bith any Me rs aitetr ana Py t 17 Cxd BULGED Rash ae tee bee iT Le eta Rharr dca te rang UTES ME AG Aetedga arya typ AM ANS aE a heh! BA sad sp arab 3 aM sh Fate turbot at NAB (AAT NSD G see ats Rake ay Pony ings ‘et ere aT Nt 22 * einige AWerten Uy aaiontetantat ees ianrys erent etearaue et) Nanny ney uytet aw «nel H Bua i if Heyy oth ee ta hasta ae ORCA Say VF S Aen le Dah EAN ait 4) rare » ag SUPE Oa NE ya aise (} ait A ite PRAY ie ii seat e it SAM a NCB aT ‘ Aa AS sian AN ay 984 she ihate NSA Cun sry ibe EUSTEM GE 3 1a ve Mey ‘vie a) Sid eter aattngs PLATA FE RECTUM AYA Haire ge a ‘ hi a i nanny eh iy MW MONTE ROLES) hen tat att ANP 8 Ve Waa RE! Ved Yai hy beware AR NT Tai teal oY m a Yeah wea ng ita Staunen poaeun ahi d La gavel eee ya Mee Beings Hand USES prea eat pore naan ania 59D) eh rbaraLes Par bese idy EY dahnry ty pV tena Data Tacs in wre WGirea hy agente Thy Saas yee VT } \ 1) 5 waynes ayn Pau Hevesi raha eib et prbientue ry spegthy Vaqne aay ithe ANAT aay uy eon 8 ay ny W(vday rye ytil aye Ta iedacd ity MR aaygiaaats cag hae Mage yet Wheat 4 yd shor tol ph rete Wadd Petar gry Pipe ede W US F ' veeeba Mh DUbeTE as tanea Peg ets Wer Peel seater tmnt | MeO ner Toney CURR TEEN REGS EE Talereapayited Pe VARt RA eR Rec La Coa ie SLE R Ci We Be vit prepara b Tae ee ete ae pant VA water gene Walt ah iqone een meee panera niaht yey pn Lea RE MEME Vir We uae a watt PM tate Sen enn Sy eA My Vy ameye Vaan ace ie te Ppa aguante atts a ne A ACAXTUEP ED ‘ wien ze fees rey Cebu pth Ans uate eita al! Sol atone LRAT My A pesca Vago ayn ese PUES A td? waaay? be pie wih bi ray aye ad Tvs \eqnyien RYQAN A DEIN Yh PE tan ty ate Svalh {iteley Fyea iH HOST ed gee Lee uy ahsatt tlaradtanatane ENT bracing Cec edtey 3.) VIC y ite a¥ Ava arash vie a Veh ny Faye Ob gee bd se TS CU Be Rte ARP yay Fav ahs Wins ABE fay) Learnt Sa aN se tees URES suk eyed ty sth z aT SU Ie On ayy Vadagincuey Satoh THEIRS EC OR ESTs Sik) ry He a ity ey sehan unt dae by 8e8 ahi PAH Be odapactey gehen de Amceibanniares mye bide y Lar ly encanin eli aes sgn ay’y ys nan yry ay bts 1% fang riis Ady Pare Utiogis mines aeeehs TENE We Ve Ring dethean Sanh eee Se ays Spa eginsyen U8? EU ey aeettanid ane ney | nde uy stgichs teussatatply SA eanet ceanynr rand pry Ud sae tat tietay 5% Gy msge ays bait yon whehy FSi yg wei Ne faye ge aki PRR Ya ty aden is \ Pani nae yo nt AND el Se Fahy RY + i POSEPEC TD Riu 272 ZOOLOGY. Doct. Mitchell’s account of a group of polypes, e's - 46 BOTANY. Mr. Lewis D. de Schweinitz’s plonoe taney, of the Linnean Genus Vi- Ve ola, - - = Mr. Thomas N uttall’s catalogue on a collection a pee fons East Florida - - - - = 286 MATHEMATICS. Professor A. M. ee on Maxima and Minima of two Yariable quan- tities, - - - - - - - - Review of the Cambridge course of Mathematics, a atu si BOS 6 CONTENTS. METAPHYSIGS. Mr. Isaac Orr on infinites, - = a i 2 326 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY, MECHANICS AND THE ARTS. Correspondence between Doct. Robert Hare and the Editor, on the subject of the CALoRIMoTOR and DEFLAGRATOR, ele the pietey) with an account of the fusion of Charcoal, - Mr. Henry Seybert’s Analysis of the Tabular Spar—Pyroxene andl Co- lophonite of Lake Champlain, - 113 Mr. George T. Bowen’s Analysis of the Coideueen: oa of Tungsten, from Huntington, - - - - - - 118 Rev. Mr. Hitchcock’s communication respecting the rete water of Mr. Williams’ life, when struck ee lightning fers a plate.) Gens Epaphras Hoyt’s notice, 121 Mr. L. W. Smith on a case ofsusended qaaietion| - - 125 Dr. J. Van Rensselaer, on the Natural History of the Ocean, 128 Description of the apparatus used in lighting the Tron Steeple at Glas: gow, (with a plate,) - - - - - - 141 Prof. James Renwick on the longitude of New-Vork, - ~ 143 J.L. Sullivan, Esq. on the revolving Steam Engine, - - 144 Mr. Robert Eastman’s improved Saw Machine, (with a plate,} - 146 Mr. Thomas Skidmore on the formation of flexible elastic tubes, - 153 Mr. Isaac Lea on a singular impression in Ranaeoue, - - - 155 On the twinkling of the fixed stars, - - - > 156 Mr. Henry Seybert’s analysis of the Maclureite, - - - 336 Mr. George T. Bowen’s analyele of the Rens =: in the vicinity of New- Haven, - - - 344 Also of the Nephrite of Smithfield, R. I. - 346 Doct. Robert Hare’s letter on Alkanet asa substitute for Biting: ees 348 Mr. Thomas Skidmore on the combustion of Hydrogen in water, 347 Doct. Robert Hare on the gales eg ga in the Atlantic States of North America, - - 3a Mr. George T. Bowen’s notice of the magnetic effects preduved by: Dr Hare’s Calorimotor, - - - 357 Editor on the fusion and volalilization of Charcoal, with Professor Gris- com’s remarks on Doct. Hare’s Galvanic Instruments, - ~ 361 Mr. Henry Seybert’s letter on the Condrodite, = - - - - 366 OBITUARY.—(Professor Fisher.) - - - - 367 MISCELLANEOUS, Original Letters from Dr, Franklin to Rev. Jared Elliot, - - 157 INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. i I. Foreign. Prices of some minerals in London, - > - = 169 Egthoresphy._Meteorebte®, - ~ = = a 170 Fossil human bones, = - - ~ = = tM eZ | Climate of the South of France, . - - - - - 173 Pressure of the atmosphere—Salamander, new species, - 174 Meteorolite—Diamond—Circulating Libraries—Traveller’s Society, 175 ‘ CONTENTS. 7 Russian Establishment—Lunar Volcanoes. - 176 Hydrophobia, remedy for—Padua—Libraries of St. Petersburgh, 177 Aurora Borealis, - = - - 178 Geneva—Naples, Surgery—Obituary in France, - - - 179 Ellious Boethor—Botany, - - - 180 Oriental Style—Statue of Luther—D utch Canal, - - 181 Cutlery—Damascus Steel eae enone in Latin’ by Ordinaire, - 182 Physiology, - - - - - sere 185 New mode of taking a Rite simile, - - = - - 186 Mineral Waters, - - - - - 187 Incombustible cloth “Cobalt Pyroliscous east - - - 188 Signal lights—Merino sheep and wool—Enamel - for porcelain, - 189 Magnetism—Orangeries— Agriculture—Measurment of the meridian, 190 Gymnastics—Marseilles—Mutual instruction—-Zeal for antiquity— Hospitals in France, - - = - - - 191 Animal Magnetism, - - - - 192 Havant @vineraleey yecuviue Necroles ya ce new mineral: - 193 Society of Christian morals; - - - - - - - 194 Analysis on an ore of Silver, - - - - - 377 Solubility of Magnesia—Heat, - 378 Means of preserving eves—Steam Boats in Sweden—Mechanic’ s Soci- ety for the advancement of the Arts at Geneva, - - - 379 Mutual Instruction at Geneva——Rural Economy ar aemcuuure at Liege—Netherlands, - 380 Brussels—Encouragement to Science—Amsterdam—Royal Academy of Paintings there—Bourdeaux, - 381 Astafort—-Mutual Instruction—School at Gen Linnean Society at Paris, - 382 Religious Tract sears at ‘Paris—-Conservatory foe arts Jand trades there, -* = - - 383 Mineralogy—Himalaya Mountains fine of Sears - - 384 Geneva—A printing press for the blind—Progress of the German lan- guage in Italy—Rome, - - - 385 Lithography —Maestricht—-Besancon—France—-New Astral lamp, 386 Carpet for the hall of the throne at Paris—Iodine as a medicine—Muri- ate of copper, and nitrate of sodain Peru, - - - - 387 Arenilla—Galvanic instruments—Electro Magnetism, - 388—39 1 Estimation of the water which flows down the Rhine at Basle, ° 392 Hospital of Mount St. Bernard—Extensive Graining, - 2 393 Galvano-magnetic condenser—A soft crystal of pyar, - - 394 Interesting Galvanic Instrument, © 395 Ingenious i instrument for shewing the effect of Electro-Magnetism—Iron ‘Steam Boat, - - - - 396 Canal steam ‘navigation—Mr. Broveniaies notice of Araetieau speci- mens of Organic remains—Letter from Prof. Berzelius, - 397 New Edition of Parkes’ Chemical Catechism, - = - - 398 II. Domestic. Singular effects of nitrous oxid, 194 Progress of American Suicnes Convention between Armericad and European Geology, - - - - - 197 Delaware Society—Electrical uae) - - - 198. Fermenting Pond, - - 199 Optical Trap—Conducting ue in relation to radiant Hatters - 200 Spontaneous combustion, - - - 201 8 ERRATA. Geological Survey of North Carolina, - 202 Voluntary breathing —Geological samyeys in New-York--Yellow mine- ral from Sparta, - < 203 Explanation of Mr. Barnes’ Sennen of ihe Gant Mountain, - 204 Natural Ice-house near Williamstown, - - - 398 Prismatic Mica—Green Zinc ore of Ancram—Stilbite, - - 399 Siliceous Oxide of Zinc—F ranklinite, - 400 Sulphuret of in dicta ceuied on of North Carolina+-Summeryille Copper mine, ~ - - - 401 J btfersonite—-Automaltte’> Notices of mineral localities by Mr. Tho. H. Webb, - - = - - = ay 402 Cyanite—American Geological Society, - - - 403 Second Edition of Cleaveland’s ge ct ewe ew. Manuals of Chem- istry, - 404 Grammar of Philosophy—Formation of Cale Spar—Catskill Lyceum— Fluor Spar, and Oxide of Titanium, 405 Bituminous substances of Barbadoes—Oil stone of ‘Lake Memphr ema- gog, quarries of stone there, - - - - - = 406 Fluate of lime and agates in Deerfield—Useful minerals in North Caro- lina—Education, - Sas = - a z = 407 Blue Iris affords a good test aver - - - - = = 408 Remedy for Hemorrhage - - - = = = = - 409 ERRATA TO VOL. V. Mr. Barnes on the Canaan Mountain. Page, 11, 3d line from bottom, for sqguamosa, read squarrosa. sf 15, line 10 from bottom for sunken, read sunk. «s 7, between ‘ part’’ and ‘of’? read (an omitted clause) of the same range and. In the explanation of the plate, line 8 from bottom, for Jones’ read Janes, Rs > Eh Ct o> a THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c. ea — same js true of the equation aimee Either of these forms may be used in individual cases, as is most conven- ient. The following problems, which chiefly respect isoperi- meters, will be sufficient to exemplify, and to shew the ad- vantages of this method. To avoid confusion, the variable quantity 2 or y which is considered constant, will be put, during the operation, =a. Pros. I. Having given the solidity of a cone, to determine when the curve surface is a minimum, In this case the height of the cone =a, and the radius of the base =y. Let the latter be constantand =a. The function v=1ax, or varies as a, and u=ravV/a? +22, or Va? +0? a? ++ a? wopaeg be a1 398 110 gad ve =min. Making the differential of this fraction =0, £ is found =av2, whence Gave. Pros, II. Having given the whole surface of a cone,. to determine when the solidity is a maximum. In this problem, v varies as Va?+x2 +a; and wisasa. vy variésas /a?+22. Since n=2, Also n=2, hence 3 ____ == max. which gives) =27 2, Va?+a2+4a Pros. III. The whole surface of a regular prism being given, to find when the solidity is a maximum. » On Maxima and Minima of Functions, &c. 85. Let x be the height, as before, and y the radius of .a cir- cle inscribed in the base, which put const. and =a. If m ‘ 5 180° , be the number of sides, and ¢ the tang. —— , 2mat will be | the sum of the areas of the ends, and 2mtzx of those of the sides ; hence v+2nt (a-+.), or varies asa+a. Also u is as_ zx (a+2) =2. ‘The same expression will be obtained for the maxi- mum solidity of a cylinder, whose surface is given. — By proceeding in the same manner, it will be found that where either the slant surface, or the whole surface of a- regular pyramid is given, the solidity will be a maximum when that of the inscribed cone is a maximum; that is,- when the radius of the circle inscribed in the base is to the © height, in the first case, as 1:V2, and in the last as 1: 2V2, rk é é 46 v,and n=25 so that § or ——=makx. which gives = a+ax ‘y Pros. IV. The sum of the radius (or diameter) of the base and the height of a cone being given, to find when the solidity is a maximum, and the whole surface a minimum. ! Let a denote the radius (or diameter) of the base, and x the height: then v=a-+-a, and u isas a. In this case, a R= MENG yes ===, OF (aaa fi hich ~=2 9 5 3 — Xe rom Ww 1c ire ae (a+a)* atx een For the superficies, which varies as Va? +”? +a, n=2; Va? +a2+a : etme d ax—ax? hence —~--—,;>— = min. which gives — =a+ (a+)? 2a Va? +27, and by reduction r?—2ar?+a2x—4a?=0; whence the relation of x to y may be found. | If the perimeter of the vertical triangular section, or its half, the sum of the radius of the base and slant height, had been given, » would have been =a+Va?+ 2, and for a maximum solidity, n==3, hence ———-——— —max. and = — a+ Vq?43 z_ v5 ; y 2 36 On Maxima and Minima of Functions, &e. Pros. V. The solidity of a cone being given, to determine when the inscribed sphere is a maximum. A sphere inscribed in a cone will have the same radius with that of a circle inscribed in its vertical triangular sec- tion. But the radius of a circle inscribed in an isosceles triangle, if @ denote half the base and « the height, ax atVae par radius is such, wu may be taken equal to this radius, if n is made =i. Since then 2, the solidity, varies as x, we have Since the sphere is a maximum when its P k ax , x B Gna ke SSS Or SS a r a+V g2+292 : a+ Vg24 42 ‘a J taking the differential coefficient —9, 2g—4 (atv a? +2? ) vi => oF by reduction, av a? +a? =10? —a?, Va2+a? whence v=—=a.2V2. ‘ By substitution, the rad. of the inscribed sphere Tig” and the diameter of the sphere appears to be a third pro- portional to the diameter of the base, and the height of the a cone. The content of the sphere is $7 17 and that of the cone is 47a 1/3; hence when the sphere is a maxi- mum, the cone is double the sphere. The foregoing may suffice as a specimen of the applica- tion of this method to problems respecting lines of the first order. Pros. VI. The area of the parabola, between the curve and a dou- ble ordinate, being given, it is required to find the relation of the absciss and ordinate, when the inscribed circle is a maximum. Let the absciss 7 be made constant and =a; put the or- dinate, as usual, =y; then the radius of the inscribed cir- cle is easily determined, by a figure drawn for the purpose, On Maxima and Minima of Functions, &c. 87 ee F é ‘ aq 3 OF it varies as 2ay—y?. Let this be made =u; v, the area, varies as y, and n=3; hence Qay? —y3 —max. which gives a= 2y, and the radius, by substitution, =F. Pros. VII. The solidity of a paraboloid being supposed constant, to determine when the inscribed sphere is a maximum. The radius of the inscribed sphere is the same with that of the circle inscribed in the generating parabola. u being again made —2ay—y?, since n=, and the solidity v varies Qay—y" Le A : asiy? sgn OF Qays—y? must be made a maximum, Put- ting the differential coefficient —0, a=2y, or the axis of the paraboloid is equal to its double ordinate. The radius is = of the axis. Pros. VIII. Having given the curve superficies of a paraboloid, te find when the solid content is a maximum. In this case it will be most convenient to consider the simple variable quantities on which the functions w and v depend as being the absciss and parameter. ~ Making the parameter constant and =a, the surface v will be as a? +4ax|2—a°; the solidity wu (=}7ax?) is as x? and n3- 3 4 U Ui . x3 Hence TO Ma that is, eee ee TEA TIT mare noe whence Une Oa a? +4ax|2—a* 15 uv? —jar + 3a* =0, orr= eae ot Vz If we had taken the other formula og making the ana TERE absciss constant and =a, % is as y, and v as4a y+y?|—y°: n, as before 3; hence 4 ay-+-y?|3 y —3—ys= max. which gives a2? —'fya+3y? = 0. This equation exhibits ‘the same relation between the absciss and parameter with the last. / 88 On Maxima and Minima of Functions, &c. If we attempt to solve this problem in the usual way, by 3 vila. anon Tie, wh Ace A wea, . making Sey t yl Y constant and = 6, we obtain, after a tedious process, two equations between x and y, one of which is a quadratic in regard to y, and the other a cubic in regard both tow andy. This appears to be the simplest form to which the solution, if it may be called such, can be brought, and it is only by an artifice not very obvious, that even this degree of simplicity can be attained. The converse of this problem may, however, be readily solved in the usual manner, in consequence of the simplicity of the expression for the solidity. If with a given solidity, the superficies be required to become a minimum, since the solidity varies as x7y, (x being as before, the absciss, and y 9 the parameter,) put «?y==6?; then r=, and by substi- ; —— 3 tution in the expression for the surface, 4by4+y?|?y —y® —min., which by putting z in the place of yz, affords the following equation: 3z?— “zh +b? =o. This equation is of the same form with those already obtained, and it is evident that the same relation ought to exist between z (—y2) and b, (==y2), as between y and x. But the method adopted above is equally applicable to cases when both the functions u and v are complex, as _ wil! appear in the following problems. Pros. IX. It is required to determine when a parabola of giveu length will describe the greatest possible superficies by its revolution about its absciss. In this example, v denoting the length and wu the super- ficies, (the parameter being made constant and = 2a,) wes ' i {== max. or, which is the same thing, yu 2=min. Sub- v aa Re ‘ stituting the normal « (=Vy?+ — S eRe ee vi Zo = Fee = oe 4 : E- it es Z Beam of Joparrs WES = z Se a (= = —— : a2 ane go sees ey Fas 3 6a ee aes * we a i Sagat eee E ae aps, Lee Pe ee ae ee ‘ ¥ eke ye ee Bre ee ee eo vt Ss fee i " iS tH tl Fe <3 Aad wes = : Pts This trough ge! ay and Levens. silyects the plates to likee thes hihititd = ake Me val fet act ort - There ts anothia rough - ~~ P. Dal treadle, the troughs being sup- Wie wend, indv which the. Pales Ppppppp niay be tumesed, LOOM POMCOLD go HARES NEW GALVANIC DEFLAGRAT ORS. See his tetter dated March. 5” last. we this Joumal. copper (ase Bars |e sicspeus\ and\\conticet ee serves. Copper Case Atle Plate 2 Detlagrator of 350 pars ae SY eardles attached wo Y AcXiLoles Z Bapressing this treadtle wis cs the 7 troughs tovise Between each vase ts Placed wv pivee of pastehoard soaked in sheld lav varnish Deflagrator of 100 pair's Thas trough being vlevatal by the trvadle w, selijecls the plates to acrd cope- tained ty tt There ts another trough like this behind leaden rods\ handles atlaghed to the poles} Sap e Trough represented as seen or the floor — Dr. Hare's Deflagrator and Calorimotor. 95 I should not be surprised, if the coils when insulated by the glass jars, should form a circuit with your other appara- tus, better, than when immersed in the troughs. You will observe that when recently lifted from out of the acid, the air insulates the coils; while the pieces of wood used to keep the copper from touching the Zinc, act to a certain extent like the moistened cloth in Volta’s original pile.x— When in this situation, the poles will affect an electrome- ter much more powerfully, than when the coils are im- mersed ; though in one case, the igniting power will burn” a platina wire of one eigth of an inch in thickness, in the other it will not burn Dutch gold leaf. In my memoir, on a new theory of galvanism, published in your Journal is the following passage : “‘ According to my view, caloric and electricity may be distinguished by the following characteristics. ‘The former permeates all mat- ter more or less, though with very different degrees of facility. It radiates through air with immeasurable ce- lerity, and distributing itself through the interior of bo- dies, communicates a reciprocally repellent power, to atoms, but not to masses.* Electricity does not radiate in or through any matter, and while it pervades some bodies, as metals, with almost infinite velocity ; by others it is so far from being conducted, that it can pass through them only by a fracture or perforation. Distributing itself of choice over surfaces only, it causes reaction between mas- ses, but not between the particles of the same mass. The disposition of the ]ast mentioned principle (electricity) to get off by neighbouring conductors, and of the other (caloric} to combine with the adjoining matter or to escape by radia- tion, would prevent them from being collected at the positive pole, if not in combination with each other. Were it not for a modification of their properties consequent to some such union, they could not, in piles of thousands of pairs, be carried forwards through the open air and moisture, the * It cannot be pretended that electricity expands the gold leaves of an Electrometer when it renders them divergent, or that caloric causes any repulsion between the ignited masses which it expands. + It is only when under a great restraint, that electricity enters the pores of metallic wires and deflagrates them. If it exist otherwise than on the surfaces of conductors, why daes a hollow metallic sphere take as large a charge as a solid one. $6 Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. one so well calculated to conduct away electricity, the oth- er’so favourable to the radiation of caloric.” Pursuing the same subject in a subsequent memoir, also published in your Journal | thus expressed myself, ‘“ As yet no adequate reasons have been given why, in opera- ting with the pile, it is not necessary, as in the process of Van Marum and Wollaston, to enclose the wires in glass or sealing wax, in order to make the electricity emanate from a point within a conducting fluid. ‘The absence of this necessity is accounted for, according to my hypothesis by the indisposition which the electric fluid has to quit the caloric in union with it, and the almost absolute incapacity which caloric has to pass through fluids unless by circula- tion. I conceive that in galvanic combinations, electro- caloric may circulate through the fluids from the positive to the negative surface, and through the metal from the negative to the positive. In the one case caloric subdues the disposition which electricity has to diffuse itself through fluids, and carries it into circulation. In the other, as met- als are excellent conductors of caloric, the prodigious pow- er which electricity has to pervade them agreeably to any attractions which it may exercise operates almost without restraint. This is fully exemplified in my galvanic defla- grator, where eighty pairs are suspended in two recipients, forty successively in each, and yet decompose potash with the utmost rapidity, and produce an almost intolerable sen- sation when excited only by fresh river water. I have al- ready observed that the reason why galvanic apparatus composed of pairs consisting each of one copper and one zinc plate, have not acted well without insulation ; was be- cause electro-caloric could retrocede in the negative, as well as advance in the positive direction.” Agreeably to these views, in order to prevent the escape of the electricity put into motion by the series, the caloric must bear a certain proportion to it. It is to be inferred, consistently with the same hypothesis, that this proportion did not exist in the series which you connected with the deflagrator. The fluid presented to the latter had too much electricity in it; and hence instead of passing into circulation, escaped. When the coils were suspended in air, this escape was less fayored than when they were cov- ered by the diluted acid. Faithfully Yours. ROBERT HARE. Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. 97 : Lerrer I1.—From Dr. Hare, on the peculiar and com- parative effects of the Calorimotor and Deflagrator. Also, an account of AN IMPROVED AND ENLARGED DrFrLacRATOR, and of some new experiments performed by means of this instrument. ; Philadelphia, March 5, 1822. ~My Dear Sir, In reply to your enquiries on the subject of the Calo- rimotor, and the expediency of employing one during your lectures, it may be proper to mention, that the phenome- na produced by it are inore agreeable to the eye and therefore more popular, than any which can be performed without greater difficulty. By the time the Calorimotor is completely immerged in the acid solution, the wire in the forceps is rendered white hot, and takes fire, emitting the most brilliant sparks. [n the interim, an explosion usual- ly gives notice of the extrication of hydrogen in a quanti- ty adequate to reach the burning wire. Immediately af- ter the explosion, the hydrogen is reproduced with less in- termixture of air, and rekindles, corruscating from among the forty interstices, and passing from one side of the ma- chine to the other in opposite directions, and at various times, so that the combinations are innumerable. The flame assumes various hues, from the solution: of more or less of the metals, and a blazing froth, roils ever the sides of the recipient. When the calorimetor is withdrawn from the acid solution, the surface appears for many seconds like a sheet of flaming foam. I refer you to the last paragraph of my memoir on the Deflagrator, for some results obtained by calorimotors, of different sizes, which I deem to be scientitically impor- tant.* ! * The heat evolved by one galvanic pair has been found by the experi- ments which | instituted, to increase in quantity, but to diminish in intensi- ty, as the size of the surface may be enlarged. A pair containing about fiity square feet of each metal, wiil not fuse platina, nor deflagrate iron, however small may be the wire employed ; for the heat produced in metallic wires is not improved by a reduction in their size beyond a certain point. Yet the metals abovementioned, are easily fused or deflagrated by small pairs, which VorseV.—— Nos) 1; 13 98 Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. With respect to the comparative powers of concentric coils, of copper and zinc and of plates of those metals alter- nating ; if only a few pairs are to be employed, I believe ita matter of indifference which construction we adopt. [ have however, found to my cost that it is far from being so when the series is numerous. Last summer I constructed an apparatus of one hundred pairs, each containing six al- ‘ernated plates, three of each metal. On trial, it proved much less powerful than the Deflagrator sent to you, though the zinc surface in each pair, was one seventh larger, and the number of the series one fourth more extensive. The exposure to each other, of the copper and zinc plates ter- minating the different pairs, struck me as disadvantageous. J therefore, removed the external zinc plate in each, so that the pair afterwards, consisted severally of three copper and two zinc plates, and were bounded by copper towards both poles.- There was some comparative gain by this change, as the power was not lessened in proportion to the diminu- tion of zinc surface. Still the result was unsatisfactory. | then had some boxes made with partitions of glass, to be in- terposed between the pairs of the series. These were em- ployed as is usual with galvanic troughs, made with parti- tions, excepting the deficiency of bottoms, and their being suspended to the beams, so as to be simultaneously immers- ed with the galvanic surfaces which they were intended to msulate. ‘The power of the series was not amended by this contrivance. It had often occured to me, that surrounding the ziuc by Copper, might be an indispensable feature in the arrangement of my Deflagrator of coils. In order to test the correctness of this surmise, | proceeded to form an ap- would have no perceptible influence on masses that might be sensibly igni- ted by larger pairs. These characteristics were fully demonstrated, not on- ly by my own apparatus, but by those constructed by Messrs. Wetherill and Peale, and which were larger, but less capable of exciting intense ignition. Mr, Peale’s apparatus contained nearly seventy square feet, Mr. Wether- ili’s nearly one hundred, in the form of concentric coils, yet neither could produce a heat above redness on the smallest wires. At my suggestion, Mr. Peale separated the two surfaces in his coils into four alternating, constitu- ting two galvanic pairs in one recipient. Iron wire was then easily burned aud platina fused by it. These facts, together with the incapacity of the calorific fluid extricated by the calorimotor to permeate charcoal, next to metals the best electrical conductor, must sanction the position I assigned to it as being in the opposite extreme from the columns of De Luc and Zamboni. For as in these, the phenomena are such as are characteristic of pure elec- tricity, so in one very large galvanic pair, they almost exclusively demen- strate the agency of pure caloric. Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. 99 paratus of pairs, each consisting of a case of copper, con- taining one zinc plate of seven inches by three, the size us- ed, in the apparatus above described. (See the plate at the end.) In these pairs, as in those contrived by Wollaston, the edges of the zinc were supported by grooved pieces of wood passing between them and the copper. There was, however, this apparently slight, but really important differ- ence, that the cases employed by me, were open at top and bottom, instead of exposing the edges of the zinc late- rally, as in Wollaston’s. One hundred galvanic pairs, thus made, were suspended to two beams, each holding fifty. Between each case, a piece of pasteboard soaked in shell lac varnish, was intersposed; so that the whole constituted a compact mass, into which a fluid could not enter, unless through the interstices purposely preserved between the copper and zinc. The phenomena produced by this appa- ratus, on immersion, were upon the whole more interesting than those produced by my original deflagrator ; especially in the length of the jet between the poles, and the power of permeating charcoal. Yet the apparatus was comprised within one eighth of the space, and is not (in oxidizable superficies) of half the extent. \ Having added three more beams, of fifty pairs each, to my apparatus, I found the power increased fully in the ratio ofthe number. You know that my eyes are naturally very strong. The light produced by the compound blowpipe,* though I operated without glasses, only dazzled them for a time, and hitherto I had felt no other inconvenience from my galvanic experiments. Rendered thus bold by previ- ous immunity, I still dispensed with the annoyance of spec- tacles. In consequence, my eyes, after operating with the last mentioned series of two hundred and fifty, were on the fol- lowing day so much inflamed, as to be blood shot, and pain- fully susceptible of the day light. The judicious applica- tion of twenty leeches to each of the eye-lids, pursuant to the advice of my friend, Dr. Dewees, afforded me surpri- sing relief, and my eyes are now well enough to finish this letter, though a few days since when I began it, I was under the necessity of employing an amanuensis. == _ By this series of 250, Barytes was deflagrated ; and the Platina which supported it destroyed like pasteboard before * Since ealled Hydro-oxygen Blowpipe. 100. =©Dr. Hare’s Defiagrator and Calorimotor. an incandescent iron. A platina wire three sixteenths of au inch in thickness, was made to flow like water. Iron of like dimensions burned explosively. When the experi- ments were repeated before my class of more than three hundred pupils, and many visitors, there were very few who could bear the light with the naked eye. Much attention was excited by the deflagration of a stream of Mercury. This was accomplished in the follow- ing way. A wire proceeding from one pole of the deflagra- tor, was introduced into some mercury held in a glass ba- sin; and another wire proceeding from the other pole, into some mercury in another vessel, having a capillary orifice which might be closed by the finger ora stopple. | This last mentioned vessel with the mercury running from it was sup- ported at such a height above the ‘surface of the mercury in the glass basin, as to permit the discharge to take place through the metallic stream just as the galvanic surfaces were subjected to the acid. ‘The mercury deflagrated ex- plosively. The experiments may be varied, by causing the stream of mercury to fali on iron filings, or card teeth. When the phenomena of a series of 250 pairs of 7 inches by 3, are such as I have described what would be the pow- er of a deflagrator with plates, as large as Children’s, and as numerous as Davy’s? Probably the most useful mode of applying such instru- ments to analysis, would be to expose substances to the dis- charge in vacuo on carbon. — | observed that after iron and charcoal were ignited between the poles during a few sec- onds, under an exhausted receiver, on admitting the air, a flash took place, anda yellowish red fume appeared which condensed on the glass. It would seem the iron was’ vola- tilized,* and that the admission of air oxidized the vapour. A deflagrator of 250 or 300 pairs is found to produce torture when applied for a short time to the back of the hand, and it is difficult for the sufferer to believe, that his skin has not been cauterized. One of my pupils showed me a slight excoriation, which he considered as arising from it, on the spot where the positive pole had touched him. Between the excitement of acid, and water, the difference of power in affecting the flesh, is far less than with metals, * And possibly the carbon too? En. Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. 10% charcoal, or potash. Upon these substances, the excite- ment by water has no influence, but to the sensation is pain- ful, though it may be borne longer, than when acid is used. Neither is the shock greater, in any sensible degree, at the moment of immersion, than afterwards. The effect upon the electrometer, is at least as great, with water, as with acid. Immediately over any of the most turgid veins, where the skin is tender, as on the back of the hand, will be found the greatest sensibility. | The positive pole, is most capable of producing pain. This I had frequent opportunities of ascertaining, by the observations of those who, not knowing how to distinguish it from the negative pole, could not have been biassed in their opinion. Upon a common gold leaf electrometer,a deflagrator of 300 pairs will have no influence. I have constructed one by means of a bottle, a single slip of gold leaf, and a knob at right angles to it, supported by a | screw, so as to be easily moved nearer to or further from the leaf. ‘The wire from which the latter is suspended, passes through a cork in the neck of the bottle. The screw en- ters through a nut, cemented into a hole drilled on one side. When the wire which supports the leaf, is fastened to one of the poles, every time the screw is touched by the other, the leaf will strike the ball provided the distance be very small, perhaps not greater than the tenth of aninch. | This result was obtained at a greater distance when the coils had been recently withdrawn from the acid, than when they are covered by it. I have known a piece of dry sealing wax, as big as a chesnut, without friction, to affect this electrometer as much as my largest deflagrator. j A magnetic needle was very powerfully disturbed by the deflagrator, under all its forms. The celerity with which the galvanic surfaces may be immersed in, or withdrawn from the acid, contributes much to economy, and to the ease of the operator in galvano-magnetic enquiries. The prevalent notion, that the intense light and heat produced by galvanic action, are results secondary to elec- tricity, the presence of which is at times only indirectly dis- coverable, the more surprises me; since it does not in the smallest degree, elucidate the primary operation, by: which this principle is alleged to be evolved. According to some philosophers, the contact of the metals alone, accor- ding to others this contact accompanied by their solution, evolves electricity in quantity sufficient to extricate heat 102 Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. and light from a wire made the medium of transmission. They do not however, explain why the electricity does not, according to all its known habitudes, rapidly escape through the water, as fast as generated, instead of proceeding from one plate to another, in order to pass off through a second portion of the same fluid. Would it not be more philoso- phical, to suppose that the heat and light result directly from the causes supposed to produce them indirectly ; especial- ly, as we actually see them in a high degree of intensity, while the characteristic agency of the principle, by which they are supposed to be produced, is but feebly perceived, or imperfectly demonstrated? [In the case of a single gal- vanic pair, electricity has never been alleged discoverable, unless by the questionable assistance of condensers. Besides, without supposing caloric and light to circulate from the apparatus through the conjunctive wire, those who consider them as material, will find it impossible to account for the durability of the ignition. If it be supposed that these principles are extricated from the metal, only by electricity passing through it, their repeated or incessant expenditure, ought sooner or later to exhaust the metal, and render it incapable of further ignition. On this subject, especially, as connected with magnet- ism, and mechanical electricity, you shall hear from me again. Lerter II].—From the Editor.—On the incompatibility of the Voltaic Batteries and the instruments of Dr. Hare when used in connexion. TQ PROFESSOR HARE.’ Yale-College, New-Haven, April 9th, 1822. My dear Sir, In my letter of Oct. 23d, 1821, addressed to you (Vol. 4, p- 203 of this Journal) respecting the experiments which ] had performed with your deflagrator, I mentioned the in- compatibility which I discovered to exist between your ap- paratus and the common galvanic battery. I have recent- ly repeated these experiments with some additions and va- riations which I now take the liberty of stating to you. Dr. Hare's Deflagrator and Calorimotor. 103 In the trials made last October with your instrument, the coils were used without glasses, being immersed in a fluid, contained in a common recipient. In those recently per- formed, and which [| shall now relate, the metallic coils were individually insulated, for they were immersed in the cylindrical glasses belonging to the apparatus, it being pre- viously connected with the common galvanic battery by its proper poles as described in my former letter; the effects were however in no respect different from those before ob- served, so that the insulation of the coils appears to be a fact of noimportance. In the first experiment the deflagrator being connected by its proper poles with a galvanic batte- ry of 300 pairs of four inch plates cemented in mahogany troughs, and interposed between the two rows of the de- flagrator, of forty coils each, lost all its power, and the ef- fect produced was very much inferior to that of the battery alone, for in fact the spark was hardly perceptible. The chemical or decomposing powers of the common galvanic battery, were also found to be suspended by the connexion—for the 300 pairs which usually decompose wa- ter, salts, &c. with decisive energy, now produced in water scarcely a bubble of gas, and hardly affected dilute infusion of purple cabbage. ‘The power of giving a shock was also destroyed by the connexion. When the coils were raised out of the fluid and suspend- ed only in the air, they acted as conductors of the power of the common battery, which now produced al/ its appropri- ate effects, although, even in this case, the galvanic influ- ence appeared somewhat diminished, which would:of course arise both from the extent of the conducting surface, and from the fact that a part of the substance, namely, the wedges of moist wood, interposed between the metals was an imperfect conductor. These experiments (including the former trials) were made with different combinations from 620 pairs down to 20, and were attended, uniformly with the same result; viz. an almost entire suspension of the power of both instru- ments. In one of the experiments, twenty-five pairs of the zinc and copper plates, six inches square, connected by slips of copper and suspended froma beam of wood were immers- ed in a trough without partitions filled with an acid liquor, and the connexion being formed with the deflagrator, the 104 Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. power of the latter instrument was found to be completely destroyed—a similar result was obtained by a battery con- sisting of fifty triads of plates two inches square, each zinc surface being coated by a copper plate after the man- ner of Dr. Wollaston—the object of this arrangement, was, to ascertain, whether a battery, in which the arrangement of metals was similar, to that in the deflagrator, would pro- duce a result in any respect different from that of the com- mon battery ; the effect however was precisely the same. In most of the experiments the connexion of the poles was occasionally reversed. ‘This circumstance however made no difference in the result; a feeble spark was obtained as before. Every thing tended to countenance the opinion that the interposition of the common galvanic battery opera- ted simply as an impediment—that it was completely inert in relation to the deflagrator, and the deflagrator in relation to tt, —that the power of neither would pass through the other, and consequentiy that each was to be regarded, with respect to the other, simply as so much interposed matter, constituting a con- ductor more or less, imperfect. ‘To bring this conjecture to a decision, the number of interposed plates was constantly di- minished, until the connexion was formed by no more than twenty pairs. In this state of things, the power of the de- flagrator passed freely, although somewhat diminished. The connexion was now formed with smaller and smaller numbers of pairs; the activity of the deflagrator in the mean time rapidly increased, until the moment, when only one pair was employed (this pair being, however, like the others, immersed in an acid fluid,*) then there was no per- ceptible impediment, and the effect was as brilliant as when nothing was interposed. . I have thought these curious facts worthy of being pre- served, and I have addressed them to you with the hope that you will be able to throw some light upon this singular anomaly, which to me appears to be incapable of explana- tion, in consistency with the received theories of galvanism. Hoping that you will, through the medium of this journal, favour the public with your views upon this subject. f remain with very great respect, Your friend and servant, B. SILLIMAN. * When this one pair was surrounded by air alone the power of the defla- grator passed freely as might have been expected. Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. 105 Lerrer 1V.—From Dr. Hare to the Editor in reply to the preceding letter. Puinapevputia, May 25, 1822. My Dear Sir, In a former letter you mentioned, that you had found the power of the galvanic deflagrator, when its coils were sub- jected to acid in troughs without partitions, incompatible with the power of other voltaic series, of the usual forms ; that when associated with them in one circuit, it could net- ther give, nor receive excitement. You now inform me, that this incompatibility is not lessened when the coils are insulated by glass jars.* It follows, that electrical insula- tion has less influence on the action of this instrument, than Thad supposed, and it of course confirms my idea, that the deflagrating power is not purely electrical. It cannot be doubted, notwithstanding your experiments, that there is a principle of action, common to the various apparatus which you employed, and all other galvanic combinations. The effect of this principle of action how- ever, varies widely according to the number of the series, the size of the members severally, and the energy of the agents interposed. Towards the different extremes of these varieties are De Luc’s Column apparently producing pure electricity, and one large galvanic pair, or calorimo- tor of two surfaces, producing, in appearance, only pure caloric. At different points between these, are the series of Davy and Children; the one gigantic in size, the other in number. In the deflagrator we have another variety, which, with respect to size and number, is susceptible of endless variation. It must be evident that no galvanic instrument, where a fluid is employed, could aid, or be aided by, the columns of De Luc or Zamboni. Nor could the influence of either be transmitted by the other. A calorimotor could not aid Davy’s great series; nor could the latter, act through a calorimotor. ‘Taking it for granted that there can be no oversight in your experiments, this incompatibility of ex- * See Memoir and engraving in this Journal for February, 1821. Also, in Tilloch’s magazine, and the Annals of Philosophy, for April and May, 1821, Vor. V.—No. 1. 14 106 = Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. citing power must exist to a great degree, under circum- stances where it could hardly have been anticipated. Were the fluid evolved by galvanic action purely elec- tric, the effect of batteries of different sizes, when united in one circuit, ought not to be less than would be produced if the whole of the pairs were of the smaller size. But if on the contrary, we suppose the voltaic fluid compounded of Caloric, light and electricity, so obviously collateral products of galvanic action; the ordinary voltaic series, employed in your experiments, may owe its efficacy more to electricity—and the deflagrator more to caloric. The peculiar potency of both may be arrested when they are joined, by the mcompetency of either series to convey any other compound than that which it generates. The supply of caloric from the ordinary series may be too small, that of electricity too large; and vice versa. It might be expected that each would supply the deficiency of the other; but itis well known that many principles will combine only when they are nascent. The power of iny large deflagrator (described in letter II.) in producing decomposition, is certainly very disproportional to its power of evolving heat and light. When wires proceed- ing from the poles were placed very near each other un- der water, it was rapidly decomposed; but when severally introduced into the open ends of an inverted syphon, filled with that fluid, little action took place : Potash is de- flagrated and the rosy hue of the flame indicates a decom- position. Still however the volatilization of the whole mass, and intense ignition of the metallic support, prove that the calorific influence is greatly and peculiarly predominant. I fear that in my essays on galvanic theory, the possible activity of light, has been too much overlooked. The cor- puscular changes which have been traced to the distinctive energies of this principle, are so few that we have all been in the habit, erroneously perhaps, of viewing it as an inert product in those changes, effected by caloric, electricity and chemical action, which it most strikingly characterizes, Yet reflecting on the prodigious intensity in which it has been extricated by the deflagrator, it seems wrong not to suspect it of being an effective constituent of the galvanic stream. Possibly its presence in varying proportions, may be. one reason of the incompatibility of the voltaic current as generated under different circumstances, or by. various Dr. Hare's Deflagrator, and Colorimotor. 107 forms of apparatus. It may also suggest, why in addition to changes in the force or nature of the sensation produced by the galvanic discharges which may be considered as de- pendent on electric intensity, peculiarities have been ob- . served. which are not to be thus explained. The effect on the animal frame, has been alleged to be proportional to the electrical intensity, the effect on metals to the quan- tity; but according to the observations of Singer (which are confirmed by mine) the electrical intensity is as great, with water as with acid, if not greater even than with the latter. The reverse is true of the shock. When the plates of the deflagrater are moistened, and withdrawn from the acid, the shock is far less powerful; yet the electrical ex- citement appear stronger. Light is undeniably requisite to vegetable life, perhaps it is no less necessary in the more complicated process of animal vitality, and the elec- tric fluid may be the mean of its distribution. The mirac- ulous difference observed in the properties of organic pro- ducts, formed of the same ponderable elements, may be - due to imponderable agents conveyed and fixed in them by galvanism. Hence it may arise, that the prussic acid in- stantaneously kills when applied to a tongue, containing the same ponderable elements. When by the intense de- composition of matter, light is always evolved; when an atom of tallow gives out enough of it to produce sensation in the retina of millions of living beings why may it not when presented in due form, influence the taste, and oth- erwise stimulate the nervous system. For such an office | its subtilty would seem to qualify it eminently. The phe- nomena of the fire-fly and the glow worm prove that it may be secreted by the process of vitality. The discovery of alkaline qualities, as well as acid, in organic products whose elements are otherwise found, whether separate or in combination, without any such qual- ities, and the opposite habitudes of acids and alkalies with the voltaic poles, and their power of combining with, and neutralizing each other; indicate that there may be some- thing adventitious which causes alkalinity and acidity, and that this something is of an imponderable character, and dependent on galvanism. In the number of your Journal for October last, I gave my reasons for believing in the existence of material im- 108 Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. pendemne principles, producing the phenomena of heat ight and electricity. ‘The coexistence of these principles in the medium around us, their simultaneous, or alternate agency and appearance, during many of the most important processes of nature, seem to me to sanction a conjecture, that as ingredients in ponderable substances they may cause those surprisingly active and wonderfully diversified properties usually ascribed to apparently inadequate chan- ges, in the proportions of ponderable elements. In obedience to your request, | have thus displayed the ideas at present awakened in my mind by these obscure and interesting phenomena. 1 am not willing to assume any responsibility for the correctness of my conjectures. Possibly they may excite in you farther and more correct speculations. Lerrer V.--From the Editor, to Prof. Robert Hare, M. D. Fusion or Cuarcoan, by the Deflagrator, with proofs of a current between the Poles. Yale College, New-Haven, May 10, 1822. My Dear Sir, In your memoir on your Galvanic Deflagrator, (p. 110. Vol. III. of this Journal,) when speaking of the ignition produced by that instrument, in charcoal points, you re- mark: ‘ If the intensity of the light, did not produce an optical deception, by its distressing influence upon the or- gans of vision, the charcoal assumed a pasty consistence, as if in a state approaching to fusion. ‘“‘ That charcoal should be thus softened without being destroyed. by the oxygen of the atmosphere, will not appear strange, when the power of galvanism in reversing chemical affinities is remembered ; and were it otherwise the air could have no access, first because of the excessive rarefac- tion, and in the next place as I suspect on account of the vol- atilization of the Carbon, forming about it a circumambient atmosphere. ‘This last mentioned impression arose from observing, that when the experiment was performed in va- cuo, there was a lively scintillation, as if the Carbon in an Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor.” 109°: aeriform state, acted as a supporter of combustion on the — metal.” This paragraph, at the time of perusing it, excited in my mind a lively interest, and a strong wish to see so fine a re- © sult, as the fusion of charcoal, confirmed by an experiment admitting of no question. What you threw out by way of — surmise, and without positively affirming it, I think Iam — now able to substantiate, During the three last weeks of March, I was much occu- — pied with your deflagrator. The medium of communica- tion, between the poles, was generally, charcoal prepared for the purpose, by intensely igniting pieces of very dry mahogany, buried in a crucible, beneath white siliceous sand. The pieces of charcoal thus prepared, were about half an inch in diameter, and from one and half inch, to three inches in length ; they were made, as usual, to taper to a point, and the cylindrical ends were placed in the sockets, connected with the flexible lead tubes, which form the polar termina- tions of the series. The metallic coils of the deflagrator, being immersed, on bringing the charcoal points into contact, and then with- drawing them a little, the most intense ignition took place, and I was surprised to observe, that the charcoal point of the positive pole, instantly shot out, in the direction of the longer axis, and thus grew rapidly in length; it usually in- creased, from the 10th to the 8th of an inch, and in some instances attained nearly 1-4th of an inch in length, before it broke off and fell. Yesterday and today, I have careful- ly repeated these experiments, and in no instance, has this shoot from the positive pole failed to appear. It continues to increase rapidly, as long as the contiguous points of char- coal are held with such care, that they do not strike against each other. When they impinge with a slight shock, then the projecting shoot or knob breaks off and falls, and is in- stantly succeeded by another. The form of the projecting shoot, is sometimes cylindrical, but more generally it is that of a knob, connected with the main piece of charcoal, by a slender neck, much resembling some stalagmites. It is al- ways a clear addition to the /ength of the charcoal, which does not suffer any waste except on the parts, laterally con- tiguous to the projecting point. 110 Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. The charcoal of the negative pole, in the mean time, under- goes a change precisely the reverse. Its point instantly disap- pears, and a crater-shaped cavity appears in its place; it suf- fers a rapid diminution in the direction of its length, and im- mediately under the projecting and increasing point of the positive pole ; but it is not diminished, or very little, on the parts laterally contiguous. If the point of the positive pole be moved over various parts of the contiguous negative charcoal, it produces a crater-shaped cavity over every place where it rests, for an instant. In every repetition of the experiment, (and the repetitions have been numerous, ) this result has invariably occurred. Jt appears as if the matter at the point of the negative pole was actually transferred to the positive, and that the accumulation there, is produced by a current flowing from the negative to the positive, or at least by an attraction exerted in that direction, and not in the other. li does not appear easy to reconcile this fact with any electrical or igneous theory. Tn order to ascertain whether the projection of the char- coal at the positive pole was caused by an actual transfer of carbon from the negative, a piece of metal was substituted for the charcoal at the negative pole, and when the two were brought into contact, the charcoal point of the positive pole remained unaltered in form, although a little shortened by the combustion. The experiments with the two charcoal points were varied by transferring, that at the positive end, (and on which a projection was already formed) to the op- posite pole, and that at the negative, and in which a corres- poinding cavity appeared, to the positive. The result was, that the cavity now placed at the positive pole, disappeared, and was immediately seen at the negative; while the projection, now placed at the negative pole, was transferred to the positive. ‘These experiments were seve- ral times repeated, and uniformly with the same result. They seem to leave no doubt, that there ts a current from the negative to the positive pole, and that carbon ts actually transferred by it in that direction ;* tf transferred, it must probably be in the state of vapour, since it passes through * Those who would contend for a current in the opposite direction, would probably say, that the projecting point of the positive pole, is formed trom the carbon, contiguous on the sides, and that the stream of heat burns the cavity in the opposite pole ; in ei/her way a current is proved. Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. 113 the ignited arch of flame, which is formed when the points are withdrawn a little distance; when it arrives at the pos- itive pole, it there concretes in a fluid, or at least in a soft or “pasty” state. But the most interesting thing remains yet to be stated, - On examining with a magnifier, the projecting point of the positive pole, it exhibited decisive indications of having un- dergone a real fusion. ’ The projecting point or knob, was completely different from the charcoal beneath. Its form was that of a collection of small spheres aggregated; exhibiting perfectly, what is called in the descriptive language of Mineralogy, botryoidal or mamillary concretions. Its surface was smooth and glos- sy, as if covered with a varnish; the lustre was metallic, the colour inclining to grey, exhibiting sometimes irides- cent hues, and it had entirely lost the fibrous structure. In short, in colour, lustre, and form, the fused charcoal bore the most striking resemblance to many of the beautiful stalacti- tical and botryoidal specimens} of the brown heematite. The pores of the charcoal had all disappeared, and the matter had become sensibly harder and heavier. I repeated the experiments, until I collected a considera~ ble quantity of these fused masses; when they were placed contiguously, upon some dark surface, with some pieces of charcoal near them, they appeared when seen through a. magnifier so entirely different from the charcoal, that they. would never have been suspected to have had any connex- ion with it, had it not been, that occasionally some fibres of the charcoal adhered to the melted masses. The melted and unmelted charcoal, differ nearly as much in their ap-_ pearance as pumice-stone and obsidian, and quite as much as common stones do, from volcanic scoriz, excepting only, in the article of colour. It is to be understood, that the ex- amination, isin every instance, made by means of a good mag- nifier, and under the direct light of the sun’s rays, as the dif- ferences are scarcely perceptible to the naked eye, especial- ly inan obscure light. The portions of melted charcoal, are so decidedly heavier than the unmelted, that when fragments of the two of a similar size are placed contiguously, the lat- ter may be readily blown away by the breath, while the former will remain behind ; and when the vessel, containing — the pieces is inclined, the melted pieces will roll with mo- 112 Seybert’s Analysis of various Minerals. mentum, from one side to the other in a manner, very simi- Jar to metallic substances, while the fragments of charcoal will either not move, or move very tardily. It should be observed, that during the ignition of the charcoal points, there is a peculiar odour, somewhat resem- bling electricity, and a white fume rises perpendicularly, forming a well defined line above the charcoal. There was also, a distinct snap or crackling when the two points were first brought together. Wishing to ascertain whether the Alkali, present in the charcoal, had any effect in promoting the fusion, some pieces of prepared charcoal, were thoroughly boiled in water, and were then again exposed to a strong heat in a furnace be- neath sand in a crucible. These pieces when connected in the circuit exhibited the same appearances as the others and proved equally fusible. Without destroying cabinet specimens, I could procure no diamond slivers, and have not therefore, attempted the fu- sion of the diamond, which must be left to another opportu- nity. Our circle of fusible bodies, so much enlarged by the use of your instruments, is now so nearly complete, that it would be very desirable to fill the only remaining niche, namely, that occupied by plumbago anthracite, and the dia- mond. I remain as ever, truly your friend and servant, B. SILLIMAN. P.S. Ido not suppose, that those who repeat these ex- periments, will succeed with the common galvanic appara~ tus. I deem it indispensable, that they be performed with the deflagrator, and with one equal in power to mine. Seybert’s Analysis of various Minerals. 113 Art. XIII.—Analysis of the Tabular spar, from the vicinity of Wilisborough, lake Champlain, and of the Pyroxene and Colophonite, which accompany it; by Henry Sry- BERT, Of Philadelphia. 1. Tabular spar. This mineral is white. Lustre, pearly and splendent. It appears to be composed of coarse granular portions inti- mately interwoven; on a close examination, they exhibit the appearance of hexagonal tables, striated on the surface, easily frangible in the direction of the striz, and have a cleavage in the opposite direction. Fragments highly trans- lucent. Scratches glass, but does not scintillate with steel. Does not phosphoresce when heated.* Specific gra- vity 2,884. Fusible, before the blowpipe, into a transpa- rent colourless vitreous globule. When boiled, with con- centrated nitric acid, it dissolves partially, and yields a so- lution, which precipitates abundantly with an oxalate, or an excess of sub-carbonate of soda. Analysis. A. 3 grammes of Tabular spar, finely pulverized, were exposed to a red heat, in a platinum crucible, the powder remained colourless, after the calcination the weight was 2. 97 grammes, therefore the diminution, due to moisture, amounts to 0. 03 grammes, on 3 grammes, or I. O per 100. B. The calcined mineral (A) was heated to redness, du- ring 30 minutes, with 9 grammes of caustic potash, in a silyer crucible, the mass when cold was treated with wa- ter and an excess of muriatic acid, the solution was of a light yellow colour, on evaporation it became gelatinous, the dry mass was treated with water, acidulated with muri- atic acid, and again moderately evaporated ; it was then treated with water and filtered, the Silica, remaining on the filter, after edulcoration and calcination, weighed 1.53 grammes on 3 grammes, or 51.0 per 100. * According to Mr. Hauy, Tableau Comparatif, p. 66, the Tabular spar from Dognazka is phosphorescent in the dark when scratched with steel ; Dr. Meade who discovered this mineral in the United States, in 1809, inform- ed me that recent specimens were likewise phosphorescent by friction. Vou. V.—No. I. 15 114 Seybert’s Analysis of various Minerals. C. After the separation of the Silica from the liquor (B,) the excess of acid was neutralized with ammonia,when treated with the hydro sulphate of ammonia, it produced a black precipitate ; this precipitate, washed and dried, was calcined, in order to volatilize the greater part of the sul- phur, it was then treated with a little nitric acid and expo- sed to a strong red heat, it then weighed 0.04 grammes on 3 grammes, or 1.333 per 100. This precipitate on ex- amination proved to be Alumina and Peroxide of Iron. D. When oxalate of Potash was added to the liquor (C,) a voluminous precipitate was formed, which on exposure to a high temperature, yielded 1.38 grammes of Lime on 3 grammes, or 46.0 per 100. E. The liquor (D,) after phosphate of soda and ammonia had been added to it, was boiled and was thus found to contain only a slight trace of Magnesia. This mineral is composed in 100 parts of A. Water - - 01.000 containing oxygen. B. Silica - - - 51.000 - - f C. Alumina and Oxide of Iron - - . 01.333 - - athe . Lame; = . - 46.000 - - 12.92 E. Magnesia - - atrace -— - iiiriaaiie 99.333 100.000 ‘ 000.667 This Tabular spar is, therefore, a Bisilicate of Lime, and its mineralogical formula is Ca S?. This substance, was by some mineralogists in America and in Europe, supposed to be Icthyopthalmite, whilst oth- ers considered it Tremolite. The above results prove, that its composition differs essentially from that of the minerals with which it had been confounded. On comparing the external characters with Karsten’s account of the Tafel- spath (a mineral until lately, found only at Dognazka in Hungary,) but more especially from its chemical vom- position, | determined it to belong to that species.“ The Tafelspath of Hungary is milk white, and consists of coarse granular hexaedral portions intimately interwoven. alter- nately channelled on the disjointed surfaces.” According to Seybert’s Analysis of various Minerals. 115 Klaproth, Hemgariar variety is constituted per 100 of Si- Nica 50.0, Lime 45.0, and Water 5.0.* The chief difference of my results, from those of Profes- sor Klaproth, concerns the water contained in the speci- mens respectively examined. M. Berzelius considers the water in this mineral as accidental, and observes-that some specimens contain no water.{ My statements are confirm- ed by an analysis of the Tabular spar, from Pargas, by M. Bonsdorff, of Albo;t his experiments gave the following re- results per 100, viz.—Silica 52.58, Lime 44.45. Magne- sia 0.68, Protoxide of Iron 1.13, Alumina a trace, Vola- tile matter 0.99. It is an interesting fact, that this mineral, whether found in Hungary, Sweden, or in the United States, is consiantly associated with substances of corresponding characters ; that of Dognazka is united with brown crystallized Garnets and blue calcareous spar: that of Pargas, with black sphene, an amorphous mineral, of a reddish colour, resembling Idocrase or Garnet, and small grains of a green substance, resembling Actynolite (probably Pyroxene :) that of the United States with Colophonite and Pyroxene. 2. Green Pyroxene. Colour emerald green, powder nearly white. Transpa- rent. Lustre, vitreous. Scratches glass. Has a cleavage. Granular, and is found imbedded in Tabular spar, accompa- nied by Colophonite, the grains are frequently compressed. Not magnetic. Specific gravity 3.377. Fusible, before the blowpipe, into a dark opaque globule. Analysis. A. 3 grammes of this mineral, having been selected with great care, Were reduced to an impalpable powder, and ex- posed to a red heat; the color of the powder underwent no alteration, there was therefore no absorption of oxygen ; the weight, after the calcination, was 2.98 grammes there- fore the moisture amounts to 0.02 grammes on 3 grammes, or 0.666 per 100. : * Beitreege, 3. p. 289. +t Nouveau Systeme Mineralogique, p. 28. t Annals of Philosophy, Oct. 1820. p, 300. 116 Seybert’s Analysis of various Minerals. B. The residue of the calcination (A,) was treated with caustic potash, as in the preceding analysis, it was then greenish yellow, and the water, which was used to detach it from the crucible, assumed a light green colour, hence a trace of Manganese. By the usual treatment, with an ex- cess of muriatic acid and the subsequent evaporation of the liquor, &c., the Silica obtained weighed 1.51 grammes on 3 grammes, or 53.333 per 100, C. After the excess of acid, of the liquor (B) was neu- tralized with ammonia, it was treated with the hydro-sul- phate of ammonia, the black precipitate thus produced, af- ter ignition and calcination with nitric acid, yielded 0.70 grammes of a residue, which, on being repeatedly treated with caustic potash, was found to consist of 0.664 grammes of Peroxide of Iron (but owing to the green colour of the mineral, the Iron must be estimated as a protoxide,) and the 0.664 grammes of peroxide an equivalent to 0.612 grammes of Protoxide on 3 grammes, or 20.40 per 100; and Alumina 0.046 grammes, on 3 grammes, or 1.533 per 100. D. The lime obtained by the calcination of the calcare- ous oxalate, which was produced by the addition of oxalate of potash to the liquor, (C) amounted to 0.58 grammes on 3 grammes, or 19.333 per 100. E. The Magnesia was precipitated in the liquor, (D) by Phosphate of Soda and Ammonia, the ammoniacal Phosphate of Magnesia thus formed, after being calcined, gave 0.56 grammes of phosphate of Magnesia, equivalent to 0.205 grammes of Magnesia on 3 grs. or, 6.833 per 100. Therefore the constituents of this mineral are, per 100 parts, A. Water, - - 0.666, containing oxygen, B. Silica, - - - 50.333, - - - B. Protoxideof Manganese,atrace —- - - —— C. Protoxide of Iron, - 20.400, - - - 04.64 C. Alumina, - - 01.533, - - ay Cena ee D. Lime, - - - 19.333, - - - 05.43 E. Magnesia, oat POeSOohi.ckaciie lee aaOenoed 99.098 100.000 000.902 Loss. Seybert’s Analysis of various Minerals. 117 On comparing the oxygen of the Silica, with that of the bases, it is evident, that it forms with them Bisilicates, and the mineralogical formula is MgS?-+2CaS?+2FeS2. 