos- 
sible, are also inconceivable, that is, not conceivable distinctly. ‘Such 
relations, though not distinctly conceivable, still often appear conceiva- 
ble and possible, owing to the indistinctness of our ideas. Who, at the 
first outset of his geometrical studies, sees any impossibility in suppo- 
sing the side and the diagonal of a square to have a common measure ? 
Yet they can be rigorously proved to be incommensurable, and there- 
fore the attempt distinctly to conceive a common measure of them 
must fail. The attempts at the geometrical duplication of the cube, 
and the supposed solutions, (as that of Hobbes) have involved absolute 
contradictions ; yet this has not prevented their being long and obsti- 
nately entertained by men, even of minds acute and clear in other 
respects. And the same might be shewn to be the case in arithmetic. 
It is plain, therefore, that we cannot, from the supposed possibility of 
conceiving matter without weight, infer that the contrary may not be a 
necessary truth. 

““Our power of judging, from the compatibility or incompatibility of 
our conceptions, whether certain propositions respecting the relations of 
ideas are true or not, must depend entirely, as I have said, upon the 
degree of developement which such ideas have undergone in our 
minds. Some of the relations of our conceptions on any subject are 
evident upon the first steady contemplation of the fundamental idea by 
a sound mind: these are the axioms of the subject. Other propositions 
may be deduced from the axioms by strict logical reasoning. ‘These 
propositions are no less necessary than the axioms, though to common 
minds their evidence is very different. Yet as we become familiar with 
the steps by which these ulterior truths are deduced from the axioms, 
their truth also becomes evident, and the contrary becomes inconceiv- 
able. When a person has familiarized himself with the first twenty-six 


that all Matier is Heavy. 267 


propositions of Euclid, and not till then, it becomes evident to him, 
that parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallels 
‘are equal; and he cannot even conceive the contrary. When he has 
a little further cultivated his geometrical powers, the equality of the 
square on the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle to the squares on 
the sides, becomes also evident; the steps by which it is demonstrated 
being so familiar to the mind as to be apprehended without a conscious 
act. And thus, the contrary of a necessary truth cannot be distinctly 
conceived; but the incapacity of forming such a conception is a condi- 
tion which depends upon cultivation, being intimately connected with 
the power of rapidly and clearly perceiving the connection of the 
necessary truth under consideration with the elementary principles on 
which it depends. And thus, again, it may be that there is an absolute 
impossibility of conceiving matter without weight; but then, this impos- 
sibility may not be apparent, till we have traced our fundamental con- 
ceptions of matter into-some of their consequences. 

‘** The question then occurs, whether we can, by any steps of rea- 
soning, point out an inconsistency in the conception of matter without 
weight. This I conceive we may do, and this I shall attempt to shew. 

“The general mode of stating the argument is this :—the quantity of 
matter is measured by those sensible properties of matter which undergo 
quantitative addition, subtraction and division, as the matter is added, 
subtracted and divided. The quantity of matter cannot be known in 
any other way. But this mode of measuring the quantity of matter, in 
order to be true at all, must be universally true. If it were only partially 
true, the limits within which it is to be applied would be arbitrary ; 
and therefore the whole procedure would be arbitrary, and, asa method 
of obtaining philosophical truth, altogether futile. 

“¢ We may unfold this argument further. Let the contrary be sup- 
posed, of that which we assert to be true: namely, let it be supposed 
that while all other kinds of matter are heavy, (and of course heavy 
in proportion to the quantity of matter,) there is one kind of matter 
which is absolutely destitute of weight; as, for instance, phlogiston, or 
any other element. Then where this weightless element (as we may 
term it) is mixed with weighty elements, we shall have a compound, in 
which the weight is no longer proportional to the quantity of matter. 
If, for example, 2 measures of heavy matter unite with 1 measure of 
phlogiston, the weight is as 2, and the quantity of matter as 3. In all 
such cases, therefore, the weight ceases to be the measure of the quan- ‘ 
tity of matter. And as the proportion of the weighty and the weight- 
less matter may vary in innumerable degrees in such compounds, the 
weight affords no criterion at all of the quantity of matter in them. 


268 Prof. Whewell’s Demonstration 


And the smallest admixture of the weightless element is sufficient to 
prevent the weight from being taken as the measure of the quantity of 
matter. x 

“ But on this hypothesis, how are we to distinguish such compounds 
from bodies consisting purely of heavy matter? How are we to satisfy 
ourselves that there is not, in every body, some admixture, small or 
great, of the weightless element? If we call this element phlogiston, 
how shall we know that the bodies with which we have to do are, any of 
them, absolutely free from phlogiston ? 

** We cannot refer to the weight for any such assurance; for by sup- 
position the presence and absence of phlogiston makes no difference in 
the weight. Nor can any other properties secure us at least from a 
very small admixture ; for to assert that a mixture of 1 in 100 or 1 in 
10 of phlogiston would always manifest itself in the properties of the 
body, must be an arbitrary procedure, till we have proved this assertion 
by experiment ; and we cannot do this till we have learnt some mode 
of measuring the quantities of matter in bodies and parts of bodies ; 
which is exactly what we question the possibility of, in the present 
hypothesis. 

“« Thus, if we assume the existence of an element, phlogiston, devoid 
of weight, we cannot be sure that every body does not contain some 
portion of this element; while we see that if there be an admixture of 
such an element, the weight is no longer any criterion of the quantity 
of matter. And thus we have proved, that if there be any kind of mat- 
ter which is not heavy, the weight can no longer avail us, in any case or 
to any extent, as a measure of the quantity of matter. 

‘“*] may remark, that the same conclusion is easily extended to the 
case in which phlogiston is supposed to have absolute levity ; for in 
that case, a certain mixture of phlogiston and of heavy matter would 
have no weight, and might be substituted for phlogiston in the pre- 
ceding reasoning. 

“‘] may remark also, that the same conclusion would follow by the 
same reasoning, if any kind of matter, instead of being void of weight, 
were heavy indeed, but not so heavy, in proportion to its quantity of 
matter, as other kinds. 

‘* On all these hypotheses there would be no possibility of measuring 
quantity of matter by weight atall, in any case, or to any extent. 

““ But it may be urged, that we have not yet reduced the hypothesis 
of matter without weight to a contradiction; for that mathematicians 
measure quantity of matter, not by weight, but by the other property, 
of which we have spoken, inertia. 


that all Matter is Heavy. 269 


To this I reply, that, practically speaking, quantity of matter is 
always measured by weight, both by mechanicians and chemists: and 
as we have proved that this procedure is utterly insecure in all cases, 
on the hypothesis of weightless matte the practice rests upon a con- 
viction that the hypothesis is false. And yet the practice is universal. 
Every experimenter measures quantity of matter by the balance. No 
one has ever thought of measuring quantity of matter by its inertia 
practically ; no one has constructed a measure of quantity of matter in 
which the matter produces its indications of quantity by its motion. 
When we have to take to account the inertia of a body, we inquire 
what its weight is, and assume this as the measure of the inertia; but 
we never take the contrary course, and ascertain the inertia first in 
order to determine by that means the weight. 

* But it may be asked, Is it not then true, and an important scientific 
iruth, that the quantity of matter is measured by the inertia? Is it not 
true, and proved by experiment, that the weight is proportional to the 
inertia ? If this be not the result of Newton’s experiments mentioned 
above, what, it may be demanded, do they prove ? 

“To these questions I reply: It is true that quantity of matter is 
measured by the inertia, for it is true that inertia is as the quantity of 
matter. This truth is indeed one of the laws of motion. That weight 
is proportional to inertia is proved by experiment, as far as the laws of 
motion are so proved: and Newton’s experiments prove one of the 
laws of motion, so far as any experiments can prove them, or are 
needed to prove them. 

‘“« That inertia is proportional to weight, is a law equivalent to that 
law which asserts, that when pressure produces motion in a given body, 
the velocity produced in a given time is as the pressure. For if the 
velocity be as the pressure, when the body is given, the velocity will 
be constant if the inertia also be as the pressure. For the inertia is 
understood to be that property of bodies to which, ceteris paribus, the 
velocity impressed is inversely proportional. One body has. twice as 
much inertia as another, if, when the same force acts upon it for the 
same time, it acquires but half the velocity. This is the fundamental 
conception of inertia. 

*‘ In Newton’s pendulum experiments, the pressure producing motion 
was a certain resolved part of the weight, and was proportional to the 
weight: It appeared by the experiments, that whatever were the mate- 
rial of which the pendulum was formed, the rate of oscillation was the 
same ; that is, the velocity acquired was the same. Hence the inertia 
_ of the different bodies must have been in each case as the weight: and 
thus this assertion is true of all different kinds of bodies. 


. 


270 Prof. Whewell’s Demonstration 


“¢ Thus it appears that the assertion, that inertia is universally propor- 
tional to weight, is equivalent to the law of motion, that the velocity is 
as the pressure. The conception of inertia (of which, as we have 
said, the fundamental conceptien is, that the velocity impressed is in- 
versely proportional to the inertia,) connects the two propositions so as 
to make them identical. 

_ “ Hence our argument with regard to the universal gravity of matter 
brings us to the above law of motion, and is proved by Newton’s expe- 
riments in the same sense in which that law of motion is so proved. 

‘“‘ Perhaps some persons might conceive that the identity of weight 
and inertia is obvious at once; for both are merely resistance to mo- 
tion ;—inertia, resistance to all motion (or change of motion)—weight, 
resistance to motion upwards.~ 

‘‘ But there is a difference in these two kinds of resistance to motion. 
Inertia is instantaneous, weight is continuous resistance. Any momen- 
tary impulse which acts upon a free body overcomes its inertia, for it 
changes its motion: and this change once effected, the inertia opposes 
any return to the former condition, as well as any additional change. 
The inertia is thus overcome by a momentary force. But the weight 
can only be overcome by a continuous force like itself. If an impulse 
act in opposition to the weight, it may fora moment neutralize or over- 
come the weight; but if it be not continued, the weight resumes its 
effect, and restores the condition which existed before the impulse 
acted. 

‘¢ But weight not only produces rest, when it is resisted, but motion, 
when it is not resisted. Weightis measured by the reaction which would 
balance it; but when unbalanced, it produces motion, and the velocity 
of this motion increases constantly. Now what determines the velocity 

‘thus produced in a given time, or its rate of increase? What deter- 
mines it to have one magnitude rather than another? ‘To this we must 
evidently reply, the inertia. When weight produces motion, the inertia 
is the reaction which makes the motion determinate. The accumulated 
motion produced by the action of unbalanced weight is as determinate 

a condition as the equilibrium produced by balanced weight. In both 
cases the condition of the body acted on is determined by the opposition 
of the action and reaction. 

‘“‘ Hence inertia is the reaction which opposes the weight, when un- 
balanced. But by the conception of action and reaction, (as mutually 
determining and determined,) they are measured by each other: and 
hence the inertia is necessarily proportional to the weight. 

‘“* But when we have reached this conclusion, the original objection 
may be again urged against it. It may be said, that there must be some 


* 


. that all Matter is Heavy. 271 


fallacy in this reasoning, for it proves a state of things to be necessary 
when we can so easily conceive a contrary state of things. Is it denied, 
the opponent may ask, that we can readily imagine a state of things in 
which bodies have no weight ? Is not the uniform tendency of all bodies 
in the same direction not only not necessary, but not even true? For 
they do in reality tend, not with equal forces in parallel lines, but to 
a centre with unequal forces, according to their position: and we can 
conceive these differences of intensity and direction in the force to be 
greater than they really are ; and can with equal ease suppose the force 
to disappear altogether. 

** To this I reply, that certainly we may conceive the weight of bodies 
to vary in intensity and direction, and by an additional effort of imagi- 
nation may conceive the weight to vanish: but that in all these suppo- 
sitions, even in the extreme one, we must suppose the rule to be uni- 
versal. If any bodies have weight, all bodies must have weight. If 
the direction of weight be different in different points, this direction 
must still vary according to the law of continuity ; and the same is true 
of the intensity of the weight. For if this were not so, the rest and 
motion, the velocity and direction, the permanence and change of bod- 
ies, as to their mechanical condition, would be arbitrary and incohe- 
rent: they would not be subject to mechanical ideas ; that is, not to 
ideas at all; and hence these conditions of objects would in fact be 
inconceivable. ' In order that the universe may be possible, that is, may 
fall under the conditions of intelligible conceptions, we must be able to 
conceive a body at rest. But:the rest of bodies (except in the absolute 
negation of all force) implies the equilibrium of opposite forces. And 
one of these opposite forces must be a general force, as weight, in order 
that the universe may be governed by general conditions. And this 
general force, by the conception of force, may produce motion, as well 
as equilibrium ; and this motion again must be determined, and deter- 
mined by general conditions; which cannot be, except the communi- 
cation of motion be regulated by an inertia proportional to the weight. 

“‘ But it will be asked, Is it then pretended that Newton’s experiment, 
by which it was intended to prove inertia proportional to weight, does 
really prove nothing but what may be demonstrated @ priori? Could 
we know, without experiment, that all bodies,—gold, iron, wood, cork,— 
have inertia proportional to their weight? And to this we reply, that 
experiment holds the same place in the establishment of this, as of the 
other fundamental doctrines of mechanics. Intercourse with the external 
world is requisite for developing our ideas ; measurement of phenomena 
is needed to fix our conceptions and to render them precise; but the 
result of our experimental studies is, that we reach a position in which 


272 Prof. Whewell’s Demonstration, &c. 


our convictions do not rest upon experiment. We learn by observation 
truths of which we afterwards see the necessity. ‘This is the case with 
the laws of motion, as I have repeatedly endeavored to shew. The 
same will appear to be the case with the proposition, that bodies of dif- 
ferent kinds have their inertia proportional to their weight. 

“For bodies of the same kind have their inertia proportional to their 
weight, both quantities being proportional to the quantity of maitter. 
And if we compress the same quantity of matter into half the space, 
neither the weight nor the inertia is altered, because these depend on 
the quantity of matter alone.- But in this way we obtain a body of 
twice the density; and in the same manner we obtain a body of any 
other density. Therefore whatever be the density, the inertia is pro- 
portional to the quantity of matter. But the mechanical. relations of 
bodies cannot depend upon any difference of kind, except a difference 
of density. For if we suppose any fundamental difference of mechan- 
ical nature in the particles or component elements of bodies, we are 
led to the same conclusion, of arbitrary, and therefore, impossible, re- 
sults, which we deduced from this supposition with regard to weight. 
Therefore all bodies of different density, and hence, all bodies what- 
ever, must have their inertia proportional to their weight. 

*“¢ Hence we see, that the propositions, that all bodies are heavy, and 
that inertia is proportional to weight, necessarily follow from those fun- 
damental ideas which we unavoidably employ in all attempts to reason 
concerning the mechanical relations of bodies. This conclusion may 
perhaps appear the more startling to many, because they have been 
accustomed to expect that fundamental ideas and their relations should 
be self-evident at our first contemplation of them. This, however, is 
far from being the case, as I have already shewn. It is not the first, 
but the most complete and developed condition of our conceptions which 
enables us to see what are axiomatic truths in each province of human 
speculation. Our fundamental ideas are necessary conditions of know- 
ledge, universal forms of intuition, inherent types of mental develop- 
ment; they may even be termed, if any one chooses, results of connate 
intellectual tendencies; but we cannot term them innate ideas, without 
calling up a large array of false opinions. For innate ideas were con- 
sidered as capable of composition, but by no means of simplification ; 
as most perfect in their original condition ; as to be found, if any where, 
in the most uneducated and most uncultivated minds; as the same in 
all ages, nations, and stages of intellectual culture ; as capable of being 
referred to at once, and made the basis of our reasonings, without any 
special acuteness or effort: in all which circumstances the fundamental 
ideas of which we have spoken, are opposed to innate ideas so under- 
stood. 


Integration of Differential Eiquations. 273 


“T shall not, however, here prosecute this subject. I will only remark, 
that fundamental ideas, as we view them, are not only not innate, in any 
usual or useful sense, but they are not necessarily ultimate elements of 
our knowledge. They are the results of our analysis so far as we have 
yet prosecuted it ; but they may themselves subsequently be analyzed. 
It may hereafter appear, that what we have treated as different funda- 
mental ideas have, in fact, a connexion, at some point below the struc- 
ture which we erect upon them. For instance, we treat of the mechan- 
ical ideas of force, matter, and the like, as distinct from the idea of 
substance. Yet the principle of measuring the quantity of matter by 
its weight, which we have deduced from mechanical ideas, is applied 
to determine the substances which enter into the composition of bodies. 
The idea of substance supplies the axiom, that the whole quantity of 
matter of a compound body is equal to the sum of the quantities of 
matter of its elements. ‘The mechanical ideas of force and matter lead 
us to infer that the quantity both of the whole and its parts must be 
measured by their weights. Substance may, for some purposes, be 
described as that to which properties belong; matter in like manner 
may be described as that which resists force. The former involves the 
idea of permanent being; the latter the idea of causation. There,may 
be some elevated point of view from which these ideas may be seen to 
run together. But even if this be so, it will by no means affect the 
validity of reasonings founded upon these notions, when duly deter- 
mined and developed. If we once adopt a view of the nature of know- 
ledge which makes necessary truth possible at all, we need be little 
embarrassed by finding how closely connected different necessary truths 
are ; and how often, in exploring towards their roots, different branches 
appear to spring from the same stem. W. WHEWELL.” 

Grange, August 31, 1840. 


Arr. VIII.—Integration of a particular kind of Differential 
Equations of the second order ; by Prof. 'Turoporr Strona. 


dad? 
Tas equations which we propose to ee are a ol. 
ae 2pq—qtldy 


w 
= ren ae (2), in which y and w are he ae variable 
quantities, w being considered as the independent variable, whose 
differential (denoted by du) is supposed to be constant or invaria- 


ble, and y is supposed to be a function of wu. 
Vol. xu11, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 30 


274 Integration of Differential Equations. 


(1) is taken from Vol. III, p. 537, second edition, of the Traite 
du Calcul Differentiel et du Calcul Integral, par S. F. Lacroix; 
and (2) is deduced from (1) by changing the sign of the last 
term, or which comes to the same thing, by changing 0? in (1) 
into —b?, that is, using bV —1 for b. We shall put 2pq—q+1 
=c, (a), and shall use the characteristic, /”, when prefixed to any 
differential expression, to signify that its integral is to be taken 
with reference to the variable, from its value n, to the value m; 
or 2 and m are two values cf the variable, and the integral is sup- 
posed to be taken from the first limit m, to the second m. 


; a p-l : . 
Lacroix remarks that y= (dela? —£*) cos. bu’, is a par- 


ticular value of y, which satisfies (1); in which w? is to be re- 
garded as constant in taking the integral, x and its functions be- 
ing the only variables, and the integral is supposed to be taken 
from 2=0 to c=a, which are the first and second limits of 2. 
We have also found by integrating (1) (by the method of se- 
sles) that it is satisfied by the particular value of y, which is de- 


a -P af 
noted by y=u'~° ofv(a? =27) cos.bu%v, when p is positive, 


and such that 1 —p is positive, and not an indefinitely small quan- 
tity, and it is to be noted that v and its functions are considered 
as the only variables in taking the integral, uw? being regarded as 
constant. Hence if we use A and B to dencte two arbitrary con- 
stants, we shall have (by the well known theory of integrals) for 


the complete value of y, the expression y=A wf i dx(a? pe hats 
l-c f7a - , 

cos.bu?z + Bu of doa? —v*) *cos.butn, (6), in which p must 

not be considered as an indefinitely small quantity, and 1—- p is 


positive and finite; since the limits of 2 and v are the same in 
(6), we may change v into z, and then the value of y may be 


‘a -1 rs 
put under the form y = vk ' dx(a? — 22) cos.butr (A+ Bu’ 


Cc 


(a? a) |, (). If we put l—e=e, 1 -2p—7, ore=i—e, 


Te 1-2 
2=1-f, (d), we get u ‘(a2 —x?) * ula? ~ 22y, and if we 
substitute the values of cand 2p from (d) in (a), we get bya 
e : ING 
slight reduction LE ig 2 (a? —2?) = \u(a? —21)2) , hence, 
when e is very small, using hyperbolic logarithms and rejecting 


Integration of Differential Equations. 275 


the terms which abe na e*, &c. we get (by the exponential 
l=-c 
theorem,) wu (a?— z° 2)" eS hiya ula? — 4? 2)7, which when 


substituted in (c) gives y =f, dz(a? —©) “cos.bufe(A-B+ 


1 
Belog.u(a? — x? )4 ), in which (although e is supposed to be indefi- 
nitely small,) we may suppose that A+B is yet represented by 
A’, and eB by BY’, A’, B’ being arbitrary finite quantities ; 
aT as 

y=" de(ar—a*y cos. bute (A+B log. u(a? —x?)4 ;how when 
eis very small, (q being finite,) fis also very small, and (d) gives 
2p=1—f, or p= by rejecting - in comparison with 3; hence 
when p=# (and q not indefinitely small) we get for the integral 
of (1), (observing that p=4 gives c=1,) y= f (dela? —g2)-2 


1 

cos. bute | A! +B’ log.u(a? - “*)t), (e), A’, B’ being the two arbi- 
trary constants which (1), an equation of the second order of 
differentials, requires that the complete value of y should have. 

We may observe that Lacroix’s integral will always satisfy (1) 
when p is positive and not indefinitely small, but it will not sat- 
isfy (1) when p is negative ; also our integral will always satisfy 
(1) when p is negative, (whether it is indefinitely small or not ;) 
but when p is positive and greater than a fails i satisfy it. 


ze hs 
gq mapa 30) 
and the particular value of y which we have found, becomes 


1-9 1 
y=u dua? —v?) 27 eos.bu%v, and if we put b= =a it will be- 


Again, if we put c=0, we get by (2) pe i ; gery 5) 


Ean | 1— 
come og Hasaet thi, fae or if we put oy =i we 


Ai a 
get 1 — q=2ig “9= 357) and 2 Re oa) and y=u ot? 
wae. 


: d°y 
(a? —v? )'cos.(27 + 1)u?**'v, and (1) becomes | eta? yu2'ti — 0, 


the value of y being a particular solution ce me it would now 
be easy after the manner of Lacroix to deduce (from what has 
here been done) the second class of the cases of integrability of 
the equation of Riccati ; but as it is sufficiently obvious, we shall 


276 Integration of Differential Equations. 


not stop to give it, but shall refer for the process to the same vol- 
ume and page of Lacroix’s work that we have done at the com- 
mencement of this paper. 

We will now show how to find the integral of (2). If we 
change } into 6V —1, in (6), we shall have the complete value of 
y in the general case when p is positive and less than unity ; and 
if p=4, c=1, by making the same change in (e) we shall have 
the complete value of y in this case of the general integral. 

If p is positive and greater than unity, we must change 6 into 
bV —1 in Lacroix’s integral, and change —v? in ours into +v?, 
then using A and B to denote two arbitrary constants, we get 


y=A fldo(a _22) ‘cos. buley/ 1-48 rey do(ae-to8) | 
cos. bu’v, (f), for the complete value of y. If p is negative and 

finite, we must change —z? into +z? in Lacroix’s integral, and 
b into bV —1 in ours, then using A and B for the arbitrary con- 
stants we shall have y=A if’ m de(a? + a?) cos.bule+Bu 


fe dv(a? —v?) “cos.bu’v/ — 1, (g), for the complete value of y. 


We will now give some applications of what has been done to 
differential equations which can be reduced to the form of (2). 
OY Oe 

Suppose that we would integrate the equations i ee ae 


i Od «pale my aie 
B?z"y=0, (h), and de? +A7,—Bre y=0, (z), in which z and 


y are the only variables, y being considered as a function of -, 
x being considered as the independent variable whose differential 
dz is supposed to be constant, and e is supposed to be the base of 
hyperbolic logarithms ; if we change the independent variable 
from x to w, we must not consider dr to be constant, but we may 
suppose du to be constant ; also in (h) and (7) we must suppose 


a(?y 
eo , claeal eo We al nts 
that 72 is changed to —7— e shall now put u=2""?, 
n+2=m, and du= constant in (h), then since y is regarded as a 


function of uw, and w of x, we get by well known formule of 


Fie 
_. dy dy du ay de 
differentiation dae ae a ', and hence aps 


Integration of Differential E'quations. 277 
d’y di 
(m— Ler? a SL m2 Juz 8 since u=2™, we get = 


dy | 
ar) 
mit, and \de} —m(m—1) % WM CY; by substitu 
Zz du de 


ty) 
a 
dx 
A— *| dy By 


m | udu ‘i U 


d: 
ting these values of - , and n= in (h) we get bya 


ih owele 
slight reduction = + (1+ =0, (k), which is 


—1 
reduced to the form of (2) by putting Lg moet lae 
Be 


—1 
j also a? = 


G?=— ——,. 2qg—24=—1, or g=h; -- p= ie ha a 


ie the integral of (4) is found the same way as that of (2) 
given above ; hence we have y expressed by a known function 
of w, then anges for u its value «”, we have y expressed by a 
known function of «as required. Again, if we put w=e"*, we 


fae) 
ot of dydu dy | dy dz ‘ is 
Me abe duc Tan and sin =n? u? a tne 


dy 
ae substituting these values and w=e"* in (7), we have by a 


udu n? u 


d? A\ dy B? 
small reduction Wi lh Ae zy 2 =0, (/); hence if we 
B? 
put 2py—gt1=14., a?=1, b=, 2q —2=—lorg=3, we 


A 
shall have p=$+-— ; then the value of y is found in terms of z, 


as in integrating (2), and by putting for wits value e"*, y be- 
comes known in terms of x as required. ‘The equations (A) and 
(2) were proposed in the Mathematical Miscellany by Prof. Peirce, 
at p. 399, first volume; we gave an answer to them in No. 8 of that 
work, which was incorrect in several particulars, which we shall 
not stop to notice any further than to observe, that u, the inde- 
pendent variable, when integrating with reference to z in La- 
croix’s integral, and » of our own, was involved in one of the 
limits of the integrals, so as to be a function of z or v, which ought 
not to have been so, but the error was not noticed by us in time 
sufficient for correction before the solution was published. 


278 Integration of Differential Equations. 


Ww, ill 1 d?z dz / 2u P 
Ve will now reduce the equation w 775+ 7 —2a'uz—57, (m), 
az. -dz 
to the form of (2); (m) is easily changed to aetada — 2a’ 
1 ee 1 d?y dy 
(24-7) =0, and if we put y=z+77, we have at ane 
2a'y=0, (n). If we put 2¢—2=0 or q=1, a?=1, 6?=2a', 
c=1 or 2gp—q+1=2p=1, we get p=4, and (2) will become 
the same as(n). Hence if in(e) we put g==1, a? =1, b=V —2a’, 
1 cis a 
we have y=Nf de(1—2*)*cosue¥ = 2a Bf de(1—22)-* 
log.[u(1—2x?)]cos.uzV —2a’, (0), for the complete value of y, 
which is the integral of (x). If we use e for the hyperbolic base, 
-ur/ Ia urs Bal 
ee +e 
we get by known formule cos.uxV RO Se Gam 
and if we put r=cos.y we get de (1—2?)-2 = ~ dg, 1-7?= 
-ur/2a'.cos.p , _ur/2a!.cos.p 
a by substituting 
i, 


: 7 
sin.?@, cos.urV — 2a! — 


1 -un/ 2a'.cos. 
these values in (0) we have y= — ff ie ( y »/2a'.cos an 


AY By! 
soe log.usin.*9}, the integral being taken from cos.p=0 to 
A’ B’ 
cos.p=1; or if we denote oy and @ by A and B, we have by 
interchanging the limits of the integral and changing its sign, 


(which makes no alteration in its value,) y= =f dy eee 


i oa 
cos.¢ = 1 to cos. = 0, or if we put = 3.14159, &c. (= the 
semi-circumference of a circle whose radius =1,) we get y= 
fi dy fest? TRINe siete | : [A+B logasin.*9}, 0 and = 
denoting the limits of »; or (since cos.» becomes negative in the 
second quadrant) we shall obtain the same value of y by putting 


y= af ‘ ner ee [A+B log.usin.¢ , (m’), the integral being 
taken from »=0, to p=7, (m/’) will be found on trial to satisfy 


(n), and since it involves the two independent arbitrary constants, 
y is the complete integral of () as required. 


‘ (A+Blog.usin.2¢), the integral being taken from 


Integration of Differential Equations. 279 


1 1 / Fal 1 
Since Zt y) we get z=y— apaf a (2 2a!.cOs.) _ ae 


+B 3/ a (log. w-+2 log. sin.e), or if we still denote 


1 7 2a!.cos. 
Aa/b’x (for brevity) by A,’ z= weap a has i a7) +B 


- dp (log u-+2 log. sin.#) rerareR, (p). If we put B=Q 


1 sal, : 
A= weset z= Bae if dy tes ee 1] , which is a particu- 


lar value of z that satisfies (m), and agrees with the value used 
by Laplace in the supplement to the 10th book of the Mécanique 
Céleste, Vol. IV, p. 60, (of the supplement,) and he expresses it 
as his opinion that the complete value of z cannot be found by 
any of the known methods; we will add that the same particular 
value is to be found in the profound commentary by Dr. Bow- 
ditch, at p. 973, Vol. IV. 


d? 
Again, if p=0, (or is indefinitely small,) (2) becomes ae + 
an Ta 0 ow? 2y =O, (q), which is not satisfied by La- 


: : : l-c -P 
croix’s integral, but our integral w fe dv (a? —v?) cos.bu?v 


7 —1, which (since l1—c=q, (a? —y?) = 1, rejecting indefi- 


nitely small quantities,) becomes ue utdv cos. butvV — 1 = 


E === —abul abuY abu® —abud 
sin.abul’ —1 e up e 


e 
Sy i ga Oe BN, a eas ek hat (where e= the hyper- 


bolic base,) will satisfy it; it is also evident that (q) ought to be 
abu -abul 

satisfied by each of the valuesy=e ,y=e i , which on trial 

will each be found to satisfy (q), hence if A and B denote two 


arbitrary constants, the complete value of y that satisfies (q) is 
abu — abut 

y=Ae -+Be : 

Also, if p=1, (or if 1—p is indefinitely small,) (2) becomes 
d?y, Al d 
ee <n —g2a?b2u?t-*y =0, (r)}, which is not satisfied by 
our integral, but Lacroix’s integral will satisfy it, that is, (since 

abud —abul | 


=i — @é é 
(a? —x?) =1,) y= f° dz cos. bux V—l=59- aap? will 


280 Zoological Writings of Rafinesque. 
so tu -q abul -q-abul 
satisfy it; .*. the values y=w oe sical eae , will each sat- 


isfy (r), and if A and B denote two arbitrary constants, y = 


bud —abul aa é 
(ae aie xu is the complete value of y that satisfies 


(r). Thus far g has been supposed to be different from zero ; 


dey | dy 
but if g=0, (2) becomes Fa+ 77, = 0 or ud?y+dydu = 0 


Adu. 
udy=Adu, or dy=——, or y=Ah.l.u+B, where A and B are 


the two arbitrary constants which the integral requires. ‘Thus 
we believe we have integrated (2) completely in all the cases 
which can occur. 


Arr. IX. Weta of the Zoological Writings of the late C. S. 
Rafinesque; by S. S. Hatpeman.* 


CoNSsTANTINE SAMUEL Rarinesqur, was born “at Galata, a sub- 
urb of Constantinople,” October 22d, 1783, and died in Phila- 
delphia on the 18th of September, 1840, of cancer of the stomach 
and liver. While yet an infant, his parents removed to Marseilles, 
where he remained some years, previous to being removed to Leg- 
horn. It is apparent throughout his works, that he considers him- 
self a great traveller; thus the motto to his “ Life of Travels” is 


‘Un voyageur dés le berceau, 
Je le serais jusqu’au tombeau.”’ 


He states that his parents took him to Asia while he was an 
infant, that he saw the coast of Africa, and names the places he 
would have seen, if he had been allowed to accompany his father 
to Canton! According to his own account, he commenced the 
study of natural history at an early age, which is certainly the 
fact, as his ‘description of four new species of birds from Java,’’ 
(seen in the Philadelphia museum,) was published in the Bul. des 
Sciences in 1803, when he was but nineteen years old; and his 
Florula Columbica and Delawarica, were presented to Dr. Barton, 
for insertion in his Med. and Phys. Journal, the year following. 


* A notice of the Botanical Writings of Rafinesque, appeared in this Journal, 
Vol. xu, p. 221, April, 1841. 


Zoological Writings of Rafinesque. 281 


Rafinesque was a most industrious man, and passed a great 
deal of work through his hands, relating to almost every subject. 
His life was made up of a series of vicissitudes, and his efforts 
were retarded by poverty, and the consequent necessity of making 
aliving. His greatest fault asa naturalist was not so much, per- 
haps, the shortness and resulting obscurity of his characters, as his 
passion for ‘new species,’ and the recklessness with which he pro- 
posed them, without sufficiently examining the works of his pre- 
decessors.. ‘The author who pursues such a course, treats his fel- 
low-laborers with disrespect, and prevents his works from being 
as much consulted as they may deserve ; for there is nothing to 
compel other authors to wade through unsatisfactory descriptions, 
which must, in many instances, be referred to established species. 
Rafinesque was very credulous, which led him to believe the ex- 
aggerated accounts of the vulgar; and to write essays and found 
‘species,’ upon grounds which should be beneath the notice of 
any naturalist. 

In giving a list of his zoological works, it is more with a view 
to point them out for the use of those who follow him in the va- 
rious branches upon which he touched, than to write a critique 
upon the whole, as this would be impossible; and nothing would 
be gained by it, as each department must eventually be consulted 
by those interested. We notice them as nearly as we are able, in 
chronological order, and believe the omissions will be but few. 

1810. Carattert di alcuni nuovi generi e nuove specie di ana- 
mali, §c., 8vo. pp. 105. This work is principally devoted to fish, 
illustrated by many rude figures, upon seventeen quarto copper- 
plates. It isa good work. ‘Thirty pages, and three plates, are 
devoted to botany. 

Indice D’Titiologia, §c., 8vo. pp. 70, and two plates. This 
work contains about three hundred and ninety species of Sicilian 
fishes, (one hundred and ninety of which are marked as new,) 
and twenty eight new genera. It is noticed at length by Swain- 
son, in ¥shes, &c. Vol. I, pp. 60-3 of the Cabinet Cyclopedia. 
Mr. S., who spent several years in Sicily, states that Rafinesque 
anticipated many of the genera of Cuvier, and thinks most of his 
species will yet be bronght to light, he having identified many of 
them himself. 

1811. Description of two new genera of Crustacea, and a new 


species of Atlantic fish. Sent to the Lin. Soc. 
Vol. xtu1, No. 2,—Jan.—March, 1842. 36 


282 Zoological Writings of Rafinesque. 


AZ oologie Sicilienne, §c. Containing about three hundred and 
sixty new species, independent of those already published. Un- 
published? . : 

1814. Précis des découvertes, Sc. This pamphlet contains 
many descriptions of new animals, commencing with two new 
genera of bats, the first of which he calls Cephalotes, which con- 
tains a new species; and the Vespertilio cephalotes of Pallas, or 
C: Pallasi, Raf. Geoffroy had previously formed a genus Ceph- 
alotes and called this species C. Pallasii. The characters of Geof- 
froy’s genus require ¢nezsors +; and Rafinesque’s 2, the number 
in ©. Pallasii; which is referred improperly, to his genus. Sull 
Rafinesque’s genus is not new, it having been previously charac- 
terized as a new genus of Illiger, under the name Harpya, which 
name (under the Greek form) has been subsequently applied to a 
genus of birds by Cuvier. Genus ii, Atalapha, Raf. has 4 incis- 
ors, and besides a new Sicilian species, he cites the Vespertilio 
Noveboracensis as-A. Americana. He says of his species, Nos. 3 
and 4, ‘j’ai changé le nom trop court et équivoque de AZus en 
Musculus!”  'This change is very unexpected from an author 
who has done so much in abbreviating names. Genns ili, a 
Mediterranean cetacean, not noticed by subsequent writers, is 
considered doubtful. Oxypterus, Raf., was by many consid- 
ered an imaginary genus, until a second species was discover- 
ed by Quoy and Gaimard. Sp. 6 and 7, Gerbillus soricinus and 
‘Talpa cupreata, observed in North America. Of five new species 
of American fish, Centropomus albus, is perhaps the Labrax mu- 
cronatus; C. luteus, Perea flavescens; and Sparus mocasinus, 
Pomotis vulgaris, Cuv.; a Linnean species.* Rafinesque remarks 
of the Crustacea, that “after the fishes, it is in this class that I 
have made the most numerous discoveries in Sicily; of about 
one hundred and eighty species that I have observed here, nearly 
the half are new; they will be all figured and described in my 
Sicilian Plaxology ;” and of the insects, ‘‘my discoveries in this 
class are less numerous; I have about twenty new species.” Be- 
sides a new genus, the species described are four of Lepisma, two 
Acari, a Formica, and two Aphides. We cite these to fortify our 
opinion that Rafinesque had little or no knowledge of Entomolo- 


* Among the Sicilian fish is one named Esox reticulatus, a name subsequently 
applied by Lesueur to a well known American species. 


Zoological Writings of Rafinesque. 283 


ey; asa great part of his American new species belong to these 
genera, and to Julus; genera with which every one is familiar. 
The remainder of the “‘ Précis” is taken up (except the botanical 
portion) with new species of Cephalopoda, worms, and zoo- 
phytes. 

Principes fondamentauxr de Somiologie, ou les Lois de la No- 
menclateur, etc. ‘The Laws are necessarily familiar to all pro- 
fessed naturalists; but we have never before met with so wel- 
come a digest of them. Somiology is designed to express the 
science of organized bodies in one word, and seems derived from 
sdma, a body, and logos, a discourse ; and, without it, two must 
be used, as Zoology, and Phytology or Botany.”* French is re- 
commended as the language of Natural History, instead of Latin. 
Another rule should have been added, viz. when a new species 
is characterized, which has nothing to enable one to recognize the 
description as belonging to a distinct species, it becomes necessa- 
ry to state wherein it déffers from an allied and well known spe- 
cies. 

Specchio delle Scienze, §c., 2 v. 8vo., Palermo, 1814. ‘This 
work was published monthly for one year, when it was discon- 
tinued, for the want of sufficient support; a fate which has befall- 
en all the periodical works of this author. He even states that 
the last number was detained by the printer, although indebted 
to him, but he must afterwards have succeeded in getting it, as we 
possess it. ‘There are a number of zoological articles in it, among 
which are descriptions of two new genera of fish, Leptopus and 
Nemochirus. Osservaziont microscopiche,t are principally devoted 
to new species of Infusoria. An article on the Sicilian Phocida, 
gives five species under four genera, retaining the Linnean name 
for “‘ P. vitulina,” under which name several species have been 


* Loudon’s Mag. V,76. These laws are not well known, or we would not have 
so many barbarous names imposed upon the science from day to day. Our author 
was particularly happy in his nomenclature, for which he deserves the gratitude 
of all naturalists. Barbarous names, he says, should be expunged; such as Messer- 
schinidia, Hoffmansegga, Krascheninikojia, etc. We protest, however, against the 
injustice of crediting a genus to an author who has merely varied a name from 
its original form ; as Lepidosteus, gass., instead of Lacépcde, who named this ge- 
nus Lepisosteus. If Agassiz is to have the genus, the species follow of course; 
and a rule which leads to such a result, must be false. 

_ | Arthrodia, a new genus of Conferva, seems to be identical with Oscillatoria. 
We do not pretend to determine the right of priority, between Rafinesque and other 
authors, in the instances cited in this article. 


284 Zoological Writings of Rafinesque. 


confounded. Aglophema, Raf. has precedence of F. Cuvier’s 
Arctocephalus ; Aglophema pusilla (Phoca pusilla, Lin.) being the 
type of both; Rafinesque, however, calls it A. phoca, changing 
the specific name without cause. Authors are not agreed upon 
the habitat of this species, but its range may be extensive, or dis- 
tinct species may be confounded under the same name. 

The “ Prodromus of Sicilian Herpetology,” suggests such ‘im- 
provements’ as Batrachus, for Bufo; Ranaria, for Rana; and Hy- 
laria, for Hyla! and contains notes of a considerable number of 
hew species. 

Thirty siz new genera of Marine animals of Sicily. Of five 
mollusks, Oxynoe is said to differ from Sigaretus, by having an 
external shell ;* and of three Limaces, one (T'ylodina) appears to 
be identical with Testacellus. Artedia differs from Planaria by 
having two little tentacles. As we will have occasion to refer to 
his section of Porostomes, we give its characters here—Porosto- 
mi-Animali senza bocca apparente, e nutrendosi con port superfi- 
cial ; quasi sempre gelatinosi e natanti. Vol 2, p. 165. 

1815. Description of Balena gastrytis, a new Mediterranean 
species. In the Palermo Port Folio. 

Analyse de la Nature, S§c., pp. 224, 8vo., with a portrait. 
Among his manuscripts, I find a sketch of his life written as by 
another person, wherein it is stated that he esteemed this work 
more than any other of which he is the author. We cite his or- 
ders of Mammalia, the three first of which form his sub-class 
Chiropodea. 1. Primatia, 2. Chiropteria; 3. Exogenea (Mar- 
supials); 4. Stereoplia (Solipeda, Ruminantia); 5. Pachyder- 
mia; 6. Anodonea (Edentata); 7. Gliria; 8. Ferea; 9. Amphi- 
bia (Phoca, Manatus); 10. Cetacea. 

1816, Observations on the Sturgeons of N. America, and de- 
scription of a new species, Accipenser marginatus, for the Phil. 
Soc. of Philadelphia. 

Circular address on Botany and Zoology, §c. This is a gen- 
eral invitation to all to forward the author specimens, &c. for ex- 
change, as “‘rare pamphlets, and publications not in my posses- 
SIQM. aids «is I shall receive thankfully any kind of information or 
news relating to natural sciences, such as discoveries, publications, 
proceedings of individuals and learned societies, &c. I particu- 


“ See the note to Pl. 49 of Deshayes’ edition of the Régne Animal. 


Zoological Writings of Rafinesque. 285 


larly beg for complete sets of the natural orders and families of 
orchideous, ombelliferous, liliaceous, grasses, mosses, lichens, ma- 
rine plants, Jabiated, leguminous, écc., and for specimens, or the 
characters of all the new genera..... I beg the cooperation of all 
my friends and correspondents; inviting them to communicate 
every particular, even of the most trifling nature, or obsolete, re- 
lating to the properties, qualities, uses, employments, &c., of all 
plants and animals; provided they are unpublished, else it will 
be sufficient to let me know (or send me if rare) in which works 
or pamphlets they are already published.” 

These extracts show that our author was preparing to get as 
many materials from every quarter as possible, evidently with 
the intention of getting new genera, species, and observations, 
from the labors of others. That he had an especial interest in 
getting assistance from all parts, is evident from the avidity with 
which he attacked every subject.* 

There are two prizes offered on the cover of the Atlantic Jour- 
nal, which place the intention of these requests in a still stronger 
light. They are, “ Fifty dollars in books for the best memoir 
on the effects on the earth and mankind of the geological flood 
or floods, all over the globe as far as known; including all ac- 
counts without excepiton, preserved by history or traditions, among 
all the nations of the earth. Twenty five dollars in botanical 
books and herbariums, to the author of the best synopsis of ail 
native phenogamous plants of the U. S. as far as known; provi- 
ded that not a single one already described or published in Amer- 
ica or Europe be omitted !!” 

The absurdity of these prizes is sufficient to make one doubt the 
sanity of the man; for who could be induced to write a synopsis 
of American plants for sweh areward! Judging from the appear- 
ance of the specimens, his method of preserving plants was more 
simple than any recommended in books, as it consisted in placing 


* Thus among his MSS. lost by shipwreck are the following, most of which he 
intended to re-write! A greater piece of presumption than this list indicates, can- 
not be cited, when we consider the talents and the means of the man. His indus- 
trious habits would never have compensated for his extreme carelessness and want 
of method, and his poverty prevented him from obtaining the requisite works, his — 
library containing scarcely any thing modern.—Critiques des genres, §c, An in- 
vestigation of all generic names of plants and animals.—4menities. Nearly one 
hundred tracts on Zoology and Botany.—Fauna Sicula, with nearly four thousand 
species.— Genera of Birds, with many new genera.—Synopsis of all known species 
of quadrupeds and fishes. 


* 


286 Zoological Writings of Rafinesque. 


the newly gathered examples between paper (without pressure) 
where they were left without being disturbed, until required.* — 

‘The circular contains a prospectus of a Flora and Fauna of N. 
America, in which he proposes to figure every animal and plant 
on wood, and that every one may have such a portion as he may 
require, partial sets are indicated as a fauna and flora ornata, eco- 
nomica, dietetica, Virginica, &c. &c., amounting to no Jess than 
one hundred and fifteen varieties of flora, and nearly as many of 
fauna. 

1817-18. American Monthly Magazine. This periodical con- 
tains many descriptions of bats, reptiles, fish, crustacea, &c. and 
Notrema, a curious genus of shell from the Ohio, which resembles 
Fissurella. ‘The name is changed to Tremesia in the Monograph 
of Ohio shells. ‘This animal is said to have been discovered by 
Audubon, and communicated to Rafinesque, who described and 
figured, without having seen it. It certainly cannot be admitted 
into the systems of malacology without further investigation. 
His Mazama (Ovis montana, Ord.) is identical with Aplocerus of 
Smith, and was probably first published.t If this is the ease, . 
Smith’s genus Mazama is left without a name. Many new spe- 
cies of Aphis, (and two new genera,) are described in this period- 
ical; and, in the extended article “‘on water snakes, several spe- 
cies of Sea-serpent are named, principally from newspaper para- 
graphs... See a list of these papers, appended to the Florula Lu- 
doviciana. 

1819. Seventy new genera of animals in the Journal de Phy- 
sique, Vol. 88. ‘This paper is too long for analysis. ‘Two Chei- 
roptera are noticed, and some “genera” of Helix proposed. The 
fishes desermbed are reproduced in his Ohio fishes; and many of 
the genera, especially among the zoophytes, are fossil. 

Several genera and species of fish are described in the Jour. 
Acad. Nat. Sci. Vol. I, and in the first volume of the American 


* The greater part of his fossils resembled his plants, as any stone which was 
marked with the slightest ridge or furrow, or bore any vestige of organic remain, 
was carefully preserved, together with strange looking pebbles and waterworn frags 
ments. Bushels of such trash were sold at the sale of his effects, for trifling sums, 
but the specimens were absolutely worthless; the localities even being unknown. 
There were many bad specimens of Unio, mostly odd valves, among them. 

t It includes Smith’s genus Subulo! one species being called Mazama pita, and 


another M. bira. ‘These names are taken from Azara. See Hunter’s trans, vol. 1, 
p- 141 and 145. | 


Zoological Writings of Rafinesque. 287 


Journal of Science.* Of these we are acquainted with Fixoglos- 
sum alone, which is founded upon natural characters, and isa 
good genus. 

Without knowing their precise date, we will here notice a se- 
ries of articles from vols. 5, 6,and 7 of the An. Gen. des Sci. Phys., 
published at Brussels. Ours is a detached set, and we may there- 
fore have omitted other articles from the same work. 

Prodrome @une Monographie des Turbinolies du. Kentuky, 
par C. 8. Rafinesque et J. D. Clifford. Five sub-genera and six- 
teen species are described. 

Monographie des coquilles bivalves et fluviatiles de la riviere 
Ohio, (with figures.) As Rafinesque was the first to make known. 
the greater part of the western Unios, it is but fair that those who 
study this genus, should exert themselves to identify his species.. 
They are surrounded by fewer difficulties than those of Linneus, 
yet there is little doubt respecting the latter, and as Rafinesque 
sold examples of his species to any one disposed to purchase, he 
certainly must be credited with the disposition to afford every as- 
sistance. ‘The most complete collection of authentic specimens 
now existing, is that of Mr. Poulson} of Philadelphia, who also 
possesses many of Rafinesque’s unpublished MSS. and drawings. 
Most of these species are, in fact, so well established, that it is a 
mere affectation to assert that they cannot be identified. The 
greater part of Mr. Swainson’s sub-genera of American Unios in 
the Cabinet Cyclopedia, were previously indicated by our author. 
‘The same paper contains a division of the genus Cyclas into sub- 
genera, but without any notice of Pisidium. 

Sur les animaux polistomes et porostomes. 'The former are 
Zoophytes, the latter Infusoria, which with the older authors, he 
supposed to take their nourishment by means of pores, whence 
the name. Asan example of the style, we transcribe a few of 
the introductory observations.  ‘ Des erreurs accréditées pas des 
savans illustres, admises tacitement comme des vérités démon- 
trées par la foule des copistes et des esprits snperficiels qui se con- 
tentent de croire sur parole, sont bien difficiles a détruire ; néam- 


* Several reptiles are described here, also. 

t Our cabinet contains three shells not in Mr. Conrad’s list, viz. Unio pallens, 
metaplatos and bicolor; the last is a variety of U. dilatatus, Raf. Mr. P. is so liber- 
al that he gives every facility to those who wish to consult his fine collection and 
library. ; 

} We have a considerable number of these. 


288 Zoological Writings of Rafinesquie. 


moins il est du devoir de ceux qui ont verifié et constaté les faits 
réels qui les détruisent, de chercher a les divulger et a éclairer la 
domaine des sciences..... Il est plus facile de copies des erreurs, 
que de rechercher la vérité, et quand elle est découverte, elle a 
souvent bien de la peine a percer les nuages de l’ignorance ou des 
préjugés scientifiques.” 

Remarques sur trois erreurs ichthyologiques. ‘The first is the 
absurd division of fishes into osseous and cartilaginous ;”’ the se- 
cond, that authors consider the Pleuronectes as thoracic instead 
of jugular; and the third, that the prepared fish roe called botargo, 
does not belong to the Mugil, but to the Tunny. 

Sur quelques animaux hybrides. This apocryphal account, 
(founded upon hearsay, ) relates to such animals as Felis domes- 
tica, Didelphis Virginianus; and Procyon Vulpes. 

Sur le genre Manis, et description d'une nouvelle espéce. Three 
species (two of which are Linnean) are described under two sub- 
genera, which, with changing specific names, has enabled our 
author to append his name to them all! 

Western Review. Several articles are inserted here, but we can 
only mention the Canis lewcurus, a white tailed fox of Kentucky. 

1819. Twenty four lectures on the natural history of the Uni- 
verse, the earth and mankind, animals and plants. (MS.) These 
unpublished lectures are in our possession; they treat of astrono- 
my, meteorology, geology, mineralogy, erystallography, &c. Nine 
of them constitute the zoological portion, and indicate but little 
talent. ‘The introductories are good, and those devoted to Ameri- 
can geology amusing, from the singularity of the views advanced. 

1820. Ichthyologia Ohiensis, one vol. 8vo., pp: 90. One hun- 
dred and eleven species are described. It is a valuable contribu- 
tion to this branch of science, and Prof. Kirtland’s labors in the 
same field will render a particular notice unnecessary. He very 
properly separates the broad-mouthed, from the narrow-mouthed 
Lepidostei. 

Fishes of the Susquehanna. (Unpublished MS.) The de- 
scriptions are too short to enable one to make out all the species ; 
and, as usual with our author, species are multiplied on the 
strength of the locality. ‘ Perca interrupta, Raf.” is Labrax lin- 
eatus, Lin. ; Esox chlorops = reticulatus, Les. ; and Luxilus ver- 
rucosus, is probably Cyprinus cornutus, Mitch. ‘Thirty seven 
species are described, and thirteen are certainly omitted, which 
gives fifty species to the Susquehanna. Among the omissions 


Zoological Writings of Rafinesque. 289 


are all the cartilaginous fishes: viz. Sturio ; Petromyzon Ameri- 
canus, Les.; P. (Bdellostoma) nigricans, Les. ; and Ammocztes 
bicolor, Les. Lepisosteus osseus, Lin. is omitted also. 

Annals of Nature. 'This tract contains eighty one new species 
and a proportionate number of new genera of animals. ‘The first 
iwelve are “‘ Mastosia or Sucklers,” including three bats, a Me- 
phitis, (probably the common species, which varies much, ) a spe- 
cies of Spalax, two of Gerbillus, three of Lemmus, and a Sciurus. 
Of four birds, Milvus leucomelas appears to be Nauclerus furcatus, 
Lin. Hirundo phenicephala, (head scarlet,) is given on the au- 
thority of Mr. Audubon, who, however, does not describe it. The 
first reptile described is a species of Necturus, a genus proposed 
for the Salamandra Alleganiensis, afterward described under a 
new generic name by Dr. Harlan. Several species of Triturus 
follow, this name being applied to the reptile Triton, (there being 
a molluse Triton, ) because the two are inadmissible. 'The reptile 
has precedence in point of time, (at least, this is our impression, ) 
and Laurenti* could not have been, under ordinary circumstances, 
deprived of his genus, merely because Lamarck thought proper 
to adopt the name fora different one. Many of the serpents nam- 
ed in this pamphlet, are evidently described from hearsay. 

1831. Enumeration and account of some remarkable natural 
objects, §c. 'This tract is chiefly devoted to fossils, and is partly a 
catalogue of objects which he had for sale. His Mazama salinaria 
is minutely characterized from a horn. This ‘unique specimen of 
great beauty and value,’ is in our cabinet; but those who wish 
to possess so desirable an object, can be gratified, if they will take 
the trouble to break the prongs from the horns of a Cervus Cana- 
densis, and deposit them where the inside porous portion may 
become filled with mineral matter. 

1832-3. Atlantic Journal. 'This periodical is principally filled 
with the productions of the editor, although sometimes over fic- 
titious signatures, which can never mislead any one acquainted 
with his style. Art. 18, on the Mexican Jaguars. He cites sev- 
eral instances in which these animals have penetrated into the 
Western States. Art. 14, Cougars of Oregon. He acknowledg- 


* According to Cuvier, Laurenti’s name was applied to a larva; consequently it 
cannot be retained, and that of Rafinesque must stand. See Harlan’s Researches, 
p- 165, note *. 

Vol. xxuu1, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 37 


290 Zoological Writings of Rafinesque. 


es several varieties, but contrives to make species out of them 
thus: Var. Oregonensis, dark brown, &c..... Is it not a peculiar 
species? Felis Oregonensis.—I find in Leraye’s travels,* that a 
smaller animal nearly similar in color, but not longer than a cat, 
isfound, &c. Isitanewspecies? Felis macrura, Raf. Art. 10, 
Aquila dicronyx, Raf., appears to be identical with Holiaetus, 
Washingtoni, Aud. 'The old genus Condylura of Illiger, is repro- 
duced under the name Astromycter. We have seen Rafinesque’s 
Psephides, ‘‘a new tubular fresh-water shell of the Allegany 
mountains,” and consider it the case of a larva. Whether the 
many species of fossil shells which Rafinesque has described, 
from the Alleganies of Pennsylvania, are new, will of course be 
determined by the geological survey of this State, (Pennsylvania, ) 
which is drawing to a close. 

1836. A life of travels and researches, &c. We close this ar- 
ticle with a few extracts from this work. 

“Mr. Gibbs, consul of the U. S., received me well; he was 
also a banker and merchant. I became his secretary and chan- 
cellor. I dwelt with him ina palace till 1808, when I took a 
house of my own and became a merchant, having made a small 
fortune in his employ within three years. Shortly after my arri- 
val, political events made Sicily the residence of the court of Na- 
ples, and broke all our communications with Italy and France. 
The produces of the island fell to a low rate: it was by trading 
in them that I acquired my first personal fortune, as well as by 
discovering in the island several new drugs and sources of trade. 
Such were the squills, rosemary, wormwood, bay-leaves, &c. I 
established a manufacture of dry squills on a large scale: the Si- 
cilians were wondering at me for this, as they made no use of 
them, and fancied they were a new tinctorial article, which I let 
them believe....1 wrote in Italian through prudence, rather than 
in French. Prudent considerations had already induced me to 
add the name of Schmaltz, my mother’s name, to my own, and to 
pass for an American.” 

‘Swainson went often with me in the mountains; he carrieda * 
butterfly-net to catch insects, and was taken for a crazy man or a 
wizard; as he hardly spoke Italian. I had once to save him from 


* These travels cannot be received as zoological authority ; the species, therefore, 
that Rafinesque has founded upon them, (Am. Monthly Mag. v. 1, p. 435,) are not 
worth looking after. 


M. Faraday’s answer to Dr. Hare’s second Letter. 291 


being stoned out of a field, where he was thought to seek for a 


‘Such is then the picture of my life, my labors, and my travels. 
T give it to the public, or rather to the learned, as an uncommon 
instance of perseverance and industry. May this inspire youth- 
ful minds with a wish to do as well; and the friends of sciences 
with the wish to know me, or patronize the labors of my old age: 
permit meat last to produce under their shield, those works, 
fruits of my travels and researches, which I desire to leave as 
monuments of my life and exertions. 

“Tf [have often gone beyond the actual state of knowledge in 
my views and opinions, or anticipated on future knowledge, it 
was with the noble aim of adding my mite to the mental improve- 
ment of mankind. If my discoveries and projects have not been 
speedily admitted, I leave them as a legacy to those superior 
minds who will be able to appreciate them, and bestow me the 
justice often denied in my days: to the friends of useful sciences, 
of virtue and peace, to the wise philanthropists, to the enlighten- 
ed, liberal and impartial men of both hemispheres.” 

Near Marietta, Pa., April, 1842. 


Art. X.—M. Faraday’s answer io Dr. Hare’s second Letter.* 


Royal Institution, Dec. 24, 1841. 


My Dear Sir—On reading your second letter to me in Silli- 
man’s Journal, (published July, 1841,) I wrote a brief answer 
back, but find from Dr. Silliman, that it has been mislaid. I 
therefore send this brief note to say that I hope you will excuse 
any controversial reply. Ido not find any reason to change my 
opinion as to the matters referred to in yours to me: and as far as 
I should have occasion to answer for my own part, I would rather 
refer the readers of the Journal to my papers and my former reply 
to your first letter. As to the new and important matter into 
which your last letter would lead me, I am not sufficiently clear 
in my mind, upon the evidence we as yet have, to wish to enter 
into it at present. Ever my dear Sir, 

With the highest esteem, yours very truly, 
M. Farapay. 


Dr. Harz, &c. &c. &e. 


* Communicated from M. Faraday to this Journal. 


292 Meteorological Observations at San Fernando, Cuba. 


Arr. XI.— Meteorological Observations, made at the Mines of 
San Fernando, situated in the Partido de la Manicaraqua, 
Island of Cuba, Lat. 22° 20’ 14” N., Lon. 73° 51/ 27” W. 
of Cadiz, at an elevation 554 feet above the sea; by Joun H. 
Buaxe, of Boston, Mass. 


3 oS s 2 “ 
E & 8 Bo | 32 
. = z aI Z g Es a is! < 2) 8 
2 2 Fag Ag aie jake calles 
DATE, | & 2 ap Ee ee ali estar dee REMARKS. 
1840.) @ | 8 | as | as | as | ae | ok 
STA lM de z 5 Be | Be 
| is a & & iS 
Janu’ry 2 
1 10.66% ).N Paice ° JA shower. 
2 12.3 68 63 
3 13.5 66 62 74 
4 13.5) 61 67 60 
5 |29.28! 15.5} 65 71 65 80 83 
6 129.26) 19. 68 81 Drizzling. 
7 }29.21) 19.5) 71 76 67 84 84 
8  |29.23; 8.3) 68 74 65 86 | 116 
9 —-|29.23] 21.5) 6d 72 65 74. 99 
10 = (29.23) 18 66 63 
1L = |29.10} 29. 7 71 67 86 | 111 
12 |29.15] 28. | 69 73 68 93 | 115 
13 = |29.21) 27 68 73 68 89 | 106 
14 (29.22) 25 68 71 70 88 | 123 
15 = [29.25] 23 67 72 65 90 | 113 
16 ~=—« (29.20) 21. |. 60 71 67 109 
17 ~—((29.15} 21.) 68 71 64 107 |Hazy. 
18 ~ (29.20) 21.) 67 71 85 | 107 
19 {29.20} 21. 70 61 85 
20 = 29.20) 21. 67 68 62 71 81 
P| 29.25] 21. | 64 70 69 81 84 
92 = |29 22) 19. | 68 74 71 81 | 106 
OB OOS Ol wi 73 72 G1 98 
94 129.15) 18.2) 69 76 72 97 
95 |29 26) 16.5) 73 adi 73 84 
96 (29.19) 23.5). 73 76 72 Thunder storm. 
27% )|29:20)-23:5|> 272 74 68 97 |Drizzliog. 
Dey PAB Tee 71 75 70 74 108 |Thunder without rain. 
29 99 92) 13.5) 70 75 70 110 |A shower. - 
30 29.10) 19. 71 76 69 80 101 |A shower. 
31 99 98] 115| 74 763) 72 97 lil 


Barom. Average for the’month, 29.208 


Maximum altitude, 29.28 weal lage 
Minimum altitude, 29.10 Total of water deposited during the 
Hygrom. Average for the month, 19.1 month, 2.74 inches. 
Extreme dryness, 99, Greatest quantity that fell in one show- 
Extreme moisture, 8,3. | er, 1.20 inches. 
Temp. Mean forthe month,  74.9° Number of showers, 4. 
Maximum in shade, 78, Showers with lightning, 1. 
Minimum in shade, ‘60. Prevailing wind during the month, eas- 
Mean in sun’s rays, 92.6 | terly. 
Maximum in sun’s rays, 123. Prevailing clouds, cumulus. 


Minimum in sun’srays, 80. 


Meteorological Observations at San Fernando, Cuba. 293 


S 3 3 = a 
= . s & a EI 2 g 
oe | cat) (hese ge mee lee 
Beige: i 5 erento lie 
DATE, | g en ae Meet |e eye) eas REMARKS, 
1640. / § | 8 | ae | 63 | gs] a2 | aS 
Sid eee sig emma wl ea hele 
Bastia i) mf ew le ea | 
Feb. 
P 129.49] 18.5\.a: laze’ | ost) oo | 406 
2 | (29.15) 2h. Go 1007 73 83 | 125 
Be OMA ea a: 76 7 110 ‘| Drizzling. 
4 |29.19) 12. |. .67 67 64 Drizzling. 
5 129/22) 17.5) 62 70 64 65 | 105 
6 (29:22) 1715) 71 75 66 95 95 
We ZO S al didae |b, GO 74 | -69 Wie |e 
8 (29.27) 11. 70 74 68 80 80 
9 (29.17) 17.6) 70 74 72 94° | 110 
10 =‘ (29.08) 17.5). 68 7d 70 112 
J1 = (29.18) 20.3) 71 7) 60 107 
12 =|29.23) 16.5} 66 68 64 70 75 
13 (29.27) 18. 64 72 67 98 
14 =|29.30) 19.5) 70 74 71 87 87 
15 (29:22) 16...) 65 72 82 |Drizzling. 
16 = (29.28) 14. (Al 67 106 
PG 29227 70 72 66 84 | 114 
18 129/24) L7B 272 87 69 | 101 
19 (29.21) 19. val 74 83. | 102 
20 {29.20} 20.5) 72 74 68 89 99 
21 ~—(|29.26) 18.4) 70 76 67 74 | 122 
22 29:21) 20:5) 6L 72 67 68 | 112 
23. =: (29.23) 13.2) 69 74 74 | 102 | 116 | Drizzling. 
24 29.11) 15, 71 74 72 83 | 123 
25. = (29.12) 20. 71 77 72 72 | 125 | Drizzling. 
26 (29.23) 20. | 72 79 73 |@ 80 84 | Drizzling. 
27 ~—s«(29.20) 11. 73 76 74 80 96 
P4si ifaw. tii! 78 74 81 92 | Thunder storm. 


Shower. 


Barometer. Average for the 


month, . : ‘ 29.213 

Maximum altitude, . 29.37 Rain, &c. 

Minimum altitude, . 29.11 Total of water deposited during 
Hygrometer. Average for the the month, .59 of an inch. 

month, . . . 16.5 Greatest quantity that fell in one 

Extreme dryness, . 21. — | shower, .20 of an inch. 

Extreme moisture, . 7.8 Number of showers, 2. 
Temperature. Mean for the Showers with lightning, 1. 

month, . ; ; 70.5° Prevailing wind during the month, 

Maximum in shade, 87. easterly, but variable. 

Minimum in shade, | 60. Prevailing clouds, cumulus. 

Mean in sun’s rays, 92.2 / 


Maximum in sun’s rays, 125. 
Minimum in sun’s rays, 65. 


Fs] 


294 Meteorological Observations at San Fernando, Cuba. 


s S AS 2 2 
=. fol 
[sj oo a : 
aail a ea aa a 
ns A - Cee g 
idl Hah] eS) |Site eek eee 
st ee) | uae : ; 
1840. iS ge | Ro | BS | wo | ws | ws REMARKS. 
Fo 8 ies bees) | eens | cae, ae 
2 80 g S g a6 Bs 
a > o 5 a a8 § 
Ca Pe a tg = ek EO ES 


bails 7A 71 80 56 Drizzling. 

7as| 7A 74 68 80 90 |Shower. 
29.24) 9. | 70 vi 68 92 99 3 

0.3} 71 74. 66 74 82. |Shower. 


10 29.08] 20.| 70 | 76 | 68 | 97 | 100 High wind. 
12 29.15 23.| 73 | 77 | 69 | 106 | 117 |Thunder storm. 


17 29931 1051 7 | 79 | 77 | 100 | 138 Showers. 
18 [29.26] 10.8} 76 | 79 72 93 | 83. !Shower. 


19 (29.22) 13. | 70 78 73 86 |Shower. 
20 = (29.24) 10.5 77 72 112 

ml. “129123\/ O.5|) 5 78 70 91 95 

22 (29.21) 11..| 73 a 84 


24 9913; 127] 74 | 78 | 76 | 81 | 85 |Drizzling. 


25 ~—« 28.98] 10. 75 78 74 82 Thunder storm. 
26 = (29.21) 12. | 65 6» 76 

27 ~—s« (29.20) 20. | 65 70 72 86 | 106 

28 = |29.30) 14. | 69 74 82 84 

29 29.26) 11.) 73 76 75 80 | 124 

30 29.24) 10. |} 71 76 82 


31 oo4)105| 72 | 76 | 77 | 100 | 120 


Barometer. Average for the 
month, . : : 29.20 


Maximum altitude, 29.41 Rain, &c. 

Minimum altitude, . 28.98) Total of water deposited during 
Hygrometer. Average for the the month, 2.49 inches. 

month, . .  - 146] Greatest quantity that fell in one 

Extreme dryness, . 24. |shower, 1.18 inches. 

Extreme moisture, . 0. Number of showers, 7. 
Temperature. Mean for the Showers with lightning, 2. 

month, . : : 73.5°} Prevailing wind during the month, 

Maximum in the shade, 79. | westerly, but very variable. 

Minimum in the shade, _65. Prevailing clouds, cirrus. 

Mean in sun’s rays, . 96. 


Maximum in sun’s rays, 138. 
Minimum in sun’s rays, 74. 


* 


Meteorological Observations at San Fernando, Cuba. 295 


~ 


3 BS} 3 rae a 
2/2.) 2, | aa | 2 
RA SMe dpe ie) ae 
DATE.) |e S| ten | ele eee 3 REMARKS. 
y pS a Bice [eee | obo | eee qs 
Hea) 8 | aa llaae | ae(leae) (hee 
Bote ie lhe +) Seal eee eae 
e | |e =] Be th ee Bi 
April 
T loosol 10. | & | & | & | & | ® 
2 29.28) 11.5) 75 79 79 90 | 114 
3 29.30) 11 77 81 80 101 111 
4 29.31) 11 76 80 80 82 96 
5 129.39] 12 82 82 105 
6 {29.80} 10.5) 77 80 80 88 | 115 
7 129.28! 10.5) 76 79 82 90 | 128 
8  |29.23} 11.5) 70 82 79 78 92 |Windy. 
9 29.23] 10.2) 76 79 79 103 116 |Rain. 
10 =|29.25| 85} 78 80 76 | 112 | 122 |Thunder, but no rain. 
11 29.23) 8. 72 78 de 88 105 
12 29.21) 9. 7d 79 vw 90) Rain. 
13 29.25) 7.5) 75 79 77 97 85 
14 29:21) ah es 81 82 100 
15 ea pds) 79 
16 29.28). 8. 80 79 110 
17 29.23] 8.5) 76 80 79 93 135 
18 29 28] 8.7] 78 82 82 92 129 
19 29.33] 9. 77 82 82 92 111 
20 29.33} 10.5} 78 81 81 94 110 
21 29.32) 12. 77 81 80 82 17 
22 29.28] 13.5} 80 79 116 
23 29.27) 14:5 81 80 106 
24 29.21} 12. 81 79 109 
25 29.19) 11.5) -71 81 79 113 |Rain. 
26 = |29.18] 11.5} 76 81 79 95 | 108 |Rain. 
27 29.22) 11.5) 76 80 77 92 ‘Thunder storms. 
28 29. 27)-11.5| 77 82 80 €8 | 113 |Thunder storm. 
29 29.34) 12.3) 80 81. Thunder storm. 
30 29.33} 12.5 81 82 123 


Barometer. Average for the 
month, . : ‘ 29.269 
Maximum altitude, . 29.39 
Minimum altitude, . 29.18 Total of water deposited during 


Rain, &e. 


Hygrometer. Average for the the month, 2.09 inches. * 
month, . : : 10.5 Greatest quantity that fell in one 
Extreme dryness, . 14.5 |shower, 1.35. 

Extreme moisture, . 7.5 Number of showers, 7. 

Temperature. Mean for the Showers with lightning, 3. 
month, . S saypiltis 78.1° | Prevailing wind during the month, 
Maximum in the shade, 82.  |northerly. 

Minimum in the shade, ‘70. Prevailing cloud, cirrus. 
Mean in sun’s rays, 101.1 


Maximum in sun’s rays, 135. 
Minimum in sun’s rays, 82. 


296 Meteorological Observatio 


o [-3) oO 
\ 3 i g 
& co as! ds a 
S| ele" |] ed] 3% 
DATE, | 3 5 See Peles ues, 
HeAG Nee | eed as Ne 
5 < as a ac 
el tap oame Ne Me e 
(es) ie] & ical ot 
Ma 
7d Less 12, |e Re ge 
2 [9933] 19.5 83 
3 29.291 193) 79 | 82 | 80 
4 (2999115./ 79 | 85 | 80 
5 (29.181 11.| 73 | 80 | 79 
6 29.15 11. | 75 | 82 | 77 
7 29.13| 10.5, 79 | 84 | 82 
8 29.171 125| 80 | 83°] 79 
9 (29.15/ 19.5) 79 | 84 | 82 
10 (29.15/13. | 78 | 82 1 83 
11 (29.18 135] 77 | 82 | 81 
12 (99.29; 19.8] 78 | 82 | 78 
13. 29.20/11.| 76 | 80 |. 77 
14 99.21) 127) 81 | 78 | 75 
15 99.14, 19.2] 74 | 77 
16 |29.08] 11.5] 73 
17 29.06] 10. 7 | 74 
18 |9908| 10.| 7 | 76 | 73 
19 29.08] 10.8, 73 | 75 
20 129.16) 85| 75 | 79 | 77 
21 (99.131 105| 75 | 79 | 79 
92 (9913/10.| 76 | 78 | 79 
93 29991102] 76 | 79 | 77 
94 99.911 95| 76 | 79 | 77 
25 29.161 10.2| 76 | 79 1 79 
96 2913] 10.5| 76 | 79 | 79 
27 199.08) 12. 80 | 78 
98 la9.cs| 9.81 76 | 80 | 78 
99 99.15/10. | 74 | 77 | 78 
30 (29.131 10.|. 76 | 80 | 79 
31. 129.141 9.31 74 | 76 | 76 


Barom. Average for month, 29.159 
® Maximum altitude, 29.33 
Minimum altitude, 29.06 
Hyer. Average for month, 11.1 


Extreme dryness, 13. 
Extreme moisture, 8.5 
Temp. Mean for month, 78.° 
Maximum in shade, 85. 
Minimum in shade, 73. 
Mean in sun’s rays, 98. 


Maximum in sun’s rays, 122. 
Minimum in sun’s rays, 80. 


ns at San Fernando, Cuba.. 


ge | ee 
ae fs 
Es ae REMARKS. 
ai ee 
oe a 
a a 
oy °  |Shower. 
Shower. 
102 95 
94 | 111 |Shower. 
88 83 
104 99 |Shower. 
88 87 |Drizzling. 
92) >| 122 
103° 99 
95: | 19S 
98 | 101 
110 122 |Shower, 
92 | 121 |Shower. 
94 86 |Shower. 
80 | 109 |Shower. 
85 Shower morn and eve. 
76 |Shower—a rainy day. 
Shower—a rainy day. 
Shower—a rainy day. 
108 106 (Shower. 
105 | 106 
86 | 104 |Shower. 
83 Shower. 
118 Shower. 
109 86 
85 97 |Shower. 
98 
Shower, and heavy rain 
at night. 
94 |Shower, cloudy during 
the day, but little rain. 
82 Showers occasional, and 
~at night heavy rain. 
Shower—a rainy day and 
night. 
Raty, &c. 
Total of water deposited during 
the month, 20.28 inches. 


Greatest quantity at one time, 
7.3 inches. 

Number of showery days, 21. 

Showers with lightning, 15. 

Prevailing wind, easterly, but 
very variable. 

Prevailing clouds, cirrus, cumu- 
lo-stratus, and nimbus. 


Meteorological Observations at San Fernando, Cuba. 297 


ee es pees 
a Ba Ss =e 
yet es ee oa eee 
o Lv a al 2 aI 2 = @ ma 
bei Sev Geteete | pees) | ey) 2: Hess eee tea REMARKS, 
Lee Black | eo) a8 || 88 Lone ee 
Eto |g ey |, oa aoe, ae 
STE ASTOR NEU ea GI Ses asl tI A 
June 
1 ja90419. | 7% | 7 | 74 | & | ° JA rainy day. 
2 (2911) 8.4 | 7% 78 77 =| 108 A rainy day. 
Oy | 2ORo Mae 76 79 78 84 | 120 
429.23) 7.5 | 76 80 80 86 98 
5 29.26] 8.5 | 75 79 76 4 
6 *129\26| 9: 73 80 8 | 118 (Slight shower, P. m. 
75 *129:221'6: 76 76 72 A shower, P. M. 
Se S29 NGI 74 78 76 So ale Showers. 
Da 29NG ho: 74 7 17 95 A shower, P. M. 
10 (129.24) 7.5 | 77 80 80 92 | 118 
TL) 29:20 10: Oa 80 V7 81 A shower, P. M. 
12 |29:15} 8. 76 77 85 
13. 29:18) 8.9). 76 78 72 79 | 108 |A shower, P. m. 
14 29.24) 8.8 | 76 79 73 A shower, P. M. 
PS A922 Sii4|> 374 73 73 75 A shower, P. M. 
16 (2922) 7.8 | 71 76 aq 86 A shower, P. M. 
V7 (129.281 6.5 | 72 77 76 | 100 | 106 
18 . (29.32) 6:8) 77 82 78 86 95 |A shower, P. m. 
19 129.30) 6.5 |. 76 82 77 95 
20 ~— 29.28] 8.6) 77 84 97 
21 29:26) 9278 9] 84 98 92 
22 =-|29.25] 9.4} °77 90 80 89 | 103 
23° 29.35] 9.2 | 76 90 78 111 
24 |29.34/10. 91.5| 77 A shower, P. m. 
25 (29.28) 5. 74, 90 72 106 |A shower, P. m. 
26 = (29.24/10.5 | 86 87.5| 78 | 110 | 108 
27 - (29.24) 8. 82 89 90 | 102 |A shower, P. um, 
28 129)24) 7, 82.5] 79.5] 76.5} 104 A shower, P. Mm. 
29 - (29.23) 8.5 |. 76 88 78 95 | 128 |A shower, P. m. 
30 = J29.221 8 | 77 89 76.5| 83 


Barometer. Average for the 


month, . : : 29.228 

Maximum altitude, . 99.35 Ram, &c. 

Minimum altitude, . 29.04"| “Tal of water deposited during 
Hygrometer. Average for the the month, 14.56 inches. 

month, . : R 1.3 Greatest fall of rain in one show- 

Extreme dryness, . 10.5 er, 2.5 inches. 

Extreme moisture, . 3. Number of showers, 17 days. 
Temperature. Mean for the Showers with lightning, 17 days. 

month, . ; : 82.4° Prevailing wind, easterly. 

Maximum in the shade, 91.5 Prevailing clouds, cumulo-stra- 

Minimum in the shade, ‘71. Hue: 

Mean in sun’s rays, 99.9 


Maximum in sun’s rays, 128. 


Minimum in sun’s rays, 75. 
Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 38 


298 Meteorological Observations at San Fernando, Cuba. 


at8a. mM. 


MONTHS. 


Temp. F. in shade 


January. G6. 66.9°/71.5° 63. 68.3° 


Mean 69.9° 
February. |68.9 
Mean 71.4° 
March. 
Mean 73.2° 
April. 
Mean 74.6° 
May. 
Mean 77.9° 
| June. 
Mean 78.9° 
July. 
Mean 80.5° 
August. 
Mean 79.6° 
September. |78.2 
Mean 78.6° 
October. 
Mean 75.92 
November. |70.7 
Mean 72.7° 
December. |66.8 
Mean 67.9° 


73.2 
73.8 
77, 

78.5 
78.5 
79.7 


74.9 


at noon. 
oe F, in shade 
at eve. 


2 F. in shade 


73. 

76.6 
78.7 
80.6 
82.2 
83.1 


69.8 
'69.9 
70.6 
75.3 
75.7 
78. 

83.2 |76.1 
174.6 
73.5 
69.8 


71.3 \64.6 


| 


82.7 
78.3 
79.7 


ae F. in sun’s 
rays at8 a. M. 
emp. I’. in sun’s 
rays at noon, 


se 


7 4 days showers, lo 


Gore 
87.1 | 98. 
90.9 |105.8 
99. 110.9 
101.4 |102.1 
100.4 |111.5 
101. |106.5 
99.6 |100, 
93.7 | 96.8 
85. | 99.7 
83.9 | 96.3 


91.9 |101.6 


Mean temperature of the spring, 
Mean temperature of the summer, 
Mean temperature of the autumn, 
Mean temperature of the winter, 
Mean temperature of the year, 


The greatest variation of temperature in one Silay during the month of January, 
was 13°; in February, 13°; in March, 13°; in April, 12°; in May, 13°; in June, 
11°; in July, 12°; in August, 13°; me September, 15°; in October, 9°; in No- 


vember, 11°; in December, 18°. 


Note. 


temperature of the air in the shade. 


To the very useful averages of the author for the year, we take the liberty of 


p. 


Maximum tem 
in shade, 


p. 


in shade. 


Minimum tem 


adding the following derived from his records.—Eps. 


Average of the maximum temperature in the sun’s rays, 
Average of the temperature at noon in the sun’s rays, 
Average of the maximum temperature in the shade, 


Maximum temp. 
in sun’s rays. 


Average of the temperature at noon in the shade, 
Average of the minimum temperature in the shade, 
Average of the temperature in the evening, 


Average of the temperature at 8, a. m. in the shade, 
Average of the temperature at 8, a, m. in the sun’s rays, 


San Fernando, Isl- 
nd of Cuba, Lat. 22° 


a 
20/14" N., Lon. 73° 
) 


1! 27'' W. of Cadiz. 


Remarks, 1839. 


heavy rain. 
6 days showers. 


9 days showers. 


6 days showers, 2 0 
them with lightning. 
24 days showers, 150 


them with lightn’g gc. 


2L days showers, ‘all 


with lightning. 


22 days showers, 21 0 
them with lightn’g. 
20 days showers, loo 
them with hightn’g. 
16 days showers, 11 0 
them with hghtn’g. 
22 days showers, 1 o 
them with lightn’g. 


2 days showers. 


6 days showers, 2 0 
them with lightn’g. } 


fie Tie 
79.6 
75.7 
69.7 

7d. 


The degree of humidity of the atmosphere was imperfectly determined 
by wetting the bulb of a delicate thermometer covered with cambric, with 40 grs. 
of alcohol, and noting the number of degrees which the mercury fell below the 


122.66° 

110.8 
82.42 
78.1 
64.93 
72.2 
74. 
92.8 


Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 299 


Arr. XII.—Reply to Dr. Hare’s Objections to the Whirlwind 
Theory of Storms; by W. C. Repriep. ) 


An article entitled “‘ Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of 
Storms, with some strictures on his reasoning ; by Roserr Hare, 
M. D., Prof. of Chem. in the Univ. of Pennsylvania,” which 
appears in the last number of this Journal, and is also found in a 
modified form in the London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosoph- 
ical Magazine for December, has given occasion for the notes 
and remarks which follow. 

The several series of facts and observations, showing both the 
rotary and progressive movement of great storms, which I have 
published, together with those which have also been adduced by 
Reid, Milne, Dové and Piddington,* are deemed sufficient to es- 
tablish the whirlwind character of these storms. In the absence, 
therefore, of contravening facts of a reliable character, it seems 
incumbent on an objector to set aside these facts and observations 
as unfounded and inaccurate, or to show that the results which 
they appear to establish have been deduced erroneously. ‘This 
task Dr. Hare has not attempted; and I might therefore have 
been excused from replying to his objections and strictures; as 
these cannot affect the results which it has been my chief aim to 
establish. 

But the observations which I have published extend also to the 
so-called tornado or water-spout, and with similar results :+ while 
Mr. Espy and Dr. Hare have each in turn advanced his the- 
ory of tornadoes and storms, founded on @ priort reasoning or 
speculation, and on alleged deductions from phenomena observed. 
Hence, perhaps, originates this fourth attempt, from one or other 
of these sources, to discredit the results of my principal inqui- 
ries; being, however, the first from Dr. Hare. 


* See this Journal, 20 : 20-40; 25:114-121; 31: 115-130; 35 : 201-223; alsoa 
paper read before the Am. Philos. Soc. 1841, (Trans, N.S. vol. 7,) and copied into 
the present yelume of this Journal, p. 112-119. 

Reid on the Law of Storms, Weale, Lond. 1838. 

Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. 14, p. 467-487. 

Poggendorff’s Annalen, Jan. 1841, &c. 

Piddington’s first and second Memoirs on the Law of Storms in India. Calcutta, 

t See this Journal, Vol. xx1, (July, 1841,) p. 69-77. Do. Jour. Frank. Insiit., 
Vol. 3, third series, p. 40-49. 


300 Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 2 
Bs 

Moreover, I have sometimes ventured to offer summary sketeh- 
es of other results or conclusions which seemed to follow from 
the above mentioned and other developments, which came under 
notice in pursuing my meteorological inquiries.* These sketches 
or conclusions were given, partly as notifications and partly be- 
cause I was not willing it should appear in after years, that such 
results or conclusions as I have noticed had been overlooked in 
conducting my examinations. These inceptive statements seem 
to have occasioned many of the ‘strictures’ and criticisms which 
I am now to notice. 

Dr. Hare says that my “idea that tornadoes and hurricanes are 
all whirlwinds, involves some improbabilities,” and that it requires 
that ‘‘during every hurricane, there should be blasts of a like de- 
gree of strength coinciding with every tangent which can be ap- 
plied to acircle,” and that “thirty two ships equidistant from the 
axis of gyration, and from each other, should each have the wind 
from a different point of the compass with nearly equal force.” 
The only modification he admits, ‘‘is that resulting from the pro- 
gressive motion which tends to accelerate the wind” on one side, 
“‘and to retard it upon the other.”’ 

I could never have imagined that any “idea” of mine necessa- 
rily involved the conditions here specified; and if the fact be such, 
Dr. Hare would have rendered some service by making it manifest. 
The modification admitted by him, vitally important as it is, shows 
only one of the conditions which would doubtless prevent any 
such perfect symmetry of results as he demands ; to say nothing 
of the practical error of supposing that the course of the wind in 
a whirlwind must coincide with the tangents of a circle. He 
alleges also, ‘that as respects any one station, the chances would 
be extremely unfavorable that the same hurricane should twice 
proceed from the same quarter.’”? If by this is meant that the 
changes of wind at any one station in the same gale, are not 
likely to come back to the same point of the compass from which 
it had before blown, except by an extraneous force or influence, 
we shall in this be able toagree. He states further, that ‘‘in the 
course of time it would be felt, at any station, to proceed from 
many different directions, if not from every point of the com- 


* See this Journal, 33: 50-65; also, various incidental remarks and statements 
in other papers. 


Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 301 


pass.” 'The first of these conditions is verified by observation, 
except as I have shown that the changes in a regular whirlwind 
storm will not, in the true wind of the gale, be likely to exceed 
sixteen points of the compass at any one station. It will be diffi- 
cult, however, for Dr. Hare to show, that the regular changes in 
a progressive whirlwind storm, as truly exhibited at any fixed 
station, should run through every point of the compass; although 
this may sometimes happen to a ship moving in the storm. 

Dr. Hare does not appear to perceive, that the several condi- 
tions above referred to, are for the most part, no more predicable 
of the whirlwind storm, than of the affluent theory of storms 
which he advocates. 

Dr. Hare states, that “the fact that during the same storm dif- 
ferent vessels variously situated, are found to have the wind in 
as many different directions, may be explained by the afflux of 
winds from all quarters to a common focal area, as well as by sup- 
posing them involved in a great whirlwind.” This might be 
true, as [ have virtually stated elsewhere, provided that the di- 
rection of the wind at such vessels was found, at a given time, 
to be towards such a “focal area ;” which does not happen: the 
observed differences of the winds from these centripetal direc- 
tions being nearly equal to ninety degrees, a a right angles) 
as has been repeatedly shown.* 

I have formerly stated that ‘‘I have observed in the effects of the 
New Brunswick tornado, numerous facts which appear to demon- 
strate the whirling character of this tornado, as well as the inward 
tendency of the vortex at the surface of the ground.”+ But Dr. 
Hare thinks, ‘that the survey of Bache and Espy shows that it 
would be inconsistent with the facts to suppose such motion, un- 
less as a contingent result.””? Now, without inquiring whether the 
constant whirling action to which I alluded be a contingent or a 
necessary result, it is proper to notice, that the great question be- 
tween usis and has been, have storms a gyratory character? 
To me, the facts established by all the strict observations which 
have been made and properly stated, proclaim the affirmative. 
We shall probably find, on a strict examination, that even the 


* See this Journal, 25: 116; 31: 117-118; 35: 210-215. Jour. Frank. Instit. 
1839, p. 323-336, and p. 363-378. Dové in Poggendorff’s Annalen, Jan. 1841. 
pp: 10, 11, seq. 

t See this Journal, 35: 207. 


302 Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 


surveys of Prof, Bache, though not comprising all the particulars 
which I deem essential to a right view of the case, may yet be 
best explained by admitting a general and continued whirlwind 
action. 

Dr. Hare next adduces an imperfect quotation on the law of 
atmospheric circulation, as depending on the earth’s rotation, cen- 
trifugal action, &c.: and presumes me to mean, ‘that the cen- 
trifugal foree communicated to the air at the equator, causes it to 
rise and give place to those portions of the atmosphere,” from 
adjacent latitudes, which “‘have less rotary motion ;” and pro- 
ceeds to comment on this presumption. 1] beg leave to assure 
Dr. Hare that he has greatly misapprehended my meaning: and 
furthermore, that I have never found any evidence of the sup- 
posed general ascent of the air from the lower to the upper at- 
mosphere in the equatorial regions. 

In my first essay, the prevalence of westerly winds in the upper 
regions of the atmosphere, was incidentally and partially ascribed 
to the deflection of the trade winds by mountains. Dr. H. alleges 
that this explanation harmonizes with the theory of Halley. He 
adds, “In fact as the water accumulated by these winds in the 
Gulf of Mexico, is productive of the Gulf Stream, is it not reason- 
able that there should be an aerial accumulation and current, cor- 
responding with that of the aqueous current above mentioned ?” 
This comes nearer to my views of the course of circulation in 
the atmosphere, but does not so well accord with the common 
theory of the trade winds. That the alleged accumulation of 
water in the Gulf of Mexico by the trade winds, is the main 
cause of the Gulf Stream, Dr. Hare may perhaps show hereafter. 
The contrary would appear to have been settled by the levellings 
which have already been obtained. 

Dr. Hare intimates that the trade winds “cannot be explained 
without the agency of temperature ;” he alleges also that I “re- 
ject the influence of heat ;” and proceeds to quote a paragraph 
from which, as well as others, he infers that I ‘consider gravita- 
tion, uninfluenced by heat or electricity, mainly the cause of at- 
mospheric currents ;”’ and he inquires, “ what other effect could 
sravitation have, in the absence of calorific and electrical reaction, 
unless that of producing a state of inert quiescence?’ He also 
speaks of my treating momentum as ‘the antagonist of gravita- 
tion.” [p. 141-142, par. 5-8.] 


Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 303 


Now to all this, I answer: 1. That, to my apprehension, the 
essential features of the trade winds can be best explained with- 
out assigning the agency of temperature as the chief moving 
power. 2. It isan error to say, that I reject the influence of heat. 
3. [consider the influences of momentum, centrifugal force, and 
centripetal action, as being comprised in the laws of gravitation. 
A. It is true that I do not consider ‘‘ electricity” as a general 
cause of atmospheric currents; for the reason, that so far as I 
know, this has never been shown. 5. That the only effect of 
gravitation, without. calorific or electrical reaction, would be to 
preduce ‘a state of inert quiescence,” in the atmosphere of a 
moving and rotative planet like our own, is to me inconceivable. 
6. I have never considered nor asserted “momentum”? to be ‘the 
antagonist of gravitation.” . In the paragraph which is quoted by 
Dr. Hare, I had suggested the courses of great storms as indica- 
ting the law of circulation in our atmosphere, and which I deem~- 
ed to be founded mainly on the laws of gravitation. By some 
mistake, he has given the phrase “causes of great storms” in- 
stead of courses ; and proceeding on this error, he calls it a sum- 
ming up of the “causes” of atmospheric currents: although he 
alleges at the same time, that I here admit but one cause. 

It is next asked, “If the minuteness of the altitude of the 
atmosphere in comparison with its horizontal extent, be an objec- 
tion to any available currents being induced by calorific rarefac- 
tion,” as he states [ have alleged, ‘“ wherefore should not momen- 
tum or any other cause diminishing or counteracting the infiuence 
of gravity, be on the same account equally inefficient?” 'To this 
I answer :—1. Momentum, and the other modifications of the 
gravitating power, are of far greater magnitude and force than the 
influence of the mere difference of temperature in the several 
geographical or climatorial zones. 2. The main tendency or re- 
sult of this greater force is to produce horizontal, not vertical 
motion. 3. The words which I have italicised, show only the 
misapprehension corrected above, and which appears to run 
through the strictures which Iam noticing. By ‘available cur- 
rents,” as above quoted, I here understand the great currents of 
the atmosphere, constituting the trade winds, &c. 

In succeeding paragraphs [10-12] Dr. H. criticises the terms 
by which I have endeavored to point out, that a whirling or ro- 
tative movement 7s the only known cause of a violent and destruc- 


304 Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 


tive force in winds or tempests ; as the last clause of the paragraph 
quoted by him should read. ‘There is little probability that my 
meaning has been misunderstood by general readers; and it ap- 
pears afterwards to have been divined by Dr. Hare himself. 

After a short comment on the functions of gravitation, Dr. H. 
inquires—“ But if neither gravity, nor calorific expansion, nor 
electricity, be the cause of winds, by what are they produced ?” 
I answer, 1. According to my apprehension, the gravity which 
induces a nearly equal “distribution of the atmosphere over the 
surface of the globe,” may and does, in its modified influences, 
constitute the main basis of winds and storms. 2. That calorific 
expansion isa “cause of winds” is universally admitted; but, 
that it is the chief cause I cannot perceive. 3. If “electricity” 
be the cause of winds, it seems incumbent on Dr. H. to show it. 