3. Colophonite, - Occurs frequently disseminated and imbedded with green Pyroxene in Tabular spar, sometimes it forms con- siderable veins in that mineral. Colour in mass, deep red- dish brown, in the state of powder it has a yellowish tinge. Irised on the outer surface. Lustre resinous. Granular, the single grains are highly translucent Fracture of the mass irregular, the grains have a cleavage. Scratches glass and scintillates with steel. Easily frangible. Not magnet- ic. Specific gravity, 3.896. Fusible before the blowpipe into an opaque black bead. Analysis. A. 3 grammes of the pulverized mineral after exposureto a redheat weighed 2.99 crammes thereforethe moisture dis- sipated by this treatment amounts to 0.01 grammes, on 3 grammes or 0.333 per 100. The protoxide of Iron absorb- ed no oxygen for the color was not altered. B. The calcined mineral, (A) when boiled with nitro- muriatic acid became gelatinous, yielding a solution of a reddish yellow colour, the whole was evaporated to a dry mass, it was then heated with water, acidulated with muriat- ic acid, and again moderately evaporated; the residue was treated with water and filtered, the Silica remaining, on the filter after being washed and heated to redness weighed 1.14 grammes on 3 grammes or 38.00 per 100. This product on examination proved to be free from Titanium. C The filtered liquor (B) was neutralized with caustic potash, the solution when heated with the hydro sulphate of potash gave a black precipitate which having been heated asin the analysis of the Tabular spar yielded a residue weighing 1.00 grammes, this was repeatedly calcined with 3 times its weight of caustic potash, no camelion having been produced, it was evident that the mineral! in question con- tained no manganese. After the entire separation of the Alumina was effected the Peroxide of Iron weighed 0.82 118 Bowen's Analysis of Calcareous Tungsten, &c. grammes. A portion of the Colophonite in the state of a fine powder;was treated with nitric acid and calcined, and be- came of a dark red colour, this shewed that the Iron exists in the state of a protoxide and the 0.82 grammes of peroxide are equivalent to 0.756 grammes of Protoxide on 3 gram- mes or 25.20 per 100. On estimating the Alumina contained in the Saline liquor by difference we have 0.18 grammes on 3 grammes or 6.0 per 100. : D. When oxalate of potash was added to the preceding liquor (C) a precipitate was formed, which after being wash- _ ed and strongly calcined gave 0.87 grammes of Lime on 3 grs. or 29.0 per 100. E. The liquor (D) was boiled with caustic potash, and was thus found to contain no Magnesia. The result of this analysis is thus, per 100 parts. A. Water, - - 00.333 containing oxygen, B. Silica, anivmk eggongne all ~ Jet Sent dngagy C. Protoxide of Iron, 25.200 - - - 05.73 C. Alumina, - - 06.000 - - - 02.80 D. Lime, - - 29.000 - - - 08.14 98.533 100.000 001.467 Loss. Therefore the mineralogical formula of this Garnet is AlS? + 2FeS4+ 3CaS. N. B. The results of my analysis of the Tabular spar, were communicated to the Academy of Natural Sciences the 5th of March, 1822. Art. XIV.—Analysis of the calcareous oxide of Tungsten, from Huntington. Con. By Georce T. Bowen. Turis mineral was discovered a short time since among some ores brought for examination by Mr. E. Lane. ‘The specimen submitted to analysis was massive. Its colour was yellowish gray—fracture small foliated—lustre resinous Bowen’s Analysis of Calcareous ‘Tungsten &e. 119 —brittle—is scratched by a knife—infusible before the blowpipe. The specific gravity of a pure piece was 5.98. It occurs in a gangue of quartz, associated with the ferru- ginous oxide of Tungsten.* Analysis. A. Distilled water digested upon the mineral in powder, dissolved nothing. It was then treated with ammonia, but no portion of it was dissolved. Fifty grains exposed for one hour to a high red heat in a platina crucible, lost noth- ing perceptible of their weight. B. One hundred grains of the mineral reduced to a fine powder were mixed with three times their weight of pure caustic potash and exposed for one hour to a moderate red heat ina crucible of pure silver. The contents of the cru- cible when removed from the fire, were of a blue colour resembling smalt. ‘The mass after having been digested with water was thrown on a filter and the insoluble powder repeatedly washed with distilled water. Upon this pow- der when collected, diluted muriatic acid was poured when it was entirely dissolved, with effervescence excepting .5. grains of silex. C. The muriatic solution was then evaporated to dry- ness, and the mass treated with distilled water, when there remained undissolved, one grain of a powder having a dark brown colour. Nitric acid when digested upon it, dissol- ved it in part and left .25 grain silex. The nitric solution was precipitated by ammonia; the precipitate when wash- ed and dried, weighed .74 grain. It was then treated with muriate of ammonia, to which a small quantity of sugar was added in order to separate the oxide of manganese.f The oxide of iron remaining undissolved amounted to .55 grains ; we have then by difference, oxide of manganese equal to .19 grain. D. The solution of the muriate in water was tested for iron, but none could be discovered. It was then decom- posed by carbonate of soda at a boiling heat; the precipi- * It is also accompanied by native bismuth, native silver, galena, sulphate of lead, and magnetic, and common pyrites. + This method of separating iron from manganese is recommended by Mr. Faraday. Jour. Royal Institution. VI. 357. 120 Bowen's Analysis of Calcareous Tungsten, $c. tate which was produced when collected and dried at a low red heat weighed 34.75 grains. It was redissolved in muriatic acid with effervescence, excepting .46 of silex, and again precipitated by sulphuric acid ; it was therefore car- bonate of lime. Deducting the .46 grain of silex, it amount- ed to 34.29 grains of carbonate, which equal 19.36 lime. E. The alkaline solution containing the tungstic acid was evaporated to dryness, when it appeared in the form of small crytalline grains. The mass being treated with water there remained undissolved a brown powder, which when dried, weighed 1.75 grain. Nitric acid dissolved the metallic oxides by which it was coloured, and left 1.13 grains of silex. The nitric solution was precipitated by ammonia, and the precipitate afterwards treated with mu- riate of ammonia as before, (C) when it was found to con- sist of oxide of iron .48 grain, and oxide of manganese .12. The results (in C and E) givea total of oxide of iron amount- ing to 1.03 grains and of oxide of manganese equal to .31 rain. F. The solution (E) was then decomposed by muriatic acid, and the precipitate which was produced collected and dried ata red heat; it assumed a yellow colour; and weigh- ed 76.25 grains. Liquid ammonia when digested upon it dissolved it almost entirely, leaving .20 grain of silex. The ammoniacal solution when evaporated yielded white needle form crystals, which became of a yellow colour when calcined. They were completely redissolved in am- monia, and again precipitated by acids. This powder was therefore the tungstic acid. Deducting the 20 grains of silex, it amounted to 76.05 grains. The results (in B. C. D. E. and F.) give a total of silex amounting to 2.54 grains. One hundred grains of the calcareous oxide of Tungsten consist, according to this analysis of Tungstic acid, - - - 76.05 Lime, - - - - ut 11,9538 Silex, - - - - - 2.54 Oxide of Iron, - . - : 1.03 Oxide of Manganese, = - - - 0.31 99.29 100.00 000.79 Loss. Wet or damp clothes, good conductors of Taghining. 121 * * * * * * * The calcareous oxide of Tungsten of which the above is an analysis exists pure and is uncontaminated by any for- eign substances. ‘There however occurs in the same mines a tungstate of lime, mechanically mixed with the native massive oxide of Tungsten, mentioned in the American Journal of Science, Vol. IV. p. 187. The native oxide, in minute veins, is disseminated through the tungstate of lime, and is easily distinguished by its bright orange co- lour, from the calcareous oxide, which colour is yellowish gray. When the powder of this mineral is treated with warm ammonia, the native oxide is dissolved, while the tungstate of lime remains unaffected. iW : _' The yellow oxide of tungsten occurs also disseminated in a pulverulent form in cavities and fissures in the ferrugin- ous tungsten of Mr. Lane’s mine. See Vol. IV. p. 52 and 187 of this Journal. nn eee EEEEIEINN IE OnenrnennnRERREREERERERORnnena Art. XV.—Wet or damp clothes, good conductors af lightning. Illustrated in the case of John Wilhams Esq. of Conway, Massachusetts. - [Communicated for this Journal by the Rev. Edward Hitchcock. | Ir the following statement communicated to me by J. Williams Esq. be thought subservient to the cause of hu- manity or science, it is offered for insertion in the Ameri- can Journal of Science. : Sept. 2nd, 1816, about sun-set a violent thunder storm arose from the north-west; and for more than three hours, the heavens were in an almost constant blaze. Mr. Wil- liams was standing in the front door of his house, in Con- way, with his face directed southerly ; when he was thrown senseless on the floor by a stroke of the lightning. Itseems the fluid first entered the roof of his house a few feet above his head, passed down the right hand side of the door, tearing off the ceiling—entered his right shoulder, went along his right arm to the hand—then struck his right hip, and running spirally down the back part of his thigh till it reached the knee, the main part of the charge passed into the left leg and went out through the sole of the shoe while Vot. V.....No. I. 16 122 Wet or damp clothes, good conductors of lightning. the residue of the charge, followed down the right leg. The charge entered the wall of the cellar and made a rent there- in, Marks of the lightning were also visible at the north- west angle of the house; where, the ceiling of the kitchen was torn off, a plank split in a well room, and two furrows ploughed in the earth; one of which, passed under a Lom- bardy poplar tree, standing in the door yard. The right sleeve of Mr. W’s shirt and coat, both legs of his pantaloons, and the stocking on his left leg, were torn almost entirely open, and so mutilated several inches in width, as to hang in shreds and threads, appearing as if drawn across a hetch- el. His coat was seersucker, (cotton and silk,) and the lin- ing, striped linen—his shirt was linen—the pantaloons Nankeenet or (linen and cotton,) and the stockings, cotton. One of the quarters of the left shoe was torn off—the sole much mutilated, and a hole perforated in it, as if a large nail had been driven through it. Another circumstance important to be noticed, is, that his clothes were a little wet; he having been exposed to the storm in Its commencement. Mr. W. remained senseless a few minutes, and says that the sensation he experienced while resuscitating, is faintly described by comparing it with that of Gautimozin when stretched upon the burning coals. Indeed the first impres- sion on his mind, which he recollects, was, that he was actu- ally immersed in the ‘furnace of fire,” described in the sa- cred scriptures. His right arm was scorched its whole length —a spot several inches in diameter on his right hip—spaces on both legs below the knees and on the left foot, and his feet were benumbed for several days. His senses soon re- turned, and after the fiery anguish above named, little pain was felt, and in a fortnight, or three weeks, he was restored to usual health. A candle burning at the time of the stroke near the centre of the west room in Mr. W’s house was extinguished ; and it was found difficult to relight it. The usual sulphurous smell was noticed. On the south and west sides of Mr. W’s house, were sev- eral Lombardy poplar trees sixty or seventy feet high, ris- ing thirty or forty feet above his house, which was one story and an half. One of these trees is not more than six feet from the spot where the lightning first struck, and yet, nei- Wet or damp clothes, good conductors of lightning. 123 ther this tree nor any of the others were affected. It ought however to be mentioned that there is an iron bolt, six inch- es long, in the top of the post near the door of the house, and perhaps this attracted the fluid. - Query. Are not Lombardy poplars worse conductors of lightning than other timber, and therefore less valuable near dwellings ? Mr. W.’s house stands nearly at the foot on the west side of a steep rocky hill of mica slate, two or three hundred feet high. I would make the enquiry, whether, in this part of our country, (as most of our thunder storms pass from west to east,) the western side of mountains is not more fre- quently struck with lightning than the eastern? For, before the clouds reach the eastern side of hills, are they not usual- ly in a good measure discharged? A person examining Mr. Williams’ clothes, which were mu- tilated in the manner described above, and which are still carefully preserved, would not suppose it possible for him to have escaped with his life. I feel satisfied that he owes his life to the circumstance that his garments were slightly wet. To support this opinion, I make the following ex- tracts from Dr. Franklin’s letters to P. Collinson Esq. Third London edition, pa. 36 and 47. ‘“‘ Electrical fire loves water, is strongly attracted by it, and they can subsist together.” . “¢Tt is safer to be in the open field (during a thunder storm) for another reason. When the clothes are wet, if a flash in its way to the ground should strike your head, it will run in the water over the surface of your body ; whereas if your clothes were dry, it would go through the body.” “‘Hence a wet rat cannot be killed by the exploding elec- trical bottle, when a dry rat may.” These facts, at first view, appear conclusive on this point. Iam aware however, that Mr. W’s clothes were all non-conductors, and “‘that the fluids of the human body are better conductors of electricity than water.” (Rees Cyclo- ped. Art. Electrical.) It does not appear, however, from the experiment of Rees referred to, that animal fluids, while. they remain in the system, are better conductors than water. But I will not enlarge—If the opinion I have advanced be not tenable, let it be abandoned: for the truth on this sub- ject may be of some consequence. Remarks by the Editor of the Journal would be very acceptable. ie 124 Wet or damp clothes, good conductors of ligntning. REMARK. The Editor entirely coincides with the Rev. Mr. Hitch- cock, in opinion as to the cause of the preservation of Mr. W lliams’ life. It occurs to him however that as Mr. Wil- liaims’ clothes were but slightly wet, his skin was probably dry. Although therefore the animal fluids may be better con- ductors than water, yet the dry cuticle or skin, is not a good conductor, and therefore the electrical current preferred to take its course through the moisture in the clothes rather than to force its way through the skin to the animal fluids. We subjoin Mr. Williams’ own minute of the facts, for al- though substantially embraced in Mr. Hitchcock’s account— the relation of the sufferer himself has in it interesting traits of verisimilitude. Description of the Plate annexed. No. 1. Mr, W.’s Pantaloons as torn by the lightning. — 2, ———— Stocking. -- 3. ———— Shoe exhibiting the perforation in the sole, — 4, ———— Quarter of the shoe torn off. — 5,——_—— Coat sleeve. — 6.———— Shirt sleeve; 13° A weeping willow. . Tall Lombardy poplars. Sy Doors that were so far open. B. 3. 3. Furrows ploughed in the ground by the lightning. 2. The position of J. W. when struck down—he was looking to the south east—the first of the fluid on the house was at the bottom course of shin- gle splitting four inches—then started off the eave trough 20 feet in length— then stripping off the post and door casings and some of the outside cover- ing—took my right shoulder below the joint, burning and scorching to the end of the sleeve, then the right hip burning seven inches square, then down the inside of the lower limbs with a streak of the burning to the knees, burning, on the inside of the right leg, the bigness of a hand, and left the leg, leaving two holes through the stocking—from the left knee to three inches below, no burn—then burning down to the heel and under it, and blistering the lap of the left foot half the surface of it and stripping the clothes in a manner not easily described—I was thrown prostrate, my head to the east, my face to the north, senseless—the length of time, I am not able to ascer- tain, nor to describe the sensation on coming to, my legs were so benumbed as to be useless, and so remained till the lancet was used, which gave some relief. The physician wet cloths in the oil of terabinth through the night and kept them on for four days, when the fire was principally extracted—I was compelled to lie nine days on the left side—the 12th sat up half aday at . times, and the 14th began to walk. ((_} Table on which a large candle was burning, which was put out by the fluid, and which afterwards it was difficult to light. Mrs. Wil- liams standing at the east end of the table at the time of the shock, It was Suspended Animation by drowning. 125 powerful on the left ear for three or four hours, Jt caused in the head a ring- ing like the ringing of tumblers. The residue of the family, three children, were in bed in the chambers, and not otherwise affected than by a start by the report. : A neighbour six rods distant standing at his door was stunned and falling, but was caught by his family. ‘ Another family in a small building two rods distant only affected by the report—at the north-West corner of the room, a large heavy table and chair moved two feet from the wall, the whole ceiling started. The fluid passed down after leaving my body, between the sill and a stone step through the wall and four feet downwards throwing off much pointing. The dotted line the south side shews the course of the fluid on the cellar wall—the residue its course on the sill, floor or plank on the north side, west on the ground in- juring the house and furniture more or less. I had been out in a little dash of rain ten minutes before the shock—the clothes were moist. Several strokes of lightning apparently from the same explo- sion. Extract of a letter to the Editor from Gen. Epuraim Hoyt, dated, Deerfield, Mass. July, 21, 1821. One question in Electricity and I have done. Have you any certain proofs that lightning strikes at several places (say from twenty to forty rods distance) at the same instant. In a late thunder shower a tree in my garden three rods from my house, a post in a fence twenty rods distant and a walnut tree in the meadow forty rods distant were struck as we suppose at the same instant. The shock was tre- mendous, and I believe the tree in my garden saved my house and probably our lives. Iam of opinion that the lightning ascended. I am sometimes puzzled to account for Electrical Phenomena on known laws and am not cer- tain of the efficacy of rods though I believe them useful in many cases. : Art. XVI.—Relation of a case of suspended animation by drowning ; by Lockwoop W. Smitu. Read at the annual examination in the Medical Institution of Yale College, March, 1822. { have selected this as a subject for the present disserta- tion. First, because it came under my own observation.— 126 Suspended Animation by Drowning. Secondly, because one remedy was made use of which f have not found in authors upon this subject—And _ thirdly, because I think electricity which is disapproved of by most authors, and more from theory than experience was used in this case with obvious advantage. The remedy to which I refer as the one not mentioned by authors, is Tincture of Cantharides in form of injection. This however having been applied at the same time with remedies that are re- commended by writers in general, renders it utterly impos- sible to determine whether it had any effect in the case or not. Yet this certainly is the fact that it was followed by no ill consequence, but on the contrary with the recovery of the patient ; the sole thing aimed at in the administration of any medicine. The principle of life appears, in cases of drowning, not to be entirely extinguished, but to be merely suspended for a certain length of time. And it is capable, if proper means be employed within that length of time, of being again ex- cited to action. How long after drowning, this principle re- mains in a state of mere suspension we knew not, nor in- deed in any case of suspended animation, are we absolutely sure of death, until symptoms of putrefaction make their ap- pearance. This then implies that in every case where these symptoms are not present, we should immediately, upon the body being found, make every possible effort to restore it to life. The method which I am about to describe was prasticed by the late Dr. Strong, of Petersburg (Va.) and although I was at the time, unacquainted with medicine, still I think I shall be able to state the treatment with a sufficient degree of accuracy. I will omit the particular circumstances of the accident and merely mention that six persons, of which number I was one, were overset from a boat in Appomatox River. Five, with difficulty, reached the shore, while the other having been caught under the boat, remained in the water. We soon procured another boat, but such were the circum- stances, that it was nearly, if not full half an hour before we were enabled to reach the shore with the body. One was immediately sent to inform the friends of the accident, while the remaining four were employed in conveying the body to the nearest house. Happily for the young man Suspended Animation. by Drowning. 127 the person sent to inform the friends, met on his way the Physician before mentioned, and to him he of course com- municated the accident. Dr. Strong being near his home, immediately took his Electrical machine and proceeded to the house where he found us just arrived with the body. I do not recollect the appearance of the body any farther than that the face was of a dark colour, and as far as we could perceive, life completely extinguished. Dr. Strong adopted the following active means —He first ordered the body to be stripped of the wet clothes and at the same time a bed to be prepared with woollen blankets thoroughly warmed with a common bed pan, and in addition to these he directed a kettle of warm water. As soon as the clothes were off, he wiped the body with a flannel cloth, and laid it between the warm blankets. He then observed that ap- pearances were very much against him, and he was doubt- ful whether he should succeed. Fortunately however, he did not despair, but still persevered in the application of his remedies. While he was preparing the electricity he directed the body to be rubbed with flannel cloths. He then passed the electric sparks twice in succession through the shoulders and at the same time friction was continued over the whole body, but more particularly about the tho- rax. The lungs were next inflated by means of the common bellows. All this Dr. Strong observed had no effect. The water by this time was sufficiently warm for his purpose, and of which he took about a pint; to this he added a small quantity of Brandy, with about half a table spoon full of Tinct. Cantharides, and gave it per an. ‘The tempe- rature of the water I do not know. The body in an erect posture, was next conveyed towards the fire, while the bed was again prepared with warm blankets, and the body re- turned. The electricity was a second time applied, and was immediately followed by a convulsive sigh. I was at this time rubbing the breast with a flannel cloth and could perceive a convulsive effort within the thorax which I sup- posed to be the first returning throb of the heart, and which was repeated three or four times. ‘The lungs were again inflated, and this also was immediately followed by a con- vulsive effort to breathe, and by an evident palpitation of the heart. The surface of the body was quite warm at this time, and the friction was consequently discontinued. Air 128 Natural History of the Ocean, &¢. was a third time blown into the lungs and was followed by a discharge of water from the mouth and nostrils. Aqua ammonie was applied to the nose, and volatile linament to the breast and back. The person soon began to breathe with tolerable freedom, and was able to swallow some warm cordial ; a small quantity of blood was now taken, and he was the next day conveyed home to his friends. New-Haven, March 25th, 1822. Art. XVII.—On the Natural History of the Ocean, with two sea journals. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. New-York, April, 2, 1822. My Dear Sir, A suort time ago, my friend, C. A. Davis, Esq. handed to me a journal kept on board the U. S. Ship Columbus, Com. Bainbridge. Upon comparing it with one that I kept on my passage from Liverpool to New-York, I was induced to turn my attention to the waters of the Ocean— and have drawn up a paper on its Natural History, which I now offer to you. I! have of course been obliged to con- sult several works and papers, from which I have selected such information as accorded with my design. I place both journals at your disposal. With much respect, I have the honor to be ' Very truly, yours, , JER. VAN RENSSELAER. Colour.—Deep indigo blue—green on soundings ;—these tints being most distinctly marked in the tropics. In the polar regions, the waters are greenish. Near the Cape of Good Hope, the sea has a reddish tinge, in the month of March, from marine animals: the same appearance is pro- duced by the same cause at the mouth of the river Plate. Admiral Byron observed this on his passage to Rio Janei- ro. The bay of California is red, in parts, from the abun- Natural History of the Ocean, &c. 129 dance of red fish. Near Sumatra and on the coast of Chili, the water seems red from a minute vegetable substance that floats in it. Temperature.—At the Equator, the surface water is 80°; Farenh. ; at 28 N. Lat. it is 68°; at 47 N. Lat. it is 58°; in the arctic regions it is about 30°; diminishing as the latitude increases. The temperature, at a considerable depth, is higher on approaching a coast; but ata distance from land it dimin- ishes as the depth increases. When the atmosphere is 50° ; and the surface water 40°; it will be perhaps only 25° at the depth of 50 fathoms. The reverse of this was supposed to be true in lakes, but the late experiments of M. de la Beche, prove the Swiss Lakes to agree in this particular with the variations of ocean temperature. The diminution of temperature on the banks of New- foundland is so great, that the thermometer may justly be considered as an indicator of the approach to land on the east coast of the U. States. ie The Gulf Stream is about 15° warmer than the surround- ing bed of the ocean. Summary— 1. The temperature of the ocean diminishes from the Equator to the Polar regions. : 2. It decreases near Islands and Continents. 3. It diminishes in wide seas, according to the depth from which it is drawn: except in the polar seas, where the reverse obtains. 4. It is less on sand banks. Did, Remarks.—It is owing to the extreme mildness and equa- bility of temperature enjoyed by the ocean and superna- tant atmosphere, that the good effects are derived from sea air in pulmonary complaints: and not from the saline hu- midity of the air, as has been asserted. This circumstance has not been sufficiently insisted upon by medical men, We may learn from it the utility of sending patients on a voyage into the wide ocean, where the air is not affected by the various changes on land; we may also see the inu- tility of coasting voyages for consumptive persons. Specific Gravity.—The experiments of the celebrated Capt. Scoresby, Dr. Marcet, and Dr. ‘Traill sanction the following inferences. 1. The sp. gr. of the waters of the Atlantic decreases from the Equator tothe poles: being at the Equator 1.0295 ; Vou, V.—WNo. }. 17 130. Natural History of the Ocean, &c. and in N. Lat. 66°-1.0259, according to Scoresby: but 1.020, according to Capt. Ross. ' 2. The sp. gr. increases with the depth from which it is drawn. : 3. The Mediterranean sea has a greater sp. gr. than the Atlantic. 4. The water of the Baltic has a less sp. gr. than the At- lantic, being 1.014. Capt. Scoresby found that the uniformity in the increas- ing density of ocean waters, was interrupted by the influ- ence of ice. The 2nd inference is from many experiments on sea wa- ter drawn from different depths, and which were found uni- form, except when interrupted by partial currents or the influence of ice. The density increasing with the depth of the ocean, Dr. Brewster attributes to the “ imperfect elas- ticity of water, preventing its particles, when compressed by the superincumbent column, from regaining their ori- ginal condition, when the pressure is removed.” Remarks.—In making experiments upon the density of sea water, Scoresby’s Marine Diver is the only instrument calculated to procure it with certainty, from any given depth. For the mechanical compression of water, the Ba- thometer of our countryman Perkins should be used. ‘“ In this machine, water, inclosed in a brass tube, the sides of which need not exceed one tenth of an inch in thickness, is compressed by a solid piston, sliding in a leathern collar, and acted on by the superincumbent column when sunk in the depths of the ocean.”? (Brand’s Journal, and this Jour- nal V. III. p. 347. Depth.—It is supposed by Hydrographers, and with ap- parent probability, that the inequalities of the bottom of the ocean are equal to those on the surface of the land. From 1774 to 1785, Cook was endeavouring to find sound- ings in the Pacific with 250 fathoms of line. Scoresby has - used 1200 fathoms in the arctic seas, without finding bot- tom. Near to land the depth varies according to the elevation of the coast—if this be steep, the water is usually deep, and the anchorage bad. . Remark.—The sounding line generally used, is inaccu- rate. The best machine for this purpose, is one invented by Massy, now constantly used in the English Navy, with. Natural History of the Ocean, &c. 131 which they may sound 80 fathoms, while the vessel is go- ing three miles per hour. Saltness of the Sea.—Varies in different latitudes and lo- calities. In the Tropical and Polar regions, the saltness is the same, diminishing gradually on either side to the tem- perate. In bays, arms, and at the mouths of rivers, the water contains less salt. It is doubtful if the saltness does not vary with the depth. The salt is deposited when sea water freezes. The Mediterranean is salter than the Atlantic ; the Bal- tic less salt. Generally speaking, the saline matter of the Atlantic is from three to four per cent. say in 1000 grains of sea wa- ter are the following, viz. :— Muriate of Soda, - - 30.80 Magnesian Salts, - - - 04.00 Sulphate of Lime, —- - 00.80 35.60 or 3.56 per cent. Sea Ice.—Sea water freezes ‘at 28°. Buffon doubted if it ever froze. Sea ice varies in colour from white and grey, to greenish and sappharine. Its forms are various presenting every shape which fancy can create. Scoresby notices sixteen kinds, known among sailors. Sea ice when melted affords fresh water. Mountains of ice have been seen on the banks of Newfoundland, above 2,000 miles from the place of its formation. They are heavier than the water, and only one eighth appears above the surface. Their approach is known by the effect they produce on the atmosphere—and by the ice-blink, a luminous appear- ance in the air above them. — It is supposed that the poles are surrounded by ice, which prevents access to them. The nearest approach to the North Pole has been the lati- tude of 82°, or within 510 miles. The nearest approach to the South Pole, has been latitude 72, by Cook, or within 1130 miles. It is a matter of conjecture if either pole will ever be visited. Motions of the Sea, are of three kinds, viz :— I. Motion of Waves. II. Motion of Currents. III. Mo- tion of Tides. 1. The motion of waves is preserved by the law of grav- itation ; the sinking of one wave raising others. It is not known how deep the sea is agitated: divers say to a great 133 Natural History of the Ocean, &c. depth; but it is estimated to extend only fifteen fathome below the surface. According to Boyle’s experiments, the wind never affects the water lower than six feet; so that in a calm, the waves of the ocean never exceed twelve feet. In equatorial regions, the waters must be more agitated than in the polar regions, from the centrifugal force. When the water is very deep, waves have no progressive motion, but remain in situ: but if the bottom is rocky, and not very deep, the waves are interrupted, sent back, and form break- ers. Oil spread on the surface of the sea, smooths the water, in some measure, as was noticed by Dr. Franklin; and among the ancients by Aristotle, Pliny, and Plutarch, who mentions that the divers took oil in their mouths, and let it out when under the water, to smooth the surface above them. In the Bermudas, oil is now used to render the wa- ter clear for fishing. Dr. Forster at sea in 1797 saw that the grease thrown overboard by the Cook affected the water to a great dis- tance ; and throwing overboard a quantity of oil, he found that it calmed all that portion of the waters. He adds, a teaspoonful spread over several yards: and explains the effect by saying, that the wind could not get a purchase to raise the first rimples, which by increasing, become waves. Il. Motion of Currents. 1. Equinoctial currents. Between the Tropics there is a constant motion of the sea from east to west, at the rate of nine or ten miles in the twenty-four hours, which seems caused by the trade winds. Commencing on the West coast of America, and running with great violence to the east coast of Africa, thence on Asia, and again back to the east coast of America. Its course 1s determined by the land it meets with, and, accommodating itself to the coast, seems to have assisted in forming the Bay of Bengal: whence it runs to the Coromandel coast between Ceylon and Asia. 2. Polar currents, running to the Equator, are mention- ed by Humboldt, and Scoresby, witha velocity of from one to three miles an hour. Their temperature is lower than the surrounding ocean. 3. Upper and under currents; or counter currents, ap- pear in gulphs, bays and enclosed seas. The Atlantic flows ato the Mediterranean superficially, while the surplus wa- Natural History of the Qcean, &. 133 ters are carried out below. Between the sea of Marmora and the Euxine these currents exist. Similar motions have been observed at the entrance of the Persian gulf: though the existence of counter currents is not well established. 4. The Gulf Stream. It is characterised by its higher temperature,—its blue deeper than the ocean—its waters more salt—with an atmosphere finer and lighter. It per- forms a circuit of 3,800 leagues in two years and ten months. The anecdote of the tree from Honduras, mentioned by Humboldt is well known. American trees are yearly de- posited on the coast of Ireland. Wind increases the velo- city of the stream. It is recorded that the Filbury, Eng- lish man of war, was burnt near Jamaica, and that the masts were found near Scotland. The bowsprit of the Little Belt was conveyed nineteen months ina northern direc- tion to the mouth of the B roads. _ Wallace says that in 1682, Ksquimaux in leathern canoes came to the Orkney Islands. III. Motion of the tides. The tides are periodical os- cillations of the sea, caused by the sun and moon; but more particularly by the latter. The waters rise highest when the sun and moon are in conjunction and in opposition: the two surfaces being then raised, and producing a more sphe- roidal form even in the equatorial diameter. (Enf. prop. CLXXIV.) The moon’s attraction is nearly three times greater than that of the sun. Between the tropics the tides set eastward ; in the north- ern frozen ocean they are weak; of the antarctic nothing is known. The highest tides are on the coast of France, where they are driven from the English coast, and rise seven or eight fathoms. Luminousness of the Sea, is more evident at particular times and places. Vespucius was the first modern who no- ticed it. Bacon observed it, and Boyle collected theories to account for it. In 1703 it first attracted attention, and there is a letter, dated that year from Genoa to Paris, stating that the sea had been Juminous fourteen nights, which the learned societies in Paris did not believe. Four causes have been assigned for it. 1. Absorbed solar light. 3. Electricity. 2. Marine animals. 4, Decayed animal, and ve- getable matter. 134 Natural History of the Ocean, &c. 1. Absorbed solar light. Wilson of Edinburgh made many experiments to ascertain if this was true. He found that water retained this property when it had been covered with oil, or when drawn from a great depth. Surface water exposed to the sun’s rays retained it. The electronometer did not affect it. Many substances on land absorb light, and travellers in warm climates are often benefitted by the emission of it. Gregg mentions a man who could read in the dark—and another who couid do the same after drinking wine. 2. Marine animals. Dr. Forster, Oct. 29, 1772, off the Cape of Good Hope, near the shore in a storm, observed every wave to present a luminous crest; and that there was a phosphoric line on the sides of the ship where the waves broke. He also saw large luminous bodies moving in the water, and found that they were fishes; and that when near each other, the small ones swam from the larger. On examining a bucket of water, the luminous particles sub- sided ; but the same property was manifested on agitation. These particles were animals, globular, gelatinous, brown- ish, and transparent. On the coast of Malabar they are very brilliant. ‘There are several species of animals engaged in this phenomenon: but chiefly two—the Medusa and Acti- nia. ‘lhe former are microscopic, and abundant in warm climates—the latter occasionally exhibit a remarkably strong phosphorescence. Sir Jos. Banks mentions a crustacea which emitted light equal in quantity and lustre to that of the glow worm. 3. Electric luminousness is seen in the wake of ships, like stars and globules: sometimes extending over a great part of the ocean. In the Indian seas, it forebodes a change of weather. 4. Decayed animal and vegetable substances frequently become phosphorescent; and produce on agitation, the most brilliant light. It is useless to specify, where so ma- ny possess this property.* * Since finishing this paper, ] have seen in the Edinburgh Philos. Journal a notice of a paper on the ‘‘ Luminosity on the sea,’’ by Dr. MacCulloch, published in the Quarterly Journal of Science and Arts :—and of another paper on the same subject by Dr. Murray, in the 3d Vol. of the Trans. of the Wernerian Society; which I believe have not yet reached this coun- try—at least I have not had an opportunity of seeing them. Natural History of the Ocean, &c. 135 - Water Spouts.—At one period they were supposed to be Valuanié: Berthollet and Franklin thought them electric: the clouds and water mutually attracting each other, and they thought their idea was confirmed by the accompany- ing lightning. Oliver supposed them occasioned by the suction of a cloud. Perhaps the nearest approach to truth is the supposition of the Hon. Capt. Napier. He supposes” that many opposite currents of wind, all pointing to a cer- tain centre; and coming in contact with each other, with unequal forces, cause a rotary motion or current of them- selves round a central space, which, not partaking of an equal, or its former pressure, naturally becomes rarified by the existing heat, to such an extent, that it speedily acquires a state in a great degree approximating to that of a vacuum. This continued rotary motion of the air forms a kind of whirlwind: and the pressure of the external atmosphere at the base, forcing the water to a reasonable height up the rarified space within, it is then carried upwards by the me- chanical action of the wind, in light and unconnected streaks. The space at the bottom now becoming void, is reguiarly replenished by the pressure from without, til the whole spout is perfectly completed. The water having now arrived at the region of the clouds, it is naturally attracted, diffused and connected’ with and among them ; increasing in density and extent, till the low- er atmosphere becoming now lighter than the clouds above, these enormous masses, gradually settling downwards, dis- - tend, burst, and are dissipated in rain. A notice of the inhabitants of the ocean belongs. more particularly to the zoologist. I shall give only two extracts — tending to show the immense number of minute animals in the Greenland seas. They will at the same time exhibit the close investigation and research of that accurate obser- ver, Capt. Scoresby. On examining some olive green water, he found the num- ber of meduse to be immense. They were about one fourth of aninch asunder. In this proportion, a cubic inch of wa- ter must contain sixty-four: a cubic foot 110,592; a cubic fathom 23,887,872; and a cubical mile 23,888,000,000,- 000,000. It may give a better conception of the amount of meduse in. this extent, if we calculate the length of time that would be requisite, with a certain number of persons, 136 Natural History of the Ocean, &c. for counting this number. Allowing that one person could count a million in seven days, which is barely possible, it would have required that 80,000 persons should have start- ed at the creation of the world, to complete the enumeration at the present time, (1820.) (Account of the arctie regions. Vol. Il. p. 179. In examining the colouring matter of a yellowish green water, he found it to be animalcules—~“‘ Some advancing at the rate of ;1,th of an inch in a second, others spining round with great celerity. But the progressive motion of the most active, however distinct and rapid, it appeared under a high magnifying power, did not in reality exceed an inch in three minutes. At this rate it would require one hundred and fifty-one days to travel a nautical mile. A condor, it is generally believed, could fly round the globe at the equator, in a week; these animalcules, in still water, would not ac~ complish the same in less than 8955 years. The vastness of their numbers, and their exceeding mi- nuteness are circumstances of uncommon interest. Ina drop of water, examined by a power of 28,224 (magnified superfices) there were fifty in number, on an average, i each square of the micrometer glass, of ;1,th of an inch in diameter: and as a drop occupied a circle on a pane of glass containing 529 of these squares, there must have been in this single drop of water, about 26,450 of these animalcules. Hence reckoning sixty drops to a dram, there would be in a gallon of water, a number exceeding by one half, the amount of the population of the whole globe. The diameter of the largest of these animalcules, was only 3,5,th of an inch— and many only ;,';5th of aninch. ‘The army which Buon- aparte led into Russia, in 1812, estimated at 500,000 men, would have extended, in a double row, or two men abreast, with two feet three inches for each pair of men, a distance of 1063 English miles. The same number of these ani- malcules, arranged in asimilar way, but touching each oth- er, would only reach 5 feet 21 inches! A whale requires a sea, an ocean to sport in: about 150,000,000 of these animalcules would have abundant room ina tumbler of water. Natural History of the Ocean, &c. 137 Extract from a Journal kept on board the Ship Hector, Capt. Gillander, on a passage from Liverpool to New- York, in Dec. 1819, and Jan. 1820, By J. V. R. Temp. of water. Long., Temp. W. \ of aar. 8°20’ | 52 52 This had been the state of the air 2151°°36! | 9° 52 51-4 jand water for several days;—we 3/50°-50' | 9:30 52 51 {left Liverpool, Nov. 26th, but as 4| 49-56 | 10: 52 52 there had been no variation in the 5| 48°32 | 11: 53 56 |Thermometer; its state is now first 6| 47°16 | 15-42 | 53 57 noted. 7| 46:30 | 20: 54 57 8| 46°51 56 58 9 57 58 No observation. j0| 46:35 | 25: 61 59 11] 46-8 | 28:30.| 58 62 12| 45:16 | 31:30 58 61 13] 44:40 | 35:20 | 60 63 14 62 63 No observation. 15| 43°15 | 43:32 62 63 16] 43:1 63 66 At8 A. M. 55 64 At 10 A. M. 53 52-4 At noon. 52 50 At4P.M. 50 46 At8 P.M. 17) 42:30 50 46 18] 41-51 | 54. 48° 45-4 56 | 63 At4P. M. 49) 41-41 | 58> 45 | 56 20) 41-40 | 62: 47 49 21 63:30 | 46 58 22 50 68 23] 41-5 ' 53 68 24\- li (52) 10 No observation. 25 61 val Do. Do. 25 54 57 Do. Do. 36°3| 54 26| 40-4 | 67: 38 58 5 44 50 27 41 67° 44 46 28] 40:5 37 43 38 45 At4 P.M. 29; 39:18 |—_—_——_| 39 ..|. 58 40 59 At4 P.M. 30| 40:15 |———_|__ 42 98-4 31 a A 30 No observation. Jan. 1j- pa) AN Q7T-4 Do. Do, 9)'40:26 |\——_—|_ 31° 40 3/39-40 |———__ 29 39 A|- a a) 40 Do. Do. 5} 40°1 |———_|_ 32 39 6 ——| 29 40 ; 7 32 47 Entered the Bay of New-York. Vou. V.....No. I. 18 Natural History of the Ocean. &c. 138 Notes and observations made on board U. S. Ship Columbus, Commodore Bainbridge, on her passage from Gibraltar to Boston, June and July, 1821—by C. A. Davis. ee 2a = , (2 [a | o g . .& . oe 4 F 9 |gHlES Winds, and state of the weather, Se. &c. S o CH << ae 255. 5 4 aq! TF Ie ee. & June e 6/35-58| 5:44|30. 7/71 | |E.N. E. fresh breeze, clear sky, left Bay of Gibraltar about 11 A. M. ra 7(36°13| 7:56/30: 8|73 N. N. W. light breeze, clear sky, smooth sea. 9 8/35-48|10:02/30-12|66 N. strong, with thin clouds. ™m 9/36: 5)13-22|30-12/66 x N. E. free breeze with some clouds. © 10|36°13}16°54|30°15,68 N.N. E. light with thin clouds. ® 11/36" 8119-16/30-16|69 | e light, sky partly clouded. é 12/36'14|20°43|30: 8/69 S. E.a free breeze, sky cloudy, with some rain. Bia: ; “Slaw | . W. by W. light, with occasional squalls, cloudy with much rain—current 13/20 10128" 7 120"5 7107 ao 5.5. byl + E. + mile 15 hour. 26 14/36° |25+54/30°18/66 N. N. E. fresh . flying clouds, variation of Compass 23° 55’ West. ) 15)35°48)27-19|30'19|68 |69 |S. W. light, cloudy, very hazy. m 16/36:27|30- 7/30: 1/69 |69 |E. N. E. light, cloudy and hazy. © 17|36'19/32:44/30:14|69 |69 |E. 8. E.a fine breeze, foggy and rain. © 18/35°44 32°46/30° 1/71 |69 |W. foggy and drizly rain, wind light and variable. a 19!35-34133-23/29-99/71 69 } Calm, broken clouds and hazy, quantity of Gulf-wind passing—outer edge *| of Gulf-stream. fs) 20/35:11|35°55|30: 5/69 |72 |N. by E. fine breeze, judged ourselves in the influence of the Gulf-Stream. = 21/35: 9|38-42/30°13/70 |71 iN light, at 10 A. M. lon. by Sun, 39° 10' 22”; 10/20” E. of Chron’r. 9 ; 22) 34°57 |39°37/30-19'69 |69 |N. light, some clouds and hazy ; morning Ther. 71° in air and water. ‘ 139 Continued. Winds, and state of the Weather, &c. &c. water. sal Natural History of the Ocean, &c.. » ©OB 0 Rk « s@OSB0Rxs6O8 June23/34°39 40°28|30°19|71 \72 |S.W. by S. light, broken clouds, and clearing, quantity of Gulf-weed around us- 24/35: 3142-51129: 7/71 |71 |N. by W. fresh, cloudy and rain, increasing, and hawling to S. W. 25136:13 26|35:42 27|34°40 28/34°48 42°53 42°51 29|33-26|44-24 | 30/34:20!45'14|30:16'74 |72 |S. W. by W. light, thin flying clouds inclining to humidity. July 1/35-20 2|35°45 3/35" 8 4|35°40 Al’ A 47°58 eee 42:38|29: 7171 |70 |W. by N. blowing fresh, with a heavy sea, ship labouring very much. 42°33|29-75|70 |68 |W. N. W. fresh, cloudy, humidand frequent showers. Ss 29- gi71 \72 |W.N. W. fresh, squally, humid and cloudy,towards eve. inclining to moderate. 29:96|681|714|N. W. by W. light cloudy, sea falling. 30°15|72 |712|W. N. W. light and variable, quantity of Gulf weed passing. 29-9573 |7021\S. W. fresh breeze, rough sea, rainy and squally. 30:17/70 |701|N. W. by W. light, and occasionally clear and agreeable. 30: 3/73 |74 |W. almost calm lon. @ © 48° 35! 45” ch’r 48° 47’ 52”. : : ~> |§ 5. W. by W. light breezes, inclining tohazy; our Columbia’s birth day ee 2G 2 fully attended to. : 5|36°32|50°13|30°23|75 ie W.S. W. fresh and very humid, flying clouds, hazy with rain. 6|36-23 7|\36° 5 8 9|\36:41 10|36°52 B02 51°34/30° 1/75 73 ; W.S. W. fresh and squally, cloudy and damp; supposedto be in counter current of Gulf-Stream. 52-11|29°85|74 |73 |S. W. by W. fresh and squally, cloudy and damp. 54:31129:98|72 |73 |N. E. fine breeze, flying clouds with frequent showers. 57°42|30° |73 |72 |S. E. fresh, with a cloudy sky, and humid. 59'50|29-95|73 7A the compass. Natural History of the Ocean, &c. 140 Concluded. = 5 Sr. as eo c= o 8 a ee ae Z 8 Beles Winds, and state of the Weather, &c. &c. s 6S © ) 6 .|-> |ce BS =| | (23 eels g 11/36-23|60-33|30- |74 |73 |W. by N. light and squally, with rain. oe oe Hades 77 \76 |S. W. by W. variable and clear. . fe) 13|36°32 62°27 130: 4|\74 |77 |N. W. by W. light airs clear dry weather, with an agitated sea. mm, 14|37-14|63* 7|30: 1|73 \77 |E. N. E. light, in the Gulf-Stream, toward evening temp. of water 71 to 80. © 15/38-10|64:15|30°18|75 |801|N. N. E. light, thin clouds, hazy, inclining to clear. ® 16|39-37 63°99/30" 3/75 |76 i liebe t and sky hazy. : E : . 4 ne breeze, almost clear, temp. of water from 74 to 68 sounded in 100 : ol ace fs 28/29 Seo 104 } fathoms, on St. George’s bank. Is} 18|41°59|66:33|29°77|642/58 if S. W. fresh cloudy, and rain, very gloomy, fell in with fishing boats. LE 19|42°26 es 1\64 |60 |W. S. W. light, a mackerel sky, accompanied by quantities of fish. 5.8. W, cloudy and foggy, caught from daylight till 12 o’clock upwards of Q 20/42-2116891.130- 11651163 ; 12,000 mackerel. b8 3 m 21|42:24|69°30|30- 8|731/67 |S.S. E. light breeze, saw the land!!! Cape Cod. © Arrived this morning off the light—came to anchor owing to fog in 31 fath- senso Fe 4 oms, remained an hour, got uuder weigh, received a pilot at 11 A. M. at 3, past through the entrance to the harbor, struck the middle grounds and remained half an hour, got off and proceeded up to town, and came to anchor off Long Wharf about 5 P. M. after a passage from Gibraltar of 47 days. Gas-light in the Tron Steeple of Glasgow. 141 Art. XVILI.— Description of the Apparatus used in lighting ithe Tron steeple Glasgow, with Gias—see the plate. [Communicated to the Editor, by a gentleman in Glasgow. | C is a lamp in which the gas is burned. Externally it is concealed by the figure of an eagle, internally it has a door containing five panes of glass, glazed convexly. Within the lamp, and behind the flame, the surface is covered with pieces of mirror plate so as to form a parabolic reflector, from which the rays diverge upon the dial plate of the clock D. At the top of the lamp is a funnel for the smoke. : A is the gas pipe by which the lamp is fed. It is at the same time the principal support of the lamp. B is a flash pipe by which the lamp is lighted ; and it acts at the same time as a bracket to strengthen the pipe A. This pipe is cut with cross apertures in the side at short distances from each other, extending from the body of the steeple to the burner. At figure second is a section of the flash pipe, showing the cuts in the side, and a covering which projects over them to protect them from rain. D fig. 2. shows a transverse section of the pipe and the covering. A and 2 show the cuts C, and the cover B. After the gas has been let on by both pipes, a light is ap- plied externally to the flash pipe, the gas rushing in jets through the apertures, kindles, and the flame communicating from one to anotherreaches the burner within the lamp. As soon as the gas passing through the burner 1s inflamed, the stop cock of the flash pipe is shut, the jets are of course ex- tinguished, and the lam) continues to burn fed by the oth- er pipe. E and F are air-tight hinges in the two pipes, so contriv- ed that by means of the chains G G, the lamp is drawn up by a person standing within the balcony of the steeple, be- side H, the City Arms, in alto relievo, the burner, the glass, and the parabolic reflector, are thus cleaned every day, from the smoke or condensation of vapour which may have accu- mulated during the preceding night. By the side of the pipes there is a good deal of scrol! work acting as lateral brackets to strengthen them, which could not have been introduced into the drawing without confusing it. 142 Gas-lght in the Tron Steeple of Glasgow The lamp is lighted every afternoon a few minutes be- fore sun-set and at day-light the next morning it is extin- guished by the machinery of the clock as represented in figure 3. G is the main pipe by which gas is supplied to the lamp. C is the stop cock, opened and shut by the lever B, at present open. D is a wheel upon the spindle of the hour hand of the clock, making two revolutions in twenty four hours. E a wheel moved by the other of double the diameter, and of course making one revolution in the same time. H the beam of wood which supports these. Upon the wheel E is a moveable index F, which is set about once a month, to correspond with the sun’s rising. As the wheel revolves, a projecting knob at the end of this index, gradually reaches the upper end of the lever A, and presses it forward; this by moving disengages the lever of the stop cock B, which dropping downward by its own weight, falls into the position marked by the dotted lines J, and cutting off the supply of gas extinguishes the flame. This plan of lighting steeples was the fruit of the joint la- bours of Messrs. J. & A. Harts and Mr. A. Liddell. The Messrs. Harts are operative bakers in Glasgow, who have distinguished themselves by their scientific attainments. Mr. Liddell is an ironmonger and his professional knowledge was found useful in the practical application of the plan. Messrs. Harts are found in their bake-house during the great- er part of the day and their leisure hours are devoted to scientific and mechanical studies. ‘They made the Camera Obscura in Glasgow Observatory, one of the largest in the kingdom, the speculum (a metallic one similar to those in Herschel’s large Telescopes) about twelve inches in diame- ter, and the lens nearly as large were wholly prepared by themselves. ‘They have in their bake-house a working model of the steam engine, (one of several, which they have constructed,) on a new plan which drives a turning lathe in the apartment above, and they have constructed a very su- perior reflecting telescope six feet in length. Lately they have made some curious discoveries in the art of staining glass. Their scientific knowledge is unaccompanied by the slightest degree of pride or ostentation, and they continue to labour as diligently at their trade as if they knew no higher pleasure. Longitude. of New-York. 143 Arr. XIX.—Longitude of New-York ascertained by he ob- servations of Prof. James Renwick. Columira College, New-York, Feb. 25th, 1822. TO PROF. SILLIMAN. Sir, I beg leave to commuicate, for publication in your valua- ble journal, my observation of the Solar Eclipse of 27th August last. The observation was made from the cupola of the Col-~ lege in latitude 40° 42,’ 45”, N, as deduced from a number of observations made by my colleague Dr. Adrain. The instruments made use of were an Achromatic Teles- cope by Dollond of four feet focal distance, a box-chro- nometer by Wingham, (London) and a pocket-chronom- eter by Morrice, (London.) The rates of both time keep- ers had been carefully noted for some time previous, and their error was observed by means of transits of the sun on the preceding and following day. This part of the prepa- ration was performed by Messrs. T. & B. Demilt, watch makers of ‘this city, who have erected an observatory and provided themselves with a transit and an excellent astro- nomical clock. With these instruments the times of beginning and end, were as follows, viz. - days. hrs. Beginning—Apparent time at New-York. 1821. August. = = - 26.19.37'.32" End do. do. do. do. 26.22.20'.58"" The morning was by no means favorable, I was in conse- quence prevented from taking a set of altitudes, that might have enabled me to state the time from my own observations. The view of the beginning of the Eclipse was as favoura- ble as I could have desired, the clouds cleared for a few minutes from the sun’s face, and my preparatory projection was so far accurate as to enable me to have in the centre of the field of the telescope the exact point of impact. With regard to the end, the clouds had by that time ac- cumulated to such a degree as to compel me to remove the - 144 Notice of the Revolving Steam Engine. dark glass from the telescope and I had to contend with al- ternations of partial observation and intense light. — From the above observation, by a cursory calculation for the accuracy of which [ cannot fully vouch, I make the lon- gitude of the Cupola of Columbia College 74.° 5.’ 11." or in time 4hrs. 56.’ 23.” 4 W. from Greenwich. The mean of a number of Chronometers makes it about 74.° 8.’ W. and the Longitude given upon Eddy’s Map is 74.° 0. 45." W. I am Sir, Your most obedient Servt. JAS. RENWICK. Art. XX.—.Notice of ihe Revolving Steam Engine ; aby J. L. Sunurvan, Esq. Columbia, S. C. March 1, 1822. Mr. Siiltiman—Sir, Hap I no other motive to offer you a further communi- cation on Morey’s Steam Engine, 1 should think it due to your Journal, in which an account of this form of the ma- chine had been given to the public at an early period, to state the fact of its successful employment; but 1 find a farther reason for doing so in the opinion expressed by Ward in your 4th volume, while describing Acs invention. He-fears that Morey’s engine wiil not be durable, because, as he thinks, the friction between the parallel guides and the brasses that move on them, will be such, as to affect the parallelism of the piston-rod. This was to assume, that it would be impracticable to apply any anti friction sub- stance to this part ofthe machine. But in practice, nothing was easier than to attach to each side an oil-box, with a few small holes in the top thereof, covered with a sponge, which as the engine revolves imbibes the oil, while the brass at each stroke reaches, and a little compresses this sponge, so that the steel guide pieces, are continually lubricated. And thus far it has performed satisfactorily, ascending the Santee and Congaree, towing heavy loads against a strong current. We call the steam boat, in which this engine operates the pat- ent, in allusion to her claim, or right to navigate the waters of New-York, notwithstanding the monopoly granted by the EASTMAN’S ROTARY SAWING MACHINE. 7. Hand. Frame. UBS Spring & hand. ISetting wor f Hig. 2. Sede view es Lng? by Reed, Stdes & Co. tie i who Be haet, re Biot go 7) ey . VAY x S2 iid oie ; : a i 7 2 P F A; irs Lhe iss J ia’ fh ay a ref i » 4,4" Notice of the Revolomg Steam Engine. 145 state, it being an admitted point, that the laws of the United States are the paramount authority. Wherefore, patented operations cannot be legally excluded. But Mr. Ward’s apprehension is shewn to be unfounded, by the performance of an engine of this kind during the last three years, ata manufactory near Boston, even without this precaution. Unwilling to occupy your pages with this familiar sub- ject, I will only add, that it appears to have been the ob- ject of Mr. Watt’s experiments, to avoid the use of the crank as involving the necessity of a fly-wheel, to which motion must be given, at some expense of power, at every stroke. If I am not mistaken, the double revolving engine, is ef- fectively a rotary engine. It has no dead-point, and re- quires no fly-wheel; and it is so far different from those reciprocating engines, which work with a heavy beam, that the indispensable weight of the machine, has a degree of momentum, that contributes to the steadiness of its opera- tion. It appears to me, that to produce the same effect, Mr. Ward must place two cylinders in each water wheel at right angles. Since this occasion of addressing you occurs, permit me to avail myself of the opportunity, to describe a small improve- mentin the steam boiler, put in practice in this boat, to com- bine strength with horizontal extension, in order to offer a great proportional surface to the fire, and yet carry a light load of water. ' - I took the material, that would have made a boiler of eight feet diameter, seventeen feet long, and formed seven cylindrical vessels: having conical heads, terminating in flanches to which are attached, a cross connecting pipe, thus making one boiler of them. ‘The steam rises from the centre of each into a common chamber, on which the safe- ty valve, and throttle valve are situated. The support is from four semicircular irons, or arches, from which suspend- ing irons descend, &c. The spaces between, are filled with brick. The flue passes under them above deck; its sides and floor are formed of water vessels, kept full by the sur- plusage of the supply pump, for which they prepare the water; under the grate, however, there is an air chamber formed of twothicknesses of sheet copper,the space between them being also supplied with water, this descends a few Vou. V.—No. 1. 19 146 Improved Rotary Saw Machine. feet into the hold, and its bottom forms a pan into which the cinders fall. The floor of the fire room is on this level, and being half above and half below the level of the deck, is open to the air. When half full it contains about three hundred gallons, but the fire is in large proportion. The steam appears to form very quickly. The advantage of the conical head is, that instead of being the weakest, this is the strongest part of the boiler, and within rules of computation. I am respectfully yours. J.L.SULLIVAN. Art. XXI—Description of an improved Saw machine with sectional teeth for the purpose of manufacturing staves, heading, and siding ; with remarks on the machine, and the lumber manufactured by it ; by Rosertr Eastman, of Brunswick, Maine. Communicated by Professor Cleaveland, of Bowdoin College. ‘Tuts machine consists of a frame about twenty four feet in length, and five in breadth ; and a carriage about twelve feet in length, and four in breadth. The carriage travels with iron trucks, grooved on their circumferences, which run upon iron slides bolted to the inner sides of the frame. Aniron centre passes through one end of the carriage, and into the end of the log, and is one of the centres, on which it re- volves. At the other end of the carriage, where there are two cross pieces, is an iron arbor, which receives the circu- lar iron index with concentric circles of holes drilled at equal distances and corresponding to the different sizes of the logs to be manufactured into staves, heading, or siding. These holes are called the numbers of the index. On the end of the index arbor, inside of the carriage, is a square to receive a dog fitted to it, which is first driven into the end of the log, and then slipped on the square of the index ar- bor, by means whereof the index and log are firmly con- nected together, and both revolve on the index arbor and centre, which are kept in place by stirrup screws. Near the middle of the frame is the main shaft, which is of cast iron, and runs on friction rollers, supported by stands Improved Rotary Saw Machine. 147 en the floor. On this shaft are the saw and sappers, which are firmly attached to it with screws. The sappers which are crooked pieces of iron, steel edged, with slits to set them at a greater or less distance from the centre, according to the width of the lumber to be manufactured, and partaking of a common motion with the saw only at a less distance from the centre, cut the sap off the log leaving the thick or outer edges of the lumber perfectly straight. A band, passing round the main pully, which is on the main shaft, and on a drum that runs under it, (which may be driven by a horse, steam, or water power,) gives motion to the saw, and sets the machine in operation. The saw has only section teeth, and is made of a circular piece of sheet iron or steel, about one eighth of an inch in thick- ness, containing usually but eight teeth which are set in the outer edge of the saw plate,being dove tailed and grooved in order to remain firm until worn out, when new ones may be set in the same plate. Under the frame is a small shaft with a large pulley on it (inside of the frame) which is connected to the main shaft by a band ; on the other end of this small shaft at the out- side of the frame, is another small pulley, which is also con- nected by a band to the feed pulley, which is placed near the middle of the frame. On the inside face of this feed pulley, are two wheels ; one of them containing eight cogs, is placed in the centre ; the other, a squirrel wheel, con- tains fifty cogs on the inside of its rim pointing towards the centre. Another short shaft, containiug two wheels of about eighteen cogs each, is placed near the middle of the frame ; one of these wheels mashes into the rack under the carriage ; the other is placed on the outer end of the shaft to be acted upon by the large and small wheels that are on the feed pulley, which causes the carriage to feed and re- turn alternately by the different acting of the eight and fif- ty cog wheels on the 18 cog wheel, which not only reverses the motion, but, at the same time, gives a different speed to the travel of the carriage, in its feeding and returning. Thus, when the 8 cog wheel mashes into the 18 cog wheel, the carriage moves forward with a slow motion to feed the saw ; when the cut is performed, the feed pully with its contents drops, unmashes the 8 and mashes the 50 into the 18 cog wheel, which reverses and quickens the travel of the carriage in returning, as 50 is to 8. This motion of the ris- 148 Improved Rotary Saw JMachine. ing and falling of the feed pully, is effected by a lever with a small steel spring at each end of it; each spring has a catch to lock on a pin in the side of the frame, to hold the cog wheels in their mash, when the carriage is feeding and returning. In the centre of the lever is a pin, which at- taches it to tie side of the frame, and is the fulcrum on which it works. On the top of this lever, are two wooden springs, which run from the centre to the end, a little ris- ing, which forms an inclined plane. A knob on the side of the carriage acts on the top of this wooden spring as the carriage is feeding and returning, and alternately unlocks the steel spring from the pin in the frame ; and the wooden spring causes that end of the lever, where the knob is, to descend and the other to ascend and locks its steel spring on the pin in the frame again. The piece of wood, which contains the feed pulley, is attached to that end of the lever which comes at the middle of the frame, and causes it to ascend or descend at every travel of the carriage. An iron frame 1s bolted firm on the end cross piece of the carriage, which holds an iron hand with a steel pointer in it, which, by means ofa steel spring, locks into the holes of the index, and keeps the log firm in its place, while the saw is performing its cut. On the inside of the end cross piece of the frame, is a shifting iron, which is a horizontal bar of iron with an el- bow, forming an acute angle on the outer end ; on the inner end is another elbow, which turns down, forming a right angle, with a bar perforated with holes at suitable distances, to correspond with the numbers of the index; into the holes in the bar a steel pointer 7 or 8 inches in length, may be screwed, so as to enter the holes of the index. This iron can move horizontally, being supported with hook bolts, and is kept in place by a small spring acting on the inner end; and two guard screws, are set, so as to guide the large pointer into one of the holes of the index when the carriage and log return from the cut. On the other side of the frame, where the outer end of the hand on the carriage passes is a small trip iron, that strikes on the outer end of the hand and unlocks its poin- ter from the index ; at the same time, the large pointer, entering one of the holes of the index and the carriage, striking the acute angle of the shifting iron, give it a hor- Improved Rotary Saw Machine. 149 izontal motion inward, which causes the log and index to shift one number, when the shifting iron strikes the guard screw, that prevents ils shifting more than one number at a time. ‘The outer end of the hand being now relieved from the trip iron, its pointer enters a new hole of the index by means of the spring and the carriage again moves forward for another cut. Thus it operates, without any aid except the power that drives it, until it cuts a tier of lumber entirely around the log, like the radii of a circle, leaving their thin edges at- tached to it. These are then taken off, and another tier cut in the same manner, that is, when the log is large enough to admit of two tiers. References to the Plate. Fig. 1. gives a top view of the machine with the log in it ready for working. gives a side view of the same. an end view of the same with a log as partly cut. Go to 5. The Saw. 6. The Sapper. 7. The Hand-frame Spring and Hand. 8. The Shifting iron in two views. 9. The Setting iron. 10. The Trip iron. 11. The Trucks. 12. The Stands. 13. The Index. Reference to the several Parts as put together. AA. The Frame, which is made of timber about 8 by 14 inches and put together by screws. BB. The Carriage, made of timber about 7 by 8 inches, put together by screws. C. The Log as dogged and put into the machine. D. Saw and Sappers. FE. Main Pulley and Shaft. F. Feed Pulley and Shifting gear, which is connected to the rack, under the carriage. G. Tightening Pulleys. HH. Regulating Pulleys and Shaft. II. Friction Rollers and Stands. J, Index. 