For my own part, having never attempted to write out or es- 
tablish a theory of the winds, in the common acceptation of the 
term, nor yet, of the origin or first cause of storms, I have no 
occasion to go into these inquiries any further than relates to my 
present purpose. It is true that I entertain some definite views 
on these points, which have resulted from observation and in- 
quiry; but the choice of time and occasion for their more full 
development, and also of the evidence on which they rest, belongs 
to myself rather than to another. Ido not intend being diverted 
from my ordinary business, or from the results of direct observa- 
tions in storms, by engaging in a controversial discussion of those 
general views of the alleged cause of winds, and of the physico- 
mechanics of the atmosphere, which now prevail; and which are 
held by men of the highest attainments in physical science. And 
in relation to storms, I have long held the proper inquiry to be, 
What are storms? and not, How are storms produced? as has 
been well expressed by another. It is only when the former of 
these inquiries is solved, that we can enter advantageously upon 
the latter. 

I have stated, incidentally, that all fluid matter has a tendency 
to run into whirls or circuits, when subject to the influence of 
unequal or opposing forces, &c. Dr. Hare says that, “if this were 
true, evidently whirlpools or vortices of some kind, ought to be 
as frequent in the ocean, as agreeably to my observation, they are 
found to be in the atmosphere.” That “the aqueous Gulf Stream, 
resulting from the impetus of the trade winds, ought to produce 


Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 305 


as many vortices in its course as the aerial currents derived from 
the same source ;”’ and he adds, ‘there are few vortices or whirl- 
pools in the ocean,” for reasons which he has chosen to assign. 
[ 14-16. ] 

Now the alleging that aqueous currents have an equal tendency, 
with aerial ones, to run into “vortices,” belongs to Dr. H., not 
tome. In the ocean, we can but partially observe the upper sur- 
face of superficial currents, moving apparently unobstructed on 
the more quiescent waters beneath, and with the relative equality 
of motion in the parts generally maintained. Isee not how the 
unimpeded movements of this denser and nearly non-elastic fluid 
are to produce vortices equal in number or magnitude to those 
which occur in the inferior layers of an elastic aerial current, 
moving on or near the surface of the earth, over obstructions and 
inequalities, and with other disturbing conditions almost innume- 
rable. Of Dr. Hare’s views of aqueous vortices it is unnecessary 
to speak, but, there are mariners, if I remember their statements 
aright, who can give him an account of the frequency of ocean 
or Gulf Stream vortices, somewhat different from that which he 
advances. Whenever a stream or current of water of moderate 
depth moves over an unequal bottom, there is found no lack of 
vortices, of various forms and dimensions, some of which exhibit 
both upward and downward movements, often of considerable 
velocity. e 

Dr..H. doubts if a whirlpool ever takes place without a cen- 
tripetal force resulting from a vacuity. Isee not how this doubt 
can militate against my views of vortical action; but I have 
myself seen many hundreds of such whirlpools or vortices, and 
have occasionally watched their developments with much in- 
terest. 

After commenting on certain arbitrary conditions “ of opposing 
or unequal forces,” Dr. Hare desires to be informed how “une- 
qual and opposing forces” are generated in the atmosphere ; pro- 
ducing sometimes whirlwinds of unmeasured violence. [17-18.] 
It may be readily seen, that aerial currents of unequal temperature 
and velocity, superimposed one upon another, and all moving over 
a surface of unequal character and with frequent elevations, and 
subject also to the influence of adjacent currents, must often move 
unequally, and in unconformable directions ; thus unavoidably 
running, to some extent, into vortices, eddies or circuits, of various 

Vol. xtu1, No, 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 39 


sua +." Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 


magnitudes and activity ; some of which, may occasionally become 
extended and spin on an upright and moving axis, with that vio- 
lent and continued action which characterizes the tornado or water 
spout. Indeed, it must be obvious, that uniformly direct lines of 
motion, belong not to our atmosphere or system. But, as before 
observed, I have here no special concern with the origin of these 
or other vortices; the simple fact of their existence being all that 
is necessary for me to maintain. 

Dr. Hare then proceeds to state, that in former papers on the 
causes of tornadoes, he has adduced facts and arguments ‘“ tend- 
ing to prove that the proximate cause of the phenomena of a tor- 
nado is an ascending current of air, and the afflux of wind from 
all points of the compass to supply the deficiency thus created.” 
He also states, that ‘tin this mode of viewing the phenomena, no 
difference of opinion exists between Espy and himself, however 
they may differ respecting the cause of the diminution of atmos- 
pheric pressure,” &c. [19-20.] 

I have no desire to offer strictures upon the views of a respected 
professor of science; but it seems proper here to inquire how an 
ascending current of air is thus obtained, and whether this effect, 
which perhaps may be due only to an excess of lateral and sub- 
jacent pressure, on the exterior of the tornado, be not here adduced 
as the cause of the effect. 

Dr. Hare has been *ed to consider gyration as a casual and 
not an essential feature” in tornadoes, and he adduces the dislo- 
cation and partial turning of a chimney top on its base, in the 
New Brunswick tornado, as being due to a local whirl within the 
body of the tornado, and proving that in tornadoes and hurricanes 
there are local whirls. p, 144. [21.] 

I have long since ascertained that local whirlwinds are not of 
very tare occurrence in great whirlwind storms; the New Bruns- 
wick tornado itself having been one of several violent local whirl- 
winds which occurred within the limits of a somewhat remarka- 
ble storm of the above character. 'This tornado also sent off a 
duplicate vortex or whirl not long after its passing the Raritan; 
the path and violent effects of both whirlwinds having been dis- 
tinctly traced on a field of unripe grain; the smaller one branch- 
ing off to the right of the main track, where, after causing some 
prostrations, it passed into the Raritan marshes, and was no more 
seen. But the whirling motion so far from being only of “ casual” 


| Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 307 


and limited occurrence, appears to be a constant attribute of the 

tornado; although not always exhibited with uniform intensity 

and effect in its path, owing apparently, to the frequent rising or | 
narrowing of the vortex, and perhaps other causes. 

In his paper as found in the English Journal, Dr Hare says,— 
““A fact which is admitted by Mr. Redfield, was considered by 
spy and Bache, as well as myself, to be irreconcilable with the 
idea that a general whirling motion is essential to tornadoes. I 
allude to the circumstance, that when several trees were pros- 
trated one upon the other, the uppermost was found to have fallen 
with the top directed towards the point towards which the meteor 
was moving; while the direction in which the lowermost trees 
were found to have fallen indicated that they were overthrown 
by a force in a direction precisely the opposite of that which had 
operated upon those above mentioned.”—PAil. Mag. [24.] 

It is an error to allege that I have ‘admitted’ a fact such as is 
here stated. On the contrary, in careful explorations made on 
foot, through an aggregate extent of more than fifty miles of the 
tracks of various tornadoes, I have never met with such “a fact,” 
or combination of facts, as Dr. Hare describes. In all the cases 
that I have met with in which trees have fallen one upon another, 
if their tops pointed in opposite or nearly opposite directions, these 
directions have never been parallel to the course pursued by the 
tornado ; but always in directions more or less transverse to the 
same: and I consider the opposing allegation as one of the chief 
errors of my opponents. 

The trees which have fallen in directions which are more or 
less backward from the course pursued by the tornado, are almost 
invariably found on the left side of the track, exterior to the line 
of its avis: But few of these point directly backward, and_ still 
fewer can be found near the axis, as the hypothesis of my oppo- 
nents requires. Of the trees found with their tops pointing di- 
recily forward, or nearly so, a small number have been seen on 
or near the right margin of the track, with appearances which 
showed them to lie as they first fell; a fact which seems equally 
fatal to their hypothesis. Some trees, along and near the line of 
the axis, are, however, found pointing in this onward direction, 
and much stress has been laid on this fact, by one of my oppo- 
nents: But it appears, on examination, that in all these cases the 
trees have been torn or twisted from the transverse position in 


308 Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 


which they first fell; owing, as I infer, to the more violent force 
exhibited at and immediately behind the center of the whirl, or 
at the point which may not inaptly be termed the heel of the 
vortex.* 

It is true, however, as I have “admitted,” that when trees are 
found to have fallen one upon another, the top of the uppermost 
tree points in a direction more offtward than the one beneath; as 
is seen by the diagrams and schedules of Prof. Bache, and as may 
be inferred, perhaps, from the sketches given by Professors Olm- 
sted and Loomis:+ And it is equally true, that this fact no more 
favors the hypothesis of a directly inward motion, than that of a 
whirlwind ; but, as an abstract deduction, is “reconcilable” with 
either. ‘lhe proper generalization of this class of facts I have 
attempted to give in my paper on the New Brunswick tornado; 
which is-‘ that the uppermost or last fallen of these trees points 
most [or more] nearly to the course pursued by the tornado ;’ i. e. 
more nearly than the underlying tree which first fell; divergence 
from the course of the tornado being still a marked feature of 
these overlying prostrations. 

L have never found a directly backward prostration on the line 
of the center, or axis, of the tornado. This, as well as the above 
mentioned facts, will be found sufficiently “irreconcilable” with 
a direct “afflux of the wind from all points of the compass,” ‘in a 
central and non-whirling course,’ “ towards a common focal area.’ 

In the same Journal, Dr. Hare says he “cannot understand 
how the opposite forces belonging respectively to the different 
sides of the whirlwind, can be made to bear successively wpon 
one spot, so as to cause trees to fall in diametrically opposite di- 
rections.” Phil. Mag. [25].—Neither can I understand this, if 
each of these “‘ opposite directions” be parallel to the course of the 
tornado, as is alleged by Dr. Hare, in the passage last noticed. 

Dr. Hare next tells us—‘ A fact, irreconcilable with a gen- 
eral whirling motion, has been recorded by Messrs. Espy and 
Bache. A frame building was so situated as to be protected by 
another edifice in one direction from the suction of the tornado, 
and yet was exposed to its influence as it advanced, and as it 
moved away. Hence two of the four parts, on which the frame 


* See this Journal, July, 1841, pp. 69-79. 
t See this Journal, Vol. xxx, p. 369; Vol. xxxvu, p. 343. 


Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 309 


rested, were so impelled by the wind as to make furrows in the 
ground, of which one was nearly at right angles to the other. 
Evidently such furrows could not rise from the transient tangen- 
tial impulse of a whirlwind.” pp. 144, 145. [22.] 

In the English Journal, Dr. Hare alleges that one of the four 
posts on which the building was supported, “was first snoved to- 
wards the tornado, as it advanced :’”’ while Prof. Bache shows us 
that the tornado advanced from south 80° west, to north 80° 
east; and that the posts were first moved ‘to the west of north.” 

But on what grounds this “fact” is pronounced “irreconcilable 
with a general whirling motion,” Tam wholly unable to perceive. 
For, had he closely examined the whole case, he would hardly 
have failed to see that the movements of this building, as describ- 
ed by Prof. Bache, are fully “‘reconcilable” to an involute “ whirl- 
ing motion,’ such as I allege to be characteristic of these torna- 
does; and that there was no necessity for resorting to the gratui- 
tous hypothesis of its being “‘ protected by another edifice in one 
direction,” or even that of ‘‘the suction of the tornado.” 

If a whirlwind figure having a diameter of three or four hun- 
dred yards by the scale of Prof. Bache’s figure, [Plate II, fig. 3, |* 
be drawn on tracing paper, with involute whirling lines repre- 
senting, horizontally, the course of the wind from the exterior to 
the interior of the tornado, and if the center or axis of this figure 
be passed from west to east along the line pursued by the axis of 
the tornado as indicated on the plate, revolving at the same time 
to the left with a velocity greatly exceeding its advancing motion, 
it may be seen that the wind of the whirl will be indicated as 
beginning at this building from nearly south, @. e. moving “to the 
west of north,” nearly, or in the general direction of the first 
furrows in the ground. It will also be seen, that the wind of 
the whirl, changing by southwest, and having its gyrations 
quickened near the center, would, immedfately after the pass- 
ing of its axis, exhibit its greatest force from the western quar- 
ter, corresponding to the second movement of the posts in the 
ground; the wind veering from thence towards the northwest as 
the tornado passed away: thus showing two directions of wind 
which sufliciently coincide with the first movements of the posts 
of the building ‘‘to the west of north,” and subsequently “to the 


* See Jour. of Franklin Institute, Vol. HI, third series, 1841, pp. 273 and 276. 


310 Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 


eastward,” or “nearly at right angles” to its first course; accord~ 
ing to the descriptions and plan of Prof. Bache, who gives the 
course of the axis as ‘‘east 10° \N.,” the building being to the 
southward or on the right of this line. 

I say nothing here of the protection afforded by “an edifice” 
which after the first moment, according to the hypothesis of mo- 
tion adopted by Messrs. Espy and Hare, was constantly more or 
less to leeward of the building so protected. By applying to 
Prof. B.’s plan, as before, a compass card, moved from west to east 
without revolving, we shall find their wind to commence nearly 
at east, passing thence through south to southwest, and possibly 
to west southwest, near which it would terminate. Thus, the 
first effects of the wind, when, even upon the hypothesis of “suc- 
tion,” the building was unprotected, could not produce the first 
motion in the direction “ to the west of north,” which may per- 
haps be fairly taken at 5° or 10° west of north; and the wind, 
on their hypothesis, would hardly appear to have reached a point 
which could produce the second movement ‘‘ to the east.” 

I have been thus particular in this examination, because the case 
thus alleged by Dr. Hare is a further specimen of the erroneous 
inductions which have been made and relied on by my opponents. 
In examining the plans referred to, it should be observed, that 
the sketch of prostrations in the orchard, which is included in 
fig. 3, is evidently on a more reduced scale than that given in the 
plan of the building ; otherwise, the buildings must be of size 
sufficient nearly to have covered the orchard. This change of 
scale may cause some confusion unless particularly noticed. 

That the velocity and consequent force of the whirling move- 
ment of the tornado is maintained by the direct pressure of the 
surrounding atmosphere, rather than by the ‘“ suction” alleged by 
Dr. H. I can readily conceive; but that the “impulse of a whirl- 
wind” of this charaeter is generally found to be “ tangential’ to 
its axis, which he seems to consider a necessary condition, I do 
not admit. 

Dr. Hare appears to concede, that my survey of this tornado 
shows effects which accord with whirlwind action ; but he seems 
desirous of limiting this admission to the prostration of “certain 
trees,” and alleges that this survey ‘‘ does not demonstrate gyra- 
tion to be an essential feature of tornadoes,” and that “it is suffi- 
ciently accounted for by considering it as a fortuitous consequence 


Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 311 


of the conflux of currents rushing into a space partially ex- 
hausted.” [23.] 

Now I cannot but think, that readers who have no theory to 
support, will view the results of my survey in a very different 
light. Dr. Hare omits to mention, that the survey comprised the 
entire breadth of the visible track, at perhaps its broadest place ; 
that it was intended to include every tree prostrated within its 
limits; that it essentially agrees with the main features of the 
more partial surveys of Prof. Bache; that I have shown by clear 
inductions from all the prostrations in the survey that the whirl- 
ing motion was one general effect, comprising the entire width 
of the track; that the tornado must have arrived at this ground 
in nearly its most perfect action, having just left the surface of 
the Raritan river; that the axis of prostration was not found in 
the center of the track, but nearest its left margin; that the main 
rotation was wholly to the left or in one constant direction ; and, 
that the leading features of the prostration found in this survey, 
have also been observed as constantly occurring, in the tracks of 
many other tornadoes.* 

I may add, that ina careful exploration of the track of this 
tornado for several miles, I found nothing to contravene the re- 
sults presented in my published survey; the general features of 
the prostration being greatly analogous to those which I have 
given. 

Dr. Hare thinks it singular, that I should have declined noti- 
cing the ‘insuperable difficulties” of the hypothesis of ‘a cen- 
tral and non-whirling course in the wind of the tornado,’ to which 
I have alluded in bringing forward facts and inductions which 
seem to contravene this hypothesis. He states, also, that “the 
advocates of the disputed hypothesis are not aware of any such 
difficulties,” and intimates the impropriety of the allusion “ with- 
out naming the facts and arguments” which justify it. [24.] 

I considered it more proper, however, to rely solely on the sur- 
vey and inductions which I then presented ; as these appear sufli- 
cient to set aside, not only the hypothesis itself, but also some of 
the chief deductions from the phenomena of this tornado which 


* See this Journal, 41: 69-77. Do. Jour. Frank Instit. Vol. 2, third series, p. 
40-49. 


i 


312 Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 


have been put forth and relied on by Mr. Espy and Dr. Hare.* 
Besides, I had no wish to assume a controversial attitude, in as- 
sailing by argument, an hypothesis which virtually discards the 
observations of mankind in all past ages down to the year 1835. 
The testimonials of these observations appear in the names and 
terms applied by all people in all languages to this small but vio- 
lent class of storms. ‘ The facts” demanded, I had supposed, 
were furnished on that occasion in sufficient numbers. 

Dr. Hare next adduces “the statement of a most respectable 
witness, that while the tornado at Providence was crossing the 
river, the water which had risen up, as if boiling, within a circle 
of about three hundred feet, subsided as often as a flash of light- 
ning took place ;” which he alleges to be a “‘ fact which is utterly 
irreconcilable with Mr. Redfield’s ‘rotary theory.” He adds: 
“now supposing the water to have risen by a deficit of pressure 
resulting from the centrifugal force of a whirl, how could an elec- 
tric discharge cause it to subside?” [25.] 

For the supposition here made, as well as for “ the water which 
had risen up,” Dr. H. seems alone accountable; as his witness, 
Mr. Allen, speaks only of “the effervescence produced by the 
tornado in the water’ having ‘perceptibly abated.” The water 
he states to have been “in commotion like that ina huge boiling 
caldron ;” but, that which rose up from the surface, he describes 
as ‘misty vapors resembling steam,” which ‘after the flash, 
seemed sensibly to diminish fora moment.”+ I cannot perceive 
that the fact thus alleged has the least unfavorable bearing upon 
my views of rotative action. 'Therefore, without considering the 
optical effect which may result from a flash of lightning, or the 
immediate conversion of clouded vapor into rain, which often- 
times suddenly follows, I will only state, that another competent — 
observer, who was very near this whirlwind when it left the 
western shore and who watched its progress across the river, has 
described to me the appearance of the cloudy sprays or mists 
blown from the surface of the water, and which filled the lower 
extremity of the tornado, but he has mentioned no sudden dis- 
appearances of the same. He did, however, observe the whirl- 
ing action of the tornado with great distinctness, both when it 


* See Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 20, new series, 1837, p. 56-61; 
also Vol: 2, third series, 1841, p. 356-359. 
t See this Journal, Vol. xxxvirz, p. 76. 


Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 313 


first entered upon the river, and in its effects upon the sails and 
position of a schooner with which it came in contact ; and like- 
wise, as exhibited by the circling or whirling directions of the 
various objects carried into the air, as it came off the high grounds 
on its approach to the river. The highly intelligent eye-witness 
of my opponent, also describes “the misty vapors’ as “ entering 
the WHIRLING vorTex ;” thus showing from his own observation, 
a fact which fully supports my views, and is fatal to the objec- 
tions, and hypothesis of motion, set forth by Dr. Hare. Moreover, 
there were decisive memorials of a general whirling action found 
along the path of this tornado. 

Dr. Hare chooses also to say, “that the explanation which Mr. 
Redfield dignifies with the title of his ‘theory of rotary storms,’ 
amounts to nothing more than this, that certain imaginary non- 
descript unequal and opposing forces produce atmospheric gyra- 
tion, that these gyrations by their consequent centrifugal force, 
create about the axis of motion a deficit of pressure, and hence 
the awful and destructive violence displayed by tornadoes and 
hurricanes.”—‘‘I cannot give to this alleged theory the smallest 
importance, while the unequal and opposing forces, on which it 
is built, exist only in the imagination of an author who disclaims 
the agency either of heat or electricity.” p. 145. [26-27.] 

The recital of this passage appears necessary on account of the 
gross error into which Dr. H. has here fallen. I have never at- 
tempted to dignify any ‘‘explanation,” induction, sketch, or essay, 
“with the title’ of my ‘theory of rotary storms.” It must, at 
least, have been a mistake of person. I have little fondness for 
theory-making ; and. as little respect for hypotheses of winds or 
storms, other than those which result directly from.sufficient and 
reliable observations. Neither have I disclaimed ‘‘the agency of 
heat,” as already stated; but it may have been my offense to have 
disclaimed ‘ electricity” as a known cause of storms. My cur- 
sory explanations of the action of a whirlwind or tornado, even 
as shown up by Dr. Hare, are, in my view, better suited to the 
observed facts of the case than any which he or Mr. Espy has 
offered. 

I do not solicit for my views even that “smallest importance” 
which is denied them in the mind of my critic ; but the attention 
with which he has treated them, both here and abroad, does 


not appear to agree well with the disavowment. With the facts 
Vol. xxi1, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1842. 40 


314 Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 


before him which are shown in my survey of the tornado, and 
also with the numerous observations made in great storms, which 
I have published, it is both vain and absurd to pretend that my 
views of their rotation are founded only in imagination. Iam 
not conscious of having “ built” or indicated any “theory,” 
views, suggestions or explanations of storms or whirlwinds which 
have not been based on observations of my own and facts other- 
wise ascertained, sufficient in my view to warrant them; the 
‘unequal and opposing forces’ even included: although, I have 
not always urged these facts upon the attention of my readers; 
having, not unfrequently, reserved them for more appropriate oc- 
casions. Hence, my alleged proofs have been chiefly confined 
to the progressive course and rotative action developed in storms ; 
which last, strangely enough, has been so. pertinaciously denied 
by Mr. Espy, and now by Dr. Hare. 

My opponent next attempts to show, “that any deficit of pres- 
sure about the axis” of a whirlwind, ‘consequent to the resulting 
centrifugal foree, could only cause in the atmosphere a descend- 
ing current, while it could not tend in the slightest degree to 
earry solids or liquids aloft.” p. 146. Iwasalso surprised to find 
this hypothetical downward current in the midst of a whirlwind 
alleged as a necessary condition, on former occasions, by Mr. 
Espy. If the allegation be true, it must be easy to show that 
the ascending currents in chimneys should become inverted: for, 
so far as simple gravitation is concerned, it can make little differ- 
ence whether the rarefaction be mechanical or calorific. 

But the ascending effects in the interior of a whirlwind have 
been too often witnessed by myself and others to require discus- 
sion. Indeed, it would almost seem that the objectors had been 
precluded from all opportunities for correct observation. There 
are numerous cases, however, in which the upward movement of 
the objects elevated cannot be seen in the central and lower parts 
of the whirlwind; owing, as I have had good occasion to know, 
to the great angular velocity of the central gyrations. 

Dr. Hare appears to suppose, that gyration in a revolving fluid 
mass will not quicken as it approaches the center, unless as result- 
ing from a centripetal force ‘“‘caused by suction at the axis.” 

A constant centripetal force 1 have already recognized on this 
as well as former occasions. But this by no means requires or 
produces a direct centripetal course in the moving air which 


Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 315 


yields to its’ influence. But in the cause assigned for this force, 
as well as in the specific directions of the movements produced, 
we differ essentially. So far from ascribing this quickened gyra- 
tion to the “suction” alleged by Dr. Hare, I know of no such 
power in the uninclosed atmosphere; conceiving, that neither 
rarefaction nor any other known cause can here occasion ‘“ suc- 
tion,” according to the common use of this term. Air, whether 
rarefied or not, can never ascend but in obedience to a pressure 
or force, sufficient to exceed both its own weight and that of all 
the atmosphere which lies immediately above it, or in the imme- 
diate direction or locality of its motion. This erroneous hypoth- 
esis of ‘suction,’ in some form or other, appears to lie at the 
bottom of the various speculations and inductions of my oppo- 
nents. 

In noticing the spirally involute and quickening motion which 
I allege as observable in ‘all narrow and violent vortices,’ Dr. H. 
gives an erroneous reference for his quotation; and the latter seems 
also to be somewhat inaccurate. Ido not see that his specu- 
lations on this quickened motion ‘towards the center or axis of 
the whirl,’ can affect either my views, or the disputed fact of gy- 
ration ; and they are sufficiently answered by observations pub- 
lished in my first paper,* as well as by the remarks made above 
on centripetal force. 

Dr. Hare thinks that so far as my observations show the quick- 
ening of the whirling motion towards the center of the tornado, 
they tend to confirm the views of my opponents and to refute 
those which I uphold. To me it appears that this is an entire 
abandonment of his ground. It is the general fact of gyration 
which Iam chiefly concerned to uphold, and which has been 
combated by him and his predecessor in this controversy. I dis- 
pute with no one as to how it may be produced. Should better 
explanations of this fact than mine be offered, they willbe cheer- 
fully adopted.. In the mean time, I shall adhere to my observa- 
tions and opinions, rather than to the hypotheses and speculations 
of my opponents. 

Dr. Hare thinks, “that any theory of storms which overlooks 
the part performed by electricity, must be extremely defective.” 
I do not perceive that the part performed by electricity in a gale 


* See this Journal, Vol. xx, p. 45-46. 


316 ' Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 


of wind, squall, tornado, or other storm, ever constitutes an essen- 
tial feature of the same: but, the part so performed, appears to me 
to be only incidental and subordinate to the action and main ef- 
fects of the storm. Electricity is not wind, nor water, nor vapor ; 
but an imponderable matter or effect, which is not known to ex- 
ert any constant mechanical force or action upon the effective 
currents of the atmosphere. “Thunder and lightning and con- 
vective discharge,” are but momentary or transient exhibitions of 
electricity, producing no visible effects upon these currents; what- 
ever may be their agency in restoring the disturbed equilibrium 
of the different atmospheric elements. The electricity developed 
by a steam boiler is not considered as producing the steam or its 
jet, or the condensation of the latter; but is itself produced by 
these. Even were it shown that a stream of electricity was con- 
stantly developed between the rarefied column of a moving tor- 
nado and the surface beneath, I cannot see how this could be as- 
sumed as the cause rather than the effect of the local rarefaction. 
If the part which electricity performs in a storm be essential, or 
controlling, its functions ought to be distinetly pointed out.. 

I would humbly suggest that the old practice of forming or in- 
venting theories or schemes of action for the powers of nature, 
ought to be mainly abandoned. The Wernerian and Huttonian 
theories are well remembered ; and how small would have been 
the progress of the science to which they relate, had its cultiva- 
tors continued to exhibit only the spirit and philosophy of the 
early advocates of these theories; and how much less, if guided 
by a philosophy so speculative and untenable as that of the afflu- 
ent and up-moving hypotheses of winds and storms? More strict 
and extended observations and inquiry, with greater caution in 
the adoption of hypotheses, whether old or new, would in my 
opinion, tend greatly to the advance of meteorological science. 

Observation, rather than “lucubration,” has been my employ- 
ment when exempted from other duties: and if the results of ob- 
servation do not accord with the ‘‘lucubrations” of Mr. Espy and 
Dr. Hare, I conceive that Iam in no degree responsible for the 


difficulties of their position. 
New York, January 13, 1842. 


Proceedings of the British Association. 317 


Art. XIII.— Abstract of the Proceedings of the Eleventh Meet- 
ing of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 
held at Plymouth, September, 1841. [Prepared from the Re- 
port in the London Atheneum.| Concluded from page 164. 


Sect. B. Chemistry and Mineralogy. 


Mr. kh. Hunr communicated a paper on the influence of the 
ferro-cyanate of potash on the iodide of silver, producing a highly 
sensitive photographic preparation. 'The author being engaged 
in experiments on that variety of photographic drawing which is 
formed by the action of the hydriodic salts on the darkened: chlo- 
ride of silver, with a view to the removal of the iodide formed 
by the process, from the paper, was led to observe some peculiar 
changes produced by the combined influences of light and the 
ferro-cyanate of potash. He found that the ordinary photographic 
paper, if allowed to darken in sunshine, and then slightly acted 
on by any hydriodic salt, and washed when dry, with a solution 
of the ferro-cyanate of potash, became extremely sensitive to 
light, changing from a light brown to a full black, by a moment’s 
exposure to sunshine. Following out this result, it was discov- 
ered that perfectly pure iodide of silver was acted on with even 
greater rapidity, and thus it became easy to form an exquisitely 
sensitive photographic paper. ‘The method recommended is the 
following: highly glazed letter paper is washed over with a so- 
Intion of one drachm of nitrate of silver to an ounce of distilled 
water; it is quickly dried and a second time washed with the 
same solution. It is then, when dry, placed for a minute in a so- 
lution of one drachm of the hydriodate of potash in six ounces 
of water; and being placed on a smooth board, gently washed 
by allowing pure water to flow over it, and dried in the dark at 
common temperatures: Papers thus prepared may be kept for 
any length of time, and are at any moment rendered far more 
sensitive than any known photographic preparation, except the 
Calotype, which it quite equals, by simply washing it over with 

«asolution formed of one drachm of the ferro-cyanate of potash 
to an ounce of water. ‘These papers may be washed with the 
ferro-cyanate and dried in the dark: in this dry state they are 
absolutely insensible, but they may at any moment be rendered 
sensitive by merely washing them with a little cold water. The 


318 Proceedings of the British Association. 


paper is rendered quite insensible by being washed over with the 
above hydriodic solution, and from the apnemat thus fixed 
many copies may be deleon 

_ Some researches on the development of the Electrical Force, 
and an inquiry into the nature and properties of the New Ele- 
ment or product of electrical action described by Schénbein, by 
Mr. F. De Moleyns. 'The statements made by Prof. Schonbein 
at the Glasgow meeting (see Vol. xu1, p. 43) respecting the new 
element which he called ozone, attracted the attention of Mr. De 
Moleyns; and the paper now read contained some of the more 
important results of his experiments, In the report alluded to, 
Prof. S. states that the disengagement of the ‘‘ odorous substance”’ 
depended, 1, upon the nature of the positive electrodes ; 2, upon 
the chemical constitution of the electrolytic fluid; and 3, upon 
the temperature of that fluid. He added, that his experiments 
went to show that well-cleaned gold and platina were alone ca- 
pable of disengaging the odoriferous principle, and that the more 
easily oxidable metals, as well as charcoal, did not possess that 
property at all. The results of Mr. De Moleyns’s investigations 
appear to prove: 1, that the disengagement of the peculiar odor 
is not confined to the less easily oxidable metals: 2, that by cer- 
tain arrangements, all metals, when positive electrodes, may be 
made to develope the odoriferous principle: 3, that certain posi- 
tive metals, not acting as electrodes, will evolve this principle: 
A, that charcoal forms no exception to this rule: 5, that all sub- 
stances, whether crystalline in structure or otherwise, possessing 
the property of appearing luminous by friction, or of yielding 
sparks when struck, also possess the property of discharging, un- 
der such circumstances, the pecular odor: 6, that iron and nickel 
develope this principle more strongly than any other metal. Mr. 
De Moleyns, observing the odor to be produced at the points con- 
necting an electro-magnetic machine with the battery, construct- 
ed an apparatus by which magnets were made to revolve within 
a glass cylinder, which could be exhausted at pleasure, or filled 
with various gases; by such means he obtained a vacuum, and 
operated in dry air, collecting the matters evolved over distilled, 
water, and by such modes he proved that ozone could not only 
be evolved in a dry atmosphere, but also in a vacuum—mercurial 
and common. These and other experiments led Mr. De Moleyns 
to the conclusion that the ozone of Schénbein, which he proposed 


Proceedings of the British Association. 319 


to name electrogen, must be admitted into the list of supposed 
elements: that it was no¢ a union of an electrolytic compound 
whose action was unknown; and that probably it exists in com- 
bination in various forms of matter, which at present are consid- 
ered elementary, but which in reality are not so. 

A paper on manures considered as stimulants to vegetation, 
was communicated by Dr. Daubeny. The author discusses the 
question as to the sense in which manures can be considered to 
act as stimulants to plants. It is evident that if the term stim- 
ulus be understood in an acceptation similar to that in which 
it is employed with reference to the animal economy, it ought to 
be confined to bodies, which by their presence, assist in promot- 
ing the secretion and assimilation of the nutritious materials pres- 
ent, and ought not to include such as themselves afford materials 
for secretion. ‘Thus salt and other condiments do not themselves 
nourish the animal; but by their presence, induce its secreting 
surfaces to assimilate more readily the substances presented to 
them. Now, it becomes a fit subject for inquiry, whether ma- 
nures operate in the former manner or in the latter; and likewise 
whether the fact, that certain of them act less beneficially at sub- 
sequent periods of their application than they did at first, admits 
of being explained on the recognized principle that “stimuli lose 
their full effect upon living matter when frequently repeated.” 
Dr. D. adduced several facts which led to the inference that the 
nitrates of soda and of potassa operate favorably upon certain 
crops by communicating to them nitrogen; and the reason why 
these salts sometimes have appeared to leave the land in a worse 
condition than before their use, is not owing to their being stim- 
uli, and therefore amenable to the law above quoted ; but is be- 
cause the free supply of nitrogen afforded by the decomposition 
of the nitrates, had caused the plant to absorb a larger portion of 
those other ingredients, such as phosphate of lime, silicate of po- 
tassa, &c., which are present only ina limited quantity in the 
soil, thus tending to exhaust it of these materials, and causing 
thereby an inferior crop to be produced on the following year, 
Now, though it may be true that the nitrates in this manner in- 
directly stimulate the vital energies of the plant, yet it was con- 
ceived that the term stimudus had better be abandoned with ref- 
erence to such cases, as its adoption might lead to an erroneous 
impression in the mind of the farmer with respect to the proper 


320 Proceedings of the British Association. 


mode of restoring to the land its original fertility. If the theory 
suggested by the author be the true one, it will follow, that the 
proper remedy would be, not to discontinue the use of the ni- 
trates, but by the application of bone manure, &c. at intermediate 
periods, to restore to the land those other ingredients which bad 
been abstracted from it in too large’a quantity. To determine 
what materials are wanting, and in what proportions they ought 
to be applied ; (independently of the empirical plan of ascertain- 
ing, by repeated trials, the substances, which, by their addition 
succeed best in remedying the deficiency, ) two methods present 
themselves. ‘The first, a difficult one, is to learn by a minute 
analysis of the soil, whether the ingredients which the crop re- 
quires are actually present, and to add of these a quantity equal 
to that which the intended crop is calculated to contain. The 
second, a more practical scheme, is to estimate in the first place, 
how much of these substances exists in the crop taken off the 
ground, and then to add to it at least an equivalent quantity of 
manure. 'The Doctor suggested, that in farming establishments, 
a kind of book-keeping should be undertaken, on this principle : 
a debtor and creditor account being made out of the quantity of 
nitrogen, of earthy phosphates, of alkali, é0c. abstracted in the 
form of crop, and restored in that of manure each year. He 
concluded by specifying certain points relative to this subject 
which require further investigation. 1. To confirm or disprove 
his theory, with respect to the operation of the nitrates, by deter- 
mining whether they actually diminish in quantity, and finally 
disappear after several successive crops have been grown upon 
land impregnated with these salts. 2. Whether the same applies 
to common salt and other mineral manures as to the nitrates, or 
whether any of them act directly as stimuli. 3. More extended 
and exact data relative to the amount of alkaline and earthy salts, 
and of nitrogen present in the various crops cultivated by the 
farmer, as well as in the manures he employs. 

A practical method of determining the quantity of real Indige 
in the Indigo of Commerce, by Dr. Samuel L. Dana, of Lowell, 
Mass. U. S. A. Dr. D. directs that 10 grains of indigo reduced 
to an impalpable powder should be boiled ina Florence flask a 
few minutes, in 24 oz. of a solution of carbonate of soda, mak- 
ing 30° to 35° on T'waddel’s hydrometer; then add 8 grains of 
crystals of muriate of tin, and boil for haif an hour: a beautiful 


Proceedings of the British Association. 321 


yellow solution of indigo will be obtained. Withdraw the flask 
from the lamp, and introduce into the solution 500 water-grain 
measures of a solution of 50 grains of bichromate of potash in 
4000 grains of water. 'The indigo blue, with a trace of indigo 
red, will be precipitated, while the other components remain in 
solution. Filter the precipitate through a double weighed filter, 
washing the mass with 1 oz. of muriatic acid, diluted with 3 oz. 
of boiling water; wash with hot water till water only returns; 
separate, dry and weigh the filters ; note the weight of the pre- 
cipitate, burn one filter against the other; the difference is the 
silica contained in the indigo, which deducted from the weight 
of the precipitate, gives the quantity of pure indigo. Mr. Walter 
Crum, who communicates the above, adds, that carbonate of soda 
with protoxide of tin does dissolve indigo, and forms a yellow 
solution, but so slowly that he doubts if all the ten grains are 
acted upon. He thinks Dr. Dana must mean soda-ash, which 
contains a notable quantity of caustic soda; but a much weaker 
solution of caustic soda would answer the purpose. 

On the disintegration of the Dolomitic Rocks of the Tyrol, by 
Prof. Daubeny. The author attempted to explain, without re- 
sorting to voleanic agency, the abrupt form, extraordinary height, 
naked outline, and fissured surface of the dolomitic rocks of the 
Tyrol. He attributed these characteristics to the slow rate at 
which decomposition proceeds in rocks consisting of pure dolo- 
mite, and the strength of the cohesion which binds together the 
particles of this rock, owing to which, even those portions which 
stand prominent in consequence of the removal, by the agents of 
destruction, of their contiguous parts, often remain unaffected by 
those mechanical forces which would cause the projecting por- 
tions of arock less unyielding in its texture, to become detached. 
The cause therefore of the greater height maintained by the do- 
lomites of the Tyrol, than by the pyroxenic rocks which accom- 
pany them, seems to be the inferior rate at which decomposition 
has proceeded in the former, whilst the bold and jagged outline 
they display, may have been produced by the tenacity with which 
their parts cohere. 'The sterile character of these same rocks, 
even in parts which are not precipitous, appears to be owing to 
the slowness with which they decompose, as well as perhaps to 
the absence of organic remains. The Professor concluded with 


some suggestions as to the means of fertilizing rocks containing 
Vol. xu, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1842. 4) 


322 Proceedings of the British Association. 


magnesia, when from the slowness of their decomposition they 
continue sterile ; and proposed in such cases to accelerate the dis- 
integration by pouring upon the sub-soil dilute sulphuric acid. 
Mr. Prideaux communicated the results of inquiries into the 
causes of the increased destructibility of modern copper sheathing. 
Experiments made on various kinds of copper sheathing immers- 
ed in sea water, showed, that in the laboratory, under parailel 
cirenmstances, they do not observe the same order of durability 
and waste, as they had done in use. The cause of comparative 
waste appears therefore to be, in part at least, due to external con- 
ditions ; and of these, two classes may be noticed ; one depending 
on the connexion with the ship, the other on the circumstances 
of her employment. Of the first class, two suggested them- 
selves,—the position on the ship’s side, and the nails by which the 
copper is fastened. 'The lower part of a ship’s copper seems to 
suffer much less than the upper, so long as she continues in deep 
water; but when she grounds at low water, if on black mud, 
this part suffers most from the action of sulphuretted hydrogen, 
peeling off in blue flakes. The influence of the nails offers rather 
more chemical interest. ‘They are never of pure copper, and 
being very numerous, all in contact with the copper sheets, whilst 
their heads present also a considerable metallic surface to the salt 
water, they may produce very decided effects, either preservative 
or destructive, by a slight electro-chemical difference. Various 
experiments were tried, which proved that most nails are destruc- 
tive. The conclusion resulting was this, that the nails might be 
rendered slightly electro-positive to rolled copper, by the addition 
of zine, which would not injure their flexibility nor enhance their 
cost. The test by the galvanometer would, after a little prac- 
tice, be easily applied, in making up the metal for casting them. 
Another mode of protection is offered, by coating the copper 
when new, with fish oil, which in one instance has been of sig- 
nal service. ‘The preservative effect of coal-tar was also noticed. 
This tar had trickled down over the copper from the wood-work 
above, and had crossed the sheets just where most subject to the 
wash and friction; and whilst the naked metal had been quite 
worn away, the coal-tarred streaks remained entire; the surface 
of the copper, on melting off the tar, being as perfect as when 
fresh from the roll. But it remains to be seen. whether it will 
keep a clean surface free from organic adhesions and earthy inerus- 


Proceedings of the British Association. 323 


tations. Experiments are now in progress to determine this ques- 
tion. 

New extemporancous process for the production of Hydrocyanic 
Acid for medical use, by R.D. Thomson, M.D. ‘The importance 
of this acid asa remedial agent, induced the author to bestow 

* much attention upon a mode of producing it always of uniform 
‘strength. Having tried all the processes for this purpose, proposed 
in this country, he was satisfied that none of them afforded an acid 
of uniform strength. The process recommended by Dr. Clark of 
Aberdeen, was superior to every other, but an objection to it is 
the great difficulty of procuring pure cyanide of potassium. The 
author believes the following process to be less liable to objection 
than any at present used. The first step consists in forming a 
pure cyanide of lead.. This may be done in various ways, either 
by precipitating acetate of lead by hydrocyanie acid,‘as prepared 
from the ferrocyanide of potassium and sulphuric acid, in a stop- 
pered bottle, or by distilling the mixed materials into a Wollfi’s 
bottle containing a solution of acetate of lead. In either case a 
definite compound of cyanogen and lead will be obtained, which 
is to be carefully washed and gently heated. The next step in 
the process is to decompose it by means of sulphuric acid. In 

e to obtain an acid of the strength of the Acidum Hydro- 
cyanicum dilutum of the London Pharmacopeia, or containing 
about two per cent. of absolute acid, the following formula is re- 
commended. 

46.36 grains of cyanide of lead. 


2 fluid drachms of dilute sulphuric acid. Lond. Pharm. 
6 fluid drachms of pure distilled water. 


Introduce the cyanide of lead into a stoppered bottle; mix the 
acid and water in a glass vessel; allow the mixture to cool, and 
then pour upon it the cyanide of lead. Close the stopper, and 
agitate the fluid and salt together. After standing for some time, 
pour off the supernatant liquor from the precipitated sulphate of 
lead, and preserve it in a stoppered bottle. This formula is 
founded upon the circumstance that the dilute sulphuric acid of 
the London Pharmacopeia contains in each fluid drachm about 
9.5 grains of oil of vitriol (SO?HO). 'T'wo drachms will there- 
fore contain nineteen grains of oil of vitriol. ‘The quantity re- 
quired for saturating 43.36 grains of cyanide of lead, is only 17.4 
grains; but the small excess is useful in preserving the acid. 


324 Proceedings of the British Association. 


On the radical of the Kakodyle Series, by Prof. Bunsen.— 
The easiest method of procuring pure kakodyle is the following. 
Chlovide of kakodyle, carefully freed from the oxide by treatment 
with strong hydrochloric acid, is allowed to stand some time over 
chloride of calcium and quick lime, to remove the water and all 
excess of acid. It is then introduced into a distillatory apparatus 
carefully filled with carbonic acid, and containing some slips of 
clean sheet zinc. Any of the metals which decompose water 
will answer, but zinc is the best. It is probable that hydrogen 
or carbon would produce a similar decomposition with suitable 
modifications of the apparatus. 'The vessel is then hermetically 
sealed, and the mixture of zinc with the chloride, is exposed for 
some hours in a water bath to a temperature of 212° F. When 
the decomposition is complete, a white saline mass is formed, 
which melts into an oily liquid between 240° and 248° F. ; while 
the tube is still hot, the point of the tube leading into the con- 
denser is dipped below the surface of boiled distilled water: as 
the apparatus cools, the water rises into it. ‘The tube is hermet- 
ically sealed: the water dissolves chloride of lime, leaving the 
excess of zinc and the kakodyle, which falls as an oily liquid to 
the bottom. This is rectified twice or. three times, filled with 
carbonic acid as before ; the water being afterwards removed by 
chloride of calcium in the usual way. Thus obtained, it isa 
colorless liquid, transparent and of a high refractive power, in 
appearance and odor much resembling the oxide of kakodyle, 
and ignites instantly on being brought in contact with air, giving 
off water, and carbonic and arsenious acids. 

Abstract of a letter from Prof. Liebig to Dr. Playfair.—This 
letter announces the discovery of a white crystalline substance, 
in large quantities, obtained by M. Schunk from the lichens 
which are employed in preparing archil, (Lecanora tartarea, &c. ) 
by extraction with ether. It differs from erythrine, and the com- 
pounds described by Dr. Kane, in its insolubility in water. It 
dissolves readily in alkaline solutions, and is capable of being 
again precipitated by acids, if the solution be recently made; but 
if kept standing for some hours, acids produce no precipitates: it 
has been decomposed, and is converted into carbonic acid, and 
orceine. If the substance be dissolved in baryta water, and the 
clear solution boiled, a large precipitate of carbonate of baryta 
occurs, and the filtered solution gives, on evaporation, large quan- 


Proceedings of the British Association. 325 


tities of orceine. From this circumstance a number of phenom- 
ena in the color of lichens can be explained, which Dr. K. has 
described in his work on that subject. Prof. L. also states that 
he has performed many experiments on the legumin of beans, 
and some other leguminous plants. He has arrived at the con- 
clusion, that this body is identical with the casein in milk of ani- 
mals. It has precisely the same composition, and contains the 
same salts,—(phosphate of potash, potash, magnesia, lime and 
iron, )—as the casein of milk. Prof. L. also mentions, that Drs. 
Will and Varrentrapp have devised an excellent method for deter- 
mining the amount of nitrogen in organic bodies. 'The substance 
is mixed with a quantity of caustic potash and hydrate of soda, 
and heated to redness in an ordinary combustion tube. All the 
nitrogen in the substance escapes as pure ammonia, which is con- 
densed in a small and neat apparatus, containing dilute hydro- 
chloric acid. This solution is mixed with chloride of platinum, 
evaporated to dryness in a water-bath, and the excess of chloride 
of platinum is washed from the ammonia chloride by a mixture 
of ether and alcohol. From the metallic platinum which remains 
after the ammonia chloride is heated to redness, the quantity of 
nitrogen is to be calculated. In conclusion, the Professor states 
that he has repeated all the experiments of Dr. Byown on the 
production of silicon from paracyanogen, but is not able to con- 
firm one of his results. His experiments prove that paracyanogen 
is decomposed by a strong heat, into nitrogen gas, and a residue 
of charcoal which is exceedingly difficult of combustion.—Dr. 
Parnell stated that he too had repeated the experiments of Dr. 
Brown, without being enabled to verify any one of his results. 
The following papers were also read before the Section. 


On some instances of restrained chemical action; by E. A. Parnell. 

On some subjects connected with the sulpho-cyanides; by the same. : 

On the direct formation of cyanogen, from its elements ; by G. Fownes. 