150 Improved Rotary Saw Machine. K. Index, Shaft and Cog. L. Centre iron and Cog. MM. Iron Slides bolted to the sides of the frame for the trucks to travel upon. NN. Revolving Lever and Springs. O. Pin, which attaches the Lever to the sides of the frame, and is the Fulcrum on which it works. Knob on the side of the carriage, that works the shifting lever. Hand-frame, Spring and Hand. Shifting Iron and Long Pointer. Setting iron, which is Bolted to the under side of the car- riage, and strikes the acute angle of the Shifting iron, when the carriage returns to set. T. Trip Iron, which unlocks the band from the Index, when the carriage returns to set. UU. Stirrup Screws. BO Remarks, &e. This machine furnishes a new method of manufacturing lumber for various useful purposes. Though the circular saw had previously been in operation in this country, and in Europe, for cutting small stuff, it had not, within the knowledge of the writer, been successfully applied to solids of great depth; to effect which the use of section teeth are almost indispensable. In my first attempts to employ the circular saw for the purpose of manufacturing clap boards, I used one nearly full of teeth, for cutting five or six inches in depth into fine logs. The operation required a degree of power almost impossible to be obtained with the use of a band; the heat caused the plate to expand, and the saw to warp, or, as it is termed, to get out of true. To obviate these difficulties I had recourse to the use of section teeth, and the improve- ment completely succeeded. The power required to per- form a given quantity of work by the other method. was, by this, diminished at least three quarters. The work, formerly performed by 70 or 80 teeth, was by the last me- thod performed by 8 teeth; the saw dust, which before had been reduced to the fineness of meal, was coarser, but the surface of the lumber much smoother, than when cut with the full teethed saw. The teeth are made in the form of a Hawk’s bill, and cut the log up, or from the circumference to the centre. Improved Rotary Saw Machine. 15i The saw may be carried by an eight inch band, when driv- . en a proper speed, (which is from ten to twelve hundred times per minute,) will cut nine or ten inches in depth into the hardest white oak timber with the greatest ease. The sappers at the same time cut off from one to two inches of the sap, and straighten the thick edges of the lumber. The facility with which this saw will cut into such hard materials may be supposed to result from the well established principle that where two substances in mo- tion come in contact, their respective action on each other is in direct proportion to their respective velocities ; thus, a circular plate of iron, put into a quick rotary mo- tion, will with great ease penetrate hardened steel, or cut off a file, when applied to its circumference ; and the same principle is applicable to a rotary saw for cutting wood. The requisite degree of velocity is obtained by the con- tinuous motion of the circular saw; by which also it has greatly the advantage of one that has but a slow motion on account of dulling, as the teeth are but little affected, and being only eight in number, but a few moments labour is required to sharpen them. If the velocity of the saw were slackened to a speed of but 40 or 50 times per minute, it would require at least four such bands to carry it through a log as above described. One machine will cut from 18 to 20 hundred square feet of pine timber per day, and two of them may be driven by a common tub wheel 7 or 8 feet in diameter, having 6 or 7 feet head of water, with a cog wheel, and trundle head so highly geared, as to give a quick motion to the drums, which should be about four feet indiameter. ‘The machine is so constructed, as to manufacture lumber from 4 to 10 feet in length, and from two to ten inches in width, and of any re- quired thickness. It has been introduced into most of the New England states, snd has given perfect satisfaction. The superiority of the lumber has for three years past been sufliciently pro- ved in this town (Brunswick, Me.) where there have beenan- nually erected from fifteen to twenty wooden buildings, and for covering the walls of which, this kind has been almost universally used. The principal cause of its superiority to mill sawed lumber, is in the manner in which it is manufac- tured, viz;:.io being cut towards the the centre of the log, like the radii of a circle; thig leaves the lumber feather 152 Improved Rotary Saw Machine. edged in the exact shape in which it should be, to set close on a building, and is the only way of the grain, in which weather boards of any kind can be manufactured to with- stand the influence of the weather, without shrinking, swel- ling, or warping off the building. Staves, and heading also, must be rived the same way of the grain in order to pass inspection. The mill sawed lumber, which, I believe, is now universally used in the middle and southern states, and in the West-Indies, for covering the walls of wooden build- ings is partly cut in a wrong direction of the grain, which is the cause of its cracking and warping off, and of the early decay of the buildings by the admission of moisture. That such is the operation may be inferred by examining a stick of timber which has been exposed to the weather: the cracks, caused by its shrinking ail tend towards the heart or centre, which proves that the shrinking is directly the other way of the grain. It follows that lumber cut through or across the cracks would not stand the weather in a sound state in any degree to be compared with that which is cut in the same direction with them. I have no hesitation in stating that one half the quantity of lumber, manufactured in this way, will cover, and keep tight and sound the same number of buildings for an hundred years, that is now used and consumed in fifty years. Add to this the reduction of expense in transportation, and of labour in putting it on, and I think every one must be convinced, that the lumber manufactured in this improved way is enti- tled to the preference. In manufacturing staves and heading, a great saving is made in the timber, particularly as to heading, of which at least double the quantity may be obtained by this mode of sawing to what can be procured in the common method of riving it; nor is the straight grained, or good rift indispen- sable for the saw, as itis for the purpose of being rived. The heading, when sawed, is in the form it should be, be- fore it is rounded and dowelled together, all the dressing,re- quired, being merely to smooth off the outsides witha plane. ‘Timber for staves ought to be straight in order to truss, but may be manufactured so exact in size as to require but little labour to fit them for setting up. Both articles are much lighter for transportation, being nearly divested of superfluous timber, and may be cut to any thickness required for either pipes, hogsheads,-or flour bar- rels. Brunswick, Me. April 4, 1822. Formation of flexible, Elastic Tubes. 153 Art. XXII.—Formation of flewible, elastic tubes; by Mr. THOMAS SKIDMORE. FOR THE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Mr. Editor, I nave lately had occasion, in the practice of the arts, to make use ina modified manner, of the compound blow- pipe of Hare, supplied with oxygen and hydrogen gases ; and in doing so, have been compelled to seek for some ma- terial of which I could make a flexible elastic hose or tube, indispensable to my operations. Leather in various ways, was used without success. The intestine of the hog, and the bullock—in their natural state, answered a tolerable purpose, for a short time, but they soon cracked and exhibited fissures, through which the gasses escaped very fast—and on being tanned with an infusion of sumach, became very porous, notwithstanding they were surcharged with oils, tallow, &c. At last I imagined that caoutchouc, or India rubber, might be employed with a prospect of success ; and as i obtained it, I trust it may possibly be of some importance to some of your readers, to be made acquainted with the process, | pursued in its manufacture—the detail of which follows and is at your disposal. I caused small iron wire to be coiled spirally around a cylindrical rod of iron, as close as it could be laid, of the length, in one instance of twelve feet, The extremities of this spiral coil were then made fast to the rod, (after having been once loosened from it) in manner, such, that, in the subsequent operations, the convolutions of the wire should remain in contact with each other. Over this spiral coil was wound ina similar manner, a covering of tape, ferreting, or other fabric, so as to completely invest it, and, in a process which is shortly to follow, to prevent the in- trusion of the gum to be used, into the cavity of the spiral coil before mentioned. The rubber is now taken, I mean such kind of it as is sold in the form of bottles, and cut into long, narrow strips, like carpet rags. This is best effected by cutting them orig- inally mto two equal parts, and then reducing them, as near as may be, into the shape of a circular plate, with a pair of sharp tailor’s shears, which succeeds in such case. Vor. V.....No. I. 20 154 Formation of flewible, Elastic Tubes. much better than would commonly be imagined. These strips are wound over the covering of tape, or ferreting above mentioned, in a spiral manner from one end of the coil to the other, and this, in my instance was twice re- peated—care being taken to Jay, as far as practicable, the fresh cut surfaces in contact with each other, drawing them so tightly, as to cause them, from their elastic property, to stretch to two, three or four times, their ordinary length. When this was done, another covering of strong tape (lin- en is to be preferred) was laid likewise spirally over, or around the same from end to end—and secured upon it, by very strong twine laid as closely as could be done, and drawn as tightly as the material would permit. The rod of iron was next withdrawn—the recently formed hose was then so far bent into a circular form as to be received into a vessel of water in which it was boiled for an hour or two, when it was taken cut, the external covering taken off, and the internal wire and tape withdrawn. This latter operation, at first gave me some, trouble, in consequence of the stiffness of the wire—but, in preparing other tubes of the kind, this difficulty was overcome by an- nealing the wire, previous to commencing operations. In the course of my little practice in pursuit of this ob- ject, I found that if the hose so prepared, be, for any purpose subjected to a second boiling, it has the effect of reducing the size of the hose considerably, so that if this second boiling be even intended, though I know of no reason to desire it unless it be to unite two picces of hose together, this circumstance should be taken into the account. I know very well that hose or tubes, of this material, made upon glass or metal rods, are stated to have been fab- ricated—yet as I was unable to succeed in that way in spe- cimens exceeding four inches in length, I concluded, that where twice or thrice that number of feet were wanted, the method was impracticable, and therefore pursued the one I have detailed. It resulted in a hose, perfectly elas-. tic, as you may well conceive, and though not very elegant on its exterior, yet very light, and perfectly impervious to the gases it conducts to the blow-pipe to which it is at- tached.* I am, Sir, yours, &c. THOS. SKIDMORE. * Note—A specimen of the tube is in our possession, and perfectly an- swers the description.—[ Ed. | Notice of a singular impression in sand stone. 158 Arr. XXIIl.—WNotice of a singular impression in sand stone,* by Mr. Isaac Lea. Puitapetputia, Feb. 24, 1822. PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir, Ow looking over my port folio a few days since, I found a drawing of some reliquia which I made a few years since, when I observed them about a quarter of a mile above Pittsburgh, and on the same side of the Monongahela. With this I send you acopy of the drawing, which you will please to insert in the Journal of Science, if you think it worthy of a place in that useful work. Iam more anxious to see this figure in a permanent place, as on a late visit to it [found the dilapidating hammer of the quarry-man, to be likely to remove from its native bed, and destroy onc of the most singular specimens of the kind which I have ev- er seen, and respecting which, the learned find so much difficulty in deciding whether it belongs to the animal or vegetable kingdom. The impression is very perfect on a sand stone rock, and entirely flat. ‘The base is perfectly terminated in the rock and is about six inches across ; its length three feet, and ter- minated by a fracture of the rock, which leaves it doubtful how long it may have been in its pristine state ; at this frac- ture it is four inches broad. The two lines are distinct in both lozenge shaped impressions, which are represented of the natural size in fig. 2d. [See the plate at the end. ] The hill in which it exists is not sufficiently high to take -in the bed of coal pervading the neighbouring hills in a hor- izontal stratum about two hundred and fifty feet above this locality. In fragments of the same rock, are found many impressions resembling culmiferous plants, the joints of which are perfect. Some of them are now in my own col- lection, others I deposited, particularly a large one, in the “Academy of Natural Science.” : Your obedient servant, ISAAC LEA. * Note—This article should in strictness, have been placed under the Geology, &c. but having been accidentally omitted, is inserted here. 156 On the twinkling of the Fixed Stars. Art. XXIV.—On the twinkling of the Fixed Stars. New-Haven, January 20, 1822. Mr. Sruumay, Sir, Ix perusing Bonnycastle’s Introduction to Astronomy, I was struck with the following solution of the phenomenon of the scintillation, or twinkling of the fixed stars. Page 42d, he says, “the fixed stars are distinguished from the planets by being more bright and luminous, and by contin- ually exhibiting that appearance which is called the scintil- lation or twinkling of the stars. This probably arises from their appearing so extremely small, that the interposition of any minute substance, of which there are many constant- ly floating in the atmosphere, deprives us of the sight of them; but as the interposed body soon changes its place, we again see the star; and this succession being perpetual occasions the twinkling.”” Whether this be the commonly received opinion, on this subject, among astronomers, or not, | am not sufficiently conversant with their works to decide ; but from its being assigned by so distinguished an astronomer as Mr. Bonnycastle, I conclude that it is one of the best that have been given. To my mind this solu- tion is very unsatisfactory. Without farther proof of the fact, the existence of these floating substances in numbers, and of size sufficient to produce this phenomenon, is scarce- ly credible. But admit that they exist, why do they not produce similar phenomena in their transits over the faces of the planets? Farther, | apprehend that the effect of the in- terposition of these substances between the eye and thestars, which would be as Mr. B. observes, to deprive us of the sight of them, does not accord with the fact, or with the phenomenon of scintillation. In my view, the star does not disappear in its scintillations, but is constantly visible; and its twinkling seems to be the effect of successive ema- nations of hght; resembling the waving of a blaze by the wind. Though but a novice in astronomy, | will suggest a conjecture on this subject, which, to my mind, is much more plausible ; certainly less embarrassed with objections Original Letters of Dr. Franklin. 157 than Mr. Bonnycastle’s. It is supposed by astronomers, from the immense distances of the fixed stars, and the weakness of borrowed light, that they shine with their own light. May it not be owing to this fact, that they scintil- late, or twinkle? would not their shining with their own light produce the difference, manifest in the appearance between them and the planets, which are known to shine with borrowed light? I am not able to point out with pre- cision the difference between original, if I may so call it, and reflected light ; but that there is a difference is very obvious. When looking at the sun with the naked eye, I can easily conceive, that were that body, which now, with its dazzling scintillations, compels me soon to turn away, removed at a suitable distance, it would exhibit to us the same phenomenon, as is now exhibited by one of the fixed stars. This subject is of some importance in connexion with the sublime idea that the fixed stars are suns to other systems, and | make the suggestion, with the hope that, if it be worthy of notice, it will receive a more satisfactory elucidation from an abler pen. SCINTILLA. MISCELLANEOUS. —<—— ArT. XXV.—Original letters from Dr. Franklin, to the Rev. Jared Elliot of Killingworth, Con. concluded from Vol. IV. p. 357. 6 Puinapenpuia, Dec. 10, 1751. Dear Sir, Tue Rector of our Academy, Mr. Martin, came over in- to this country on a scheme for making potash, in the Rus- ‘sian method. He promised me some written directions for you, which expecting daily, | delayed writing, and now he lies dangerously ill of a kind of quinsy. The surgeons have been obliged to open his wind-pipe, and introduce a leaden pipe for him to breathe through. I fear he will not recover. 158 Original Letters of Dr. Franklin. I thank you for the merino wool ; ’tis a curiosity. Mr. Roberts promises me some observations in husbandry for you. Itisone Mr. Martin that makes dung of leaves, and not Mr. Roberts: I hope to get the particulars from him soon. I have a letter from Mr. Collinson of July 19, in which he writes, “‘ Pray has Mr. Elliot published any addition to his work; I have No. 1 and 2. If I can get ready, I will send some improvements made in the sandy parts of the County of Norfolk; by the way 2 is a great secret, but it is Mr. Jackson’s own drawing up, being experiments made on some of his father’s estates in that County: but his name must not be mentioned. I thank you for the fowl meadow grass. I sowed it June 7, as soon as I received it, but none is yet come up. _ I dont know how it is, but I never could raise any of your native grasses; and I have had variety of J. Bartram of curious species.” In another of Sept. 26, he says, ‘‘ I] am much obliged to thee for Mr. Elliot’s third essay. I have sent Maxwell’s select transactions in husbandry: if Mr. Elliot has not seen them, they may be very useful to him. I have prevailed on our worthy, learned, and ingenious friend, Mr. Jackson, to give some dissertations on the husbandry of Norfolk, be- lieving it may be very serviceable to the Colonies. He has great opportunities of doing this, being a gentleman of leisure and fortune, being the only son whose father has great riches and possessions, and resides every year all the long vacation at his father’s seat in Norfolk. After J. Bar- tram has perused it, | shall submit how it may be further disposed of, only our friend Elliot should see it soon ; for Mr. Jackson admires his little tracts of husbandry as well as myself, and it may be of greater service to him and his Colony, than to yours.”” The fowl meadow grass has at last made its appearance. Another year we shall judge better of it.””—Thus far friend Collinson, you may expect the papers in a post or two. If you make any use of them, you will take care not to mention any thing of the author. The bearer is my son, who desired an opportunity of pay- ing his respects to you in his return from Boston. He went by sea. Original Letters of Dr. Franklin. 159 They have printed all my electrical essays in England, and sent me a few copies, of which I design to send you one per next post, after having corrected a few errata. I am, dear Sir, Your most humble servant, B. FRANKLIN. Mr. Martin is dead! 7 Puitapeipuia, Dec. 24, 1751. Dear Sir, I wrote you at large per my son, in answer to your for- mer favours, and sent you an extract of Mr. Collinson’s let- ter, who much admires your tracts on husbandry. Here- with you will receive a manuscript of a friend of Mr. Col- linson’s, and a printed book; which you may keep till spring, and then return to me. I believe they will afford you pleasure. T send you also enclosed a letter from my friend John Bartram, whose journal you have read. He corresponds with several of the greatest naturalists in Europe, and will be proud of an acquaintance with you. I make no apolo- gies for introducing him to you; for though a plain illite- rate man, you will find he has merit. And since for want of skill in agriculture, I cannot converse with you perti- nently on that valuable subject, | am pleased that I have procured you two correspondents who can. . 1 am glad you have introduced English declamation into your College. It will be of great service to the youth, es- pecially if care is taken to form their pronunciation on the best models. Mr. Whittelsey who was lately here will tell you, that we have little boys under seven, who can deliver an oration with more propriety than most preachers. °Tis a matter that has been too much neglected. T am, dear Sir, Yours affectionately, B. FRANKLIN. 160 Original Letters of Dr. Franklin. 8 ; PHinapELpHia, Feb. 11, 1752. Dear Sir, I received your favour per my son, and return my thanks for your kind entertainment of him at your house. I de- livered yours to my friend Bartram, and enclose you his answer; he is much pleased with the prospect of a contin- ued correspondence with you: is a man of no letters, but a curious observer of nature. I like very well the paragraph you propose to insert con- cerning Mr. Jackson’s papers; except the last line, to wit, ithe improvement of it must be deferred till another year ; in- stead of which, ] would say, i cannot now be inserted but shall be in our next. My reasons are, that I think in the first place, your essays ought to be more frequent than once ayear; next, that tis pity, if Mr. Jackson’s papers would be advantageous to the public, a whole year’s benefit of them should be lost; thirdly, I think he will be at a loss to know why, since your essay was not quite finished and pub- lished, his papers might not as well have been added now ; and indeed I think you had best add them, unless you in- tend speedily another essay. Lastly, I object to the word improvement, which in the sense you use it is peculiar to New-England, and will not be understood elsewhere. It will look as if you proposed to alter it for the better, cor- rect or amend it, such being the common meaning of the word improve. Every Colony has some peculiar expres- sions, familiar to its own people, but strange and unintel- ligible to others. But this is not to be wondered at, since the same may be observed in the different Counties of Eng- land. I know you will excuse this freedom, and that I need make no apology for it. I am, with great respect, dear Sir, Your most humble servant, B. FRANKLIN. 9 Puivape puta, Dec. 19, 1752- Dear Sir, I received your affectionate letter of the Ist. aud am sur- prised to find that my letters do not of late get to your hand. I do not keep copies, but I remember well, that in one I Original Letters of Dr. Franklin. 161 acknowledged the receipt of the select transactions, and in another I complained of the long delay of your fourth Essay, and desired that if Mr. Green would not do it, you would send it to me, and it should be despatched in a trice. To this I own I have long wondered that there came no answer ; but now the reason appears you never received it. Tam not indeed the most punctual of correspondents, but am however less negligent than I have of late appeared to you to be. To converse in this manner with my friends is one of my greatest pleasures; but much business does some- times interfere and occasion delays, which makes me more ready to excuse others, as I have frequent occasion to be ex- cused, Atpresent however, Iam not tobe blamed, but some defect in the conveyance, which I cannot now guess at; but to prevent the miscarriage of this, I send it under cover to Dr. Johnson, and request him to forward it by some safe hand, for having exchanged many letters lately with that gentleman on occasion of my printing his book, and not observing any of them to miscarry, I have reason to expect this will at least get safe as far as Stratford.—By the way, are you nota letter in debt to our friend Bartram? If not I fear a long one of his to you, enclosed in one of mine has miscarried also. Our friend Mr. Jackson wrote to me last year, for an account of the number of Palatines imported here within ten years, which I accordingly sent him, and accompany- ed it with a sheet or two on the subject of peopling of coun- tries, propagation of mankind, &e. in answerto which I have lately received a long and curious letter from him, which f will send for your perusal together with my paper, as soon as I find it can be done without danger of being lost. In the mean time, I send you a meterological paper of mine, wrote in order to digest and methodise a few of my own thoughts, and to procure the corrections of my Friends, I beg your sentiments and criticisms, on such parts as you find wrong; and if you can give me any light into the na- ture of those meteors we commonly call failing stars, pray do; for I am extremely at a loss to know what to think of them. Also any thing that has come to your knowledge of the nature and effects of whirl-winds and water-spouts 5; con- cerning which I have seen only imperfect accounts. I know you will be pleased to hear that our Academy Aourishes, and therefore I inform you that we have now Vou. V....No. Ff. 2.) | 162 Original Letters of Dr. Franklin. upwards of 300 scholars in all the schools. Our Hospita! too, goes on very well, and does much good. We have this day been opening our cargo of choice Drugs and Medicines from London, that cost us 112£ sterling; and find all in good order. I must not omit to acquaint you with one oth- er instance of the public spirit of this people. A person who had been in the Jast expedition to discover a north-west passage, being fully persuaded from some observations he made, and notices he obtained there, that such a passage there probably is, wrote to me from Maryland, requesting I would endeavor to procure subscriptions here for another attempt. It is accordingly done; 1000£ is raised for the purpose, and a vessel is actually fitting for him to proceed in early in the Spring. If you have any queries to make concerning that Country, its Productions, &c. or would have any particular observations made there; write them, and I will send them by our captain who is an ingenious and ob- serving man. ‘ Did you receive the votes of our last years Assembly, which I sent you, as I think; but am not very certain. I know I intended it. And now my paper will only afford me room to add, that I have not received more pleasure and satisfaction from any correspondence I maintain, than from that you have favoured me with; which I hope will never again meet such interruption, as 1 am, with sincere esteem and affection, dear Sir, your obliged friend and servant, B. FRANKLIN. 10 Puitapevrara, April 12, 1753. Dear Sir, I received your favor of March 26, and thank you for comunicating to me the very ingenious letter from your friend Mr. Todd, with whom, if it may be agreeable to him, { would gladly entertain a correspondence. I shall consider his objections till next post. I thank you also for the hint concerning the word adhe- sion, which should be defined. When I speak of particles of water adhering to particles of air, I mean not a firm ad- hesion, but a loose one, like that of a drop of water to the end of an icicle before freezing. The firm adhesion is af- ter it is frozen. Original Letters of Dr. Franklin. 163 I conceive that the original constituent particles of water are perfectly hard, round and smooth. If so, there must be interstices, and yet the mass incompressible. A box filled with small shot, has many interstices, and the shot may be compressed, because they are not perfectly, hard. If they were, the interstices would remain the same, notwith- standing the greatest pressure, and would admit sand, &c. as water admits salt. ; Our vessel, named the Argo, is gone for the north-west passage; and the Capt. has borrowed my journals. of the last voyage, except one Vol. broken set, which I send you. I enclose a letter from our friend Mr. Collinson: and am promised some speltz which I shall send per next post. The Tatler tells us of a girl who was observed to. grow suddenly proud, and none could guess the reason, till it came to be known that she had got ona pair of new silk garters. Lest you should be puzzled to guess the cause when you observe any thing of the kind in me, I think I will not hide my new garters under my petticoats, but take the freedom to show them to you, ina paragraph of our friend Collinson’s last letter, viz.—But I ought to mortify, and not indulge this vanity.—I will not transcribe the para- graph.—Yet I cannot forbear.— If any of thy friends (says Peter,) “should take notice that thy head is held a little higher up than formerly, let them know; when the Grand Monarch of France strictly commands the Abbe’ Mazeas to write a letter in the politest terms to the Royal Society, to return the king’s thanks and compliments in an express man- ner, to Mr. Franklin of Philadelphia, for the useful discove- ries in Electricity, and application of the pointed rods to prevent the terrible effects of thunder storms: I say af- ter all this, is not some allowance to be made if the crest is a little elevated. There are four letters containing very cu- rious experiments on thy doctrine of Points and its verifica- tion, which will be printed in the New Translations, J] think now I have stuck a feather in thy cap, and I may be allowed to conclude in wishing thee long to wear it. Thine P. COLLINSON.” On reconsidering this paragraph, I fear I have not so much reason to be proud as the girl had; for a feather in the cap, is not so useful a thing, or so serviceable to the wearer, as a pair of good silk garters. "The pride of man is very differ- 164 Original Letters of Dr. Franklin. ently gratified, and had his majesty sent me a Marshall’s staff, | think I should scarce have been so proud of it as I am of your esteem, and of subscribing myself with sinceri- ty, dear Sir, Your affectionate friend, and humble servant, B. FRANKLIN. 11 Puinapetpaia, May 3, 1753. Dear Sir, I received your essay last post, and my presses being at present engaged in some public work that will not admit of delay, I have engaged Mr. Parker to print it out of hand at New-York. You may expect to see it done in two or three weeks. The pacquet was not sealed, and I observed that the tables showing the culture of sundry fields were not with the rest of Mr. Jackson’s papers. Perhaps you did not design them for the press. I wish the Barbary barley may grow. I have some of it and sowed it; but it seemed to me to have been cut too green. Ihave formerly heard it reckoned the finest barley in the world, and that it makes a great part of the food of the inhabitants. I think I have never been more hurried in business than at present ; yet I will steal a few minutes, to make an ob- servation or two on Mr. Todd’s ingenious letter to you. i. The supposing a mutual attraction between the par- ticles of water and air, does not seem to me to be introdu- cing a new law of nature ; such attractions taking place in many other known instances. 2. Water is specifically eight hundred and fifty times heavier than air. To render a bubble of water then spe- cifically lighter than air, it seems to me that it must take up more than eight hundred and fifty times the space it did before it formed the bubble ; and within the bubble should be either a vacuum, or air rarified more than eight hundred and fifty times. Ifa vacuum, would not the bubble be im- mediately crushed by the weight of the atmosphere? And no heat we know of will rarify the air any thing near so much; much less the common heat of the sun, or that of friction by the dashing on the surface of the water. Be- Original Letters of Dr. Franklin. 165 sides, water agitated ever so violently produces no heat, as has been found by accurate experiments. 3. A hollow sphere of lead, has a firmness and consisten- cy in it, that a hollow sphere of fluid unfrozen water cannot be supposed to have. ‘The lead may support the pressure of the water ’tis immerged in, but the bubble could not sup- port the pressure of the air if empty within. 4. Was ever a visible bubble seen to rise in air? I have made many when a boy with soap suds, and a tobacco pipe ; but they all descended when loose from ‘the pipe, though slowly, the air impeding their motion. They may indeed be forced up by a wind from below, but do not rise of them- selves though filled with warm breath. 5. The objection relating to our breathing moist air, seems weighty, and must be farther considered. The air that has been breathed has doubtless acquired an addition of the perspirable matter, which nature intends to free the body from, and which would be pernicious if retained, or returned into the blood. Such air then may become unfit for respiration, as well for that reason, as on account of its moisture. Yet I should be glad to learn by some accurate experiment, whether a draft of air two or three times in- spired and expired, (perhaps in a bladder) has, or has not acquired more moisture than our common air in the damp- est weather. As to the precipitation of water in the air we breathe, perhaps it is not always a mark of that air’s being overload- | ed. In the region of the clouds, indeed, the air must be overloaded (its coldness considered) if it lets fall its water in drops, which we call rain; but those. drops may fall through a dryer air near the earth; and accordingly we find, that the hygroscope sometimes shows a less degree of moisture during a shower, than at other times when it does. not rain at all. The dewy dampness that settles on the insides of our walls and on our wainscots, seems more cer- tainly to denote an air overloaded with moisture, and yet this is no sure sign. For after a long continued cold sea- son, if the air grow suddenly warm, the walls, &c. continu- ing their coldness longer, will for some time condense the moisture of such air, ’till they grow equally warm; and then they condense no more, although the air is not become dryer. And on the other hand, after a warm spell, if the air grow cold, though moister than before, the dew is not 166 Original Letters of Dr. Franklin. so apt to gather on the warm walls. A tankard of cold water, will, in a hot and dry summer’s day, collect a dew on its outside. A tankard of hot water will collect none in the moistest weather. 6. ’Tis, | think, a mistake, that the trade winds blow on- ly in the afternoon. They blow all day, and all night, and all the year round, except in some particular places. The southerly sea breezes on your coast indeed blow chiefly in the afternoon. In the very long run from the west side of America, to Guam among the Philppine islands, ships sel- dom have occasion to hand their sails, and yet they make it in about sixty days, which could not be if the wind blew only in the afternoon, 7. That really is, which the gentleman justly supposes ought to be on my hypothesis. In sailing southward, when you first enter the trade wind, you find it N. E. or therea- bouts, and it gradually grows more east as you approach the line. The same observation is made of its changing from S. E. to E. gradually, as you come from the south latitudes to the equator. I have not yet had time to transcribe my paper on the in- crease of mankind, but hope to do it shortly, and shall be glad of your and Mr. Todd’s sentiments on it. My re- spects to that gentleman; and be assured that I am, very affectionately, dear Sir, Your most humble servant, B. FRANKLIN. 12 Puiwapevensa, Nov. 8, 1753. Dear Suir, Tue first intimation I find of the new air-pump, is in a piece of Mr. Watson’s, read to the Royal Society, Feb. 20, 1752, where describing some experiments he made in va- cuo, he says—‘‘ The more complete the vacuum, ceteris paribus, the more considerable were the effects; and here, { should not do justice to real merit, were I silent in regard to Mr. Sweaton. This gentleman, with a genius truly me- chanical, which enables him to give to such philosophical instruments as he executes, a degree of perfection scarce to be found elsewhere; this gentleman, I say, has construc- Original Letters of Dr. Franklin. 167 ted an air-pump, by which we are impowered to make Boyle’s vacuum much more perfect than heretofore. By a weil conducted experiment, which admits of no doubt as to its truth, I have seen by this pump the air rarified to 1000 times its natural state ; whereas, commonly, we seldom ar- rive at 150. As the promotion of the mechanic arts is a considerable object of our excellent institution, if this gen- tleman could be prevailed upon to communicate to the Royal Society that particular construction of his air-pump, which enables it to execute so much more than those commonly in use, it would not fail to be an acceptable present.” So far Mr. Watson. In April following, was read a letter from Mr. Sweaton, in which he describes his improvements, and gives a draft of his pump ; the whole too long to transcribe; but it appears to me that the machine being rather simpli- fied, than more complex, can scarce cost more than one of the old sort, though the price is not mentioned. By only turning a cock, it is at pleasure made a condensing engine. An advantage the others have not. I have seen nothing of your searchers. Mr. Parker has received Bower, but writes me that he is at a loss how to send it, and desires you would order some- body to call for it. 1 shall send the dollars for Mr. Mix, per next post. For I fancy you will not now buy this apparatus here, but chuse the new air-pump from England. My respects to all friends, concludes from, dear Sir, Your obliged humble servant, B. FRANKLIN. 13 PuitapeLpnia, Aug. 31, 1755. Dear Friend, Lhave been employed, almost all this summer, in the service of our unfortunate army, and other public affairs, that have brought me greatly in arrear with my corres- pondents. I have lost the pleasure of conversing with them, and I have lost my labour: I wish these were the only losses of the year: but we have lost a number of brave men, and all our credit with the indians ; and I fear these losses may soon be productive of more, and greater. - 168 Original Letters of Dr. Franklin. Thave had no opportunity of making the enquiry you de- sired, relating to Leonard. Somerset county, in Maryland, is 150 miles from hence, and out of the common road of trav- ellers, or the post, nor have I any correspondent, or acquain- tance there. But now, while lam writing, I recollect a friend I have at Newtown, within 50 miles of Somerset, who has a very general knowledge of those parts, and of the people, as he practices the law in all the counties on the eastern shore of Maryland : | willimmediately write to him about it. I am sorry your newspapers miscarry. If your riders are not more careful, I must order them to be changed. The Mitchel. who made the map, is our Dr. Mitchel. I send you one of Evan’s new maps, which I imagine will be agreeable to you. Please accept it. Tam glad to hear your son has acquired the true art of making steel. I hope it will prove profitable. , Mr. Roberts is pleased that you so kindly accept his fork and rake. I suppose he will write to you; but he is a man of much business, and does not love writing : I shall learn once more (for he told me once, and I forgot it) how those teeth are put in,,and send you word; but, perhaps, our friend Bartram can te}l you. He delivers you this, and 1 need not recommend him to you, for you are already ac- quainted with his merit, though not with his face and person.-- You will have a great deal of pleasure in one another’s con- versation ; J wish I could be within hearing ; but that can- notbe. He is upon one of his rambles in search of knowl- edge, and intends to view both your sea-coast and back country. Remember me kindly to Mr. Tufts, and Mr. Ruggles, when you see them. My respects to your good lady and family With the greatest esteem, Iam, dear Sir, Your most affectionate humble serv’t. B. FRANKLIN. 14 PuiLavELpHiA, Sept. 1, 1755. a Dear Sir, 1 wrote you yesterday, and now I write again. You will say, it cant rain, but it pours. For I not only send you Intelligence and Miscellanies. 169 manuscript but living letters. The first may be short, but the latter will be longer and yet more agreeable. Mr. Bartram | believe you will find to be at least twenty folio pages, large paper, well filled, on the subjects of botany, fossils, husbandry, and the first creation. This Mr. Allison has as many or more, on agriculture, philosophy, your own catholic divinity, and various other points of learning, equally useful and engaging. Read them both. ’Twill take you at least a week; and then answer, by sending me two of the like kind, or by coming yourself. If you fail of this, I shall think I have overbalanced my epistolary ac- count, and that you will be in my debt as a correspondent, for at least a twelve month to come. I remember with pleasure the cheerful hours I enjoyed last winter in your company, and would with all my heart give any ten of the thick old folios that stand on the shelves before me, for a little book of the stories you then told with so much propriety and humour. Adieu, my dear friend, and believe me ever —«CYoours affectionately, B. FRANKLIN. Dr. Exxiort. P. S.—The piece of iron ore you mentioned in yours of April 10, never came to hand. 1 forgot to mention, that the bearer, Mr. Allison, is Rector of our Academy, and my particular friend. He is on a journey northward for health. : , 1a Dy Fei WR abe RN NESS NG Fs SANS ARN et Re ee CUA oe INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. —— I. Foreign. (From a Correspondent.) Prices of some minerals in London.—On looking over a marked catalogue of a sale by auction, of minerals in Lon- don, 1 was induced to copy a few items, which I send for your valuable Journal, as in this country, we often hear, even good mineralogists, express great surprise at the price Vou. V.....No. I. 22 i70 Intelligence and Miscellanies. demanded for small specimens in England, and as data for estimating the value of our own minerals. Your’s, F. L. Site SG A’group of amethystine quartz, with pearl spar, Hungary, ee lo A specimen of Haiy’s petrosilex, from the river Argun, in Nertschinsky, CO rn Carbonate of iron on quartz, Hartz, Topazine, Cubic Fluor, Gersdorff, 1 Fascicular oxide of manganese, Hefeld, on the Harz, 7 6 Prismatic carb’t. of lime, on Galenca, Cumber- land, 6 6 Transparent quartz, with chlorite, Brazil, 10 Amianthoide, on Adularia, St. Gothard. 1 Rose coloured fluor, Chamouni, in Switzer- . land, and needle mesotype, Ferro, 1 10 A single crystal of Arragonite, Molina. aie Chromate of lead, Beressoff, 12 6 From Thomson’s Annals, for Nov. 1821. “* Fithography.—An experiment has lately been made to take off impressions from the leaves of plants, by lythogra- phic printing. It appears to have been attempted by mere- ly pressing the leaves against the stone. This process does not, however, appear the most adviseable; the better way being to cover the plant with the prepared ink, and after bringing a sheet of clean paper in contact with its entire surface, transfer the impression thus procured to the litho- eraphic stone. We notice this from the great advantage which botanists are likely to derive from this simple mode of preserving and multiplying impressions from rare plants, which could otherwise, be seen only in the cabinets of a few collectors.” From Brandes’ Journal. “© On meteorolites, by M. Fleuriau de Bellevue.—A paper by M. Fleuriau de Bellevue, was read to the Academy of Sciences last year, on meteoric stones, and particularly on those which fell near Jonzac, in the department of Cha- Foreign Laterature and Science. 171 vente.” The following conclusions are presented as those drawn by M. Bellevue : 1. The appearances presented by the crust of meteor- olites, seem to prove that their surface has been fused whilst rapidly traversing the flame of the meteor, and rapidly so- lidified into a vitreous state on leaving that flame. 2. They prove that in the first moments, the movement of the meteorolites was simple, that is, that they did not turn round on their own axis, whilst those two effects took place. 3. That the impulse each meteorolite has received has al- most always been perpendicular to its largest face. 4, That the largest face is almost always, more or less, convex. 5. Our meteorolites (those of Jonzac) offer new proofs of the pre-existence of a solid nucleus, to bolides or me- teors.. 6. This nucleus could not contain the combustible mat- ter which produced the inflammation of the meteor. 7. It cannot have suffered fusion during the appearance of the phenomena. 8. The gaseous matter, which surrounds thie nucleus, is dissipated without producing any solid residuum. No trace of this matter appears ever to exist in the crust of the me- sa . Meteorolites are fragments of those nuclei ‘which have not Bite altered in their natures, but simply vitrified at their surfaces. 10. Many of the irregular forms which these fragments present, may be referred to determinate geometric forms. 11. These latter forms are the consequences of the rapid action of a violent fire, according to a law of the movement of heat in solid enna! discovered by M. Emen. Jour. de Phys. XCH. p.159.~ —ea— Foragn Literature and Science. Communicated by Prof. Griscom. 1. Human bones in a fossil state—Baron de Schlottheim, of Saxony, well known as the author of an Antideluvian 172 Foreign Iaterature and Science Flora, has just published a catalogue raisonné et methodique of his collection of fossils, the most complete perhaps in existence. Among other objects, he describes the Anthro- polites, or fossil bones belonging to the human species, which have been discovered in the environs of Kostriz, near Gera, in the county of Recuss, in Upper Saxony. The rock on which the whole secondary stratum rests, is a transition ar- gillaceous schist, of a reddish grey colour. It covers a hard firm grained grau-wacke, which occasionally makes its appearance in the beds of the streams. Immediately above this schist is old secondary limestone, in nearly hor- izontal strata. Old secondary gypsum is in some places in- serted in the limestone, and is subordinate to it. An alluv- lum, composing a dryer soil, and occasionally sandy, covers all these secondary rocks. This soil which richly rewards the industrious cultivator, occupies an extent of many square miles. ‘The secondary Hmestone is in many places Cavernous, the cavities often containing numerous stalac- tites. Large openings, or cavities are also filled with the Superincumbent clay. It is in one of the largest cavities of the limestone, and at the depth of twenty feet, and in the residue of the clay which fills the cavity, that the bones of large animals have been found. Among these bones are various fragments of the Rhinoceros antiquitatis, the jaws and teeth of a species of antediluvian horse, principally distinguished by the extraordinary length of its teeth. Ver- tebrae and tibiae of cattle, and stags of very extraordinary size. ‘The lower jaw, and teeth of a large antediluvian hyena, (canis crocutaformis major, of Cuvier) fragments of the leo diluvianus. All these bones are, more or less, changed, and penetrated with calcareous matter; but as bones are found at much greater depths in clay, in some other places, and much less changed in their substance, it is admitted that a greater or less alteration of the substance of those fossil bones, cannot in any wise, serve as an indication of the difference that may exist in their relative ages ; nor that the species to which they have belonged, have perished at different epochs. The gypsum, which is subordinate to this cavernous lime- stone, presents itself in large uniform masses, or short thick. beds inserted in the limestone. In these beds of gypsum, ravities, and fissures also exist, which extend themselves in Poureign Literature and Science. 173 all directions, but of less dimensions than the limestone cav- erns. ‘They are filled however, with the clayey alluvion, which descends to the greatest depths. It is in these clayey masses which fill the crevices of the gypsum, that are found, collected in heaps or nests, and in circumstances perfectly similar, a multitude of bones of ter- restrial animals, among which are evidently some of the hu- man species. These plaster quarries have been open thirty years, during which these groups of bones have been found always imbedded in the same manner. The human bones are mingled with those of other animals, in detached pieces, and without forming an entire skeleton. In considering all the circumstances of their situation, it is fairly to be pre- sumed, that these human bones are really fossil remains, and contemporaneous with the other bones with which they are mingled; and that they have been driven and deposited by the waters, which have formed the alluvial stratum which covers the secondary rocks of this country ; and consequently then, man existed prior to the formation of the alluvial earth, which resulted from the last great revolution which has changed the surface of the globe, and during which a north- ern aiwniites before unknown, became established. Mr. Cavier has justly observed in his researches, Tome I. page 66, that this last epoch of the great inundation, which destroyed a crowd of animal species, whose remains are found only in alluvion, and in no rock more ancient, ac- cords well with our chronology. ‘The instructive facts now before us, seem to add fresh confirmation to the tradition of this inundation, a tradition which is preserved among all nations. The principal parts of the human frame that have been thus obtained, are a frontal bone, with the half of the ophthalmic orbits, the left part of a male pelvis, the tibia of the left leg, and the right and left femur. Bibliothique Universelle, Nov. 1820. 2. Climate of the South of France-—Dr. James Clark has published (London, 1820,) ‘Medical notes on Climate,” in which he appears to prove, that consumptive patients have no just reason to expect that benefit from the air of the northern shore of the Mediterranean, which so many are eager to scck for. The wind which blows from the mari- 174 Foreign Laterature and Science. time Alps, called the mistral, and which produces a sudden, and most unpleasant change of temperature, is of itself suf- ficient to discourage delicate, and phthisical patients from exposing themselves to its attacks. These winds in gene- ral, produce hemoptisis in those whose lungs are affected ; even the physicians of Nice, who are strongly disposed to recommend that place to the sick, in the months of Novem- ber, December, and January, acknowledge that the cold winds of the three following months are very unfavourable. But in the middle of winter itis very difficult for sick peo- ple to find the means of retreating from these warm, and comfortable quarters, without exposing themselves to the attacks of the mistral. Dr. Vodici, a very enlightened physician of Nice, said to Dr. Clark, “you may assure your colleagues, and countrymen that it isa miserable prac- tice to send their consumptive patients to die at Nice. The English make this fatal trial every year, and the cemet- ery of la Croix de marbre, but too clearly attests the conse- quences. Rev. Encyclopedique. 3. Pressure of the atmosphere.—Pere Biseln, Prior of the hospital of mount St. Bernard, states that the atmospheric pressure is so diminished that water boils at a temperature of 78. 8. Reaumur, which renders it necessary to cook their meat from five, to five and a half hours, which on ac- count of the scarcity of wood, is a serious inconvenience. In consequence of this, it has been proposed to supply those good monks with Papin’s digester, as a remedy for this dif- ficulty. 4. Zoology.—New species of Salamander.——Dr. Paolo Savi, adjunct professor of Botany, in the University of Pisa, has found in various places, inthe Appenines of Tuscany, and especially at Mugello, a new species of Salamander, very remarkable from its figure, and colours, and endowed with characters so particular, that it appears hitherto to have been undescribed. He calls it Salamandra perspieillata quinque palmis plantisque tetradactylis. It has a spot in the superior part of the head, which resembles very nearly, a pair of spectacles. But what is still more characteristic, is the fact, that it has four toes on each foot: so that it can- not be confounded with the Salamander of three toes men- Foreign Laterature and Science. 175 tioned by Mr. Lacepede. (Hist. Nat. Tom. VI. pa. 496.) The detailed description of this new Salamander is given in the Bibliotica Italiana, No. LXV. i Rev. Ency. 5. Meteorolite.—There fell in the commune of Juvenas, France, on the 15th of June last, an Aerolite which weigh- ed 220 pounds. ‘The inhabitants of Juvenas, as well as those of the neighbouring country were so terrified with the frightful noise which accompanied its fall, that it was not un- til the 28th of the month that any one dared to venture up- on an enquiry after the object which they had seen falling at some distance from their habitations. But when the stone was found, the inhabitants eager to turn it to some profit, broke it up into small pieces. It was known only that a portion of it examined by the hydrostatic balance gave a spec. grav. of 2.80 and that it had no action on the magnet. Rev. Enc. 6. Remarkable Diamond.—The East India Company have sent to England a Diamond which was taken from the Pacharva of the Mahrattas, which weighs 358 grains. Next to the regent diamond, and one belonging to the Emperor of Russia, it is the finest stone in Europe. § Rev. Enc. 7. Circulating Labraries.—According to a published ac- count there are in England about 600 reading companies or associations, (consisting of from 10 to 25 or more members) which procure for their own special use such publications as they may wish to peruse, and at certain periods those books which have been the round among the members, are at a general meeting of the company sold to the highest bidder. ‘The funds are thus replenished, and knowledge and entertainment of the best kind agreealiis and, cheaply provided. 8. Traveller’s Society.--A social company has been formed in Liverpool under the name of the traveller’s society. No person is eligible to membership who has not been 500 miles from home. At their meetings, it will readily be im- agined there must be a variety of amusing and instructive anecdotes, and much information imparted that will natural- ly tend to enlighten and liberalize the mind. 176 Foreign Laterature and Science. 9. Russian Establishments. —Count Romanzof (the same person that charged himself with the expense of the expedi- tion of M. de Kotzebue) who is possessed of an immense estate in the government of Mechilof, with a view of provi- ding for the education of the children of the peasantry, has erected a beautiful building for a school and dwellings for masters. It is destined to receive three or four hundred pu- pils, who will be instructed in reading, writing, calculation, geography and some knowledge of natural history. They may also acquire the elements of useful trades. ‘The name of Romanzof is one that cannot be pronounced without mentioning some new act of beneficence. Rev. Enc. 10. Lunar Volcanoes.—Dr. Olbers observed on the 5th of last February, the phenomenon which some philosophers have attributed to volcanos in the moon. He declared that he never perceived it more distinctly. The spot called A- ristarchus, threw out a very vivid light, and appearad like a star of the 6th magnitude, placed on the north-east of the moon. ‘The evening of the 6th unhappily was not so fine as that of the preceding day, and Dr. O. could not pursue his observations, but the English journals announce that Capt. Kater had made on the 7th of Feb. a report to the Royal Society of London in which he affirms that he had seen a lunar Volcano in actualeruption. Dr. Olbers thinks that the observations of Capt. K. coincide exactly with his own, but he differs from him with respect to the cause. He does not admit the existence of a volcano in the moon; he thinks that the phenomenon which Capt. K. regards as such, is produced by the reflection of the light cast by the earth on the open immense rocks of a smooth surface, situated on the part of the moon called Aristarchus. Should these rocks, says Dr. O. send back only a tenth part of the light which they receive from the earth, (our mirrors return one half of the incident light) the effect would be equal to a star of the sixth magnitude. It is in this way that Dr. Olbers ac- counts for our always seeing those spots in the same place, and also why they do not show themselves at each lunation. On the 6th of March, Dr. Olbers could distinctly see all the spots of the moon; Grimaldi, Copernicus, Kepler, Manidius, &c. Aristarchus, was particularly remarkable, but it was not so splendid as on the 5th of February. Foreign Literature and Science. 177 ~The hypothesis of volcanoes in the moon is not modern, and at present it is almost rejected, and the explanation of Dr. Olbers is generally admitted. The spot Aristarchus, is plainly to be seen when the moon is illuminated:by the sun, and hence it is natural that it should appear more luminous than the rest of the disc, when it is enlightened only by the earth. As to the variation of extent which is remarked commonly in the spots at the beginning of a lunation, the phenomena of: re- fraction, produced by the position of the moon near the hori- zon, are sufficient to explain it without having recourse to Lunar Volcanoes. Rev. Enc. 11. Pavia.—Remedy against Hydrophobia.—New ex- periments, prove the efficacy of chlorine in the treatment of Hydrophobia. Dr. Previsali has prescribed it with success, -in several cases in which the symptoms of that frightful mal- ady had already manifested themselves. He administers it in the form of a drink in the dose of a gros or a gros and a half per day, in citron water, or citron syrup. Rev. Enc. 12. Padua.—The enterprising traveller Belzoni having given to Padua his native place two colossal statues of Isis, of Egyptian porphyry, found in the ruins of Thebes, the grate- ful Paduans in placing them in the Sola dello Ragione had a large medal struck in honour of their fellow-citizen, repre- senting on one side the two Egyptian statues, and on the other, bearing an inscription. idem. 13. Libraries of St. Petersburgh.—Ist. the Imperial Li- brary at the hermitage, contains 300,000 volumes. Though already rich in beautifu! and rare works, it continues to in- crease in them. Two Librarians are charged with the care of it. 2d. The Library of Zaluski, now imperial. - It belonged to the republic of Poland, and was transported in 1799 to Petersburgh, where it has been carefully placed in an elegant building. At each stage there is a beautiful ro- tundo, and two lateral halls. It contains like that at the hermitage, 300,000 volumes, among which, are the most valued works of ancient and oriental philosophy. It is preserved with care, and open to the public. 3d. The Library of the Grand Duke Constantine, consisting of about 30,000 volumes of diplomacy, history, and the military art. Vou V....No. £. 23 178 Foreign Literature and Science. 4th. That of the Academy of Sciences: next to the imperi- al Libraries, this is the most considerable, for it contains 60,000 volumes: among which are 3,000 in Chinese, Mantschou and Tongutschou. It is rich also in Asiatic manuscripts, in drawings of plants and butterflies, and in other objects of natural history, coming from Madame Mér- | ian and Dr. Fothergill. The Russian works to the num- ber of 3,000 are separate from the others. 5th. The Li- brary of the Convent of Newski containing Sclavonic manu- scripts, acts of councils, writings of the German _philoso- opher Wolf, and many theological treatises. 6th. The Li- brary of the corps of Imperial Cadets: it has more than 12,000 volumes, and is annually increasing. 7th. The Li- brary of the College of Medicine. 8th. That of the Econom- ical Society. 9th. That of the University, lately founded and which has already 11,000 volumes. St. Petersburgh contains besides more than twenty pri- vate libraries, worthy of being mentioned as well for their extent as for the rare and valuable works which they con- tain; such are those of Counts Ischernichef, Schouvalof, Ischeremetef, Strogonof, Youssoupof, Boutourlin, the late princess Datschkof, counsellor Betzkoi, of prince Koura- kin, of Lieutenant General Klinger; the latter possesses the best collection of literary, historical, philosophical and political works in English, French, German and Italian. {t contains a beautiful collection of autographic manu- scripts of princes, officers, statesmen and learned men of the different countries of Europe. This collection known at first under the name of Doubrowski, is become imperial. Rev. Enc. 14. Aurora Borealis.—A Royal Author.—The Ex-King of Sweden (Colonel Gustavson) has printed at Frankfort, a memoir entitled, “ Reflections on the phenomena of the Aurora Borealis and its relation to the diurnal motion.” It is written in French, and dedicated to the Royal Acade- my of Sciences of Norway. ‘The Aurora Borealis has been ascribed to various causes,—by Mairan to the solar atmos- phere,—by Lemonier to a matter which exhales from our globe, and arises to a prodigious height in the atmosphere, by Dr. Franklin and others to electricity—by Dalton and Arrago to an effect purely magnetic—this last opinion has been generally adopted. Colonel Gustavson endeavours Foreign Laterature and Science. 173 to prove that the Aurora Borealis has its origin in an inflam- mable matter produced by the friction of the globe in turn- ing upon its axis, and by an electric fire, which collects round the pole. He figures to himself this region as a great mountain, rising in form of a cone at the foot of which are attached petrified flakes of ice which plough the icy sea. He supposes the terrestrial atmosphere to be vastly higher than is generally admitted, and that the polar mountain is a magnetic mass of an immense volume, the effect of which is to maintain the diurnal motion of the earth! ! Rev. Enc. 15. Geneva.—The method of mutual instruction continues to receive direct encouragement in our city. A very large building is now constructing, in which is to be placed a new public school, organized according to this method. Many of our protestant pastors of the country have established similar ones in their parishes, and direct them themselves with a zeal worthy of the greatest praise. Their example has been imitated by several rich proprietors, notwithstand- ing the opposition both open and disguised of certain cu- rates. Idem. 16. Naples-—Surgery.—Catanoso of Messina, a pupil of the medical school of Paris, has performed thirteen times in succession in this city, and with the happiest success, the operation for cataract by extraction. 17. Deaths in France.—Gouan, the oldest of the profes- sors of the school of Montpellier, the friend of Linneus, of Haller, of Seguier, of Jussieu, and other celebrated botan- ists. He died at the age of 88. Corvisart, one of the heat distinguished physicians of Europe, died at Paris at the age of 67, on the 19th of Sep- tember last. He was first physician to Napoleon. His obsequies were celebrated at Athens where he had an es- tate. Leroux Dean of the faculty of Medicine, pronounced on the occasion a discourse in which he expressed the re- gret of all those who knew this celebrated man, to whom the medical sciences were under so many obligations. 180 Foreign Literature and Science. 18. Ellious Boethor, professor of Arabic in the King’s Library. He died of a disease of the liver after two weeks illness, on the 26th of September. He was born at Syout, in Upper Egypt, and was interpreter to the French army. He was scarcely 40 years of age. He had acquired by la- bour and study, great perfection in the language and liter- ature of France. He expressed himself with facility and clearness in French and in Arabic, and though it was easy to recognise in his delivery a foreign pronunciation, it was not so with respect to the propriety of his terms and even the elegance of his diction. The loss of this man is to be regretted not only on ac- count of oriental literature, and public instruction :. it is still more sad in reference to the civilization of Egypt. He formed a natural tie between France and his native country. Familiar with the grammarians, the literati, the philosophers, and all the principal writers of France, he would have been able, above every other person, to initiate pupils chosen among his own countrymen in our arts and sciences. Ellious Boethor first became known at Paris, a few years since, by his decyphering and translating with the greatest facility, the numerous pieces in Arabic preserved in the war department. He brought with him a large dic- tionary in the two languages, the fruit of ten years labour and meditation in which each of the acceptations of the Arabic words is justified by examples taken from good au- thors. This manuscript is in the hands of his widow, and constitutes her whole dependence. We doubt not that the government will obtain it and print it for the benefit of stu- dents, and especially of the pupils in the oriental schools of Paris and Marseilles. We believe the author had also composed an Arabic and French Grammar. He has left a blank very difficult to fill, for it requires conditions which it is almost impossible to conciliate. | Jomard. Rev. Ency. 19. Botany.—They are now cultivating in Sweden the astragalus balticus (Linneus) as an excellent substitute for coffee, and the decoction of which requires only the fifth part of the sugar commonly used. This plant produces six hundred or a thousand fold, and does not suffer from intense frost. Dr. Bayrhammor of Wurtzburg, offers to Foreign Literature and Science. 18] send gratuitously one hundred grains to any one who will -promise to cultivate it, and make known the result. 20. Style of the Orientals.—A diploma of the Persian order of the Lion-of-the-Sun,, which has recently been sent to Joseph de Hammer, of Vienna, presents in the following address, literally translated, a curious exam- ple of the oriental style. It thus announces the titles that have been given him on this occasion :—‘ Very esti- mable, very honourable, eloquent in the art of oratory penetrating, skilful interpreter of the language of the good - christian people, who believe in Jesus, Counsellor of the high imperial German Court, whose pen is well made, whose writing is flowery, whose fingers are nimble, whose tongue is well practised, column of the most excellent and the most venerated, lily of ten languages, Joseph Hammer, &e.”? 21. The Inauguration of a Colossal Statue of Luther, was to take place in the city of Wittemberg, by order of the Prussian Governments, and with great solemnity, on the 31st of October, the anniversary of the day on which Luther separated from the Catholics, by posting upon the Univer- sity of Wittemberg, in 1517, his famous Theses against the Court of Rome. The king, and all the protestant princes of Germany were to assist at this ceremony, which is a na- tional festival to the whole of evangelical Germany. ) ede Rev. Ency. 22. Amsterdam Canal.—The Dutch are actively engag- ed in constructing a grand Canal in North-Holland. It will be twelve miles in length, and twenty-five feet deep, so as to be navigable for East-India ships from the Helder and the large port of Het Nieuw Diep, to the Het Y. before Amsterdam. This undertaking does great honour to the inspector general Blanken: it is no inconsiderable enter- prise to construct a canal of this extent in a marshy soil, consisting in a great measure of a kind of floating turf un- der a bed of clay, and of attaching to it massive sluices, each of which must cost 300,000 florins. A great number of boats must be employed in carrying away the turf and mud taken from the canal, for it will not do to throw upon 182 Foreign Literature and Science. the borders of the canal such a mass of soft materials, as 11 would soon sink back again by its own weight. The la- bour will cost many millions ; the commerce of Amsterdam, to which this canal must be of the greatest importance, will contribute a million of florins of Holland. A part of it is finished, as well as the first great sluice at the entrance of the canal, opposite to Amsterdam. 