Experiments showing the possibility of fire from the use of hot water in warming 
buildings, and of explosions in steam-engine boilers; by Goldsworthy Gurney. 

On the production of sulphuretted hydrogen by the action of vegetable matter 
on solutions containing sulphates; by E. Lankester, M. D. 

On the composition of crystallized diabetic sugar; by R. D. Thomson, M. D. 

On spontaneous combustion; by Messrs. Booth, Hunt, and Hearder. 


Section C. Geology and Physical Geography. 


Mr. J. E. Bowman read an extensive paper on the Upper Silu- 
rian Rocks of Denbighshire, and stated that a re-examination 


326 Proceedings of the British Association. 


had furnished him additional proof of the correctness of the ar- 
rangement of these rocks, which he had proposed in a paper read 
at the Glasgow meeting. 

A report was read from the committee appointed at Glasgow, 
for obtaining instruments and registers to record shocks of earth- 
quakes in Scotland and freland. ‘Two instruments were devised 
and set up for this purpose, about January 1, 1841, near Comrie, 
in Scotland, viz. the common Pendulum Seismometer, and the 
inverted Pendulum Seismometer. No very important results had 
hitherto been obtained, and it is now proposed to adopt new in- 
struments of greater scope and sensitiveness than those before 
employed. 

On the occurrence of some minute Fossil Crustaceans in Pa- 
leozoic Rocks, by Mr. John Phillips:—After mentioning various 
places in which these animals have been found, he states that he 
had lately observed in Pembrokeshire, in the lowest shales of the 
mountain limestone, within ten feet of the old red sandstone, 
beds of Cyprides very similar to those in the black shales of the 
upper coal measures in Manchester. These are probably the most 
ancient specimens of the group yet discovered. ‘I'he circumstan- 
ces under which these Crustaceans are found at the present day, 
appear to a®ree with those attending their occurrence in a fossil 
state; the recent Cyprides seem destined to consume the perishing 
parts of animal and vegetable substances, and the fossil species 
are generally associated with portions of fishes near Manchester, 
and elsewhere. Probably these remains occur under many cir- 
cumstances, but to ascertain all the conditions under which they 
lived, requires attention to many sorts of strata not often sus- 
pected to contain remains. Very remarkable conditions occurred 
when the old red sandstone ceased to be deposited: for then, after 
a long series of formations, with no trace of organic remains, we 
find in the beds immediately above, thousands of minute Crusta- 
ceans, bone beds, layers of Brachiopoda, &c. of marine origin; 
and encouraged by this example, we may expect to find them in 
beds of still higher antiquity. — 

A paper was read by Mr. W. Walker, on the Geological Chan- 
ges produced by the Saxicava rugosa 72 Plymouth Sound.—The 
S. rugosa appears to be the prevailing perforator of the limestone 
rocks, and it is the author’s opinion that these operations have 
been carried on during such long periods as to destroy rocks, and 
make deep water where shoals previously existed. 


Proceedings of the British Association. 327 


© ~~ An account of the Fossil Organic remains of the southeast 
coast of Cornwall and of Bodmin and Menheniott, by C. W. 
Peach.—The line of coast examined commences at Veryan, four. 
miles south of Tregoney, and extends eastward by Gorran, the 
Blackhead, and Fowey, to East Looe. ‘The cliffs are composed 
throughout of quartzose and slaty rocks, hitherto supposed by Mr. 
Conybeare and others to be destitute of fossils. But along the 
whole line, Mr. P. has detected traces of Brachiopodous shells and 
corals, and the stems of encrinites are of frequent occurrence. 
From Veryan to Gorran the quartzose rocks rarely contain traces 
of shells, but in the calcareous slates in contact with dykes of 
greenstone at Blackhead, remains of corals resembling Turbino- 
lepsis, and of the genera Cyathocrinus, Spirifera, and Orthoceras 
occur. Eastward, at Pridmouth, a fine specimen of the Platy- 
crinite was found, with the column, pelvis, arms, é&c. In the 
slate quarries of Fowey, remains supposed to be those of fish, 
and corals of the genus Favosites were detected. Near Polman, 
occur encrinital stems nearly a foot long, together with remains 
of trilobites, corals of the genera Cyathophyllum, and Favosites, 
Spirifers, Orthoceras, and a fossil with a structure resembling that 
of the Sepiade. At Pentlooe, an equal-valved bivalve, resem- 
bling Uncula, and a species of Orthis, have been found; and at 
East Looe another fine specimen of an encrinite, with column, 
arms and tentacula attached; also specimens of Cyathocrinus, 
Fenestella, Turbinolopsis and Orthis. At Bodmin, the author has 
detected encrinites in the slate quarries, and in those of Menhe- 
niott in Liskeard the eye of a trilobite in good preservation. On 
the beach below the cliffs at Port Mellin, near Mevagissey, the 
author observed traces of a lacustrine deposit, containing roots 
and branches of trees, and the elytra of beetles, exposed after a 
heavy gale. 

A letter was read from Mr. 'T. B. Jordan, of the Museum of 
Economic Geology, on copying Fossils by a galvanic deposit.— 
In applying the method ordinarily used in electrotyping, some 
difficulty was experienced by the author in consequence of the 
irreguiar form of the fossils, parts of which would not relieve 
from the wax or plaster matrix in which the copper is afterwards 
deposited. Mr. J. therefore adopted a compound of glue and 
treacle, (used by printers for their inking rollers,) as the material 
of the moulds, the elasticity of which admits of its leaving the 


328 Proceedings of the British Association. 


adherent portions without breaking. The mixture is applied hot, 
and allowed to harden for twenty four hours, when it will come 
off without injuring the finest parts. The matrix thus prepared 
requires a strong varnish to protect the back and sides from the 
action of the liquid in which it is to be placed, and only one copy 
can be made from each matrix, but the impressions have none of 
the defects so apparent in those produced in the ordinary moulds. 
Different lights and shades may be given to the copper impres- 
sions, by a galvanic process, which the author considers capable 
of improvement, and application to other purposes. For a dark 
object on a light ground, the surface is brushed over with the 
argento-cyanide of potassium, giving it a silver face, which may 
be removed to the desired extent from the portions requiring to 
be dark, by a dilute solution of nitro-muriate of platinum. Other 
tints may be produced by using a solution of gold; and all may 
be considerably varied by changing the time during which each 
solution is allowed to act. 

* Prof. Owen communicated the second and concluding portion 
of his Report on British Fossil Reptiles. After some prefatory 
observations on the general nature and affinities of the recent and 
extinct reptilia, and the parts of the organization of the latter, 
which by their modifications afford the best character for their 
determination, the author proceeded to give a recapitulation of 
the leading peculiarities of the E’naliosauri, which formed the 
subject of the first part of his Report: and a brief summary of 
the results of the labors of previous geologists and anatomists, in 
the field which the second part of his Report had led him to ex- 
plore. The first section of the Report was devoted to a descrip- 
tion of a large reptile, the type of a new genus, to which the 
name Pliosaurus was given, and which formed the link connect- 
ing the Plesiosaurus with the crocodile family. ‘The most con- 
spicuous character of this genus consists in the cervical vertebre, 
which are considerably shorter than those of the,dorsal region: 
in this respect it differs from all recent Saurians, the vertebre of 
which are characterized by retaining the same length throughout. 
From this cause, the neck of the Pliosaurus is short, compared 
with that of the Plesiosaurus, and approaches the condition of 
that region in the Ichthyosaurus. ‘The more crocodilian propor- 
tions of the teeth also distinguish it from the Plesiosaurus, which 
in other respects it strikingly resembles. Remains of it have 


Proceedings of the British Association. 329 


been found in the Kimmeridge clay of Market Rasen, Weymouth, 
and Shotover. From differences in the relative proportions of 
these bones, Prof. O. considers them to have belonged to two 
distinet species of Pliosaurus. .'The remains of the Saurians of 
the crocodilian family, which complete the transition from the 
Enaliosaurians to the terrestrial lizards, were next noticed. The 
Report included descriptions of the fossil crocodiles in the British 
formations below the eocene tertiary strata to the oolite inclu- 
sive ; and it was observed, that the extinct species deviated from 
the organic type of the existing crocodiles, in proportion as their 
remains occurred in strata geologically more remote from the 
present time. Not any of the species were identical with those 
now known to exist, and the modifications of structure in which 
they differed, were much more considerable than any which dis- 
tinguish the skeletons of existing species from each other. The 
extinct species agreeing with the present crocodiles in possessing 
the ball-and-socket articulation of the vertebree, in which the 
cavity is on the fore part, were first described. Of these, the 
Crocodilus Toliapicus is found in the Londen clay of Bracklesham, 
at Sheppey, and in beds of sand underlying the red crag at Ky- 
son. The Crocodilus cultridens of the Wealden formation Prof. 
O. now considered sub-generically different from the crocodiles, 
and proposed for it the name of Suchosaurus. Goniopholis cras- 
sidens, another species from the Wealden, was described by Prof. 
O. as more completely mailed than any of the crocodile family ; 
its remains occur in the Tilgate Forest and near Battle Abbey, 
and in the Purbeck limestone at Swanage. ‘The next family of 
extinet crocodiliaus considered by Prof. Owen, are characterized 
by the biconcave structure of the vertebre. Remains of the 
first of these, Teleosaurus Chapmanni, are abundant in the lias 
of the Yorkshire coast; and 7. Cadonensis, which abounds in 
the oolitic formations near Caen, in Normandy, also occurs in the 
oolite near Woodstock, and at Stonesfield. Remains of two other 
species were noticed. ‘I'he second genus, Steneosaurus, distin-. 
guished from the last by the sub-terminal position of the nostril, 
is from the Kimmeridge clay at Shotover, and from the oolite of 
Stonesfield. One of the most interesting specimens, exhibiting 
the form of the brain in a east of that part, is in the’ Woodward- 
ian Collection at Cambridge. A third division was for the first 
time described as occurring in British strata, possessing the ball- 
Vol. xuu, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 42 


330 Proceedings of the British Association. 


and-socket articulation of the vertebrae, but with the position re- 
versed, to which the name Streptospondylus has been given by 
Von Meyer. It has been found in the lias near Whitby, and the 
oolite near Chipping Norton. Prof. Owen next proceeded to de- 
scribe the remains of some gigantic Saurians, ranging from the 
greensand to the colite, and which rivalling the modern whales in 
bulk, may be presumed to have been of strictly aquatic, and prob- 
ably of marine habits. They have the biconcave structure of the 
vertebree, and the long bones show no trace of a medullary cavity. 
Of the first of these, named by Prof. Owen, Cetiosaurus, (de- 
scribed in report of Proc. Greol. Soc.) the vertebra and other bones, 
found in the lower oolite of Chipping Norton, belonged probably 
to an individual forty feet in length. Prof. O. has assigned to 
this species the name of C. hypodlithicus ; and to another species 
the name of C. epiodlithicus, remains of which, including a ver- 
tebra eight inches in length of body, and nine inches in trans- 
verse diameter, occurs in the Yorkshire oolite at White Nab. 
The niuth section of the Report was devoted to the description 
of a large marine Saurian, teeth of which were frequent in the 
chalk of Barnwell, and in Sussex, in the Folkstone galt, and the 
lower greensand near Maidstone. From the structure of the 
teeth, Prof. O. had assigned to it in his ‘ Odontography,” the 
name of Polypiychodon.. Several bones of a gigantic Saurian, dis- 
covered by Mr. Mackeson in the greensand quarries near Hythe, 
were considered as probably belonging to the. same genus. Of 
the genus. Mosasaurus, only a few vertebre have been found in 
the English chalk formation. Teeth, resembling those of the 
Mosasaurus, but differing in the elliptic form of the base of the 
crown in a transverse section, have been found in the chalk of 
Norfolk, and were described by the generic appellation, Leiodon. 
The report next proceeded to the account of the extinct species, 
which manifested, in the enduring parts of their organization, an 
intimate relationship with the numerous and varied tribes of the 
smaller and lower organized Saurians of the present epoch, to 
which the term Lacertians or Squamate Sauria were applied. 
Prof. O. observed that in this, as in the foregoing divisions of the 
Saurian order, the ancient world possessed very singular and also 
very gigantic species, which have now utterly perished, and have 
given place to carnivorous and herbivorous quadrupeds of more 
active habits and higher organization. The first fossils noticed, 


Proceedings of the British Association. 331 


were referred to a small genus of Lacertians from the chalk for- 
mation in Cambridge and Maidstone, to which Prof. O. had given 
the name Raphiosaurus ; a portion of the lower jaw containing 
twenty two awl-shaped teeth, and another specimen consisting 
of twenty dorsal, two lumbar, two sacral, and a few caudal 
vertebre, with the pelvic bones, were described. Part of the 
lower jaw, with teeth, of another lizard about as large as the 
Iguana, was described as occurring in the eocene sand under the 
red crag at Kyson. Remains of a Lacertian were next described 
from the celebrated oolite at Stonesfield. The structure of these 
bones indicates a close affinity to the scincoid lizards, the largest 
forms of which now exist in Australia, where they are associated 
with Araucariee and Cycadeous plants, with living Clavagelle, 
Terebratule, and Trigoniz, and with the peculiar marsupial 
quadrupeds, the remains of all which forms of organized beings 
characterize the same stratum and locality as does the present 
extinct Lacertian. Prof. O. next proceeded to notice the more 
remarkable and gigantic forms of terrestrial Saurians of the same 
period, from the eocene tertiary to the oolites. Of these, the 
Megalosaurus, [gnanodon, and Hyleeosaurtus had been described 
by their original discoverer, Dr. Mantell, and by Dr. Buckland in 
his ‘Bridgewater Treatise.’ Prof. O. after pointing out additional 
peculiarities of structure discovered in specimens subsequently 
found, and the new localities from which these specimens were 
derived, observed that the name Iguanodon, by conveying the 
idea of a gigantic Iguana, created an erroneous idea of its affin- 
ities. No existing lizard differed more from the iguana than did 
the Iguanodon, in the absence of the ball-and-socket joint of the 
vertebree, and likewise in the structure of the teeth, which is 
characterized in the gigantic extinct herbivorous reptile by nu- 
merous parallel medullary canals. The femur of the Iguanodon, 
in the process continued from the inner side, near the upper third 
of the bone, deviates from all modern Lacertians, and approaches 
nearer the crocodiles, but surpasses them in the development of 
the ridge in question. A detailed description of the skeleton, 
founded upon nearly all the remains of the Iguanodon yet dis- 
covered, was next given; the form of the claw-bones of the 
Iguanodon, and especially of some enormous ones recently dis- 
covered with other bones at Horsham, was described, and from 
a comparison of these with other specimens from the [sle of 


332 Proceedings of the British Association. 


Wight, and with those preserved in the slab containing the Maid- 
stone Iguanodon, Prof. O. stated it to be his opinion, that. the 
animal did not possess the peculiarity of having the fore legs pro- 
vided with compressed, and the hind legs with depressed claws, 
but that the narrow compressed curved claws occasionally found 
in the Wealden, belonged to another extinct reptile. This sec- 
tion of the Report concluded with a notice of all the British 
localities, and the strata in which those remains had been discov- 
ered. The anatomical peculiarities of the Hyleosaurus, another 
large extinct reptile of the Wealden clay, discovered by Dr. Man- 
tell, were next described; and an account of the microscopical 
structure of the dermal bones was given. ‘This remarkable rep- 
tile combines the sub-biconcave structure of the vertebree, with 
crocodilian scute, and a plesiosauroid form of the scapular arch. 
The teeth not uncommonly found in the Wealden strata, for- 
merly supposed to belong to the Phytosaurus cylindricodon of 
Jaeger, and more recently to the genus Rhopalodon of Fischer 
de Waldheim, Mr. O. showed to be quite distinct from both, and 
stated that if they were not the teeth of the Alyl@osaur, they 
must belong to some unknown genus of Lacertine Saurian. The 
remains of the genera Thecedon and Paleosaur, from the mag- 
nesian conglomerates near Bristol, and of the genus Cladeiodon 
from the Keuper sandstone of Warwickshire, were next described. 
These were the most ancient of the Saurians yet discovered in 
Great Britain, and although they differ from modern Lacertians 
in the implantation of their teeth in distinet sockets, agreed with 
them in the form and structure of the teeth. The last genus of 
Saurians described, (thynchosaurus, OQ.) is new to science, and 
the remarkable peculiarities of its cranial anatomy, together with 
its vertebral characters, and the structure of the ribs, and some of 
the long bones, were given in detail. Characters of the croco- 
dile, lizard and tortoise were combined in the forms and connex- 
ions of the bones of the skull, a nearly entire specimen of which 
had been transmitted by Dr. O. Ward, of Shrewsbury, to Prof. 
Owen from the Grinsill quarries of the new red sandstone, where 
the foot prints of a reptile agreeing in size with the Rhynchosau- 
rus were not uncommon. Reasons were adduced showing the 
high probability that they were the foot prints of the Rhyn- 
chosaurus: they differ in shape from those of the Chirotherium, 
which were shown, in the concluding part of the Report, to be- 


Proceedings of the British Association. 333 


long to Prof. Owen’s new genus Labyrinthodon. In the seven- 
teenth section of the present Report, were described the remains 
of the flying reptiles (Péerodactylus macronyz) from Lyme Regis 
and the oolite of Stonesfield. Some remains of undetermined 
Saurians from the bone bed at Aust Passage, and other localities, 
were noticed. The nineteenth section contained an account of 
the fossil Emydes, Trionyces, and Cheloniz, hitherto discovered 
in British strata. The Chelonia Harvicensis, and two new spe- 
cies (C. breviceps and C. acutirostris) from the eocene clay at 
Sheppey, were described; and the characters of a new genus, 
(Cimochelys,) the remains of which are found in the chalk near 
Maidstone, were given in detail. 

‘The indications of Chelonian reptiles in more ancient strata 
were then noticed, and the femur of a tortoise, from the new red 
sandstone near Elgin, was described. The fossil reptiles of the 
order Ophidia, discovered by Mr. Owen in the London clay at 
Sheppey, have already been noticed; to these were added de- 
scriptions of a smaller species of Paleophis, from the eocene sand 
at Kyson, and of a much larger species not less than twenty feet 
in length, from the London clay at Bracklesham. The last sec- 
tion of the Report was chiefly devoted to the details of the deter- 
mination of remains of the fossil Batrachians, identical with the 
so-called genera Mastodonsaurus and Salamandroides of the 
German Keuper, and on which the characters of the genus Laby- 
rinthodon are based. Reasons were given, showing the high 
probability that the foot prints referred to the Chirotherium, were 
those of the Batrachian genus Labyrinthodon. 


The following papers were also communicated : 

On the Post-Tertiary Formations of Cornwall and Devon, by Mr. Bartlett. 

On the stratified and unstratified voleanic products in the neighborhood of Ply- 
mouth, by Rev. D. Williams. 

On the genus Cardinia of Agassiz, as characteristic of the lias formation, by 
H. E. Strickland. 

On the discovery of organic remains in a raised beach, in the limestone cliff 
under the Hoe, at tlymouth, by E. Moore, M. D. 

Account of the strata penetrated in sinking an Artesian well at the Victoria 
Spa, Plymouth, by Edward Moore, M. D. 

Notice of the discovery of some fossils on Great Hangman Hill, near Combe 
Martin, North Devon, by Major Harding. 


Sect. D. Zoology and Botany. 


On the Geographical Distribution of the Animals of New 
Holland, by Mr. Gray.—Of the ninety four species of mammalia, 


334 Proceedings of the British Association. 


(belonging to thirty three genera,) which are found in Australia, 
it appears that fifty eight inhabit New South Wales, of which 
forty one are peculiar to it, and thirteen common to it, and other. 
parts of the country; twelve species inhabit South Australia, six 
are peculiar, and six are common to other parts. Nineteen spe- | 
cies inhabit Western Australia; twelve peculiar, and seven com- 
mon. TF ive species inhabit the Northwest coast, all of which are 
peculiar to it; two species the north coast, one of which has not 
been found elsewhere. In Yan Diemen’s Land are found twenty 
one species; eleven are found only in that country, and ten com- 
mon to it and the continent. One species is found in Norfolk 
Island, which is also found in New South Wales, but not in Van 
Diemen’s Land. 

On two remarkable marine invertebrata inhabiting the Zagean 
Sea, by Mr. E. Forbes.—These animals were taken in the harbor 
of Nousa, in the island of Paros, which is extremely rich in marine 
productions. ‘The depth of the bay is generally from seven to 
ten fathoms; the bottom, sand and weed. Amongst the sandy 
heaps at the bottom of this bay are two new animals. The first, 
a zoophyte of the family Actiniade, which is free and vermiform, 
and which lives in a tube of its own construction,—a combination 
of characters hitherto unnoticed among the helianthoid polypes. 
The second is a tubicolar annelide, which lives in a strong gela- 
tinous tube, bearing a remarkable analogy to the sac of certain 
entozoa. ‘These two animals are noticed together, as in each 
case the peculiarity of the organization and habits is the result of 
a similar adaptation of form, in two very distinct tribes, to a sim- 
ilar locality. 

On a new Glirine Animal from Merico, by J. E. Gray.—This 
animal was brought from Mexico by Mr. J. Phillips, and is pecu- 
liar for having large cheek pouches which open externally on the 
sides of the cheek. ‘This conformation has hitherto been observed 
only in four genera of glirine animals, which inhabit exclusively 
the northern half of the American continent, as the genera Sac- 
cophorns, Saccomys, Anthomys, and Heteromys. ‘l'hese cheek 
pouches are used by the animals to carry theit food, as the mon- 
keys of the Old World use their internal pouches, which are found 
between their cheek and the mouth. ‘The first of these genera 
has been long known ; and it has been believed that these cheek 
pouches hung out of the side of the cheek like pockets; but this 


Proceedings of the British Association. 335 


does not appear to be the case with the genus under consideration, 
or with the Anthomys, which was so called because F’. Cuvier 
found their cheek pouches filled with flowers. If it were not for 
these cheek pouches, the animal before us might be taken fora 
Gerboa, with which it perfectly agrees in the softness and color 
of the fur, and in the length of the hind-legs and tail, which has 
a brush at the end, so that it may be at once distinguished from 
the other American genera, above enumerated, which either have 
an elongated scaly tail, like a rat, or a very short one, like a lem- 
ming. Mr. Gray is inclined to consider this animal as the repre- 
sentative of the genus (Dipus) Gerboa, which is confined to the 
more temperate part of Africa, as the genus Harpalotis is repre- 
sentative of the same genus in Australia. The combination of - 
the forms and color of the Gerboa with the external cheek pouches 
of the pouched rat, at once marks this animal as a new genus, 
which I propese to call Dipodomys or Gerboa rat, designating the 
species after its discoverer, D. Phillipsii. 

Col. Hamilton Smith read a paper on the Colossal Sepiade.— 
He detailed all that was known of the existence of animals of 
enormous size, inhabiting the ocean, belonging to the class of 
Cephalopods. However incredulous some naturalists might be 
regarding the existence of these animals, he had collected suffi- 
cient evidence to convince him that animals of a very large size 
belonging to this class now inhabited the waters of the ocean. 
The paper was illustrated by numerous drawings, and one was 
a sketch of the beak and other parts of an enormous Sepia, still 
preserved at the Museum of Haarlem, where they were seen by 
the author. 

The following papers were also read : 


Some inquiries on the Natural History of the Wheat Midge, Cecidomyia Tritici, 
by Prof. Henslow. 

On the zoology of the county of Cornwall, by J. Couch. 

On some species of European Pines, by Capt. Widdington, R. N. 

On the existence of organic beings in mineral waters, by Dr. Lankester. 

Report on the drawing up, printing and circulating of queries coricerning the 
human race, for the use of travellers and others. 

Report of the Committee on the growth and vitality of seeds. 

On the habits of the eel, and on the freshwater fishes of Austria, by Capt. Wid- 
dington, R. N. 

On animal exhalations as affecting plants, by Mr. Ball. 

On natural history as a branch of general education, by Mr. R. Patterson. 

Scheme for yearly observations on the periodicity of birds, by M. de Longchamp, 
of Liege. 


336 Proceedings of the British Association. 


Comparative view of animal and vegetable physiology, by Mr, Bartlett. 

Remarks on the Flora of Devon and Cornwall, by Rev. W.S. Hore. 

Account of a Thylacinus, the great dem iesed opossum, one of the rarest and 
largest of the marsupiate family of animals, by Prof. Owen. 

Account of two Peruvian mummies, by Mr. P. F. Bellamy. 

On the varieties of the human race, by Dr. Caldwell. 


Sect. E.— Medical Science. 


The following papers were communicated to the Section. 
Facts as yet unnoticed in the treatment of squinting, by Mr. J. V. Solomon. 
General observations on the pathology and cure of squinting, by J. Butter, M. D. 
A case of albuminous Ascites, with Hydatids, by Sir David Dickson. 
Observations on a pustular disease hitherto undescribed by writers on diseases 
of the skin, by Dr. A. T. Thomson. 

Report on poisons, by Dr. Roupell. 

On the treatment of Rheumatism by opium, by Dr. Theophilus Thompson. 

On Empyema, by Mr. Square. 

On two fascie on the eyeball, by Mr. B. Lucas. 

Some observations on a case of deafness, dumbness and blindness, with remarks 
on the muscular sense, by Dr. Fowler. 


Sect. F. WStatistzes. 


The following papers were communicated to the Section. 

Statistics of Plymouth, Stonehouse and Devonport, by Mr. H. Woolcombe. 

On the vital statistics of Sheffield, by a local committee. 

Account of the Polytechnic School of Paris, by J. Heywood, eas 

On the loan funds in Ireland, by Mr. H. J. Porter: 

On the income of scientific ath literary societies, and the amount paid for rates 
and taxes in the year 1840, by Mr. Ryland. 

Account of the Central Statistical Commission in Brussels, by the Belgian gov- 
ernment; from Prof. Quetelet. 

Results of experiments on a system of small allotments and spade husbandry, 
by Mrs. Davies Gilbert. 

On the agricultural products of Cornwall, by Sir C. Lemon. 

Report of the Manchester Statistical Society, on the state of the working classes 
in the borough of Kingston-upon-Hull. 

Statistics of education in the city of Bristol, by Mr. Fripp. 

Comparative statement of the income and expenditure of certain families of the 
working classes in Manchester and Duckenfield, during the years 1836 and 1841, 
by Mr. W. Neild. 

Account of the Monts de Piéte of Rome, Paris, and other continental cities, by 
Mr. Porter. 

On the stipends of the clergy of the Established Church in Scotland. 

Address on the importance of keeping exact registers, in different districts, of 
facts in meteorology, physics, chemistry, botany, agriculture, zoology, human 
physiology and economy, by Prof. Quetelet. 

On the economic statistics of Sheffield. 


Sect. G. Mechanical Science. 


Mr. G. Rennie read a paper on the Propulsion of Vessels by 
the T'rapezium Paddle-wheel and Screw. The author gave an 


Proceedings of the British Association. 308 


account of the various experiments to which he had been led, 
on the propulsion of vessels by various forms of paddle-floats and 
by the'screw. It was generally admitted that the paddle-wheel 
is the best means of propulsion with which engineers are at 
present acquainted, and various attempts have been made for its 
improvement. There are several objections to the square or rec- 
tangular floats, particularly the shock on entering the water, and 
the drag against the motion of the wheel on the float’s quitting 
the water; both of which gave rise to considerable vibrations. 
He had been led, in considering the improvement of the paddle- 
wheel, to have recourse to nature; and the form of the foot of 
the duck had particularly attracted his attention. The web of 
the duck’s foot is shaped so that each part has a relation to the 
space through which it has to move, that is, to the distance from 
the centre of motion of the animal’s leg. Hence he was led to 
cut off the angles of the rectangular floats; and he found that 
the resistance to the wheel through the water was not diminish- 
ed. Pursuing these observations and experiments, he was led to 
adopt a float of a trapezium or diamond shape, with its most 
pointed end downwards. ‘These floats enter the water with their 
points downwards, and quit it with their points upwards, and 
then arrive gradually at their full horizontal action, without shocks 
or vibrations ; and after their full horizontal action, quit the wa- 
ter without lifting it or producing any sensible commotion be- 
hind. After a great variety of experiments, he found that a pad- 
dle-wheel of one half the width and weight, and with trapezium 
floats, was as effective in propelling a vessel asa wheel of double 
the width and weight with the ordinary rectangular floats. ‘The 
Admiralty had permitted him to fit Her Majesty’s steam-ship Af- 
rican with these wheels, and he had perfect confidence in the 
success of the experiment. Another means of propulsion is the 
screw, Which had been applied with success by Mr. Smith in the 
Archimedes. In examining the wings of birds and the tails of 
swift fish, he had been particularly struck with the adaptation of 
shape to the speed of the animals. ‘The contrast between the 
shape of the tail of the codfish—a slow moving fish, and the tail 
of the mackerel—a rapid fish, is very remarkable ; the latter go- 
ing off toa point much more rapidly than the former. From 
these observations he was led to try a screw with four wings of 
a shape somewhat similar to these, but bent into a conical sur- 
Vol. xx1z, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 43 


338 An Astronomical Machine, the Tellurium. 


face, the outline being a logarithmic spiral. He found also that 
certain portions of these might be cut off without diminishing 
the effect. With respect to ascertaining the friction of the screw 
on the water, great difficulty exists; but he would refer to his 
experiments, published some years ago in the Philosophical 'Trans- 
actions, in which he measured the friction of the water against 
a body revolving in it, by the time which a given weight took 
to descend ; this body consisted of rings, and he found that the 
friction or resistance through the water did not increase in propor- 
tion to the number of rings. 
The following papers were also communicated. 

Report on railway constants, by Dr. Lardner. 

Remarks on the connexion which exists between improvements in pitwork and 
the duty of steam-engines in Cornwall, by Mr. Enys. 

On Mr. Truscott’s plan for reefing paddle-wheels, by Mr. Chatfield. 

On a plan of disengaging and reconnecting the paddle-wheels of steam-engines, 
by Mr. J. Grantham. 

On a floating breakwater, by Capt. Taylor, R. N. 

Further report of the committee on the forms of vessels, by Mr. J. S. Russell. 

On an improved sight for rifles and other fire-arms, by Mr. C. 'T’. Coathupe. 

On Capt. Couch’s chock channels, by Mr. Snow Harris. 

On Arnott’s stove, and the construction of descending flues, and their applica- 
tion to the purposes of ventilation, by Mr. J. N. Hearder. ‘ 

Report of the committee on railway constants, by Mr. Edward Woods. 

On the granite quarries of Dartmoor, and their railways and machinery, by Mr. 
W. Johnson. 

Report of the committee for applying a principle of Dynamometrical admeasure- 
ment, invented by M. Poncelet, to the construction of a permanent indicator for 
steam-engines. 

On a system of trussing for the roadways of suspension bridges, by Mr. Rendel. 

On the Plymouth breakwater, by Mr. Wm. Stuart. 


Arr. XIV.—An Astronomical Machine, the Tellurium; by 
Epwin C. Lerpom, M. D., of Plymouth, Penn. 


Tis isa machine for representing the motions of the earth 
and moon. ‘The earth, whose axis has its proper obliquity to the 
ecliptic and keeps its parallelism, revolves round the sun in an 
ellipsis similar to the natural orbit, and moves with such a velo- 
city that an imaginary line joining the centres.of these two bod- 
les, the latter being situated in one of the foci of the orbit of the 
former, describes equal areas in equal times. The diurnal rota- 
tions of the planet are also shown, each complete turn on its axis 


*, Astronon. /7 vy Ldlwuec I]. Livmouth, La. 


An Adtedioutical Machine, the Tellurium. 339 


being made in asidereal day, or 23h. 56m. 4s. The moon moves 
eastward round the earth and completes a sidereal revolution in 
27d. 7h. 48m. ; its nodes shift round contrary to the order of the 
signs, and its apogee has its direct motion eastward, the former 
completing a sidereal revolution in 18.6 years, and the latter in 
Siz years. 

In contriving this machine I have availed myself somewhat of 
the inventions of other artists. To effect the unequable motion 
of the earth in its orbit, I have had, recourse to a combination of 
elliptical wheels similar to that used by Dr. Desaguliers in his 
Cometarium. There is a little Planetarium described in Fergu- 
son’s Astronomy, in which the parallelism of the earth’s axis is 
preserved in the same manner as in this. But this machine, in- 
dependently of the elliptical orbit and unequable motion of the 
earth, is very different from that, as will be apparent to any one 
who may compare them.* (See Brewster’s Ed. Ferg. Astron. 
Vol. UI, p.6.) Although these particular parts are the inventions 
of preceding artists, still I think I may venture to assert, that this 
machine, considered as a whole, constitutes a new combination 
in mechanics. * 

In Plate IV, this machine is represented as it would appear to 
an eye situated directly above it. Plate V exhibits a lateral view 
of the wheelwork. In either plate the ball W represents the 
sun, the ball U the earth, and V the moon: £# is an index for 
showing the place of the moon’s ascending node, e is another 
index for showing the place of its apogee, and m is a winch by 
which the machinery is moved. The earth is surréunded by a 
little brass ring s, which is set upon four pillars ¢ ¢, and has the 
signs of the zodiac marked upon it. Upon this ring, which moves 
_ with the earth and keeps its parallelism, the geocentric places of 
the sun, moon, its ascending node and apogee, can be seen. 
123 4, Plate V, is a wooden frame, in the top of which are two 
equal elliptical grooves similar to the earth’s orbit, and which 
have their foci all situated in one straight line. Within the 
frame are two elliptical wheels, K and L, which are of the same 
size and eccentricity as these grooves, each wheel having its axis 


* About fourteen years ago I made the first machine of this kind. At that time 
and for several years afier, I believed myself to be the original inventor of this 
mode of preserving the parallelism of the earth’s axis, but I was at length unde- 
ceived by a perusal of Ferguson’s book. 


340 An Astrononucal Machine, the Tellurium. 


situated in one of its foci. The axis of the wheel L also carries 
a large circular wheel M; next to which is placed a pinion N, 
upon the upper end of whose axis the winch is fixed. Qisa 
stout metallic axis of the same size as that which carries the 
wheel K. These two axes pass perpendicularly through the 
boards 1 and 3, the upper part of each axis where it comes 
through the board 1 being situated in one of the foci of one of 
‘the elliptical grooves. Upon the upper ends of these axes two 
arms f# and ¢ are tightly fixed. Two other arms R and § are 
fixed upon their lower ends so as to be perpendicular to h and @. 
Tis a narrow metallic plate which is connected with the arms R 
and S by two movable joints: this plate assists in regulating the 
motion of the machine. Into the arms /A and 7, are inserted two 
axes f and 2, which pass up through a movable frame 567 8 and 
turn freely within it. The lower ends of these axes project into 
the elliptical grooves in the board 1 and slide along these grooves 
when the machine is in motion, the arms / and 7 being so con- 
trived as either to lengthen or shorten according as the distance 
of the groove from its focus increases or diminishes. 

The movable frame 567 8 contains a number of wheels, which 
serve to rotate the earth on its axis and give motion to the moon, 
its nodes and apogee. A metallic supporter Y has inserted into 
it along and narrow socket, which passes up through a hole in 
the plate Z. Upon the upper end of this socket a small brass 
arm a is fixed, which holds a pinion 0, whose axis forms an angle 
of 234 degrees with the perpendicular, and carries the earth U. 
C is a piniot whose axis passes up through this socket and is sur- 
mounted by a very small wheel whose teeth act upon the leaves 
of the pinion o. D, F, and H, are three wheels, each of which 
is fixed upon a separate socket. The socket of the wheel D- 
turns upon the socket which is fastened into the supporter Y. 
The socket of F turns upon the socket of D; and the socket of 
H turns upon that of the wheel F. Upon the upper end of the 
socket of Dasmall circular brass plate cis fixed, into which, 
near its edge, is inserted a small flattened socket, through which 
passes a flattened wire which carries the moon V. The lower 
end of this wire rests on another circular plate d, which is fixed 
upon the socket of the wheel F° and has an oblique position, 
forming an angle of 54 degrees with a horizontal plane passing — 
through its centre. This wire is kept constantly applied to the 


An Astronomical Machine, the Tellurium. 341 


plate d by means of its own gravity, and slides along this plate 
asc turns round, the wire alternately rising and falling in its 
socket ; consequently the orbit in which the moon V moves must 
always be parallel to the plate d, and form an angle of 54 degrees 
with the plane of the ecliptic. The index e, which points to the 
moon’s apogee, is fixed upon the socket of the wheel H. The 
axis @ carries four wheels A, E, G, and I, which all turn as one 
wheel. Next to the wheel A is placed the pinion of a wheel B, 
whose teeth act upon the teeth of a small wheel p, which trans- 
mits motion to the pinion C. The teeth of the wheel E act 
upon the teeth of the wheel O, whose axis also carries a wheel 
P, which gives motion to the wheel D. ‘The teeth of the wheel 
G act upon the teeth of the wheel F'; and lastly, motion is trans- 
mitted from the wheel I to the wheel H by means of an inter- 
vening wheel r. 

When the winch m is turned by a steady hand, the leaves of 
the pinion N act upon the teeth of the large circular wheel M, 
and turn it and the elliptical Lon their common axis with an 
equable motion. 'The teeth of Lat the same time act upon those 
of the wheel K. As K turns, the arms # and 7 both move in the 
same direction and carry the movable frame 5678 parallel to 
itself, over and over the top of the large stationary frame 1 2 3 4. 
The earth U is carried along with the moving frame, and has the 
parallelism of its axis also rigidly preserved. As the ends of the 
axes f and g slide round in the elliptical grooves, in the board 1, 
it is apparent that the orbit described by the earth U, must be an 
ellipsis of the same size and eccentricity as either of these grooves. 
When the earth is in its perihelion, as represented in the draw- 
ing (Plate V,) that part of the circumference of the elliptical 
wheel L, which is farthest from its axis and has the greatest ve- 
locity, is applied to a part of the circumference of K which is 
nearest to the axis of the latter wheel, consequently the earth 
must have its quickest motion. When the earth comes to its 
aphelion, these elliptical wheels have a reverse position with re- 
spect to each other, which gives the earth its slowest motion. 
These elliptical wheels working together in this manner, give the 
earth U the same unequable motion in its orbit, that the real’ 
earth has in nature. 

The wheels A, E, G, and I, all make one complete turn on 
their common axis g during an entire revolution of the earth 


342 An Astronomical Machine, the Tellurium. 


round the sun. The wheel A contains 293 teeth, and the pin- 
ion which belongs to the wheel B contains 8 leaves, consequently 
B must make 363 turns during one turn of the wheel A. The 
wheel B contains 80 teeth, and the pinion © contains 8 leaves; 
consequently C must make ten turns during one turn of the wheel 
B, and ten times 36 or 366% turns during one revolution of the 
wheel A, that is, in one year. ‘The little wheel upon the upper 
end of the axis of the pinion C contains the same number of 
teeth as the pinion 0, therefore the earth must turn on its axis in 
the same time as the pinion C; it must make 366} diurnal rota- 
tions ina year, each rotation ‘being performed in a sidereal. day or 
23h. 56m. 4s. The wheel E contains 167 teeth, and the wheel 
O contains 25 teeth. Consequently O, and also the wheel P, 
must make 612 turns during one turn of E. The wheel P con- 
tains 72 teeth, and the wheel D contains 36 teeth, consequently 
D must make two turns during one turn of P, and twice 612 or 
13.2, turns during one turn of the wheel E, or in one year. As 
the circular brass plate ¢ is fixed upon the socket of the wheel 
D, this plate must turn with the wheel and carry the moon V 
13, times round the earth U ina year, which is equal to the 
number of the moon’s sidereal revolutions in this time. The 
teeth of the wheel G act upon the teeth of the wheel F. The 
wheel G contains 20 teeth, and the wheel F contains 372 teeth, 
consequently G must make 18,6 turns, while F turns once round. 
As the wheel G makes but one turn on its axis ina year, the 
wheel F' must require 18,8 years to perform a revolution. ‘The 
oblique plate d, to which the moon’s orbit is parallel, being fixed 
upon the socket of the wheel EF, the plate must turn with this 
wheel and carry the moon’s nodes round contrary to the order of 
the signs, so as to perform a sidereal revolution in 18, years. 
The teeth of the wheel I act upon the teeth of the wheel r, 
which, as before stated, transmits motion to the wheel H. The 
wheel I contains 20 teeth, and the wheel H contains 177 teeth, 
consequently I must make 817 turns in order to turn F’ round 
once. As the wheel I makes only one turn in a year, the wheel 
H must be 847 years in performing a revolution. ‘The index e, 
which is fixed upon the socket of H, must turn with this wheel 
and also perform a revolution in 8:7 years, which is the time in 
which the moon’s apogee performs a sidereal revolution ; there- 
fore, this index will show the proper motion of the apogee. 


An Astronomical Machine, the Telluriuan. 343 


This machine being rectified by the astronomical tables for any 
particular time, if the winch m be then turned from right to left, 
the machine will exhibit the vicissitudes of day and night, vari- 
ety of seasons, new and full moons, eclipses, anomalies of the 
sun and moon, or year after year. 

As the earth has the same unequable motion in its elliptical 
orbit that the real earth has, this machine will show the sun’s 
true place correctly for a great length of time. 


A table showing the dimensions of the wheels of the Tellurium, number 
of teeth, §c. 


Wheel A, 293 teeth, 12 teeth in an inch of circum. Diam. 7.77 inches. 
Wheel B, 80 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch of circum. Diam. 3.18 inches. 
Pinion of wheel B, 8 leaves. Diam. ,2,1;ths of an inch. 

Wheel p, 24 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch. Diam. ;85,ths of an inch. 

Pinion C, 8 leayes. Diam. =3,4ths of an inch. 

Wheel E, 167 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch of circum. Diam. 6.64 inches. 

Wheel O, 25 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch. Diam. 5839;ths of an inch. 

Wheel P, 72 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch. Diam. 2.86 inches. 

Wheel D, 36 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch. Diam. 1.48 inches. 

Wheel G, 20 teeth, 12 teeth in an inch of circum. Diam. =>3;ths of 
an inch. 

Wheel F, 372 teeth, 12 teeth in an inch. Diam. 9585, inches. 

Wheel I, 20 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch of circum. Diam. 543,ths of 
an inch. 

Wheel H, 177 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch. Diam. 7+4, inches. 

Wheel r, 40 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch. Diam. 1,53, inches. 

Elliptical wheels K and L. The longer diameter of each wheel, 10 
inches. Distance between the two foci ;45ths of an inch. Both of these 
wheels contain the same number of teeth. 

Wheel M, 280 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch. Diam. 11,544, inches. 

Pinion N, 16 leaves. 

Elliptical grooves in the board 1. The longer diameter of each 
groove, measuring from the middle of the groove on one side to the 
middle of the groove on the opposite side, 10 inches. Distance be- 

yeen the two foci ~4oths of an inch. 


344 Meteorological Journal for the year 1841. 


Art. XV.—Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, for. the, year 
1841, kept at Marietta, Ohio, Lat. 39° 25’ N., Lon. 4° 28! 
W. of Washington City; by 8. P. Hirpretn, M. D. 


THERMOMETER. , aus s BAROMETER. 
EI 35 
Months. rein Rial ies a |S | Prevailing winds. 

a |aie¢ a| Ss S S q 

= |2| 3s ey aa 5 I F 

e |S/ 8] |e) 3) 2iz Be ve 

Shel s 2/5 | 18 ra AAR 
ia el ND ail SIGE ti oa a |S a 
January, |32.47\59) -4 10) 2h) 3/87), N. w., W., 8. W. 30.10/28.98)1.12 
February, |33.00/57| 8) | 14) 14) 1/31) N.w.,s. w. 29.70/28.90| .80 
March, 42.33/80) 16 18} 13) 3/42) os. w.,5., 8.5 29°80/28.95) .85 
April,’ . |46.66182| 24} | 17] 13) 5180 N., 8. W, 29,80 )28.75 1.05 
May, 60.20'92! 30 26] 5) 3/37 N., S. W., 8- 29.50|29.05| 45 
June, 75.27/94) 50 22) 8) 4/30 N., S. W., § 29'52/29/20| “32 
July, 71.43/92|.53| | 21) 10) 3/50|- _s., s. w., N- 29 6029.25) 35 
August,  |70.53/90) 51 3S Sh Sty Nea S.5 Sivhs 129 .65129.30|. .35 
September, |66.23)91) 51 20} 10) 3/37 8., 8. E., N. |29.63}29.05} .58 
October, |48.44'78| 24 18} 13) 1/83 S., S. E., N. 29.75|29.05| .70 
November, |43.20/79| 21 10} 20} 3/50 W., 8. W. 29.75|28.90| .85 
December, |36.33,60! 13 6| 25). 5|38 8. W., S. Ee 29.75|28.78] .97 

Mean,  |52.18) 205/160'42.82 


Remarks on the year 1841. 


The past year has not been remarkable for any striking changes 
in the temperature, or commotion in the elements. ‘The mean 
heat for the year is very near that of this climate for a series of 
years, being 52.18°. The distribution varies very considerably, 
as it is divided amongst the seasons; some springs being cool, 
others warm; so also with summers and autumns, while the gen- 
eral amount varies but little in different years. 'The winter was 
comparatively mild, the mercury sinking below zero only on two 
mornings during this period. ‘The mean is 32.51°, being two de- 
grees cooler than that of 1840. There fell but eight or ten inches 
of snow at different times. ‘The Ohio river at Marietta was 
closed only for a few days by the ice—from the 3d to the Sth of 
January, but navigation was impeded by floating ice as early . 
the 21st of December. In February, there was some severe 
weather, from the 10th to the 15th of the month. The mercury 
was at 8° above zero on the morning of the 11th, and only 12° 
above at noon; at this period we often have the coldest weather 
in the year. The Ohio was again filled with floating ice, and 
for a few days boats ceased to run; after the 20th of the month, 


= 


Meteorological Journal for the year 1841. 345 


the river was free from ice until the breaking up of the Alleghany 
river. The Ohio has at no time been over its banks; on the 
30th of March it was nearly “full banks.” 

The mean temperature for the spring months, was 49.73°, 
which is several degrees below that of 1840, or that for the aver- 
age heat of this place. April was uncommonly cool, being only 
46.66°, while the same month in 1840 was 56.57°—a difference 
of nearly 10°. The consequence was the retardation of the 
blossoming of fruit and other trees for several days past the usual 
period. In 1838, the apple bloomed on the 17th of April, and 
in 1840 on the 15th; while this year it was not in full bloom 
until the 30th of that month, and did not entirely shed its blos- 
soms before the 20th of May. Other trees were retarded in 
nearly the same proportion. From the 10th of May to the 11th 
of June, there fell but little rain, being only about half an inch. 
The lack of moisture at this season of the year, when the roots 
of cereal plants are usually in their most vigorous state, was se- 
riously felt in the crops of wheat and grass, especially the latter, 
which afforded but a sggall crop compared with other years. In- 
dian corn, owing to the cool and dry weather in May, did but 
barely appear above ground, as late as the 10th of June, and 
many farmers feared an entire failure of the crop; but refreshing 
showers after that period, and the heat of June, soon awakened 
its dormant powers, and an average crop was obtained in this 
part of Ohio; while west of us on the Scioto river, this crop was 
nearly a complete failure, the drouth continuing in the valley of 
that stream till late in June. 

The mean temperature of the summer months was 72.41° ; 
which is nearly 2° above that of 1840. During these months, 
there was a seasonable supply of rain, and vegetation was healthy 
and vigorous. ‘The last of June, when the wheat crop had nearly 
attained its growth, during a period of wet sultry weather, the 
cuticle of the stem was attacked with a rust or mildew ; it appear- 
ed to arise from an exudation of the sap, like a heavy dew, on 
the leaves of forest trees; after a few days, the stalks were cov- 
ered with minute reddish spots of mould, raising quite a cloud 
of dust when disturbed by the reapers. ‘This took place while 
the grain was in the milk; the consequence was, a lack of those 
nutritious juices which perfect the kernel, and the grain was 


shrunken and tight, affording an undue proportion of bran when 
Vol. xtu1, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 44 


346 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 


manufactured into flour. Very few fields in the southern portion 
of Ohio escaped this calamity ; while the crops of this grain in 
the northern part of the state being later in ripening, suffered 
much less. 

The summer was attended with no tornadoes, or violent gusts 
of wind, to do any material damage. 

The mean temperature of autumn was 52.80°, which is about 
24° warmer than that of last year. The warmth of this period 
gave the Indian corn full time to ripen before the appearance of 
frost, the first of any severity being on the 18th of October. 

Crops of potatoes, beans, and oats, were very good; that of 
sweet potatoes was uncommonly fine. Fruit was not abundant, 
being injured by the frosts of May ; apples were plentiful in some 
districts, while in others within a few miles, they were an entire 
failure. Peaches were quite prolific on the hills back from the 
river, and near the Ohio, also, if located on the top of a high hill. 
Trees in this situation rarely fail of producing fruit; and those 
who set new orchards now, look out for exposures of this kind. 

The amount of rain for this year has begn 42,25, inches, which 


100 


is about the average for this climate. It is 34%, inches greater 


than that of 1840, and nearly a foot greater than that of 1839, 
which was an uncommonly dry year. 


A brilliant aurora was observed about the 18th of November, 
but [ did not happen to witness it. 
Marietta, Ohio, January 5, 1842. 


Art. XVI.—The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz; by CHartzs 
MaAcLAREN.*™ 


Tuis is perhaps the fittest term to designate the novel opinions of 
M. Agassiz. Glaciers are properly long narrow masses of ice filling 
the bottom of Alpine valleys, but M. Agassiz thinks that sheets of ice, 
such as are met with in Greenland, covered the whole surface of Eu- 
rope, and all Northern Asia as far as the Caspian Sea. This conclu- 


* This article is republished from a little tract which Mr. Maclaren had the 
kindness to send us, entitled ‘‘ The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz of Neuchatel, 
being an outline of facts and arguments adduced by him to prove, that a sheet of 
ice enveloped the northern parts of the globe at a recent geological epoch; by 
Charles Maclaren.” As it is the best review of the subject which has met our 
eye, we deem no apology necessary to our readers for republishing it here.—Ens. 


The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. NSA 


sion, which has been adopted in whole or in part by Professor Buck- 
fand, Mr. Lyell, and other eminent geologists, has been deduced from a 
careful study of the phenomena attending glaciers, some of which are 
of so marked and peculiar a kind, as to afford satifactory evidence of 
their ancient existence in situations where none are now seen. The 
Swiss philosopher advanced in his opinions step by step. He first sat- 
istied himself that in the Alpine valleys where glaciers still exist, they 
once rose to a higher level, and extended farther down into the low 
country than they now do. Next he discovered indications of their 
former existence on Mount Jura and over the whole Swiss valley ; and 
connecting these with similar indications found in the Vosges, the Scan- 
dinavian Mountains, and elsewhere, and with the well known fact of 
sheets of ice covering the northern shores of Siberia and entombing 
the remains of extinct species of animals, he came to the conclusion, 
that at a period, geologically speaking, very recent, all the old world 
north of the 35th or 36th parallel, had been enveloped in a crust of ice. 
Whence the cold came which produced this effect, and why it after- 
wards disappeared, are questions he did not feel himself bound to an- 
swer, but which might, perhaps, be answered hypothetically. In real- 
ity, if we suppose the Northern Atlantic from the 29th parallel filled 
up and converted into dry land, it is extremely probable that Britain 
would have the ice-bound climate of Labrador, with which it corres- 
ponds in latitude ; and the conversion of the said land into sea would 
bring back the order of the seasons which we now enjoy. Even 
though M. Agassiz’s opinions should not be fully established, they still 
afford us a new geological agent of great power and widely applicable, 
which may help us to an explanation of some phenomena very difficult 
to account for with our existing means of information. 

Form, Magnitude and Composition of Glaciers.—The subjoined 
figure is not a section, but a view of a glacier as it would present itself 
to an eye raised considerably above it. 

ab, (fig. 1,) The gla- 
cier: a represents one of, © 
the forms of its surface, 
in which it is bristled with 
cones of snow or ice, call- 
ed aiguilles or needles: 0} 
is the other and more usual f 
form of the surface, con- 7 
sisting of narrow ridges or corrugations, like waves fixed by frost. 

ce d, Lateral moraines, consisting of long lines of boulders and gravel, 
which having been detached by frost, rain, lightning, or avalanches, 
from the rocks flanking the valley, settle on the two sides of the glacier. 


Fig. 1. 


Pr 


348 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 


The heat reflected from the rock fuses a portion of the ice nearest it, 
or hastens the evaporation, rendering the sides of the glacier a little 
lower than the middle, and giving the mass a convex shape. The frag- 
ments rest in the hollows thus produced, and assume the form of the 
roof of a house, one side sloping down to the rock and the other to 
the ice. 

e f, The terminal moraine, a line of boulders and gravel at the lower 
end of the glacier, which it pushes before it when advancing, and leaves 
behind it when retreating. In the latter case it looks like a low mound 
or barrier across the valley. The terminal moraine is a continuation 
of the two lateral, but they are not always found united. 

r r, The rocks forming the flanks of the valley. 

In the higher parts of the Alps, the perpetual snow forms vast ex- 
tended masses joining the peaks and ridges, and these, called mers de 
glace, or “seas of ice,” exhibit scenes of grandeur and desolation which 
have been the wonder of travellers. The glaciers are branches or off- 
shoots from these, filling the valleys which descend from the higher 
regions to the lower. Glaciers pass down sometimes to so low a level 
as 3000 feet above the sea in Switzerland ; but they do not originate at 
a lower elevation than 7000 feet, and they rarely exist on isolated 
mountains, whatever be their height. In the upper part they consist of 
granular snow, called nevé in the Alps, which is changed into minute 
crystals of ice by the infiltration of water, arising from the outer por- 
tion of the snow being melted by the sun. As we descend from the 
higher end of the glacier, the crystals, which are rather irregular 
fragments, become gradually larger. Towards the lower end they are 
from half an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, and in some rare 
cases three inches. If a section of the glacier is exposed, the upper 
strata (for it is generally stratified) are found to be full of cells, and its 
substance becomes gradually more compact downward, the lowest part 
being the most solid. ‘The strata are thick at top, thinner in the mid- 
dle, and disappear towards the bottom. Glaciers contract in breadth 
and depth as they descend ; one a league broad at the head will some- 
times be only 150 or 200 yards at the foot. The thickness varies from 
80 to 100 feet at the lower, and from 120 to 180 feet at the higher end. 
M. Agassiz adopts these measures from Hugi, and seems to reject the 
notion of older writers, that some glaciers are 500 or 600 feet in depth. 
Glaciers are of all lengths—from 100 yards to 15 miles. 

Every glacier discharges a stream from a vault in its lower end in 
summer, which disappears in winter, except in some cases, where the 
water is believed to come from deep springs, with a temperature suffi- 
ciently high to keep their channels open. 


The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 349 


There are numerous open rents or fissures (called crevasses) in every 
glacier, caused partly by the uneven surface over which the glacier 
glides in its downward motion—partly by the unequal expansion of the 
upper and under strata of ice. ‘These fissures are of all widths—from 
a quarter of an inch to thirty feet or more ; they are largest and most 
numerous at the sides, but sometimes extend completely across ; they 
occasionally reach from top to bottom, but more frequently stop ata 
certain depth. Their direction is generally across the glacier, but they 
often become oblique at the sides, as the ice moves faster there than at 
the middle ; and hence, viewed on the great scale, they present a curved 
or arched appearance, with the convexity turned towards the head of 
the glacier. ‘The fissures are largest and most numerous at the lower 
end, and in the parts which are much inclined. In a steep valley, a 
glacier, with its wave-like ridges, its bristling cones, and the pointed 
rocks piercing its surface here and there, has been aptly compared to 
a cataract stereotyped. 

The cones or needles of ice, as at a, figure 1, are thus accounted 
for by Agassiz: The glacier, in passing along a valley whose bottom 
is very uneven, breaks into numerous vertical prisms ; and the summits 
of these, having their angles wasted away by the sun’s heat and evap- 
oration, gradually assume the conical shape. 

Glaciers descend into regions where the annual temperature is eight 
or nine degrees above the freezing point; and, to use the words of Cox, 
there are localities in Switzerland where you may almost touch grow- 
ing corn with the one hand, and the ice of the glacier with the other. 
‘They of course waste away at their lower end rapidly in summer, 
partly by fusion, and partly by huge fragments of the ice falling off, in 
consequence of the upper beds expanding faster than the lower, till the 
outer mass loses its balance and topples down. 

Motion of Glaciers.—The geological action of glaciers depends 
chiefly on their motion, the true cause of which has been clearly ascer- 
tained for the first time by M. Agassiz. Previous writers on the sub- 
ject, including the celebrated Saussure, attributed the motion of the gla- 
cier to gravitation, or the tendency of the mass of ice to descend by its 
weight from the upper part of the valley to the lower. This explana- 
tion accounted very imperfectly for the phenomena, and the opinion of 
Agassiz, deduced from a careful attention to facts, is now almost uni- 
versally adopted. He considers the motion of the glacier as the con- 
sequence of expansion, and this expansion operates chiefly in the 
direction in which least resistance is experienced, that is, along the 
valley downward, and is caused by the congelation of infiltered water. 
The influence of the sun and of warm winds melts part of the upper 
surface, and the water so produced percolaies into the spongy mass, 


350 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 


where it is soon frozen, and in freezing expands, according to a well 
known law. The upper strata, imbibing more water than the lower, 
dilate in a greater degree, but the lower strata, in dilating, carry the 
upper with them, and thus produce rents or crevasses. Again, the 
flanks of the glacier imbibe more water than the middle, and by their 
greater expansion give a curved form to the crevasses; and the lower 
end imbibes more water than the upper, in consequence of the more 
frequent rains and alternations of frost and thaw. Besides, as the upper 
end of the glacier, in expanding, pushes the rest before it, the accu- 
mulated effect of the whole expansion falls upon the lower end, which 
is found to travel quickest. ‘The motion, too, is most rapid in summer, 
and nearly ceases in winter, in consequence of the water being then 
constantly frozen. From the effect of this internal movement of its 
parts, the glacier creeps along slowly but surely. In 1827, M. Hugi 
constructed a hut on the glacier of the Aar, at the foot of a fixed, rock 
called Im Abschwung. It was found that the hut had receded 2200 feet 
from the fixed rock in 1836, and 4400 in 1840, showing that it had 
advanced about 250 feet per annum in the first nine years, and 550 in 
the four last. ‘Taking summer and winter together, its motion had been 
about eight inches per day in the first period, and eighteen inches in 
the second. In glaciers which are much inclined, the motion is more 
rapid than this. 

Polished and Grooved Surface of Rocks.—The glacier in its course 
downward carries with it the fragments of rock, gravel, and sand which 
lie under it. These adhere to the ice, or are embedded in it, and as 
the mass glides slowly along, they abrade, groove, and polish the rock, 
and the larger masses are reciprocally grooved and polished by the 
rock on their lower sides. The effects of this abrasion on the bottom 
of the valleys may be conceived from the pressure applied. A cubic 
yard of sandstone weighs two tons, and if we assume the average 
density of glacier ice to be two-thirds of that of common river ice, the 
pressure upon each square yard of rock at the bottom of a glacier 100 
feet deep, will be equal to about sixteen tons, or the general pressure 
will be as great as would be produced by a bed of sandstone twenty 
four feet thick. Thus the various materials under the ice are pressed 
against the rock with an enormous force, while an equally great force 
of another kind, produced by the congelation of water, propels them 
downwards. The sand, acting like emery, polishes the surface; the 
pebbles, like coarse gravers, scratch and furrow it; and the large stones 
scoop out grooves in it. Portions of these substances, and of the rock 
too, are ground to the state of fine clay, and the whole of the movable 
matter, stones, pebbles, sand, and clay, are in course of time thrown 
out at the lower end of the glacier, where they form the terminal 
moraine. 


The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 351 


The ice, in consequence of its tendency to dilate, and its numerous 
fissures, accommodates itself to the sinuosities of the rocks which con- 
fine it, cutting off the smaller projections, and rounding and polishing 
the larger, which assume the form of domes, and were termed roches 
moutonnées by Saussure. Agassiz’s eighth plate gives some fine exam- 
ples of these rounded swells. Owing to the immense pressure, the 
included pebbles of conglomerates, and the hardest veins in veined 
rocks, are cut away to the very same level with the softer parts which 
envelop them. 

Thus, one of the marks by which the ancient existence of glaciers 
can be detected in situations where they are no longer seen, is the pol- 
ished, striated, or grooved appearance of the rocks. Sometimes it is 
very distinct, but in many cases it is not visible, because the surface of 
most rocks wastes away by disintegration or decomposition, unless it is 
well protected by a covering of clay or turf. The most satisfactory 
specimen near Edinburgh, is in the quarry on the south side of Black- 
ford Hill, at a place laid open a few years ago, where the rock leans 
forward, forming a sort of vault. The surface of the clinkstone here, 
for a space of ten or twelve feet in length, is smoothed, and marked 
by strié or scratches in a direction approximating to horizontal. We 
accompanied M. Agassiz to the spot about two months ago; he had 
expressed doubts as to some other supposed marks of glacial action 
near this city, but on seeing those at Blackford Quarry, he instantly 
exclaimed—* That is the work of the ice.” On the top of Salisbury 
Crags, at a quarry about two hundred yards from their south extremity, 
the polishing is very well seen at intervals over a space of twelve or 
fifteen feet just at the edge of the precipice ; and strie, running east 
and west, will also be discovered here by an eye accustomed to observe 
them, though they are much less distinct than at Blackford Hill. In 
quarrying the Crags at this spot, the rock had been cut back about one 
hundred and twenty feet from what was originally the edge of the pre- 
cipice, and this part, which had been well protected by the turf, was 
only exposed about 1822 or 1825. We have little doubt that similar 
appearances would be presented if other parts of the greenstone, equally 
distant from the edge of the precipice, were newly laid bare. Parts of the 
north end of the Castle-rock are also curiously polished, and the groovings 
on the western slope of Corstorphine Hill, described many years ago by 
Sir James Hall, are well known. We have observed similar marks of 
abrasion at Craigleith Quarry, Craigmillar Hill, and elsewhere. 

These marks of abrasion, both on rocks in situ, and on boulders 
found in the soil, have been usually attributed to the action of the cur- 
rents of water, rolling along stones and gravel, an explanation felt not 
to be satisfactory, but adopted for want of a better. It is admitted that 


352 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 


rocks in the channels of rivers are often worn smooth; but Dr. Buckland 
contends, and apparently on good grounds, that straight parallel sirie 
and grooves never are, and cannot possibly be, produced by the action of 
gravel and stones ina stream. The abrading material, say a fragment 
of rock, if it rolls along, will perhaps make occasional indentations, or 
now and then an irregular scratch; but it cannot produce straight, par- 
allel, continued strie or grooves, unless held fast by some substance 
which prevents it from rolling, and gives its motion a determinate direc- 
tion, as the cutter in a grooving plane is kept in a fixed position by the 
wood. Now, the ice of a glacier (or iceberg) is an agent which an- 
swers this purpose admirably; we see that it actually produces the 
effects described ; we know no other agent capable of producing them ; 
and it is therefore inferred that where well defined sirt@ or grooves are 
found on rocks, we have evidence of the former existence of moving 
masses of ice. 

Moraines.—These afford other evidence of the ancient existence of 
glaciers afier they have disappeared. Long terraces or banks of gravel 
are occasionally found on rocks forming the sides of valleys, high above 
the bottom, and where the surface they rest on is much inclmed. Ge- 
ologists have felt the difficulty of accounting for these deposits. Their 
situation is inconsistent with the idea that they were formed by running 
water; neither could they be deposited on the margin of lakes, because 
their parts are often found not to be on the same level. Again, they 
are found stretching like bars across the mouths of valleys, in situations 
from which a great current, so far from depositing them, would have 
swept them away, if they had previously existed. Now, both kinds are 
well accounted for on the supposition that they were the moraines of 
glaciers; those on the sides of the valley being lateral, and those bar- 
ring up its mouth being terminal moraines. 

Again, we sometimes find one or two long ridges of gravel stretching 
through a wide valley lengthwise or obliquely, without discovering any 
thing in the shape of the valley to indicate why the current, if water 
was the agent, should have accumulated the movable matter here, rather 
than spread it over the surface. ‘This also is explained, if we assume 
that it was a medial moraine. When one valley opens into another, the 
two lateral moraines on the inner sides unite, and the compound glacier, 
besides having a line of blocks and gravel on each side, has a third 
stretching along the middle, and which is therefore called a medial 
moraine. There are examples in Switzerland of glaciers with three, 
four, or six medial moraines. Now, were the glacier to’ melt away, 
owing to a change of climate, these three, four, or six medial moraines 
would form as many ridges of gravel running along the bottom of the 
valley, or obliquely through it, and would resemble deposits occasion- 
ally seen in this country. 


The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 353 


When a compound glacier is long, the different moraines, lateral and 
medial, sometimes become blended in their progress downwards, and 
spread out into a broad sheet; and if the ice were to disappear, we 
should find the whole bottom of the valley at this part covered with a 
confused assemblage of fragments of rock. This is also a deposit oc- 
casionally met with in Scotland. 

The materials of moraines are not stratified, but huddled together in. 
confusion. The fragments are generally somewhat rounded by mutual 
attrition, but some are angular. They may be distinguished from the 
banks of gravel formed at the margin of lakes by their internal struc- 
ture, by the difference of level between their distant parts, and also by 
their form. 

We are not quite sure of the precise shape of terminal moraines, 
but the terms employed by Agassiz (digues ou remparts) lead us to 
suppose that they form long mounds with rounded sides. Like the 
others, they are not stratified internally ; but, from the manner of their 
formation, they contain more finely triturated matter, namely, clay, 
sand, and small gravel. Agassiz seldom gives precise measurements ; 
but he mentions one terminal moraine, (that of Viesch,) which is thirty 
feet high, and much more in breadth. Glaciers sometimes advance for 
aterm of years, and then retreat for another term. When a glacier 
is retreating, it forms a new terminal moraine every year, and when it 
again advances, it pushes the more recent ones before it till the whole 
are blended into one mass. Now, if the disappearance of the glaciers 
took place gradually, as it seems most reasonable to suppose, we ought 
to find in the lower end of some of our valleys a series of little trans- 
verse mounds, like a, y, in figure 5, below. 

Lateral moraines increase in size towards the lower end of the val- 
ley, and for an obvious reason: The fragments which fall at the head 
of the valley are slowly carried downwards by the glacier in its course, 
and they are jomed in their progress by those which fall from the rocks 
in the lower part of the valley. Blocks which fall into the nevé or 
granular snow high up, sink into it and disappear for a time ; but it is 
curious, that except those which tumble into crevasses and reach the 
bottom, they all afterwards rise to the surface. Agassiz thinks, that 
the internal dilatation which makes the glacier travel downwards, also 
operates upwards, and carries all included masses to the surface. It is 
certain that an enclosed boulder is never seen in the terminal section of 
a glacier, where the composition of the mass can be best observed. In 
consequence also of the sides of the glacier travelling faster than 
the middle, and of its breadth generally.diminishing towards its lower 
end, it very often happens that the blocks of medial moraines find their 
way to the sides and join the lateral ones. 

Vol. xt, No. 2.—Jan,-March, 1842. 45 


aos The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 


The ascent of blocks from the middle or lower part of the ice to the 
surface, explains another curious fact—that though the general motion 
of the glacier is along an inclined plane downwards, scratches are often 
found on the rock inclined in the opposite direction ; that is to say, 
supposing the surface of the glacier to dip at 10 degrees to the north, 
you will find scratches dipping at 10 or 20 degrees to the south, or 
even vertical. These are caused, in Agassiz’s opinion, sometimes by 
inequalities in the bottom of the valley, but frequently by enclosed 
blocks working their way upward by the expansion cf the ice, while 
the glacier is travellmg downwards. 

Figure 2 represents the usual form of a lateral moraine in the cross 
section, and as it would appear on a surface considerably inclined ; m 
the mass of gravel form- Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 
ing the moraine; 7k the : 
rock on which it rests. 
Figure 3 represents the 
form which, it is assum- 
ed, a compact medial mo- 
raine would have if the ice were melted, and the matter left on the 
surface of the valley. 

Retreating glaciers form a terminal moraine every year, as mention- 
ed in page 353; and in 
this case we might expect 
to find a series of mounds 
transverse to the valley, 
like w y, figure 5. 

Erratic Blocks.—Sin- 
gle blocks of huge size 
are often seen resting on the surface of the glacier, and travelling 
downwards with it. These are generally angular, and they often stand 
on pedestals of ice, as in figure 4, where a is a tabular mass of rock, 
and 6 the pedestal of ice.* Agassiz describes one he saw on a glacier, 
which measured 20 feet by 12, and must have weighed 100 tons or 
more. In accounting for the pedestal 6, he observes that gravel, when 
it rests on the surface of a glacier, being heated through and through 
by the sun’s rays, melts the ice below it, and gradually forms a pool or 
well in it. A large block, on the other hand, has only its upper sur- 
face heated, while the inferior mass, remaining cold, protects the ice 
below—both from the action of the sun’s rays, and from the evapora- 
tion by which ice, like water, wastes away in the open air, and thus, 


Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 


* This figure is borrowed from Agassiz’s fourteenth plate. Figure three, and 
all the others, are ideal, and are suggested by his descriptions. 


The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 355 


while small stones often sink into cavities, large ones seem hoisted on 
pedestals. . Masses of all kinds tend towards the sides of the glacier, 
and many of these huge blocks are found scattered along the flanks of 
the Alpine valleys, some having remained there, stranded as it were. 
Others are found in the middle, far from existing ice, and were proba- 
bly left there when the glacier disappeared. We have thus an expla- 
nation of the erratic blocks so common in this country, when these do 
not come from very distant stations. Being stranded by their greater 
weight, while the smaller matter moved onward, or left-sticking on the 
soil in consequence of the final fusion of the ice, we can understand why 
they are often found perched on the sides of steep declivities. 

Blocs perchés, so named for the reason just bi are sometimes 
found in very singular situations. 

Let a, figure 6, be the surface of the glacier, r the top of a project- 
ing rock in situ. ‘The ice has the block 6 floating on it; it encom- 
passes the fixed rock nearly on a level with its summit, and in travelling 
downward strands the block upon it. The block may be stranded on 
the very summit, as c. 
Supposing the glacier af- 
terwards to disappear, 
here we would have an 
angular block perched on 

anisolated hill, or as Agas- 
siz terms it, a pyramid, 
with a steep declivity below it, sat we would be puzzled to conceive 
by what agent it was planted in so singular a situation. 

Figure 7 represents erratic blocks in a different situation, but quite 
as singular. 7 is a projecting fixed rock, rising considerably above the 
glacier aa; the reflection of the sun’s heat from its surface melts a 
portion of the ice, and forms a cup-shaped cavity round it. Into this 
cavity blocks of various sizes fall by their weight from the surface of 
the ice as it glides onward, and settle on the flanks of the hillock. Sup- 
posing the glacier to disappear, this conical rock would have a ring of 
stones like a coronet encircling its summit, and we would be apt to 
wonder at the mysterious agency which brought them there, and left 
the lower parts of the hill destitute of them. Agassiz names various 
isolated rocks amidst the Alpine glaciers with such circles of stones 
round them, or with single blocks stuck upon them, as in figure 6. 
The same phenomena reappear on Mount Jura, where no glaciers now 
exist. 

Creux and Lapiaz.—On the sides of the Swiss valleys, round holes, 
such as cascades make, are sometimes found in the rock ; but in places 
remote from running waters, and where the form of the surface will 


356 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 


not permit us to suppose that any cascade could ever have existed. In 
other cases, a long, sinuous, dry, water-worn gutter or channel is ob- 
served, the course of which runs across, instead of along, the natural 
declivity of the ground. ‘The study of the glaciers has enabled Agas- 
siz to find a key to these enigmatical phenomena, which had perplexed 
previous inquirers. Streams of water flow along the surface of a gla- 
cier, and when one of these falls into a fissure which is open to the bot- 
tom, it often forms a cascade, and cuts a round cavity in the rock with the 
gravel and sand which it either finds there, or carries down with it, as 
some of our rivulets work out the hollows termed cauldrons. When no 
fissure exists, the stream sometimes cuts a funnel or shaft (couloir, en- 
tonnoir) through the ice by the action of gravel. If the glacier is trav- 
elling downwards, the cascade will travel with it, and convert the round 
cavity in the rock into a long gutter; or, supposing the water to reach 
the bottom without falling in a cascade, still, in finding an issue below 
the glacier, it will be compelled to follow the sinuous openings left by 
inequalities in the bottom of the ice, and thus take a course at variance 
with the natural inclination of the surface. We have here an explana- 
tion of the creux, or holes, and the long water-worn gutters found in 
such unlikely situations, which bear the local names of lapiaz or karren. 
These are chiefly observed where the rock is soft, and are seldom vis- 
ible on the granite. 

Stratified Gravel on sides of Valleys——When a small portion of 
stratified gravel or sand is found adhering to the side of a valley, high 
_ above its bottom, the conclusion usually come to is, that a lake or arm 
of the sea had once filled the whole up to that level, and that the de- 
posit is merely a remnant of one much more extensive. Agassiz has 
shown that this conclusion may be erroneous. When the streamlets 
flowing on or under a glacier, cannot find an escape below, they often 
form small lakes at the surface on its flanks, and, as in other lakes, the 
gravel and sand carried into these, arrange themselves in strata. ‘This 
stratified deposit may be continuous with, and form as it were a portion 
of, a lateral moraine, which is not only. unstratified, but which follows 
a line probably far from level. Here again the study of existing gla- 
ciers enables us to explain very anomalous appearances. 

Glacier Barriers.—A glacier descending a valley opening into an- 
other, sometimes pushes forward till it forms a dike or barrier across 
the latter. Behind this the water collects and constitutes a lake, which 
augments till it breaks the icy barrier, or flows over it, producing fright- 
ful inundations. In 1815 the glacier of Getroz formed a dike across 
the valley of Bagnes. This dike went on increasing till 1818, when 
it was 500 feet high and 800 long. It was then burst by the pressure 
of the waters of the Drance, which committed terrible ravages as far 


The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 357 


down as Martigny. The lake of Distel, on the Saas, those of Rufnen 
and Gurglen, in the Tyrol, and that of Passey, on the Adige, are also 
formed by glaciers. The last has burst its dike six times, with the most - 
destructive effects, since 1404. Agassiz traced decided marks of an 
ancient glacier at the north side of Ben Nevis. This glacier, he thinks, 
had closed up the valley of the Spean, and formed a lake in Glenroy, 
in which the banks of gravel, called Parallel Roads, were deposited. 
The barrier being of ice, which subsequently melted, the absence of 
any marks of its existence is accounted for. At present we shall not 
stop to inquire whether this theory or Mr. Darwin’s is the more probable. 

Alluvial Deposits.—Agassiz thinks that the floods produced by the 
bursting of such lakes as those described, and by the fusion of the ice, 
tore up the moraines, scattered their materials over the country, and 
formed the unstratified boulder clay, and the stratified sand and gravel 
resting upon it, which now cover nearly the whole surface of the low 
country. 

Ancient extent of Glaciers in Switzerland.—The traces of ancient 
lateral moraines are seldom very distinct; yet in the lower valleys, 
where no glaciers now exist, in that of the Rhone, for instance, between 
Martieny and the lake of Geneva, several may be seen ranged in par- 
allel lines, one above another, at 1000, 1200, and even 1500 feet above 
the river. Terminal moraines are found half a mile, a mile, a league, 
and even several leagues from existing glaciers ; but these are in se- 
condary valleys, and belong to the period when the glaciers were re- 
treating into the narrow limits which they now occupy, while the floods 
which occurred at this period had obliterated those of the principal 
valleys. The striated and polished surfaces, which had a more dura- 
ble existence, are found at great heights ; among other examples, on 
Seideihorn, (an isolated mountain in the Alps, now destitute of glaciers,) 
2590 feet above the bottom of the valley, indicating that ancient gla- 
ciers of this depth or more existed here. ‘The boulders also, or blocs 
perchés, the creux or pits, and the lapiaz or water-worn gutters, were 
all observed far beyond the present limits of the glaciers. This first 
step in the argument conducts Agassiz to the conclusion that the whole 
of the Alps, at some ancient period, formed one vast mer de glace, the 
ice descending to the level of the great Swiss valley which separates 
these mountains from Jura. 

But the same indications of glacial action exist on Mount Jura, which 
runs parallel to the Alps, divided from them by the great Swiss valley, 
fifty miles in breadth. This chain, which is of moderate height, is 
now entirely destitute of glaciers, and, owing to the nature of the rock, 
the marks of abrasion are remarkably numerous and distinct. They are 
found on the side fronting the Alps from the bottom to the summit, and 


358 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 


from Ecluse, near Geneva, to Aarau, a distance of 180 miles. (Sur 
tout le versant meridional de Jura, depuis le Fort de |’ Ecluse jusqu’aux 
environs d’Aarau.) When the surface is newly exposed, it is smooth 
as a mirror, marked with furrows and. fine scratches, and exhibits the 
roches moutonnées, or rounded undulations and domes. But the most 
characteristic fact is, that the furrows do not run from the summit down- 
ward, but ina horizontal or oblique direction, along the face of the 
ridge, showing that they were impressed by a body moving parallel to 
the chain along its southern flank. In form and position, they are, in 
short, precisely similar to the furrows produced by existing glaciers on 
the sides of the valleys along which they move. Further, these polish- 
ed.and striated rocks are not confined to the declivities of Jura, but are 
found equally at their foot, in the bottom of the great Swiss valleys 
wherever the rock is calcareous.* 

In addition to these striated and polished surfaces, J ura has its mo- 
raines, and in these moraines patches of stratified deposits are found, 
such as are now formed in small lakes on the flanks of glaciers. It has 
thousands of erratic blocks, distinctly derived from the Alps; and, that 
nothing might be wanting to complete the chain of evidence, Jura has 
its lapiaz, or water-worn gutters, where no water now runs ; its creuz, 
or water-worn pits, in situations not dominated by any rock whence 
a cascade could fall; and its salient peaks, surrounded by coronets of 
boulders, as in figure 7. Now, as no ridge occurs between the Alps 
and Jura, it is evident that the mass of ice which pressed against the 
southern declivities of the latter to the height of 3500 feet or more, 
with a force sufficient to cut and groove the surface longitudinally, 
must have extended far into the great valley or low country ; and as 
striated rocks and travelled boulders are also found all over the bottom 
of that valley, and on the Alps at its opposite side, we have before us 
a concatenated series of facts, leading almost inevitably to the cenclu- 
sion that a mer de glace, or vast sheet of ice, once enveloped the Alps 
and Mount Jura, and covered the whole of the low country between them. 
Hemmed in by the two mountain chains, the ice could expand only in a 
northeast or southwest direction, and Agassiz infers from the direction of 
the série, that in the middle and northern part of the valley the motion 
was northeastwards, or towards the lake of Constance. 

Erratic Blocks of the Alps and Jura.—The large Alpine boulders 
found on Mount Jura, forty or fifty miles from their native rock, have 
been a stumbling block to geologists for the last half century. As the 
subject, though often discussed in books of science, may be new to 
some individuals, we shall premise a short account of the phenomena. 


* Etudes sur les Glaciers, p. 291. 


The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 359 


Mount Jura rises at some points to the height of 5,000 feet* above 
the sea, and 3,500 above the great valley of Switzerland on its south 
side. ‘The Alps run parallel to Jura at the distance of fifty miles, and 
their higher summits have an elevation varying from 11,000 to 15,000 
feet above the sea; but the northern skirts of the chain are a great deal 
lower, and their distance from Jura scarcely exceeds thirty miles. The 
following diagram will convey an idea of their relative position : 

MVBP, The chain of , 
the Alps extending north- Sar 

; Pee 
east and southwest. : Seu 

11,22, 3, The chain of \\ pee 
Jura, running parallel to ae EN i 
the Alps. : « © : 

SS, The great valley of KAY: 

witzerland separating the es A 
two chains. - 


Paw 

Gx 
G, The lake of Geneva; il \ 

N, the lake of Neuchatel. |!" 

The Alps consist of VAN 

primary rocks, granite, < 


Fig. 8. 


ee aa 
\\\ ail i 


ee as a 


gneiss, &c., in the centre, | ~ SS -o 
flanked by secondary. Ju- |N ace 
ra consists of different for- 

mations of limestone, all belonging to the oolitic series. 

The two chains, in distance, bearing, and position, may be compared 
to the Ochil and Lammermuir hills. If we suppose the Ochils to be 
twice, and the Lammermuirs six times as high as they are, and the 
valley between them, constituting the basin of the Forth, to be three 
or four times as deep as it is, we shall have a pretty good idea of the 
physical features of the district under consideration. 

Now the fact which has so long exercised the ingenuity of geologists 
is this. Hundreds of huge fragments of primary rocks, distinctly re- 
cognizable as portions of the Alps, are found perched ‘on the southern 
declivities, or resting in the interior valleys of Jura, forty or fifty miles 
from their native locality ; and geologists have been perplexed to dis- 
cover by what agency these erratic blocks have been transported across 
the great Swiss valley, and placed in the singular situations where we 
find them. The magnitude, external appearance, and distribution of 
these masses, present circumstances worthy of notice. 


* The measures are always in French feet, which may be converted into Eng- 
lish by adding one fifteenth, 


*» 


360 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 


~ Von Buch, Escher, and Studer, have shown, from an examination of 
_ the mineral composition of the boulders, that those on Western Jura, 
11, have come from the region of Mont Blanc, M, and the Valais, V ; 
those on the middle parts of Jura, 2 2, from the Bernese Oberland, B; 
and those on Eastern Jura, 3, towards Aargau and Zurich, from the 
Alps of the Petits Cantons, P. The blocks have thus been derived from 
the parts of the Alps nearest, generally speaking, to the localities where 
we now find them, as if they had passed across the valley in a sikcanee 
at right angles to its length. (3 ap 

The blocks are generally angular, and therefore had not been exposed 
to much attrition, either from agitation amidst gravel, or from mutual 
action. hows of them are of prodigious magnitude. The famous mass 
of Pierre @ Bot, contaming 50,000 cubic feet, and weighing probably 
4,000 tons, equals a goodly mansion in size, namely, one of 30 feet in 
front, 40 in depth, and 40 in height. It rests on a part of Jura 2,177 
feet above the sea, and about 900 feet above the level of the lake of Neu- 
chatel, N. Near Chaumont there is a group of granite blocks, which, 
‘from their magnitude, their number, and their juxtaposition, look like a 
hamlet of cottages. The large Alpine boulders of Jura, in short, ‘ise 
be counted by hundreds, and the small ones by thousands. 

The boulders are distributed in zones on the terraces, which, like ihe 
steps of a stair, form the out-gomgs of the different formations. ‘The 
highest are disposed in rings, as in figure '7, round the lower summits 
of Jura, at a height between 3,000 and 3,300 feet above the sea. The 
other zones occur on the terraces below this; the first at elevations 
from 1,900 to 2,400 feet; the next at 1,600 to 1,800 feet ; and the last 
descends to the level of the lake of Neuchatel, 1,824 feet above the 
sea. Moreover, these travelled blocks penetrate into the transverse 
and into the interior valleys of Jura, and some are even found at the 
back of the chain, near the Doubs.* 

Saussure attributed the transportation of these boulders to a sible: 
or great current, rushing from the Alps; and Von Buch, finding that one 
current would not account for the phenomena, assumed the existence 
of several. But the inadequacy of such explanations is obvious. 

A, The Alps; J, Mount Fig. 9. 

Jura, with the great valley, 
fifty miles wide, between 
them. 

e, The southern declivi- 
ties of Jura, upon which 
most of the erratic blocks rest. 


* Etudes, p. 278-280. 


The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 361 


v, The interior valleys, and 0, the back of the chain, where some 
of them are found. 

n, The lake of Neuchatel. 

g, The lake of Geneva. 

The difference of altitude between the Alps and Jura, distributed 
over a space of fifty miles, gives an inclination of no more than two 
degrees.. Now, no current could force, or rather float, masses of stone, 
weighing 1,000 tons, across an uneven valley of such breadth, although 
the difference of level were much greater. Even if the valley had 
then been filled up with gravel, or other solid materials, and formed a 
regular inclined plane, as Ebel and Dolomieu assumed, the blocks could 
not have been moved over it by water; or, if moved, they would have 
been rounded by attrition; and, instead of being disposed in zones, 
they would have been accumulated pel mel at the bottom of Jura. It 
must be kept in mind, that the erratic blocks are found on the Italian 
side of the Alps as well as the Swiss, and that currents and inclined 
planes would be required in both directions. 

A more recent hypothesis, which assumes that the boulders were 
transported by icebergs when the great Swiss valley was under the sea, 
is much more plausible. Agassiz objects to it, that it does not account 
for the coat of sand and gravel covering the sides of the mountain on 
which the large blocks generally rest, nor for the striated, grooved, and 
polished surfaces, nor (he might have added) for the lapiaz and creux, 
and the lateral moraines which deviate from a horizontal position. 

It will be anticipated that Agassiz transports the boulders across the 
great valley on a bridge of ice. He observes that the eastern Alps, as 
they have disturbed the dzluviwm. containing bones of elephants, must 
have been raised up since that deposit was formed, and their upheaval 
is the last cataclysm, or geological convulsion, which has visited Eurepe. 
Previous to this event, an immense mass of ice had covered the surface’ 
of the northern parts of the old and new world; ‘‘ but when the up- 
heayal of the Alps took place, this formation of ice was raised up like 
the other rocks; that the fragments detached from the fissures of up- 
heaval (fentes du soulevement) fell upon its surface, and without being 
rounded—since they were not exposed to friction—moved along the in- 
clined surface of the sheet of ice, in the same manner as the fragments 
of rock which fall upon glaciers are carried to their sides in conse- 
quence of the continual movement produced in the ice by its alternate 
thawing and congelation, at the different hours of the day, and the dif- 
ferent seasons. 

‘“‘ After the upheaval of the Alps, the earth must have recovered a 
higher temperature ; the ice in melting produced large funnels (enton-~ 
notirs) at the places where it was thinnest ; valleys of erosion were ex~ 

Vol. xu11, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1842. 46 


362 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 


cavated at the bottom of these openings, in localities where no current 
could exist unless enclosed between walls of ice; and, when the ice 
disappeared, the large angular blocks were found resting on a bed of 
rounded pebbles, of which the smallest, often passing into a fine sand, 
form the base.” 

_ The description of the supposed phenomena attending the upheaval 
of the Alps, though it forms the very kernel of his theory, is less clear 
than the other parts of M. Agassiz’s work, which is generally very per- 
spicuous; and instead, therefore, of giving the substance of his state- 
ments in our own language, we have translated the two most important 
passages literally. Ina paper read before the Helvetic Society of Nat- 
ural History in 1837, containing the germs of the theory, more fully 
unfolded in his new work, he thus expresses himself :— 

‘“‘ The appearance of the Alps, the result of the greatest convulsion 
which has modified the surface of our globe, found its surface covered 
with ice, at least from the North Pole to the shores of the Mediterranean 
and Caspian Seas. This upheaving, by raising, breaking, and cleaving 
in a thousand ways, the rocks which compose the prodigious mass that 
now forms the Alps, at the same time necessarily raised the ice which 
covered them; and the debris detached from so many deep upbreak- 
ings and ruptures, naturally spreading themselves over the inclined sur- 
face of the mass of ice which had been supported by them, slid along 
the declivity to the spots where they were arrested, without being worn 
or rounded, since they experienced no friction against each other, and, 
even when arrested, came in contact with a surface so smooth; or, af- 
ter being stopped, they were conveyed to the margin or to the clefts of 
this immense sheet of ice, by that action and those movements which 
characterize congealed water when it is subjected to changes of tem- 
perature, in the same manner as the blocks of rock which fall upon 
glaciers, approach their edges in consequence of the continual move- 
ments which the ice experiences, in alternately melting and congealing 
at the different hours of the day and seasons of the year.”-—Edinburgh 
New Philosophical Journal, No. 48, p. 378. 

The words in italics indicate an opinion that some of the boulders 
might have slid from the Alps to Jura on the surface of the ice, 
while others adhered to it, and only travelled as the angular blocks 
resting on glaciers now travel. Nothing equivalent to these words oc- 
curs in the Etudes, and even the distribution of the fragments by the 
more tardy process is not very clearly explained. We are not sure, 
for instance, whether he means that the ancient mer de glace rose above 
Jura, and determined the progressive motion of the ice in a direction 
away from the Alpine chain at right angles, bearing the boulders first 
detached over Jura into the basin of the Doubs, and that, owing to the 


© The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 363 


gradual fusion and subsidence of the ice, the later boulders were stop- 
ped in their motion by that mountain and settled on its southern decliv- 
ities. He seems, however, we rather think, to mean, that the glaciers 
of the Aar, the Kander, and the Rhone, were lateral and auxiliary to 
that of the great valley ; that the dilatation of the ice (and the motion 
of the boulders) following the course of the troughs in which it lay, 
was northwest in the lateral valleys, and northeast or southwest in the 
great valley ; and that the blocks resting on Jura are to be considered 
as stranded on one side of the great glacier, the motion of the eastern 
portion of it being northeast, while that of the western was southwest. 
We see some objections to this conclusion. The transference of blocks 
from B, for instance, (figure 8,) should not have been right across to 
2-2, but diagonally to 3, or 1-1, according as the expansive motion of 
the ice was northeast or southwest. A theory, however, which explains 
so many facts, is not to be rejected on account of minor difficulties, 
which future researches may clear up. 

When the mer de glace was melting, the first openings through it 
would be formed where it was thinnest. The water engulfed in these 
would seek out channels where the fissures or vaults under the ice left 
room for it, and valleys of erosion would thus be excavated, sometimes 
at variance with the natural declivity of the ground, and which would 
afterwards become the channels of rivers. Such valleys do occur, and 
the explanation is simple and probable. But account should have been 
taken of the heat developed along the fissure of upheaval, which would 
produce floods of water at the most elevated points; for when the 
granite ascended from below, though it was in a solid state, it must have 
brought with it the temperature of the region from which it came. The 
heat thus generated must have been increased by the enormous friction 
on the pre-existing primary strata, when they were fractured and bent 
up ; and the ice in contact with these strata, which surrounded the high- 
est summits of the Alps, must have been first melted. Here was an 
obvious source of formidable debacles, which must have produced great 
changes on the surface of the adjacent countries. 

As portions of the old alluvium, containing bones of the fossil ele- 
phant, have been found turned up on the flanks of the Alps, Agassiz 
infers that deposits of clay and gravel existed before the icy envelope 
was formed ; that these must have been broken up and remodelled by 
the streams arising from the fusion of the ice ; and, consequently, that 
part of the existing alluvial cover is derived from the wrecks of one 
more ancient. 

When the ice retired from the great valley or low country, into the 
lateral valleys of the Rhone, the Rhine, the Aar, and others, the for- 
mation of moraines would begin; and the clay, sand, and gravel thus 
collected at particular localities would be dispersed and remodelled by 


' 


364 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. ° 


the bursting of glacier lakes, occasionally formed in the upper parts of 
valleys by barriers of ice. Hence the origin of a second portion of 
the existing alluvial cover. 

The deposits of clay and gravel spread over the great Swiss valley, 
must be due to floods arising from both the causes just mentioned. 
These floods, Agassiz thinks, must have had a depth of not less than 
300 feet, for the sand and fine gravel found on the higher parts of Jura 
have been washed off from the lower to this height. Masses of ice, 
forming icebergs, would occasionally float in them, and carry boulders 
from one place to another. 

Sheets of ice occupied the lakes of Geneva, Neuchatel, and others, 
at this time, and prevented them from being filled up by the dispersion 
of the alluvial matter. 

The clay containing the bones of fossil elephants on the sides of the 
Alps, he considers as contemporaneous with the deposits entombing 
similar remains on the northern shores of Siberia, and he infers that 
one and the same catastrophe had enveloped these districts, and all 
the northern parts of both continents, in ice. The catastrophe had 
arrived suddenly ; for, as Cuvier remarks, the Siberian fossils show by 
their numbers that the animals had lived where their remains are found, 
and by the actual preservation of the flesh and skin in some cases, that 
they had rested but a short time on the ground before the ice covered 
them. The retreat of the ice, however, had been slow, as demonstrated 
by the moraines forming a series in some valleys, with a gradually 
decreasing range, both in extent and elevation. The present glaciers 
may be considered as the puny and feeble representatives of that vast 
crust of ice which formerly enveloped the northern parts of the globe. 