23. Cutlery.x—Damascus Steel.—One of our most skilful and industrious cutlers, Sir Henry de Besangon, having ac- quired the art of fabricating the steel, called Damascus, very superior to that of Persia and Syria, now employs it in making instruments of surgery, which are far more valuable than those of English cast steel. The extreme hardness, and great elasticity of the Damascus, render it particularly important in the fabrication of instruments that require a very fine edge, such as razors, bistouries, lancets, instru- ments for cataract, &c. which so soon lose their edge, espe- cially when used to pierce or cut very strongly resisting bodies. We have seen the lancets of Sir Henry pass through with the greatest facility pieces of parchment and thin plates of lead, without any injury to the edge, whilst very good common lancets, treated im the same manner, were either broken, or so much duiled as to be unfit for use. Sir Henry fabricates with his Damascus all other kinds of cutlery, as knives, scissars, &c. with which bones, ivory, and even iron may be cut, without being dulled. The “Society of Encouragement,” the New Journal of Medicine, and many other Gazettes, have spoken with much eulogium of these new and useful products of French industry. Sir Henry has his in the place de Pecole de Medicine,” at Paris. Rev. Ency. 24. Instruction in Latin by the method of J. J. Ordinaire.— In stating that several institutions in Paris have adopted the method of instruction devised by J. J. Ordinaire, Rector of the Academy of Besangon, we engaged to make known their labours and success. We attended the exercises which took place on Tuesday the 19th of July, in the beautiful establishment of M. Morin, the only one which M. Ordinaire superintends himself. ‘The following are the results which appeared at that time. The class of M. Mo- Foreign Literature and Science. 183 rin was opened in the beginning of June. In the course of the first week, four divisions, composed of seven or eight boys, were successively formed and exercised upon the new system. The first division, that is to say, the most advanced pupils, had been engaged only six weeks, from which must be deducted Sundays and holidays, which re- duces the time to thirty-five days, during which they were engaged in study. In this short space of time the pupils of the first division, who before knew not a word of Latin, had learned, Ist. the twenty-six tables of Latin declina- tions, regular and irregular, so as to repeat, without the least confusion, any of the cases, separately or collectively, and in any order which might be pointed out. 2d. The signification of a thousand Latin substantives, namely, all those which are found in the text of Epitome historic sacre. They give not only the French which agrees with these words, but also the Latin when the French is named to them, and likewise the proper inflections of three thousand Latin radicals in either of the numbers named to them. 3d. These children knew in the same manner more than’ 200 Latin adjectives, to which they could give the substan- tive termination and declension, when the adjective was derived from a substantive, or the adverbial termination, when they were susceptible of it. The pupils of the other divisions followed very closely those of the one we have just spoken of. All replied with facility to the questions put to them upon the radicals and declensions, upon the formations of cases, genders and numbers; on the value of the Latin accent, the orthogra- phy of the two languages, &c. We remarked also among these pupils that emulation and satisfaction which the old method regards as incompatible with the study of the dead languages. The ardor of these children is such, that they are obliged to moderate it, and there is no question that after four months’ application they will be able to explain the Epitome historia sacre—a result to which M. Ordinaire himself had allotted at least eight months. There is no father of a family, no member of the univer- sity, who attended these exercises, that did not unite his thanks to those of the “Society for Elementary Instruction,’ at its last session, to the respectable Rector of Besangon. Rev. Ency. for July, 1821. 184 Foreign Laterature and Science. - This new method of teaching Latin, depending in some measure on a new tabular arrangement, or classification of words which the pupils are to commit to memory, has ex- cited considerable attention in France. It is thus noticed in the Revue Encyclopedique for September last : “We have shewn (page 230) the point to which the pu- pils of M. Morin, instructed by this method, under the di- rection of M. Ordinaire, had attained on the 19th of July last, after thirty-five days of study. From that time to the 24th of September, in spite of the derangements caused by vacation, the more advanced pupils have learned more than 1,800 words, viz. the rest of the adjectives in the epitome historia sacre with their adverbial inflections. 2d. The ta- ble of the names of Latin numbers, ordinary and cardinal, as well as the adjectives and adverbs derived from them. This table is so familiar to the children that they translate immediately, and without hesitation, the most complicated numbers expressed either in Latin or in French,—a_ thing which no pupil of Rhetoric, and even very few. professors, would be able to accomplish. 3d. All the pronouns. 4th. The prepositions, with their complements. 5th. The verbs, regular, irregular, and deponent of the first and second conjugations. ‘These 1,300 words, added to the 1,200, which the pupils knew in July, form a total of 2,500 Latin radicals, to which they apply ali the inflexions of each of them. Furthermore, they translate immediately, with the greatest facility, Latin phrases formed of those words, the explanation of which requires no knowledge of the rules of | Syntax; and they analyze them also with perfect regulari- ty. But what is still more remarkable, they turn French phrases into Latin, without any other assistance than their memory and their judgment, which are equally developed by these exercises. Such are the results which M. Ordinaire has obtained in three months and a half, with pupils frequently interrupted in their studies ; results which any one may verify for him- self, as we have done, with the deepest interest. The increasing success of this Latin class has determined M. Morin to annex to his establishment a contiguous build- ing, which will give him the means of receiving seventy ad- ditional boarders. Experience has proved that the more considerable the number of pupils, the more rapid is their progress, because then it is more easy to class the children Foreign Literature and Scvence. 185 according to their attainments. A professor has been sent from Brussels to acquire this method of instruction, in order to introduce it into the capital of Belgium. Let us hope that the university of France will not allow foreigners to take the lead in this system, but that it will promptly intro- duce it into the inferior classes of the Royal Colleges. This hope is the better founded, as the members of the corps of instruction, who have studied the work, or attend- ed the school of the Rector of Besangon, found nothing to object to the method, and accorded with all those who have reflected on the subject, as regarding this system as infinite- ly superior to the existing method, the great defects of which occasion so much daily trouble to parents and the friends of youth. 25. Physiology.—Dr. Magendie, of Paris, has commen- ced the publication of a Quarterly Journal, entitled “ Jour- nal de Physiologie experimentale.”” The first three num- bers have reached us, in which we find several interesting memoirs from the pen of that ingenious and indefatigable physiologist. In a short memoir on the structure of the Lungs in men, contained in the first number, the following facts are stated: Ist. That the greater part of the organic tissues contain so great a number of blood vessels, that they appear to be entirely formed of them. We may con- sider this fact as the actual limit of the anatomy of struc- ture. 2d. That the best mode of studying the structure of the pulmonary organ is to inflate it partially by the orifice of one of the bronchial tubes, place a ligature so as to pre- vent the escape of the air, and then to let it dry in the open air, or before a fire. It is then transparent, and may easily be cut by a sharp instrument into thin slices. 3d. If one of them be held between the eye and a hight, the pal- monary cells may be easily distinguished. ‘These cells as- sume no regular form, appear to have no membranous parietes, but to consist entirely of the ultimate divisions of the pulmonary artery, the radicules of the pulmonary veins and of the multiplied anastomoses of all these vessels. 4th. That the cells of the lungs increase in size and diminish in number, as life advances. 5th. The specific gravity of the lungs is accordingly so diminished by age, that the lungs of an old man weighed fourteen times less than an equal vol- Vor. V.—No. I. 24 186 Foreign Literature and Science. ume of the lungs of a child. 6th. This increase of the cells is so regular, that in general the age of the individual may be assigned very nearly by inspection of the lungs. Disease, however, modifies the dimensions of the cells. Those who have coughed much before death, have them generally larger. 7th. If in individuals of advanced age, we find one side of the lungs diseased, the healthy lobe, in- flated and dried, resembles a light foam. 8th. Old people accordingly consume less oxygen, have less animal heat, and are less able to resist cold than the young. 9th. The first indications of Phthisis of the most common or tubercu- lous kind consists in the deposition a greyish yellow mat- ter in one or more of the cells of the lungs. This matter is sometimes moveable, and may probably be expelled, but it frequently increases, adheres to the small vessels, gradually obliterates them, and the whole lobe becomes tuberculous, or formed of this greyish yellow matter. 10th. Numerous as have been the bodies of Phthisical patients, which Dr. Ma- gendie has opened, he has never seen in the cells,those little pearly grains, which, according to certain authors, are the first germs of Phthisis, but on the contrary, the matter which first forms is that which has been named tubercu- lous, and this matter has the appearance of being a secretion by the parieties of the small pulmonary blood ves- sels. 11th. Admitting this to be true, the commencement of Phthisis is only an alteration in the habitual secretion of the vascular tissue of the lungs, and this is one of the rea- sons which induced the author to employ sedatives, and particularly the hydro-cyanic-acid in the treatment of the two first stages of Phihisis. He has ever since had occasion to congratulate himself on this practice. 26. New method of taking a fac-simile, by Cadet de Gas- sicourt.—Paste a piece of white paper on the inside bottom of a porcelain plate ;—write upon this paper with common ink, and before it is dry, sprinkle upon it very fine powder of gum-arabic, which will form a slight relief. When the ink is dry, brush off very lightly the superfluous powder, and pour into the plate a melted compound of eight parts of Bismuth, seven of lead, and three of tin, which is fusible at the boiling temperature. Cool it rapidly to prevent crys- talization. A counter impression of the writing is thus ob- Foreign Literature and Science. 187 tained, and by dissolving off the gum in tepid water, the plate presents characters, which, viewed by a lens, are very legible and beautiful. From this plate, by means of common printing ink, true fac-similies of the original wri- ting may be produced. Writing already dry, may be copied in the same way by going over the letters with a pen dipped in a very weak so- lution of gum, and then sprinkling it with powder, and pro- ceeding as before, the only requisite precaution in this me- tallo-graphic operation, is, that the metallic plate must be of an even thickness, and that the surface on which the characters are traced must be smooth. An. Pindustrie national. 27, Mineral Waters. —A memoir of Professor J. Anglada of Montpelier, relative to the disengagement of azotic gas from sulphurous mineral waters, published in the Annals de Chimie of October last, exhibits the following results :— Ist. Those mineral waters, which, by the uniformity of their volumes, at all seasons of the year, seem to depend least upon the variations of the atmosphere, imbibe never- theless a portion of atmospheric air, which is probably re- newed by currents, the origin of which is unknown. 2d. The oxigen of the air, which accompanies sulphurous waters, combines with their sulphurous principles, while the azote escapes in a state of purity. This disengagement of azote, and the presence of a glai- rous matter, analogous to animal substance, are good indi- cations of degenerated sulphurous waters. Ath. This reaction of the air upon the sulphurous princi- ple of mineral waters, is effected at all temperatures. _ 5th. If the characteristic phenomenon of this reaction (the disengagement of azote) cannot be asserted with res- pect to all sulphurous waters, (which requires more exact observations upon all the varieties of water) it is at least acknowledged that it holds good in all sulphurous waters, that contain an alkaline hydro-sulphate, (sulphuret?) 6th. The determination of this cause, destructive of the - characteristic principle of sulphurous waters will often lead to the adoption of means proper to render this decomposi- tion less active, and consequently to give a certain fixity to the dominant virtues of these waters. 18s Foreign Lnterature and Science. 7th. The influence of atmospheric air, which thus mani- fests itself, by the disengagement of azote, and the destruc- tion of the sulphurous compound, is reproduced upon acid- ulous waters with the disengagement of azote, and accord- ing to all appearances, with the formation of carbonic acid. 28. Incombustible cloth.—Gay Lussac has ascertained that the hydrocholate (muriate) sulphate, phosphate, and bo- rate of ammonia, borax, and some mixtures of these salts, are the most proper substances for rendering linen, or cot- ton cloth incombustible without changing their qualities. 29. Cobalt.—Dobereiner has contrived the following method to separate cobalt from nickel, and other metals from their oxids. The oxide of cobalt or of nickel is mixed with oxalic acid, and exposed ina retort to the heat of a spirit lamp. When no more vapours are disengaged, or when the metal has ac- quired an ash-grey colour, the heat is withdrawn, and there is found in the bottom of the retort a pulverulent precipi- tate, which is the pure metal. This precipitate is intro- duced into a glass tube, and when subjected to a slight fu- sion, a button of pure metal is speedily formed. Bul. de la Soc. D’ Encouragement. 30. Pyrolignous acid.—There can be little doubt that the ordinary practice of curing meat by smoking, depends upon the action of pyrolignous acid, disengaged by the slow, and imperfect combustion of the fuel. It has accordingly been found that meat may be preserved, after it has been salted, by dipping it into an aqueous infusion of the soot of wood. A pound of soot is sufficient to cure three pounds of beef. The soot is put into a vessel with four pints of water, and allowed to macerate during 24 hours, with frequent stirring. It is then decanted, and it is found to be charged with about i; of its weight of the acid, and bituminous principles of the soot. In this solution the meat remains half an hour. {tis then taken out and dried in the open air, and may be preserved at pleasure. Bul. D’Encour. Angust 1821. Foreign Literature and Science. 189 31. Signals for a great distance. —Schumacher, a captain of artillery, has invented a Rocket which may become of ereat use to astronomers, and geographers. ‘They havea much greater force than the Congreve rockets, and ascend to a prodigious heighth. When at their greatest elevation they explode, and produce in the air a volume of light, so strong, and clear as to be distinctly perceived at a distance of 30 leagues. The inventor placed himself in the little [sland of Hiveen, in the Cattegat, and launched his rockets; while his brother posted himself at the observatory of Co- penhagen, to notice the effect. Though the distance is nearly 30 leagues, he saw, by means of a telescope, the ex- plosions appear and disappear, resembling stars of the first “magnitude. It is impossible to imagine signals more beau- tiful, or more expeditious for great distances. Idem. 32. Merino sheep, and wool.—A number of Merino sheep, and a quantity of wool, were sold at the Rural, and Royal establishment of Rambouillet, near Paris, on the 8th and 9th of June last. The wool sold for 4 francs ;7;, the kilogramme in the dirt. Lamb’s wool, for 3frs. °25, the kilogramme, (2lb. 302. ddr. English ) — Seventy rams, and sixty-four other sheep were sold, covered with wool. The highest priced ram brought 31173 francs, and the lowest price 376 1frs. The maximum price for the other sheep, 258 francs, and minimum price, 134,%,%5 francs. Au. de Chinuc. 33. Enamel for porcelain.—The societyat the Adelphi for the encouragement of the arts, have acknowledged the supe- riority ofan enamel, or glazing, for fine porcelain, composed by John Rose, It consists of a mixture of 27 parts of feld- spar, 18 of borax, A of sand, 1 of common sali, 1 of nitre, and 1 of argil. After it is melted into a frit, three parts of borax are to be added, and it is then reduced ta powder.— This enamel attaches itself easily, and uniformly, without melting or even softening of the porcelain. It diffuses it- self uniformly, without lumps or unevenness, and it does not conceal, or change the most delicate colours, such as greens and chromic red. i90 Foreign Literature and Scrence. 34. Magnetism.—Professor Hausteen, of Christiana, has announced the discovery, that all vertical objects, such as a tree, a wall, a steeple, &c. naturally becomes magnetic; the inferior parts acquiring a north, and the superior a south po- larity. We shall wait impatiently for the particulars of these experiments. This subject has acquired a most lively inter- est in the estimation of philosophers, since Mr. Oersted has shown the relation between the magnctic, and electric fluids. Rev. Ency. 35. Orangeries.—The inhabitants of the maritime Alps de- rive important profits from the cultivation of the orange. The town of Menton is the most famous for this fruit. It is gathered during the whole year. A good orange tree yields annually 2000 oranges, large and small, and occasionally the produce amounts to double that quantity. Those des- tined for commerce are gathered in winter, just as they be- gin to ripen, and become matured during the voyage.— Every orange must be wrapped ina separate paper envel- ope. The gathering, and packing occupies many hun- dred people. Considerable profit is also derived from the orange flowers. A singular fact is, that the orange tree communicates a bitter taste to the herbs that are cultivated around it. The citron has not this disadvantage. Rev. Ency. 36. Agriculture.—Count Lasteyrie, of Paris, who has dis- tinguished himself by his generous efforts in introducing, and perfecting the process of lithographic printing in that me- tropolis, has just completed the second, and last volume of a pictorial representation, and a verbal description of the ma- chines, instruments, utensils, constructions, apparatus, &c. employed in rural, and domestic economy, according to de- signs made in different parts of Europe. The work is in quarto, and contains more than 1200 machines. 'The plates are executed without great attention to elegance, but with requisite precision, and exactness. 37. Measurement of the meridian.—Operations relative to a new measurement of the meridian, were commenced during the last summer, in the Russian provinces of the Baltic. Struve, professor of astronomy, and rector of the Foreign Literature and Science. 191 university of Dorpat, presented the plan of this enterprise, which began upon the meridian of the observatory of Dor- pat, Lat. 56 N. It will be executed at the expense of the university. ‘The emperor has approved the plan, and has given two thousand ducats to procure the requisite instru- ments. Dr. Walbeck, astronomer at the observatory of Abo, acts in concert with professor Struve. 38. Gymnastics —The Gymnastic establishment of M. Clias, in Switzerland, which bas existed seven years, has obtained complete success. ‘There now exist in the differ- ent cantons, fifteen gymnastic schools, well organized, an- nexed to academies, or colleges, and directed by pupils of M. Clias. A great number of boarding schools have also adopted gymnastic exercises, because they begin to feel gen- erally, the advantages of this part of education. 39. Marseilles.—Mutuai Instruction.—An evening schoo! has just been opened in this town, for the admission of a great number of adult workmen. ‘The minister of the in- terior, with a view to encourage this philanthropic ob- ject, has granted assistance to the founders of this school. In many establishments, the evening hours of the society are devoted to the elementary instruction of adults. The friends of humanity will doubtless wish, that these examples may find imitations in all parts of the kingdom. 40. Zeal for antiquity.—The circular zodiac of the tem- ple of Denderah, in Upper Egypt, one of the most cele- brated, and ancient pieces of antiquity, in relation to astronomy which the world can produce, has, with aston- ishing address, and dexterity, been removed from the ele- vated platform of the temple, conveyed to the Nile, floated down the rivers to Alexandria, and transported to Marseilles, whence it will be taken to Paris, to ornament probably, the grand museum of the Louvre. Itis a stone of about 10 feet square, attached to a mass of rock 25 feet thick. 41. Hospitals in France.—Iit appears by a recent work of Baron Dupin, entitled “ Histoire de administration des secours publiques,” that the number of individuals in the hospitals, and alms-houses of France, is now about 90,000, 192 Foreign Literature and Science. viz, 30,000 sick —35,000 aged and infirm—and 25,000 chil- dren. In this number is not comprised, the aged who are supported at home, and the children at nurse in the coun- try. The expense of this vast charity is estimated at 90 centimes, (,°; of a pound) per day, for the sick; and 60 centimes for the aged, and for children: hence the total is from 24 to 25 millions (from 4 to 5 millions of dollars.)— The revenue of these establishments exceeds this expendi- ture, and is daily increasing by numerous legacies. Before the revolution, the number of foundlings supported by the public was about 45,000. [tis now 60,000, and the ex- pense of their maintenance is seven millions. Before the public bounty was extended to this numerous class of inno- cent sufferers, children abandoned by their parents, were publicly sold, under the portals of the church of St. Landry, to women with full breasts, to boatmen, to beggars, and it is said, to magicians. The current price was 20 sous. 42. Animal Magnetism.—It appears from the French Journals, that this singular and incomprehensible doctrine has been revived in Paris; and if a statement of certain ef- fects produced by magnetism, at the hotel Dieu, during the months of October, November, and December, 1820, in presence of seven or eight Physicians, and several other persons whose names are given, are worthy of reliance, it must be acknowledged that the commissioners appointed by Louis XVI, with Dr. Franklin in their number, were clear- ly mistaken ; and that Mesmer ought to be regarded as a man of real genius, misunderstood, and persecuted by his cotemporaries, A detail of several cases has been signed by thirty phy- sicians, and acknowledged by M. Husson, the hospital physician. One of these cases was,that ofa young girl af- fected with histeria, and spasmodic vomiting, which nothing could check. She was quite given up, and her end regard- ed as near. As soon as she was magnetised, the vomiting ceased, and after a few trials she fell into a somnabulism ; and experiments the most varied, ingenious, and exact, con- vinced the doctor that the magnetic influence was real, cu- rative, and entirely independent of the imagination. Foreign Literature and Science. 193 In other cases the magnetic sleep became so profound, that neither calling aloud ia the patient’s ear, shaking, pinching, nor even a caustic applied to the upper part of the thigh, and to the epigastrium was able to produce the least sign of sensibility either by cries, motions, or varia- tions of the pulse. Rev. Ency. Dec. 1821. 43. Bavaria.—Mineralogy.—Baron de Schutz, known by the distinguished manner with which, during fifty years he has directed the administration of mines in that country, has just given to the school of Landshut his fine collection of minerals, consisting of 2,318 rare and valuable speci- mens, among which area great number ef fossils. This es- timable philosopher, animated by the love of public good, has joined to this rich present, that ofa part of his Library. Idem. 44, Vesuvius.—After the last eruption of Vesuvius, in the plain which surrounds its volcanic cone, were formed six other cones more or less profound. One of them rises nearly sixty feet, and has a perimeter of about 200 feet. A trent of very fluid and ardent Java crosses it within. It was into the crater of this cone that a young French Offi- cer, Louis Coutrel, precipitated himself on the 11th Jan. 1821, to put an end to a life embittered by “ ennw.’’? De- tails of this circumstance were read to the Academy of Na- ples, by the Secretary M. Monticelli. Idem. 45. Necrology.—M. Rodrigues a distinguished astronomer, who was appointed by the Spanish government to unite with Biot and Arago in measuring an arc of the meridian, died suddenly at Madrid, aged about 45. His engagement had induced him to remain a long time at Paris and Lon- don. ; “ 46. A New Mineral, discovered in a depot of friable lig- trite at Kolowerux, near Berlin in Bohemia, has been na- med Humboldtine, by M. Riviero, who has written a memoir upon it, approved by Vanquelin, and the Academy. Itis a sub-oxalate of the peroxide of iron. Vou. V.—No. 1. Q5 194 Domestic Intelligence. 47. Society of christian morals.—This society, quite new in France, held its first general sitting on the 20th of De- cember last, in the room of the society for the encourage- ment of national industry. The Duke de la Rochefoucault Liancourt; peer of France, presidednd pronounced a dis- course in which he explored witha mild and persuasive el- oquence, the objects and plan of the society. A report was afterwards read by M. Wilm, one of the Secretaries relative to the origin and progress of the association. Its formation has been much encouraged by the example of the Peace Societies of England, but the society of christian morals is founded on a more extended plan. No moral scheme, no philanthropic institution will be foreign from its objects. We doubt not that almost all persons im France and even in Europe, who connect in their own minds, sound political opinions with a proper idea of the influence of moral and christian virtue, will be anxious to unite with the new society. The meeting was composed of distinguished characters. We remarked among them persons of the three christian communions which exist in France, members of both cham- bers, ecclesiastics, members of the Institute, &c. &c. The regular meetings, which every subscriber will have the right to attend, will be held the first Monday of every month at 7 in the evening. It is expected that the first number of the journal which the society intend to publish will appear before the end of January, 1822. Letters and subscriptions are received by-Treuttel and Wurtz, Rue de Bourbon, p. 17, and by the same house, No. 30, Soho Square, London. — Il. DOMESTIC. 1. Two singular cases of the effects of the nitrous oid, or exhilarating gas. For several years the medical class, and the two senior academical classes in Yale College, while attending the chemical lectures, have been in the habit (each class by it- self) of preparing for themselves, and administering to their Domestic Intelligence. 195 respective members, the nitrous oxide, or exhilarating gas. The relations of the effects of this gas have been so frequent, and similar, that they have become trite ; there were, however, two cases during the last season, which appear worthy of being published. . Case 1. A. B. a member of the junior class, about 19 years old, isa person of a sanguine temperament, of a cheerful turn of _ mind, and possessed of the most perfect health. He breath- ed the gas which was prepared, and administered in the usual dose, and manner. Immediately, his feelings were un- commonly elevated, so that (as he expressed it) he found it “impossible to refrain from dancing and shouting.” Indeed, to such a degree was he excited, that he was thrown into a frightful delirium, and his exertions became so violent, that after a while he sunk to the earth, exhausted, and there re- mained, until having, by quiet, in some degree recovered his strength, he again arose, only to renew the most con- vulsive muscular efforts, and the most piercing screams and cries, within a few moments, overpowered by the in- tensity of the paroxysm, he again fellto the ground, apparent- ly senseless, and panting vehemently. The long continu- ance, and violence of the affection, alarmed his companions, and they ran for professional assistance. They were how- ever, encouraged by the person to whom they applied, to hope that he would come out of his trance without injury, but for the space of two hours these symptoms continued; he was per- fectly unconscious of what he was dong, and was in every res- pect, like a maniac; he states however, that Azs feel’ngs vibrated between perfect happiness, and the most consummate misery. Inthe course of theafternoon, and after the first violent effects had subsided, he was compelled to Jie down two or three times, from excessive fatigue, although he was immediate- ly aroused upon any one’s entering the room. The effects remained in a degree, for three or four days, accompanied by a hoarseness, which he attributed to the exertion made while under the immediate influence of the gas. This case should produce a degree of caution, especially in persons of a sanguine temperament, whom, much more 196 Domestic Intelligence. frequently than others, we have seen painfully, and even alarmingly affected. Case 2. C. D. a member of the senior class, isa man of ma- ture age, and of a grave and respectable character. For nearly two years. previous to his taking the gas, his health had been very delicate, and his mind frequently gloomy and depressed. This was peculiary the case for a few days im- mediately preceding that time; and his general state of health was such, that he was obliged, almost entirely, to discontinue his studies ; and was about to have recourse to medical assistance. In this state of bodily and mental de- bility, he inspired about three quarts of the nitrous oxid.— The consequences were, an astonishing invigoration of his whole system, and the most exquisite perception of delight. These were manifested by an uncommon disposition for pleasantry and mirth, and by extraordinary muscular power. The effect of the gas was felt without diminution for at least thirty hours, and in a greater, or less degree, for more than a week. But the most remarkable effect was that upon the organs of taste. Antecedently to taking the gas, he exhibited no peculiar choice in the articles of food, but immediately sub- sequent to that event, he manifested a taste for such things only as were sweet, and for several days ate nothing but sweet cake. Indeed, this singular taste was carried to such excess, that he used sugar and molasses not only upon his bread and butter and lighter food, but upon his meat and vegetables.— This he continues to do even at the present time, and although nearly eight weeks have elapsed since he inspired the gas, heis still found pouring molasses over beef, pork, poultry, potatoes, cabbage, or whatever animal or vegetable food is placed before him. His health and spirits, since that time, have been uniform- ly good, and he attributes the restoration of his strength, and mental energy to the influence of the nitrous oxid. He is entirely regular in his mind, and now experiences no un- common exhilaration, but is habitually cheerful, while be- fore, he was as habitually grave, and even, to a degree, gloomy. Domestic Intelligence. 197 2. Extracts of a letter from Wm. M’ Clure, Esq. to the editor, dated, Madrid, Dec. 4, 1821. Progress of American Science. “Tam glad to hear of the rapid progress science in gen- eral, (and mineralogy and geology, in particular) makes in the United States. ‘The men of science in Europe, are as- tonished at the rapidity with which one discovery succeeds another, and cannot conceive, how, in so short a time, so many hands, and heads are occupied with the exact sci- ences, and mechanics. ‘“‘'The vast advantages attached to freedom, are unknown on this side of the Atlantic, and the spirit of energy with which a free people pursue whatever they perceive to be for their interest, are only beginning to be understood by the few. (From the same, tothe same.) Comparative features of American and European Geology. ‘*The most striking, and strongly marked difference be- tween the geology of North America, and Europe, is the regularity, continuity, and uninterrupted state of the strati- fication, for almost the whole length of the continent ; and the absence of all rocks of disputed origin. The trappose hornblendish rock which partially, and in natches, and ridges, covers the old red sandstone from the Connecticut river to the Rappahannock ; and where the sandstone has been washed away in the states of New-York, Maryland, and Virginia, loose masses of the trappose rock over the surface, as evidence of the continuity of the sand- stone formation—this hornblendish rock is the nearest to 2 volcanic formation, of any I have ever seen in the United States, both from structure and relative position ; it is found covering puddingstone, and sandstone aggregates, of round- ed particles, made so, most probably, by water; while we have not caught nature forming any rocks by water, at all similar to the Hornblendish rock; but we find many volcanic rocks almost similar in structure, and exactly cor- responding in relative situation. This gives probability to ‘the supposition, that it isof volcanic origin, and throws 198 Domestic Intelligence. many difficulties, and doubts on the supposition of Neptun- ian origin, for after the waves on the sea-coast, or the action of running waters had formed the sand, and rolled pebbles; to make the waters return in sufficient quantities to form a rock partly crystalline (which by the Wernerian system would require a great depth) is a forced supposition, that does not appear natural: but such is the forced theory of that system respecting Basalt, and all the newest floets-trap formation, which Werner supposes to be of aqueous origin, while their resemblance, both in structure and relative posi- tion, renders the supposition of their volcanic origin, much more simple and natural. The geology of the United States, where every primitive transition, and secondary rock is found (except the basalt, and the newest floets-trap formation) that is found in Europe ; at the same time, that no volcanoes are in action, is a strong argument against the Wernerian system—all these theories have had their day, and are fast going out of fashion.” 3. Delaware Chemical and Geological Society. An Association by this name was organized at Delhi in ihe mouth of August, 1821. It is composed of between forty and fifty weil informed and respectable inhabitants of the County of Delaware, State of New-York. The object of the association is improvement in literature and science, but more particularly in chemistry, geology, and mimeralo- gy—they proceed with spirit and effect; have collected a cabinet of minerals, and intend to procure a library and chemical laboratory—at each quarterly meeting an original scientific discourse is delivered, essays read, &c. From the zeal, industry, and talents of the members of the Delaware Society, it promises to be a very useful insti- tution—and we are happy in the opportunity of mentioning it to our readers. 4. Interesting Example of Electrical Attraction. We have had occasion recently to observe the process of applying gold leaf in gilding the frames of looking-glasses and pictures. Itis probably known to many persons, that ihe frame, after being duly prepared by a composition Domestic Intelligence. 199 which is laid upon it with a brush, is moistened with gin, or some other spirit. The gold leaf, cut up by a round-edged knife into pieces of suitable size, is taken up on a flat hatr- brush, and brought with the gold downward very near to the place to which it is to be applied. When it comes with- in a short distance, generally about half or three-quarters of an inch, without any farther attention from the artist, it suddenly flies from the hair-brush to the surface on which itis to be laid, and clings to it, and embraces it with such delicacy, as to cover every roughness. The gold, apparent- ly, makes just such an effort, as it does when attracted in the gold leaf Electrometer, and it appears to arise from the same cause, viz. an electrical attraction. This attraction is obviously produced by the evaporation of the spirits. Evaporation is well known to produce electrical excite- ment, and to generate opposite states of electricity in the contiguous bodies. We should therefore expect the attrac- tion to be strongest in the case of those bodies which evap- orate most readily—accordingly the gold leaf is less pow- erfully attracted when water is substituted for spirit. The success of the gilder appears, in these cases to de- pend very much on the exertion of a principle which he is very little aware of. It would seem, that but for this, it would be scarcely possible to apply the leaf with en- tire precision, to all the varieties of surface produced by the carver. We have thought it worth mentioning, as a happy illustration of a scientific principle, occurring in the practice of the arts. . 5. f Fermenting Pond. Extract of a letter to the Editor from Mr. Thomas H. Weib, dated Providence, Oct. 1, 1821. I lately visited a pond in Sharon, (Mass.) known by the name of Mash-Pog pond, from which great quantities of lenticular argiliaceous oxid of iron, and what is called cake ore, are procured. The pond from about the middle of August to some time in September, presents the singular appearance of working or fermenting, as beer does when new. Whether this appearance is peculiar to this pond, J do not know. Remark.—It would be well to catch some of the gases, which, without doubt, cause this intestine motion: most 200 Domestic Intelligence. probably they would prove to be carburetted hydrogen, carbonic acid, &c. the usual products of vegetable putrefac- tion—but the quantity is certainiy extraordinary.—[ Edit. ] 6. Optical Trap. [Communicated. ] To the curious it may not be uninteresting to be inform- ed, that an ingenious sportsman in this vicinity (Newport, R. I.) has lately invented what appears to be an entirely novel mode of trapping birds, animals, &c. This seems to be founded on the principle of the fondness of many ani- mals to associate with each other—and is effected merely by placing a common mirror in a suitable trap, so situated that the animal, in passing to and from its usual haunts, may see itself reflected, and is some how or other curiously impelled to approach the glass, and consequently entrap- ped—for instance, in order to take minks, muskrats, &c. a common box trap is made use of, with a mirror at the ex- treme end, (opposite the mouth) this being placed on the margin of a river, or pond of water, frequented by them— they will necessarily see themselves in it, and, like Narcis- sus, fall in love with their shadows, and are instantly taken. ‘The inventor has not only been successful in taking the above animals, but he assures me that he has recently caught rabbits, and partridges, in one of this construction, and that no less than two dozen mice were taken in one night, without any other bazt. W. Remark.——We believe that this mode is not entirely original, as we have seen the same thing represented in a print, only the game was a tiger.—[Ed.] 7. On the conducting powers of various bodies in relation to radiant matter. Extract of a letter to the Editor, from Dr. Hare, dated Philadelphia, May 17, 1822. “ Thave found anthracite a tolerably good conductor of the principle evolved by the deflagrator, under those cir- cumstances in which the indications of electricity uncom- bined with caloric, are very strong, as when the surfaces are subjected to water alone. In these cases it was indifferent Domestic Intelligence. 201 whether anthracite, or charcoal were used ; but when the plates were exposed to diluted acids, there was no ignition so long as the circuit was completed by the former, while by the latter, it must be almost unnecessary to add, the most intense ignition was easily producible. ‘This I ascribe to the high radiant power of charcoal, which I do not believe to arise from any peculiarity in its particles, but from its extreme porosity. When porous bodies are subjected to radiant matter, the latter has access at once to all the particles composing them, but when dense bodies are exposed in the same way, the exterior strata repel the radiant matter, or at most allow it to combine only with their surfaces. ‘The same structure which facilitates the entrance, must of course favour the es- cape of radiant matter. In consequence of the high con- ducting power of metals, both as respects heat, and electri- city, it were unnecessary that they should radiate in order, for the igneous fluid of galvanism to pass through them; but carbon being a very bad conductor of heat, is impermeable to that fluid, unless in cases where it contains little caloric, or where containing much of this fluid, circumstances will allow of its separating inrays. Hence, porosity in carbon is requisite to its ignition by the deflagrator. There can be no doubt, that a certain regularity of arrangement, operates like porosity, in favouring the passage of radiant principles. Hence, crystalline masses are often transparent, and glass rapidly receives, or gives out caloric and light.” 8 Spontaneous Combustion. (Communicated by Dr. Samuel Rockwell, of Sharon, Conn.) ‘‘ Late in the evening of the 2d of May inst. some of the family of Mr. Charles Elliot, of Sharon, Conn. observed sparks of fire to be blown over the fence of his back yard, from behind his barn, which was attached to a long row of buildings, viz, a hatter’s shop, dwelling house, &c. The wind, at that time, being very high, and ina direction to carry the fire directly on to his buildings ; Mr. Elliot and his family were immediately alarmed, and upon examina- tion, found the fire in a heap of horse-dung, which had been flung out of the stable window. The fire on the top of the heap was about two feet in circumference, and there was a bed of coals and embers, for four inches in depth. The Vor. V.—No. 1. 26 2u2 Domestic Intelligence. whole heap was excessively hot, and the surface quite dry. The sparks were blown constantly by the wind against the barn, and the rubbish about it. Had it not been for this for- tunate discovery, the buildings would very soon have been in flames, and the fire probably beyond control. After a careful examination, by a number of intelligent gentlemen, it was the decided opinion, that the fire originated from a spontaneous fermentation, and combustion of the dung heap. Had the buildings in the present case been burned, or even on fire, the heap would not have been examined or thought of, as the source of the fire, and it would have been believ- ed to have been the work of an incendiary. ‘The question arises, whether some of the instances which in towns, so frequently occur, of fire originating in stables, and which we attribute to incendiaries, may not in this way be account- ed for.” 9. Geological Survey of North Carolina. We understand that Professor Olmstead of the Universi- ty of North Carolina, will soon commence a series of geo- logical and mineralogical observations, intended, eventually, to comprehend a scientific survey of the State. From the known intelligence, zeal and scientific attainments of Pro- fessor Olmstead, we cannot doubt, that (if adequately en- couraged by the local government, or by patriotic indwidu- als,) the enterprize will produce very important advantages to science, agriculture, and other useful arts, and will prove highly honorable to the very respectable State of North Carolina. In no way, in our apprehension, could the same sum of money be more usefully expended, and it would be no small honour to have set the first example of the scien- tific survey of an entire American State. We hope then to see the next edition of the map of North Carolina pre- sent at least the leading features of its geology and mineral- ogy. It would be very desirable also that the Botany, and if practicable, the zoology of the country should be investi- gated at the same time. Domestic Intelligence. 203 LO Voluntary Breathing. A correspondent suggests, that where the lungs are unu- sually inactive and breathing very feeble and languid (as occurs both in cases of deep thought and of mental vacuity) respiration, increased both in frequency and degree, by a voluntary effort, gives a quicker circulation to the blood, and an increased activity to the animal spirits. He thinks that in some instances, where he has felt an oppression ap- proaching to pain, in the region of the lungs, he has found himself much relieved by breathing quicker and deeper, and he even conceives that this voluntary effort may become a ‘partial substitute for the respiration of oxigen gas. 11. Proffessor Eaton’s Geological, and Agricultural survey of Rensselaer County. Dr. J. H. Sieel’s report of the Geological structure of the county of Sargtoga. We noticed (page 239, vol. III.) the geological survey of the county of Albany, by Mr. Eaton and Dr. Beck. We have now the pleasure of men- tioning the survey of two other contiguous counties. The design reflects much honour upon those enlightened and patriotic persons, who appear as the patrons of the undertaking; and the execution is marked by so much fidelity, and ability, that we think the effect must be to encourage similar attempts. Geological surveys, more or less extensive, have been under- taken with creditable success, in various parts of this country, but we are not aware of any attempt on so extensive, and systematica scale, to make them subservient to the important interets of agriculture, It was very natu- ral to look for so good, and honorable a precedent in the most powerful state of the national confederacy, distinguished as it is by enlarged views, and great and useful enterprises. . We have neither time, nor space, in concluding the present number, to do any thing more than to recommend the report of Professor Eaton, and of Dr. Steel, to the perusal of all those who are willing to promote some of the best interests of their country, by making science the handmaid to the arts. 12. Yellow mineral from Sparta, N. Jersey, imbedded in white granular limestone. We understand that a detailed analysis of this mineral, which was dis- covered by the late Dr. Bruce, will soon be published by Mr. Henry Sey- bert, of Philadelphia, whose experiments prove it to be a silico-fluate of magnesia. Weare obliged, for want of room, to postpone an article containing a collection of facts respecting the meteor of March, and some previous me- teors. Explanation of Mr. Barnes’ Section of the Canaan Moun- 0 MO op s-09 tain. . Graywack slate. . Clay slate. - Quartz. - Limestone. . Graywack slate. This rock caps the high hills. . Clay slate. This rock is found on all the adjacent hills of a middling height. - Quartz. This rock is found on low hills, in loose masses. . Limestone. In this stratum are the springs of New-Leb- anon, and the lead mine in Canaan. - Roofing slate. . An old field. - Outline of the top of the mountain. . Inaccessible precipice. . Fallen fragments of rocks. . Cultivated fields. . Probable position of a stratum of graywack rubblestone, now disintegrated, and found in loose fragments in the valleys below. - Samuel Jones’, Esq. on Chesnut-Hill. - Peat bottom. . Alluvion. . Captain N. Jones’. . N. Lebanon meeting-house. ° . E. Tilden, Esq. - Pool hill, (limestone.) New Lebanon spring. Hull’s boarding house. . Shakers’ Village. . Line of the States of New-York and Massachusetts. . Line of section. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIEN CE, &c. GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c, uh valet Arr. I.—Outline of the Mineralogy, Geology, §c. of Malbay, in Lower Canada, by Joun S. Bressy, M. D. of the Brit- ish Medical Staff. To the Editor of the American Journal of Science. Pear Sir, T very respectfully beg your acceptance of a sketch of the geology of Malbay in Lower Canada. In the Summer of 1821 I devoted three weeks to the study of the geology of the highland districts below Que- bec, on the north shore of the St. Lawrence, which, in the magnificent forms of their mountains, the beauty of their secluded but populous valleys, and in the affectionate sim- plicity of their inhabitants, give us a Switzerland in Amer- ica. In the present paper the topography, geology, and con- sequent remarks are placed separately after the manner of. Dr. Maculloch, in his account of the Western Islands of Scotland, a work which has given its author unrivalled pre- eminence in geological description and discussion. I was only five days at Malbay, but they were well em: ployed. I regret that my statements of elevation are but conjecture ; being provided only with a hammer, a com- pass and some sulphuric acid. The accompanying outline or diagram of Malbay is from the eye, and is intended to impart merely a general idea of the locality. [See the plate at the end.] Vor. V.~No. 2. at 206 Geology, Sc. of Malbay, L. C. Murray or Malbay is a rounded indenture in the north shore of the St. Lawrence, ninety miles below Quebec. It isa basin, about half a league indiameter, closely in- vested by a semi-circular range of lofty hills, with irregu- lar and pine-clad summits, and grassy declivities, chequer- ed with the white dwellings of the peasantry. A consid- erable breach in the middle of this elevated Belt (near which stands the church and a cluster of houses) permits the passage of a noisy riverinto the St. Lawrence, and dis- closes in the rear, an ascending country, occasionally dis- tributed into farms ; and supported in the distance by lands of a grand and picturesque outline. These hills, or mountains, are divided into three distinct portions, occupying respectively the western, middle and eastern sides of the Bay. The western hill, like the others, is a bluff continuation of the mountain groupes in the interior. Its height is from eight hundred to one thousand feet. The upper parts are broad and protuberant, and are covered with fractured rocks and dense vegetation. At the outer angle of the bay, they dip at once in a dark shattered precipice two hundred feet high, which extends outwards for half a mile (west) a little beyond a thready cascade, and then shelves into a slope of large ruins, either advancing into the St. Law- rence, or resting on low mounds of uninjured gneiss. In- wards, the precipice is replaced by alluvion, clothing the whole declivity which faces the ‘basin, in two or three ter- races, frequently broken into knolls, and excavations, or indeed, nearly obliterated by rains and periodical torrents. _ These irregular deposits preserve nearly the same height; — that of the upper terrace being from three to four hundred feet,—and the lower ones varying from twenty to eighty feet. Their breadth is smal] at the outskirts of the bay, but it increases, at the bottom, (from a rough estimate) to seven hundred yards. This latter space is principally taken up by the lowest tier, and presents, among its pasturage and cornfields, a singular and beautiful assemblage of small de- tached oblong eminences, fringed, and crowned with shrub- bery, and greatly resembling the Barrows of the earlier pe- riods of Britain. They are the deposition of conflicting currents of water. Geology, Sc. of Malbay, L. C. 207 The Middle Hill, from six to eight hundred feet high, is a projecting portion of that on the west, just described, with which it 1s connected in front by almost perpendicu- lar steeps of sand, clay, and gravel, but grassy, and inter- sected with deep ravines, filled with coppice, through one of which the Ruisseau de Mayou descends towards the Bay, turning several mills in its course. _ As in the former case, the greater part of this hill is bu- ried in alluvion. The upper third is covered with wood, while the imperfect scalar platforms below are apportioned into farms, and furnish sites for dwellings, especially the large and hospitable Seigniorial house of Mrs. Nairne. The eastern face of the hill breaks off almost percipitously to form the defile or river-pass before mentioned, and runs west for six miles as one of the sides of the valley of St. Etienne. ve The eastern arm of Malbay is rather shorter than the other, and passes almost insensibly into the general course of the St. Lawrence. It rises along the shore in a waving line from the river-pass, and forming several lofty bluffs, with abraded faces it attains the height of eight hundred feet ina broad summit, mingling to the eastward with the high and rocky country about Cape Eagle. A precipice two hundred feet high, lines the shore for five hundred yards, just at the outside of the Bay, succeeded to the east, by shattered cliffs, slopes of debris, or smooth mounds within the influence of the tides. ‘The whole space included by these three hills is over- flowed only at high water, which then washes the naked banks on the east, passes, (if [ recollect aright) a short dis- tance within the breach, and wanders among the marshy indentations of the west side in shallow and winding chan- _hels. Atebb, the Malbay River flows sluggishly through the moist sands to join the St. Lawrence at the skirts of the Bay. The valley of St. Etienne, entered by the defile of itsriver, ascends northwardly for six miles, and isa straight rugged, and narrow stripe of low land, occupied principally by the ever changing bed ofits stream. It is bounded on the west by the Middle Hill; and on the east by the uplands which as- cend swiftly into neighbouring mountains, greatly inter- sected by broken ridges of alluvion, and furrowed by water- 208 Geology, Ge. of Malbay, L. C. courses joining the river obliquely, and at seasons inun- dating it with their contents. About five miles up the valley, a circular expansion of half a league in diameter takes place to the west, from the sudden bending to the north-west of the east face of the Middle Hill. This cavity rises, bow]-shaped, on every side, to the surrounding heights ; at first, partially and con- fusedly, but higher up, in two or three concentric ter- races, much injured by natural causes. A streamlet pass- es through its centre, in a deep woody dell, to join the Mal- bay river. On the eastern uplands, about five hundred feet above the present bed of the River Malbay, a flat and umiform embankment extends the whole length of the valley, abrad- ed at intervals by torrents. Ata certain distance below this range, another is situated, parallel, and marked with corresponding breaches. It declines rapidly, and is suc- ceeded by the broken ground, and barrow-hke tumuli of clay and gravel—which immediately overlook the river, and on which are placed the fields, gardens, and dwellings of the parish St. Ktienne. One breach, affecting equally all these plateaux, is so° large and deep, and so regularin its form, that it resem- bles in the strongest manner, the deserted bed of a river of magnitude, about to add its waters to those of the lake, contained in the valley at some distant epoch. The west side of the valley exhibits the same appear- ances in the steep bank of alluvion four or five hundred feet high, resting on the Middle Hill. This answers to the highest eastern level, and is followed by the inferior ter- races ; although much disturbed and degraded. The Malbay river rises near the sources of the St. Mau- rice, which discharges into the St. Lawrence, ninety miles above Quebec. During its course of several hundred miles through the marshy plains and rocky elevations of the inte - rior, it presents many cascades and rapids. The lowest ? of the cascades takes place near the sortie from the con- fusedly grouped hills at the head, or north end of the val-: ley. The river is here about fifty yards broad ; it is clear and rapid, with shelving banks of sandy soil, an hundred feet high. A bleak and lofty hill of primary rock is within: a few yards on the east; and another is on the west, still: higher, with flanks enveloped in alluvion. Up the river, Geology, &c. of Malbay, L. C. 209 the view is immediately shut in by a transverse ridge of meiss. ; The fall is narrowed to the breadth of thirty yards and plunges down an inclined descent of ten or twelve feet a- mong large masses of gneiss. The river now rolls impetuously to the defile inclosed in very deep banks, making frequent and considerable elbows (which every spring enlarges) and branches off into chan- nels, which from time to time coalesce, and separate, form- ing islands of woods, sand, or cornfields ; the different streams being traced with double borders of shrubbery. Somewhat less than a league to the north of the circular expansion of the valley, and separated from it by high grounds in some state of cultivation, isa lake about a third of a mile in diameter, surrounded by interesting scenery. It is confined on the east and south by precipices and bold slopes of cedar and pine ; while its western and north- ern sides are moderate ascents of woodland and farms, clos- ed, in the distance by conical mountains. Two or more miles north of this small lake is another, seated in the midst of woody hills of gentle acclivities and marshy intervals. It is of irregular shape, and about three miles across, in its largest dimension. A small stream enters it on the north, and another leaves iton thesouth. Both lakes contain abundance of trout. The Geologist will find in the district of Malbay, an in- structive assemblage of rocks ; but, as must have been an- ticipated, its examination is greatly embarrassed by the un- cultivated and often inaccessible nature of the country, by the piles of the larger ruins which encumber the higher grounds, and by the alluvia of the slopes and valleys. The shores of the St. Lawrence, and of the Bay, the sides of the vale of Etienne and the bed of the Malbay river afford almost the only points of observation. The prevailing rocks are gneiss and mica-slate, plenti- fully interleaved with a dark limestone, quartz rock, and supporting a calcareous conglomerate of a remarkable kind. As the rocks of this limited district are nearly of the same age, (excepting perhaps the conglomerate) I shall describe them geographically, and not in any assumed geo- logical succession, commencing with the West Hill. As far as can be discerned, the body of this hill consists principally of fine white Gneiss, with a sparing proportion 210 Geology, Sc. of Malbay, L. C. of mica in its composition, this resembling quartz rock, in- to a semi-crystalline species of which, it frequently gradu- ates, as well as into mica slate, by an increase, on the other hand, of mica. So little of the gneiss is exposed, that it may be doubted, ifthe greater portion of it be not of the ribbed or laminated variety, abounding, for many miles on the north shore of the St. Lawrence. Together with these rocks, a dark limestone occasionally emerges in very short patches, conformably stratified, some yards in thickness, and in one instance incumbent on a crystalline quartz. The direction of the strata of the body of the hill is al! dom easily definable, being brought into view at rare and brief intervals. It appears to be west south west, at an high, but uncer- tain angle. Innumerable fissures and displacements of the fixed rocks, together with an extraordinary quantity of de- bris, have given rise to this obscurity. A better idea of the structure of the hill, may be gather- ed from its southern face washed by the St. Lawrence ; and from the angle and west arm of the Bay, situations which permit the observer both to follow and to traverse the direction of the strata. The rocks of the cliff and tubes whose most prominent features have been sketched in an early part of this paper are mica slate and gneiss, affecting the southwest, or south south west direction, and a south west or north north west dip. They pass into each other at irregular distances, as well longitudinally, as transversely. The transition takes place insensibly in the former direction, the mica slate becoming more compact, and assuming a green hue, which slowly fades into a brownish grey. The rock thus formed, is a laminated gneiss, composed of feldspar and quartz, both brown, almost granular, alternating in their layers with fol- ia of black mica, in laterally aggregated scales. Its veins are numerous and various. They are of largely crystalli- zed white feldspar, interspersed with black mica, and run- ning parallel to the stratification of the gneiss ;—or of true granite, traversing the rock irregularly, close-grained and porphyritic in portions, the feldspar being red, and the quartz white. About four hundred yards from the angle of Geology, Sc. of Malbay, L. C. 211 the bay, a vein one yard thick, of brown compact quartz, advances from the cliff at right angles, to the direction of the gneiss, and diminishing to a point at the water’s edge, the line of division being straight, and perfectly well. defi- ned. It is remarkable that a few leaves of a crumbling, shaly substance, are interspersed between the vein and its bed, and are parellel to the former. In contact with the west side of this vein, is a deposit of white feldspar in large aggregated rhomboidal crystals. It is of an irregular form, and is about 50 yards long, by 40 yards broad. Fifty yards west of the small cascade, a bed or seam of this kind of feldspar occurs in laminated gneiss; but it is nar- row and runs obliquely from the beach into the mountain— visible as a stripe of white fragments for a considerable distance among the ruins of the slope. The mica slate is in large shining plates of a coppery black colour. It is very splintery on the surface; but not so muchsointhe occasionally broken pavement of this rock in advance of the cliff to which the salt water has daily access. The mica is often in such great excess, as to ex- clude every other ingredient, except what appears to bea minutely granular quartz, sparingly disseminated. The layers are often contorted, and are traversed by veins of different materials, and of different sizes—as of white crystalline quartz; red feldspar; of an aggregate of greenish feldspar, coppery mica and massive garnet: and also of white feldspar similar to that of the beds occur- ring in gneiss, which here contains six sided prisms of schorl, and four sided oblique prisms of hornblende. In . the last instance, the veins are parallel to the lamina of the mica slate; but in the others in their direction is in- constant. The gray precipice which forms the immediate angle of the Bay, a few yards in advance of the dark lichen cov- ered primary cliff on the west, is of a similar height with it; but is surrounded by a level space, and not by this usual declivity. At the outer or western end, it sinks per- pendicularly down to the beach, unincumbered by debris ; but at every other part of the line it is defended from the waves by a base of smooth and bleached mounds of rock, half concealed by fallen masses, mounting midheight and towards the northeast extremity becoming mingled with al- luvion, which gives nourishment to a luxuriant shrubbery. 212 Geology, Sc. of Malbay, L. C. The conglomerate composing the chief part of this pre- cipice, is in strata a foot or more in thickness, abutting against the mica slate in various unconformable positions. At the west end, the layers are very thin, and are placed vertically, with a southwest direction, in some degree of parallelism to the contiguous mica slate. Near this they are contorted, until gradually toward the centre of the ‘range they become horizontal. Here a singular dispo- sition of the upper laminz is observed. They roof a shal- low cave in undulating lines, which descend gently from above, and after curving upwards fora short distance, decline suddenly on the hori- zontal strata which constitute the lower half of the sides of the cave. From hence to the north-east end, the cliff seems rather to assume the massive structure than the stratified, but the latter frequently shows itself through its dense envelope of mould and coppice. In advance of this large precipice, and its northeast ex- tremity, lies another mass of conglomerate extending a short way from the alluvial sides of the hill, fifty yards long, and thirty feet high. It is much shattered and de- ranged. The direction. of its layers is very indistinct. On its east face, a set of strata (perhaps displaced) run west of north, and dip east of south at an angle of 70°. The rock whose position and general aspect has now been detailed, is a conglomerate of a grayish white or Geology, &c. of Malbay, L.C. 213 green base, effervescing violently on exposure to acids, and more or less powdery and soft. ‘The nodules which it con- tains are of milky translucent quartz; and vary from the size of the smallest grain, to that of a child’s head; the latter being rare. , They are sometimes so abundunt as to be in contact ; at others they are in less number. When large, they are frequently arranged in limes. The small granular species resembles in its appearance a loose sand stone; but when of compact texture and free from nodules, it becomes a brown limestone. It often contains imbedded balls of a brown calcareous matter, hard, and of fine grain. It is evidently an independent concretion. This rock and more especially the coarse grained spe- eles, is rich in organic remains of the kind assigned by writers to the transition formations. A very slight examination discovered four varieties of orthoceratite, in imbedded fragments, differing in the num- ber and construction of their transverse septa, and in the proportion of their length to their breadth. Three of them taper towards one end. The sides of the fourth are paral- lel. One fragment is three inches broad, seven inches long, and has eight septa. Another is six inches long by one inch in breadth, with five transverse septa and one longitudinal septum dividing it into two equal parts. A third is five inches long, by one and a half broad; and has eight septa, each having a ring or circlet in its centre thus :— ] Hf if 9 ( One d LUE He | 7 Vy, Wy) ; Tip HMR MY) \ hd Favosite and chain madrepore are not uncommon. En- crinites, pectinites, terebratulze and strombites are particu- larly plentiful. : The dull brownish blue Limestone, so often instratified with the primary rocks of these mountains is also inclosed in this conglomerate, in single layers, a feot or so thick, or 214 Geology, &c. of Malbay, L. C, in sets of ten or fifteen. It is compact, minutely granular, and rather hard. Its fracture is slaty in the large, rhom- boidal in the small. It gives a sulphureous odour on per- cussion, and here and there contains a few shells. Its lay- ers sometimes gradually dilate, or belly out, in portions, and contain some form of the general conglomerate of the cliff. It even occasionally takes the fine crystalline texture of the Limestone of Montmorenci or Point aux Trembles : but this is rare. A brown or black splintery slate is often interposed be- tween the conglomerate and the dark Limestone ; and is plentiful at the Cave. I had no opportunity of examining the higher parts of the West Hill skirting the Bay: by far the greater portion of it is buried, as before stated, in irregular terraces of alluvion. The breach, however, below, exhibits intervals of the less durable calcareous rocks of the west angle, and not of the primary strata of the Hill, as might have been ex- pected. At each end of this arm of the Bay, small quantities of the conglomerate are met with ;—not to be distinguished by the eye, from Grey wacke, on account of the faint green colour of its base.