The great incrustment of ice necessarily extinguished organic life, 
so fay as its domain extended. ‘The animal tribes which then perished 
—the mastodon, Elephas primigenius, rhinoceros, and others,—have left 
their remains in the alluvium, and are found closely to resemble the 
existing races, which were of course introduced after the ice disap- 
peared, and the region acquired the temperature necessary for their 
support. 

Agassiz thinks that a similar great and sudden depression of temper- 
ature probably served the same purpose at earlier periods, by clearing 
the globe of one zoological group, to make room for another. 

Mountains, of whose rocks fragments are found transported to a dis- 
tance, in different directions, are considered as centres of dispersion, 
by Agassiz. Thus, the Alps, whose boulders strew the plains of Swit- 
zerland, Italy, Austria, and France, form one centre of dispersion, 
embracing Jura within its range. The Vosges (in Alsace), which ex- 
hibit the same phenomena on a smaller scale, are another. The Ce- 


The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 365 


vennes are probably a third; and the Pyrenees a fourth. We have 
one of vast magnitude in the Scandinavian mountains, whose travelled 
blocks are found scattered over northern Europe, from the shores of 
England to Moscow. In this country Agassiz considers the Grampians, 
the Cumberland mountains, and those of Wales, as centres of dispersion. 

There is a question arising out the theory, which he has not touched 
upon. If we suppose the region from the 35th parallel to the north 
pole to be invested with a coat of ice thick enough to reach the sum- 
mits of Jura, that is, about 5000 French feet, or one English mile in 
height, it is evident that the abstraction of such a quantity of water 
from the ocean would materially affect its depth. The area of the 
space extending 55 degrees on each side of the pole, is pretty correctly 
two-sevenths of the whole surface of the globe. Supposing two-thirds 
of this space to be dry land, and the spongy coat of ice equal to two- 
thirds of its bulk of water, and assuming, what is pretty near the truth, 
that the sea occupies three-fourths of the surface of the globe, we find 
that the abstraction of the water necessary to form the said coat of ice, 
would depress the ocean about 800 feet. Admitting further, that one- 
eighth of the fluid yet remains locked up in the existing polar ices, it 
follows that the dissolution of the portion which has disappeared would 
raise the ocean nearly 700 feet. The only very uncertain element 
here is the depth of the ice; but even if this should be reduced one- 
half, we would still have an agent capable of producing a change of 
350 feet on the level of the sea. We are besides leaving out of view 
the southern polar region, which it is now known embraces a great 
extent of land. If this was also covered with ice, the change would 
be much greater than we have assumed. 

These very original and ingenious speculations of Professor Agassiz 
must be held for the present to be under trial. They have been deduced 
from a limited number of facts observed by himself and others, and 
skilfully generalized ; but they cannot be considered as fully estab- 
lished till they have been brought to the test of observation in distant 
parts of the world, and under a great variety of circumstances. Suppo- 
sing the theory to be substantially sound, the magnitude of the conse- 
quences it involves will undoubtedly bring objections to light, which may 
render modifications necessary, both in its principles and its details. 
In the mean time, it assists us in resolving some difficulties. It contri- 
butes, in a greater or less extent, to explain the dispersion of erratic 
blocks, the bizarre situations they occasionally occupy, the banks of 
clay and gravel found on the sides and at the mouths of valleys, the 
stri@, polishing and grooving, observed on the surface of rocks in situ, 
and of large stones in the till; and it promises to throw light on what 
is at present a very obscure subject, the origin of the older and newer 
alluvium. 


366 New Species of Trilobite. 


Arr. XVII.—On a New Species of Trilobite of very large size ; by 
Joun Locks, M. D., Prof. of Chem. and Pharm. in the Medical Col- 
lege of Ohio.* Communicated to this Journal by the author. 


Tsotelus megistos. 


Clypeo, antice elliptico attenuate marginato postice arcuato, et ter- 
minato utrinque aculio ; cauda postice elliptica, antice arcuata ; articu- 
lus abdominis octo. 

The shield is anteriorly nearly perfectly elliptical, broadly and thinly 
margined, posteriorly arcuate, and terminated at the angles by spines 
or pointed processes extending backwards beyond the two first abdom- 
inal articulations. ‘The eyes are prominent, large, furnished exteriorly 
each with a crescent-shaped cornea, and placed rather nearer to the 
posterior edge than to the outer margin of the shield. From the corner 
of each eye a sutural line extends forward, meeting’ at the anterior 
margin of the shield, and enclosing a lozenge-shaped, leaf-like frontal 
space. Abdomen trilobited; middle lobe cylindrical ; articulations eight, 
bending flatly over the middle lobe, and descending abruptly at their 
lateral extremities, which are broad, flat, and rounded beneath, and ad- 
mirably fitted to sliding over each other when the animal should con- 
tract or roll himself, according to a well known habit of the genus. 
Tail posteriorly elliptical, anteriorly circularly arcuate, length measur- 
ed horizontally, less than two thirds of the width, having two obscure 
longitudinal depressions continuous with the abdominal furrows, and 
converging towards an obscure posterior tubercle. The anterior out- 
line of the tail exhibits three slight lobes, (corresponding with those of 
the abdomen,) the two exterior of which are very distinctly marked by 
a transverse depression. 

When the posterior shell of the tail is decorticated an interior shell 
is exposed, which forms all round a deep trough or “‘ cavetto,” beauti- 
fully marked with a “ yenalian” of eccentric curved and branched lines. 
The above named posterior tubercle is very nearly the ‘‘ focus” of the 
“elliptic” outline of the tail, is just anterior to the marginal cavetto, 
and is the centre around which the curved lines originate, each passing 
a little further back than the other and advancing outwardly and for- 
ward until they successively disappear on the anterior margin of the 
“* cavetto.” 


* Read before the Association of American Geologists at Philadelphia, April 6, 
1841. 


‘New Species of Trilobite. 367 


Distinctions —This Isotelus resembles the gigas, from which, how- 
ever, besides the aculeate processes, it is distinguished by the perfectly 
elliptic terminations, by the simple (not raised) margin of the shield, 
and by the proportions of the tail, the gigas having the length 4ths, 
and the megistos 2ths only of the width. The latter is also much more 
prominent than the former, and the tail and sides much more abrupt in 
their descent. From the megalops and the stegops it is clearly distin- 
guished by the eyes. 

History and mathematical proportions.—The first fragment (see out- 
line on Plate III) was discovered by myself in Adams county, Ohio, in 
1838. It was about six inches of the marginal “ cavetto” of the tail, 
beautifully veined, marked with the tubercle, perfectly elliptical, and 
coinciding with the end of an ellipse twenty two inches long and twelve 
inches broad. The second specimen was an entire tail found at the 
same locality ; this, upon admeasurement, was found to coincide with 
an ellipse of exactly half of the dimensions of that which suited the 
first specimen, and showed, by a fortunate fracture, the internal mar- 
ginal cavetto. ‘These two specimens were both figured and described 
by me in the Ohio geological report for 1839. ° ' 

The third specimén (see outline) was discovered in autumn of the same 
year by Wm. Burnett, Esq. on the hills at Cincinnati, and presented to 
me soon after. It was partly covered by the crystalline blue limestone 
in which it had been imbedded, and it was not until the winter of 1840- 
41 that I dissected it out of its gangue, and found that it had an acu- 
leate shield, and that it exhibited the animal almost entire. 

It is of the same dimensions as the second specimen, and measures 
nine inches and three fourths in length, and six inches in breadth. The 
first fragment must therefore have been from a specimen nineteen inches 
and a half long, and twelve inches broad. ‘These gigantic dimensions 
suggested the name maximus, which I gave in the Ohio report, but which, - 
for obvious reasons, I have changed to the more classical Greek term of 
the same import. 

The fourth specimen was discovered by Mr. Carley, of Cincinnati, 
who was the first to discover the aculeate shield, for in the Burnett spe- 
cimen this character was still concealed. Mr. Carley’s specimen ap- 
pears to be a young one, for it is only about three inches long. It was 
obiained in the bed of the Ohio river about four or five hundred feet 
lower than the situation which furnished the Burnett specimen. My 
own first specimens were found within thirty feet of the top of the blue 
limestone formation, where it is overlaid by the cliff limestone. Now 
the character of this magnificent species of trilobite has been ascer- 
tained, it is evident that fragments of it are abundant in our blue lime- 
stone, which is undoubtedly the equivalent of the limestone of Trenton 


368 Register of the Thermometer, kept at Boston. 
Falls, N. Y., called the Trenton limestone. The most common frag-— 
ment found is the corner of the shield with its thorn-like appendage, 
(see the figure, Plate III.) For the information of geologists, I would 
observe, that figure 2 was found just below the stratum most abundant in 
the genera Delthyris, Turritella, and Trochus, and that Mr. Carley’s 
specimen occurred in the region of the Isotelus gigas, and the Crypto- 
lithus tesselatus. ; 


Arr. XVIII.— Register of the Thermometer from 1830 to 1839, 
kept at Boston, Mass.; by J. P. Hau. 


Mean of 


Jan. | Feb. |Mar. |Aprl. May. pane July. |Aug. 


Years. sept, Oct. |Nov. | Dec.| year. 
— 1830" |25.73/25.94)37.55|48.07|57.08 66.67/72.04| 69.95|59.27 52. 70|46.68,35.22| 49.74 | 
1831 — |23.38/24.86|41.34|48.51/59.31,71.47/73.09|72.39|63.08'53.76|40.82|19.14| 49.26 
1832 _|27.38/28.73/36.98|41.99/53. 15 64.48/68.04/69.85 61.24 52.15/41.78,31.35| 48.09 
1833 |31.16|25.45/33.03/48.74|58.91 63.23/72. 06)67.04/62.28 50.56|38.30 31.84) 48.55 
1834  |24.85|34,23/37.53]46.88)53.44 63.84 74.03|68.28 62.86/49.03/38.52 28.55] 48.50 
1835 — |27.26/25.46|32.80/43.84155.26 65.42|71.75 68.75/57.90153.54/40,22 23.43] 47.14 
1836 |26.94|20,95|31.84/43.73|55,44'58.91 69,19|65.12 60,46|45.22|36.77,29.52| 45.34 
1837 _21.74)25.70/31.86/44.72|52.97 /63.75|68.45|65.32/59.00/48.03)39.26 28.93] 45.81 
1838 [33,28|19.27/35.79/41.66|54.84/68.86|74.22)69.14/61.03/47.70|35.60 26.72| 47.35 
1839 |27.12/29.18)35.71/4'7.48|56,45)62.54/72.49)68.93 62.20/5 1.39]37.62 31.90] 48.58 
ae ee 10 : 26.88)/25.98)/35.44145.56 55,6864.91 71.54/68.48|60.93|50.40|39.56 28.66| 47.83 
Meanofth’ 
10y'rs em 26.23|29 57 eee 57.57/67.00172.41|69.89|62.60/51.35 = 49,26 
0°20, 4 


From the table it will be seen, that the mean temperature of 
every month except January, was lower in the ten years from 
1830 to 1839, than in the ten years from 1820 to 1829. 

Two years (1836 and 1837) were of remarkable coldness. In 
these years, the crops of grain and corn were cut off to such an 
extent, that large importations were necessary to supply the de- 
mand. 

The thermometer rose to 99° on the 2Ist and 22d of July, 
1830, and the 26th of July, 1834, and fell to 10° below zero on 
the 4th of January, 1835, and 24th of January, 1839. 

Hours of observation, 7, a. m., 2 and 9, P. m. 

Boston, Mass., 1841. 


” 


ae Pe 
ay Ae ae 


«a 


ral | 


.& Arts. Vol XLILN 


a3) 


% | April 1842, Plate I. 


Lith. of TE SinclawrL hal & 


z 


Tsotelus Megisto 8 


y 
; 4 

"in Sheet ie 

aca 
hee 


- 


Chemical Examination of Bituminous Coal. 369 


Art. XIX.—Chemical examination of Bituminous Coal from 
the pits of the Mid Lothian Coal Mining Company, south 
side of James River, fourteen miles from Richmond, Vir- 
ginia, in Chesterfield County; by B. Srtuman, Professor of 
Chemistry, &c. in Yale College, and O. P. Husparp, Professor 
of Chemistry, &c. in Dartmouth College. 


Tree specimens of fair average quality, not selected for any 
apparent superiority, were taken from a hogshead of the coal, 
sent by the President of the company, A. 8S. Wootprines, Esq., 
and experiments were made upon portions of these samples indis- 
criminately taken. 

Physical Characters.—The coal is in the fresh fractured sur- 
face of a jet black color; lustre, resinous and splendent ; fracture, 
slightly conchoidal ; splits easily, parallel to surfaces of deposition 
which are strongly marked; the two sets of slines considerably 
distinct in large masses and in small specimens very distinct, 
showing a rhombic structure, in several specimens before us, 
making with each other angles of 78° and 102°. 

There is another series of faces, very lustrous and splendent, 
that also intersect at angles of 78° and 102°. These two series 
of faces cross each other and the surfaces of deposition, and give 
rise to two rhombohedra that incline in opposite directions. By 
these the coal is intersected so frequently as to divide it into lay- 
ers of a line in thickness in one direction. The coal is compact, 
and the specific gravity of three samples taken as above, was 

Ae 1281 
B:21,312 
C.. 1.284 


3.8773 =1.292. Sp. er. water being 1. 

No. 1. Sixty three and a half grains were coked for two and 
a half hours, in an iron bottle in a draft furnace, and the gaseous 
products were collected dry over mercury. 

a. All the jars of gas, eighteen in number, were examined by 
caustic potassa; the carbonic acid was thus absorbed, and was 
equal to 80 cubic inches, or 1600 parts, being two fifth parts of 
the volume of the gas. 

6. Binoxide of nitrogen gave in jar 1, a slight redness, thus in- 
dicating oxygen gas. 

Vol. xiu, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 47 


\ 


a 


370 Chemical Examination of Bituminous Coal. 


c. Acetate of lead added gave no indication of sulphuretted 
hydrogen. 

d. Sulphate of coppet gave no indication of ammonia. 

e. The gas remaining in jar 1, after removal of carbonic acid 
gas, having been generated at ip lowest temperature, burned. 
with the clear, dense, yellow flame of olefiant gas. 

jf. The gas remaining in the other jars, after the removal of 
the carbonic acid gas, was entirely combustible, and burned 
with a flame resembling that of a mixture of carbonic oxide and 
light carburetted hydrogen. 

g. The volume of all the gases of f and g was equal to 120 
cubic inches, or 2425 parts. 

Ratio of carbonic acid, 80 cubic inches, 1600 parts: 2. 
d: combustible gases, 120 do. do. 2425 “ :3 

h. The coke of No. 1, was very light, jet black, shining and 
soft, and was not estimated because it was mixed with portions 
of iron from the interior of the bottle. 

The following samples were coked for two hours in a draft 
furnace, in covered Hessian crucibles. The coke was harder 
than in the process in the iron bottle. Its color was jet black 
internally, and gray at the top of the mass, where probably the 
air had slight access, and was about twice the bulk of the coal 
employed. 

The coke of 2 and 5 was burned in a platina capsule over a 
spirit argand lamp, till the carbon was all consumed. The results 
are as follows in the table, reduced to centesimal proportions. 


No. 2.. 53.5 grs. coal gave - - - - 33.8 coke. 
3. 63. 5 ¢¢ 66 2 FS AE is 39. 6 a4 
A HOD? ha nie Wena! BTID geet 
5. 200. grs. coal gave 128, A5 srs. which for$=64.2 
2 3 4 5 Sum. | Average. 
ne ae Sa 
Carbon, 54.76 56.1 | 110.86 | 55.43 
‘ 2 
iehes: g.41| (09 67-6) 1 61) 1651] gas 
Volatile matter, 36.82 37.63 32.4 | 35.8 | 142.65 35.66 
99.99} 99.99100. —_|100. OIE» 
Coke, per cent. | 63.17! 62.36, 67.6 | 642 | 257.33 | 64.33 


Chemical Examination of Bituminous Coal. 371 


Three specimens, Nos. 6, 7, and 8, (taken as heretofore,) of 50 
grains each, were coked in close covered platina crucibles over an 
alcoholic lamp, and then removed to and ignited in a draft fur- 
nace at a white heat. The coke from all these was jet black, 
shining, porous, and soft. 

The carbon being burned off in a platina capsule, the results 
were as follows, reduced to centesimal proportions. 


6 7 8 Average. 
Carbon, ; , 63.4 | 60.8 | 59.2 61.1 
Ashes, . é : yee ToL tele LOL: (iy) 
Volatile matter, . 32.6 | 32. 30.4 31.6 
100. | 99.9 |100. 99.87 
Coke, per cent. : 67.4 | 68. 69.6 68.2 
The average of both series is given below. 
a eee First series. [Secondseries{ |  { Average. J 
Carbon, ‘ ; 55.43 61.1 58.26 
Ashes, : t 8.25 res | 7.67 
Volatile matter, . 35.66 | 31.6 39.62 
799.34 | 99.8 OobS 
Coke, . d : 64.33 68.2 oT 6681 


Two specimens of 100 grains each, were heated in fine pow- 
der to 300°, and sustained a loss of 1.9 grains, and 2.1 grains; 
average loss 2 per cent.; this was moisture, which is of course 
included in the per centage of “ volatile matter.’ 

No bitumen or liquid matter was distilled over in the coking 
of No. 1. 

The ashes in every case were very light, and of a clear gray- 
ish white, indicating no pyrites or peroxide of iron, and were in 
no degree attracted by the magnet. 

The ashes of No. 7, being 3.6 grains, were treated with dilute 
nitric acid ; 2.4 grains were insoluble residuum, chiefly silica; and 
the soluble matter was lime and alumina, slightly colored by oxide 
of iron and manganese. 

The analysis of the coal, shows in the general average, (which 
may be regarded as approaching nearly to practical results, where 
the coal is employed in the large way,) proportions of solid carbon 
and volatile matters, which render it well adapted to the most 
important purposes in the arts, and probably, with a low and well 
managed heat, to the production of gas for illumination. Its - 


t) 


372 Chemical Examination of Bituminous Coal. 


ashes are of a kind and in such a state as to offer no inconven- 
lence in using it asa fuel. The coke also is in excellent form 
for producing intense heat. 

‘To show more particularly the resemblances of this coal, we 
cite below, a collection of the analyses of various coals, some 
dry and others fat coal, froma Report on the Manufacture of 
Tron, made to the Legislature of Maryland, by J. H. Alexander, 
Esq. 


Frost- } : Mid Lo- 
burg. | Scot- |Stafford-|New- |New- | Staf- |Rivede Cannel wate. thian, 
Mary- | land. | shire. |castle,|castle.| ford- | Gier. | Lanca- thian, Va. 
land. | Clyde. | Tipton. shire. shire.| Va, | Avera- 
* ok * + * ges. 
Carbon, | 66.3 | 64.4 | 67.5 | 60.5] 67.5) 62.4| 66.5 | 64.72) 61.1 |58.26 
Ashes, 14.3 4.6 ke 4. Oo |e CA Od 
Volatile matt’r) 19.4 | 31. 30. 39.5] 30. | 34.1] 31.5 | 35.28) 31.6 133.62 
100. |100. |100. 1100. 100. 1100. 1100. |100. | 99:8 199.55 
* Dry coals. t Fat coals. 


The Newcastle coal, analyzed by Karsten, gave 68.5 per cent. 
of coke. The average of our results, by the last series of ex- 
periments, is 68.2 per cent. of coke. 

The following table will show the relations of the Mid Lothian 
coal in its amount of coke. 


Clyde, 69. Rive de Gier, 68.5 

‘Tipton, 70. Lancashire, 64.72 Cannel. 

Newcastle, 64.5 Mid Lothian, 64.33 aver. Ist series. 
« 70. : « 68.2 aver. 2d do. 
4 68.5 e 65.9 general average. 


Staffordshire, 65.9 


The average of the three experiments upon the Newcastle coal, 
gives 67.6. 

It appears that the Mid Lothian coal of Virginia, is substantially 
the same as the best coals of both Europe and America, while it 
is almost identical with the Newcastle coal of England. 

Its proportion of excellent coke, is almost two thirds of the en- 
tire weight; of the volatile matter, which is about one third part, 
more than three fifths are combustible, and in a form to act very 
advantageously in producing a bright and hot blaze, while only 
one thirteenth part of incombustible, earthy and metallic matter 
remains in the form of ashes. 'This proportion of incombustible 
matter is a positive advantage, for being a bad conductor, it makes 
the fire hotter by retaining and accumulating the heat. Count 


Chemical Examination of Bituminous Coal. 373 


Rumford caused balls to be made of clay and fine coal moistened 
and kneaded together, the object being not only to economize 
the waste coal, but also to accumulate and radiate the heat. 

As in the Mid Lothian coal there is very little iron, it is not 
likely that the ashes will readily form slag or clinker to obstruct 
the bars of a grate, or to accumulate like a fungus, upon the walls 
of a furnace. 

Should there be occasion to convert the Mid Lothian coal into 
coke, it would afford that very important fuel of an excellent 
quality. If the process were conducted at alow heat, it is proba- 
ble that a very brightly burning gas would be obtained, fitted 
for illumination, especially if it were mixed with a requisite pro- 
portion of the gas from rosin, as is done in the gas works in Bos- 
ton, where Pictou coal of Nova Scotia is employed for this pur- 
pose. ‘The Mid Lothian coal contains so little sulphur, that for 
every practical purpose it may be regarded as free from that com- 
bustible which is so injurious to the working of bar iron and steel 
by the forge and hammer, especially in the very important opera- 
tion of welding. From repeated trials made with the Mid Lo- 
thian coal by our smiths in this city, it appears perfectly well 
adapted to their uses, especially where a hollow fire is desired, 
and when a powerful heat is necessary for large work with a 
strong blast. One of our best smiths, having made a comparative 
trial of the two, remarks, that it does not ignite as soon as the 
Neweastle coal, but gives a surer good welding heat, and lasts 
nearly one quarter longer. 

This coal is an excellent fuel for a parlor grate. No bitumen 
exudes during its combustion; on breaking a heated mass by 
the poker, there is no liquid tar covering the separated frag- 
ments, but a bright flame instantly kindles on the newly exposed 
surfaces, which radiates heat powerfully and illuminates the room 
with a cheerful radiance. 

There being no liquid bitumen, the combustion of this coal is 
attended with less smoke than is usual with bituminous coals; 
with a well drawing vent, there is scarcely a perceptible odor and 
no deposit of coal dust in the room and upon the furniture. 

From a considerable experience in using it by us in a family 
parlor, it proves to be a very desirable fuel. We presume that it 
would prove an excellent fuel for locomotives and for steam en- 
gines, as it isabundant in flame so important to the production of 


374 Chemical Examination of Bituminous Coal. 


steam, while its coke maintains a solid ignited mass, ready at all 
times for the renovation of the activity of the blaze on the addi- 
tion of more coal or of wood. 

In a grate it burns very well when mixed with the anthracite, 
and the fire is active, cheering and enduring. 

The Mid Lothian coal, being remarkably free from pyrites, 
there appears to be no serious danger of its producing spontaneous 
combustion—an accident which, in the case of mineral coal, is 
generally attributed to the fermentation of pyrites; the sulphur 
and the iron both attracting oxygen from water, as well as from 
the air in the interstices of the coal, until it becomes ignited. It 
should not be forgotten, however, that many combustibles besides 
coal, are liable to spontaneous combustion, and therefore care is 
always to be observed in disposing of them in store- houses, on 
ship-board, &e., especially when accumulated in large quantities. 

From the absence of sulphur, we should think this coal well 
adapted to the manufacture of bar-iron, and that in employing it 
for locomotive engines and the boilers of steam-ships, or of fixed 
establishments on shore, there can be no cause to fear that it will 
injure the metal, whether of iron or copper. 

As to its use in sitting and sleeping rooms, there can be no in- 
jurious influence to health, provided there isa good draught up 
the chimney ; otherwise every species of fuel is dangerous, as 
the gases produced by combustion are all deadly; but, witha 
good drawing vent, there isno more danger from the Mid Lothian 
coal than from any other, and no danger indeed from any. 

It is worthy of remark that whenever a coal fire becomes lan- 
suid on account of the discharge and consumption of the gas, a 
billet or two of wood instantly renews its activity and prepares 
it for the reception of more coal, which is then promptly kindled. 

Presuming, of course, that the coal furnished to us by the pres- 
ident of the Mid Lothian company, presents a fair average of the 
produce of the mines, we hesitate not to recommend it as an ex- 
cellent fuel, which has, no occasion to shun a comparison with 
the best mineral coal of this country or of Europe. 

Yale College Laboratory, Feb. 7, 1842. 


Bibliography. 375 


Art. XX.—Bibliographical Notices. 


1. Caroxt Linnz1 Systema, Genera, Species Plantarum uno volu- 
mine. LEditio critica, adstricta, conferta; sive Codex Botanicus Lin- 
neanus, tectum Linneanum integrum ex omnibus Systematis, Generum, 
Specierum Plantarum editionibus, Mantissis, Addimentis, selectumque 
ex ceteris ejus botanicis libris digestum, collatum, contractum, cum plena 
editionum discrepantia exhibens : In usum Botanicorum practicum edi- 
dit brevique adnotione explicavit HerMANNUS EspEruarDuS RicHTER, 
M. Dr. Prof. Dresd., etc. Leipsic, (Wigand,) 1840.—This book is, as 
its title denotes, a complete digest of the writings of the immortal Lin- 
nus upon systematic botany, an undertaking of great labor, and, we. 
believe, very faithfully executed. It forms a volume of 1100 pages of 
the small folio or imperial octavo size, (the same as that of the new 
edition of Steudel’s Nomenclator,) closely printed in double columns ; 
prefaced by some critical and explanatory editorial observations, and 
by a complete list of the botanical writings of Linnzeus, with notices of 
the different editions, a catalogue of the authors cited by Linnzeus, &c. 
The prefaces, dedications, and introductory observations of all the sys- 
tematic works are next given; and the body of the work is devoted to 
the genera and species, in which, by a well arranged system of abbre- 
viations, nearly the whole Linnzan text, and the changes or variations 
of the different editions, are brought withm a moderate compass. Such 
a thesaurus is of great value to botanists, and especially to those who 
do not possess the original editions of all the works it comprises, many 
of which are exceedingly rare. ‘To the volume is appended a complete 
index to the Linnean genera and species, with all the original synonymy, 
entitled: In Codicem Botanicum Linneanum Index Alphabeticus, Gen- 
erum, Specierum ac Synonymorum omnium completissimus, composuit 
atque edidit Dr. G. L. Perermann, which is paged. separately, and oc- 
cupies 200 pages, printed in triple columns, extending the work to above 
1300 pages. It is published at 16 Saxon thalers. 


2. Genera, Species, et Synonyma Candolleana, alphabetico ordine 
disposita, seu Index generalis et specialis ad A. P. De Candolle Pro- 
dromum Syst. Nat. Regni Vegetabilis: auctore H. W. Buex, M. D. 
(Berlin.)—An index of the genera and species contained in the Pro- 
dromus of the lamented De Candolle, and of their synonyms, has been 
greatly needed, those of the several volumes of that most important 
work extending only to the genera. This want Dr. Buek has in part 
supplied by publishing an index to the fifth, sixth, and first part of the 
seventh volumes of the Prodromus, that is, of the immense family of 


376 Bibliography. 


the Composite. It is comprised in 228 pages octavo, (Berlin, 1840,) 
and is entitled the second part of the work: the first, an index of Vols. 
LIV, of the Prodromus, although announced as in press a year or two 
since, has not yet reached us. 

As to the Prodromus, although the sifted author was not spared to 
finish his herculean task, it will doubtless be continued, and, we trust, 
duly completed, by his justly distinguished son and successor, Prof. Al- 
phonse De Candolle, with the aid of those botanists to whom a conside- 
rable portion of the remaining orders have from time to time been 
assigned. It may perhaps be important to the botanists of this country 
to know, that the elaboration of the Scrophularinea, Labiate, Hydro- 
phyllacee, and, we believe, the Polemoniacee, has been long since un- 
dertaken by Mr. Bentham; the Convolvulacea, by Prof. Choissy, of 
Geneva; the Primulacee and Lentibulacee, by Mr. Duby; and the 
Plumbaginacee, by Mr. Boissier, of Geneva; the Solanacee, by Prof. 
Dunal, of Montpelier; and the Asclepiadee, by Mr. Decaisne, of the 
Royal Museum, Paris ; to all of whom good specimens of the rarer or 
less known and local species of these respective orders from different 
parts of this country would doubless be welcome and yery useful. 


3. Kunth, Enumeratio Plantarum, Vol. Il. Stuttgardt, 1841. pp. 
644, 8vo.—We learn that the third yolume of this work has recently 
appeared ; and that it comprises the orders Aracee, (including Lemna 
and Pistia,) Typhacee, Pandanacee, Naidacee, Juncaginee, Alisma- 
cee, Palmacee, Juncacee, Phylidracee, Restiacee, Desvauxiacee, and 
Eriocaulonee. 


4. Loudon’s Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum abridged : or the 
hardy trees and shrubs of Britain, native and foreign, scientifically 
and popularly described ; with their propagation, culture, and uses in 
the arts, and with figures of nearly all the species: Abridged from the 
large edition in eight volumes, and adapted for the use of Nurserymen, 
Gardeners, and Foresters.—This useful and well digested abridgment 
of a very important, but somewhat unwieldly and expensive work, is to 
be comprised in ten monthly parts, published at five shillings each, and 
will contain many species or varieties introduced into Great Britain since 
the year 1838, when the large work was completed. Only the first 
part (published in December last) has as yet reached us: this extends 
to p. 128, and includes the orders from Ranunculacee to Aisculacee, 
following the arrangement of De Candolle’s Prodromus. The original 
work is highly and justly valued in this country, as well as in England ; 
and the extremely moderate price of the new and abridged edition will 
doubtless secure for it a very extensive circulation. 


Bibliography. ot 


5. Steudel’s INomenclator Botanicus, 2d edition—wWe noticed this 
work in a recent number of this Journal, (Vol. xu1,_p. 373,) while in 
ihe course of publication : the remaining fasciculi (XI-XIII) have since 
been received, which complete the work. It enumerates six thousand 
two hundred and eighty two genera, and seventy two thousand four hun- 
dred and seventy eight species of Phanerogamic plants. 


6. Torrey and Grays Flora of North America: Vol. 2, part 2. 
March, 1842. This number, as well as a large portion of the preced- 
ing, is occupied with the Composite ; and this vast family is not yet 
finished ; but will apparently require at least half of the ensuing num- 
ber for its completion. 


7. Mr. Nuttall’s Edition of Michaux’s Sylva Americana.—We are 
informed by Mr. Dobson, the publisher of this work, that it is at length 
definitively finished, in six volumes, imperial octavo, with 278 plates. 
Mr. Nuttall’s additions can be had separate in three volumes, contain- 
ing 122 plates, to complete all’ former editions of Michaux’s Sylva. 

This labor of Mr. Nuttall is looked for with great interest by all, and 
when it appears on our table will be the subject of further notice. 

We also learn from the same source, that the first volume of the 
revised edition of Holbrook’s North American Herpetology is also 
in the, press. 


8. Botanical Teacher, Second edition; by Laura Jounson.*  (Sec- 
ond notice.) In 1834, the first edition was published under the super- 
vision of Professor Eaton. It was dedicated to the Hon. Stephen Van 
Rensselaer, and received particular marks of his favor and patronage. 
In the present edition improvements have been made, and it is particu- 
larly prepared for the pupils of teachers, who use the eighth edition of 
Eaton’s North American Botany. ‘The last named work having grown 
to a large octavo of more than six hundred close pages, teachers were 
in want of a cheaper book, to put into the hands of pupils. Such a 
book was found to be very difficult to construct. It was necessary that 
it should be plain—though it must be technical and truly scientific—and 
contain all the genera and species of North American plants, excepting 
the lower orders of Cryptogamia, and so much of these orders as 
might be needed in students’ exercises. 


* Dr. Gray’s notice of this book on page 184 of the present volume, having 
given dissatisfaction to the authoress and to Prof. Eaton, we have been requested 
by Prof. E. to publish the above, drawn up by himself. Miss Johnson’s work is 
before the public, and they will judge of it for themselves.—Eps. 


Vol. xx11, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1342. 48 


378 Bibliography. 


The Rey. Mr. Phelps had prepared a book of this kind, to accompany 
the British Flora of Dr. J. E. Smith, President of the Linnean Society 
of London, which was well received. His method was adopted by 
Miss Johnson, with some amendments. ‘The Botanical Teacher gives 
Lindley’s concise generic descriptions of the genera, without abbrevia- 
tions; but the specific descriptions are given by abbreviations. By 
using but one set of words, a general system of North American plants 
is compassed in a small volume of 268 pages. 

This treatise is universally approved by all correct teachers of bot- 
any, who have seen it. Ona hasty view, the abbreviation plan may 
appear forbidding.. But by a card properly adjusted, the reader sees 
every abbreviation at one glance of the eye, without opening the book. 

Being prepared by an experienced teacher for the use of her own 
pupils, and for the general extension of the science among young 
scholars, (for whom she considers botany as better adapted in early 
youth than any other study,) nothing is charged on the work for au- 
thorship. Therefore a class of a dozen pupils can be furnished for 
about half as many dollars. 

As it is fitted for the vest pocket, and contains all North American 
plants, (excepting some recent discoveries in California and other dis- 
tant regions,) it is most perfectly adapted to the wants of experienced 
botanists, who collect plants in fields and forests. 

Errors, misprints, and omissions are to be found in it as in all books. 
But considering the great care and labor required in reducing a general 
system of the botany of a continent to a book of a hand’s breadth and 
thickness, the errors are very few. 


9. Monographie d’Echinodermes vivans et fossiles, par L. Agas- 
siz. 2d livraison, contenant les Scutelles. 

M. Agassiz’s Monograph of the Echinodermata, living and fossil. 
2d livraison, comprising the family Scutella, (Linn.) 4to. pp. 131, and 
27 plates. Neuchatel, July, 1841. 

In Vol. xxxvui, p. 369, of this Journal, we announced the appearance 
of the first livraison of this work, and gave an abstract of its contents. 
That part, it will be remembered, was devoted to the family of the 
Saleniarii, and a conspectus of the genera and species of that family 
will be found in the notice alluded to. The present livraison embraces 
that part of the family of the Clypeastroides containing the Scutellarii. 
It is prefaced by an interesting chapter on the history, different divis- 
ions, general form, structure, relations to other Clypeastroides, and geo- 
logical and geographical distribution of this family. 

In twenty seven elaborate plates, in part colored, we are presented 
with about two hundred and thirty distinct figures, including enlarged 


Bibliography. ov9 


parts, and the descriptive text is full, and accompanied with a copious 
synonymy and references to other authors. We regret that our pres- 
ent limits do not permit giving a full conspectus of the genera and 
species of this group; but we must content ourselves with giving only 
the genera and the number of the species under each. 

I. Rotula, (Klein,) 2 species. II. Runa, (Agass.,) 2 speéies. III. 
Millita, (Klein,) 5 species. IV. Encope, (Agass.,) 11 species. V. Lo- 
bophora, (Agass.,) 4 species. WI. Amphiope, (Agass.,) 2 species. 
VIL. Scutella, (Lam.,) 12 species. VIII. Echinarachinus, 4 species. 
IX. Arachnoides, (Klein,) 1 species. X. Scutelleria, (Agass.,) 5 spe- 
cies. XI. Laganum, (Klein,) 14 species. XII. Echinocyamus, (Agass.,) 
11 species, XIII. Moulinia, (Agass.,) 1 species. 

Like all the works of this distinguished author, the present livraison 
is marked by its great fidelity and the beauty of its mechanical execu- 
tion ; and our constant wonder is, how Prof. Agassiz can carry on at 
once so many great works as we know he has in hand, and yet devote 
to each a measure of labor which few other naturalists can command 
for a single object. 

We beg again to call the attention of American naturalists to the re- 
quest of M. Agassiz, that all who are so disposed, will send him spe- 
cimens of the Echinodermata of America, for which due acknowledg- 
ment may be expected. 


10. Boston Journal of Natural History. Published by direction of 
the Boston Society of Natural History. Boston: Little & Brown, 1842. 
Vol. IV, Part I. pp. 186, with 7 plates.—This part contains the follow- 
ing papers : 

Art. I. Dissection of two adult dromedaries, a male and a female, 
by J. B. 8. Jackson, M.D. IL. Descriptions of the Fishes of the Ohio 
river and its tributaries, by J. P. Kirtland, M. D. III. Observations on 
the genus Scalops, (Shrew moles,) with descriptions of the species found 
in North America, by J. Bachman, D. D., Charleston, S.C. IV. On 
the occurrence of the Phosphate of Uranium in the Tourmaline locality 
at Chesterfield, by J. E. Teschemacher. V. Descriptions of twenty 
four species of the Shells of New England, by J. W. Mighels, M. D., 
of Portland, Me., and Prof. C. B. Adams, of Middlebury College, Vt. 
VI. Descriptions and figures of the Araneides of the United States, by 
Nicholas Marcellus Hentz. VII. Descriptions of two new species of 
Fishes, by D. Humphreys Storer, M. D. VIII. On a new species of 
Rafflesia from Manilla, by J. E. Teschemacher. IX. Remarks upon 
Coral Formations in the Pacific, with suggestions as to the causes of 
their absence in the same parallels of latitude on the coast of South 
America, by Joseph P. Couthouy. X. Niagara Falls—their physical 


380 Bibliography. 


changes, and the geology and topography of the surrounding country, 
by James Hall. XI. Note to the editors respecting Fossil Bones from 
Oregon, by Henry C. Perkins. 

A glance at this list will show that the present number of this Jour- 
nal is more than usually rich in subjects of important and general in- 
terest to all naturalists. It speaks alike of the thrift of the Society of 
which it is the organ, and of the zeal and ability of its members. 


11. Report on the Insects of Massachusetts, injurious to Vegetation. 
By Tuavpevs Wixiiam Harris, M.D. Published agreeably to an 
order of the Legislature, by the Commissioners on the Zoological and 
Botanical Survey of the State. Cambridge, 1841, 8vo.—We have not 
yet had an opportunity to examine this important work, but from our 
knowledge of the eminent qualifications of the author, we are confident 
that the book is one of great value, alike to the intelligent agriculturist 
and to the scientific inquirer. The commonwealth of Massachusetts 
has earned for herself much honor, throughout the learned world, by 
her liberal patronage of science ; besides which she will doubtless re- 
ceive in the increased resources of her own people, an abundant pecu- 
niary recompense. We hope to be able to speak more particularly 
of Dr. Harris’s Report, at some future day. 


12. Publication of Rogers’s Letters on the Manufacture of Iron; by 
J. H. Auexanper, Esq., with an Appendix.—Will shortly be pub- 
lished, under the editorship of Mr. J. H. Atexanper, of Baltimore, 
“ Letters on the Manufacture of Iron,” by Samuen Rogers, of Mon- 
mouthshire, South Wales. 

Of this book, a notice appeared in 1829, in the preface to the Manuel 
Complet du Maitre de Forges, by M. Landriu, of Paris, in the follow- 
ing words :— 

“‘ C’est dans cet état de la question,”—namely, after M. Landriu, 
having completed the list of metallurgic writers anterior to the reform- 
ation of the phlogistic theory, has farther illustrated the subject by 
reference to the systematic and learned labors of Hafrenfratz, the 
immense scientific and practical knowledge of M. Karsten, and the 
supplementary critical memoirs of M. Muller,—‘‘ que Samuel Roger 
de Risca, métallurgiste aussi éclaire que modeste, rédigeait en Angle- 
terre son Traité du Fer (an Elementary Treatise on Iron-making, 1819) 
dans les usines mémes ou il ne craignait par de manier le doli du pud- 
dleur. Il y exposait avec clarté et simplicité les principes scientifiques 
de la Sidérurgie; montrait qu’on pouvait extraire le fer a l’état de pu- 
reté de toutes les matiéres dans lesquelles il était combiné, avec tous 
les combustibles qui avaient le carbone pour principal élément; et fai- 


Bibliography. 381 


sait voir a quelles substances le fer devait sa propriété de devenir 
cassant,”’ etc. etc. 

“‘ Cet ouvrage devait faire la matiére de trente lettres in folio, dont 
Roger fit imprimer les deux premiéres afin de se procurer des sous- 
cripteurs. A Vannonce de cette publication et a la lecture de J’intro- 
duction dans laquelle le plan en était savamment developpé, la terreur 
s’empara des maitres de forges Anglais: ils*craignirent que le savant 
chimiste ne portdt la lumiére dans une carriére ot ils avaient soin 
d’entretenir l’obscurité ; ils résolurent d’étouffer ce beau genie et ac- 
coururent en foule dans le Monmouthshire pour racheter au prix de 
Por un monopole qui allait leur échapper. Roger eut la faiblesse de 
céder aux offres de ces avides Bretons et ses élucubrations restérent 
enfouies dans les cabinets de trente personnes intéressées a les cacher 
de tous les yeux.” —Landriu, tom. I, pp. 11 and 12. 

With less of the somewhat theatrical pomp under which M. Landriu 
saw fit to introduce his notice, another, grounded upon the careful pe- 
rusal of the said thirty letters and personal enquiries among those under 
and with whom Rogers had worked, was made by Mr. Alexander, in 
his Report on the Manufacture of Iron, noticed in Vol. xu1, No. 2, of 
this Journal. 

Under these concurring testimonies there is reasonable ground for 
believing that the book will be found to contain matter of importance 
for all who are interested in the subject. 

Mr. Alexander stands in no other light with regard to the publication 
than that of friendly editor, as we are informed; adding nothing of his 
own except a review of the experiments on the expansibility and point 
of fusion of this Metal, and the results of his own experiments on the 
fusibility of different earthy and metallic silicates which are found in 
or may advantageously enter into the composition of the furnace cinder 
or slag. 

The design of Mr. Alexander in taking the trouble of this publication 
was, as well to aid the family of Rogers—some of whom are understood 
to be struggling in. obscure poverty somewhere in Wales—as in fur- 
therance of a corpus of treatises on the subject, which he proposed to 
publish in the interest of this most important branch of American man- 
ufactures, under the general title of ‘‘ Contributions to the History of 
the Manufacture of Iron ;” to which his Sak &c. before mentioned, 
was meant to serve for introduction. 

In the introduction to that report he mentions Rogers and his work 
in the following terms : 

“Tn 1819, Samuel Rogers, a working hand about one of the estab- 
lishments in Monmouthshire, but in many regards an extraordinary 
person, had yet, by some means, acquired a very judicious comprehen- 


382 Bibliography. 


sion of the aim and application of the science of chemistry ; and sev- 
eral of the remarkable discoveries of the last fifteen years in this man- 
ufacture, are to be found, either in germ or more distinctly brought out, 
in certain letters, which, during the year mentioned, he wrote and pro- 
posed to publish. There was reason to suppose that the effect of his 
views, if adopted, would have tended to equalize the proportionate pro- 
ducts of establishments of different sizes, and possessing different natu- 
ral advantages; but the interest of the large and favorably situated 
manufactories was not to encourage this equalization, or, as they thought 
it, rivalry ; and by temptations of whatever kind, Rogers was induced to 
give no more than his first three letters to the public. But, a few copies 
of this work as he prepared it, still exist in manuscript, and one of them 
is now in my possession. Upon a careful perusal, cannot but think 
that the iron-masters overrated the influence which the entire publica- 
tion would have had ; and Rogers was, perhaps, acute enough to come 
to the same conclusion. However, it would have been unjust in any 
treatment of the same subject, to have withheld the honorable mention 
of himself and his work, which I have thought proper here to make.” 

In Vol. x1, p. 376, we inserted a brief notice of the labors of Mr. 
Alexander for the diffusion of correct information, both historical and 
practical, upon the manufacture and uses of iron, and we then gave an 
outline of his Report to the Governor of Maryland, upon this most 
important subject. 

The publication named at the head of these remarks, forms a second 
step in the series of elucidations which we are authorized to expect, and 
for which Mr. Alexander, (an unpaid laborer in these important re- 
searches,) will. impose upon his country a large debt of gratitude. No 
person in these states has undertaken such a labor, and all who are able, 
in consequence either of their scientific or practical knowledge, to con- 
tribute to the great result, will we trust be forward to sustain an enter- 
prise of such magnitude, and connected with so widely diversified and 
momentous interests. We rejoice that the work has fallen into the 
hands of a gentleman so well qualified and so zealously disposed for 
its effectual performance. We understand, that in the current season, 
Mr. Alexander will lay before the Legislature, a statistical account of 
the manufacture of iron, as it now exists in Maryland; giving, as nearly 
as can be ascertained, particulars relating separately to high furnaces, 
foundery cupolas, and establishments for bar and plate iron; showing 
also how many of each are in activity, the fuel and raw material re- 
quired by each, the number of men employed, the amount expressed 
in the scale of some unit of calculation of steam and water power, the 
quantity and value of the products of each, &c. &c. It is extremely 
desirable to have similar results obtained in all the Northern and East- 


Miscellanies. 383 


ern States, and especially in Massachusetts and Connecticut, in which 
states not only much of the coarser forms of iron, but of cutlery also, 
is manufactured. We are given to understand that Mr. Alexander’s 
third number in his series on iron is in progress, and that it will present 
the exposition of his microscopic researches into the crystallography 
of crude iron. 


MISCELLANIES. 


FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC. 


ih Protest of Mr. Charles V. Walker. 


Editorial Remarks.—It is with much reluctance that we give publi- 
city to the remarks of Mr. Walker, as it is extremely desirable, in mat- 
ters of science, to avoid personal controversy, and we are not sure, that 
in the present case, the blame is not in part ourown. The truth is, we 
were in doubt whether the letters of Mr. Sturgeon, referred to by Mr. 
Walker, were intended for publication or not. The subject-matter 
seemed to justify if not to require it, and we were ignorant of any per- 
sonal claims that interfered. Still, the letters were retained in hand, in 
the hope of hearing farther from Mr. Sturgeon, and they were at last 
published so late, that it seemed as if an apology was due for their delay. 