—Near the outer precipice, it is much interleaved with the dark limestone ; and contains a few shells. In a grassy meadow, near the church, a more compact form of the conglomerate emerges from the soil in slabs in- clining to the south-south-west at an angle of 25°, a dip which I believe to be accidental from the extreme disorder of some contiguous strata of dark Limestone. ‘There 1s another portion at the foot of the Middle Hill, near some low mounds of porphyritic grey gneiss. Several patches of the dark Limestone occur on the beach, two of them being four or five hundred yards in length. Like the Mica-slate of the Hill, it dips to the north- north-west at an high angle, excepting the large mass allu- ded to above, which inclines, in groupes of strata, in every possible direction. I did not observe any organic remains in the Limestone here, nor other accidental mineral, excepting white calc spar, which often traverses the rock so plentifully in slender veins, as to give if a brecciated appearance. v Geology, Sc. of Malbay, L. C. 215 The alluvion of the Middle Hill suffers but few strata to shew themselves. Those at the back of the cluster of houses, near the church, are the gneiss and calcareous con- glomerate just mentioned.—The dark Limestone is the on- ly rock | met with on the east side of this Hill, or that flanking the valley of St. Etienne.—For six miles it is seen at alllevels; but in the clearest manner, in the numerous gullies and in the banks and bed of the river. About four miles from Malbay Church I traced it in a gulley on this side of the valley for four hundred feet. It is there usually disposed horizontally ; but it is in many places inclined.— Near the top of this height, it wears the rounded, smooth, and dough-hke shape of water-worn granite, together with great indistinctness in the divisions of the Lamina. With respect to the rocks in the more remote interior, it may be here remarked, that the incumbered state of the surface is such as to preclude any examination of them.— At the lesserlake, they are primary; and also in the neigh- borhood of the first fall in the Malbay River, where they. are coarse and shattered gneiss running south-south-west, and vertically, I believe. In one example, it contains a vein of chlorite, running parallel to its stratification. The rocks of the Eastern Hill are also greatly obscured by the alluvion of its sides; and by the dense vegetation and debris of its summit; but in the latter situation, where it overlooks the Bay, occasional ridges of white quartz crop out and run nearly north. The texture is crystalline, but now and then becomes granular; and even of a con- glomerated form. The rocks of the high and naked grounds in the rear of this, appear, on distant inspection, to be primary ; but as in a former case, the shores at the base of this hill will best elucidate the geology of this locality. A shingled beach skirts the east side of the Bay, but at the point where the shore first inclines strongly into the gen- eral course of the St. Lawrence, a rapid succession of rocks takes place. The first met with, is a collection of strata of knotty greenstone, with a south-west direction anda dip, either vertical or to the south-east. It is much veined by true granite, containing hornblende and garnet. This ¢reen- stone extends along the beach for 150 yards, and gradually becomes gneiss, (towards the hill it is immediately buried 216 Geology, Gc. of Malbay, L. €. in alluvion.) An interval of shingle having taken place for fifty yards, a nearly pure quartz follows, much fractured. It retains the south-west direction and the south-east or vertical dip, and extends for 100 yards, protruding from the contiguous hill, whose summit is composed of it.—Now and then it is seamed by a dark quartz, mixed with ee the walls of the seam being very ill defined. Close to this, (proceeding eastward along the beach,) covering and intermixing with it, is a horizontal stratum of of quartzose puddingstone, with small scales of white mica. It soon passes into the form of the calcareous conglome- rate and contains a few shells. It is only an insulated frag- ment, ten feet broad, by five in height, probably incum- bent on the vertical quartz, which is nowresumed for twen- ty yards, when it disappears ander the shingle. One hundred yards to the east, there is a low tongue of land, about three hundred yards across, and two hundred Jong. Its beach is wholly occupied by the dark limestone, its strata dipping in long undulating curves, or in short bro- ken masses in every imaginable direction. This limestone possesses a few shells, and has many knotty protuberances, six inches high, by a foot or more in diameter. Their sur- face and interior are marked with indistinct appearances of the capillary sea weed, which, fixed to some rock, streams in the tide.—Large globular concretions are abundant, sim- ilar to those in the white limestone of Lake aiare and of composition similar to that of the containing rock. In the rear of this projecting point, and somewhat to the east, isa gentle alluvial ascent, crowned by broken ledges of calcareous conglomerate, passing into sandstone ;— themselves again surmounted by a steep round-backed hill. Passing eastward a very short distance, we find the sea enc roaching gradually on this alluvial Ace until it bathes ihe foot of its conglomerate ledge, which now, two hundred feet high, forms the immediate shore, fr outed and half buried by the usual pile of ruins. Its west end is not far from the last of the confused layers of limestone, where it becomes now and then interleaved with a browner and somewhat crystalline limestone ; and still nearer, with the green variety of the conglomerate so closely resembling grey wacké, both rocks observing the accidental direction of the accompanying strata. Geology, &c. of Malbay, L. C. 217 The face of the precipice is nearly perpendicular ; the upper parts overhanging a little ; and the layers undulating, but never departing widely from the general horizontality of the rock. The cliff is of a mixed character. Near the east end a fissured mass of porphyritic granite twelve feet high, and as many broad, rises from the loose sand of the beach, and passes under the precipice, into the hill. Near it, but not in contact, a coarse quartz rock does the same ; but not at- taining more than four or five feet above the level of the water; and is surrounded by broken strata of the green conglomerate lately spoken of, which covers the beach along the whole front of the precipice. The cliff itself is composed of calcareous conglomerate, ‘interleaved with a brown limestone, as in that of the west angle of the bay :—the only difference which I observed is, the predominance of the conglomerate in the lower parts, and of the limestone in the upper; which latter is brown, and remarkably full of shells. I observed an orthocerite | with a pointed termination ; but in other respects similar to those previously noticed: I do not recollect whether it occurred in the conglomerate or in the brown limestone, rocks which perhaps differ only in the presence or absence of quartz nodules. The conglomerate is occasionally interspersed with small rounded flakes of black clayey matter, as in the grey wacke of Ange Gardien, and of Cap Rouge, near Quebec. The precipice is discontinued suddenly, and is replaced to the east by a slope of gneisic ruins. On the beach a whitish laminated gneiss prevails at various angles of incli- nation, but always dipping north north-west under the hills. The mica of the gneiss, as we proceed east, very gradually increases, and hornblende and garnets in crystals become numerous. At length the rock is changed into a coarse black mica slate. The garnets now for several hun- dred yards towards Cape Eagle are so abundant as to form the greater part of the rock. They are either obscurely crystallized or massive ;—instances of either form eight inches in diameter being common. Their texture is much loosened by rents; and many have fallen from their nests : It is difficult to procure large specimens from their frangi- bility, and from the toughness of the rock in which they are imbedded. 218 Geology, &c. of Malbay, L. C. This mica slate is often tolerably compact. It is full of quartz veins, and of the beds of white feldspar, as on the outside of the west arm of Malbay. Its layers are, as is usual, very tortuous, but like the gneiss, they affect on the whole the north north-west dip. Half a mile from the conglomerate precipice the gneiss is resumed, and continues for a great distance to dip into the water in impassable mounds. I observed it at the Ri- viere des Trois Saumons, nine miles below : where it has a transverse vein of calespar, mottled white, green, and red, eighteen inches thick, and intersected obliquely by a vein of white quartz six inches thick. The details which have now been entered upon at some length, suggest the following observations :— The rock formations of the north shore of the St. Law- rence from Cape Torment, a precipitous headland 1,800 feet high, to the River des Trois Saumons, are of a charac- ter similar to that of the district of Malbay. ‘They rise in- to mountains of magnificent features, which bound the river in lofty capes and escarpments, and at distant intervals break into rich but narrow valleys of alluvion, the outlets of streams tributary to the St. Lawrence. Almost all the primary rocks are found in this distance alternating in rapid succession, and thus contrasting in the most forcible manner with the vast and monotonous tracts of gneiss, limestone, and marble of Upper Canada. The rocks of Malbay are, with one exception, of the or- dinary kinds, but they are remarkable in their transitions and position. These transitions are effected in different ways, as grad- ually and longitudinally (that is, in the direction of the stra- tum) in the primary rocks, one ingredient mica for instance, slowly predominating to the exclusion of another. Thus the laminated gneiss of the West Hill becomes well char- acterised mica slate, and by the addition of hornblende, un- dergoes a still greater change in the east of Malbay. This appearance has been rarely noticed by authors. Dr. Ma- culloch met with it in the Isle of Sky in the West of Scot- land, and considers it to be of difficult explanation, but shews it to occur in other formations. Professor Kidd Geology, &c. of Malbay, L. C. 219 pives a striking instance of it in the secondary rocks of Eng- land. The transverse and more common mode of slow transi- tion is present every where. The sudden alternation of entirely dissimilar strata, as of gneiss and limestone, is frequent. It is strikingly exempli- fied in the channelled fissure of some extent, which a moun- tain stream has worn in the face of a precipice at the Bay of St. Paul, thirty miles west from Malbay. In the walls of this fissure or gulley, conformable layers of these substan- ces alternate several times in the space of eighty yards. They incline to the west south-west at an angle of 70°. The limestone has occasional seams of white crystalline marble, beautifully clouded with green, and containing dis- seminated galena. These rocks are unchanged at their well defined point of contact. The frequent alternations of the gneiss, quartz, limestone, &c. of Malbay, shews them to be of the same age ; it is re- markable however that the limestone of the highlands and the dark conchiferous species of the beach are quite simi- lar in composition, although of very different dates, a fact which involves nothing absurd or even improbaole, as al- most every rock in the geological catalogue recurs at inter- vals, and with the same characters. _ The limestone appears to occupy the flanks of the hills. T never saw it higher on the north shore, than 800 or 1,000 feet above the sea. The summit of the mountains is always primary :—that of Cape Torment is of the finest graphic granite. While these strata affect more or less a south-west direc- tion, they do not enwrap or abut upon the mountains, but dip towards them,-—a very extraordinary disposition, of which T know but four instances. It was noticed by Saussure on the Grimsel and in the valley of Chamouni. Von Buch met with it in the primitive mountains of Nor- way; and Macculloch, also, in the western islands of Scot- land. This dip. extends along the north shore of the 5t. Lawrence for thirty miles, and is the more singular from be- ing surrounded by rocks of the opposite inclination.—Al- most all the older rocks of the Canadas have assumed the latter position, as the primitive rocks of the Thousand Isl- ands near Kingston, and those on the north and east of Lake 220 Geology, &c. of Malbay, L. C. Huron, and the greywacke, clay slate, and quartz rock of the south side of the St. Lawrence from Camourasca to Quebec, together with the gneiss of Montmorenci, Auge Gardien and Cape Torment. The marble, greenstone, and large grained gneiss of the River Ottawa run somewhat more westerly, but they are so obscured by weathering, alluvion and vegetation, that it is difficult to detect their real position. From the rocks of Malbay and Camourasca, two opposite points in the south and north shores of the St. Lawrence, be- ing totally different, this river seems to bound or separate iwo formations, as Von Buch observed in the fiord of Chris- tiana in Norway, and elsewhere, and as is the case with Lakes Superior and Huron in Canada. The calcareous conglomerate of Malbay presents several. peculiar appearances. Its resemblance to greywacke in its associations and ex- ternal characters is so perfect that for some days I consider- ed it as such, but was undeceived by its violent efferves- cence on exposure to acids. This rock is also interposed between the black fetid limestone and the gneiss of the Falls of Montmorenci, and in all probability passes into genuine greywacke as the latter is formed in horizontal strata less than a mile to the east of the Falls, and nearly at the same level. The grey wacke likewise occupies the south-east of Quebec in large tracts. The Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior, so splendidly de- scribed by Governor Cass in his notes to the poem of Ont- wa are of this substance. At Malbay it is unconformable to the primary rocks on which it abuts, and is perhaps the most recent, from, in addition to its horizontality, its containing organic remains agd water-worn nodules. The curvature of the strata at the cave in the west an- gle of the Bay, and of the east shore of the Bay, is worthy of observation. They are an additional evidence shewing the temporary flexibility of rocks, after consolidation, and their disturbance while in that condition. The most sin- gular contortions on a large scale, that I recollect, are the curved gneiss of the Western Islands, figured by Macul- loch, and the almost spherical limestone discovered at La Forme in Switzerland, by Dolomica. At the mouth of the Geology, Sc. of Malbay, L. C. 221 River Grand St. Anne, 24 miles below Quebec, three strong seams of gray wacke form as many concentric arch- es, in the face of a naked and perpendicular bank, the out- er of which is about eight feet high, and twenty-two feet span. The surrounding shale observes the same position. At the bridge of the river Jaques Cartier, 30 miles above Quebec, there is a beautiful natural arch of blue limestone of similar dimensions. The occurrence of comparatively uninjured organic re- mains in a minute conglomerate is a remarkable circum- stance, and shews that the shells, encrinites,* and orthoce- ratites have not been subjected to the same attrition as the quartzose nodules. These orthoceratites shew in what a qualified sense must be taken the rule which determines the era, and other re- lations of rocks from their contents. Parkinson, Green- hough, and Kidd, have expressed an accordance with this opinion, without entering into proof. My own experience in North America, leads to the same conclusion. The or- thoceratites are astonishingly numerous, large and varied in the greenish grey and brown limestones of Lake Huron, in the yellowish grey of Lake Erie, in the biackish blue of the northern and southern shores of Lake Ontario, and of the Falls of Montmorenci, in the brown and lead-coloured beautifully crystalline variety of Point aux Trembles, and Jacques Cartier, ten leagues above Quebec, and lastly in the calcareous conglomerate of Malbay—substances of marked dissimilarity under every aspect, geological and mineralogical. The alluvial depositions which have been noticed in the romantic valley of St. Etienne, attract particular regard only from their quantity and regularity of disposition. They furnish a most gratifying and instractive lesson to the young geologist, and seem to indicate four conditions of the river Malbay, with respect to size, each (it may be supposed) being assumed, successively from the highest, as the barri- er between the valley, and the St. Lawrence, has received some great injury. * It is singular that no lily encrinites so numerous in England, have been found in the vast secondary tracts of North America. I know only of one Kchinite also—from Onondaga, New-York, I believe. It is in pos- session of J. G. Bogert, Esq. New-York. 29 220 Geolowy, Sc. of Malbay L. C. They are clearly the work of the present river; but when its bottom and surface have been at very different levels from the present. The country to the north west, from whence the materials forming these hills have been drawn, is not universally, as Hayden, in his spirited, use- ful, but ill-digested work supposes, naked, and soil-less from the devastations of a debacle, but abounds in alluvial plains of immense extent, and some so fertile, as to have induced the Jesuits to plant gardens and vineyards there, as on the low rich banks of the Lake St. John, of the Saguenay River, Lake Tematscaming, and in the rear of ihe mountains of Malbay and St. Paul, to the last of which situations, the Canadian peasantry, sluggish and unobser- vant as they are, were induced to remove. The length and severity of the winter, however, and the solitariness of these wild regions, have compelled them to return to their friends around Quebec. The great primitive floods, appear to have been in some measure partial; their force and direction being modified by the nature of the ground over which they flowed. Thus, much of the northwest is a vast assemblage of de- bris, without soil, and without vegetation, as on the River des Francois, the coast of Labrador, and the barrens of Hearne. It is singular that among the incalculable quanti- ties of detached rocks which load the district of Malbay, I met with only two specimens of the clay slate of Cam- ourasca, on the opposite side of the St. Lawrence; and a similar number in the Eboulements, while in Upper Canada the jasper conglomerate of the Northwest of Lake Huron overspreads all the 2igh grounds of that large body ef wa- ter. The epidotic Greenstones, the greenstone porphy ries and other peculiar rocks of the same lake, are plentiful, as rolled masses in Lake Erie, at the foot of Lake Superior, the rapids of Hawksbury on the river Ottawa, an extent of country exceeding 1000 square miles. The trap of Mon- treal is found loose, on the shores of Lakes Francis and Champlain, localities to which the existing rivers could not have conveyed them, as their current observes the oppo- site direction. JOHN I. BIGSBY, M. D. tH oe a) ws WN AQAA a RAN A \ ~~ AUN “ fe) By YD O70 Cl Vy SC Y MMMM feet We: SOIICOV Hifi pa2r3tT. 7 = dS . \ Uf, “dl SSS 5 3 th fn HT HT i I PT SS I ih {= 1) ===) —* SS} AAA A — 4) =S==>" ——> Remarks on the Prints of Human Feet. 923 Arr. I.—Remarks on the Prints of Human Feet, observed in the secondary limestone of the Mississippr valley. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Buffalo, (N.Y.) June 5th, 1822. Sir, T now send youa drawing a two curious prints of the human foot tn limestone rock, observed by me last summer, in a detached slab of secondary formation, at Harmony, on the Wabash ; together with a letter of Col. Thos. H. Ben- ton, asenator in Congress from Missouri, on the same sub- ject. The slab of stone containing these impressions, was originally quarried on the west bank of the Mississippi riv- er, at St. Louis, and belongs to the elder floetz range of limestone, which pervades that country to a very great extent. These prints appear to have i noticed by the French soon after they penetrated into that country from the Cana- das, and during the progress of settlement at St. Louis, were frequently resorted to as a phenomenon in the works of nature. But no person appears to have entertained the idea of raising them from the quarry with a view to preser- vation, until Mr. Rappe* visited that place five or six years ago. He immediately determined to remove the stone con- taining them to his village of Harmony, then recently trans- ferred from Butler county in Pennsylvania, to the banks of the Wabash ; but this determination was no sooner known than popular sentiment began to arratgn his motives, and people were ready to attribute to religious fanaticism or arch deception, what. was, more probably, a mere act of momentary caprice, or settled taste. His followers, it was said, were to regard these prints as the sacred impress of the feet of our Saviour. Few persons thought of interpos- * The Rev. Frederick Rappe is the ecclesiastical head of a religious sect called Harmonites, who emigrated from the kingdom of Wirtemberg, in Germany, about the year 1804. They first settled in Western Pennsylva- nia, where they introduced the cultivation of the vine. Their industry, so- briety, neatness, and orderly conduct soon attracted universal notice, but increasing rapidly in wealth and numbers, they aflerwards (about 1814) removed into Indiana. H.R. S. 224 Remarks on the Prints of Human Feet. ing a charitable remark in favour of religious tenets, of which we can judge only by the peaceful, industrious, and devotional lives; the neat and cleanly appearance; and the inoffensive manners of those who profess them. Still less could be conceded in favour of a personal taste for ob- jects of natural history or curiosity, of which this act is, at least, a proof. Be this as it may, Mr. Rappe contracted with a stone mason to cut out the block with the impres- sions, paying him at the same time a liberal price for his labour, and ordered it to be transported by water to his residence in Posy county, Indiana. Visiting this place during the last summer, in the suite of Governor Cass, Mr. Rappe conducted us to see this curiosity, which has been placed upon mason work ina paved area between his dwel- ling house and garden, in the manner represented in figure If, of the drawing.* The slab of stone thus preserved, forms a parallelogram of eight feet in length, by three and a half in breadth, and has a thickness of eight inches, which appears to be the natural thickness of the stratum of lime- stone rock, of which itisa part. This limestone possesses a firm and compact structure, of the peculiar greyish blue tint common to the caleareous rocks of the Mississippi val- ley, and contains fossil encrinites, and some analagous re- mains, very plentifully imbedded. It is quarried at St. Lou- is, both for the purposes of building stone, and for quick- lime. It becomes beautifully white on parting with its carbonic acid and water, and those who have used it, ob- serve, thatit makes a good cement, with the usual propor- tion of sand. The prints are those of a man standing erect, with his heels drawn in, and his toes turned outward, which 1s the most natural position. The distance between the heels, by accurate measurement, is 6} inches, and between the toes, 134 inches: but it will be perceived, that these are not the impressions of feet accustomed to a close shoe, the toes being very much spread, and the foot flattened ina man- ner that happens to those who have been habituated to go a great length of time without shoes. Notwithstanding this circumstance, the prints are strikingly natural, exhibit- ing every muscular impression, and swell of the heel and toes, with a precision and faithfulness to nature, which I have not been able to copy, with perfect exactness, in the * See the Plate at the end. Remarks on the Prints of Human Feet. 995 present drawing. The length of each foot, as indicated by the prints, is 103 inches, and the width across the spread of the toes, 4 inches, which diminishes to 23 inches, at the swell of the heels, indicating, as it is thought, a stature of the common size.* This rock presents a plain and smooth surface, having ac- quired a polish from the sand and water, to which its origin- al position periodically subjected it. Upon this smooth surface, commencing in front of the tracks, theré is a kind of scroll, which is two feet and a half in length. The shape of this is very irregular, and not equally plain and perfect in all parts, and would convey to the observer the idea of a man idly marking with his fingers, or with a smooth stick, fanciful figures upon a soft surface. Some pretend to ob- serve in this scroll, the figure of an Indian bow, but this inference did not appear, to any of our party, to be justi- fied. Every appearance wil] warrant the conclusion that these impressions were made at a time when the rock was soft enough to receive them by pressure, and that the marks of feet are natural and genuine. Such was the opinion of Gov. Cass and myself, formed upon the spot, and there is nothing that I have subsequently seen to alter this view: on the contrary, there are some corroborating facts calcu- lated to strengthen and confirm it.t Butit will be observed * These measurements were made July 19th, 1821, in the presence of His Excellency, Lewis Cass; the Rev. Fred. Rappe, the younger ; and Maj. Robt. A. Forsyth, of Detroit. H.R.S. + The following are the facts referred {o. At the town of Herculaneum in Jefferson county, Missouri, two supposed tracks of the human foot were observed by the workmen engaged in quarrying stone in the year 1817. Jhese impressions, at the time, attracted the general notice of the inhabi- tants, and were considered so curious and interesting that the workmen who were employed in building a stone chimney for John W. Honey, Esq. of that place, were directed to place the two blocks of stone containing these marks, in the outward wali, so as to be capable of being examined at all times. It is well known to those who have visited that section of country, that the custom of building the back walls and the pipe of the chimney, in sucha manner as to project beyond the body of the house, is prevalent among the French, and other inhabitants ; and consequently, the above arrange- ment, while it completely preserves, at the same time exposes the prints to observation, in the most satisfactory manner. I examined them in that position on my first visit to Missouri, in 1818, and afterwards in 1821, when I took: drawings of both the prints. They are however the impressions of feet covered with the Indian shoe, and are not so perfect and exquisitely natural as those at Harmony. They were situated in the same range of secondary limestone, and distant from St. Louis, 30 miles. 226 Remarks on the Prints of Human Feet. by a letter which is transmitted with these remarks, that Col. Benton entertains a different opinion, and supposes them to be the result of human labour, at the same period of time when those enigmatical mounds upon the American Bottom, andabove the town of St. Louis, were constructed. The reasons which have induced him to reject the opinion of their being organic impressions are these : “1. The hardness of the rock. “2, The want of tracks leading to and from them. “3. The difficulty of supposing a change so instantaneous and apropos, as must have taken place in the formation of the Jed ia kk gH ; rock, if impressed when soft enough to receive such deep and ‘ a < iP © iP distinct tracks.” ‘To those who are familiar with the facts of the existence of sea and fresh water shells, ferns, madrepores, and other fossil organic remains, in the hardest sandstones and lime- stones of our continent, the hardness of the rock, and the supposed rapidiy of its consolidation, will not present ob- Jections of that force, which the writer supposes.* But Several tracks of the human foot are reported to exist upon the rocks between Esopus landing and Kingston, on the Hudson. Chas. H. Ruggles, Esq. Representative in Congress from Kingston, to whom | mentioned this report, has no knowledge of the fact. A detached block of stone near the residence of Com. Rogers, at the city of Washington, has been frequently resorted to, on account of its bearing the supposed prints of the human foot. Ihave recently visited, and made a cursory examination of this stone, in company with Dr. Darlington of Penn- sylvania, and Albert H. Tracy, Esy. of N. York, both Representatives in the present Congress; but am not prepared to describe it. H.R. S. * The following interesting fact, touching the history of secondary rocks, has just come tolight. The workmen engaged in blasting rock from the bed of the Erie Canal, at Lockport, in Niagara county, lately discovered in a small cavity in the rock, a toad in the torpid state, which on exposure to the air instantly came to life, but died in afew moments afterwards. The cav- ity was only large enough to contain the body, without allowing room for motion. No communication existed with the atmosphere: the nearest place of approach to the surface was six inches, through solid stone. It is not mentioned whether the rock was sandstone, or limestone; but from the prevalence of limestone on the surface of the contiguous country, it may be presumed to be the latter: the country is wholly of secondary formation. ‘These animals have frequently been found imbedded in clay, gravel, &c. bat no fact of their having been observed in rock, is recollected. Of the causes which enable avimals of this class, which have been suddenly en- veloped in strata of earth, or otherwise shut out from the air without injury {o the animal organs, to resume, for a limited period, the functions of life, on being restored to the atmosphere, no explanation need here be given, as 4 Remarks on the Prints of Haman Feet. 227 the want of tracks leading to and from them, presents a difficulty, which cannot, perhaps, be so readily obviated. We should certainly suppose such tracks to exist, unless it could be ascertained that the toes of the prints, when in situ, pointed injand, in which case we should be at liberty to conjecture, that the person making them, had landed from the Mississippi, and proceeded no further into the interior. But no enquiry has enabled me to ascertain this fact, the circumstance not being recollected by Col. Benton, and others, who have often visted this curiosity while it remain- ed in its natural position at St. Louis. The following considerations, it will be seen, are stated by Col. Benton, as capable of being urged im opposition to his theory of their being of factitious origin. © 1. The exquisiteness of the workmanship. “2. The difficulty of working such hard material without steel or iron.”’ The strikingly natural appearance of these prints, has al- ways appeared to me, to be one of the best evidences of their being genuine; for I cannot suppose that there is any artist now in America possessed of the skill necessary to produce such perfect and masterly pieces of sculpture : yet, what are we to say of the skill of that people, who are supposed to have been capable of producing such fin- ished pieces of art, without the aid of iron tools? For, let it constantly be borne in mind, that the antiquity of these prints can be traced back to the earliest discovery of the country, and consequently to the introduction of iron tools and weapons among the aborigines. There are none of our Indian tribes who have made any proficiency in sculp- ture, even since the iron hatchet and knife, have been ex- changed for those of flint, and of obsidian. All their at- tempts in this way are grotesque, and exhibit a lamentable want of proportions, the same which was seen in the patnt- ings, and in the figured vases and pottery of the Asteecks the occurrence isa very common one, and is perhaps always, more or less, the result of galvanic excitement. But one conclusion seems naturally to be suggested by this discovery : if secondary rocks, as Hutton and Playfair have taught, have been consolidated by fire, would not the animal here in- earcerated, have been consumed, or at least, such an effect have been pro- duced, upon the animal organization, as to prevent resuscitation 2) ES. 228, Remarks on the Prints of Human Feet. of Mexico, when their towns and temples were first visited by the Spanish conqueror. These remarks, and the papers which are designed to illustrate them, are submitted without further comment, in the hope that the novelty of the facts, at least, will recom- mend them to the consideration of those who take an in- terest in the geological antiquities of our continent, and whose opportunities of information qualify them for the discussion, in a manner that I cannot presume to be. - Yours, with respect, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. TO THE HON. THOMAS H. BENTON, OF MISSOURI. thane At April 27th, 1822. SIR, ‘“‘ Understanding that you have seen the prints of human feet in the limestone rock, which forms the western shore of the Mississippi river, at ‘St. Louis, and that you entertain peculiar views in regard to them, I beg leave to solicit your reply as to the fact of the existence of those impres- sions, in situ, at the place indicated ; the time at which they were first discovered by the inhabitants, and the sub- sequent removal of the stone, with such opinion as you may think proper to communicate respecting their origin, and the conclusions to be drawn. “It is very remarkable that no analogous appearances have.been disclosed by the rock strata of any other part of the world: at least, we are not informed that any well au- thenticated discoveries of the fossil remains or impressions of man, have ever been made, which prove the existence of the species before the consolidation of existing rocks.* But such, it appears to me, is the inevitable conclusion to be drawn, if we are prepared to admit that these prints were produced by the pressure of the human foot upon those secondary strata, during their soft, or semi-pasty state. ‘‘When we reflect upon the period of time which has elapsed since the Mississippi country has been known to * The fossil human bones of Guadaloupe, are not conceived to form an ex- ception to thisremark. They are contained in a porous, shelly rock, or a kind of tufa, of very recent and local formation. H. R. S. Remarks on the Prints of Human Feet. 229 Europeans, and the great number of persons, both men of science, as well as men of business, who have visited the town of St. Louis since its transfer to the United States, it is not less remarkable that a circumstance so perfectly wn- aque among natural objects, should not, ere now, have elicited that notice, which the increasing taste for natural science in this country, appears to claim for it. It is the more to be regretted that this inquiry has been permitted to sleep, until the stone itself containing these impressions, having attracted the attention of a religious sect, has been conveyed into a distant part of the country, and there pre- served for purposes, which many are free to declare, are totally independent of all scientific considerations. “‘'The circumstances of this removal, and the insulated state in which only it cannow be seen, leave room for doubts, respecting its original position at St. Louis, which no testimo- ny less certain than that ofan eye witness of the scene, is calculated completely to remove. It is therefore more with the view of establishing the -existence of the facts, than of offering any speculations which may arise from them, that these remarks are commenced; and I hope sir, the sub- ject may be sufliciently within your recollection, and means of observation, to permit you to state, in reply, the principal facts and appearances. ‘‘ The new and interesting views which this discovery is calculated to suggest in regard to the natural history of stratified rocks, and particularly with reference to the geo- logical age and character of the Mississippi valley, must pre- sent themselves in the most clear and striking manner to those who have been particularly accustomed to reflect up- on these subjects, and will readily occur to you. We in- fer the different eras, and deduce the character of seconda- ry rocks, with considerable certainty, from the fossil or- ganized bodies which they disclose in the most solid parts. We perceive from the shells, corallines, and other traces of organic structure which are found, that these rocks were once soft and pliable, so as to be capable of admitting these bodies. We point to the fossil trees, and shrubs, and to the beds of mineral coal having vegetable impressions, as evidences of the destruction of forests, which once flourish- ed upon the older series of rocks. The bones of the mase todon, the horns of elks, and the osseous and undecom- posed remains of other large quadrupeds, birds, fish, and 30 230 Remarks on the Prits of Human Feet. reptiles, which are abundanily found, not only in the al- luvial soils, but also occasionally in the rock strata of Eu- rope and America, sufticiently indicate the revolutions and changes which the earth’s surface bas undergone at com- paratively recent periods. We wish only to discover the remains of man, instmilar situations, to date these changes subsequent to the Mosaical period of his creation; and here, apparently, we have found them! But the facts de- mand a careful investigation. ‘The drawings which | have taken of these impressions, the inspection of the original, now at Harmony, and the best reflections I have been able to bestow upon attending facts and circumstances, concur in my mind, to establish the conclusion, that they are natural. and genuine; and consequently, thatthe discovery should be seized upon to erecta new genus of organic remains, of which the specific type should be any portion of the human frame, recognized in the anatomical nomenclature: But it is not conceived to be necessary here, to state the circumstances which in- duce me to consider these prints as the result of a local sub- mersionof the conntry extending north of the Grand Tower* on the Mississippi. “| have the honor to be sir, With high respect, Your most obedient servant, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.” Col. Benton in Reply. “ Washington City, April 23th, SSRs ‘‘Yours of the twenty-seventh was received yester- day. The “ prints’ of the human feet which you mention, I have seen hundreds of times. They were on the uncoy- ered limestone rock in front of the town of St. Louis. This rock forms the basis of the country, and is deposited in horizontal! strata, and in low water 1s uncovered to the ex- tent of three miles in length on the bank of the Mississippi, and, in some places, from one to two hundred feet wide. * Tam not able to refer to any adequate description of this bold and pic- turesque feature in the geology of the Mississippi valley. It 1s cursorily mentioned in my View of the Lead Mines of Missouri. H. R. 8. Geology of the Highlands. 23 “The ‘prints’? were seen when the country was first settled, and had the same appearance then as now. No tradition can tell any thing about them. They look as old as the rock. ‘They have the same: fine polish which the at- trition of the sand and water have made upon the rest of the rock which is exposed to their action. -1 have examin- ed them often with great attention. ‘They are not hand- some, but exquisitely natural, both in the form and position, spread-toed, and of course anterior ‘to the use of narrow shoes. I do not think them “impressions,” but the work of hands, and refer their existence to the age of the mounds upon the American Bottom, and above ie town of St. Louis. My reasons for this opinion are: 1. The hardness of the rock: 2. The want of other tracks leading to and from them: 3. The difficulty of supposing a chalice so In- stantaneous and apropos, as must have taken place in the formation of the rock, if impressed when soft enough to re- ceive such deep anddistinct tracks. Opposed to this opin- ion are: 1. The exquisitencess of the workmanship: 2. The difficulty of working in such hard materials without steel or iron. “A block of 6 or 8 feet long. and 3 or 4 wide, containing the “ prints,’’? was cut out by Mr. John Jones, a stone ma- son in St. Louis, and sold to Mr. Rappe of Indiana, and, under his orders, removed to his establishment, called Hae mony, on the lett bank of the Wabash. * Very respectfully yours, “ THOMAS H. BENTON. * Henry R. ScHOOLCRAFT.”’ Arr. Iff.—An Outline of the Geology of the Highlands, on the River Hudson—By Prof. Amos Eaton. Severat sketches of the geology of the Highlands have already been published. The best, which has come to my knowledge, is that of Dr. Akerly, accompanied with a pro- file view. But Dr. A. told me, that his sketch was drawn up in haste, without a personal examination of the whole succession of strata which constitute this stupendous pile of mountains. 232 Geology of the Highlands. Having been invited to perform some subordinate ser- vices at the Military Academy at West Point, a very eligi- ble opportunity was afforded for examining the rock forma- tion in its immediate vicinity. The superintendant, Major Thayer, Dr. L. Foot, Professors Douglass and Cutbush, and myself, crossed the whole breadth of the Highlands, during the month of May last, which is fourteen miles, and continued our examinations so far as to become acquainted with the adjoining rocks on both sides. As the river Hud- son crosses this range of mountains from north to south, cut- ting them down to their very base, each shore of the river presents a very advantageous view of their strata. Accord- ingly we coasted along each shore in a barge, taking speci- mens wherever there was the least appearance of any change. The following is the result of our investigations, given without regard to the order of time in which they were made. The middle portion of the Highlands for ten miles in ex- tent, taking Buttermilk Falls (two miles below the military academy) for the center, consists almost wholly of well characterized gneiss, with alternating layers of granite. There are also some beds and some alternating layers of hornblende rock, included in it. These ten miles of gneiss are succeeded, both on the north and south, by hornblende rocks; each about two miles in extent. The true hornblende rocks sometimes alternate with a kind of rock resembling gneiss, in which very dark- coloured lamellar hornblende seems to be substituted for mica. Suchare the rocks constituting Butterbill and Dun- derbergh. At the termination of the hornblende rocks, which is the termination of the mountains both north and south. the transition argillite commences. As far as we examined it, we found it alternating with transition (or metalliferous) limestone, and graywacke. The latter contains petrifac- tions of terebratulites and orthocerites. We found, that the layers of all the rocks in the range, whether primitive or transition, inclined toward the north- west, from a vertical position. We could find no place whercon to fix, as the middle range, or granitic range, from which to trace a succession of strata on each side, accord- Geology of the Mighlands. 233 ing to the Wernerian arrangement. It would rather ap- pear as if the gneiss rocks, ten miles in breadth, were the central or oldest formation ; and that, beginning with this rock, we could trace corresponding strata on each side. After this general view of the rocks constituting the Highlands, a more particular account will be readily com- _ prehended. The granitic layers embraced in the gneiss consist chief- ly of no small proportion of semi-transparent quartz of a hyaline appearance, a very little silver-coloured mica, and a large proportion of greyish-white feldspar of a pearly lus- tre. Ina few limited localities the feldspar is flesh-colour- ed. Sometimes the quartz is very dark coloured; and in some rocks the feldspar appears of a sky-blue colour. The mica of the gneiss is almost invariably black, and the feldspar white. Beds of considerable extent are em- braced in the gneiss rock near Fort Putnam, which consist chiefly of hornblende. In this rock are found imperfect crystals of green augite of a large size, and considerable quantities of the green coccolite variety. Where the gneiss meets the hornblende rock stratum, both north and south, many interesting minerals are dis- seminated. The most beautiful specimens of serpentine in calc spar are found at this meeting of the strata, three miles orth of the military academy. They appear like grass- green gems set in masses of pearl. Vast quantities of very dark lamellar hornblende appear in the form of veins traversing the hornblende rocks. The same variety of hornblende is disseminated in the granitic layers included in the gneiss rocks ; which is often mistaken for shorl on a slight view of the rocks. It sometimes gives the granite a graphic appearance. Those geologists, who study hand specimens in the cabi- net and are disposed to multiply names, may here find the primitive trap, primitive greenstone, sienite, greenstone porphyry ; and perhaps every other variety into which the hornblende rock is varied in any country. The granulated iron ore containing small crystals of phos- phate of lime which abounds in the gneiss rocks of these mountains, together with the carburet of iron, with other minerals, have already been mentioned in. former publica- tions. The minerals of these mountains, however, have 234 Geology of the Highlands. not been thoroughly searched out. One object of this essay is, to furnish to the industrious mineralogist those landmarks which an outline of the rocks may afford. We found no well characterized mica-slate in the High- lands. But the gneiss becomes more slaty about half a mile north of Fort Montgomery, which is four and a half miles south of the Military Academy. It would probably be cal- led mica-slate by some geologists, though it always contains a considerable portion of feldspar. It is highly ferruginous, and tends rapidly to a state of disintegration. It seems to contain considerable soft granulated sulphuret of iron. Sim- ilar localities of small extent are found near the Military Academy. Blocks of this variety are laid in the walls of some of the public buildings, which are soon disintegrated ; staining the walls before them of a yellow ferraginous hue. We discovered a vertical layer of a slaty rock set in the gneiss rock, which is, in all respects, similar to gray wacke slate. It is firmly set in the base of the Dunderbergh hill, on the east side of the river. A layer considerably resem- bling this, though not quite so well characterized, is to be seen among primitive rocks in the adit to Southampton lead mines in Massachusetts. See Index to the Geology of the Northern States, 2d Ed. page 20 ; and American Journal of Science, Vol I. page 136. Such anomalous formations ought to be attentively studied. The transition rocks bounding the Highlands on the north and south, bear a strong resemblance to the range of a simi- lar formation along the western foot of the Green Moun- tains of Vermont and Massachusetts. Maj. Rensselaer Schuyler having transported vast quantities of the metallife- rous lime stone rocks from Barnagat, near the north side of the Highlands, for building the great sloop lock in Troy, I had avery favourable opportunity for examining it. It is of a bluish-gray colour, somewhat granulated, and often trav- ersed by veins of white cale spar. It is often cellular, and contains numerous geodes, lined with crystals of quartz. Geologists who travel on the canal, are requested to notice a remarkable circumstance in Schuyler’s lock, respecting the meeting of the layers in the rock. They meet and unite by sutures precisely like the bones of the human cra- Torrey on a new Ore of Zine. 935 nium. The veins of the cale spar are nearly at right an- gles with the sutures. It is a remarkable fact that the specific gravity of this rock, (which is 2.86,) the cells, the geodes, the calc spar, crys- tals, and the quartz crystals, are similar to those of a transition granular quartz rock in Rensselaer county, almost one hun- dred miles from Barnagat. A fair opportunity for making the comparison will probably remain at Schuyler’s lock for ages; as the faced stones are froin Barnagat and the back stone from the granular quartz in Rensselaer county. Most respectfully, AMOS EATON. Prof. Bens. SrLitiman. Troy, July 3d, 1822. Art. 1V.—Description and Analysis of a new Ore of Zinc ; by Joun Torrey, M. D. of New-York. (From the New- York Medical and Physical Journal for April, May, and June, 1822.) [Read before the N. Y. Lyceum of Natural History, April, 1822. T'uts mineral was discovered about two years ago, in the town of Ancram, in the state of New-York; a place remark- able for its iron works and lead mine. It was found on ta- king down one of the old walls of the furnace, erected in the year 1744. It attracted notice from its great weight ; and although it resembled some common stone, it was sup- posed to be an ore, though of what metal was not conjec- tured. Several specimens having been sent to me for ex- amination, | submitted them to analysis ; and the result was altogether different from what the appearance of the mine- ral indicated. It proved to be a nearly pure oxyd of zinc, and an ore of that metal distinct from any hitherto descri- bed. ‘This induced me to make further inquiries respecting the mineral, as it would be exceedingly valuable if found in sufficient quantity ; but I have, as yet, been able to procure very little satisfactory information respecting it. Mr. Seth Hunt, who visited Ancram in October last, was informed by Mr. Thomas Ackers, manager of the lead mine, and Rob- 236 Torrey on a new Ore of Zinc. ert Patterson, Esq. of the iron works, that the ore was found built into the wall of the furnace, and that notwithstanding the repeated personal search of the latter gentleman, through the surrounding country, for the distance of several miles from the furnace, and making diligent inquiries of the an- cient inhabitants, he had not been able to obtain any infor- mation that would direct him to the spot from whence it was taken. He has, however, every reason to believe that the ore was obtained within a few miles of the furnace, and, most probably, within a very short distance ; but time, through whose lapse it was lost, may again bring it to light, and furnish to the fortunate discoverer, or proprietor, or to both, the means of wealth and independence. Since I received this information from Mr. Hunt, I have heard of the discovery of a considerable quantity of the mineral in the foundation of an old house near Ancram. Description of the Mineral. External characters.—All the specimens I have seen were tabular masses, possessing sometimesa distinct slaty structure ; though they generally were composed of layers without a tendency to separate, giving the mineral a striped aspect, when viewed in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the strata. (layers ° Ed.) {t is granular and compact. Its colour is grayish green, or olive green. It is perfectly opaque and the surface dull. It is harder than calcareous spar, and is easily reduced to a powder, which is of a lighter green than the mass. Specific gravity, 4.924. Chemical characters.—Before the blowpipe it is infusible, but when the heat is intensely urged, the oxyd of zinc is volatalized, communicating a white colour to the flame. The powdered mineral dissolves instantaneously, and almost entirely without effervescence, in the stronger acids. Analysis. The following preliminary experiments were made to as- certain the nature of the mineral. Torrey on an Ore of Zinc. 237 A. Some of it in fine powder was treated with nitric acid. It readily dissolved, leaving only a small quantity of a light black residue. The solution, on being filtered, was trans- parent and colourless, and yielded quadrangular prisms on evaporation ‘These had a caustic metallic taste, and were very soluble in water and alcohol. When the nitric solu- tion was repeatedly boiled to dryness, and a small quantity of acid added at each operation, some pure oxyd of iron was separated. To the filtered liquor the following tests were applied :— (a) The caustic alkalies produced a white precipitate, which was entirely re-dissolved by an excess of alkali. (6) Prussiate of potash occasioned a white precipitate. (c) Hydro-sulphuret of potash produced the same effect. (d) Copper, iron, and other metallic rods immersed in the solution did not occasion any precipitation of metal. (e) Muriatic acid did not disturb its transparency. (f) Oxalic acid threw down a white precipitate. B. There remaining no doubt that the principal metal of the ore was zinc, the black insoluble residue was next ex- amined. It was not acted upon by acids, except strong ni- tric and sulphuric acids, which it appeared to decompose. When made into a ball with a little mucilage, and ignited, it burned almost entirely away without flame or vapour. Projected into melted nitre, it caused a violent deflagration. it was nearly pure carbon. C. One hundred grains of the ore, in fine powder, dissol- ved immediately in diluted sulphuric acid ; leaving one grain of the black powder, which was ascertained in the preceding experiment to be carbon. (a) The solution was clear and colourless. It afforded flat four-sided prisms on evaporation, having all the proper- ties of sulphate of zinc. ‘These were re-dissolved in water, and carbonate of potash added until precipitation ceased, and the liquor was boiled to ensure the complete decompo- sition of the metallic salt. The carbonates of zinc and iron were thus obtained. (6) To separate the latter, the whole was re-dissolved in acetic acid, and afterwards boiled to dryness. The acetate of iron was decomposed, leaving the base in a state of per oxyd weighing 3.50 grains. - Vor. V....No. fF. 31 238 Lorrey on an Ore of Zinc. (c) It now remained to determine the quantity of oxyd of zinc, which was done as follows :—The solution obtained in the preceding experiment, after separating the iron, was precipitated by carbonate of potash. The carbcnate of zinc thrown down was tested with ammonia, to be certain of the absence of manganese; but this alkali dissolved the whole of the precipitate, and proved it to consist of zinc alone. On evaporoting the ammonia, and calcining the carbonate, 93.50 grains of oxyd of zinc were obtained. The result of the analysis is : Oxyd of zinc, - 93.50 Oxyd of iron, - 3.50 Carbon, - - 1.00 . 98.00 Loss, - - 2.00 100.00 The red oxyd of zinc of New-Jersey, discovered by Bruce, resembles our mineral in composition more than any other ore yet described. It however differs essentially in containing 12 per cent. of manganese, and in the absence of iron. Its external characters are altogether dissimilar. To distinguish it from Bruce’s mineral, this may be called green oxyd of zinc; though I am aware that the name is objec- tionable, as there is but one oxyd of zinc, which is whzte. Itis much to be regretted that a mineral so interesting and valuable should not be better known. We hope the active search which is making for it will not be without suc- cess. Itis by far the richest ore of zinc known; containing according to Thompson, 75.31 per cent. of metal. The red zinc ore of New-Jersey, beside the manganese which it contains, is always intimately mixed with more than half its weight of Franklinite, from which it is impossible to sep- arate it by mechanical means; while the ore of Ancram is so pure that it can be used without any preparation, either for extracting the metal, or for the manufacture of brass. Nutall’s Geological and Mineralogical Remarks. 239 Ant. V.— Observations and Geological Remarks on the Min- erals of Patterson and the valley of Sparta, in New-Jersey. By Tuomas Nutatu, F. L. S. London. (From the New- York Medical and Physical Journal, for April, May, and June, 1822.) A cursory geoligical sketch, sufficient to excite a closer attention to the subject in those who follow the same route, may not perhaps be a superfluous introduction to the more immediate subject of the present communication. In my way, by the usual road, to Patterson, along the banks of the Passaic, little presents itself to the observation of the geologist, except the development of the Red sandstone formation, commencing at Bergen heights, four miles west of the city of New-York. In this ridge, which so immedi- ately succeeds that of Hoboken and its transition serpen- tine, (for so] now consider it,) existed the famous copper mine of Mr. Schuyler, now abandoned, and which forms, in fact, only a small portion of a metalliferous bed, ex- tending, at least, as far as the banks of the Rariton. ‘On approaching the town of Patterson, a scenery more diversified and romantic presents itself, and the surrounding cliffs and precipices, as well as that which produces the pic- turesge cataract of this place, consist of beds of trap, well characterized, and reposing on the red sandstone. This formation, which has been so carefully examined by my friend Judge Kinsey, of this place, is peculiarly interesting to the naturalist. The trap contains, as usual in its dispersed cavities, nodules of prehnite, of mezotype, cabasie, stilbite, agates, and, in one locality, fine crystals of datholite or silice- ous borate of lime. Sometimes it passes into an amygdaloid, as in the Derbyshire toadstone, from which it can scarcely be distinguished, except by the rarer substances contained. In some of the amygdaloidal cavities lined with crystallized carbonate of lime, occasionally also occur small greenish crystals of the datholite; others are exclusively lined with druses of crystallized or lamellar chlorite, which indeed enters largely into the composition of the wacke or softer trap of this region. In Derbyshire this formation is over- laid by what is called the mountain limestone, one of the more ancient beds of the secondary formation ; here the trap 240 Nuttall’s Geological and Mineralogical Remarks. and amygdaloid form the utmost summits of the hills, which in height approach to mountains. Its junction with the red sandstone is marked with some peculiar characters, highly imposing to those who feel inclined to favour the Plutonic theory. I must confess that at the point of union in these formations the trap is peculiarly ambiguous: it presents a regular porous structure; not, however, any thing like pum- mice; and many of the pores, if not all, seem dependent on the decomposable nature of the carbonate of lime, which still in the interior occupies those supposed pores. There are, moreover, in some few places, larger cavities, appearing somewhat glazed; and rugose masses, resembling slags ; these are, however, appearances which ought to be weigh- ed with caution, and are insufficient to demonstrate any thing like igneous origin. The porous quartz of Providence township, in Pennsylvania, and of West-Chester, in Dela- ware, connected with the greenstone formation, is far more imposing as a volcanic production ; yet distinctly traceable into a reticular veined and compact jasper abundantly in place near to the Black Horse Tavern. This porous texture, perfectly original, is such as torender considerable masses of the mineral buoyant on water. But what are we to think of the serpentine, equally porous, in the same Jocal- ity, and several others, (as near Dixon’s farm, Wilmington, where it alternates with graphic granite,) which might be ad- duced, also gradually and distinctly passing into perfect compactness? if density alone is to be considered conclu- sive of aqueous origin, we mast occasionally introduce a double system of formation into every class of rocks the globe exhibits, nor are even lavas less dense than other rocks, when cooled under considerable pressure. In the ridge, about two miles west of Paterson, occur very perfect basaltic columns of small magnitude, (about a foot or eighteen inches in length, and from one to four inches indiameter,)presenting from four to six sides; blackish green and crystalline in the interior. This ridge throughout pre- sents inclined beds perpendicularly divisible into columnar concretions as far as the banks of the Little Falls of the Passaic. This basaltic rock forms the summit of every ridge, for about fifteen miles north-west, to Pompton, where it ceases, and is succeeded by grauwacke, grey, whitish, and liver Nuttal?s Geological and Mineralogical Remarks. 241 brown, containing occasionally pebbles of red and brown Jasper. The aflinity of this grauwacke with the red sand- stone of Patterson is sufliciently obvious, not only from hand specimens, but from identity of relative situation, for they both underlay the trap. Casts of ammonites at Pat- terson* have been found in the larger pebbles, contiguous with the surface of the red sandstone formation, or near to the point where it enters ito junction with the porous trap. In the lower portions of this formation, I believe, as yet, no organic remains have been discovered ; and it is not un- frequently, when approaching to a slaty structure and ar- gillaceous consistence, eminently metalliferous, as at Schuy- ler’s copper mine, and that now working at Somerville, which presents masses of the ruby oxid, native copper, and minute portions of native silver. Contiguous to the western declivity of the Pompton mountains, Judge Kinsey and Doctor Mead found pale green sahlite in abundant masses, connected with a beauti- ful smallish grained white carbonate of lime or marble, contiguous to a formation of diaphanous greenish yellow perfect serpentine, traversed, like that of Newburyport, with silky seams of amianthus.| Connected apparently with the greenstone formation, Is a large rolled or rounded mass of Labrador felspar, sparingly mixed with hornblende, found by Judge Kinsey in the vicinity of the hills of Pomp- ton. After passing the Pompton mountains, a succession of the ridges of the Highlands present themselves, thickly strew- ed with rounded debris, so as to render even the valley lands difficult to cultivate. Passing the Warwick ridge, or Hamburgh mountains, we enter upon the valley of Sparta, where a white crystalline limestone and marble appear, oc- cupying the valley, and rising westwardly intoa low subsi- diary ridge, about eight or nine miles in length, proceeding almost due north and south. As the metalliferous deposites form here the most re- markable feature of the formation, we shall preface our examination of the minerals of Sparta, by a few remarks * Collected by Judge Kinsey. + The same mineral, with its usual associate, has been received from Philipstown, on the Hudson, by Professor Renwick, of Columbia College. 242 Nutall’s Geological and Mineralogical Remarks. uporthem. The first, or eastern bed, which at Franklin appears like a black mountain mass, at least thirty or forty feet wide, consists of an ore of iron, in common, scarcely at all magnetic, and with great propriety considered by Berthier as a new metalliferous combination entitled Frank- linite, contains 66 per cent. of iron, 16 of zinc, and 17 of the red oxyd of manganese. On the supposed richness of this immense bed, the great furnace of Franklin was built ; it was soon, however, discovered not only to be irreducible to metallic iron, but to obstruct the fusion of other better characterized ores ina notable degree. If employed ina quantity exceeding one tenth of the magnetic oxyd of iron with which it was economically mixed, the result was what the miners emphatically termed a Si/amander, an alloy of iron, with the manganese, which resisted liquifaction, and crystallized even under the blast, so that all the metal was lost, the hearth demolished, and ten or twelve yoke of oxen necessary to drag away the paradoxical and useless metal produced. This deceptive mineral, now abandoned for want of skill to reduce it, occasionally presents cavities lined with regu- Jar octahedral crystals, the sides of whose pyramids to each other as well as the angles of the common base measure by the reflecting goniometer, according to Doctor Torrey, angles of 108.15. At Franklin it is but sparingly interming- led with the red oxyd of zinc. In about two miles to the north, the Franklinite bed ceases to be any longer discov- erable at the surface, but continues more or less distinct for five miles further to the southeast, or seven miles in its whole range. Three miles from Franklin furnace, at Stirling, another mountain mass or huge cliff of this forma- tion presents itself; but here the red oxyd of zinc forms, as it were, a paste in which the crystals of Franklinite are thickly imbedded—in fact, a metalliferous porphyry! On the sides of the seams, abundance of octahedral crystals of Franklinite are often well developed, while those of the interior are commonly pseudomorphous. Numerous illini- tions of the carbonate of zinc appear throughout the inte- rior of the mass. This ore, merely pounded and mixed with copper, has been profitably employed, during the scarcity of the late war, for forming brass. Often, within a few feet to the west of the Franklinite bed, appear others of well characterized magnetic oxyd of Nuttall’s Geological and Mineralogical Remarks. 243 iron, but always accompanied by hornblende rock. One of the most profitable beds of iron ore was discovered on the very spot where the furnace stands ; this highly mag- netic oxyd so much esteemed, is very intimately blended with plumbago, so as at first glance to resemble the sidero- sraphite of Doctor Torrey. In the latter, however, the iron is perfectly metallic ; in this a protoxyd. Among the more curious accompaniments of this metal- iferous formation is the brownish yellow garnet, analyzed by Vanquelin, who found it entirely soluble in muriatic acid, which not only takes up the silex contained, but also the manganese, in consequence of its existing in the mine- ral at the minimum, of oxydation. ‘The same substance has now also recently been analyzed by Mr. Seybert. It here forms a bed or vein six or more feet wide, and when occasionally in contact with the carbonate of lime exhibits imperfect dodecahedrons of a lustre and colour almost similar to idocrase. Contiguous to the great bed of Franklinite, at Franklin, is interposed, as it were, in the crystalline carbonate of lime, which prevails to the east, a ledge of imperfect seini- tic granite,* scarcely presenting any thing more than gray crystalline rocks of a binary combination of quartz and felspar. In these rocks occur beautiful opaque blackish- brown masses of garnet, of a high resinous lustre, and crystallized on the surface ; it agrees in every respect, but the unimportant one of direct colour, with the melanite of Frascati, near Vesuvius; it is accompanied by a lamina- ted epidote almost similar in appearance with the lobdite, or idocrase magnesifere of Berzelius. Near the same locality there is a vein or two contiguous to the junction of the sienitic granite and carbonate of lime, consisting almost exclusively of a nearly white and compact massive, or minutely lamaller augite, in some parts intimately blended with specks of violet, granular felspar, resembling petrosilex ; also sphene, brown garnet, dark green granular augite, like the coccolite of Lake Champlain; something of nearly the same colour, and in- fusible, which we suppose may prove the Gahnite, occa- * According to Dr. Maculloch’s sagacious definition in his geology of Glen Tilt, being here or there, a mere modification of granite, and totally unconnected with the genuine sienite allied to greenstone. 244 Nuttall’s Geological and Mineralogical Remarks. sionally in octahedrons, and minute pale bluish green pris- matic and translucent crystals, which are probably phos- phate of lime. These veins, which stand up in crests from the more decomposable carbonate of lime in which they are imbedded, present also on the surface druses of augite crystals, and some of the accompanying minerals. A little distance from this vein, there is another, appa- ‘rently much broader in its dimensions, being a mixture in the mass, more or less intimate so as to be often minutely granular, of green felspar of a colour from pale olive to that of carbonate of copper, black hornblende, gray quartz, whitish augite, mica, and occasionally sphene or silico-cal- careous oxyd of titanium. Inthe cavities of this vein, and often considerably immersed below the surface, are, in con- siderable abundance, bluish green octahedrons of the spin- elle, sometimes presenting truncations on the edges, but more commonly on the common base, and occasionally exhi- biting cuneiform summits. The angle of coincidence of its faces measured on the reflecting goniometer, by my friend Dr. Torrey, are 109.23; it likewise scratches quartz, 1s in- fusible, and scarcely becomes paler by heat. ‘The crystals are in size from the bigness of a pin’s head to half an inch in length, the larger of course, darker, and mostly break- ing into splintery fragments, have internally a more or less perfectly conchoidal fracture, and high resinous lustre; most of the crystals, when slightly rubbed, indeed, present the brilliance of polished steel; the smaller crystals are also so far translucent as to reflect a splendid coloured re- flection, little short of that of the diamond. In these cavi- ties they are commonly associated with augite crystals, quartz, hornblende, green felspar, crystals of phosphate of lime, and in two or three of my specimens imbedded mi- ca, arsenical pyrites, and traces of galena. The affinity which these specimens bear to those of Vesuvius, contain- ing Ceylanite is striking to astonishment, and! have even seen the brucite or condrodite, like that of Sparta, from Vesuvius.