If we have exposed Mr. Sturgeon to criticism, by publishing what 
was intended to be private, we sincerely regret it; and on the other 
hand, Mr. Walker may feel that he has cause to complain that his re- 
monstrance has not appeared sooner. Being friends of pgace, we have 
been hoping to hear from Mr. Sturgeon or Mr. Walker, that the claims 
of all parties were satisfactorily arranged ; but as we have no such in- 
formation, we cannot act impartially (as it appears to us after much 
consideration) without giving Mr. Walker’s own statement of the case— 
and we are not sure, after all, that we have not taken the course that 
will fail to give satisfaction to any of those concerned or to the public. 


TO THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 


Kennington Grammar School, Feb. 1, 1841. 

Gentlemen—In this Journal, Vol. xxxrx, pp. 28-36, is an article rela- 
tive to some experiments made with an extended series of the constant 
battery, containing extracts from two letters addressed to you by Mr. 
William Sturgeon, in the latter of which that gentleman has labored 
hard to connect himself, to the exclusion of those who experimented 
with him, with a certain important experiment—the heating of the pos- 
itive electrode beyond the circuit. Had he confined his observations 


384 Miscellanies. 


to that periodical of which he is the editor and proprietor, (the Annals 
of Electricity,) they might have rested undisturbed on my part; but 
when he publishes this new version of the affair in another quarter of 
the globe, selecting as a vehicle a journal of such established reputation 
as yours, whose pages are read wherever science is cultivated, and 
urges as a reason for publishing this new version, the want of clear- 
ness with which my account (as read before the London Electrical So- 
ciety) was drawn out, I feel that I should be wanting in justice to my- 
self and those who were with me, if I suffered it to pass unnoticed. 
With respect, first, to his charge against me of want of clearness; | 
shall not attempt to confute this, but refer your readers to his descrip- 
tion on page 81, and mine (which you have copied verbatim) in pages 
33, 34; and if a comparison is drawn between these, and it should 
appear that mine is deficient, though I confess I am at a loss to discover 
in what, be it so: palmam ferat qui mefuit. There is one thing most 
assuredly conspicuous in his, which, he may think—though he should 
have thought so before, when he corrected the manuscript and the proof 
sheets; for they were all submitted to his inspection—is not recognized 
in mine; I allude to the frequent recurrence of the pronoun J. The 
account I drew up was descriptive of a series of experiments, carried 
on by Messrs. Gassiot, Mason, Sturgeon, and myself, at the house of 
Mr. Gassiot, and at his soLe expense. The sole object was to advance 
the interests of science, through the medium of the London Electrical 
Society, and not to found individual claims to individual experiments, 
when each by agreement was contributing his own share to the com- 
mon stock ; you may judge, therefore, of the surprise with which I 
saw the experiment in question, not only claimed by Mr. Sturgeon as 
his, but also as being undertaken from certain views which he had long 
entertained. If he had entertained these views, he had a marvelous 
manner of concealing the experiments he had based on them; we, in 
our innocence of what good things were in store, were plodding on 
through that extended series of experiments on decomposition, with 
such a battery as had never been excited before, and yet our chief man 
(for he was the only scientific man by profession among us) is unable 
to avail himself of the first opportunity that ever occurred to him of 
bringing his views to the test. Only a few of his experiments were 
attempted, he says. If you, gentlemen, were personally acquainted 
with Mr. Gassiot, and had seen, I will not say the liberality only, but 
the ardor with which he encourages every attempt at experimental de- 
monstration, you would wonder what change could have come over 
him, that he should have left Mr. Sturgeon’s experiments Jas¢ on the 
list. But granting that this experiment was peculiarly his, surely it 
was strange to leave it unadopted for so many months; he did not claim 


eee 


Miscellanies. 385 


it at the very outset, neither did he when I sent the manuscripts for his 
revision,—it passed as a portion of the joiné stock when the whole was 
laid before the Society, and he allowed it to pass through the press and 
be published without asserting any claim. Nor am I aware that he 
attempted to appropriate it, until M. De la Rive drew attention to its 
importance, by endeavoring to repeat it. ‘Fhe want of success which 
attended M. De la Rive’s endeavors, Mr. Sturgeon attributes to my 
faulty description, and this affords him a plausible pretext to lay his 
own version before the American public, lest they also should fail from 
alike cause. I would gladly know what there is in my description 
which prevented M. De la Rive from producing the same results. Surely 
that philosopher is not to be charged with deficiency of intellect and 
want of skill in manipulation; it requires very little of the former to 
comprehend the description I have given, and no large share of the 
latter to follow it. If you will refer to the Proceedings of the London 
Electrical Society, (a copy of which is forwarded to you by the order 
of the committee,) you will find on page 167, an abstract of a transla- 
tion of M. De la Rive’s experiments, and will see from that, that he 
perfectly comprehends me, but fails on account of the battery he used. 

From this you will see that the motives assigned by Mr. Sturgeon 
are merely imaginary, but if real, they little became him—they 
should never have fallen from his pen, because, after the experiments 
were finished, the notes were offered him to prepare, but he declined 
them ; and when I, at the request of the others, undertook the task, I 
sent the prepared manuscripts to Mr. Sturgeon, as well as to the rest, 
for his corrections or observations, if he had any to make; and 
they were returned from him with some emendations, but with no re- 
mark in connection with this experiment. Surely when he tells you 
that on account of the lateness of the hour many of his experiments 
were not entered into, he might have said that the battery was charged 
three different times, at each of which he was present, and on each of 
which there must have been opportunity. JI am surprised that ina 
joint undertaking like this, he should talk of his experiments, as distinct 
from those of the rest, but still more so, when these were kept secret 
from us. 

With regard to the experiment in question, it appears to have resulted, 
like many others in all the sciences, from merely fortuitous circumstances. 
He and Mr. Mason were amusing themselves with the wires, and obsery- 
ing the length of the are of flame, and the phenomenon of the heated 
electrode presented itself; but neither knew which electrode it was 
until they had examined. And this, I think, you may gather from Mr. 
Sturgeon’s own words in his first letter, dated October 9, 1838, where 


he says—‘ the wires were made to change poles, sti/ the same thing 
Vol. xiu1, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 49 


» 
386 Miscellanies. ; 


occurred.” Why were the wires changed, unless with the impression 
that a particular something, connected with the nature of the wire, 
might be concerned in producing the effect? I cannot pass over the 
letter from which I take that extract, without remarking on the great 
want of courtesy on Mr. Sturgeon’s part in sending you an account of 
experiments made for the Electrical Society, the date of his communi- 
cation being a week antecedent to the day when they were read before 
the Society. 

In conclusion, I would advert to a slight error into which Mr. Stur- 
geon must have fallen in his oyer-anxiety to be correct: he tells you 
the zinc was amalgamated ; lest your readers should, in preparing a 
battery of this kind, be led to incur the trouble and expense of this, | 
would remind them that the zinc was in the condition in which we re- 
ceived it from the workmen. 

With every apology for trespassing so much on your time and valu- 
ed pages, believe me, gentlemen, your obedient servant, 

Cartes V. WALKER. 


2. Mineralogical Notices, by Dr. Lewis Feuchtwanger.—The in- 
defatigable mineralogist, Breithaupt, has, according to Berzelius’s an- 
nual report for 1839, discovered eight new minerals: viz. 

1. Trombolite, ( Feoufos, numb, stiff,) a phosphate of copper resembling 
an opal from Retzbanja, Hungary, of a sp. gr. = 3.38 to 3.4; is of 
green color, opaque, and conchoidal, vitreous fracture ; according to 


Plattner’s analysis, it appears to have the formula Cu2P + 16H. 

2. Allomorphite, a sulphate of barytes, containing 2 per cent. of sul- 
phate of lime, of papillary form, and found in an ochre mine near 
Unterwirbach, Duchy of Schwarzburg. 

3. Anauxite, («vav§ys, not growing larger,) from the highlands of 
Bilin, of voleanic formation, resembles in appearance the Pyrophyllite, 
but on heating does not swell but peels off; is translucent on the edges, 
dark greenish white, fine granular, foliated fracture, sp. gr. 2.264 to 
2.267. Contains silica 55.7, and water 11.5; the balance is alumina, 
calcia, and protoxide of iron. 

4. Polyhydrite, a silicate of oxide of iron from Breitenbrun, Saxony, 
is of a hepatic color, vitreous lustre and opaque, sp. gr. 2.1 to 2.142 ; 
contains 29.2 per cent. of water. 

5. Serbian or Miloschin, forms a protruding layer in a mountain in 
Servia. Serbian is blue or bluish green, acquires a lustre on rubbing, 
opaque, conchoidal fracture, and sp. gr. 2.131; it crumbles by water 
with a noise; it contains principally alumina, less silica, oxide of 
chrome, a trace of magnesia, and 22.8 watef. 


Miscellanies. — 387 


6. Violan, a silicate of alumina, magnesia, lime, much protoxide of 
iron and soda, and occurring at Piedmont with manganesian epidote ; has 
waxy lustre, deep violet blue color, nearly conchoidal fracture, amor- 
phous, opaque, uneven, brittle, sp. gr. 3.233, does not change on heat- 
ing, but may be brought by a higher temperature to a clear bead. 

7. 'Tombacite, an arsenical nickel ore, with a little sulphur, and 
small trace of iron or cobalt, occurring near Lobenstein in Voigtland ; 
in color it resembles the magnetical iron, sometimes with a greenish 
brown hue; its streak is black, appears to belong to the hexahedral 
system, is brittle, non-magnetic, sp. gr. 6.637. 

8. Hepatic blende, a mineral mostly wax-yellow, from Saxony, in 
the mine Hochmuth near Geier, Himmelreich-Erbstollen, between 
Marienberg and Wolkenstein, and also from Cornwall. The color varies 
from pea yellow to pink brown, transparent; the streak is either col- 
orless or yellowish gray, forms botryolitic and reniform conglomerates, 
fracture conchoidal, anda sp. gr. 3.7 to 3.78, and, according to Platt- 
ner’s experiments, is said to be a sulphocarbonate of zinc, it containing 
zine, sulphur, and carbon. It decrepitates on heating, yielding water 
and a little sulphur, smells like sulphuretted hydrogen, and then like 
coal tar, and then becomes gray ; it is decomposed by hydrochloric 
acid, disengaging sulphuretted hydrogen; the gray substance remaining 
from before is soluble in nitric acid, leaving sulphur and carbon, the 
first of which may be sublimed and separated. 

It may be inferred from the experiments of Plattner, that this mineral 
consists of sulphuret of zinc formed by water, and intensely mixed with 
bitumen or other carbonaceous compound ; for it is not to be presumed 
to contain any carburet of sulphur, which would in those instances distil 
over unchanged, unlike the above. 

Hess has described a new mineral, which he calls Volborthite, consist- 
ing of vanadiate of copper, of yet undetermined degree of combina- 
tion. It forms crystalline needles of olive green color, papillary ; is 
translucent in splinters, has a yellowish green streak, and a sp. gr. 3.55; 
on heating grows black, yields a little water; it melts before the blow- 
pipe, and by increased heat yields a slag hike graphite, extending upon 
the charcoal with some metallic copper; by soda the copper is redu- 
ced instantly, and vanadious soda is formed. 

Gigantolite,* by Nordenskidld, from Tammela, Finland. One of the 
crystals of that mineral measured two and a half inches in diameter. 
This mineral resembles the Fahlunite, and all the harder varieties of 


* What name could we give to our gigantic crystals of beryl, topaz, apatite, 
tourmalines, zircon, rhomb-spar, lead, fluor-spar ; the four latter from the State of 
New York, some of which measure twelve to fifteen inches in diameter ? 


388 Miscellanies. 


talc; it has been described and analyzed by the Count Trolle Wacht- 
meister ;- its color is steel gray to brownish, yields on heating, water 
with some ammonia ; it contains silica 46.27, alumina 25.10, oxide of 
iron 15.60, magnesia 3.80, protoxide of manganese 0.89, potassa 2.70, 
soda 1.20, water 6.00, and a trace of fluor, and-has a formula of 


one nee 


3. Infusorial Animals.—Baron Von Humboldt presented to the 
Academy, from M. Ehrenberg, of Berlin, specimens of the argillaceous 
and peaty formation found beneath the city of Berlin, at twenty feet 
under the surface. It was full of small infusorial animals, all alive, 
with living ovaries, and capable of reproduction. He had discovered 
similar formations in other parts of Prussia; and he mentioned as a 
curious fact, that of 1,728,000 cubic feet of matter taken out of the 
port of Swinemunde, on the Baltic, in 1840, one half of it was com- 
posed of microscopic beings. The sandy plains of the Lamburg con- 
tained strata of fossil infusoria twenty eight feet thick.—Literary Ga- 
zette, Nov. 13. 


4. Coal Mines in Cuba. 
To the Editors of the American Journal of Science and Arts. 


Gentlemen—In the belief that no account has appeared in any Amer- 
ican publication, of the extensive coal mine which has been discovered 
in Cuba, the progress made in the examination of which I have for a 
year or two past watched with much interest, I send herewith a notice 
published by M. Castales in the “ Diario de la Habana,” of the 7th 
of August. The mine is situated in the Partido de San Miguel, about 
six miles from Havanna, and is particularly interesting on account of 
its locality and the quality of the mineral. 

The coal is of two kinds, one of which, denominated “‘ chapapote,” 
is the most abundant. One hundred parts of this yielded fifty parts of 
volatile matter, and afforded by analysis, 


Carbon, - - - - - - - - 71.84 
Oxygen, - - - - - - - - 6.22 
Hydrogen, . - - - . - - 8.40 
Ashes composed of silica, ox. iron, and sulph. lime, 13.51 
99°97 
1 remain, gentlemen, with great esteem and respect, your friend and 
servant. Joun H. Buaxe. 


Boston, October 7, 1841. 


Miscellanies. 389 


‘“ The abundance and good quality of the coal are the two particulars 
embraced in this article to which we should like most assuredly to give 
a greater extension. Almost at the lower extremity of a hill whose 
inclination is not very steep, they have opened a rectangular well of 
four yards in superficies, and eighteen in depth, and at one yard exca- 
vation they met the coal, which continues to the above mentioned depth, 
the quality of the ground being, as well at this point as in the others, a 
calcareous and ferruginous layer. At the distance of forty five yards 
up the declivity, they have opened another well, three yards wide, two 
broad and forty deep: in this place, the coal was found at the depth of 
seven yards, and continues to the bottom, at which point and im the cen- 
ter of it, they made a bore of fifteen yards, always meeting with coal. 
At the four sides of the bottom, they have opened a straight gallery, 
thirty yards in length, in which the vein continues. horizontally without 
any interruption. In this well, terminates another gallery, which open- 
ing from the bottom of the other, communicates with this, the drain 
being obtained by means of oxen. 

“On the road to Tapaste, and on the summit of the hill, at a distance 
ef four hundred yards from the preceding well, they have opened ano- 
ther, the vein of coal beginning at the depth of fourteen yards. It re- 
sults then, that in the small space above mentioned, is found a vein of 
coal of forty eight yards perpendicular, and more than sixty in surface, 
in the part bored up to the month of April last, interrupted with layers 
of stone, and some spots of chalk, though of small extent and rare. 
The bed of coal is almost horizontal; the difference of the depth at 
which it is found, is one yard in the first well, seven in the second, 
and fourteen in the third, depending upon the variation of the surface 
of the declivity of the hill. 

“The mine Prosperidad was examined by Mr. San Richard, an English 
engineer, who came to Cuba for this purpose: he wrote to the Society 
the following, which we take from a copy now under our eyes :—‘ De- 
scending into the well, I became astonished at seeing such a vein of 
of coal; never have I seen or heard till now, that there is in other 
places a similar vein, and I believe that I should not be mistaken in say- 
ing that there are few persons who have seen another so extraordinary 
as this. The coal from the surface, to the depth of a few yards, appeared 
to me to be charged with bitumen, and a coal of very good quality for 
coke ; that which I have seen made with it, is, in my opinion, of su- 
perior quality. From the above mentioned distance to that of forty or 
fifty yards that I descended, the quality of the coal changed much to 
its advantage ; it is less bituminous, contains a greater quantity of oxy- 
gen, and is much more compact. I saw at the bottom of the well gal- 
leries opened to the four winds, to the length of twenty or thirty yards, 


390 Miscellanies. 


and it is all around full of coal. There is also at the east, a gallery 
a few yards from the bottom, to the extent of forty or fifty yards, all 
surrounded with coal, so that they see nothing else on all sides.’ ” 


5. Encouragement for the Fine Arts.—George Combe; Esq. under 
date of March 16, 1841, writes to the senior editor of this Journal: | ~ 

“J am glad to hear that Mr. Ives (sculptor and modeller in stat- 
uary) has obtained so much patronage among you. It appeared to me 
that there is no lack of genius for art in the United States; all that is 
needed is encouragement. Scotland was too poor to encourage artists 
by buying their works, until we formed an association, to which any 
one who chooses subscribes five dollars; we buy pictures with the — 
funds, (last year they amounted to £3,000,) and draw lots for them. 
The annual exhibition has recently opened, and it is very creditable to 
the country. The improvement in art, within my recollection, is very 
great, and the public taste is improving in proportion. Such a scheme 
is what your country wants.” 

We hope that the valuable suggestion of Mr. Combe may be favora- 
bly regarded, both in the revival of institutions already existing for the 
improvement of the arts, and in the creation of new and effective asso- 
ciations. 

Twelve months have passed since the above remarks were written, 
and they have lam among our unpublished miscellanies until we can 
have it in our power to confirm their justness and propriety. 


6. Geological Survey of Louisiana.—We are happy to learn from 
Prof. Wm. M. Carpenter, of Jackson College, Louisiana, that he has 
for some time past been engaged in making, by direction of the legis- 
lature, a geological examination preliminary to a complete survey of 
that state. Prof. Carpenter is well known to the readers of this Jour- 
nal by various interesting geological papers in our previous volumes, 
and we rejoice that the legislature of Louisiana have had the wisdom 
to select, from her own sons, one so able to answer their liberal views. 
From Prof. Carpenter’s letter we extract the following. 

Notice of an interesting Fossil—The sketch represents the crown 
of a molar tooth, which was taken from a jaw bone found at the depth 
of forty five feet below the surface, in digging a 
well in a prairie twenty or thirty miles from the 
town of Opelousas, in the western part of this state. 
When taken up, the jaw bone is said to have been. 
nearly entire, but was fragile, and soon crumbled, 
and as the discoverers saw nothing remarkable in 
the jaw except the circumstance of its being found at such a depth below 


Miscellanies. 391 


the surface, it was thrown away, and this crown was all that was saved. 
Description :—horizontal section of body quadrilateral, with the angles 
rounded and the sides slightly curved. The crown has two transverse 
ridges, the summit lines of which are slightly curved ; between the 
extremities of the ridges on each side is a small tubercular elevation, 
and a slight elevation borders the anterior and posterior extremities of 
the crown. 


Size of body, { length, 0.94 of an inch. 


breadth, 0.76 ‘“ ee 

Length of the summit of the ridges, 0.55 of an inch. Distance of the 
summits of ridges from each other, 0.42 of an inch. Height of ridges, 
0.36 of an inch. ; 

It is without doubt the fifth molar of the left lower jaw of a Tapir, 
which appears to me to be very near to the one now inhabiting South 
America, as the form and size of the tooth is nearly the same as in that 


animal. 
Jackson, La., October 19, 1841. 


7. Preparation of Freshwater Shells for the Cabinet—We make 
the following extract from the letter of a distinguished correspondent, 
whose shells have been in much demand among collectors, and whose 
mode of preparing them is the result of observation and experience. 

“¢ It is well known that these shells are composed of animal matter 
and carbonate of lime, thinly laminated. Many of them are more or 
less covered with mucus, lime, clay and oxide of iron, sometimes indu- 
rated, so as to require a steel instrument to remove it. Hence the first 
operation is to remove this extraneous matter by hand-brushes, and then 
with dilute muriatic acid to remove the free lime and accidental colors ; 
then, after a thorough rinsing, and as soon as the water has dried from 
the surface, saturate the shells with the finest spermaceti oil, which 
should be left on them for several months if convenient, but wiped from 
them as clean as possible with a woolen cloth before putting them in 
the cabinet. ‘They will then feel like steatite, and exhibit a transpa- 
rency and beauty which I could not obtain in any other way. Shells 
which have once been exposed to the air, without the animal, and have 
become thoroughly dry, can never be restored to their primitive beauty, 
because the water of the animal matter in them has evaporated. They 
become opake, and a slow decomposition, like that of salts, takes place, 
by the evaporation of the water of crystallization; but the oil taking 
the place of the water, as the latter evaporates, increases the transpa- 
rency of the shell, as it does that of paper, and the superfluous oil may 
be so effectually removed at the proper time, that the shells will not 
soil the fingers or smell unpleasantly ; but any considerable exposure 
to the air. and light will soon injure their appearance.” 


392 Miscellanies. 
8. Bones of the Orycterotherium. 


Dear Sir—Dr. Perkins is under the erroneous notion that my remarks 
on the “ Orycterotherium,” in the Journal of proceedings of the Amer- 
ican Philosophical Society, is a description of the new genus, whereas 
it is only intended as a scientific notice. My memoir before the Soci- 
ety, of twenty one pages letter paper, with numerous figures, is now in 
progress of publication. 

The ‘+ protuberance” on the humerus referred to by Dr. P. is there 
noticed, together with numerous other details not now mentioned, and all 
of which leave no reason to believe Dr. P.’s bones to have belonged to 
a distinct species. He is certainly premature in giving the specific title 
of “ Oregonensis’’ to his remains. R. Haran. 

Philadelphia, Feb. 1, 1842. 


9, Note on Mr. H. C. Lea’s paper in the last number of this Jour- 
nal.—Among some interesting additions to the known species of our 
native shells in the last number of your Journal, I finda shell described 
under the name of Pasithea sordida, which has been known to me for 
several years, and had been regarded as a variety of Acton trifidus, 
Totten. A re-examination of numerous specimens confirms this opin- 
ion. ‘The species presents the following varieties, the type being char- 
acterized by three well impressed and several indistinct revolving lines. 

Odostomia trifida, Gould. Invert. of Mass., p. 274, fig. 179. 

Actaon trifidus, Tott. Am. Journ. Science, xxv1, 368, pl. 1, fig. 4. 

Var. a. With two well impressed lines. 

«© 6, With one well impressed line. 
With all the lines obsolete. 
. With one well impressed line, and the columellar fold in- 
distinct. 
“¢ ¢, With the lines obsolete and the fold indistinct. 

Pasithea sordida, H.C. Lea. Am. Journ. Science, xi11, 110, pl. 1, 
fig. 6. 

Varieties a and 6 are most common in the vicinity of New Bedford. 
In most of the individuals, which would, at first, be referred to varieties 
d and é, the fold will usually be seen far within the aperture. But oc- 
casionally it is wanting, and a roughness of the columella indicates this 
to be the result of disease or accident. Without the intermediate va- 
rieties, e might be supposed quite distinct from the type, and many 
species have been proposed with much less reason. But having a large 
number of the shells referred to by Mr. Lea, among which are all the 
above varieties, | cannot regard it as entitled to specific rank. 


oC, 
Lad 
a 


Miscellanies. 398 


Mr. Lea is in error in supposing that his shell and the Cerithium 
Sayii, Menke, (C. reticulatum, 'Totten,) among which it was found, are 
from Boston. Although in Col. Totten’s description of the latter spe- 
cies, Boston harbor is mentioned as its habitat, it has not probably been 
found north of or within Cape Cod, its extreme limit being Province- 
town, where it was found by Dr. Gould. The shells in question were 
obtained in Dartmouth, Mass., where they were clinging to the Zostera 
marina below low-water mark. Very respectfully, 


C. B. Apams. 
Middlebury, Vt., Feb. 15, 1842. 


10. Notice of some facts connected with a stroke of lightning, in a 
letter from Rev. James H. Linstry,* dated Stratford, Conn., Sept. 9, 
1841. 

Prof. Sirtiman—Dear Sir: Early in June, 1821, four men, who 
had been engaged in fishing, were cleaning shad upon a plank ten or 
twelve feet in length, one end of which was resting upon the edge of a 
stump, and the other upon an empty flour barrel, the latter being to- 
wards the river. A large pile of the offals of shad was lying around 
the stump; a steel pointed pitchfork was standing by the plank, which, 
as well as the prongs cf the pitchfork, was smeared with the fish-oil. 
A heavy shower had commenced, and the men took shelter in a shed 
about twenty five or thirty five feet off, when the lightning struck the 
stump, splitting it to pieces, until it came down to the. fishes’ entrails 
and heads that were piled around it. Below them it did not affect the 
stump or the ground, nor injure the plank, or the pitchfork by it on the 
barrel ; but took the ground at the lower end of the barrel, and thence 
ploughed a furrow until it came to a rock about five feet in length or 
two or three feet horizontal thickness, weighing several tons, through 
which it passed, leaving one side broken in several pieces, and the 
other side unbroken, with a square face, as if sawed through. The 
rock is thinly laminated, but.the lightning did not separate the lamin ; 
it cut across nearly at right angles, i. e. varying only twelve degrees, 
the laminze being nearly perpendicular to the horizon. From the rock, 
the lightning passed to the water and disappeared. In a few moments, 
’ however, many dead fishes of various species rose upon the surface 
of the river; they appeared to come up “as they do when the ice over 
them in winter is struck by an axe.”” The effect upon the men in the 
shed was singular: one was seen from the dwelling house (about five 
rods distant) to stoop down as though picking up something with both 


* The facts were communicated to Mr. Linsley by Mr. 8. Crowfut, the owner 
of the place where the event occurred. 
Vol. xxi1, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 50 


394 Miscellanies. 


hands ; he would then rise and extend both hands high in air, and then 
stoop down again as before; this action he repeated several times; at 
length he called to those in the house, saying, that ‘ the lightning is so 
thick upon the ground that you can pick up corn-baskets full of it.” 
His mind was evidently for a short time injured by the shock. Two 
of the other men, who had just sat down as the shock came, were found 
leanmg back against the wall, stunned, as if asleep. The fourth re- 
ceived little or no injury. 

The persons in the house, (Mr. C. believes about a dozen,)—most. of 
whom had naked feet—said that at the moment of the shock their feet 
felt as though some person had tossed a chip of wood on them, while 
those with shoes on did not perceive this sensation. 

In addition to this, an empty boat lay a short distance from the rock 
struck, and) when the shower was over, the men who came there in the 
boat attempted to return in it, but on entering it immediately filled and 
sank. On examination it was found that every nail in the boat had 
started, and that the leaks were thus caused. 

The points which I conceive of any importance in this transaction, 
are, Ist. The good evidence furnished, or the corroboration of a long 
known fact, that oil is a powerful non-electric, as the fluid passed over 
or under the whole length of the plank covered with the refuse of 
shad. 2d. The sensation given to all the bare feet of persons five rods 
distant, without affecting the hands and face, was uncommon. Is it not 
probable that the skin of the feet, bemg usually covered, was more deli- 
cate and therefore more sensible to the shock? The floor of the house 
where these persons were, is several feet higher than any point touched 
by the lightning. 3d. Did the electric fluid reach the fishes in the 
river? or were they killed by the mere shock in the air acting up- 
on the water? 4th. Is it possible the nails in the boat could have 
been started out by the shock, and if so, in what manner? Was the 
concussion of air so great upon the plank of the boat, that the nails 
were thus drawn by the plank? or was this result produced by the 
electric fluid acting upon the nails? 5th. Is it possible to explain or 
show cause why the lightning should leave so smooth a surface through 
the rock which it severed, especially when acting not with nor directly 
at right angles to the natural cleavage or lamine of the rock and not — 
separating any laminz ? 

Some person a short distance further up the river, who saw the col- 
umn of electric fluid descend on this occasion, remarked, that “it ap- 
peared to be about the size of a common bar-post.” 


11. Separation of silver or gold from lead. 


Prof. Sirrriman—Sir : In looking over a former number of your 
Journal, (Vol. xxxv, No. 2, January, 1839,) I find on page 321 an 


Miscellanies. 395 


article on cupellation, where the writer proposes to separate silver or 
gold from lead by oxidizing the alloy in the external flame of the blow- 
pipe on a slip of mica. This process is undoubtedly original with him, 
but a much better one has been practiced by me more than thirteen 
years, when I first learned it from Prof. H. Rose of Berlin. 

Take a few grains of bone ash, make it into a paste with a little 
saliva, spread it about one line thick on a piece of charcoal, and make 
a shallow impression in it, to receive the globule of metal. Expose it 
to the heat of the blowpipe, so as to burn it white and hard, and then 
melt the globule of the alloy on it, and keep it in a constant red heat, 
till the lead is all oxidized. : 

The advantages of the bone ash over the mica are manifold. 1. It 
is easier to be obtained, and every where the operator can prepare a 
little if he should not be supplied with it. 2. The metal will remain 
in the concavity of the bone ash paste, and not be liable to run down 
and be lost, as on the mica. 3. It is never necessary to change the 
material ; the bone ash absorbs the litharge which collects on the mica, 
and impedes the process, so that the remaining metallic globule has to 
be transferred to a fresh slip of mica. 4. The color of the paste, after 
the operation is finished, gives an indication as to the nature of some 
impurities of the metal; lead alone makes it appear yellow; a small 
proportion of copper changes this yellow color to greenish. Respect- 


fully, your obedient servant, GeorGE Enceimann, M. D. 
St. Louis, Jan. 22, 1842, 


12. Suggested observations relating to the total solar eclipse of July, 
1842, visible in Europe.—The sun is supposed to belong to the class of 
nebulous stars. The nebula that surrounds him is however, at ordinary 
times, very incompletely visible, being hidden by the effulgenee which 
his reflected beams pour upon the eye from the atmosphere, and from 
the whole assemblage of terrestrial objects in the field of vision. It is 
only when this effulgence is withdrawn, and evening is far advanced, or 
the morning yet distant or scarcely beginning to glimmer, that this 
nebula may be observed in its remoter parts, lifting itself above the 
twilight, and forming the celestial phenomenon known commonly as 
the ‘‘ Zodiacal Light.” Atsuch times, however, the central body and 
the brighter regions of the nebula are concealed beneath the horizon. 

Our only opportunity, therefore, for a complete observation of the 
zodiacal light, in its brightness near the sun, in the gradations of bright- 
ness as it recedes from that orb, and in the relative visual extensions 
estimated along the zodiac and across it, would seem to be on those rare 
occasions when one may stand, during a total solar eclipse, quite within 
the path of total obscuration. I suppose, however, that no such occa- 


396 Miscellanies. 


sion has yet been distinctly improved, for the purpose above indicated ; 
nor—however probably that circumstance may be the result of a too 
limited information on my part—have I seen reason to expect that the 
one just at hand is likely to be so improved, otherwise than incidentally 
and very imperfectly. It will be impossible for the astronomers, intent 
as they must be upon telescopic observations, to do full. justice to the 
phenomenon in question, and almost equally impossible for any other 
man who shall not have anticipated in his reflections the specifie aspects 
to which the attention ought to be essentially devoted. 

Before quitting this topic, may I be indulged in making an inquiry 
that naturally grows out of it? Is not the light which, in a total eclipse 
of the moon, makes her dark face visible to us, derived, in a greater 
measure, from this equatorial nebula of the sun, than from the refrac- 
tive effect of the earth’s atmosphere? If the intensity and extent 
of the zodiacal effulgence shall be detected at the occurrence of the 
coming eclipse, or by any other means, it may be possible to reply 
very satisfactorily to this inquiry. I would not unhesitatingly assume 
that.a reply substantially satisfactory might not be derived from facts 
already well known. 1 must own that, hitherto, I have not even under- 
taken to speculate concerning the amount of illumination, at the moon’s 
surface, due to the terrestrial atmosphere,—a question which would 
seem, at first view, to be of moderate difficulty, if only the dispersive 
and refractive powers of common air are exactly ascertained. 

But I pass on to some suggestions respecting a phenomenon of a 
different class. 'To observers just within the path of total obscuration, 
—and perhaps, very transiently, to those situated deeply within it,— 
the telescope will probably reveal a fine thread of light, edging some 
part of that dark limb of the moon which is in near proximity to the 
sun’s corresponding limb. I infer this probability from a similar as- 
pect,—which may indeed have been observed at other times, and re- 
corded, although I have no knowledge that it has been,—that was wit- 
nessed by myself, through an excellent instrument, from the station of 
New York, on the occasion of the annular eclipse of 1838,—or rather 
the eclipse which just failed to be annular, at that station, on account, 
possibly, of an irregularity in the moon’s outline. In any event, it 
must be rare that the phenomenon under consideration can be exhibited 
so strikingly as it was on the occasion alluded to, from the very cir- 
cumstance of my station being at or near the limiting boundary, upon 
the earth’s surface, of the annular aspects. On that occasion I noticed, 
several minutes before the time of nearest completion of the ring, the 
fine cusps of the sun’s unobscured crescent prolonged by a hair-breadth 
line of brightness, totally diverse, in color and intensity, from the sun’s 
disc. As the cusps approached, the line or thread of light in advance 


Miscellanies. 397 


of each, shot round the moon’s edge, between them, rapidly, till, at a 
certain time, the threads from the two met and joined in one,—thus 
uniting the cusps. Ata certain time following the instant of nearest 
formation of the ring the thread became again disunited, and the reverse 
phenomena of those just mentioned took place. ey 
In meditating, at the time and occasionally at subsequent times, upon 
this, to me, surprising phenomenon, | could obtain no glimpse of a so- 
lution respecting the probable cause, unless by supposing the existence 
of a lunar atmosphere. It is, 1 admit, only in one point of view that I 
can be held excusable for offering these phenomena as proof upon this 
high and much questioned topic, antecedently to having myself de- 
monstrated by a rigid process the mode in which a lunar atmosphere 
implies and accounts for just those appearances which | witnessed. 
But, although I am not without my reasonings to fortify the conjecture 
above presented, those are not to my present purpose. An excuse for 
my boldness, if I need one, may. be found in the nature of my present 
object, which is simply to invite attention to expected and interesting 
phenomena, on the part of observers among my countrymen who may 
be favorably situated abroad for devoting to them the requisite attention, 
as well as on the part of any others to whom these unpretending thoughts 
may find way and whom they may concern. Av Cals 


13. Meteors of April 18-20, 1841.—About 8 p.m. on the 18th of April, 
1841, at Vidalia, Louisiana, Prof. Forshey noticed an unusual number 
of meteors in different parts of the heavens, and on tracing their paths 
backwards, found that they traversed the constellation Virgo. Having 
commenced precise observations at half past eight, and continued them 
for three hours, he saw in two hours and a quarter, (forty five minutes 
being lost in recording,) sixty meteors, of which, all but five, passed with- 
in 10° from the common radiant point. These meteors were very unlike 
those of the August shower ; being chiefly without trains, and of a red- 
dish color, few of them of the first magnitude, and the greater number 
of the third and inferior magnitudes. Their velocities were remarkably 
equal and gentle; their paths short, and their light first increasing and 
then waning. Prof. F. determined their radiant point to be in a line 
drawn from Spica to 6 Virginis, somewhat nearer to Spica, about R. A. 
198°, 8. decl. 8°. The convergent point was therefore in longitude . 
19°.6, and lat. N. 0°.3, while the observer’s motion was towards a point 
of the ecliptic, in long. 299°. This gives a deflection of the path of the 
meteors, relatively to the true path of the observer, of 80°.6; and 
hence their true velocity cannot have been much less than that of the 
observer, or about sixteen geographical miles per second. This obser- 
vation of the convergent point of these meteors, Mr. Walker regards 


398 Miscellanies. 


as strongly confirmatory of the cosmical theory of shooting stars, inas- 
much as it seems to demonstrate the existence in this group, of a plan- 
etary velocity, like that of the December group observed in 1838, (see 
this Journal, Vol. xxxv, p. 861, and Vol. xxxv1, p. 355,) in a direction 
normal to the observer’s motion, and’ incapable of resulting from it.— 
Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. ii : 67. 

Observations at New Haven.—From 11h. to 12h. P. M. of April 
19, 1841, Messrs. F. Bradley, A. B. Haile, and myself, watched in the 
S. W. quadrant only, in concert with Mr. 8. C. Walker and others, at 
Philadelphia. During this hour, we saw thirteen shooting stars, whose 
paths we recorded on the star-chart. Of these, two exceeded the first 
magnitude ; two equaled the first magnitude ; three were of the second ; 
five of the third, and one of the fourth. The average time of visible 
flight was one third of a second. No definite radiant was observable, 
but only a general westward tendency. At Oh. 30m. (20th) we began 
to watch in the sky at large. Clouds soon came over from the west, 
and by one o’clock A. M. the sky was so much obscured that we were 
compelled to desist. In this half hour, we saw three meteors in the 
N ; two in the E., and two in the 8. No very definite radiant could 
be determined, but it appeared that the radiant region was then east 
of the meridian, and about 70° or 80° in altitude. For five nights 
‘following, the sky was wholly overcast. It may be worthy of mention 
that there was a moderate display of the Aurora Borealis on the nights 


of the 19th and 20th. Hy MO el 


14. Shooting Stars of Dec.'7, 1838.*—In a paper communicated Jan- 
uary 8, 1839, to the Meteorological Society of London, by J. H. Ma- 
verly, Esq. of Gosport, he states the following observations :— On the 
day after this storm, (of Dec. 2, 1838,) there were showers of hail and 
rain, two double rainbows, and one lunar rainbow at 61 P. M. On the 
night of the 7th, between 73 and 10, he noticed ninety seven meteors, 
viz. fifty six eastward of the meridian, and forty one westward of it.” 
* * So great was the display, that Mr. M. says, ‘had this phenomenon 
occurred between the 12th and 15th of November, those who maintain 
the opinion of the annual appearance of showers of meteors, would 
have pronounced this extraordinary appearance to have been their di- 
urnal periodical return.”—Proc. Meteor. Soc. Lond. i: 9. 

In the Institut for October 14, 1841, M. Colla states, that at Parma, 
in Italy, on the night of December 7, 1838, during three hours, he ob- 


* For observations made in this country and elsewhere, see this Journal, Vol. 
xxxv, p. 861, and Vol. xxxvi, p. 355. 


Miscellanies. 399 


served one hundred and fourteen shooting stars. This fact was an- 
nounced in his Astronomical Annual for 1840, p. 91. 


15. Determination of Longitude by Shooting Stars.—It has been 
stated that Dr. Maskelyne first suggested (in 1783 ?) the utility of cor- 
responding observations of shooting stars and the larger fire-balls for 
the determination of differences of longitude. It appears, however, 
that George Lynn is entitled to the credit of a distinct proposal of this 
kind, made much earlier, in a paper entitled “A method for determin- 
ing the Geographical Longitude of Places from the appearance of the 
common meteors called Falling Stars,” published in the Philos. Trans. 
of the Royal Society of London, for 1727, No. 400, p. 351. A sug- 
gestion somewhat less comprehensive was made still earlier by Dr. Hal- 
ley, in his account of a large meteor seen in England March 19, 1719, 
(Philos. Trans. 1719, No. 360.) He says “a considerable use might be 
made of these momentaneous phenomena for determining the geograph- 
ical longitudes of piaces. For if in any places, two observers by help 
of pendulum clocks, duly corrected by celestial observation, exactly 
note at what hour, minute, and second such a meteor as this explodes, 
and is extinguished, the difference of the times will be the difference 
of lengitude of the two places, as is well known.” 


16. Ancient Meteorological Memoranda.—The following notices are 
copied from entries made by the Rev. James Pierpont, (minister of the 
first church in New Haven, Conn.) on the blank leaves of an almanac 
for the year 1692, (by John Tulley: Cambridge, Mass.: printed by 
Samuel Green and Bartholomew Green, for Samuel Phillips.) The 
dates being in the Julian style, must of course be advanced ten days to 
bring them to our present reckoning. HY CAE 

1692. Tuesday, February 23. At night an unusual eastern storm of 
furious wind and rain began, and continued till Sabbath following. 
Rivers higher than ever known. Wallingford bridge carried away : 
Great damage through the country. 

Thursday, March 3. ‘The aforesaid storm renewed, and continued for 
that day. 

July 1. Latter end of June, multitudes of caterpillars fell on corn, 
and did much spoil in some places, but were remarkably checkt with 
us. 

July 4. Excessive hot, and a sore drought about the time. 

July 9. Excessive hot again. About the time a severe drought. 
Indian corn almost spoiled : all signs of rain vanisht in drought. 

July 11. Unexpectedly, and without foregoing signs, a long shower, 
which revived all things languishing before. 


400 Miscellanies. 


July 14. More rain, so that every thing was fully recovered to ad- 
miration. 

August 11. A plentiful rain. 

December 21. In the evening, two dracones volantes, [meteoric fire- 
balls,] of unusual dimensions were seen; on the extinguishing of one, 
a noise like a great gun was heard: both light and noise were affright- 
ing to many. 


17. Description of Russell’s Planetarium, with improvements.—This 
great orrery is drawing towards its completion. When finished, the 
zodiac will describe a circle of more than 48 feet. 

The celestial sphere is about 4 feet 8 inches in diameter, and con- 
tains the Sun, Mercury, Venus, the Earth and the Moon. The superior 
planets are placed on the outside of the sphere; Jupiter, Saturn, and 
Herschel, having their satellites revolving around them in their proper 
order, with their inclinations to the plane of the ecliptic. Saturn has 
his two concentric rings, with their proper inclination and direction. 

This armillary sphere is a beautiful structure, and is an important 
addition to the orrery first made by Mr. Russell. 

The whole machine will weigh about one ton and a half, and is com- 
posed chiefly of cast and wrought iron, and brass, with but little wood. 
It contains about 500 cog-wheels, large and small, principally of brass. 

The Earth revolves on its axis, inclined as in nature about 231°, and 
remains parallel to itself, exhibiting perfectly the manner in which the 
changes of the seasons are produced, and the variations in the lengths 
of the days and nights. The other planets also revolve on their axes 
duly inclined to the planes of their own orbits, so that the causes of the 
vicissitudes upon each planet are readily comprehended. 

The Moon revolves around the Earth in an orbit duly inclined to the 
plane of the ecliptic; making ascending and descending nodes, the 
retrograde motion of which is also given, so that the circumstances 
under which eclipses of the Sun and Moon happen, are ley shown. 
The libration of the Moon is also exhibited. 

The Sun is represented by a gilt globe about 15 inches in diameter, 
revolving in about its proper time. 

The primary planets are represented by beautiful glass globes ital 
opake, with some attention to their relative magnitudes and telescopic 
appearances. 

Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas, are all to be introduced in the ma- 
chine; their motions and great inclinations being properly represented. 

Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel, will furnish us with their splendid little 
orreries, either attached or detached ; making at the same time their 


proper revolutions while going around the Sun. 
Columbus, Ohio, February, 1842. 


Miscellanies. AOl 


18. Abstract of Mr. S. C. Walker’s paper entitled Researches con- 
cerning the Periodical Meteors of August and November, read before 
the Amer. Phil. Soc. Jan. 1841.—This paper contains—Ist, Tabular 
statements of the relative velocities derived from corresponding obser- 
vations of the same meteor at different stations, chiefly from Quetelet’s 
Catalogue. 2d. A catalogue of remarkable appearances of shooting 
stars, also from Quetelet, with additions. 3d. Bessel’s position of the 
earth, in the ecliptic, at the date of the principal November showers. 
4th. The convergent points hitherto observed for the relative paths of 
the meteors of August, and 5th. Of those of November. The term pe- 
riodical is restricted to the meteors, which, at a particular season of the 
year, tend towards the convergent point for that season. Sporadic is 
applied to the unconformable meteors seen on the same occasions. 
Extraordinary showers of the second table are placed in the former 
class, and are considered as differing from periodical meteors only in 
numbers. The convergent point, as far as noticed for the periodical 
meteors, is not far from the antipode of the earth’s tangential direction. 
The average relative velocities in table first, with the known convergent 
points, for August and November, and other parts of the year, as far as 
observed, afford on the cosmical theory, the most plausible estimate of 
the elliptic elements of the orbit of periodical meteors. The well-known 
formule for computing these elements are stated; and the differential 
formule are investigated for computing the probable errors of such ele- 
ments, arising from errors of the relative velocities and directions de- 
rived from the foregoing tables. ‘The most plausible elements of the 
periodical meteors, are thus found to have their perihelia inferior to that 
of Mercury, and hence are only seen by us when near their aphelia ; 
the orbits being necessarily very eccentric, or flattened, and their incli- 
nations very great. Since many millions of these bodies are annually 
encountered by the earth, including chiefly those which move in orbits 
having small parameters, analogy leads to the inference, that the plan- 
etary spaces inferior to Venus, abound in these bodies, of which only 
a small proportion ever reach the earth’s mean distance, or become 
visible to us. ‘This suggestion of a far greater aggregation of these 
bodies near the sun, is supported by the analogy of the resisting medium 
encountered by Encke’s comet, which is only sensible at a distance 
from the sun below that of Venus. Bessel’s objections to the theory of 
the resisting medium, that it is indicated by no other phenomenon in 
nature, may be in'some degree obviated by this analogy ; since a very 
thin, light body, might be sensibly resisted by a great multitude of these 
small meteors or asteroids, though their effect is insensible on Mercury 
and the other primaries, owing to their superior mass and density, and 
as Encke remarks, also insensible on Halley’s and Biela’s comets, 

Vol. xxu, No, 2.—Jan.-March, 1842. 51 


402 Miscellanies. 


whose perihelion distances, respectively, correspond nearly with those 
of Venus and the Earth. It is only necessary to suppose that in some 
planes these bodies exhibit a greater tendency to the formation of clus- 
ters, or possibly of flattened rings, in order to account for anniversary 
periods of remarkable showers; since the earth revisiting the same plane 
at the same season of the year, and at the same distance from the sun, 
may or may not encounter one of these clusters or parts of a flattened 
ring. But these clusters continuing to move in the same plane, the earth 
must, if it meet them at all, do so at anniversary periods. On the sup- 
position of a flattened rmg, the node having the same radius vector as 
the earth, these displays might occur for several anniversaries, and then 
cease for an indefinite period, owing to the motion of the apsides of the 
ring; till the anomaly which has a radius vector equal to the earth’s 
mean distance, again coincides with one of the nodes of the ring. Hence 
the connexion between the periods of the second table, as far as regards 
our knowledge of them is accidental, since they depend not on the or- 
bital period of these bodies round the sun, but on the circumstance of 
the earth’s encountering one of these clusters, or planes abounding in 
them, which is regulated by a law of distribution of these bodies in plan- 
etary space, that must always remain unknown, for want of data for its 
determinatton. 

The author conjectures that the meteors termed sporadic, by Quetelet, 
which have no common convergent point, may have their perihelia su- 
perior to those of the periodical meteors, and their aphelia far superior 
to that of the earth. In such a case, their orbital velocity would be as 
great as that of the earth, or greater; and as they move in all varie- 
ties of direction, the earth’s tangential motion does not cause them to 
tend, relatively towards a convergent point, in nearly an opposite direc- 
tion, as it does with meteors moving very slowly in their orbits, whatever 
may be their true directions in space. 

A brief history of the opinions and theories of writers on this sub- 
ject is given; and an oversight pointed out in Prof. Erman’s paper, 
quoted by the author in an oral communication of August 21st, 1840. 
This relates to Prof. Erman’s minimum relative velocity of the meteors, 
which, instead of being 0.83, of that of the earth, may be indefinitely 
small, and therefore in his formule [Artronomische Nachrichten, No. 
385, p. 9,] may give a motion of the convergent point indefinitely great. 
The author also remarks, that the quantities neglected in Prof. Erman’s 
formule for this motion, may produce an important effect on the result, 
and even change its direction from a retrograde motion, as found by 
Prof. Erman, to a direct motion as observed by Mr. Fitch, at New Ha- 
ven, and as indicated by Prof. Forshey’s observed positions of this point 
at two different dates on the night of the 10th of August last—Pro- 
ceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Feb. 1841. 


Miscellanies. A403 


19. Barometric Minima of February 16-19, 1842.—During the vio- 
lent gale, which swept along the coast of the United States between the 
15th and 20th of February last, the oscillations of the barometer, were 
very extraordinary and perhaps unprecedented. In Boston, the follow- 
ing were the observed altitudes of the mercury in that instrument, re- 
duced to the temperature 50°, to the mean level of the sea, and to the 
true level of the cistern. 

Feb. 15, 10h. 30.36 

FON TGS) LB 28.4% ~) fall 1.89 1 27 hours: 
“17; 19°. 30.39., ‘rise 1.92 in 80". 
ne Ty 2 30.39 stationary 5 hours. 
Reed LY 2 29.46 fall 0.98 in 24 hours. 
tO, 2.30.43" rise: O9T Ma 

Amount of oscillations 5.71 inches in 4 days 11 hours. 

The least height I had ever previously noticed in Boston, occurred 
Jan. Ist, 1827, viz. 28.62, and the greatest on Jan. Ist, 1839, 31.11. 
From the above, it appears that the extreme ‘range in Boston, in the 
course of many years is 2.64 inches, nearly three quarters of which 
were twice experienced in 57 hours between Feb. 15th and 17th last. 

Boston, March 7, 1842. Raho. 

At New Haven, Conn., the barometric minimum occurred Feb. 16th, 
10h. P.M., the column, when reduced as above, standing at 28.69 inches. 
During the day the gale blew from 8. 62° E.; on the 17th, from N. 
88° W.—Ebs. 


20. Meteorite of Chdteau-Renard.—A fragment of the meteorite 
which fell near Chateau-Renard, in France, June 12, 1841, has been 
examined by M. Dufrenoy. The meteorite appears to have burst, at an 
elevation which cannot be determined, into several pieces, of which two 
only were seen to fall on the earth, about forty paces apart. One of 
these pieces falling on a rock was broken into a multitude of small 
fragments; the other buried itself to a depth of about 20 centimetres, 
(8 inches,) and has separated into but a few fragments, of which the 
largest is 85 centimetres (14 inches) long, and 11 centimetres (44 inches) 
wide. 

The exterior of this stone is covered with the black crust which is 
observed on all meteorites. Its fracture is granular. A small vein tra- 
verses the whole mass.. Externally this meteorite resembles trachyte ; 
it is of a clear gray, and is composed entirely of crystalline portions, 
which cross each other as in the volcanic porphyries. However, the 
spherules of metallic iron, which are scattered with much uniformity, 
throughout the mass of the stone, indicate a different nature from that 
of any terrestrial product, for iron is not found here in a metallic state : 


Ao4 ) Miscellanies. oa 


at least its discovery has been alleged, and that in a doubtful manner, 
in but three or four localities. This aerolite resembles, on the contrary, 
in a remarkable manner, some of the slags of the furnace. Examined 
with a strong magnifier, two distinct minerals are recognized: one im- 
perfectly lamellar, presents in some parts bands analogous to: those 
which characterize the hemitropic masses of albite or labradorite : the 
other, of a vitreous fracture, might be taken for quartz, if we did not 
know from numerous observations, that this mineral is not found in true 
voleanic rocks, nor in those of meteoric origin. Besides these two min- 
erals, the eye detects small black glassy globules, analogous to perlite. 
These are evidently the product of fusion, and their gray interior, which 
is like the general texture of the stone, has not been altered by the heat. 
Finally, there are to be detected small shining black plates, which are 
particularly collected about the veins which traverse the stone. These 
small plates resemble the scales of graphite which exist in some varie- 
ties of gneiss.. The gravity of the stone is 3.56: that of the grains of 
metallic iron, extracted by the magnet, is 6.48. 

Before the blowpipe, a fragment is immediately reduced to a black 
hollow scoria, like that of the exterior crust of the stone. This proves 
that the crust is the result of the fusion of the exterior parts, which are 
oxidized to a very high degree by their contact, when at an elevated 
temperature, with the atmosphere. 

M. Dufrenoy gives the following as the result of three analyses which 
he made. 


Silica, ; : : 4 : s . 38.13 
Magnesia, 3 i : : ‘ : 17.67 
Protoxide of iron, . : : t : 29-44 
Protoxide of manganese, : : ; . a trace. 
Alumina, : ; : : ; A . 8.82 
Lime, ; : ; : ‘ : : 14 
Metallic iron, : : ; : : men a .! 
Nickel, : : ; : : é ‘ 1.55 
Sulphur, ‘ : é ‘ : : s 39 
Potassa, . Y : ; 2 LR 27 
Soda, : ; A .86--99.97 
Or, grouping together the ities whieh are combined : 

Alloy of iron and nickel, s : : at 1925 
Pyrites, -%". : : 67 
Ferruginous hicailgtey aoldbled in aubas; : . 51.62 
Matter insoluble in acids, and not related to any 

known mineral, i d ‘ 38.17--99.71 


L? Institut, July 22, 1841, No. 395. 


* 


A. 


Aconitum reclinatum, a new plant, 34. 

Adams, C. B., note to Mr. Lea’s paper 
on native shells, 392. 

S., observations and experiments 

on light, 123. 

Agassiz, glacial theory of, 346. 

Monograph of the Echinoder- 

mata noticed, 378. 

Agriculture, applications of chemistry 
and geology to, 187. 

Alabaster in Kentucky, 206. 

Almanac, American, 192. 

Analysis of bituminous coal, 369. 

Animals, infusorial, 388. 

Anthracite in the manufacture of iron, 
192. * 

Antiquaries, Northern, Society of, 214. 

Arabis patens, a new plant, 49. 

Arsenic, medico-legal remarks upon, 75. 

Ashes, wood, combustibility of, 165, 167. 

Astronomical machine, the Tellurium,| 
338 


Audubon’s Birds of America noticed, 
130. 


B. 


Bacillaria, sketch of, 88. 
Bailey, J. W., on the Infusoria of the 
family Bacillaria, 88. 
on a microscopic fungus, 
195. 


on showers of pollen, 196. 
Barometric minima at Boston, Feb. 16- 
19, 1842, 403. 
Beadle, E. R., on the level of the Dead 
Sea, 214 
Bibliographical notices, 182, 375, 
Birds of America, Audubon’s, 130. 
Bituminous coal, analysis of, 369. 
Blake, J. H., meteorological observations 
in Cuba, 292. 
on coal mines in Cuba, 388. 
Blast, hot, in smelting of lead, 169. 
Bone ash in cupellation, 395. 
Bones, fossil, from Oregon, 136. 
of the Orycterotherium, 392. 
Boston Journal of Natural History, 379. 
Botanical excursion to the mountains of 
North Carolina, 1. 
Teacher, 184, 377. 
Botany, Hooker’s Journal of, 185. 


INDEX TO VOLUME XLII. 


Botany, Lindley’s Elements of, 183. 
Boulders, 354. 

of the Alps and Jura, 358. 
Boye, M. H., on perchloric ether, 63. 
rg nauee new minerals described by, 


Brewer, T. M., notice of Audubon’s 
Birds of America, 130. 

British Association, proceedings of, 147, 
317. 


C. 


Cabinet, preparation of fresh-water shells 
for, 391. 

Carbon, non-conyersion of into silicon, 
193. 

Carbonic acid, solidification of, 203. 

Carbonic acid gas in wells, removal of, 
165. 

Carburetted hydrogen in spheres of car- 
bonate of lime, 214, 

Chateau-Renard, meteorite of, 403. 

Chevet, F., experiments on bichlorure of 
sulphur, &e., 71. 

Coal, bituminous, analysis of, 369. 

mines in Cuba, 388. 
eausHon, spontaneous, in wood ashes, 


Compass, dipping, manipulations of, 235. 

rea tubular, of iron and sand, 
07. 

Copper sheathing, destructibility of, 322. 

Craterium pyriforme, 195. 

Crustaceans, fossil, 326. 

Cupellation, process for, 395. 


D. 
Daltonism, 162. 
Darling, N., on the hurricane of Septem- 
ber, 1815, 243. 
Dead Sea, level of, 214. 
DeCandolle, A. P., biographical notice 
of, 217. 
index to his Prodro- 
mus, 375. 
Dewey, C., on the geological reports of 
the state of New York, 227. 
sunset at the West, 200. 
Differential equations, integration of, 273. 
Dipping compass, manipulations of, 235. 
Dolomitic rocks of the Tyrol, 321. 
Dry rot, 197. 


* 


406 


Dufrenoy, M., analysis of meteorite, 404. 
E. 


Echinodermata, Agassiz’s Monograph of, 
378. 

Eclipse, solar, of July 8, 1842, 175, 395. 

Eleocharis compressa, a new plant, 50. 

Emerson, G. B., biographical notice of 
De Candolle, 217. 

Endlicher’s Enchiridion Botanicum, 182. 

Engelmann, G., on the separation of sil- 

- ver or gold from lead, 394. 

Equation, functional, solution of, 69. 

Equations, differenual, integration of, 
Dies 

Erratic blocks, 354, 358. 

Ether, perchloric, 63. 

Ethule, perchlorate of the oxide of, 63. 

Extinguisher, spark, 209, 


F. 


Faraday, M., letter to Dr. Hare, 291. 

Fedia umbilicata, a new plant, 50. 

Feuchtwanger, L., mineralogical notices, 
386. 

Fine arts, encouragement of, 390. 

Forshey, Prof., on meteors of April, 1841, 
397. 

Fossil bones from Oregon, 136. 
discovered in Louisiana, 390. 
organic remains in Cornwall, 327. 
reptiles, British, 328. 

Fossils, copying of, by galvanism, 327. 

Fresh-water shells, preparation of for 

cabinets, 391. 
Functional equation, solution of, 69. 
Fungus, microscopic, 195. 


G. 


Gaylord, W., destructive thunder storm, 
Sept. 14th, 1840, 210. 

Geological reports of the state of New 
York, 227. 

survey of Louisiana, 390. 

Geology, Lyell’s Elements and Princi- 

ples of, 191. 
of the Western States, notes 

upon, 51. 

Gerboa rat, description of, 334. 

Gerry, J. I'., on tubular concretions of 
iron and sand in Florida, 207. 

Glacial theory of Agassiz, 346. 

Glacier barriers, 356. 

Glaciers, ancient extent of in Switzer- 


land, 307. 
form, magnitude, and compo- 
sition of, 347. 
motion of, 349. 
Glirine animal from Mexico, 334. 
Gray, Asa, bibliographical notices, 182, 
3. 


_ botanical excursion to the 
mountains of North Carolina, &c., 1. 


INDEX. 


H. 


Haldeman, 8. S., correction to his paper 
on the Melanians, 216. 
notice of the zoological 
writings of Rafinesque, 280. 
Hall, James, on the geology of the"West- 
ern States, 51. 
J. P., register of the thermometer 
from 1830 to 1839, 368. 
Hare, Clark, on conversion of carbon into 
silicon, 193. 
on perchloric ether, 63. 
R., objections to Mr. Redfield’s 
theory of storms, 140. 
Mr. Redfield’s reply to, 299. 
reply to Prof. Whewell’s de- 
monstration that all matter is heavy, 
260. 
Heat, conduction of, 161. 
Herrick, E. C., on meteors of April 18- 
20, 1841, 397. wiht 
on shooting stars in June, 


201. 
on shooting stars of Aug. 
10, 1841, 202. 
Hildreth, S. P., meteorological journal 
for 1841, at Marietta, Ohio, 344. 
Hooker’s J@broal of Botany, 185. 
Hubbard, O. P., chemical examination of 
Mid Lothian coal, 369. * 
on removal of carbonic 
acid gas from wells, 165. 
on spontaneous combus- 
tion in wood ashes, 165, 166. 
Hurricane of September, 1815, 243. 
Hydrocyanice acid, process for, 323. 
Hydrogen, carburetted, in spheres of car- 
bonate of lime, 214. 


ifs 


Indices, refractive, 160. 

Indigo, experiments upon, 320. 

Infusoria of the family Bacillaria, 88. 

Infusorial animals, 388. 

Insects of Massachusetts, Harris’s report 
on, 380. 

Invertebrata, two marine, 334, 

Involution of polynomials, 239, 

lron and sand, tubular concretions of, 207. 

Rogers’s Letters on the manufacture 

of, 380. 

Isotelus megistos, a new trilobite, 366. 


J. 


Johnson, Miss L., Botanical Teacher, 
184, 377. 

Johnston, J., on solidifying carbonic 
acid, 203. 

J. F.W., Applications of Chem- 

istry and Geology to Agriculture, 187. 


Lea, H. C., deseription of new shells, 106. 


INDEX. 


K. 


Kakodyle, production of, 324. 
Knapp, T. L., on the use of the hot blast 
in smelting lead, 169. 


* L. 


on the peroxide of manganese, 81; 
Lead, smelting of, 169. 
Leedom, E. C., description of an astro- 
nomical machine, 338. 
Lewis, W. J, on the involution of poly- 
/ nomials, 239. 
Light, observations and experiments on, 
123. 


Lightning, facts connected with, 393. 
Limestone, hydraulic, of New York, 228. 
Lindley’s Elements of Botany, 188. 
Flora Medica, 182. 
Linnzus’s botanical writings, 375. 
Linsley, J. H., on some facts connected 
with a stroke of lightning, 393. 
Locke, J., on alabaster in the Mammoth 
Cave of Kentucky, 206. 
on a new species of trilobite, 366. 
on the manipulations of the dip- 
ping compass, 235. 
Locomotive spark extinguisher, 209. 
Longitude, determination of, by shooting 
stars, 399. 
Loudon’s Arboretum Britannicum, 376. 
Louisiana, geological survey of, 390. 
Lyell, C., his visit to the United States, 
Als}. 
Elements and Principles of Geol- 
ogy, 191. 


M | 
Maclaren, C., on the glacial theory o 
Agassiz, 346. 
Magnetism, terrestrial, observations in, 
lol. 
Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, alabaster in, 
206 , 
Manganese, peroxide of, 81. 
Manures as stimulants to vegetation, 319. 
Matter demonstrated to be heavy, 264. 
Melanians, note on, 216. 
eteoric stone in Silesia, 203. 
Meteorite of Chateau-Renard, 403. 


_ Meteorites in France, 203. 
~ Meteorological journal at Marietta, Ohio, 


for 1841, 344. ; 
memoranda, ancient, 399. 
observations in Cuba, 292. 
Meteorology, 202. 
Meteors of April 18-20, 1841, 397. 
periodical, of August and No- 
vember, 401. 
sporadic, 402. 
Michaux, A., botanical researches in the 
United States, 2. 


407 


Michaux, his Sylva Americana, new edi- 
tion, 377. 

Microscopic fungus, 195. 

Mid Lothian coal, analysis of, 369. 

Minerals, new, 386. 

Mines, coal, in Cuba, 388. 

Minima, barometric, 403. 

Moraines, 382. 

Murchison, R. L., travels in Russia, 213. 


N. 


Natural History, Annals of, 186. 
Boston Journal of, 379. 

Naviculacee, sketch of, 88. ~ 

New York, geological reports of, 227. 

Nitrogen in organic compounds, 253. 

Northern Antiquaries, Society of, 214. 


O. 


Organic compounds, nitrogen in, 253. 
Orycterotherium, bones of, 392. 
Ozone, a new element, 318. 


P. 


Paddle-wheel and screw, propulsion of 
vessels by, 336. 
Paine, R. T., on barometric minima of 
Feb. 16-19, 1842, 403. 
on the solar eclipse of July 
8th, 1842, 175. ? 
Pantology, Park’s, 192. 
Parthian Archer, picture of, 215. 
Perchloric ether, 63. 

Periodical meteors of August and No- 
vember, 401. ; 
Perkins, G. R., solution of a functional 

equation, 69, 
H. C., notice of fossil bones from 
Oregon Territory, 136. 
Photographic copies of engravings, 164. 
Pierpont, James, meteorological notes in 
16v2, 399. 
Planetarium, Russell’s, described, 400. 
Plants, new species of, 49. 
Plummer, J. T., on the combustibility of 
wood ashes, 167. 
on the dry rot, 197. 
Pollen, showers of, 195. 
Polynomials, involution of, 239. 
Pycueatiein, consperte of the genus, 
44, 


R. 


Rafinesque, C. S., zoological writings of, 
280. 

Rain-guage, globular, 159. 

Redfield, W. C., his theory of storms, 
Dr. Hare’s objections to, 140. 


on the storm of Dec. 15th, 
1839, 112. 


reply to Dr. Hare’s “ ob- 
jections,”’ 299. 


“408 


he soe nt 
iat 


_ Rogers, S., Letters on the manufacture 


of Iron, 380. ; 


-__ Rossie lead mines, 174. 


Rot, dry, observations upon, 197. 
Russell’s Planetarium, description of, 
400. 


S. 


Salines at Onondaga Lake, 228. 
Saurians, fossil, 328. 
Saxifraga Careyana, a new plant, 32. 
Scott’s picture ofa Parthian Archer, 215, 
Shells, fresh-water, preparation of, for 
cabinets, 391. 
new species of, 106, 392. 
Shooting stars, determination of longi- 
tude by, 399. 
in June, 201. 
of April 18-20, 1841, 397. 
of Aug. 10, 1841, 202. 
of Dec. 7, 1838, 398. 
Showers of pollen, 195. 
Silicon, alleged conversion of carbon 
into, 193. 
Silliman, B., remarks on Mid Lothian 
coal, 369. 
Smelting of lead, 169. 
Smith, J. L., on the determination of ni- 
trogen in organic compounds, 253. 
remarks on arsenic, 75. 
Solar eclipse of July 8, 1842, 175, 395. 
Spark extinguisher, 209. 
Stars, nomenclature of, 148. 
shooting, determination of longi- 
tude by, 399. 
in June, 201. 
of April 18-20, 1841, 397. 
of Aug. 10, 1841, 202. 
of Dec. 7, 1838, 398. 
Steudel’s Nomenclator Botanicus, 377. 
Storm of Dec. 15th, 1839, 112. 
Storms, Dr. Hare’s objections to. Mr. 
Redfield’s theory of, 140. 
Mr. Redfield’s reply, 299. 
Strong, T., demonstration of the princi- 
ple of virtual velocities, 66. 
on differential equations, 273. 
Sturgeon, W., Mr.- Walker’s protest 
against, 383. 
Sturm’s auxiliary functions, 163. 


INDEX. 


Sullivant, Wm.S., account of three un- 
described plants of central Ohio, 49. 


m, 


Sullivantia, a new botanical genus, 22. 
Sulphur, bichlorure.of, 71. 

Sunset at the West, 200. pi! au 
Survey, geological, of Louisiana, 390. 


T. 


Tellurium, an astronomical machine, 
338. 


Temperature, influence of mountains on, _ 


| 


of Rome and New York, 
compared, 120. hey. 
of the year 1841, 344. 
Thermometer, register of, from 1630 to 
1839, 368. 
Thunder storm, destructive, of Sept. 14th, 
1840, 210. 
Trapezium paddle-wheel and screw, 336. 
Trilobite, new species of, 366. 
Twining, A. C., suggestions on the solar 
eclipse of July, 1842, 395. 


Vv. 


Vaccinium Constablzi, a new plant, 42. 

Van Rensselaer, J., on the temperature of 
Rome.and New York, 120. 

Vegetable tissue, elementary composition 
of, 212. 

Velocities, virtual, principle of, 66. 

Vessels, propulsion of, by paddle-wheel 
and screw, 336. 


WwW. 


Walker, C. V., protest of, 383. 
C., on periodical meteors of 
August and November, 401. 
Western States, geology of, 51. 
Whewell, W., demonstration that all 
matter is heavy, 264. 
Dr. Hare’s reply, 260. 
Whirlwind theory of storms, 299. 
Wilkie, Sir David, death of, 215. 
Wood ashes, spontaneous combustion in, 
165. 
Woodward, F. G., spark extinguisher, 
209. ae? 


A ad 
i 
Zodiacal light, 395. 


Zoological writings of Rafinesque, 280. 


a 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO CORRESPONDENTS, FRIENDS 
AND STRANGERS. 


Remarks.—This method of acknowledgment has been adopt- 
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Eds. 


SCIENCE.—FOREIGN. 


On the composition of Chalk Rocks and Chalk Marl by invisible 
organic bodies, from the observations of Prof. Ebrenbere; with an 
appendix touching the researches of MM. Alcide and D’Orbieny ; 
by Thos. Weaver, Esq, F.R.S., F.G.S.,M. R01. A. &ce. From 
the L. & E. & D. Phil. Mag. for May and June, 184]. London. 
Pamphlet, pp. 48. From the Author. 

Report of the Tenth Meeting of the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science, held at Glasgow, in August, 1840. 8vo. 
pp 250. Published by John Murray, London. From the Asso- 
ciation. 

Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Vol. 14, part 
second; pp. 859-754. From the Society. 

Description of a series of Geological Models; by T. Sopwith, 
F.G.S. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1841. 12mo. pp. 84. From Dr. 
Buckland. 


2 


Catalogue of Fossil Fish in the Collections of the Cure of Ennis- 
killen and Sir Philip Grey Egerton, Bart. From Mr. Lyell. 

On the General and Local Causes of Magnetic Variation; by P. - 
_ Cunningham, Surgeon, R. N. London, 1841. From the Author, 

Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Nos. 17, 18. 
1840, 1841. From the Society, forwarded by the politeness of Mr. 
J. Vaughan, Phil. 

Remarks on some Fossil and Recent Shells collected by Capt. 
Bayfield in Canada ; by Charles Lyell, Esq., V. P.G.S., F. R.S. 
1839, 4to. pp. 6. From the Author. 

On the Cretaceous and Tertiary Strata of the Danish Islands of 
Iceland and Moen; by Charles Lyell, Esq. 4to. pp. 13. From 
the Author. 

Account of the Fall of a Meteoric Stone in the Cold Bokkeveld, 
Cape of Good Hope; by Thos. Maclear, Esq., F. R. S. London, 
1839. 4to. pp. 4. 

Further particulars of the Cold Bokkeveld Meteorite ; by ‘Thos. 
Maclear, Esq., F. R.S. London, 1840. 4to. pp. 6. From Isaac 
Chase, U. S.C. 

Observations on the Loamy Deposit called “ Loess,” of the basin 
of the Ritine; by Charles Lyell, Esq. 1834. From the Author. 

On the Shells of the genus Conus, in the Lias of Normandy ; 
by Charles Lyell, Esg. From the Author. 

Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Vol. 15, part 
second, 1841. Edinburgh. From the Society. 

Note sur Ja temperature de ? Eau de Puits, par H. White, Sec. de 
la Soe. Meteorologique de Londres. From the Author. 

On the Theories of the Weather Prophets; by W. H. White, 
M. B.S: London, 1841. From the Author. 

Coup Woeil sur Petat actuel de nos connaissances en Electricité, 
par M. A. de la Rive. Prof. de Physique a Academie de Geneve. 

On the Heat of Vapors, and Astronomical Refractions—On the 
Theory of the Moon, and Perturbations of the Planets—Note on 
the Calculation of the Distance of a Comet from the Earth—And 
on Currency. All presented by the Author, Sir J. W. Lubbock, 
Treas) RES. Fs Ro ASS. BA S: 

The Archzologist and Journal of Antiquarian Knowledge, No. 1, 
Sept. 1841. From J. F. Hallinswall. 

Annuaire Magnetique et Meteorologiqne du corps des Ingenieurs 
des Mines de Russe, publies par ordre de S. M.  Empereur Nicolas, 
et sous les auspices de M. le Comte Cancrine, chef du corps des 
Inzenieurs, et Ministre des Finances, par A. T. Kupffer. 1839. 
From M. le Comte Cancrine. 

Die Infusionsthierchen als Vollkommene Organismen ein blick 
in das tiefere Organische leben der natur. Von D. Christian Gott- 
fried Ehrenberg. Zu Berlin nebst einem atlas von coloroiten kup- 
fertalen gezeichnet vom verfassen Leipzig. Verlag von Leopold, 


Voss. 1838. Purchased for Yale College Library. 


' 3 


Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. I, containing Dissertations. From 
John Dunlop, Esq. 

Lectures on the Application of Chemistry to Agriculture and 
Geology ; six Nos. By Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, Durham, England. 
From the same. 

Geology of Fife and the Lothians; by Charles Maclearen, Esq. 


From the same. 
{ 


SCIENCE.—DOMESTIC, 


Geology of Georgia; by J. R. Cotting. A specimen from the 
Author. 

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, held at Phil- 
adelphia, for promoting useful knowledge, Vol. 6, new series, Part 
Ist, 4to. pp. 300. Vol. 7, Part 2d, 4to. pp. 160. Vol. 7, Part 3d, 
4to. pp. 356. From the Society. 

Fifth Geological Report to the twenty third General Assembly of 
Tennessee, made Nov. 1838, by G. Troost, M.D. Nashville. 
Pamphlet, pp. 75. From the Author. 

A Monograph of the Limniades of North America; by S. Steh- 
man Haldeman. No. 3, July, 1841. Phil. J. Dobson. $1 to 
subscribers, single Nos. @1 285. 

Boston Journal of Natural History, Vol. 3d, No. 4. 

Description of an entire head, and various other bones of the 
Mastodon; by Wm. E. Horner, M. D., and Isaac Hays, M. D. 
Read before the Am. Phil. Soc. Oct. 2, 1840. 2d series, Vol. 8. 
Quarto pamphlet, pp. 48. Froin the Authors. i 

A practical description of Herron’s patent trellis railway struc- 
tures by James Herron. Phil. 1841. Quarto pamphlet, pp. 58. 
From the Author. 

Observations to determine the magnetic intensity at several pla- 
ces in the United States, with some additional observations of the 
magnetic dip; by Prof. Loomis. Nov. 6, 1840. From the Author. 

Observations made at the Hudson Observatory, Lat. 41° 14/ 40” 
N. and Lon. 5h. 25m. 45s. W.; by Prof. Loomis. April, 1841. 

Researches concerning the periodical meteors of August and: No- 
vember; by Sears C. Walker, A.P.S. Jan. 15,1841. From the 
Author. 

Account of some parhelia observed at Milford and Camden, Del- 
aware, March 14, 1841; by A.D. Chaloner, M.D. From the 
Author. 

Elementary Geology, by Prof. Hitchcock, with an introductory 
notice, by John Pye Smith, D. D., F.R.S. Amherst, Mass. 1841. 
Published by J. S. & C. Adams. 8vo. pp. 346. From the Author. 

Final Report of the Geology of Massachusetts, in two volumes, 
quarto; by Prof. Hitchcock. Amberst, 1841. J.S.& C. Adams. 
From the Author. 


4 


Memoirs of the American Academy. An account of the mag- 
netic observations made at the observatory of Harvard University, 
Cambridge; by Prof. Lovering and W. Cranch Bond. Communi- 
cated by Prof. Lovering. pp. 84, 4to. Boston, 1841. Presented 
by Prof. Lovering. 

Transactions of the Albany Institute, Vol.II,) Parts 2,.3, 43 5. 
From the Institute. 

Papers on Practical Engineering. Published by the Engineer 
Department, for the use of the Officers of the U.S. corps of En- 
gineers. Part Ist, on Asphaltum. From Col. J. J. Abert, Top. 
Bureau. 2 copies. 

Syllabus to Lectures on Chemistry ; by Prof. C. U. Shepard, 
M.D. 1831. pp. 204. From the Author. 2 copies. 

Lyell’s Elements of Geology, (2d American from the 2d Lon- 
don edition.) 2vols.12mo. Hilliard, Gray & Co. Boston, 1841. 
From the Author. 

‘Principles of Geology, or the modern changes of the earth and 
its inhabitants, considered as illustrative of Geology, (2d American 
from the 6th London edition ;) by Charles Lyell, F. R.S. In 3 
vols. 12mo. Hilliard, Gray & Co. Boston, 1842. 

Notes on the use of Anthracite Coal in the Manufacture of Tron, 
&c.; by Prof. Walter R. Johnson. Boston, Little & Brown. 
12mo. 1841. From the Author. 

A Memoir of Wm. Maclure, Esq. late President of the Acade- 
my of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; by S. G. Morton, M. D. 
one of the Vice Presidents of the Institution. Phil. 1841. From 
the Author. ; 


SPECIMENS.—DOMESTIC. 


A mass of supposed native iron, (origin unknown,) Staten Island. 
From Dr. James R. Chilton, N. Y. 

Mass of native Copper, from Milwaukie, Wis. Terr. From Mr. 
Pierce. 

Sulphuret of Tron, Galena, Mo. 

Six cells of porcelain, used in the construction of Grove’s Battery. 


From Dr. R. Hare. 
SPECIMENS.—FOREIGN. © 


Fossils of the Oxford Clay, Wiltshire, England, and Minerals 
from the vicinity of Bristol. From Wm. Stutebury, Esq., Eng. 

Chalk Fossiis. From Dr. G. A. Mantell. 

Minerals from Faroe, Sweden, and Norway. From Prof. George 
Forchhammer, Copenhagen. 

A meteoric stone, weight 2 Ibs., fallen in 1821 at the Sandwich 
Islands. From Rev. Mr. ’ Bingham. 


5 


A recent Echinus, (species unknown,) West Indies. From Capt. 
Sheffield, of New Haven. 


MISCELLANEOUS.—DOMESTIG» 


Catalogue of John Vaughan’s wines, for sale at Phila, Nov. 14, 
1841. 

Address before the American Institute ; by General James Tall- 
madge, President of the Institute. New York, Oct. 28, 1841. 

Address before the Society of the Alumni of Williams College, 
Williamstown, Mass., August 19, 1835; by Wm. H. Dillingham. 
From Mr. C. Chauncey. 

Twenty First Annual Report of the American Board of Com- 
missioners for Foreign Missions. Boston, Sept. 1840. 

Twenty Fourth Annual Report of the American Colonization 
Society. Washington, 1841. 

Annual Report of the Medical College of South Carolina; by 
Dr. Dickson. From Prof. C. U. Shepard. 

Proceedings of the Mason Street Sabbath School, on the depar- 
ture and return of the Superintendent. From Mr. S. H. Walley. 

Catalogue of Wabash College, 1841. Indianapolis. From Rev. 
Edmund Q. Hovey. 

Catalogue of the Members of the Society of Brothers in Unity, 
Yale College, 1841. From the Society. Do. from W. E. Robin- 
son. 

Catalogue of Middlebury College. Middlebury, Vt. From Prof. 
C. B. Adams. 1841-42. 

Catalogue of Amherst College. Amberst, Mass. From Prof. 
KE. Hitchcock. 

Catalogue of the Berkshire Medical Institution, 1841. 

_ Address to the Alumni Society of the University of Nashville on 
the study of Theology, delivered at Nashville, Tenn., Oct. 5, 1841, 
by the Rev. Le Roy J. Halsey, A.M. From J. Hamilton. 

Report of a Committee of the First Ecclesiastical Scciety of New 
Haven, on the subject of ventilating their meeting-house. 

Circular of the Fourteenth Annual Fair of the American Insti- 
tute of the city of New York, Oct. 11, 1841. 

Official Register. of the Officers and Cadets of the U. S. Military 
Academy, West Point. New York, June, 1841. From Major De- 
lafield. 

Minutes of the Western Literary Institute and College of Pro- 
fessional ‘Teachers. Cincinnati, 1840. From M. G. Williams, 
Esq. 

Pers of the New Haven County Medical Society on the expe- 
diency of repealing that section of the medical laws of this state 
which excludes irregular practitioners from the benefits of laws in 
the collection of fees. 1837. 

3 


6 


Hunt’s Merchants’ Magazine and Commercial Review. Nos. 23 
and 25, for May and July, 1841; with an article on Weights and 
Measures. By and from D. J. Browne, Esq. C. E. 

American Antiquerian Society’s Fifty Third Semi-Annual Report, 
with a catalogue of officers and members. Worcester, 1842. For 
the Yale Natural History Society, and also for the Library of the 
Connecticut Academy. Bye-lawsof the Am. Ant. Society. 1831. 
From Dr. Jacob Porter. 

A portion of Catlin’s Narrative of his residence among the Indi- 
ans, from pp. 97 to 128. From Wiley & Putnam. ih 

Second Annual Circular of the Rutger’s Female Institute. Novy. 
1840. From Charles E. West, A. M. 9 

Message from the President of the United States to the two 
houses of Congress at the commencement of the first session of the 
27th Congress. Washington, June, 1841. From Hon. J. Trumbull, 
M.C 


Letters on the College of Physicians and Surgeons; by Graviora 
Manent. New York, 1841. ) 

A discourse on the study of natural science as a means of intel- 
lectual culture; by Prof. George D. Armstrong of Washington Col- 
lege, Va. Lynchburg, 1841. From the Author. 4 

The Monthly Lecturer, published by Theodore Foster, New York. 
No. 2, Vol. 1. May, 1841. 

An address on the agriculture of the United States, delivered be- 
fore the American Institute in New York, April 14, 1841; by Hen- 
ry Coleman, commissioner for the Agricultural Survey of Massa- 
chusetts. From the Author. 

‘Proceedings of the President and Fellows of the Connecticut 
Medical Society, in convention, May, 1841, with a list of the Mem- 
bers of the Society. Hartford. 

Third Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of Common 
Schools in Connecticut, with the Third Annual Report of the Sec- 
a) of the Board. Hartford, May, 1841. From Henry Barnard, 

sq. 

American Magazine and Repository of Useful Literature. Pub- 
lished at Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Albany. Vol. I, 
No. 1, 1841; also No. 2 and No. 5, Aug. 1841. From the Edi- 
tors. 

Examination of a review contained in the British and Foreign 
Medical Review of the Medical and Physiological Commentaries ; 
by the author, Martyn Paine, M.D. New York, 1841. pp. 56, 
pamphlet. From the Author. 

Rev. Mr. White’s Sermon before the Charleston Union Presbyte- 
ry, in Orangeburg, S.C. Charleston, 1841. From T. H. Legare. 

Catalogue of the officers and students of the College of New Jer- 
sey, for 1840-41. Princeton. From Eli Whitney, A: B. 

An Examination of Beauchamp Plantagenet’s description of the 
Province of New Albion; by John Pennington. Philadel phia, 1840. 


7 


Scraps, Osteologic and Archeological, read before the council of 
the Historical Society of Pennsylvania; by John Pennington. Phil- 
adelphia, 1841. | 

Charter, Constitution, Bye-Laws, and Rules of Order of the Ma- 
ryland Institute of Education. Baltimore, 1841. 

Report of the Joint Standing Committee on Education respecting 
the expense of the Board of Commissioners of Common Schools, 
May Session, 1841. Read by order of the Senate; by Henry 
Barnard, Esq., Secretary of the Board. 

Stone’s Life and Times of Red Jacket or Sago-ye-wa-tha. 8vo. 
pp. 484. New York, 1841. From the Publishers, Wiley & 
Putnam. 

Report of the Executive Committee of the American Temperance 
Union. New York, 1841. From J. March. 

' An Address on the study of Natural History, delivered before 
the Philomathean Society of Pennsylvania College; by Rev. J. G. 


- Morris.. From the Author. 


Catalogue of the Middetown Preparatory School, and of the Mid- 
dletown Female Seminary. July, 1841. 

Announcement of the Annual course of Lectures in the Medical 
Department of the University of New York. 

Announcement of the Annual course of Lectures in the Medical 
College of Louisiana. Eighth Session. New Orleans, 1841. From 
J. L. Riddell. 

Fifth Annual Report of the Managers of the Bangor Lyceum. 
April 13, 1841. Bangor. From J. A. Poor. 

Catalogue of the Brainerd Academy, Haddam, Ct., 1840-41. 

Second Annual Report of the Foreign Evangelical Society, May 
11, 1840. 

Speech of Mr. Huntington, of Connecticut, on the Amendment 
to the Bill to incorporate the subscribers to the Fiscal Bank of the 
United States, delivered in the Senate, July 3d, 1841. From Wm. 
W. Boardman, M. C. ‘ 

Speech of Mr. Marshall of Kentucky, on the Bill to Appropriate 
the Proceeds of the Sales of the Public Lands, and to grant Pre- 
emption Rights, delivered in the House of Representatives of the 
U. S., July 6, 1841. Washington. From J. Trumbull, M. C. 

Address before the Philomathian Society of Mt. St. Mary’s Col- 
lege, near Emmetsburg, Maryland, June 30, 1841; by Prof. Aikin. 
From the Author. 

Annual Announcement of Lectures of Jefferson Medical Col- 
lege, Philadelphia, 1841—42. 

Constitution of the National Institution for the Promotion of Sci- 
ence. May, 1840. Washington. 2 copies. 

Valedictory Oration before the Brothers in Unity of Yale Col- 
lege; by Wm. E. Robinson. July 6, 1841. From the Author. 

Catalogue of Bacon Academy, Colchester. Sept. 1841. From 
Myron N. Morris, Principal. 


8 


Speech of Mr. Trumbull of Connecticut, on the Babine Bill, 
delivered in the House of Representatives, August 11th, 1841. 
Washington. From the Author. 

Historical Collections of the State of New York; by J. W. Bar- 
ber and Henry Howe. New York, 1841, 8vo. pp. 608. From the 
Compilers. 

Catalogus Collegii Neo Cesariensis, 1839. From Eli Whitney. 

Congress Document, No. 122. Commerce and Navigation of the 
United States. From Hon. Wm. W. Boardman, M. C. 

Catalogue of the Officers and Students of Dartmouth College. 
1841-42. From Prof. Hubbard. 

Rev. C. Van Rensselaer’s Discourse on Old Age, with a. peas 
to the Memory of Joseph Nourse. From the Author. 

Prof. Maffit’s Address before the Literary Societies of the Wes- 
leyan University, Middletown. : 

Introductory Lecture on the opening of his course on Mares 
Medica, in the Pennsylvania College of Medicine; by Dr. Bird. 
From E. B. Gardette, Esq. 


MISCELLANEOUS—FOREIGN. 


A Catalogue of old books in all Languages, consisting chiefly of 
Foreign Theology ; for sale by D. Nutt, London, 1841. 

Letter to the Hon. Henry Clay, President of the American Col- 
onization Society, and Sir Thomas. Fowle, Chairman of the General 
Committee of the African Civilization Society, on the Colonization 
and Civilization of Africa; by R. R. Gurley. London, 1841. 
From the Author. 

Notice of a series of Encyclopedias and Dictionaries, each com- 
plete in one volume. Printed for Longman, Orme & Co. Lon- 
don, May, 1839. 

Catalogue of works in all branches of Education, for sale by 
Longman, Orme & Co. London, May, 1839. 

A Manual of Photography, by N. Whittock, London. 

Catalogue of Books for sale by Longman, Orme & Co... Lon- 
don, 1841. 

An Analytical Catalogue of Dr. Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia. 
London. 

Catalogue des Livres de Commerce, et Autres qui se trouvent 
chez Renard, Libraire. Rue Sainte, No. 71. Paris, 1841. 

Livres d’Histoire Naturelle. Paris, 1840. J. B. Balliere. 

Libraire Medicale de Bechnel Jne et Labi. Paris, 1840. | 

Catalogue des Livres qui se trouvent chez J. B. Balliere. Paris, 
1839. 

Catalogue des Livres des Librairies d’Anselin et de Gautier-Lag- 
nione. Paris, 1839. 

i Ppletig Bibliographique de la Librarie, de L. Hachette. Paris. 
fe) 


9 


Principales Publications de Firmin Didot, Freris Imprimeurs 
Libraires de l'Institut de France. Paris, 1840. 

Libraire d’Ab. Cherbalier et Cie a Paris, et a Geneve. 

Catalogue des Libraire de Parent-Desbarres. Paris, 1839. 

Catalogue des Principaux Livres en depot et en Commission cher 
L. Lachette. Paris, 1838. 

Catalogue des Livres qui se trouvant cher Mathias Augustin. 
Paris, 1839. 

Catalogue et Prix des Instrument qui se trouvent chez Rochette. 
Paris, Ler Mai, 1839. 

Librarie Medicale et Scientifique de Crochard et Cie. Paris. 

Prospectus des Publications des W. Coonebirt. Paris. 

Christian Spectator. London, June 16th, 1841. 

Bookseller’s Catalocue. From Wiley & Putnam. 

Letter of Application and Testimonials submitted to the Council 
of University College, London; by Ed. Wm. Brayley. 1841. 

Life of Thomas. M’Crie, D. D., by his son. From John Dun- 
lop, Esq. 

M’Crie’s Sermons. From the same. 

Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. No. 53. From the same. 

A ‘Treatise on Agriculture and Daily Husbandry ; by James 
Jackson. Penicuik, Edinburgh. From the same. 

Illustrations of Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner, by David Scott. 
From the same. 

Letters on India, with special reference to the spread of Chris- 
tianity ; by the Rev. Wm. Bagus, London. From the same. 

Blackwood’s Magazine for February and June, 1839. From the 
same. 


NEWSPAPERS.—DOMESTIC. 


Catskill Recorder, June 24, 1841. From the Editors.—Tribune, 
Chicago, Feb. 20, 1841. From the Editors.—Zion’s Advocate, 
Portland, Maine, June23. From the Editors.—Leonardtown Her- 
ald, June 10, 1841.—Hartford Times, July 8, 1841.—The Wayne 
Standard, Newark, N. J., containing ‘an important discovery in the 
art and process of tanning leather.”—New York Mechanic, July 
31, 1241, and Aug. 7. From the Editors—New York American. 
—Catskill Recorder, July 22, 1841, with a notice of this Journal.— 
New York American, July 8 and August 4, 1841.—Quarterly Pa- 
per of the Foreign Evangelical Society, August, 1841.—Rockford 
Pilot, Hlinois, Nos. 1 and 2. From the Editors.—The New World, 
N. York, July 31, 1841.—The Repository, Westfield, Nos. 2 and 3, 
edited by the students of Westfield Academy.—The Montreal 
Transcript, July 7, 1841.—Ohio Observer, with the Meteorological 
Journal for May, kept by Prof. Loomis, of Western Reserve Col- 
lege. Do. for June, July, August, and September.—Sentinel and 


10 


Witness, Middletown, July 14. Cattle Show to be held at Hartford, 
Conn. Oct. 7, 1841. From Ch. Goodrich.—Jackson Herald, Jack- 
son, La., August 21, 1841.—Weekly Amulet, Hanover, N. H., 
September, 1841. From Prof. Young, with an obituary of Prof. 
Adams.—Order of Exercises at Commencement at Harvard Col- 
ege, Cambridge, Mass. From D. E. Bartlett Commercial Bul- 
letin, city of St. Louis, Aug. 19, 1841, with a notice of a petrified 
tree.—New York American.—The People’s Gazette, Charleston, 
Towa, witha notice of Mr. C. Lyell. From the Editors.—Lancaster 
Examiner and Democratic Herald, with a lecture by Samuel Parker, 
Esq., uancaster, Penn., Nov. 1841.—Saturday Chronicle, Phila- 
delphia. From President Durbin, with a lecture on fossil geology 
by him.—New York Tribune, Nov. 20.—Natchitoches Herald, La., 
Oct. 23, 1841, with an account of some curiosities The Ameri- 
can Intellisencer, Philadelphia, 1841.—Christian Register, Boston, 
with a notice of the meteoric iron in the Yale College Cabinet.— 
New York American.—Daily Chronicle, Cincionati.—Republican 
Standard, Bridgeport, with an article on natural history ; by and 
from J. H. Linsley.—Cold Water Army, Vol. I, No. 6, Boston.— 
Albany Daily Advertiser, Oct. 29.—New York Commercial Ad- 
vertiser, Sept. 24, 1841.—Miners’ Express, Dubuque, Upper Mis- 
sissippi, lowa, September, 1841. ~ 


NEWSPAPERS—FOREIGN. 


The Morning Chronicle, London, June 8, 1841.—A series of the 
Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter. From the British and Foreign 
Anti-Slavery Society.—The Sussex Advertiser. From Dr. Man- 
tell. 


a OF 


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CONDUCTED BY ; 
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pena . 


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Papers will appear in our next number, by Mr. D. D. Owen, on the print of hu- 
man feet in limestone; by Mr. James T. Hodge, on the lead regions of Wiskon- 
san and Missouri ; and by the Junior editor, om the meteoric iron of Texas, to- 
gether with an analysis of the Honolulu meteorite. ‘Also papers by Dr. Gray, and 
Dr. Engelmann. 

Coramunications have been received from Rev. James H. Linsley, ‘Dra J.T. 
Plummer and Wm. H. Muller, Messrs. W. F. Channing and Jos. S. Travelli. _ 

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