* No vestige of volcanic fires, more than the * In the cabinet of Mr. Wagner, junior, Philadelphia. Since writing the above, my friend Mr. Bowen, subjected another fragment of the sup- posed condrodite of Vesuvius which belongs to the cabinet at New-Ha- ven, to examination, and found it to agree in the general results, with the analysis of that mineral recently published in Europe. It is now also found in one or two other localities in the United States besides Sparta. Nuttall’s Geological and Mineralogical Remarks. ‘245 pseudo productions of the Missouri, have yet, however, been discovered in the territories of the United States. The conpropite, or Brucire, almost peculiar to Spar- ta, discovered likewise by the celebrated Berzelius, in Fin- land, accompanied by gray Spinelle, is (according to an un- published analysis which I made in 1820,) a silicate of magnesia with an accidental portion of fluoric acid and iron. ‘The same result has been obtained by Dr. Torrey, from whom I copy the following description of its crystal- lization. It occurs occasionally in small four-sided prisms, (of a paler colour than the amorphous masses,) with rhom- bic bases of 124° and 56° truncated on the acute Jateral edges by planes which form with the contiguous sides of the prism angles of 122° and 114° The prism is termina- ted by dihedral summits whose faces meet under an obtuse angle, and correspond to the acute, truncated edges of the prism. The edges of the summits are oblique to the axis of the prism, but not parallel to each other; or they may be said to be alternately oblique at each extremity.” Haty, also, by cleavage, had obtained from it a rhom- boidal prism ; andBerzelius, who then compared it analyti- cally with his condrodite, concluded it to be identic. The former, with his usual sagacity, referred it to his peridot ; as it does not indeed very materially differ in composition from olivin or amorphous chrysolite: still the crystalliza- tion proves it to be a very distinct species. It is of a bright brownish yellow, bordering on orange, disseminated in masses commonly about the size of a hazle nut, exhibit- ing more or less of the rhombic form, throughout a white and foliated lime-stone, generally containing scattered hexagonal lamine of plumbago, and more rarely, bluish pellucid crystals of phosphate of lime. It is imperfectly Jamellar in one direction, splintery in the other, with a glas- sy oralmost resinous lustre, the fragments either translu- cent or nearly opaque, and sufficiently hard to scratch glass. Before the blowpipe it is infusible, but with borax forms a glass, though not very readily. Its gravity is a small frac- tion above 3. Throughout the valley of Sparta the condrodite is by.no means uncommon, but variable in its appearance. The finest and clearest masses are obtained at the town of Spar- ta. Though abundant at Franklin, it is here Opaque and of a deeper tinge of colour. It occurs thickly dissemina- 32 246 © Nutiall’s Geological and Mineralogical Remarks. ted often towards the base of the calcareous beds, and conti- guous to foreign infiltrations or veins. A mile south of Franklin furnace itis aiso seen imbedded in a gray massive augite, accompanied by mica and fluate of lime: the blue fluate here also forms slender illinitions in the marble. Near to this spot tremolite and small imbedded crystals of white augite? and of actynolite occur: short crystals of augite, almost black, like those of volcanic rocks are also now and then visible ; a beautiful apple green felspar as in- dicated by the goniometer, occurs imbedded in the crystal- line carbonate of lime, accompanied by. perfect crystals of mica, and hexagonal plates of pluinbago; this felspar is unusually soft, and almost as fusible as hornblende. A very brilliant pale green hornblende, passing into actynolite 1s often found massive and in implicated crystalline confused crusts over the surface of the calcareous beds. This hornblende considerably resembles the supposed hypersthene of Delaware, recently analyzed by Mr. Sey- bert, who considered it as hornblende; it however gives the goniometrical measurement of hornblende, while the Delaware mineral, according to the observation of Dr. Tor- rey, gives by cleavage, a prism which ts nearly rectangular. - or with angles of 89° and 91°, It forms, therefore, a new species, which we propose to name Mactourire, in honour of him who has done so much for American geology, and natural science in general. According to Mr. Seybert, it contains in the 100 parts: water 1,266 ; silex 52,166; deutoxide of iron 10,733; manganese a trace ; Ailes mm lime 20; magnesia 11,333. From which an obvious affinity to augite presents itself, as it actually differs less in chemical composition from augite, than the two analyses of augite, given in Cleaveland, differ from each other; it fuses also with difficulty; but as the crystalline structure is essentially distinct, it mast necessa- tily be considered as a species destitute of every affinity with hornblende, from which at the same time it 1s scarcely distinguishable, except by the cleavage. In degree of fu- sibility, in its hardness, colour, laminar texture, metallic brilliancy, and specific gravity, it is scarcely to be distin- guished from the green stone. In another neighbouring locality, enormous green crystals of augite are found, some at least an inch and a half in diam- eter, presenting hexaedral or octahedral prisms, with almost equal faces, and terminated by obiique tetrahedral pyramids. Nutialls Geological and Mineralogical Remarks. 247 These are accompanied, near the junction of the granite and crystalline carbonate of lime, with large crystals of felspar, scapolite, or wernerite, and something which borders on spodumene. On the margin of the mill pond at the furnace, where some repair was making, a vein of arsenical pyrite, mixed with others resembling the sulpburet of cobalt or nickel, with a substance somewhat like blende, was found, and likewise accompanied by the condrodite. In another limestone abounding with sphene, dark cciour- ed granules, and minute crystals of augite, there are nu- merous and generally amorphous, dull grayish blue nodules imbedded, which by goniometrical measurement indicate some variety of fluate. It is neatly quite opaque, but fusible into a white enamel; both externally and in- ternally dull, and minutely plintery or granular in the frac- ture. It is commonly so much penetrated by the car- bonate of lime and titanium oxyd as seldom to present any angle which can be measured. Its hardness is about that of common fluor. It is very feebly acted upon by acids in the cold, but still slowly gives out minute bubbles. When examined it will probably prove the argillaceous fluate of lime, of which I have never seen specimens. The crystalline calcareous rock, which here alternates with granitines of felspar and quartz, or with beds of sienitic gran- ite, (near to Doctor Fowler’s house, the proprietor of the Franklin works,) disappears, and a confluent grauwacke, almost porphyritic, and contemporaneous apparently with the other formations, appears directly overlaid by a bed of leaden minutely granular, secondary limestone, containing organic remains of the usual shells and corallines, and lay- ers of blackish hornstone or petrosilex. ‘This rock, as_ well as the grauwacke beneath, presents disseminated crystals of blue fluate oflime. In the limestone the cavities are some- times very numerous, and lined both with pseudomorphous masses and cubes of blue and white fluate and quartz crys- tals. Thus we have here before us, as at lake Champlain, the novel and interesting spectacle of an union of every class of rocks, but passing decidedly into each other as if almost contemporaneous / If they are not contemporaneous, how do they happen to penetrate each other by veins? Why do they present similar mineral substances ; similar organic remains ; why do the same relicks of plants occur over the 248 Nuttall’s Geological and Mineralogical Remarks. anthracite of Rhode-Island, (which is occasionally penetra- ted even by seams of asbestus,) as over the bituminous coal-fields of Pittsburg and Richmond? Why are the beds of coal, at Richmond in Virginia, penetrated by veins of granite ? . Lastly, why are the same organic remains found in the alluvial limestone of Carolina and Georgia, as those of the Great Calcareous Platform west of the Alleghany moun- tains.?* Are, in fact, those supposed epochas of time, be- heved to have intervened between the production of strata any thing more than an imaginary distinction of formations. really allied, and as strictly dependent on each other, as the members of the same formation? The grauwacke and red sand-stone, we perceive, contain organic remains ; the grauwacke imperceptibly blends with the granitines, sien- ites, and greenstones of the Highlands. The hornblende rock and its metaliiferous deposites unquestionably pass in- to gneiss ; gneiss ts foliated granite. Where then are we to seek for permanent distinctions? What is primitive— what is transition—what secondary—but the alluvions of rivers and of seas? Of what importance is the inclination of straia, as the uppermost must necessarily be inclined at a decreasing angle? Nor are examples wanting of a con- forimable stratification of the secondary with the oldest or the primitive ;> and although the rocks referred to the primi- tive formation, more frequently present vertical or highly in- clined planes of stratification, yet, as Mr. Greenough remarks, it is also true, that every rock in different parts of its course exhibits planes both vertically and horizontally inclined. 1 am, | must confess, attached to those plausible distinc- tions of things which tend so importantly to facilitate inform- ation and promote instruction ; yet I would not wish to submit to the shackles of an imaginary system, or prostrate understanding at the shrine of an ambitious theory. Na- ture yet presents a wide field for contemplation; there are mysteries yet unravelled—prejudices which blind—systems which for the present impose, and which must ultimately vanish before the test of truth. * The pentrenite of Mr. Say, or asterial fossil of Parkinson, is found twelve or fourteen miles from Savannah, in the limestone, as well as in the vicinity of Huntsville in Tennessee. + See Dr. MacCullock’s Mineralogy of the Isle of Skyg Trans. Geolog- Soc. Vol. 3, pp. 50, 51. t Greenough’s Geology, p. 40. Notice of Crystallized Steatite, se. 249 Art. VI.—Notice of Crystallized Steatite—Ores of Iron and . Manganese, Sc. by Professor CuesterR Dewey. 1. Crystallized Steatite. I nave lately visited the locality of this mineral. It is found in that great bed of serpentine in Middlefield, county of Hampshire. The rocksabout it are all primitive. ‘The crystals of steatite have yet been found only in one place, between two layers of serpentine. The serpentime occurs in immense masses, overlaying each other in strata or blocks separated by seams. Between two of these layers of ser- pentine is steatite two or three inches thick, the upper sur- face of which is covered with these crystals. ‘The crystals are however separated from the superabundant mass of serpentine by a thin layer of asbestus. The asbestus is pressed down entirely close upon the crystals, and, if it be carefully removed from them, shows the form of ihe heads of the crystals. We have only to see the position of the crystals of steatite to be satisfied that they cannot be pseudo- morphous. This is a strong reason, additional to those given, page 275, Vol. IV. of this Journal, in support of the opin- ion that they are true crystals. There is occasionally found among these crystals, a crystal of oxyd of iron, cov- ered over with the steatite, but of a form entirely. different from the crystals of steatite. ‘The appearance of the whole is that when the crystals were formed, the entire mass was ina soft and yielding state. The crystals, which were easy to obtain, have already been removed, and, to obtain more, it will be necessary to remove, in part, the mass of serpentine above them. It is possible that analysis may prove these crystals not to be steatite. That they belong to the. steatite family, there can be no doubt; and the gen- ral characters direct to the opinion that they are only a rare and interesting variety of steatite. 9. Ores of Iron and Manganese in Bennington, Vt. The principal bed of the ore lies three miles east of the village of Bennington, very near the furnace at which it is wrought. The ore of manganese is found at the same bed, but entirely separate from the iron ore. The location of 250 Notice of Crystallized Steatite, yc. the ore bed is rather singular. It lies at the southern side of a hill, which is connected with a high mountain ranning in a northerly direction. ‘This mountain has been burnt over until the trees and smaller vegetables for a considerable distance from the summit bave been entirely destroyed, and it appears, when viewed from the village of Benning- ton as a huge mass of white limestone or of quartz. Speci- mens of the rock were shown me at the furnace. They were magnesian limestone. The hill, which forms the southern part of this mountain, and at whose foot runs a small river, rising in the mountains still farther east, does not exhibit any rock near the mine. ‘The valley on both sides of the river is covered with rounded masses of granular quartz. The bed of ore lies in the side of this hill, in the loose sandy soil or earth which prevails here. Small roun- ded masses of the quartz are found in the earth over the mine. The bed of iron, where the ore has been dug, is ele- vated but a few feet above the level of the river. The hill rises pretty rapidly sixty or eighty feet, but the bed of ore does not rise as much, so that at the distance of about thirty or forty feet from the southern part of the bed which has been explored, the iron ore is about fifty feet under the sur- face of the hill. The ore of manganese was discovered a little lower down than the iron, and is found to ascend, as the bed is ex- plored, in the same manner as the iron ore. It is always separated from the iron ore by an earthy portion, often very thin, and were there not other distinguishing characters, is not liable to be confounded with the ores of iron. The bed has been explored for six or eight rods in width, and the iron ore is known to extend along the lower part of the hill and but a foot below the surface, more than twenty rods in width. Its extent up the hill and its depth are un- known; but the ore seems to be inexhaustible. Both kinds of ore are dug with great ease, and a stream of water is turned from the hill into the mine, for the purpose of work- ing the ore. ‘The late proprietor of the ore-bed and furnace, and the proprietor of the manganese, Mr. Trenner, very po- litely accompanied me in my visit to the place, and afforded me every facility in the examination, while he augmented the pleasure of the visit by his hospitality and readiness to answer all the questions I wished to ask. Notice of a Mineralized Tree, §c. 254 The iron ore is the common brown hematite, with some argillaceous oxyd of iron. Yellow ochre is also feund in considerable quantity. The ore much resembles that of the mine in Salisbury, Con.; but the stalactitical form is rare here and not so beautiful. The ore of Manganese is the common black oxyd, gene- rally compact, sometimes mammillary or botryoidal. The excellence of this ore is well known. Many tons are annu- ally carried to market for the purpose of bleaching. The price at Boston varies from forty to fifty dollars a ton. It is also coming into use, as a substitute for red lead, in the gla- zing of common earthen ware. One specimen of fluate of lime, crystallized and very beautiful, has been found with the manganese. Similar iron ore is also found in the north-western part of - Bennington. It occurs in beds of one or two inches to six inches in depth, in a loose soil lying upon limestone rocks. Those beds are of smail extent, and probably are not con- nected with any bed like that described above. It has been remarked that the great bed of ore is not immediately connected with any rocks. Itseems, however, to be associated with limestone rocks, and the whole to le between two strata of mica slate. It lies in the same range with the ore of Salisbury, Con. and has the same range of mica slate lying on both sides of it. The same kind of ore is found in scattered pieces on the surface in several of the towns in this County, and in Lenox it occurs in abundance. Art. VIE.—WNotice of @ Mineralized Tree—Rocking Stone. &c. by Professor Jacop GREEN. 1. Mineralized Tree, &c. &c. Asoor half a mile from the village of Chitteningo, in Sul- livan County, (New-York) a fossil or mineralized tree was some years ago discovered. It lies at the base of the Conasewago mountains, within a few yards ofa branch of the Erie canal, which runs up to the village. The tree ap- pearsto have been blown down and broken ofi—there are eight or ten feet of the stump remaining, with some part of the large end near the root—the stump is about three feet 952 Notice of a Mineralized Tree, &<. in diameter—the bark—the fibrous texture of the wood and two or three knots are very obvious—there is a sub- stance very much resembling veins disseminated through what seems to have once been the sap vessels of the tree, and from this circumstance, I am induced to believe that it belonged to the Genus Pinus, although others have sup- posed it a Juglans. The lower part of the root is imbed- ded in the soil, where it probably once grew. Vast quanti- ties of mineralized wood both in small and large masses are scattered in all directions around this stump—these frag- ments from their loose porous texture, seem to have been petrified, after the wood began to decay. Indeed so nume- rous are these fragments that almost every stone in this vi- cinity appears to have been once a living plant. The trav- eller who feels interested in mineralogical pursuits, will find Chitteningo well worthy of his attention. _ Besides the tree just mentioned, hydraulic lime-stone and beautiful la- mellar gypsum are found in this neighbourhood ; and a- bout two miles from the village, a spring of water, so high- ly charged with sulphur, that branches of trees, thrown into it, soon becomes incrusted with that mineral. 2. Rocking Stone. Moveable rocks, or masses of stone so nicely balanced as to be set in motion by a very small force, have excited the attention of both ancient and modern writers. As far as my information extends, there is but one of these famous rocks, noticed as. being found in the United States—this ts in Morse’s Geography. When mentioning the curiosities in New-Hampshire, the author makes the following state- ment: “In the town of Durham, is a rock computed to weigh sixty or seventy tons. It lies so exactly poised on another rock as to be easily moved with one finger. It 1s on the top of a hill and appears to be natural.”’? Putnam’s rock, mentioned in the last number of your Journal, seems also to have been of this description. This rocking stone which I visited last spring, is situated on the farm of Mrs. McCabbe in Phillips Town, Putnam County, New-York. ‘The West-Chester and Dutchess turnpike road, which runs a north east direction from the village of Peekskill to the town of Kent, lies about one mile to the east of this rock. The person who wishes to visit it must travel eight miles Notice of a Mineralized Tree, &c. 253 on this road from the village of Peekskill, and then ascend a very high and steep hill on the left hand, near the top of which the rock may be seen. The moveable stone is about thirty-one feet in circumference, and five feet through in the thickest part—it is of granite, the mica bed so strati- fied as to present somewhat the appearance of gneiss, and it stands or is supported on a base or pedestal of the same mineral. A better idea will be formed of the figure and position of this rock from the rough sketch which accompa- nies this, than from any verbal description. The under rock or pedestal (R) is about one foot and a half high, and is almost flat on its upper surface. The rolling rock (C) rests on this plane. Although it cannot be shaken as easi- ly as the wonderful rock in Asia mentioned by Pliny—or as the Gygonian stone, which trembled on being ‘struck with the stalk of an Asphodel ;” it can however be rolled a lit- tle by the hand, and with a small lever it can be moved with great ease ;—notwithstanding this, six men with crow- bars have been unable to roll it down from its pedestal. Large masses of steatite are scattered around—good speci- mens of Asbestus, may also be obtained at a short distance. I found some very pretty specimens of blue quartz in the blocks of granite, which form the fence along the road. On the west of the rocking stone, about halfa mile, there is a ‘ake three miles long and half a mile wide—a shee! of water of much magnitude is not frequently met with on such an elevation. 33 254 Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals. 3. Miscellaneous. The minerals in the immediate neighbourhood of Prince~ ton, are few, and possess but very little interest. Cubical crystals ofiron Pyrites are to be found along the margin of Stony Brook, imbedded in shale. Crystallized quartz, is not uncommon. The crystals are generally imperfect, and not very transparent. A bed of Argillite, very proper for building stone, cross- es the road at the north end of the town—it makes a conr siderable dip. In this bed, I have been informed that wavellite occurs, but I have in vain searched for it. Specimens of recently petrified wood are sometimes met with lying on the surface. In my cabinet there is a piece, which appears once to have been the lower end of a ches- nut post, used for fencing—the exterior of it is black, as though it had been carbonized or charred. I have also seen a mineralized chip, with the marks of an axe very apparent upon it—the petrifying matter is silex. A very excellent bed of siliceous sand, used for mortar, is near the road side, south east of the village. There are other beds of sand in the vicinity. Silex in large pebbles is not uncommon. Yellow earth is found on the side of a hill in our neighbourhood—it is used for painting carriages— and is by artists considered as a very good substitute for the tena de Sienna—with Prussian blue it forms a very delicate olive yellow colour. Art. VIII.—Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals.—Editor. Sulphat of Barytes.—Mores Mills, Berlin, Kensington parish, foliated, pure white, translucent, brittle,—jet and galena imbedded. Fluor Spar of New-Stratford.—The American Chloro- phane, containing imbedded a well defined brilliant crys- tal of beryl, half an inch in diameter and protruding one inch and a half from the fluor. Porous decomposed trap filled with numerous white crystals too minute to be distinctly observed, but probably stilbite. Talcot Mountain, ten miles west of Hartford. Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals. 255 Tron Pyrites.—Having every appearance of a petrifaction of the body and limbs of a frog. ‘Trumbull County, Ohio. Fluor Spar.—Black with a resinous lustre, by transmit- ted light, it appears of a topaz yellow, or like smoky quartz ; in the cavities, the crystals are white and transparent. Huron County, Ohio. Sulphat of Barytes.—White foliated, New-Stratford, Dre Nathan Smith. Calcareous Petrifaction of Wood.—Canasarago Creek, New-York. onre 272 Geological Poems. 13. Hornblende Slate, Brattleborough, Vt. It occurs also at Newfane. 14. Bitter spar, Marlborough. 15. Magnetic Oxide of iron. 16. Dolomite, Jamaica, Vt. in this the magnetic Oxide of Iron occurs. 17. Steatite, Marlborough. 18. Siliceous Limestone, Putney, imbedded in argil- lite—also at Brattleborough, Vt. 19. Green Fluor Spar, Putney, Vt. this is nearly ex- hausted. 20. Mica Slate, Jamaica, Vt. 21. Serpentine, Putney, Vt. - 22. Green foliated Talc, Windham, Vt.—fine. 23. Roofing Slate, Brattleborough, Vt. 24. Schorl, Hinsdale, N. H. Art. XI.—Geological Poems. Tuere are few departments of nature which have not been tributary to poetry, as affording either subjects of verse, or figures and images by which it is illustrated and adorned.—Agriculture furnished to the Mantuan bard the rich theme of his Georgics—Doct. Darwin in our own times has found among plants a fruitful topic of allegorical love.—Some of his satirists have written upon the loves of the Triangles, and the world has been furnished even with piscatory Eclogues.—_We believe however that rocks and minerals, and the generalizations and theories of Geology have rarely, if ever, offered any temptations to the muses— for who would think that topics generally regarded as so dry and repulsive, are capable of being clothed in a form susceptible at once of poetical embellishment, and of didac- tic instruction.—These remarks have been caused by the perusal of some poems written at Oxford, and published in London in 1820, which are certainly curiosities both in literature and science—as they are almost entirely unknown in this country, and are at once specimens of skilful poetry, and of a lucid exhibition of geological facts and doctrines— we have thought that the republication of some of them would not be inconsistent with the gravity of this work, and Geological Poems. 2713 would probably prove both instructive and amusing to our readers. We have rarely seen in any form a more con- densed exhibition of the principal facts and docirines of the Wernerian Geology, than are contained in the porTicaL Geoenosy, which, with the GraniTogony and the Geonce- ica Cookery, we now republish with all their appendages of preface, arguments and notes.—A very few passages in- dicate in the poet an imagination perhaps rather too warm, but we have not thought it worth while to maim the verse by dissecting them out. A POETICAL GEOGNOSY. PREFACE. The external part or crust of the globe, wherever it has been extensively examined, is composed of different rocks, generally arranged in beds or layers over each other; and these beds appear to have been consolidated at different epochs. Many of the beds contain remains of extinct gen- era or species of animals; and certain species are often pe- culiar to certain beds, above or below which they are nev- er observed. Now it is evident that the animals whose re- mains are imbedded in the lower rocks, could not have been cotemporaneous with those found in the upper, by which they are covered : hence the different ages of these rocks are proved. The lowest rocks that we are acquainted with contain few or no remains of organic life; but from, their position it is inferred that they have been formed at different peri- ods: the lowest are supposed, with certain limitations, to be the oldest. It is also well deserving attention, that the animal remains in the lower rocks belong exclusively to the simplest forms of organic life; namely, to moluscous animals and zoophytes ; and that the remains of vertebra- ied animals, or such as possessed a brain and spinal mar- row, never occur in or below the regular coal strata.* * This position has been recently objected to; but the author is of opin- ion that its truth has not yet been invalidated. He is also fully convinced that allthe writers who have hitherto attempted to apply Werner’s arrange- 274 Geological Poems. It has been further observed that in the order in which rocks are placed over each other, there is an approxima- tion to a regular succession in every part of the globe, with the exception of certain rocks supposed like the volcanic to be formed by subterranean fire, and which cover other rocks without any regular order. Though the whole se- ries of rock formations enumerated at p. 6, may never have been observed together in any one situation, yet wherever they do occur, the rocks placed at the top of the series, are never found under any of the others. Chalk, or green sand, sometimes rests immediately on lias limestone, or red sandstone, without the intervention of the oolites, but we never find the oolites above chalk. Some of the rock for- mations do not extend to every part of the globe: thus chalk and oolite are not found in Wales or the north-west part of England ; and, according to Humboldt, they are en- tirely wanting over a great part of South America. It still remains true, that wherever different formations are ob- served over each other, there is an approximation to a reg- ular order of succession :—to trace this succession is the most important part of the science denominated Geology. The author thought it might be useful to describe the or- der of succession of the principal rocks, in an amusing form, divested of all unnecessary technicality, that the sub- ject might be the more easily understood and remembered. This is the utmost merit to which the Poetical Geognosy lays claim. The Geological Cookery is intended to impress on the memory of the student the structure of aggregated rocks. London, January 22, 1820. ment to the Geology of England, have made the most important mistakes : mistakes which have introduced much confusion, and prevented the Geolo- gists on the Continent from understanding the description given of the geol- ogy 0: this country. He trusts he shall make this apparent in a work he is preparing for publication. A POETICAL GEOGNOSY; OR FEASTING AND FIGHTING. eee Ter Neptunus aquis cum torvo brachia vultu Eixserere ausus erat: ler non tulit aeris estus. Ovip. Met. lib. 2. THE ARGUMENT. The Poem commenceth with the beginning of things: the scene of the ac- tion is laid under the ocean; and the Poet proceedeth to describe the or- der of succession of the various rocks. Their frequent dislocations are hint- ed at (line 7.)—Granite is first seated at the bottom: Gneiss and Mica- ’ slate are seated next to Granite; the distortions of Gneiss, and its fre- quent intermixture with Mica-slate (line 14 to 19).—The series of Slate- rocks follow, intermixed with the Lower Limestones (line 22).—'The or- igin of Limestone from the oxidation of calcium (line 26).—Porphyry, Eurite, Greenstone, and Sienite, occur without any regular order of suc- cession ; they often lie unconformably over other rocks, and are supposed by some geologists to be the products of fire (line 32—45).—Serpentine often connected with Mica-slate (line 51).—Character of Grauwacce (line 55).—Great Limestone filled with remains of encrinites (entrochi) contains large caverns (line 60).—Series of Coal strata (line 62).—The Red Sandstone or Red Marle which covers Coal strata contains Rock- salt and Gypsum (line 69) ;—it lies under Lias Limestene, and some- times incloses Magnesian Limestone (line 73).—The Oolites and various strata with which they are associated are seated above Lias Limestone (line 75).—Chalk and Chalk-marle spread along the coast in many parts of England and France; they are therefore seated close to Neptune (line 78).—Partial formations of strata, deposited after the Chalk, in detached lakes (line 81).—Gravel and black Earth near the sides of rivers contain the teeth and bones of the mammoth and other extinct species of large mammalia (line 80—85),—Strata round Paris; the lowest bed, the Cal- caire Grossier, is filled with Cerites, and the Marle above it with Lym- nites (line 86—91 ).—An enumeration of the most remarkable fossil orga- nic remains (line 94).—Oviparous vertebrated animals, such as lizards and fish, occur plentifully in Lias Limestone, and the latter sometimes in Magnesian Limestone (line 105).—Coal strata contain almost exclusively remains of vegetables (line 110).—The Great Limestone filled with En- crinites (line 112).—Organic remains more rare in the Lower Lime- stones (line 113; occur occasionally in Slate (line 115).—White Statua- 276 Geological Poems. ry Marble and the lower rocks contain no organic remains, but are the repositories of metallic ores aud various precious minerals (line 124— 134).—The Poet now proceedeth to relate the changes produced on the crust of the globe by the agency of Pluto or subterranean fire.—Basal- tic rocks frequently crystallized in columnar ranges, during their consoli- dation (line 147).—Greenstone and Eurite are described as beginning to run or melt (line 151).—Dark lavas and basalts appeared to have been formed of the former, and whiter Lavas and Clink-stones of the iatter. — Porphyry is with much reason believed in many instances to have been liquified by fire—In Auvergne and other districts there are porphyritic rocks which appear to have been softened by heat, and again consoli- dated in their original position, or in situ, without ever having flowed as lava (line 156).—The Poet referreth to the conflict of the two contend- ing elements when these great changes were taking place, and then his muse desireth him to conclude. GEOLOGICAL ORDER OF SUCCESSION. Alluvial soil and gravel. Partial series of Strata over chalk. Chalk and Chalk Marle. — The following rocks frequently Red and Green Sand. occur without any regular order Various Oolites, &c. of succession. Lias Limestone and Clay. Red Marle or Sandstone with Gypsum, Rock-salt and Magnesian Limestone. Basalt Sandstone, Shale, and Coal. Lava. Great Limestone. Sandstone, Coarse Slate, and Grauwaccé, ) Various Slate-rocks, containing beds of Lower Limestone. Porphyry, Eurite, Sienite, Mica-slate, sometimes with white Lime- + Greenstone or Hornblende stone and Serpentine. rock, Serpentine. Gneiss. Granite. Geological Poems. : 277 A POETICAL GEOGNOSY. When Nature was young, and Earth in her prime, All the Rocks were invited with Neptune to dine. On his green bed of state he was gracefully seated, And each as they enter’d was civilly greeted. But in choosing their seats, some confusion arose, Much jostling and scrambling, and treading on toes ; Till with some dislocations, and many wry faces, They at length became quiet, and kept their own places. Reveal, heavenly Muse, for I know thou art able, How each guest in succession was ranged at the table; 10 How the dinner was served, and the name of each dish, Whether Nautilite, Ammonite, tortoise, or fish. on First Granite! sat down, and then beckon’d his queen, But Gneiss? stepp’d in rudely, and elbow’d between, Pushing Mica-slate? further; when she with a frown Cried, *‘ You crusty, distorted, and hump-back’d old clown!” 16 But this was all sham,—for to tell you the truth, They had been the most intimate friends from her youth. But let scandal cease. See the whole tribe of Slates All eager and ready to rush to their plates ; 20 Oh heav’ns! how the family pour in by dozens, Of brothers, and sisters, and nephews, and cousins?! ThW&elder-born Limestones ran in between these,— They were very well known to be fond of a squeeze. Now, before we proceed with our story, it meet is 25 That we hint at th’ amours of Calcium and Thetis : But the tale shall be short. *Tis agreed by the sages, Hence sprang all the limestones of different ages : The oldest look’d white>; and no wonder she should, She had never once dined upon animal food. 30 1 See Granitogony and Geological Cookery. See 2 Gneiss.—This rock is composed of the same minerals as Granite, but it has a slaty structure ; its beds are often much distorted, and intermixed with Mica-slate. 3 Mica-slate.—A shining shistose rock, composed principally of Mica and Quartz. 4 Among Slate Rocks we may enumerate, as the principal, Clay-slate, of which Roofing-slate is a variety ; Talc-slate, or Chlorite-slate ; Hornblende- slate; Flinty-slate; Drawing-slate: Whetstone-slate; Porphyritic-slate ; and Alum-slate. 5 The oldest Limestone, or White Statuary Marble, contains no remains whatever of marine or other animals. Vou. V.—No. 2. 36 278 Geological Poems. Ere these Rocks were all seated, the loud sounding call Of «* Our places! Our places !’’ rang shrill through the hall. On hearing the noise, the Muse turn’d round her head, Aud saw Porphyry® and Eurite—their faces were red. Then Greenstone’? and Sienite® follow’d behind,— 35 Their seats were bespoke (they said) time out of mind. Great Neptune rose up, and then swore in a rage That each rock should be seated according to age ; ** But let those (where the register cannot be found Either under the water or on the dry ground) 40 Not presume to take regular seats at the table, But change places with others, whenever they ’re able.” Thus the last-mentioned rocks were obliged to retire, Though their ages were book’d in the office of fire : (This they said,) but no soul would go there to inquire. 45 Leaning over old Gneiss and the Slate-rocks they stood, Or else press’d between them, whenever they could. Gay Serpentine®, clad in a livery of green, At Mica-slate’s feet during dinner was seen; , Among the first class it was publicly said, He had often been found fast asleep in her bed. When these rocks were thus settled, and quiet restored, The others more order!y march’d to the board. Say, Muse, who is he that is just walking in ? O! his name is as harsh and as rough as his skin, 85 He’s a cousin of Slate, but he looks wild and cracky, And is known as the far-famed illustrious Grau-Waccé.! ° Younger Slate-rocks, with Sand-stone, then came side by side, And he, the Great Limestone, of limestones the pride, 59 Who has caves with wild echos resounding and vocal, And is called by the masons grey marble entrochal. The next were a grave-looking set on the whole, Who came ina group to accompany Coal. Coarse grit-stones, with sand-stones, and clay-binds, and shale, Some were hard, some were soft, some were dingy, some pale; 65 6 For the composition of Porphyry see Geolcgical Cookery.—Eurite ; see Primer. 7 Greenstone ; see Diabase, Primer. 8 Sienite.—A rock similar to Granite, but containing a mixture of a dark mineral called Hornblende. 9 Serpentine, the prevailing colour of this rock is green. It often occurs imbedded in Mica-slate. 10 Slate appears to pass by gradation into coarse grit stone, by the mix- ture and increase of Quartzy or sandy particles, and is then called Grau- Waccé. The French Geologists class Grau-Wacce and many of the Sand- stones together, under the name of Psammite, and more recently under that of Thaumite. These terms are no improvement either in sense or sound. Geological Poems. 279 They oft proved deceitful when thought very sound, For they had many faults!!, which they hid under ground. Red Sand-stone came after, and licking his lips, He brought in the salt, on a salver of Gyps. To two sister limestones he had a strong bias, 70 The one was Magnesian??2, the other was Lias. ‘Though the former look’d sallow, he press’d the dear charmer So close, his attentions did sometimes alarm her: But Lias was flat, and seem’d sombre and dull, 74 For with shell-fish and lizards her stomach was full. Then Oolites!?, with sandstones, and sand red and green In a crowd, near the top of the table were seen. The last that were seated were Chalk-marl and Chalk, They were placed close to Neptune, to keep him in talk. Now the God gave his orders, *‘ If more guests should come, 80 Let them dine with the Lakes, in a separate room.” As for Gravels, and Black-earth, and other gross livers, They may feast out of doors, by the side of the rivers. Kill Aurochs!4 and Mammoths, not heeding their groans, But let them take care of the teeth and the bones.” The Strata from Paris arrived very late, 86 With letters, requesting a chair and a plate. ‘¢ Eh bien,” said the God, with a good natured air, ‘¢ Fates entrer Monsieur le Calcaire Grossier ; Let him and his friends at a sideboard be placed, 90 And with Cerites!§ and Lymnites the covers be graced.” Now, Muse, raise thy voice, and be kind to our wishes, And tell us the names of the principal dishes. To Chalk, preserved palates and fossil Echini Were handed in Cham-shells more pearly than China. 11 Faults or dislocations—frequent in coal strata, and occasion much in- convenience to miners. 12 Magnesian Limestone, and Lias Limestone.—Magnesian Limestone, generally of a yellow colour, sometimes contains remains of fish. Lias Limestone occurs in flat and nearly horizontal strata, some of which abound with remains of oviparous quadrupeds, Lizards of enormous size, together with remains of scaly fish, Ammonites, Gryphites, and Pentacrinites. 13 Oolite, or Roe-stone.—Portland stone, Bath stone, and Rotten stone, are Oolites, or Roe-stones. 14 Aurochs and Mammoths. Auroch a species of ox, whose bones are found in gravel and alluvial soil. Mammoth, the fossil elephant ;—the teeth and bonesare frequently found in gravel and alluvial soil in England, and are very common in Siberia. 15 Cerites.—Fossil shells in the strata of Paris. The Lymnites are a species of fresh-water snail. 280 Geological Poems. Then Alcyonites!®, Nautilites'7, graced a tureen, With Belemnites tastefully stuck in between. The Oolites were served with a wondrous profusion Of Bivalves, dished up in apparent confusion. There Trigonias!*, Anomias, and Arcas were placed, And each rock took the species that tickled his taste. 10i At this juncture some Limpets!® were sent in on one dish, From our worthy friend Halifax, vicar of Standish. Now oviparous creatures, in which the back-bone is?°, Were hash’d with remains of the Cornua Ammonis. ~ They were bringing in more; but great Neptune cried ‘‘Halt! 106 Place no vertebral animal Jower than Salt??: Those grits, and those shales, hold inflammable matter, Let no lizards or fishes e’er smoke on their platter : Give them fern-leaves, and palm-stalks, and such like spare diet, 110 And Coal and Pyrites will keep very quiet. The Great Limestone full plates of Encrini will want, To some of the others a few you may grant : Feed the lower with Coral ; and some of the Slates May have Shell-fish most sparingly spread on their plates. 115 The eldest born Limestone, whose colour so white is, Of Mica and Talc-slate the well known delight is ; With Granite and all the old Rocks she shall fare, And dine on bright Crystals, both costly and rare.” The commands of great Neptune were duly observed, And their dinner in state was most splendidly served. Yellow Topaz, red Garnets, and Emeralds, we’re told, Were sent under covers of bright burnish’d gold, With Schorl’s red and green, and blue Sapphires and Beryl ; But the Muse thought this diet too arid and steril, 125 16 Alcyonite. A fossil Zoophite, somewhat resembling a fungus. 17 Nautilite, the fossil Nautilus. Belemnite :—This well-known fossil, vulgarly called thunder-bolt, is frequently about the length and thickness of the finger, but is pointed at the lower extremity. Itis classed by Lamarck with univalve shells, having many cells, like the Nautilus. It has been sometimes called the straight Nautilus. The genus is extinct. 18 Trigonias, &c. Some of the genera of Bivalves, common in many limestone strata. 19 Limpets. This fossil is extremely rare. It is found in the Oolite for- mation, in some quarries near Stroude in Gloucestershire. Specimens of it were presented to the author by the Rev. R. H. 20 Lizards and scaly fish. 21 Lower than Salt. The author is decidedly of opinion, that all the ac- counts of remains of vertebrated animals found in strata below the red Marle, or Sandstone, containing salt or gypsum, are erroneous, and have originated in a mistake respecting the true Geological position of the strata. Fresh water muscles occur rarely in some of the coal-shales of Yorkshire and Derbyshire, and also in Flanders. Geological Poems. 284 So she moved from the seat of such infinite splendour ; For, like us, she loved something more juicy and tender. Long lasted the dinner—No rock from his seat Ever moved, or evinced the least wish to retreat; And old Neptune found out, as the wise ones aver, When the rocks are once seated, they love not to stir. So he rose unobserved. and began to retire ; But ’tis whisper’d the Sea-God already smelt fire. Be this as it may—a deep hollow sound, Still nearer and nearer was heard under ground ; 135 >T was the chariot of Pluto,—in whirlwinds of flame Through arent in the earth to the dinner he came. ‘Oh, by Styx and by Hecate, my rage I wont smother, What—Nep give a feast, without asking his brother ? Though I am King of Hell—what, am I such a sinner That I can’t be invited to smoke after dinner? 141 Let Nep with his waves and his waters all go to— I'l] make the rocks dance, or my name is not Pluto.” Thrice he stamp’d in a rage, and with crashes like thunder 144 The earth open’d wide, and the rocks burst asunder, And the red streaming lava flow’d over and under. It spread far and wide, till grim Pluto said ‘“ Halt!” And ranged it in columns and files of Basalt! For he saw Neptune coming, collecting his might, And roaring and raising his waves for the fight. 150 Now were Eurite?2 and greenstone beginning to run??, Which Hutton and Hall?‘ said was excellent fun. But a rock-rending scene in the sequel it proved, E’en the hard heart of Porphyry was melted and moved. 154 And many a rock the muse could not draw nigh to, She saw very plainly was soften’d in situ. Now thick vapours of Sulphur and clouds black as night, Roll’d in volumes, and hid the whole scene from the sight ; And the Muse told the Poet ’twas time to take flight : Adding this—‘* My good fellow, pray leave off your writing, 160 We have had quite enough both of feasting and fighting.” 22 For Eurite see note p. 22. Compact Eurites have been classed by geologists under the indefinite and frequently misapplied denominations of Compact Felspar. The lavas which melt into a black glass are formed from Greenstone, principally composed of Augit and Felspar, and those which melt into a white glass of Eurite, in which Felspar is the predomi- nating ingredient. 23 Run or melt. Alluding to the fusibility of these rocks. 24 Dr. Hutton and Sir James Hall, the well known supporters of the theo- ry which ascribes the formation of these rocks to the agency of heat. ‘The . latter has supported his opinions by a series of the most interesting and sat- isfactory experiments. See Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. GRANITUGONY, OR THE BIRTH OF GRANITE. The Granitogony was written in 1811, when the author was on a visit at Derby, the former residence of Dr. Darwin. In the company of a few sci- entific friends it was suggested, that, if the Doctor had lived to see the progress of Geology, he would have favoured the world with another poem, ‘¢' The Loves of the Mountains.’’? Impressed with this idea, the author, on the following day, to amuse a long and solitary walk in December, compos- ed the annexed verses, studio minuente laborem. They were written and shown on his return, and the Moral was afterwards added. The reason for the present publication is given in the Preface. At the period when this poem was composed, the author was more disposed to adopt the theory of those philosophers who assert that the world has been baked, than that of the German Geogonists, who assert that it has only been boiled. He now inclines to a midway faith; and is disposed to believe that the crust of our planet has been stewed, fire and water being equally operative in its forma- tion. In ancient time, ere Granite! first had birth, And form’d the solid pavement of the earth, Stern Silex? reign’d, and felt the strong desire To have a son, the semblance of the sire. To soft Alumina? his court he paid, But tried in vain to win the gentle maid ; Till to caloric and the spirits of fame He sued for aid—nor sued for aid in vain : They warm’d her heart, the bridal couch they spread, And Felspar* was the offspring of their bed : 1 Granite.—This rock is essentially composed of three minerals, Quartz, Felspar, and Mica united, without any cement, or without interstices be-- tween them ; frequently the three, minerals appear to penetrate each oth- er. Hence it has been supposed that these minerals were crystallized and united when the mass was in a state of fusion. 2 Silex.—This earth is one of the principal constituent elements of the three minerals that form Granite. Quartz is nearly pure Silex ; it is more imperishable than Felspar or Mica. 3 Alumina.—This earth is soft and unctuous when moist. It is a constit- uent part of Felspar, in which it is combined with a large portion of Silex, and with other ingredients. As Silex and Alumina cannot be made to com- bine chemically by water, the Muse has properly sought aid from caloric to promote their union. 4 Felspar, when crystalline, is distinguished by its laminar structure and smooth shining face. Geological Poems. 283 He on his sparkling front and polished face Mix’d with his father’s strength his mother’s grace. Young Felspar flourish’d, and in early life With pale Magnesia lived like man and wife. From this soft union sprang a sprightly dame, Sparkling with life—and Mica> was her name. Then Silex, Felspar, Mica, dwelt alone, The triple deities on Terra’s throne. For he, stern Silex, all access denied To other gods, or other powers beside®. Oft when gay Flora and Pomona strove To land their stores, their bark he rudely drove Far from his coast ; and in his wrath he swore They ne’er should land them on his flinty shore. Fired at this harsh refusal, angry Jove, In terrors clad, descended from above ; His glory and his vengeance he enshrouds, Involved in tempests and a night of clouds: O’er Mica’s head the livid lightning play’d, And peals of thunder scared the astonished maid. To seek her much-loved parents quick she flew ; Her arms elastic round their necks she threw,— ‘© Thus may I perish, never more to part, Press’d to my much lov’d sire’s and grand-sire’s heart !”’ So spoke the maid. The thunder-bolt had fled, And all were number’d with the silent dead. But, interfused and changed to stone, they rise A mass of Granite? towering to the skies. O’er the whole globe this ponderous mass extends, Round either pole its might arms it bends ; And thus was doom’d to bear in after time All other rocks of every class and clime. So sings the bard that Granite first had birth, And form’d the solid pavement of the earth: And minor bards may sing, whene’er they list, Of Argillaceous or Micaceous Schist. 5 Mica.—The descent of mica may be rather dubious: the quantity of Magnesia which enters into the composition of this mineral, as given in some analyses, is very small. 6 Siliceous earth alone is extremely unfavourable to vegetation, and eae rocks, in which this earth abounds, remain for ages denuded and arren. 7 Granite forms the summits and peaks of lofty mountains. It is also supposed by geologists to be the lowest rock with which we are acquainted, forming a foundation for other rocks in every part of the globe. 284 Geological Poems. MORAL®. Learn hence, ye flinty hearted rocks, Your burthens all to bear, Lest Jove should fix you in the stocks, Or toss you in the air. —~p— GEOLOGICAL COOKERY, To make Granite. Of Felspar and Quartz a large quantity take, Then pepper with Mica, and mix up and bake. This Granite for common occasions is good ; But, on Saint-days and Sundays, be it understood, If with bishops and lords in the state room you dine, Then sprinkle with Topaz, or else Tourmaline. N.B. The proportion of the ingredients may be varied ad libitum ;—it will keep a long time. To make Porphyry. Let Silex and Argil be well kneaded down, Then colour at pleasure, red, grey, green, or brown : When the paste is all ready, stick in here and there Small crystals of Felspar, both oblong and square?. To make Pudding-stone. To vary your dishes, and shun any waste, Should you have any left of the very same paste, You may make a plum-pudding ; but then do not stint The quantum of Pebbles—Chert, Jasper, or Flint. 8 Mora. The friend to whom this poem was first shown in 1811, sug- gested the propriety of annexing a Moral. {[n compliance with general cus- torn, he followed the advice. It would, however have been more consonant to his own modesty, to have left the moral application to the reader’s sagaci- ty, than to have thus obtruded it on his notice. 1 This is the old-fashioned receipt for making Porphyry, used by our grandmothers: viz. they made the paste first, and stuck in the Felspar af- terwards. This method is easy and plain: but in the most approved mod- ern receipts, the ingredients are all mixed together at first, and the felspar is left to crystallize while the paste is hardening. Geological Poems. 285 To make Amygdaloid. Yake a mountain of Wacke?, somewhat softish and green, In which bladder-shaped holes may be every where seen ; Choose a part where these holes are decidedly void all, Pour Silex in these, to form Agates spheroidal, And the mass in a trice will be Amygdaloidal. To make a good Breccia with a Calcareous Cement. Break your rocks in sharp fragments, preserving the angles ; Of Mica or Quartz you may add a few spangles : Then let your white batter be well filtered through, Till the parts stick as firm as if fastened by glue. To make a coarser Breccia. For a Breccia more coarse you may vary your matter ; Pound Clay, Quartz, and Iron-stone, moisten’d with water : Pour these on your fragments, and then wait awhile, Till the Oxyd of Iron is red as a tile?. 2 Wacke. See Primer, p.24. Wacke is generally greenish, and rather unctuous to the touch. This rock must not be confounded with Grey- Wacceé. 3 The geological Neophyte who attempts to make aggregated rocks from the above approved receipts, should attend to the following directions :-— Granite-rocks must be composed of crystalline grains of two or more differ- ent species of minerals closely united without any cement—Porphyry, of a base or paste containing imbedded crystals (generally of felspar)— Pudding- stone, of rounded stones plentifully imbedded in a siliceous paste—Amyeda- loid, of basalt or wacke inclosing noduies of agate or chalcedony—Breccia, of angular fragments of any kind of rock, united by a cement. When large rounded pieces mixed with fragments are held together by a cement, it is generally called a coarse conglomerate. Vou V Ne. Wl. 37 286 Catalogue of Plants growing in Easi-Florida. BOTANY.

Art. XII.—.1 Catalogue of a collection of Plants made in East-Florida, during the months of October and Novem- ber, 1821. By A. Ware, Esq.—By Tuos. Nutra... Tue very imperfect knowledge which we yet possess of the vegetable productions of Florida, and more particularly that part of it now recently ceded to the United States, ren- ders any additional information acceptable, however incom- plete. The first enterprising naturalist who visited this de- lightfully temperate region, was our venerable friend Mr. Wilham Bartram, of Kingsessing, but unfortunately for sei- ence, his collections have been consigned to oblivion, though still, Bbelieve, existing in the Banksian herbarium. Doctor Fothergill, bis patron, being rather an amateur than a suc- cessful cultivator of natural science, never brought forward the result of Mr. Bartram’s labours. The neXt scientific traveller who visited Florida, was the indefatigable André Michaux, who did indeed describe a few of the peculiar plants of this country ; his account, however, is extremely limited, and many of the most re- markable productions mentioned by Bartram are unaccount- ably overlooked or neglecied. The interesting fasciculus now collected by Mr. Ware, though made at an unfavourable season of the year, indi- cates the existence of a rich and varied Flora, and of a cli- mate almost congenial to the cultivation of every important commercial production of the tropics. We have given the collection as we found it, and enume- rated those plants which are common as wellas those which are new or rare, considering the whole as important, at least in a physical and geographical point of view. Since Mr. Ware’s visit to this country we have been credibly informed of the discovery of the common Fig, the Piantain (musa paradisiaca,) and the Bamboo cane, (Bam- bos arundinacea,) near the shores of east Florida, to the south of the 28th degree of latitude. In another small col- lection I have also seen a species of Tournefortia. Catalogue of Planis growing in East-Florida. 28% MONANDRIA. Salicornia herbacea. Willdenow. and Pursh,. DIANDRIA. } Gratiola * micrantha, caule erecto, angulato ; foliis lan- ceolatis acutis serratis basi attenuatis ; pedunculis foliis bre- vioribus ; calycibus (ebracteatis) quandripartitis, stamina 4. OxzsEeRvation —A species of very unusual aspect; stem irregularly angular? apparently about a foot high, and con- siderably branched. ficaves narrow, and much attenuated below. Peduneles tiliform, scarcely one third the length of the leaves. Segments of the calix 4-narted, naked, calix oval. Corolla (apparently minute, white ?) the internal surface of the tube densely covered with hairs. Capsules globose- ovate, crowned with the persisting style. The dissepiments of the 2-celled capsule formed by the inflected mar:ins of the valves coalescing with the seminal placenta. Scarcely perhaps of this genus, but my specimens are too imperlect to warrant any additional remarks. Pinguicula pumilla. Mich. Flor. Am. 1. p. 11. Gratiola acuminata. Walter and Elliott. p- 15, not of Pursh. G. anagallidea. Mich. 1. p. 5. Excluding Pursh and Eliott’s synonim of Lindernia. Elytrania virgata Mich. 1. p. 9. Salvia azurea. Lamark, Encycl. 6. p. 625. S. lyrata. Lan. Piper *leptostachyon, herbaceum, pusillum ; foliis obo- vatis obtusis subtrinerviis pubescentibus; spicis axillaribus filiformibus erectis foliis multo longioribus. Hub. In East Florida. Oxzservations.—Apparently annual. The stems about a span high, in the dried specimen are clothed with short rupous hairs, which are more or less abundant—also upon the leaves. Leaves opposite, petiolate ; spikes filiform, sometimes more than one in each axill, three or four inches long. Stamens apparently two, persistent with the 288 Catalogue of Plants growing in East-Florida. fruit. Berries about the size of tobacco seeds. Consider- ably allied to P. alpinum of Jamaica. TRIANDRIA. Tripterella coerulea, Muhlenburg’s Catalogue. Elliot. p- 43. Nuttall’s Genera. Am. PI. 1. p. 22. Dilatris Heritiera. Persoon’s Synopsis. t. p. 54. Sisyrinchium. anceps. Lam. Encl. 1. p. 403. Willd. 5. p. Pl. 3. p. 579. Boerhaavia erecta. Willd. Elliot. p. 41. Xyris caroliniana. Lam. Mlustr. 1. p. 132. Walter. Flor. Carolin. 69. X. Jupicai. Mich. 1. p. 23. Dichroma Cencocephala. Persoon. 1. p. 57. Scirpus lacustris. Willd. Dulichium. spathaceum. Persoon. 1. p. 65. Arundinaria macrosperma. Mich. 1. p. 74. and Beaurois Miegia. Persoon. 1. p. 102. Triglossum of Fischer’s Catal. du jardin des plantes, 1812, with a figure, appears to be nothing more than this plant. Agrostis indica. Willd. Persoon. 1. p. 76. Aulaxanthus ciliatus. Eliott. Panicum Walteri. Pursh. Flo. Am. 1. p. 66. P. gib- bum. Elliott. Pennisetum violaceum ? Persoon. Synop. 1. p. 72. Trichochloa sericea. T. capillaris. Decandolle stipa ser- icea. Mich. 1. p. 54. Agrostis sericea. uttall’s Genera. i. p. 44. Andropogon virginicum. Willd. Uniola paniculata. Willd. 1. p. 406. Chloris petraea. Swartz. Flor. 1. p. 194, Persoon. 1. p. 87. Monocera aromatica. Elliott. Chloris monostachyd: Mich. Rotbollia rugosa. Nuttall’s Genera. 1. p. 84. Lechea minor. Lin. Erio caulon decangulare ? Mich. TETRANDRIA. Rubia Browner. Wich. 1. p. 81. Diadia virginica. Willd. 1. p. 589. Catalogue of Plants growing im East-Florida. 289 Oldenlandia glomerata. Mich. 1. p. 83. _Houstonia rotundifolia. Mich. 1. p. 85. Ludiwigia hirsuta, Lamark Encycl. 3. p. 587. L. linearis. Walter. Flo. Carol. p. 89. L. lanceolata. Elliott. p. 213. L. capitata, Mich. 1. p. 90. Lycium earolinianium. Mich. Rivina humilis. Willd. Ilex, opaca. Aiton. Hort. Kew. 1. p. 169. {. Dahoon. Walter. Flor. Carol. 241. lex. *laurifolia, foliis majoribus ellipticis, subacutis integerrimis semper virentibus, pedicellis elongatis subtriflo- ris. Osservations.—Nearly allied tol. Dahoon. Obolaria virginica. Lin. PENTANDRIA. Purshia. hispida. Sprengel. Onosmodium hispidum. Mich. 1. p. 133. Ipomoea maritima. Brown’sProd. Flor. Nov. Holland. p. 486. Convolvulus maritimus. Brown’s Jamaica, p. 153. fpomoae. obicularis. Elliott. p. 257. Uc. Botan. Rep. t. 319. T. Bona nox. Pursh. 1 p. 145. Not perhaps of Lin- neus. T. mechoacanna. mechoacanna alba. Banhin. T. ma- crorhiza. Mich. 1. p. 141. Exclude the synonym of T. lalapa. Pursh. 1. p. 146. Ipomeria coronopifolia, Cantua coronopifolia. Willd. Phlox divaricata. Lin. Persoon. Solanum verbascifolium. Willd. Pluck. Almag. 351. t. 316. f. 1. Capsicum baccatum. Lin. The fruit according to Mr. Ware, is about the size of a pea, somewhat oblong, and, as usual, red when ripe. This species commonly used in Florida as a condiment by the inhabitants, is in common with the Cayenne pepper of Jamaica, called “ Bird Pep- per.” Itis the pepper spoken of by my friend Wim. Bar- tram, in his Book of Travels, page 71, and may probably be the Capsicum baccatum B. minimum of Miller, from which, as well as ©. baccatwm. of its more usual aspect. 290 Catalogue of Plants growing in East-Florida. The Cayenne pepper of commerce is manufactured. Ik appears to be perfectly distinct from the capsicum minus, fructu parvo pyramidali erecto,” of Sloane t. 146. fig. 2. which appears also to afford the Cayenne pepper. Psychotria * lanceolata, stipulis amplexicaulibus subro- tundis deciduis ; foliis lanceolatis utrinque acuminatis, sub- tus pubescentibus ; pedunculis trichotomis paucifloris. OxssEeRvATIONS.—Stem shrubby ; the younger branches, and under side of the leaves, more particularly when young, as well as the peduncles, clothed with a ferruginous pubes- cence. Leaves opposite, two to three inches long, and about an inch wide, prominently and somewhat verticulately vein- ed. Stipules sphacelous, brownish, and deciduous. Flow- ers notseen. Peduncles mostly terminal, one to two inches long, trichotomal and few flowered. Berries red, ovate ; nuts two, externally convex and grooved. One of the spe- cimens is perfectly smooth and produces smaller leaves, but in other respects appears the same. Ophiorhiza mitreola. Willd. V. Lanceolata. Elliott. Cynoctonum petiolatum. Gme- lin. Syst. Veg. 443. Sabbatia paniculata. Pursh. S. calycora. Mich. Flor. 1 p. 147. S. Gracilis. Chironia gracilis. Mich. 1 p. 146. Chiococca racemosa. Willd. Sp. Pl. 975. Caprifolium sempervirens. Mich. 1 p. 105. Vitis rotundifolia. JAtch. V. palmata? Persoon, 1 p. 252. This plant, however, scarcely appears to be more than a variety of V. estivalis, and instead of being smooth, is tomentose. Itea virginica. JMich. 1 p. 157. Cyrilla * paniculata, foliis coriaceis cuneato-oblongis ob- tusis, floribus paniculatis. Oxzservations.—Nearly allied to C. antillana of Mi- chaux, but the flowers are distinctly paniculated. The leaves are sometimes apparently oblong-lanceolate. The petals are oblong and spotted or blotched. Plumbago *floridana, herbacea? erecta; foliis petiola- tis ovatis glabris, caule «quali. Catalogue of Plants growing in East-Florida. 291 Oxsservations.—Scarcely distinct from P. rosea, but bearing white flowers like P. scandens, of which it may be perhaps a variety. Rhamous minutiflorus. Mich. Ceanothus microphyllus. Mich. Herniaria * americana, procumbens, glabriusculis, foliis lineari-oblongis internodiis multo brevioribus, stipulis mi- nutis, fasciculis, paucifloris, cal, laciniis obtusis coarctatis. P. Anychia hérniaroides, Elliot, not of Michaux. Perhaps the supposed Camphorosma glabra? The stem is clothed with a minute retrorse pubescence. ‘the clusters of flowers contain from about three to five ; the upper and inner part of the calyx is whitish. Matelea ? * levis, foliis lanceolatis utrinque acuminatis, umbellis longe pedunculatis, axillaribus, folliculi levi tereti. OxssERVATIONS.—Stem herbaceous, and terete with an alternating line of pubescence. Leaves opposite, lancco- late and acuminate, petiolate. Umbels axillary on longish peduncles. Calix five-parted, segments acuminate. (Co- rolla not seen.) Follicle acuminated at either extremity, smooth and even. Seeds destitute of pappus, (but in. other respects resembling those of Asclepzas, elliptic, with a broad- ish membranaceous margin, imbricately attached to a some- what slender unconnected central receptacle. On a care- ful examination of Aublet’s figure and description of mate- lea, 1 am fully satisfied that it is a congener of the present plant, although we are yet unacquainted with the corolla of this species. The anthers, as they were then considered, though so singularly described by Persoon, (Synopis, 1. p. 276,) are evidently on the authority of Aublet’s descrip- tion, similar to those of Asclepias and Cynanchum, to which the genus holds a near affinity. ‘The specimen also collec- ted by Mr. Ware, might from its whole habit be readily ta- ken for an Asclepias. | Cynanchum * scoparium, denudatum; caule volubili perenne, foliis liearibus remotis, umbellis subsessilibus parvifloris. : OxseRvaTion.—Stem green and perennial, striated, and with the exception of the recent branches naked ; branch- es opposite, furnished with an alternating pubescent line. 292 Catalogue of Plants growing in East-Florida. Branches opposite, leaves narrow, linear, acute, smooth, and membranaceous. Flowers greenish yellow, minute. Seg- ments of the calix very obtuse and short, those of the corol- la oblong, with a brownish line towards the base of each. Lepanthium very short, five toothed. Polliniferous cells as in Asclepias. Follicles terete, even, and subulate. Seeds linear and immarginate. Asclepias verticillata. Lin. A. incarnata. Willd. Amsonia Angustifolia. Mich. Gentiana catesbrei. Walter. Eryngium. virginianum. Persoon. E. aromaticum. Baldwin in Elliot’s Flora, p. 344. Peucedanum ternatum. Nutinll’s Genra. 1. p. 182. Salsola salsa. Willd. Statice Limonium. Jin. S. Caroliniana. Walter Flor. Car. 118. Linum Virginicum. Lin. HEXANDRIA. Tillandsia * Bartrami, foliis ensiformibus attenuatis gla- bris, panicula multifiora ; floribus alternis distinctis. T. lingulata or Wild Pine. Bartram’s St. p. 61. T. polystachya. Muhlenberg’s Catal. Oxsservations.—Leaves all radical, two or three feet long, attenuated, having broad sheathing bases, crowded together so as to form a vase for retaining water. Panicle naked, very large, formed of alternate branches; incum- bent on each other, including the scape, commonly about three feet high. The flowers are distinct-and alternate, each subtended by an ovate obvallate bracte. (Flower not seen.) | Mr. Ware plucked one specimen from the trunk ofa live oak, which he supposed to weigh about fifteen pounds. T. tenuifolia, Swartz. Fl. Ind. acc. 1. p. 592. T. monostachya. Bartram’s H. p. 61. OxsseRVATIONS.—Leaves subulate, erect, and about the height of the flower stem, covered asin U. Usneoides with hoary surpuraceous scales, scape covered with sheathing bractes, flowers imbricated into a single, linear oblong Catalogue of Plants growing in East-Florida. 293 spike. In more luxuriant specimens, it is probable there occur the three spikes which characterize this species. (Flowers not seen.) Jt appears to be very nearly allied to ‘T. canescens. T. recurvata, Flor. Peruv. t. 271. Lin. Persoon. 1. p: 346. Prinos coriaceus? Pursh. Flor. 1. p. 221. OpsERVATIONS.—Leaves sempervirent, oval, or cuneate- oval, subserrate towards the apex, pedicels many-flowered, short, and corymbose. Crinum Americanum. At. Hort. Kew. 1. p. 413. Sabal Adansoni, Persoon. 1. p. 399. S. Histrix. Pursh. caudice repente, frondibus palmatis plicatis, axillis spinosis, spadicibus brevissimis, drupis ovoi- deis, majusculis hirsutis. OxssERvATions.—In this species, whose frends resemble the preceding, the stipe is naked and triangular, not simply convex beneath; in the basilar axils of which originates a matted tomentose substance, almost similar to coarse brown wool, and intermixed with spines half a foot long, and rigid as needles, within these radical sheathes is inclosed the clandestine spadix loaded with hirsute brownish drupes the size of coffee berries, and when recent possessing an eatable sweetish pulp, with which the aborigines are ac- quainted. S. * minima, caudice repente, stipitibus subaculeolatis asperis, frondibus palmatis plicatis, subseptemfidis? OxsservaTions.—'The frond scarcely exceeds a span in height, and is not a variety of 5S. serrulata, as Mr. Ware observed it to form almost exclusive fields of an uniform appearance. OCTANDRIA. Rhexia angustifolia, Nuttall’s Gen. 1. p. 244. Q£nothera humifusa, /Vutiall’s Gen. 1. p. 245. Vor. \V. 38 294 Catalogue of Plants growing in East-Florida. Gaura angustifolia, Mich. 2. p. 226. Polygonum gracile, Nuttall’s Gen. 1. p. 255. This species, according to the observations of Mr. Ware, attains the height of three or four feet. P. parvifolia, Nuttall, 1. p. 256. P. polygamum. Veut. Hort. Cels. p. 65. Polygonella parvifolia, Mich. 2. p. 241. Amyris *F loridana, foltis ternatis, foliolis ovatis integerri- mis obtusis glabris, floribus subpaniculatis, baccis subglobo- ris, basi attenuatis. Oxpservations.—A shrub six or eight feet high with a smoothish pale bark. Leaves ternate, petiolate, lucid and apparently sempervirent, reticulately nerved on either side, and crowded with fragrant resinous glands. Calix four- toothed, (corolla not seen.) Berries black, about the mag- nitude of black pepper, and very fragrant, containing a thin fragile nut inclosing a single seed with a greenish pulp. It is perhaps scarcely distinct from A. maritima, and in every respect but the pinnated leaves, like Sloane’s figure, vol. I. t. 199. of Terebinthus major. We should also take it to be the Amyris, figured by Catesby, but for the perfect smoothness of the leaves. ENNEANDRIA. Laurus geniculata, Mich. 1. p. 244. EKriogonum, tomentosum, Mich. DECANDRIA. Vaccinium. myrsinites. Mich, 1. p. 233. Andromeda mariana. Lin. A. marginata. Duhamel. A. nitida. Mich. 1. p. 252. Kalmia hirsuta. Willd. sp. pl. 2. p. 601. Monotropa uniflora. Lin. Jussieua erecta. Willd. 2. p. 578. Jussieua *tenuifolia, foliis sessilibus linearibus glabris, floribus sessilibus octandris. OxsservaTions.—This specimen,which is very imperfect, presents a longish slender branch with a few remote flax- like leaves and remote quadrangular capsules; it is sufli- Catalogue of Plants growing in East-Florida. 295 ciently distinct from the other species indigenous to the U. States. Cassia nictitans. Willd. | Stellaria elongata. Nuttall’s p. 289. . Limonia acidissima? Lin. Oxsservations.—Perhaps a distinct species. As the spines, or rather prickles, are by pairs. ‘The leaflets are small, roundish-oval and crenated. It bears considerable resemblance to the figure in the Flora malabarica quoted for L. crenulata, but is in all probability a distinct spe- cies, and my specimen is too imperfect for description. ICOSANDRIA. Chrysobalanus oblongifolius. Mich. 1. p. 283. Lythrum virgatum. Willd. Sesuvium pedunculatum. Decandolle. Leaves linear- oblong. Anthers purplish red. Aronia arbutifolia. Perssoon. POLYANDRIA. Befaria racemosa. Mich. Helianthemum canadense. Willd. Rhizophora mangle. Lin. Cateshys Carolina, 2. p. 63 t. 63. Ascyrum amplexicaule. Mich. 1. p. 77. Hypericum galioides. Willd. H. spherocarpum? Mich. Magnolia glauca. B *pumila, foliis ellipticis utrinque acutis. nt Osservations.—A dwarf variety not exceeding three or four feet. Porcelia pygmea. Persoon. 2. p. 95. Clematis viorna. Willd. Sp. Pl. 2. p. 1288. Cyamus luteus. nelumbium luteum. Willd. 296 Catalogue of Plants growimg in East-Florida. DIDINAMIA. Dracocephalum virginianum. Willd. Hyptis capitata. Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 84. Hyptis spicata. Poiteaw in Annales du museum. 7. p. ANTAL 284.2. First found by Richard in the island of St. Domingo. Calamintha carolintana. Thymus carolinanus. Mich eis Trichostema dichotoma. Lin. Verbena caroliniana. Mich. Lantana Camara. Lin. Bignonia capreolata. Lin. Ruellia strepens. Lin. Bachnera americana. Lin. Avicennia tomentosa. Willd. Oxsservations.—This shrub grows also around the Ba- lize near the mouth of the Mississippi, where, as in Jamai- it is called mangle. ‘The present plant agrees precisely with Sioane’s figure, but is in all probability a distinct spe- cies from that of Bh@eds in the Flora malabarica, vol. 4. t. 45, in which the flowers are produced in longish peduncu- lated panicles, while in the present plant they are aggrega- ted in almost sessile clusters. Besides which, the Avicen- nia of ludia is a stately tree, seventy feet high, and often sixteen feet in circumference, while the Floridian plant is merely a sempervirent shrub. Gerardia linifolia. Nwuttall’s Genera. 2. Pe 47. Seymeria ion Pursh. Fior. Am. 2. Suppl. p. 737. Nuttall’s Gen. 3. p. 50. PenigtsniOd pubescens. Aiton. P. levigatum. Willd. Schwalbea americana. Lin. Orobanche americana. Lin. TETRADYNAMIA. Arabis Canadensis. Jin. A. bulbosa. Wild, Catalogue of Plants growing in East-Florida. 297 Stanleya? amplexifolia, foliis integris ? amplexicaulibus, iloribus corymbosis siliquis nutantibus. Oxzservations.—Of this plant whose genus is conse- quently doubtful, we have seen only seeding specimens which Mr. Ware collected in the arid pine forests. The whole plant appears to have been smooth and glaucous, the stem terete, herbaceous, low, and branching towards the summit. With the radical leaves we are unacquainted, those few which remain on the stem are cordate-ovate, amplexicaule, and entire. The flowers have been aggre- gated in a close corymb; the peduncles are filiform. The siliques curved downwards, are conspicuously stipitate, flat, and two anda half to three inches long, the stipe about three fourths of an inch, with the peduncle somewhat shorter. The dissepiment is equal and parallel with the valves. The seeds are alternately attached to either side the suture of the dissepiment, and are small, brown, oval, striated and compressed. The cotyledones are sim- ple or undivided, and the radicle curved. MONADELPHIA. Lobelia crassiuscula. Mich. Lobelia *aphylla, minima; caule filiformi subsimplici squamosa, pedunculis remotis elongatis. Ozservations.—Found by Mr. Ware in shady swamps accompanying Tripertella coerulea, from which the dried specimens are scarcely distinguishable. Root perennial. Stems filiform, four to six inches high, generally simple, bearing from about one to five remote, long pedunculated flowers. Capsule elliptic-ovate. Passiflora *Warei, foliis inferioribus trilobis acutis, su- perioribus indivisis ovatis, petiolis, biglandulosis, peduncu- , lis, subgeminis. OssErVATIONS.—Lower part of the stem suberose. Leaves smooth and shining, of a thin consistence, having short biglandular petioles, the lower ones two ané tnree lobed, the upper simply ovate, all acute. Stipules none. Peduncles commoniy a pair in each axill, about the 298 Catalogue of Plants growing in East Florida. length of the petiole. The flowers are very small. ‘The calix formed of consimilar ablong-linear segments. Fil- form segments of the crown, (or lepanthium) few, and shorter than the calix. Berries about the size of peas, purple. Oplotheca Floridana, Nuttall’s Genera 2. p. 79. Pistia spathulata. Mich. Sida rhombifolia. Wild. Hibiscus *pentaspermus, H. Menainan Mich. 2. p. 46. Osservations.—Leaves partly hastate, the lower ones subsessile. Flowers small, red, with a yellow base, partly disposed in irregular few- flowered racemes. Exterior ca- lix, as usual multifid and filiform. Capsule hirsute, de- pressed, pentangular, five-celled, indivisible, each cell one- seeded. This species is nearly allied to urena. Hab. from Cape Henlopen to East Florida. DIADELPHIA. Petalostemon corymbosum. Mich. Petalostemon *roseum, glabrum, foliolis linearibus, brac- teis subulatis brevissimis persistentibus; calycibus striatis glabris. OpsERVATIONS.—A_ species possessing very much the habit of P. violaceum, but with the calix perfectly smooth, and the petals of a rose colour. Polygala pubescens. Nuttall’s Genera 2. p. 87. P. lutea Wild. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 894. Erythrina herbacea. Wild. 3. p. 912. Lathyrus palustris. Wild. 3. p. 1000. Psoralea. Lupinus diffusus. Nuttall’s Gen. 2. p. 92. Hedysarum paniculatum. Wild. AMschynomene viscidula. Mich. 3. p. 74. Sesbania platycarpa. Persoon. Syn. 2. p. 316. S. Macrocarpa. Nuttall’s Gen. 2. p. 114. Glycine erecta. Nutiall’s Gen. 2. p. 114. G. caribaea. Wild. Jacquin. Tc. rar. 1. t. 146. G. re- flexa. Nuttall’s Gen. 2. p. 115. Indigofera caroliniana. Walter. Mich. 2. p. 68. Catalogue of Plants growing in East-Florida. 299 SYNGENESIA— 2 aquatis. Prenanthes racemasa. Mich. 2, p. 94. Prenanthes, aphylla, foliis paucissimis subulatis brevi- bus, caule simplici superne nudo; calycibus, multifloris. P. Aphylla, Nuttall’s Genera. 2. p. 123. OxsseRvatTions.—Root perennial. Stem about two feet — high striated, in the specimen under examination, produ- cing but two subulate leaves near its base, the lower one about an inch and a half, the upper one less than half an inch ; the rest of the stem perfectly naked, and producing two unequally pedunculated large pale rose red flowers; at the base of the stem there is a single sphacelous abor- tive scale; the calix is subtended by a considerable num- ber of imbricated lanceolate scales. Florets about twelve ligulate, and twelve tubular. Liatris graminifolia. Pursh. 2. p. 408. L. elegans. Willd. 3. p. 1635. L. tenuifolia. Nuttall’s Gen. 2. p. 131. L. paniculata. Willd. 3. p. 1637. L. corymbosa. Nuitall’s Gen. 2. p. 132. Liatris * oppositifolia, foliis lanceolatis, sub oppositis nervosis, caule ramoso, ramulis paniculato-corymbosis, cal- ycibus cylindraceo-ovatis parvulis sub 15—20-floris, squa- mis oblongis obtusis intimis, coloratis pappus scabriusculis. Hab. discovered also near New-Orleans and communi- acted to me by Dr. Harlan, of Philadelphia. Oxservations.—Root perennial? The whole plant pubescent. Stem terete, a little below the summit, oppo- sitely branched, the branches corymbiferous. Leaves small, ovate-lanceolate, about three-nerved, on the branch- es sometimes alternate. Flowers small, resembling those of L. paniculata, but more numerous. Scales of the calix striate, unequal, the interior ones coloured and elongated. Pappus merely scabrous, not plumose. Liatris * fruticosa, glabra ; caule fruticoso, ramis corym- bosis, foliis cuneato-obovatis punctatis, calycibus subquin- quefloris, laciniis acuminatis. 300 Catalogue of Plants growing in East-Florida. Oxsservations.—A brittle branched shrub with rather crowded leaves, shaped like those of common purslain Portulacca oleracea,) branchlets attenuated and aimost, naked above. The calyx narrowed at the base, is formed of a few imbricated, linear-lanceolate, and acuminate scales, (in a dried state,) shining with resinous atoms as in the Eupatoriums Florets purple, the pappus also tinged with the same colour. The corymb of flowers in this spe- cies, with the exception of colour, could scarcely in any respect be distinguished from those of Ruhnia Critonia. Eupatorium coelestinum. Willd. E. foeniculacium. Wadlld. Mikania scandens. Willd. Polypteris integrifolia. Nuttall’s Gen. 2. p. 139. Melananthera hastata. Mich. SYNGENESIA.—Sovuperr.tua. Baccharis halimifolia. Lin. B. angustifolia. Mich. 3. p. 125. Conyza pycnostachya. Mich. 2. p. 126. Erigeron pusillum. Nuttall’s Gen. 2. p. 148. E. philadeiphicum. Willd. Inula (Chrysopsis) gossypina. Mich. 2. p. 122. I. scabra. Pursh. 2. p. 531. I. graminifolia. Mich. 2. p. 122. I. divaricata. Nuttall’s Gen. 2. p. 152. I. obovata. Nutitall’s Gen. 2. p. 152. Aster montanus. NVuttall’s Gen. 2. p. 156. A.carolinianus. Walter. Willd. 2. p. 2017. Solidago pyramidata. Pursh. 2. p. 537. S. lacevigata. Willd. 3. p. 2063. Selioa * nudata, radiis paucissimis, floribus corymbosis, bracteis filiformibus, foliis integerrimis linearibus oppositis glabris. Hab. East-Florida. OsservaTions.—Perennial ? Stem smooth and angular. Leaves opposite linear, rather thick and smooth. Corymb compound, trichotomous. Flowers yellow, scarce / distin- guishable from those of solidago, except by the paucity of rays. Calyx five-leaved, cylindric, coloured. Rays often altogether wanting? (in my specimen,) never more than Catalogue of Plants growing in East-Florida. 301 one. Florets five to eight. Pappus more. Seed smooth and black. The genus has been recently formed by spren- gel, and founded on Brasilian species. The present plant appears to be allied to Chrysocoma. Boltonia asteroides. Willd. 3. p. 2162. Eclipta procumbens. Mich. 2. p. 129. Verbesina virginica. Willd. 3. p. 2222. ‘letragonotheca helianthoides.. Willd, 3. p. 2116. Buphthalmum frutescens. Willd. 3. p. 2229. SYNGENESIA.—FrusrraneEa. Galardia bicolor, Willd. 3: p. 2245. k Balduina multiflora. Wuttall’s Gen. 2. p. 176. Helianthus tracheliflorus. Willd. 3. p. 2241.. Rudbeckia hirta. Willd. Biclens chrysanthemoides. Willd. 3. p. 1717. Actinomeris * pauciflora, foliis oblongis serrulatis decur- — rentibus nudis paucifloris. OxpsERVATIONS.—Stem apparently simple: Leaves op- posite oblong or oblong ovate. Peduncle few-flowered, long and naked, (in my specimen, two-flowered. Calix composed of about a simple series of lanceolate leaves. _ Seeds winged on the margin, shortly two-horned. (Flowers not seen.) SYNGENESIA.—NecessariA« Silphium * subacaule, scabriusculum: caule brevissimo, pedunculis longissimis, foliis oblongis subsinuata-pinnatifi- dis dentatis, calycinis foliolis dilatatis rhomboideis. OxBsERVATIONS.—A species very remarkable for its dimin- utive stature, the stem being often altogether wanting, and at most but two or three inches high. Leaves sessile, al- ternete, two or three inches long, with the margin alter- nately sinuated so as almost exactly to resemble the leaves of some species of Senecio. Peduncle nearly a span long. Flowers, as usual, yellow. The seeds also conformable with the genus. Wor. \ Vis 59): 302 = Catalogue of Plants growing in East-Florida. SYNGENESIA.—SeEenecata. Klephantopus carolinianus. Willd. 3, p. 2390. GYNANDRIA. Maranta arundinacea, culmo ramoso herbaceo, foltis ova- to-lanceolatis ; floribus subpaniculatis. M. arundinacea, cannacori folio; Mart. Cent. 39. t. 39. Canna Indica, radice alba alexipharmica. Sloane. Jam. 1. p. 253. t. 149. f. 2. Representing merely the figure of the leaf, and says that it had been introduced into the island of Jamaica from Dominica. It is believed to be a native of South America. Tc. Redoute’s Liliacea, t. 57. This plant was seen in extensive marshy fields by Mr. Ware, about the latitude of 28°, and agrees in every im- portant particular with the officinal plant, except in the ab- sence of hairs upon the leaves, the nodes are, however, pubescent. The fruit by abortion presents a round one- seeded nut. Maranta arundinacea. B. pumila, culmo simplici, floribus fasciculato-paniculatis. OsservaTions.—Perhaps the mere autumnal shoots of the preceding; Mr. Ware, however, considered it as something distinct from its uniform dwarf habit. Habenaria repens? Nuttall’s Gen. 2. p. 190. Cranichis multiflora. Elliot. Nuttall’s Gen. 2. p. 191. | OxservaTions.—Leaves nearly all radical, ovate, one or two however embracing the lower part of the stem. Upper part of the stem pubescent. Flowers greenish, somewhat remote, about twenty, more or less, forming a raceme four or five inches in length. Bractes ovate and acuminate of a sphacelous membranaceous consistence, and less than one half the length of the germ. Cateral segments of the corolla, ovate and oblique, connivent with the uppermost ; innermost segments dilated, broader and nerved. Lip inverted or situated behind, unguiculated, the lamina concave, and abruptly accuminated. Column Catalogue of Plants growing in East-Florida. 303 or style concave nearly its whole length, including two? masses of sulphur yellow farinaceous pollen, the concavity or cell closed by a lanceolate oblong articulated opercu- Jum. Triphora pendula, Nuttall’s Gen. 2. p. 193. Arethusa pendula. Willd. Neottia tortilis. Willd. N.cernua. Willd. MONOECIA. Urtica. Apparently new, but too imperfect for descrip- tion. Parietaria floridana, Nuttall. 2. p. 208. Amaranthus pumilus. Nuttall, 2. p. 210. Quercus virens. Willd. Quercus laurifolia. Willd. @. maritima. Willd. Q. imbricaria. Willd. Caryaaquatica. Juglans aquatica. Michaux. Arb. Forest. Pinus palustris. Willd. Acalypha caroliniana. Willd. Croton maritimum. Willd. C. glandulosum. Willd. Ephorbia cyathophora. Willd, E. maritima. Jatropha manihot? Lin. The celebrated root from which the Cassava bread is made, and which, according to Thenet, was used over an extent of two thousand leagues. Sloane also adds, “It is of the most general use of any provision all over the West Indies, especially the hotter parts, and is used to victual ships.” Hist. 1. p.130. The sap of the root, which in a raw state is poisonous, ‘“ evaporated over the fire, gives the Tapioca meal, and the leaves, when boiled, are eaten after the manner of spinage. Sloane’s Hist. vol. I. p- 131. In the specimen collected by Mr. Ware, the lobes of the leaf instead of being simple are subdivided. It may still, how- ever, be the same plant in a state of luxuriance. Stillingia sylvatica. Willd. Phyllanthus obovata. Willd. Apparently perennial by the effect of climate. : 304 Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. Forestiera ligustrina. Poiret. Borya ligustrina. Willd. DIAECIA. Ceratiola ericoides. Mich. 2. p. 222, Viscum verticillatum. Lin. Iresine elatior. Willd. Zamia integrifolia. Mich, Willd. Oxsservations.—The farina of the root of this plant is much esteemed as food by the Indians, appears to Be, but little inferior to the Arrow-root. CRYPTOGAMIA. Lycopodium alopecuroides. Willd. Vittaria linearis. Willd. V. angustifrons. Mich. 2. p, 261. Osmunda cinnamonea. Willd. | Polypodicum. A fragment of a very large species. Aspidium. MATHEMATICS, ——<—— Arr. XII].—Review of the Cambridge course of Mathe- matics. 1. An Elementary Treatise on Arithmetic, taken prin- cipally from the Arithmetic of S. F. Lacroix, and translated into English, with such alterations and additions as were found necessary in order to adapt it to theuse of the Amer- ican student. Second Edition, revised and corrected, pp. 128, 2. An Introduction to the Elements of Algebra, de- signed for the use of those who are acquainted only with the first principles of Arithmetic. Selected from the Algebra of Euler. Second Edition. pp. 216, Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. 305 3. Elements of Algebra, by 8. F. Lacroix. Transla- ted from the French, for the use of the students of the University at Cambridge, New England. Cambridge, N.E. Hilliard and Metcalf, 1818. pp. 263. M. Lacroix, the author of the first and third volumes before us, has long been distinguished as a writer upon the pure mathematics. His mathematical works commence with common arithmetic, and end only with the highest point, to which the science of calculation has been carried. Most of his treatises have passed through many editions, and are generally used in France, both for public and pri- vate instruction. They are connected with each other by references, a circumstance which adds greatly tothe conven- rence and facility of reading them; and they are probably more complete, and of a higher scientific character, than any other course, which has hitherto been published. His uae and Elements of Algebra, form the two first volumes of his course, and of these it will be our duty soon to speak particularly. His third volume is upon the Elements of Geometry. This is followed by an elementary treatise on rectilineal and spherical Trigonometry, and on the application of Algebra to Geometry, and by supple- ments to the elements of Algebra and Geometry. This last supplement is a treatise upon Descriptive Geometry, a branch of Mathematics which has been recently opened, or rather which has recently been reduced to rigorous prin- ciples, and been used as an instrument of investigation. It has not been much cultivated out of France.* It was es- tablished as a branch of instruction in the Normal School, created by a law of 30th October, 1794, and three Profes- sors were appointed for the object, among whom was M. Lacroix. Descriptive Geometry has two objects; the first is, to represent with exactness, upon surfaces which have but two dimensions, objects which have three dimensions, and which are susceptible of a rigorous definition. Under this point of view, it is a language more perfect than any other * We observe with pleasure, that Mr. Croyt, Professor of Engineering in the Military Academy of the United States, has published the first part of a treatise on Descriptive Geometry, ive the use of the Cadets of that institution. 306 Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematies. for communicating every thing capable of delineation or construction, and particularly forms the foundation of the graphic arts. Its second object is, to deduce from the ex- act delineation of objects, every thing which results from their respective forms and positions. In this way, as it of- fers continual examples of passing from what is known to what is unknown, it becomes an instrument of investigating new truths. The most complete work on this subject, we be- lieve, is, Monge’s Géométrie Descriptive with M. Hachette’s supplement. The next volume of M. Lacroix’s course, is an elemen- tary treatise on the differential and integral calculus, of which a translation was some years since published in Eng- land. ‘Then comes an elementary treatise, on the calcula- tion of probabilities. The course concludes with a volume consisting of Essays on Instruction in general, and on that of the mathematics in particular; or the method of studying _and teaching mathematics. This volume, we hesitate not _to say, contains views of study and instruction of the very first importance, founded on a knowledge of the human mind, and on experience gained by directing the studies of a great number of young. men, during a long course of years. It also sheds much light on many parts of the oth- er volumes which compose the course, and we shall often have occasion to refer to it in the course of the present ar- licle. The principal remaining work of Lacroix, is his “ Traité du Calcul Differentiel, et du Calcul Integral,” 3'Tom. 4to. In this work, he professes to have collected and systematic- ally arranged whatever is most valuable in the treatises of of Euler, Lagrange, &c., and in the numerous analytical memoirs scattered through the volumes of the different learned societies and academies of Kurope. This vast quantity of materials, receiving from the vigorous and sys- tematic mind of Lacroix uniformity of style and develop- ment, is incorporated into one great work, every part of which is impressed with the genius and luminous views of the author, and from which a knowledge of the transcendant analysis, in its present improved state, can be obtained.* (Edinb. Encyc. vol. IX. 116.) While this treatise was in preparation, the author received a letter from the celebrated Laplace, of which the following is an extract. “Je vois,” Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. 307 says he, ‘avec beaucoup de plaisir que vous travaillez a an grand ouvrage sur le calcul integral.....Le rapprochement des Methodes que vous comptez faire, sert a les éclairer mu- tuellement, et ce qu’elles ont de commun renferme le plus- souvent leur vraie métaphysique; voila pourquoi cette mét- aphysique est presque toujours la derniere chose que on découvre. L’homme de génie arrive comme par instinct aux resultats; ce n’est qu’en réfléchissani sur la route que lui et d’autres ont suivie, qu’il parvient a généraliser les Méthodes, et a en découvrir la metaphysique.” As a mathematical writer, Lacroix appears to have form- ed himself on the model of Clairaut and Euler. In clear- ness and eloquence, he falls not much below the latter, and in the profoundness, extent and originality of his views, he is certainly inferior to neither. He is never a servile imita- tor of any of his predecessors. Although he freely makes use of their writings when they are to his purpose, yet whatever he takes from them, receives a new and original character from the view which he takes of it, and from the additional development which it often receives from him. Of Euler it is not necessary to say much, to those whe are, in any degree, acquainted with mathematical science. In clearness and elegance of demonstration and illustration, he stands the prince of mathematicians, and in fertilityof in- vention, he has never been surpassed. He is author of more than thirty separate works, and of nearly seven hundred memoirs, most of which are te be found in the volumes of the Academies of Berlin and Ss. Petersburgh.* (Condorcet, Eloge de M. Kuler.) Again, says the Marquis de Condor- cet, “‘ tous les mathematiciens célebres qui existent au- jourd’hui sont ses éleves. Il n’en est aucun qui ne se soit formé par la lecture de ses ouvrages, qui n’ait recu de lui les formules, la méthode qu’il emploie, qui, dans ses de- couvertes ne soit guidé et soutenu par le genie d’ Euler.” The three volumes before us, are a part of the course of mathematics, which is preparing under the direction of Pro- fessor Farrar, for the use of the students of the University in Cambridge. The two first are required to be studied before admission, the last is a text book in the university course of instruction. Three other volumes have appeared, two on the pure, the other on the applied mathematics ; 308 Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. and these, we learn, are to be followed by others on the ap- plied mathematics, making a complete course. A course of mathematical instruction, and, indeed, a course of instruction of almost any other kind, may be con- sidered in two points of view ; first in relation to the devel- opment of the faculties of the mind, and secondly, as fur- nishing results to be used for the practical purposes of life. Each of these objects is important, and both ought to be united, as far as possible, in a course of public instruction. The practical purposes to which mathematical learning is applied, are by no means few, nor of inconsiderable value. Commercial and _ political arithmetic, have the most impor- tant connexions with mercantile transactions, with practical legislation, and with the science of government. Mathe- matical principles form the basis of Geography, in deter- mining the figure and dimensions of the earth, the situation of places upon its surface, &c.; of History, as connected with the chronology of events, &c. ; of Surveying, in which boundaries are to be traced, estates, provinces, canals, &c. laid out; of Navigation, in which the course, latitude, lon- gitude, &c. are to be determined ; of Architecture in which the strength of timber, the pressure upon each part, the best form of arches, &c. are to be calculated; of Mechanics, in which the laws of motion, the composition of forces, the structure and equilibrium of machines, Nc. are to be esti- mated ; of the science of War, in the planning of fortifica- tions, in the theory and practice of gunnery, &c. ; of Op- tics, in explaining the laws of vision, in the theory of col- ours, and of the rainbow, and in the construction of optical instruments, &c.; of Astronomy, in calculating the effects of that most extensive of all principles with which we are acquainted, the law of gravitation, upon the solar system, &c.; of Music, in the propagation and comparison of sounds, in the theory of tones as connected with vibrations, &c.; of the crystallo-graphic part of Mineralogy; of Chemistry, especially in the doctrine of multiple propor- tions ; and in fine, of a great part of the whole circle of arts and sciences.* (Pres. Day’s Algebra, p. 6.) But it is particularly with a view to the development of the mental powers, that a course of mathematics is impor- tant. Granting, if itis possible, that the Physician, the Di- vine, the Advocate, or the Judge, may have forgotten eve- Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. 309 ry proposition in Geometry, and every principle in Alge- bra ; still he may be indebted to these sciences learned in early life, for no small part of his skill in separating error from truth, for his power of fixed attention, for his caution in admitting proof and in drawing conclusions, for the gene- ral discipline of his mental faculties, and his capacity for ar- ranging all the parts of a long argumest, so that it may re- sult in the clear establishment of the desired truth. Such a habit of mind constitutes true learning, a rare acquire- ment; and ought to be the ultimate object of every system of education. Itiscapable of application to every subject, at all times, and in every situation. Without the accomplish- ment of this object, no education can be in a considerable degree complete, much less can the mind be highly cuitiva- ted. It may be interesting to know the views of Lacroix in composing his course, and the principles by which he was guided. ‘ Having been from early life,” says he,* (Hssais sur Penseignement, p. 171,) “ engaged in the labours of in- struction, I always turned my attention upon the means of presenting the results of science by the most simple meth- ods,(par les faces les plus simples,) and in the most natural or- der. With this view, I originally conceived the design of embodying in a series of volumes, all the materials of Ge- ometry and of the transcendant analysis. Called to the functions of a professorship, which bcfore I bad perform- ed only in schools, in which the form and matter of the ia- struction were rigorously fixed, and that of the Central Schools being left entirely at the disposition of the master, I was led by this iiberty to reflect upon the means of per- fecting the course which had been entrusted to me. I tried experimentally, upon a numerous class, (auditoire) the principles and the methods which I had conceived ; their application served to confirm them, or sometimes modified them for the better.” Again, “ teaching the sciences,” says he,* (idem p. 173) ‘is subject to the same rules as that of the arts; the cheice of examples is much more important than their numbers, a few truths thoroughly investigated, throw much more ight upon the true method of procedure, than a great numper of theories discussed in an incomplete manner. The first east their roots deep, which cannot fail to spread themselves, 210 Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. and from which spring trees whose numerous branches are loaded with fruit ; the others, which have scarcely pierced the ground, soon disappear, after having offered a sterile aliment to vanity.” To speak more particularly, M. Lacroix appears to have . been governed in preparing his mathematical works, by the foliar ing principles :— Aid i give a demonstration as rigorous as the nature of fue case would admit, of every rule and principle of which any use is made. This. is very different from the course pursued in most American and English books upon math- ematics. In our treatises upon Arithmetic and Algebra, with a very few honourable exceptions, the rules are given in a very concise and purely didactic form, and whatever attempt there is at an investigation of them, is thrown inte notes which are seldom much consulted. Nor is the stu- dent generally in blame for not consulting them, as they are usually so ill adapted to the state of his knowledge, that he finds it impossible to understand them. In Dr. Hutton’s * course of mathematics,” which will be admitted to be a pretty fair example, the rules of Arithmetic are demonstra- ted by algebraic methods, and the rules of algebra are usu- ally without demonstrations. Now, by Lacroix and Euler, on the contrary, every thing is demonstrated in as rigorous a manner, as the state of the student's information will war- rant. He sees at each step, the ground on which he is pro- ceeding, and forms from the beginning, a habit of demon- stration, The greatest part of the mathematical learning among us, we believe, is not much unlike that of the mere practical navigator, who knows what his book says, and how to apply what it says, but who is in Egyptian darkness with tespect to the reason upon which any thing is said. A young man who accustoms himself from the first, to de- monstrating every thing which he receives as truth, and to developing fully the conditions expressed or implied, of ev- ery problem which he solves, will soon form a habit of re- searches of this kind. Such a habit constitutes true knowl- edge in mathematics, and will furnish resources for unex- pected cases where no rules are provided, or where a new combination of them is required ; and where the mere mechanical calculator would find himself totally unable to proceed. But what is above all price, such a course most Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. 311 effectually prepares a young man to pursue a course of dis- covery of his own, after becoming so thoroughly acquainted with the discoveries of others. 2. He avoids repetitions. (les doubles emplois* Essais. p- 180.) This becomes so much the more necessary, as the recent progress of the mathematical and physical sci- ences has greatly increased the mass of objects of instruc- tion. He-seldom employs different demonstrations to come to the same result; and never, unless it be ina succeeding part to give a more rigorous demonstration to a principle of extensive use which could not at first be demonstrated ina rigorous manner ; or unless the second demonstration gives him occasion to make some new remark, or deduce some interesting principle. 3. He always chooses the most general methods. This rule is in some degree a consequence of the former, since by means of such methods, repetitions are most effectual- ly avoided. ‘In instruction,” says Laplace, ‘ prefer general methods, take care to present them in the most simple manner, and you will find at the same time, that they are always the most easy.”’* (Essais p. 181.) Itis time to distrust this predilection for particular methods, under the idea that they are more elementary than gene- ral methods ; whereas the truth is, that they are preferred because more ancient, and more agreeable to habits pre- viously acquired, and which are not easily reformed. It is erroneous and contrary to established experience, to sup- pose that general methods must be preceded by an expo- sition of particular methods. General methods have no need of any assitance of this kind, when they are suitably explained, and do not meet, in the minds of those who stu- dy them, or judge of them, with old ideas to be effaced, or old prejudices to be destroyed. If we prefer the synthet- 1c methods, because we think them attended with more complete evidence, and that they speak more to the sen- ses; we must recollect that the analytical methods are vast- ly more fertile, and that the writings of the great mathe- maticians of our age, are composed in the style of these methods which it is absolutely necessary to study, as soon as we rise above the elements.* (Hssais p. 183.) 4. He makes use, as far as possible, of the analytic method. ‘This method has been the great instrument of invention at all times in mathematical science, and has 312 Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. certainly been too much neglected both in this country and in Great-Britain. ‘This is best accounted for, perhaps, from the circumstance, that Sir Isaac Newton, from par- tiality to the ancient writers, delivered his splendid dis- coveries by the synthetic method,* and that his authority has influenced the greatest part of mathematicians who have written in his native language. The essential char- acter of the synthetic method, is, that it always proceeds from the simple to the more complex, and is on that ac- count well adapted to the communication of truth when once discovered. But it fails almost entirely in communi- cating to the mathematical reader, that spirit of invention, which may enable him, after perusing what is most valua- ble in the writings of others, to open a new track for him- self. It seems particularly appropriate, that Algebra which is scarcely more than another name for Analysis,t should be communicated by the analytic, and not as has usually been done among us, by the synthetic method. 5. The treatises in question are so composed as to be preparatory and introductory to the higher and more diffi- cult physical, astronomical and mathematical treatises. This circumstance can be no disadvantage to him who does not expect to pass the limits of the elementary part of the science, while it is of the utmost value to every one who desigus to devote a considerable part of his life to mathe- matical learning. Such an one, is anxious to press forward to the works of the great masters of the science, and ulti- mately, if possible, to an acquaintance with the ‘‘ Méca- * Sir Isaac Newton appears originally to have made his discoveries by analysis, and afterwards, in communicating them to the world, to have clothed them witha synthetic demonstration, with a view to rerider them more fit to meet the public eye ; he thus expresses himself in his treatise f Fluxions: Postquam area curve alicujus ita (analyticé) reperta est et constructa, indaganda est demonstratio constructionis, ut omisso, quatenus fieri potest, calculo algebraico, theorema fiat concinnum et elegans ac lu- men publicum sustmere valeat.’? Newtoni opuscula, vol. I. p. 170. M. Laplace thinks that Newton had found the greatest part of his theo- rems by analysis, but that his predilection for synthesis, and his great es- teem for the geometry of the ancients, made him deliver, under a synthet- ic form, bis theorems and even his method of fluxions. Exposit. du Syst. du Monde 4th edit. p. 422. + Some writers on mathematics make a distinction between analysis and algebra. Bezout defines analysis to be the method of determining those general rules which assist the understanding in all mathematical investiga- tions, andby Algebra, the instrument which this method employs for ac- complishing that end.. Euler’s Alg. 2d edit. London. p. 3. Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. 313 nique analitique’? of Lagrange, and the “ Mécanique céleste” of Laplace, which, doubtless, at present, form the limit to which human ingenuity and mental power have been extended. By having elementary works com- posed with reference to the higher books, and leading nat- urally to them, much of the strength of an enterprising scientific man will be spared, and reserved for some other valuable purpose, which would, otherwise, be exhausted and mispent upon treatises less fitted to guide him safely to his ultimate object. We now proceed to notice particularly the volumes be- fore us. It is important to remark, that the arithmetic will be of little advantage to any, who are determined not to take the trouble of thinking, and who have nothing of the spirit of enquiry and investigation. At the same time the book is calculated to awaken and cultivate this spirit. The author first occupies himself with some general remarks on the different kinds of magnitude or quantity, on the proper idea of number, and on the natural mode of forming num- bers. From the observation, that there are no limits to the extention of numbers, he takes occasion to explain in a very luminous manner, the construction of the numerical nomenclature, by which numbers to any extent, are ex- pressed by a small number of terms. This, again, gives him opportunity to illustrate the written numeration, and the fundamental law of it, “ that a removal of one place towards the left, increases the value of a figure ten times.” This method of expressing all numbers with ten characters, by giving them at once an absolute and a local value, is extremely ingenious, and appears to have originated in In- dia.* (Laplace, Syst. du Monde, p. 368.) It is from this construction, that the extreme facility of all our arithmet- ical calculations is derived, by which the modern system of arithmetic is rendered so much superior to the ancient. We shall have some idea of the merit and difficulty of the invention, by considering that it escaped the genius of Archi- medes and Apollonius, two of the greatest men of antiqui- ty. There is a verbal difference between enumeration as given by Lacroix and other French writers, and as stated in English and American arithmetical books. In both methods of reading numbers, the seventh figure from right to left, is denominated millions. In the English method, the 13th figure is billions, the 19th trillions, and every addi- tion of six places, receives a new denomination, while in 314 Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. the French method, the 10th figure is the place of billions, the 13th of trillions, and each succeeding addition of three places, gives a new denomination.* Fractions are introduced immediately after division, and are very naturally considered as deriving their origin from imperfect divisions. He explains the changes which a fraction receives from operations performed upon its nu- merator and denominator ; and in this way collects a few principles upon which the whole theory of fractions is made to depend. Indeed, these principles might be redu- ced to one, were it not that the subject would thus be ren- dered unnecessarily and unprofitably abstract. A circumstance over which the greatest part of authors have passed too superficially, is, the application of the defi- nitions of multiplication and division relative to whole numbers, to fractions. These definitions applied to whole numbers, comprise only the most simple cases of the ope- rations which they express, while as applied to fractions, the terms multiplication and division have a general accep- tation, in which new cases are comprised, connected with the first only by simple analogies. Our author has, there- fore, given new definitions of multiplication and division, which appear a little abstract before reflection, but which are applicable to all possible cases of these operations. By this instance, also, the student is taught in a striking man- ner, the signification of the term generalization in mathe- matical and philosophical writings. The complication which the diversity of denominators introduces into operations by common fractions, leads nat- urally to the invention of decimal fractions, which removes this complication. Decimal fractions are therefore, here introduced in the order of invention. The student is pre- pared by his own experience of the inconveniences attach- ed in practice to the use of vulgar fractions, to seize com- pletely the advantages of the decimal system, although this system generally gives only approximate instead of rigorous values. This disadvantage, however, of the decimal sys- * The French method of estimating numbers is adopted in the Art. Arith- metic of the Edinb. Encyc. as being less complicated than the English meth- od. As the difference between the two methods is only in the higher de- nominations, which seldom occur, the difference for practical purposes will not be great. - Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. 315 tem 1s almost nothing in practice, as the approximations may be carried to any required degree of exactness. In the translation, reduction and the rules for compound numbers are written anew, and adapted to our system of weights and measures. This was necessary, because the original was prepared with reference to the new French metrical system, the construction of which is strictly deci- mals. Proportion is illustrated with admirable clearness, and is freed from several distinctions made in the common books, which serve only to embarrass the learner. The rule for compound proportion, as generally given, is appli- cable only to questions containing five terms, whereas La- croix has investigated a rule which extends to questions containing any number of terms. With all its merits, we think this treatise of arithmetic is not without its defects. It would be more useful for practical, and not less so, for theoretical purposes, if it con- tained a few more applications to classes of questions aris- ing from the social and commercial relations of man. The translation is in this respect somewhat less valuable than the original, as this contains a short article on the applica- tion of arithmetic to banking and commerce. But even the original is not sufficient. We know very well, that all these questions belong to proportion or fractions, and cause no possible difficulty to one theoretically acquainted with the subject, but practical men are guided very mechan- ically by rules, and are immediately alarmed and embar- rassed if they are obliged to depart in the least from acquir- ed habits. At page 65, on American money, the statute of the Old Congress of Aug. 1786, is referred to, instead of the Act of April 1792, by which the mint of the United States was established on its present foundation. The note upon the same page, is almost entirely wrong, as will ap- pers from a comparison of it with what follows, which is taken from the statute above referred to, and which furnish- es a part of the materials, of which such a note ought to be composed. By this act, Hayles, half-Hagles, and quarter- Hagles in gold; dollars, half-dollars, quarter- dollars, dimes and half-dimes in silver; and cents and half-cents in cop- per; are the established coins. The standard for gold coins only, is eleven parts fine, and one part allay. The standard for silver coins, is, 1485 parts fine to 179 parts al- lay. ‘The allay in the gold coins is a mixture of silver and - 316 Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. copper, not exceeding one half silver; in the silver coins, the allay is entirely copper. The weight of fine gold in the Eagle is 247.5; of standard gold, 270. The weight of fine silver in the dollar, is, 371.25 grains; of standard sil- ver, 416 grains. All coins, inferior to the Eagle, and dol- lar, contain a quantity of pure metal and allay, proportion- al to their denominations. ‘The proportional value of gold to silver is established by law to be in the ratio of 15 to 1. In page 78, the franc is valued at $0.1796, which does not agree with its value as obtained from the value of the Napoleon, or piece of 40 francs given in the table on the last page, and neither of these values agrees with that ob- tained from the five franc piece, which was declared by an act of Congress of April 1816, founded, we understand, on the report of the Assayer of the mint, and which is now in force, to be 93 cents and 3 mills. The last 50 pages of the original, are omitted by the translator, as they consist mostly of tables for converting the old French measures into the new, and the reverse; and of other subjects of local reference. ‘Two articles in this part, however, ought certainly to have been retained ; one on the decomposition of a number into its factors, and the other, on the nature and summation of a numerical con- tinued fraction. The former is often of great practical utility, and the latter is indispensable to the completeness, and even to the consistency of the course, because in Le- gendre’s geometry, which forms the fourth volume of it, in investigating the approximated ratio of the diagonal to the side of a square. the student is required to sum up a con- tinued fraction, for which no means are furnished him. As the summation of a continued fraction is necessary to the course, and not to be found in any of our arithmetical books, we shall give a translation of M. Lacroix’s article on the subject, for the benefit of those readers, who may not have a copy of the original at hand. ** When we are conducted by a calculation to a fraction whose numerator and denominator are pretty large, and have no common factor, we seek approximate values of this fraction, which are expressed by more simple bum- bers, with a view to forma more exact idea of it. If we have for example the fractional number 174°, we obtain, at first, the whole number, and there results 1 and Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. 317 Now, to form a more simple idea of the fraction , we endeavour to compare it with a part of unity, that we may consider but one term, and for this we divide . the two terms by 216; we find 1 for the quotient of the nu- merator, and 46 fours that of the denominator; this last quotient, which is contained between 4 and 5, shews also that the fraction 248 is between } and } By stopping at this point, we see that the second approximate value of the expression 1,%° is 1 and }, or §. But this value is too great, for the nite value would be equal to 1 plus 1 divi- ded by 4 and 23, which is written thus: 1 21 8 i 8 cojto cots ae ne To form an exact idea of the expression | cessary to consider it as indicating the iinet of the ‘whole number 1 divided (OF the whole number 4 accom- panied by the fraction 7,3;. If we Week the two terms of 2% by 23, the quotient will be 5 neglecting the 9, which accompany the whole number 9, “there will be 2 only instead of 3,3;, and conse- quently, 1 ra will a third approximate value of 13393, a 9 value which will be too small, since 9 being less than the true quotient of 216 by 23, the fraction 3 will be greater than that which ought to accompany 4, and consequently the division 44 will be pheaten than the exact division 423, and the quotient am smaller than the true quotient. By reducing the whole number 4 with the fraction which accompanies it, and performing ae division according to ibe process of ’Art. 80, we obtain ,% ; and we have 1 and 2, or 4 for the third approximate value of *7 ae The exact expression of this value being 1 —__ 935, if we divide the two terms of = by 9, we shall have 1_1_ _ 1 , 235 neglecting the fraction §, there will remain Lo : 93 a value too great ; for the fraction 4 being greater than + em whose 9 place it occupies, will form, by being joined with 9, Vou. V. 4] 318 Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. a denominator too great, the fraction joined to 4 will con- sequently be too small, and the last denominator being too small, will render the last fraction too great. By reducing, at first, 94 to a Goactians we have 335 a will be then 24, and ae approximate value will become 1_1_; now —_ gives 73, which joined to unity ye adhe 1343, or $7 mn a fourth approximate value of 13%. Resuming the expression, 1—1— 4 1 1 28,we divide the two terms of the last fraction § by 5, and obtain ee and 1 —_—_—— 3 14; neglecting the fraction ¢, there will remain qe co lee I 2 3 ; and we see as above, that this value is smaller than the true value. The fraction 2 reduces itself to 4; and since the pre- ceding + 9 gives 5%, the next preceding becomes me , equal 28 to 2%-; so that the fifth approximate value is 17°; or which was neglected above, we have for a quotient fi 3 Bas a by suppressing the fraction {, we obtain the new value 1 1, greater than the true value. If we reduce, suc- cessively, all the denominators to a fraction, to obtain the simple fraction which it Bah aes we shall find 1,47 or 249, By restoring the fraction } to the side of the last denominator, yal Ile Qe 1 1 +,which be- ing reduced as the preceding, reproduces the fractional number 34°. Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. 319 We may pursue the same process with any other frac- tion, and obtain a series of approximate values, alternately greater and less than its true value, if it is a fraction prop- erly so called, or alternately less and greater, if as in the preceding example, the numerator exceeds the denominator. The developments which I have now found for the ex- pression 14% are called continued fractions, which may be defined in general thus :—Fractions whose denominator is composed of a whole number and a fraction, which fraction has for a denominator alsoa whole number and a fraction,&c.” Of the introduction to the elements of Algebra taken from Euler, much need not be said. The original treatise of Euler especially with Lagrange’s additions, is very ex- tensive, and is certainly one of the most luminous and com- plete treatises that have ever been written, and of course, _any selection from it must partake of the merits of the orig- inal work. But as is always the case in such selections, the parts selected are not perfectly adjusted to each other, which gives rise to some abrupt transitions. Jt forms no necessary part of the course, and may’ be read previous to Lacroix’s Algebra, or may be passed over without any oth- er inconvenience than the necessity of dwelling somewhat longer upon Lacroix. It is, it must be confessed, read with more facility than Lacroix’s, and is exceedingly well adapted to primary instruction. But we do not know that any point is explained by Euler which is neglected by La- croix, much less that any one is better explained. The selections here published, comprise the greatest pari of Euler’s first volume, and are made from a transiation pub- lished in England. The Algebra of Lacroix next claims our attention. He introduces his subject by some preliminary remarks upon the transition from Arithmetic to Algebra, which are fol- lowed by observations on its nature and object. Several problems involvimg an equation are first solved entirely by common language, for which algebraic signs are immedi- ately substituted, and the solution performed by means of them. In this way, the reason of {he employment of Al- gebraic signs is from the first clearly made known, their utility and necessity become manifest, and Algebra is shewn to be a branch of universal language, differing from com- mon language principally in the circumstances, that every sign has an invariable meaning, that itis of a far more ab- 320 Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. stract character, and that it 1s infinitely more concise, which properties enable the calculator by a glance of the eye, to comprehend all the conditions, relations and conse- quences of the most complicated and bewildering enuncia- tion. The learner is here, likewise, instructed in transla- ting an enunciation from common to algebraic language, and vice versa; and in the nature and use of general for- mulas as independent of particular problems, and as mere- ly indicating operations to be performed upon numbers in order to find the numerical results belonging to any prob- lem whose solution is required. ‘This, if the student has vigour of mind sufficient to grasp the idea in all its extent, will forever remove the difliculties arising from the general and abstract nature of algebraic expressions, a difficulty which must be fully overcome by him, before his path in this science will be luminous, or even in a considerable degree free from embarrassment. Our author next introduces the resolution of equations of the first degree with oye in known quantity. We have heard him complained of for this early introduction of equa- tions, but when we reflect, that equations are involved in one shape or another, even in the most simple arithmeti- cal calculations, and that his early discussion of them gives rise to some remarks which throw much light upon the succeeding parts, we cannot consider his arrangement er- roneous. Considering addition, subtraction, multiplica- tion and division only as operations analogous to the like arithmetical operations, and presenting them in a point of view highly interesting, he has removed all the difficulty relative to the doctrine of plus and minus quantities, which is generally to beginners, so much a_ source of embarrass- ment and discouragement. In the investigation of the greatest common divisor of two expressions, his method will be found far more complete than those in common treatises, as must be evident to every one who will take the trouble of a comparison. In particular, the artifice of expunging from one of the expressions, any factor or fac- tors not entering into all the terms of the other expression ; and on the other hand, of introducing into one of the ex- pressions, a factor not contained in all the terms of the oth- er, is illustrated from the theory of multiplication in a very elementary manner. These improvements in the investi- gation of the greatest common divisor are the more valua- Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. 321 ‘ble, on account of its connexion with the solution of equa- tions of the higher degrees. After disposing of fractions, he resumes equations of the first degree, and discusses those cases in which two or more unknown quantities enter into them. ‘This he does, by re- solving several problems at great length, and seizing every opportunity that is presented, in the progress of the solu- tion, to give important theoretical and practical instruction. In this way, he takes occasion to explain the nature of in- sulated negative quantities, (what was shewn before un- der the simple rules, having related to negative quantities combined in expressions with positive,) and he has demon- strated, a priori, that they follow the same rules as other quantities. This was necessary, as the theory of negative quantities is, at the same time, one of the most important and difficult of Algebra, and ought, therefore, to be estab- lished by rigorous reasonings. Iadeed, it appears from the history of Algebraic science, that this theory especially in what relates to negative solutions of problems, was but little understood before the time of De Cartes.*(Essais,258. ) The signification of the phrase infinite quantities in mathe- matics, is deduced from a fractional expression in which the numerator remains constant, while the denominator is continually diminished. The ultimate point towards which this diminution advances is zero, whence the expression 7 is naturally the symbol of infinity ; and mathematical in- o finity is a negative idea, and signifies merely the exclusion of all limit either in smallness or greatness. We arrive at the idea, therefore, by a series of negations, and infinity is that of which we affirm the limits cannot be attained by any conceivable maguitude whatever it may be.* The * Assez souvent, says Lacroix, on 2 substitué le mot zndefini an mot infi- nt, croyant par Ja éluder les difficultes que faisait naitre ce dernier ; mais je ne vois en cela qu’une faute @’ expression; carl’ indefini peut avoir des limites, mais on en fait abstraction pour le moment, tandis que |’infini est nécessairement ce dont on affirme que les limites ne peuvent étre attaintes par quelque grandeur concevable que ce soit.’’ Traité du calc. Diff. &c. Pref. xix. Another way more plain but less rigorous, of obtaining the idea ofinfinity given above, is this; any quantity m divided by a quantity much smaller than itself, gives a quotient much greater than itself, whence since the values of fractions whose numerators are constant, are inversely as their denominators, m divided by a quantity very small, will give a quotient very large ; therefore, m divided by zero, gives a quotient grester than any finite quantity. 322 Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. symbol of an indeterminate quantity is -, and an elemen- tary method is given, of ascertaining the true value of ex- pressions which appear to be indeterminate. The general methods of finding the true value of such expressions, be- longs to the higher algebra. Equations of the first degree are concluded by an investigation and application of gene- ral formulas for their solution, after the manner of Be- zaut. The extraction of the square root both of entire and frac- tional numbers, is next introduced, as this operation Is _ne- cessary and preparatory to the solution of equations of the second degree. The exposition of the method is founded on the composition and analysis of the formula a ? +2 ab + b?, in which a represents the tens and 4 the units of the num- ber. From this proposition of the theory of numbers, that “ every prime number, which will divide the product of two numbers, will necessarily divide one of these num- bers,” it is shewn to result, that ‘ entire numbers, except such, as are perfect squares, admit of no assignable root, either among whole numbers or fractions.”’* Hence, the extraction of the square root, applied to numbers not perfect squares. makes us acquainted with a new kind of numbers, which, having no common measure with unity, or no relation to it that can be expressed by whole numbers or fractions, are termed incommensurable or irrational. A method is here given of approximating the square root of numbers not perfect squares, and also, the square root of fractions the terms of which are not both perfect squares. Proceeding to the solution of equations of the second de- gree, he shews the reason why the double sign + is con- sidered as affecting the square root of every quantity, and explains what is to be understood when we say, that the square root ofa negative quantity isimaginary. His gene- ral formula for resolving complete equations of this degree, is, ©? -+px==g, in which p and g denote known quantities, either positive or negative. After treating of the proper- ties of negative solutions, and examing in what cases prob- Jems of the second degree become absurd, he gives an in- * The reasoning here given, expressed in a summary way is this ; entire numbers not perfect squares, it is obvious, can have no enttre rool ; there- fore, if they have a root, it must be among irreducible fractions ; but irredu- cible fractions when squared, form still irreducible fractions which cannot become entire numbers Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. 323 genious and elegant demonstration of the doctrine, that there are two solutions to every equation of the second de- gree. his demonstration, also, contains the germ of the general theory of equations of any degree. The binomial theorem, is rigorously demonstrated, and its extensive applications well pointed out. This was es- pecially necessary with respect to a formula, that serves as a foundation for so great a number of important investiga- tions. In the ‘‘ elements,” the demonstration is limited to the case of the theorem, in which the exponent of the bi- nomial is a positive whole number; but in the “ Supple- ment,”’ it is extended to the cases, in which the exponent is fractional or negative. In his demonstration, instead of concluding the general expression of the theorem from the observation of some particular powers of a binomial, a method of proceeding which is defective because of the lim- ited number of powers we are able to observe, he investi- gates the law which connects a preceding power with that which succeeds it, and this law thus connecting a series of powers of unlimited extent, makes all the remote results depend upon the first, which may be immediately and strictly verified. Itis in this way that he has obtained the general expression of the terms of this celebrated formula of Sir I. Newton. After employing the binomial formula to explain the ex- traction of the cube and other roots both of numbers and of literal quantities, he treats of ‘ equations with two terms,” and gives a specimen of analytical refinement not often to be found in elementary treatises. On ‘‘ Radical Expressions,” there is nothing very noticeable, except his remarks on some peculiar cases which occur in the calculus of these quanti- . ties, in which two or three dark points are illustrated from the theory of equations with two terms. The necessary limits within which we are confined, will not permit us to enter into a particular examination of the “general Theory of Equations,” and of ‘‘ Equations exceed- ing the first degree.” If justice were done to the subject, the discussion must necessarily be long, and might perhaps be tedious and uninteresting. We know not how a better selection of elementary methods for obtaining universal resolutions of equations, could have been made. The style, also, in which they are presented, corresponds with 324 Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. the present state of mathematical science. They are taken principally from the writings of Newton, Clairaut, Euler and Lagrange. On the “ resolution of Numerical Equations” by approximation, Sir f. Newton’s “method by successive substitutions” is given with the improvements of Lagrange, by which it is simplified, and the degree of approximation at each step made known. Several other principles are in- troduced from Lagrange’s “ resolutions des Equations Nu- mériques,” which in some measure prepare the student to engage in the study of that very complete and profound treatise. After equations, the leading principles in the theory of proportion and equidifference, are demonstrated with an ease and conciseness, which must surprise those who are acquainted only with the tedious method of Euclid and oth- er ancient mathematicians. As proportion and equidiffer- ence may be expressed by equations with perfect conven- ience, we think it would be well to supercede our present parade of proportions by substituting the corresponding equations. Sucha form of expression would be more sim- ple as well as precise, and would at the same time, give greater uniformity to our methods. Progression both by differences and by quotients, is made to depend immed}- ately upon the preceding principles, and general formulas are investigated to determine any particular term, the sum of any number of terms, &c. in each of them. Some ele- mentary principles of the general theory of series, are like- wise derived from the doctrine of progressions In his exposition of logarithms, M. Lacroix has adopted the view of them presented first by Euler in his “ Introduc- tion @ analyse de Vinfini,”? and of which the elementary part is developed with great care in the first volume of his algebra. In this view, all numbers are considered as pro- daced by a constant number raised to a variable power ; and logarithms are the exponents of the powers to which a constant number must be raised, in order that all possible numbers may be successively deduced from it. The cele- brated Lagrange contemplates logarithms as derived from the same origin. To the objection, that these views are not sufficiently elementary, Euler long since answered, by treating the subject without any other preparatory knowl- edge than the arithmetic of powers. The treatise is con Review of the Cambridge Course of Mathematics. 325 cluded by formulas for calculating the interest of money and annuities. ‘These formulas are derived from progres- sions and logarithms, and form a useful application of alge- bra to the practical pursuits of life. Our opinion of M. Lacroix’s work, will be sufficiently collected from the preceding observations. The transla- tion is performed with ability and fidelity. A few particu- lars, however, concerning both the original and translation merit notice. ‘The demonstration of the binomial formula, we think, ought to be more elementary, as an understand- ing of itis at present too difficult for many such students, as are to be found in the American colleges. At least, the theory of permutations and combinations on which it is founded, ought to be more fully developed. In art. 42, there is an error both in the original and translation. ‘“ Recollecting,” it is said, that a product has the same sign as the multiplicand when the multiplier has the sign +, and that :t has in the contrary case the sign —, &c.”? It has: what has? the coastruction says the product has. But that appears otherwise, since — by — produces +. And the construction allows neither multiplicand nor mul- tiplier to be the legitimate antecedent of 2. But we con- clude for the sake of truth, that the latter ought to be un- derstood by the pronoun if; and that the reading ought to be thus; recollecting that when a product has the same sign as the multiplicand, the multipher has the sign + ; and that in the contrary case, it has the sign — &c.* In page 114 the author appears to us to render a very plain thing, almost obscure. The letter x, in this case, is taken independently of either of the signs + or —; being used independently of any relations expressed by those signs. It _ is an independent symbol of the value of the unknown quantity sought, whether this quantity is affected with the sign + or—. There are instances of incorrect transla- tion at pp. 18, 23, 54........4. At p. 37 near the top, the last clause, “‘ and retaining the accents, which belonged to the coefficients ;”’ does not express the meaning of the original. Several valuable explanatory notes are added by the trans- lator. Jn that given at p. 95, doubtless by inadvertence, the parentheses which ought to indicate the multiplications between the factors, are omitted. There is not a uniformi- * The above remark was suggested by a valuable scientific friend, Vou. V....No. LE. 42 326 On Infinites. ty in translating several technical words ; compare pp. 24, 38, 58, 62, 67, contents p. 7. The list of errata given at the end, might be considerably extended. There are sev- eral references that appear useless, pp. 68, 107. The translation is very free from French idioms. The worst we have noticed is at p. 7. Complaints have been made of the length of the problem commencing at p. 69. But when the importance aud extensive application of the doc- trine of the changes of the signs corresponding to the differ- ent directions of the couriers, and the difficult points illus- trated in the course of the solution, are considered, the student can hardly conclude that he has been unprofitably occupied. A want of examples for practical exercise, has been objected to the work. Onthis point, M. Lacroix fo!- lows the course of the French and other continental mathe- maticians, which is, to give an extensive investigation of principles, and supply ali necessary remarks ; and to de- pend principally ou the instructor to see that the student is thoroughly versed in the practical application of them. METAPHYSICS. —~<— Arr. XIV.—Own InvinirtsEs. By Isaac Orr, one of the Instructors in the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Hartford. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Siz, Own account of the diversity of opinion on the subject of infinites, it is certainly highly desirable, that some person competent to the undertaking should treat of them fully and systematically, as far as the human mind is capable of in- vestigating them. 'The analogy existing between the vari- ous kinds of infinity would aid very much in their illustra- tion. By the succeeding remarks, however, more humble in their aim, and yet perhaps bolder than the result will jus- tify, it is intended merely to point out some, at least appa- rently, erroneous opinions that are prevalent, part of which On Infinites. 327 are frequent, part common, and part perhaps universal. It is not intended to say absolutely, that they are wholly, or even partialiy erroneous; but to place the arguments that bear against them in such a light, as to give them, if possible, their full efficiency. ‘The opinions-alluded to are the following. We cannot comprehend infinity: our ideas about it are merely negative: we cau tell whatit is not, but we cannot tell what it is. Mathematical infinites and infinitesimals, although extremely great or extremely small, are stiil in all eases measurable by a finite mind. Numerical infinity is impossible; for any collection of units, however great, is with intuitive certainty pumerable. The universe must be finite in extent, because its parts are finite, and finite parts cannot constitute infinity. The work of creation cannot have been eternal for the same reason, that it would imply an infinite series of units, or of finite parts, which is im- possible. Matter and finite spirits cannot have been eter- nal, either in a combined or elementary state, because their eternity necessarily implies their independent existence, and precludes the need of a Deity. All systems, therefore, that assert or admit the eternity of maiter, are atleistical. When itis said that we cannot comprehend infinity, it seems difficult to tell what is meant by the assertion. If it is meant that we cannot encompass it in thought, or number its parts, there can be no doubt in the case; for from the nature of infinity and of the human mind, this is of course impossible. And if it is meant that we cannot know all the truth respecting it, this may be readily granted, for it is the case with regard to almost every subject of investigation with which we are acquainted. ‘That we can know some- thing about it is seldom disputed; and with infinity, as with other subjccts, we may go patiently to work, and exam- ine it as far as the utmost limit to which our minds can penetrate. Mr. Locke says, ‘‘ We have no idea of infinite space ;” and afterwards, ‘‘We have no positive idea of infinite space, duration or number.” Itappears that he attempted to prove the less, because he was apprehensive that the arguments which he had adduced respecting the greater would not be satisfactory to all. Mr. Locke built well on his own foun- dation, or rather the foundation which had stood for ages 328 On Infinites. before him. It is true, that we can have no idea of infinite space, if it 1s necessary that such an idea should be a sensi- ble species, a phantasm, or even an intelligible species floating in the mind. But this doctrine, notwithstanding the vast authority by which it was sustained, is now almost en- tirely exploded: and after the main structure has been overthrown, it seems as if no one need hesitate to cast the fragments out of the way. According to the new and prob- ably correct doctrine of ideas, we may be said to have an idea or ideas of any thing respecting which we can with certainty make either a positive or negative assertion. Our ideas of a complex subject may be complete, and even some of them erroneous: but by this circumstance the title of those that are correct to the name of ideas, cannot be forfeited. If we are listening to the description of a miner- al, and are told that it is not like a diamond, we then have a negative idea respecting it: we know what it is not, yet from this information we do not know whatit is. And if we are told that it is not like anemerald, this gives us only an additional negative idea; and so all the account that can be given respecting it, which merely enables us to know that it differs from other thing -s, while it gives us no insight into its real qualities, is ely negative. But it is worthy of remark, thatthe very me mzneral, under which the ac- count is given, conve, (o us a positive idea. The asser- tions that itis not like « diamond or an emerald, are not in their widest sense strictly true. We perceive that like the diamond and the emerald it is solid and visible; and these perceptions are positive. Again, if we are told that it is not opaque, the expression, though given in the negative form, conveys to us a positive idea: we see at once that it is translucent. Translucency or opacity being the property of all minerals whatever, the terms, as well as the meanings which they properly convey, like the terms of an algebraic equation, may be either negative or positive, that cireum- stance being entirely dependent on the situation which they hold in the sentence. It is needless to add another of the numerous instances that occur of a similar description. Jn ali cases where the negative ideas are restricted to a certain number, and all butone are given; that is, if we know that a thing, circumstance, or property, is comparable or identi- cal with one of a number of other things, circumstances or On Infinites. 329 properties, and are told that itis unlike all but one of them, a positive idea of the subject is then inevitable. It ought to be kept in mind that positive and negative are entirely dis- tinguishable from complete and incomplete, competent and defective. Though in many cases one wiil involve the oth- er, yet the line of distinction cannot be mistaken. If the rule for positive and negative ideas, deduced from the above remarks, is not the right one, it is obvious that no fixed and general rule can be given; but the subject is left entirely to the caprice or convenience of the individual who discusses it. If itis the right one, then we have a positive idea or ideas of a subject, when we know to the least extent any of its intrinsic properties; and merely negative ideas, when we know only that it is diverse from several things specified, and yet, as far as our minds are concerned, subject to all the boundless variety of real and possible forms and condi- tions which are not specified. It would seem, then, that our idea of infinite space is as positive as it well can be; for we see with intuitive certainty that it is wholly unlike all other real existences that are possible. Mr. Locke takes some pains to prove, that infinite space is a real existence. Buta writer in a modern, and justly eclebrated work, as- serts that God alone is infinite, am at space is a mere nonentity; not having in itself evé finite existence, but possessing the potentiality of admi 4g existence. He as- serts at the same time, that mind with its affections has no relation to space. ‘To assert that the inevitable perception of extent without limitation, which is present in almost ev- ery mind, is solely and entirely the perception of an attri- bute of the Deity, and then virtually to declare that mind is incapable of such an attribute, evinces a versatility and variety in the application of terms, which, however much it may amuse the imagination, and exercise the intellect, communicates a needless obscurity to the style and to the argument. The same writer admits that wherever there is matter there is space; that God can make his works infinite; and yet without proving or even supposing that he has not made them so, he virtually declares, that if these works are not infinite, infinite space is a mere nonentity, existing only in conception. Notwithstanding the seeming incon- gruity of this language when taken in its usual acceptation, itappears probable enough, that he had the same idea of 530 On Infinites. what has been herctofore termed infinite space, as existed in the mind of Mr. Locke; and indeed, as it seems impos- sible should not exist in every mind that has turned itself to the subject, and is capable of taking a single step in the course of an argument. If there is any use in a circumlo- cution, there can be no objections to calling it, the infinite potentiality of admitting existence; of it may be called nonentity, though a mere child in philosophy would be sure that it is infinite nonentity. Besides, it seems too much like dooming the term nonentity to penance for its past defieien- cy. and decreeing, that whereas it has beretofore conveyed from mind to mind the idea of a nothing of no extent, it shall hereafter convey the idea of an infinite nothing. Mr. Locke remarks, that by repeated additions of the idea of finite space we come at the idea of infinity of space, but not at the idea of space infinite. ‘This indeed looks a little like supposing that infinite space has a substratum. Dormitat aliquando etiam bonus Homerus. The human mind usually in its first steps towards the idea of infinite space, annexes finite to finite space several times successively; but it does not appear certain that this is always the case. However far the idea of specific finite space is carried, the mere perception that there is space beyond it, by no means implies the perception of infinite space, for the limits of finite space are in all cases also beyond it. This process appears to be merely opening the eyes of the intellect. The ultimate process is to set up an imaginary limit without any reference at all to the position or intervening distance, and io substitute it for all supposable limits whatever; and the mind then perceives with instant intuition that all such limits are wholly an absurdity. The error with regard to mathematical infinity and infi- nitesimals, exists principal'y in those minds which are not accustomed to look beyond the steps of a dem nstration, as they are laid down before them. President Day in his ex- cellent system f algebra has given the following definition of infinites and of infinitesimals. ‘Infinite in the highest and most proper sense, is that which is so great that nothing can be added, or supposed to be added. A mathematical quantity is said to be infinite. when it is supposed to be in- creased beyond any determinate limits. When a quantity is diminished till it becomes Jess than any determinate On Infinites. 331 quantity, it is called an infinitesimal.” These definitions are perfectly correct, taking in the two last “any determi- nate limit,” and “ any determinate quantities,” for all deter- minate limits, and all determinate quantities whatever. The idea of mathematical infinity can be clearly obtained only from space and duration. In abstract number if we add millions to millions for ever so long a period, we see with certainty that the numbers thus obtained are in all cases finite. And if we suppose an abstract number infinite in the highest sense, that is, so great that nothing can be added to it, or supposed to be added, the mind sees at once that the supposition is an absurdity. It even appears while we deal only with abstract numbers, as if there could not be such a number really infinite, even in a mathematical sense ; that 1s, so great, that though it is capable of increase, it is notwithstanding incalculable by every finite mind. But if we suppose a line infinite in one direction, and terminating in the other at a given point, this line may properly be said to be mathematically infinite: for though it is evident- ly capable of increase, yet it is measureable by no finite mind. In the same sense past duration has been infinite : it is capable of increase, but the repetition of no finite du- ration can measure it. But in this sense future duration never will and never can be infinite. The infinity which is usually applied to it is the infinity of a mere abstraction of the mind. Wesee, it is true, that future duration will never terminate, but we sce with equal certainty that it will never arrive at infinity. We will at present take it for granted that the infinite line supposed above, and infinite past dura- tion, may be divided into finite parts. Then however far the idea of the finite part which we call unity is extended, we shall have in each case a number mathematically infi- nite. It is usually said, that we obtain the idea of an infini- tesmal by dividing a given space, or numerical unit into a certain number of parts, then into a greater number, and so on, increasing at each step, till the mind is wearied, and then because we see that the number may be still increased, and the quantity of each part diminished, we conclude there may be a part so small that no finite mind can meas- ure it. Itis obvious that these steps are exactly analogous to those which are first taken in quest of the idea of infi- nite space. How the mind draws the conclusion that the a On Infinites. spaces or expressions may be infinitely small when it knows with certainty that their becoming so by this process is wholly impossible, may seem mysterious. But the myste- ry lies in another step of which perhaps we are not always conscious. We suppose a space between two limits, and substitute it for a!l measureable spaces whatever. We know that the substitution is perfectly correct. Then the space not being in any case absolutely nothing, and the lim- its being of no extent, we see with certainty that another separating limit of no extent can be crowded in between them. It would seem as if no judicious mind could feela conviction of the possibility of a quantity infinitely small merely from the first similar steps of the process: and even with the last additional one the subject remains considera- bly obscure: for notwithstanding the conditions of the prob- lem, the mind still seizes on the ultimate portions,as measur- able by finite quantities. But suppose a fractional ex- pression, the numerator of which is one, and the denomi- nator a series of figures infinitely extended. ‘That the sup- position of such a series is admissible, we have already taken for granted. The proof will come hereafter. We should then obviously have the expression for an extent so small that no finite mind could measure it. ‘Taking this supposed extent as in the case above, and placing it be- tween two limits, we see with certainty, that it is not abso- lutely nothing: and the supposed limits having no extent, we see with the same certainty, that an intervening limit of no extent can be pushed in between them. Here then, af- ter the space is infinitely small, we see that it may still be divided and diminished. On the subject of an infinite series of units, lam happy to adduce the opinion of the late Professor Fisher, in his own language. “If you say it is metaphysically impossi- ble that the earth should have performed infinite revolu- tions about the sun, you maintain that there was a certain revolution anda certain point in the orbit, suppose A, at which it must have begun to move. In other words, it is seen by the mind to be impossible, that the earth should have described an arc of a foot before the point A. But the mind does not in fact perceive any such impossibility : on the other hand, it appears just as easy, that the foot which precedes this point should have been described, as On Infinites. 333 the foot which follows it. However far we push back an idea of the earth’s revolving, nothing obliges us to stop, and to say at this point it began to move.” Itis obvious that each of the revolutions supposed in the above argument, would be a unit. It proves, therefore, the possibility of an infinite series of units. It of course proves also the possibility of an infi- nite universe, and of an eternal work of creation. But it is by no means the only argument. It is not intended at present to show that the universe is actually infinite or that the work of creation has been eternal; but merely that ei- ther supposition involves no absurdity. It is admitted by all that God is every where present, and it will not be de- nied that wherever he is present, he can create; for to ad- duce and believe such a denial would at once destroy the idea of his own omnipotence. The conviction then, must be irresistible, that God has the power to make the uni- verse infinite. - A concession to this effect is all that is re- quisite. Suppose that he had made it infinite, and instead of placing the stars in their present order, had arranged them regularly in parallel lines, having a given distance be- tween them, say twenty billions of miles. ‘Take the stars in one of these lines, and the line being infinite, we see with certainty that the number of stars in that line would also be infinite; not in the highest sense, for of such infini- ty, number is not capable; bat so great as to be incalcula- ble by any finite mind. Take all the lines of stars that lie in a single infinite plane, and it is obvious that there will be an infinite number of lines, in each of which an infinite number of stars or units is included. Again, take all the infinite parallel planes, and there are an infinite number of planes or units, each of which contains an infinite number of lines or units, and each of these lines contains also an in- finite number of units. Here then, we have the cube of an infinite number. If these expressions appear incohe- rent to any one, let him for a moment divest his mind en- tirely of language, and the ideas will be unequivocal, and light as day. Again, it is granted by all, that God is eter- nal; and also that his power of action has been eternal. It will also certainly be granted, that this power might have been exerted at every period of its existence, or else it was not a power. If it might have been exerted eternally, ther eternal creation jis no absurdity. Vou. V....No. II. 43 334 On Infinites. Mr. Fisher observes, when remarking on the possibility of an eternal creation as an effect of Divine power, “If there be any seeming inconsistency in the language eternal effect, we may call it an eternal existence dependent on an- other-eternal existence, in such manner, that if the latter had never existed, the former never would. I have some- times illustrated it to myself in this manner. Suppose a straight rod to begin at the earth and to stretch towards the north. Letit be supposed immoveable, but that all other matter gravitates in hes at right angles to it, and tends to fall away fromit. A chain may be hung parallel to this rod, by means of wires placed at moderate distances. It is self-evident, that the chain may be supported to as greata distance as the rod stretches ; and therefore if the rod stretches to infinity, it will support a chain of infinite length. The analogy of extension to duration admits this conclusion to be extended with intuitive clearness to the latter.” To some it may perhaps appear necessary, that if the agent and the work are coeternal, the volition and the effect must be in all cases contemporaneous. But if the agent has been eternal, and if he has been eternally at work, and if we admit the necessity in every case of a time intervening between the volition and the effect, we see with certainty that the admission involves no difficulty ex- cept with regard to the original act. But the supposed original act of a being eternally at work is an absurdity. ‘To those however who still consider it indispensable that the volition and the effect should be coincident with regard to duration, it may be answered, that so they might be. If it be said that the Deity necessarily requires any time in which to perform one of his operations, that time may be expressed by a finite number, or infinitesimal. But to say that he cannot perform an operation ina less time than a given one, is virtually to say that his power is limited. It will doubtless be objected, that if the work of creation has been eternal, then some one portion of the universe must - alone have been cternal, and therefore could not have been created. This portion the mind perceives must have been the original one. But the original unit of an eternal series isan absurdity. Besides if such an argument is admissible, it will equally well disprove infinite duration and infinite space. For it is obvious that in past duration, any point whatever may be assumed by a finite mind; but it sees On Infinites. 335 with certainty that the period between that point and the present is finite. Therefore infinite duration is impossible. irom this fallacy, however, it leaps with alacrity, for it perceives with the quickness of instinct, that of such finite quantities however great, eternal duration comprehends an infinity. So of infinite space any two points may be assum- ed, and therefore space cannot be boundless, because the space between those points is finite. But of such finites, infinite space obviously comprehends an infinity. In order that the line between two points should be infinite, it is necessary that they should be extreme points. But extreme points in infinite space, is a contradiction in terms, and an absurdity. ‘To many minds that discuss infinites, it seems a most mysterious circumstance, that they fall into so many inevitable fallacies, and find arguments of appa- rently irresistible force set point blank against each other.- Bat itis well worthy of remark, that such fallacies are nev- er incurred, except when we attempt to measure infinites by a finite number of finite quantities ; a mode of proceed- — ing which leaves less ground for wonder at its results, than at the gemius that prompted it. The opinion that the eternity of matter and of finite spirits, necessarily implies an independent existence, is founded on the habit of reasoning from analogy. We have been accustomed to consider the Deity alone possessed of eternal existence, and the supposition that he: only has ex- isted eternally, unavoidably implies that he is independent. Hence when we attribute eternity to any other existence, we are apt to conclude, that whereas independence ts obvi- ously a necessary concomitant of eternity in the Supreme Being, it must be so of course in the case of all other eter- nal existences. Hternal creation as supposed above is strictly eternal ; and yet is as perfectly dependent on the Deity as if it were not supposed eternal. Should it be said, that if matter and finite spirits are dependent on the Deity for existence, they cannot have been eternal; then there was a certain point in duration before which the Dei-: ty could not uphold them in existence ; and between the present time and that point the duration is indispensably finite. Therefore during an eternity God had not the pow- er to uphold the world. [tis needless to say that this is an absurdity. If we assert that it was necessary for him to create them sometime before their capability of being up- held in existence, then, as stated above, God cannot per- 336 Seybert’s Analysis of the Maclureite. form his works without a given time to do it. The prece- ding arguments tend only to show that the universe may be finite or infinite, and that matter and finite spirits, or the work of creation may have been temporal or eternal. The knowledge of what has occurred, and what exists in fact, if it should be ever obtained, depends entirely on a different train of arguments. With much respect, your obedient servant, ISAAC ORR. Hartford, July 31, 1822. ——_— i = =. CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS, &c. ———— Art. XV.—Analysis of the Maculureite, or Fluo-Silicate of Magnesia, a new mineral species, from New-Jersey 3 by Heyry Seysert, of Philadelphia. Read before the American Philosophical Society, on the 17th of May, 1822. Tue colour of this mineral is generally wine yellow, sometimes reddish brown, and occasionally presents agreen- ish hue; reduced to pow’ -v, it is of a pale yellow colour. Its lustre is most frequently vitreous, but some specimens approach nearer to that of wax. In mass it is, for the most part, opaque ; small fragments are generally transparent. Its form is irregularly lenticular or spheroidal, but it never occurs regularly crystallized ; it exhibits a crystalline struc- ture, and presents two cleavages in opposite directions. I have not been able to obtain the primitive form by mechan- ical division. The fracture in ore direction, is distinctly lamellar, in the opposite, it is less regular. Fragments in- determinate. It scratches fluor spar and glass, and gives sparks abundantly with steel. It occurs. imbedded in car- bonate of lime, accompanied by carbonate of iron, and oc- casionally by minute portions of mica. The size of the spheroids varies from that of a pin’s head, to several inches in diameter, and they often embrace carbonate of lime and carbonate of iron as nuclei. Its specific gravity varies from 3.157 to 3.225. Before the blowpipe it is infusible Seybert’s Analysis of the Maclureite. 337 per se; with borax it yields a transparent colourless and vitreous globule. | Analysis, (No. 1.) A. Three grammes of the pure mineral, in the state of an impalpable powder, were exposed to a red heat, ina platina crucible ; after the calcination, the colour of the powder had become a shade darker, and it weighed 2.97 grammes, therefore the moisture, dissipated by calcina- tion, amounts to 0.03 grammes on three grammes, or one per one hundred. B. The calcined mineral (A) was boiled with nitro mu- riatic acid, the acid readily acted on it, and converted it into a jelly ; the mixture was evaporated to a dry mass, which was treated with water acidulated with muriatic acid, and again moderately evaporated; more water was then added and the solution was filtered, to separate the silica, which, after edulcoration and calcination, weighed 0.91 grammes, on 3 grammes, equivalent to 30.333 per 100. At the close of the calcination, [ observed that the upper surface of the crucible was coated with a very minute por- tion of a white sublimate, but as the matter was very in- considerable in quantity, I supposed it to be a portion of the silica adhering to the crucible, and therefore deemed it unnecessary to examine it. C. After the separation of the silica, (B) the liquor was neutralized with caustic potash; it was then treated with the hydro-sulphate of potash, which occasioned a black precipi- tate ; this precipitate, after being well washed, was calcined in a porcelain vessel, to expel the greater part of the sul- phur; it was then treated with alittle nitricacid and exposed toa strong red heat.in a platina crucible; after this calcina- tion it weighed 0.05 grammes on 3 grammes, or 1.666 per 100; this product, on examination with caustic potash, was found to contain neither manganese nor alumina, and thus proved to be peroxide of iron. D. The liquor (C) when tested with oxalate of potash, gave no trace of lime. E. The liquor (C) treated with an excess of caustic pot- ash, gave an abundant flocculent precipitate, which, on ex’ posure to a strong heat, yielded 1.70 grammes of magnesia on 3 grammes, or 56. 666 per 100. 338 Seybert’s Analysis of the Maclureite. From the above analysis we have the following result :— Per 100 Parts. A. Water, - 01.000 cach wei oxygen B. Silica, - 30.333 - - 52257 C. Peroxide of Iron, 01.666 : - - 00.510 KE. Magnesia, 56.666 - : - 21.935 89.665 100.000 10.335 Loss. Analysis, (No. 2.) The great deficiency in the above results, in regard to the 100 parts of mineral employed, rendered it highly prob- able that an aleali was an essential constituent of this sub- stance. The analysis was then repeated im the following manner : A. Three grammes of the mineral were finely pulveri- zed and exposed to a red heat ; the colour of the powder was not materially altered ; the weight, after calcination, was 2.98 grammes, therefore the moisture volatalized, by calcination, was 0.02 grammes on 3 grammes, or 0.666 per 100. B. The residue of the calcination, (A) was treated as in the preceding analysis, the silica, separated ‘by filtration, after exposure to a red heat, weighed 0.93 grammes on 3 grammes, or 31.0 per 100. The interior of the crucible again presented appearances similar to those stated in the first analysis. C. The per oxide of iron obtained from the liquor (B,) by the hydro-sulphat of ammonia, weighed 0.09 grammes or 3 grammes, or 3.0 per 100. D. The liquor (C,) was treated with an excess of lime water, the precipitate produced was very abundant; after being perfectly edulcorated and strongly calcined, it gave 1.68 grammes of magnesia on 3 grammes, or 56.00 per 100. E. The liquor (D,) which was very voluminous, was con- centrated by evaporation, and the lime was precipitated by oxalate ofammonia; the liquor was then filtered, and evap- Seybert’s Analysis of the Maclureite. 338 orated to a dry saline mass, and the residue was exposed to a red heat, to expel the ammontacal salts; the fixed salt weighed 0.12 grammes ; when treated with water it dissol- ved, leaving 0.02 grammes of insoluble matter, the filtered solution, on being slowly evaporated, furnished very minute irregular cubes, which, when dried and exposed to the at- mosphere, did not deliquesce 5 they were dissolved in wa- ter, and the concentrated solution when treated with the muriate of platina, gave a yellow precipitate of muriate of potash and platina, which was very abundant in proportion to the quantity of salt employed; the alcali thus proved to be potash, and the 0.10 grammes muriate of potash are equivalent to 0.06326 grammes of potash on three grammes, er 2.108 per 100. The products of this analysis are as follows :— Per 100 Parts. A Walters ce : 00.666 B. Silica, : - 31.000 C. Per oxide of Iron, 03.000 D. Magnesia, - 56.000 | E. Potash, : - 02.108 92,774 100.000 7.226 Toss, From the preceding result I was satisfied, that this mine+ ral must contain some other constituent than those which ! had detected in it, and on comparing the oxygen of the si- lica with that of the magnesia, it appeared very probable, that it might be an acid. I searched for boric acid without success. To discover Fluoric acid, | proceeded in the following manner, Ist, a portion of the pulverized mineral was heated with an excess of sulphuric acid, and a piece of glass was exposed to the fumes, which were disengaged from the mixture, but it exhibited no signs of corrosion; from this experiment, I could not conclude the absence of fluor- ic acid, for the silica contained in the mineral would proba- bly have been sufficient to saturate it, and thereby pre: vent its action on the glass. 2. Three grammes of the pulverized mineral were fused, during thirty minutes, in a 340 Seybert’s Analysis of the Maclureite. silver crucible with nine grammes of caustic potash ; wher the matter had cooled, it was treated with water, and the solution was filtered, the filtered liquor was supersaturated with muriatic acid, the solution was treated with an excess of ammonia, this produced a gelatinons precipitate, which was separated by filtration, the filtered liquor was again treated with a slight excess of muriatic acid, and boiled to expel the carbonic acid, it was then exactly neutralized with ammonia, and treated with lime water, no precipitate was formed, and it was treated with muriate of lime with the same result ; these experiments induced me to believe, that the mineral in question contained no fluoric acid, nevertheless, to reduce this fact to greater certitude, I follow- ed precisely the method employed by, Professor Klaproth,in his analysis of the Pycnite, viz. three grammes of the sub- stance, reduced to a fine powder, were calcined in a sil- ver crucible, with caustic potash, the silica was separated ia the usual way, the liquor was treated with an excess of sub-carbonate of soda, to precipitate the Magnesia ; after filtration the carbonic acid was expelled, from the liquor, by an excess of muriatic acid and subsequent ebullition, it was then exactly neutralized with ammonia, and treated with a solution of pure lime and muriate of lime, without any precipitate having been produced by these reagents. My attempts to discover Fluoric acid having thus proved fruitless, | determined to direct my attention to the ap- pearances which occurred during the calcination of the si- jica in the two preceding analyses, the sublimate was very minute in quantity, | prepared some of it from silica ob- tained, from the mimeral, as in the preceding analyses. The silica was dried, at a moderate temperature, and then ex- . posed to a red heat, in a small glass retort; before the glass was reddened, there passed over a small quantity of water, anda white sublimate appeared on the dome of the retort ; as the heat increased, this sublimate descended into the neck, and lastly, partially, into a receiver adapted tocondense it. After the calcination, the retort was re- moved from the fire, the receiver contained only a very small portion of the sublimate, and a vapour possessing a a very pungent odour, which reddened litmus with great energy: the sublimate incrusting the neck of the retort was colourless, and very acid to the taste, in water it dis- solved partially, leaving a flaky residue, the liquor became Seybert’s Analysis of the Maclurette. 341 strongly acid; when treated with concentrated sulphuric acid iteffervesced rapidly, disengaging a pungent gaz, giving rise to dense white vapours in the surrounding atmosphere, its solution in the acid was but partial ; this sublimate thus presented properties analogous to the Fluate of silica. To investigate this matter more satisfactorily, I made the fol- lowing comparative experiments, viz. a portion of the pow- dered mineral was heated in a glass retort with an excess of sulphuric acid. A mixture of three parts of Fluor spar and one part of silica was then treated in the same manner, the results obtained were precisely similar, a white pun- gent vapour was disengaged, which condensed,on coming in contact with water, in the form of a white film, and the — neck of the retort was incrusted with a white sublimate, which effervesced with sulphuric acid, yielding a gaz which presented the properties of Fluo-silicic acid. ‘These ex- periments clearly demonstrated, that Fluoric acid was a constituent of the mineral under examination, and I was induced to repeat the experiments above stated according to Professor Klaproth’s method, but they were not attend- ed with better success; on examing the silica, obtained in this manner, I observed that it possessed certain proper- ties, which proved that it had retained Fluoric acid; when thrown into water it decrepitated and rendered the liquor acid ; with sulphuric acid it effervesced violently, yielding Fluo-silicic acid: the silica, therefore, was intermixed with Fluate of potash and silica, a compound described by Gay Lussac* and Thenard. They state, that potash com- bines with silica and Fluoric acid, forming a compound which requires six or seven hundred times. its weight of water to dissolve it. I also ascertained, that the magne- sia, although precipitated by an excess of caustic or carbo- nated alcali, likewise retained a portion of the Fluoric acid ; the cause of my not having obtained any Fluate of Lime from the solutions above mentioned, was thus rendered apparent. I thought to obviate this difficulty in employing Soda instead of Potash, in this manner I succeeded in ob- taining some Fluate of Lime, but I ascertained, that the Silica and magnesia still retained a portion of the acid and at length after various experiments, | resorted to the method employed, so successfully, by Professor Berzelius * Recherches Physico-Chimiques vol. ii. p. 19. Vou. V. 4 342 Seybert’s Analysis of the Maclureite. in his analysis of the Pyrophysalite, Pycnite and other ‘Topazes. Analysis. A. Three grammes of the pure mineral, finely pulver- ized and subjected to the action of a red heat, underwent no material alteration, except a diminution of 0.03 gr. on 3 grammes, hence we have 1.0 per. 100 of water. B. The calcined mineral (A), was exposed to a red heat, during one hour in a platina crucibie, with 18 grammes of crystallized sub-carbonate of soda, the mixture did not fuse, when cold its colour was yellowish brown, it was treated with water and the solution was filtered, the filtered liquor was treated with an excess of acetic acid, when treated with carbonate of ammonia it gave no precipitate; it therefore contained no silica: it was again supersaturated with acetic acid and boiled to expel the carbonic acid, the excess of acetic acid was then neutralized with ammonia, and the liquor was treated with muriate of Lime, which occasioned a white, flaky precipitate, possessing the proper- ties of fluate of lime; when calcined, it weighed 0.44 grammes: this result was verified by a second experiment, in which I obtained 0.43 grammes of fluate of lime, and on calcining the mineral a second time, with sub-carbonate of soda, I ascertained that the fluoric acid had been com- pletely separated, the 0.44 grammes of fluate of lime are equivalent to 0.12258 grammes of fluoric acid on 3 gram- mes, or 4.086 per 100. C. The residue, on the filter(B), was treated with mu- riatic acid, which converted it into a Jelly; it was evaporated to dryness, then treated with water acidulated with muriatic acid, and again moderately evaporated, more water was added and the solution was filtered, the silica, remaining on the filter, after edulcoration and calcination, weighed 0.98 grammes on 3 grammes, or 32.666 per 100. A sec- ond experiment yielded precisely the same quantity of silica. D. The iron was separated from the liquor (C), as ia the Ist Analysis; the per-oxide thus obtained, weighed 0.07 grammes on 3 gr. or 2.333 per 100. Seybert’s Analysts of the Maclureite. 343 E. The magnesia was precipitated from the liquor (D), with an excess of caustic potash, after a strong calcina- tion it weighed 1.62 grammes on 3 grammes, or 54.00 per 100. The constituents of this mineral are therefore, Per 100 Parts. A. Water 01.000 Containing Oxygen. B. Fluorice Acid 04.086 02.971 C. Silica 32.666 16.430 D. Per Oxide of iron 02.333 00.715 E. Magnesia 54.000 20.903. Analysis(No.2)F’.Potash 02.108 00.357 - 96.193 100.000 003.807 Loss. In regarding this analysis according to the theory of vhemical proportions, this mineral evidently consists of an atom of sub-fluate of Magnesia, combined with three atoms of silicate of Magnesia, the fluate of Potash and silicate of Tron being unessential ingredients, therefore its mineralo- gical formula will be M? -14+.3MS. ~ The subject of the preceding examination, I have been told, was discovered several years ago, by the late Dr. Bruce, near Sparta, in Sussex Co. New-Jersey. When our mineralogists became first acquainted with thissubstance, it was supposed to be Sphene: subsequent investigations led to its being ranked with the Condrodite, a mineral discov- ered in Sweden, and analysed by M. d’Ohsson. The ex- periments of this gentleman were repeated and verified by Professor Berzeluis the results were as follows : viz.—per 100, Silica 38, Magnesia 54, Oxide of Iron 5.1, Alumi- na 1.5, Potash 0.86, Manganese a trace, loss 0.54.* From the preceding summary, it isevident that the two substances are essentially different in their chemical composition, though they much resemble each other in their physical characters. Magnesia not having heretofore been found combined with * Journal of the Royal Institution of G. B. 1822, No. 24. 344 Bowen’s Analysis of the Pytoxene. fluo-silicic acid in a native state ; the subject of the prece- ding experiments, must therefore constitute a new species in our mineralogical system, and I propose to call it Maclu- reite. as a mark of my respect and esteem for Mr. Wm. Maclure, to whose efforts we are much indebted for a know- ledge of the Mineralogy and Geology of the United States. Art. XVI.—Analysis* of the Pyroxene Sahlite, from the vicinity of New-Haven, Conn. By Grorce T. Bowen, of Providence. This mineral is found 2 or 3 miles west of New-Haven, imbedded in green serpentine marble. Its colour is grayish green; the colour of its powder is light gray—its structure is crystalline—easily breaking into rhombic fragments; no distinct crystals, have, however, been observed—its fracture in one direction is foliated, having a vitreous lustre; the cross fracture is uneven and nearly dull—it is translucent at the edges—its hardness is nearly equal to that of augite—it is not magnetic—before the blowpipe it is fusible with diffi- culty into a dark coloured globule—its specific gravity va- ries from 3.127 to 3.294. Analysis. A. 50 grains of the mineral having been carefully freed from foreign substances, were reduced to an impalpable powder, and exposed during one hour to a high red heat in a platina crucible. The powder after calcination was a shade darker than before, and weighed 49.766 grains. The loss by calcination was therefore .234 grains, or .468 per 100. B. After calcination the mineral was fused with three times its weight of caustic potash in a silver crucible and kept a red heat during one hour. The mass after fusion was of a grass green colour, which it imparted to the wa- ter used to detach it from the crucible. Muriatic acid was added in excess, and the fluid evaporated to dryness. It was then treated with water acidulated with muriatic acid, and the silex separated by the filter; when washed and cal- cined, it weighed 26.562 grain or 53.124 grains per 100. * Done in the Laboratory of Yale College. Bowen’s Analysis of the Pyrovene. 345 C. The liquor (B) having been neutralized with am- monia, was treated with the hydrosulphate of ammonia. The black precipitate which was preduced after being heat- ed to expel the sulphur, and calcined with nitric acid, weighed 4.192 grains. The alumine separated in the usu- al manner by the action of caustic potash, weighed 531 grains or 1. 062. per 100. D, The metallic oxides, after the separation of the alu- mine, weighed 3.645 grains. They were treated with mu- riate of ammonia to which a small quantity of sugar had been added, in order to separate the manganese. The per- oxide of iron remaining, was equal to 3.004 grains of pro- toxide in 50 grains, or to 6.008 grains per 100. ‘The pro- toxide of manganese amounted to .598 grains per 100. E. Oxalate of potash was then added to the liquor, (D.) The precipitate of oxalate of lime when calcined yielded 11.810 grains of lime, or 23.620 grains per 100. F. The magnesia was precipitated from the solution, (E) by caustic potash at a boiling heat; when washed and calcined, it weighed 07.250 grains or 14.500 per 100. The results of this analysis, give as the composition of this mineral per 100 parts :— A. Water. : ‘ 00.468 see oxygen. B. Silica : ‘ . §3.124 .) 26.92 C. Alumine . : : 01.062 . : D. Protoxide of Iron - 06.008 i . 01.36 D. Protoxide of Manganese 00.598 _. : —— E. Lime i : 23 620 i - 06.63 F. Magnesia. ‘ . 14.500 . : 05.81 ~ 99.380 100.000 000.620 loss. Some miveralogists have considered this substance as Diallage. The preceding experiments, however, sufficient- ly prove that it is distinct from that mineral. In its exter- nal characters, and also in its chemical composition, it cor- responds almost exactly with the Pyroxene Sahlite of Swe- den. It was discovered a number of years since by Pro- 346 Bowen’s Analysis of the Nephrite. fessor Silliman, at one of the marble quarries, near New- Haven, and his opinion was that this mineral coincided ex- actly with the Swedish Sahlite or Malacholite. Art. XVII.—Analysis* of a variety of Nephrite, from Smithfield, R. I. By Georce T. Bowen, of Providence. This beautiful mineral occurs at Smithfield, imbedded in large nodules in white primitive limestone. Its color is bright apple green—sometimes tinged with blue; the colour of its powder is white—its hardness is equal to that of felspar— its fracture dul] and splintery—it is highly translucent, and very difficult to break on account of its great tenacity—be- fore the blowpipe it is infusible. Its specific gravity varies from 2.594 to 2.787.—Its powder when boiled with sul- phuric or nitromuriatic acid, is entirely decomposed; the obtained solution yielding an abundant precipitate with Phosphate of soda and ammonia. Analysis. A. Fifty grains of the mineral in the powder were ex- posed, during thirty minutes, to a red heat in a platina cru- cible; the colour of the powder was not altered. The weight after calcination was 43.250 grains; the moisture dissipated amounted therefore to 6.750 grains in 50 grains, or 13.500 per 100. A piece of the mineral weighing 100 grains was then heated during thirty minutes, without having been reduced to powder. Its green colour disappeared; it lost its translucency, and became of a pure white; its hard- ness was also much increased as it now scratched glass with facility. The loss of weight amounted to 13.625 grains. The mean of three experiments gave as the loss by calci- nations 13.417 grains per 100. B. One hundred grains of the mineral in powder were fused with 300 grains of caustic potash, in a silver crucible, and kept at a red heat during one hour. The contents of the crucible, when removed from the fire, were of a light ereen colour.—Muriatic acid was added in excess, and the fluid evaporated to dryness.—The dry mass was then treat- ed with water acidulated with muriatic acid ; the silex sep- * Done iy the Laboratory of Yale College. / Bowen’s Analysis of a variety of Nephrite. S47 arated in this manner, when washed and calcined, weighed 44.688 grains. C. The solution (B), was neutralized with ammonia and treated with the hydrosulphate of ammonia.—The precip- itate when ignited and calcined with nitric acid weighed 2.313 grains. When fused with caustic potash, it imparted to ita tinge of green, giving indications of a trace of man- ganese. ‘The oxide of iron remaining after the action of caustic potash, amounted to 1.747 grains. We have then by difference alumine equal to 0.562 grains. D. The lime was precipitated from the liquor (C), by the addition of oxalate of potash; when calcined it weighed 4.250 grains. E. To the remaining solution, (D), after the separation of the lime, caustic potash was added in excess, and the fluid boiled. ‘The magnesia separated by this treatment, when washed and calcined, weighed 34.631 grains. F. 250 grains of the mineral were introduced into a small porcelain retort which was connected with the mercurial ap- paratus, and kept ata red heat during one hour. A portion of water distilled over, but no carbonic acid was obtained. The composition of this mineral is therefore, Per 100 Parts. s A. Water 13.417 containing oxygen 11.17 B. Silica 44.688 22.47 C. Alumine 00.562 -——_ C. Oxide of Iron 01.747 ae D. Lime 04.250 01.09 K.. Magnesia 34.631 13.40 ©. Oxide of Manganese a trace Seemed 99.295 100.000 000.705 Loss. On comparing the results of the preceding experiments upon this substance, with the analyses of Nephrite which have been hitherto published, we find a considerable differ- ence in chemical composition; the Smithfield mineral con- tains a much greater proportion of water, and only a very small quantity of alumine. It diffes from Nephrite also in 348 On Alkanet as a substitute for its inferior hardness, and its infusibility before the blow pipe. It corresponds in other respects with the descrip- tions of that mineral given in the books, and possesses in a high degree that peculiar tenacity which is so characteris- tic of the different varieties of Jade. Art. XVIIL.—Letter from Rosert Hare, M. D. Profes- sor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, on Alkanet as a substitute for Litmus or Turmerie, &c. also on preparing pure nitrate of silver and on Nitrate of Am- mona for Nitrous Oxide. Havine infused some Alkanet roots in Alcohol, I was sur- prized at finding the infusion blue instead of red. Re- collecting that the Alcohol employed had stood over Pearl- ash, | tried some of the roots in pure Alcohol, when a red tincture resulted which was rendered blue by a drop of any alkaline solution. In our chemical compilations I never have met with any account of this habitude. No notice is taken of it under the article Alkanet in Ure’s or Aikin’s Dictionary. On the contrary the broad assertion is constantly repeated, that acids redden vegetable blues, while alkalies make them green. Yet, as litmus is not converted to a green, and al- kanet is made blue by alkalies, it is evident that they not on- ly fail in rendering some blue infusions green, but may ren- der red infusions blue. From the process of manufactur- ing Litmus we may infer, that its colour is developed by an alkali. Alkanet roots may be used in place of Litmus, produ- cing the same phenomena in a reversed order. ‘The Alka- net infusion must be made blue by an alkali and restored by an acid, instead of being as in the case of litmus, reddened by an acid and restored by an alkali. Thus as the one is indirectly a test for alkalies, so is the other for acids. In making the infusion of alkanet blue for this purpose, the smallest quantity of alkali should be used, which will ac- complish the change, as in that case less acid will be requi- site to restore the colour, and thus manifest tts presence in any solution to be tested. ie Lignis oe Turmeric, &c. 347 ? I have ascertained that the white crystals which form spontaneously, when silver coin is dissolved in nitric acid, diluted no more than is necessary for the solution to pro- ceed actively, give no trace of copper when redissolved. May not this be a good preliminary step in refining that metal, or for obtaining the nitrat either for lunar caustic or as a test. I have observed that the strong nitric acid procured from dry nitre, may be saturated with carbonate of ammonia ina retort, and nitrous oxide procured forthwith, by distillation. The salt produced is in the compact form. Instead of me- tallic air-holders, [ make use of bags, such as are made by Pixiiat Paris, (such as are called by him Réservoir en Bau- druche) passing the gas through water by an apparatus, of which I will send you a drawing as soon as convenient. [I find that bags of leather, soaked with boiled linseed oil, will answer to hold the oxide gas. {FPrThis letter was written a twelve month ago. The facts have since been added in notes to the American edi- tion—Ure’s Nicholson’s Dictionary. Art. XIX.—On the Combustion of Hydrogen in water— being a new application of Hare’s Blowpipe. For the American Journal of Science. Mr. Enprrer, j I nave discovered, within three or four months back, that if the flame, produced by the combustion of hydrogen gas, issuing, in combination with oxygen, from the com- pound blowpipe of Hare, be plunged below the surface of a vessel of water, it continues, notwithstanding its submer- sion in, and actual contact with, this element, to burn, ap- parently with the same splendour as it does in the common atmosphere. The only difference I am able to discover, is, that when the flame burns in the water, it seems, so to speak, to conglobate its figure ;—whereas in the air, the shape it assumes, is that of a long slender conical pencil. You will readily believe that the water, which contains within its bosom, asource of heat so abundant, as hydrogen Vot. V....No. LE. Aoi 348 On the Combustion of Hydrogen in Water. gas in combustion with oxygen, will have its temperature gapidly elevated. This was the fact; the thermometer rose, in a very short time, ina common half pint tumbler filled with water, say from 50° or 60°, the temperature pre- vailing at the time, to 170° and upwards. The reason why the temperature of 212° was not reach- ed, was this. For the purpose of enabling myself to in- troduce this gaseous flame, into very narrow recesses, I had affixed to the orifice of the blowpipe beforementioned, a silver tube, about an inch or an inch and a half long; which conveyed the gases, in a mized state, to their orifice of ig- nition. The diameter of the bore of the tube might be, perhaps, one twentieth of an inch. You are aware, then, under these circumstances, that the flame might occasion- ally recede, into the interior of the tube, to the place of their conjunction. This I found very frequently to occur in the water; but very seldom in the air. In fact, it often re- quired care to introduce the flame, slowly and deliberately, into the water, in order to avoid recession, at its first en- trance. The length of time for which the recession could be avoided, or rather was avoided, even under favourable circumstances, was so short, that I did not attempt any ex- periment, for the purpose of obtaining specific results. You will imagine, possibly, that with a heat so energetic as the gases in question are known to produce, the water, especially so small a quantity as half a pint, ought to be ex- pected to boil very soon. But, it should be recollected, that the flame was introduced, commonly, very carefully, and to the depth only of about an inch or so. Little vertic- al communication of heat would take place; the lateral communication, would probably be still less—-more espe- cially when we consider that the water in immediate con- tact with the flame might be expected to be instantaneously converted into steam and ascend to the surface, which was, to all appearance, the fact. Indeed I was nota little sur- prised to find that, with the same blow-pipe, and under the same circumstances, water was much more heated by the application of it, for a given time to the exterior of a tin vessel than when the same flame was submersed in an equal quantity of the same fluid. To obviate the evil of the recession of the flame, tubes of a fine capillary bore, so small as to prevent recession, are - On the Combustion of Hydrogen in Water. 349 necessary. With these through which the gases should be driven, with competent pressure, I have no doubt, it would be possible to maintain an uninterrupted ignition, co- existent with the supply of the gases. In my leisure mo- ments, | am preparing to verify this conjecture ; but as I shall not probably be able to give you the result in time for your next number, I thought proper to offer to your dispo- sal, the little I have already learnt on the subject. When a piece of cork or pine wood was applied to the submersed gaseous flame, it gave outa brilliant light, pro- ducing a pleasing effect on the spectator ; and this phenom- enon continued till recession took place, which in some in- stances might be for a minute or two. Sometimes, howev- er, L observed that the flame was less brilliant than at oth- ers. This I attributed either to the imperfect mixture of the gases, or to the excess of oxygen over the hydro- gen being less at one time than at another. Some little experiments 1 made wentto shew, as I thought, that the gases were not perfectly and proportionally mix- ed. If caused the submersed flame to burn under an in- verted tumbler filled with water, I invariably collected it full of gas, and from a very slight detonation it gave on one or two occasions, I concluded it to be principally, hydro- gen. The metals also were submitted to the submersed flame ; but the most I was able to do with them, was to makea small piece of copper wire, say, of ;, of an inch in diame- ter, red-hot; that is red-hotin the day time. And this was repeated with success several times. You know that the solder which is used in the fabrication of our common tin ware, is very fusible ;-—say it fuses at be- tween 300° and 400°, at the highest; and that the iron which forms the basis of the tin, as it is called, melts at 17 or 18 thousand degrees. NowI had the curiosity to make a com- parative experiment. I placed on a common smith’s forge, a common tin cup, about nine inches deep, and urged around and beneath it, as great a heat as could be obtained from charcoal, (mineral coal not being at hand,) keeping it supplied with a very small quantity of water, without pro- ducing any effect, as you will of course believe, towards melting the solder. 350 On the Combustion of Hydrogen in Water. Next I took another small tin cup filled with water, and with my blowpipe applied its flame to its external and ver- tical surface, at an inch or two below the level of the surface of the water it contained ; when in a short time, the metal became heated to redness, next to whiteness, and very soon afterwards a perforation appeared, through which the water escaped and the flame entered. Very soon after the ap- plication of the flame, the water boiled violently in the imme- diate vicinity of the heated metallic surface ; ithecame beauti- fully luminous, and strange as it may seem, the redness and. whiteness of the heated metal as mentioned above, was ex- hibited, not on the exterior surface of the cup only, but also on the very surface to which the water was contiguous. The experiment was often repeated, and with great gratification to the beholders. How great then must be the energy of the hydro-oxygen flame, compared with that of a smith’s forge | This flame also burns beneath the surface of alcohol— but this inflammable fluid has not only the inconvenience of burning on its surface, but in consequence, probably, of this inflammability, is more liable than water is, to recession. I have thus far detailed the little experiments which have lately amused me and my friends. I am not much disposed to induige in speculation on the applications, which, in the course of ithe progress of science, may be made of these facts; yet I cannot refrain from observing, that the possibility of effecting the combustion of most substan- ces, with an agent so energetic as the heat evolved by the gases In question, seems to point distinctly among other things, to their employment as a sub-marine instrument of naval warfare. From the experiments I have made, (and these too, with means having no reference whatever, to the accomplishment of such a purpose,) I am fully satisfied that success may be commanded, and that, in this respect, it will depend on, and be obtained by, the existence of these three circumstances, to wit :— Ist, On causing the mixed gases to issue from fine capil- lary tubes, of one or two inches long so as to prevent reces- sion. 2d, On expelling them with such velocity as to cause them to effect a considerable displacement of the water, and On the Combustion of Hydrogenin Water. 351 create, as it were, an artificial atmosphere of the mixed gases at the same time that they are in combustion. 3d, On supplying to the combustible body, for instance, that part of a ship’s bottom, designed to be attacked, a quantity of oxygen gas, which, aided by the intense heat produced by the ignition of the mixed gases, may combine first with the heated copper, converting it into an oxide 5 and 2d, with the carbonized timber of the ship, converting it into carbonic acid gas. This object, as I have already stated, fam now devoting my leisure moments to accomplish. And this I expect to do, by combining a great number of capillary streams of the mixt gases into a circular flame, in the centre of which, through other capillary tubes, is transmitted, by means of a tube having no communication with the gases in combus- tion, a quantity of oxygen gas, adequate to the conversion of metals into oxides, and of charcoal into carbonic acid gas. How far, in the event of the realization of these views, it might be proper to consider it as an instrument of naval warfare to be employed for the perforation of ship’s bot- toms, so as to sink them in spite of the efforts of their crews, rather than to use it in conjunction with the torpedo, I shall not now pretend to determine. Certain it is, how- ever, in my opinion, that if the copper of a ship’s bottom were burnt away, even for a small space, it could not be a difficult matter to contrive to enable a person who should have conducted himself in a diving-boat, underneath an enemy’s vessel, to drive, by a moderate yet sudden blow, a nail or spike, to which should be attached a torpedo, into the timber of her bottom, and thus effect the intended de- struction. Thus, I apprehend, would be overcome the dif- ficulty heretofore experienced in attaching a torpedo, by boring or by upward pressure, since pressure can produce no effect—whereas, a sudden blow would, in all probabili- ty, effect the desired attachment; and though the boat would descend by the reaction, this would still be a circum- ‘stance of no consequence. Your most obedient serv’t, THOS. SKIDMORE. New-York, July 20th, 1822. $52 On the Gales of the Atlantic States. Art. XX.—On the Gales experienced in the Atlantic States of North-America. By Roserr Hare, M. D. [Read May 14th, 1822, before the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- delphia, from whose Journal it is copied. | Or the gales experienced in the Atlantic States of North America, those from the north-east and north-west are by far the most influential: the one remarkable for its dryness; the other for its humidity. During a north-west- ern gale, the sky, unless at its commencement, is always peculiarly clear, and not only water, but ice evaporates rap- idly. A north-east wind, when it approaches at all to the nature of a durable gale, is always accompanied by clouds, and usually by rain or snow. The object of the following essay, is to account for this striking diversity of character. When heat is unequally applied to the lower strata of a non-elastic fluid, the consequent differeice of density (re- sulting from the unequal expansion,) soon causes move- ments, by which the colder portions change places with the warmer. These being cooled, resume their previous situa- tion, and are again displaced by being again made warmer. Thus, the temperatures reversing the siiuations, and these reversing the temperatures, a circulation is kept up tending to restore the equilibrium. Precisely similar would be the case with our atmosphere, were it not an elastic fluid, and dependant for its density on pressure, as well as heat. Its temperature would be far more uniform than at present, and all its variations would be gradual. An interchange of po- sition would incessantly take place, between the colder air of the upper regions, and the warmer, and of course lighter air near the earth’s surface, where the most heat is evolved from the solar rays. Currents would incessantly set from the poles to the equator below, and from the equator to the poles above. Such currents would constitute our only winds, unless where mountains might produce some devia- tions. Violent gales, squalls, or tornadoes, would never ensue. Gentler movements would anticipate them. But the actual character of the air with respect to elasticity, is diametrically the opposite of that which we have supposed. It is perfectly elastic. Its density is dependant on pres- On the Gales of the Atlantic States. 353 sure, as well as on heat, and it does not follow, that air which may be heated in consequence of its proximity to the earth, will give place to colder air from above. The pres- sure of the atmosphere varying with the elevation, one stra- tum of air may be as much rarer by the diminution of pres- sure consequent to its altitude, as denser by the cold, con- sequent to its remoteness from the earth, and another may be as much denser by the increased pressure arising from its proximity to the earth, as rarer by being warmer.— Hence when unequally heated, different strata of the at- mosphere do not always disturb each other. Yet after a time, the rarefaction in the lower stratum, by greater heat, may so far exceed that in an upper stratum attendant on an inferior degree of pressure, that this stratum may prepon- derate, and begin to descend. Whenever such a move- ment commences, it must proceed with increasing velocity ; for the pressure on the upper stratum and of course its den- sity and weight, increases as it falls; while the density and weight of the lower stratum, must lessen as it rises. Hence the change is, at times, so much accelerated, as to assume. the characteristics of a tornado, squall or hurricane. In like manner may we suppose, the predominant gales of our climate to originate. Dr. Franklin long ago noticed, that north-eastern gales are felt in the south-westernmost por- tions of the continent first, the time of their commencement being found later, as the place of observation is more to the leeward. This need not surprise us, as it is evident that a current may be produced either by a pressure from behind, or by a hiatus consequent to a removal of a portion of the fluid from before. — The Gulf of Mexico is an immense body of water, warm in the first place by its latitude, in the second place by its being a receptacle of the current produced by the trade winds, which blow in such a direction as to propel the warm water of the torrid zone into it, causing it to overflow and produce the celebrated Gulf Stream, by the ejection to the north-east of the excess received from the south-east. This stream runs away to the northward and eastward of the United States, producing an unnatural warmth in the ocean, as well as an impetus, which, according to Humboldt, is not expended. until the current reaches the shores of Africa, and even mixes with the parent flood under the equator.— 354 On the Gales of the Atlantic States. The heat of the Gulf Stream enables mariners to ascertain by the thermometer when they have entered it: and in winter this heat, by increasing the solvent power of the ad- joining air, loads it with moisture ; which, in a subsequent reduction of temperature, is precipitated in those well known fogs, with which the north-eastern portion of our continent, and the neighbouring seas and islands, especially Newfoundland and its banks, are so much infested. An accumulation of warm water in the Gulf of Mexico, ade- quate thus to influence the ocean at the distance of 2,000 miles, may be expected in its vicinity to have effects pro- portionally powerful. The air immediately over the Gulf must be heated and surcharged with aqueous particles.— Thus it will become comparatively light; first, because it is comparatively warm, and in the next place because aque- ous vapour, being much lighter than the atmospheric air, causes levity by its admixture. Yet the density arising from inferiority of situation in the stratum of air immediately over the Gulf, compared with that of the volumes of this fluid lying upon the mountainous country beyond it, may to a certain extent, more than make up for the influence of the heat and moisture derived from the Gulf; but violent winds must arise, as soon as these causes predominate over atmospheric pressure, sufficiently to render the cold air of the mountains heavier. When instead of the air covering a small portion of the mountainous or table land in Spanish America, that of the whole north-eastern portion of the North American conti- nent, is excited into motion, the effects cannot but be equal- ly powerful, and much more permanent. The air of the adjoining country first precipitates itself upon the surface of the Gulf, then that from more distant parts. Thus a cur- rent from the north-eastward is produced below. In the interim the air displaced by this current rises, and being confined by the high land of Spanish America, and in part possibly by the trade winds, from passing off in any souther- ly course, itis of necessity forced to proceed over our part of the continent, forming a south-western current above us. At the same time its capacity for heat being increased by the rarefaction arising from its altitude, much of its mois- ture will be precipitated, and the lower stratum of the south- western current, mixing with the upper stratum of the cold On the Gales of the Atlantic States. 355 north-eastern current below, there must be a prodigious condensation of aqueous vapour. The reason is obvious, why this change is productive only of north-eastern gales ; and that we have not northern gales, accompanied by the same phenomena. The course of our mountains is from the north-east to the south-west. Thus no channel is af- forded for the air proceeding to the Gulf in any other course, than that north-eastern route which it actually pursues.— The competency of the high lands cf Mexico to prevent the escape over them of the moist warm air displaced from the surface of the Gulf, must be evident, from the peculiar dryness of their climate; and the evidence of Humboldt. According to this celebrated traveller, the clouds formed over the Gulf, never rise to a greater height than four thou- sand nine hundred feet, while the table land for many hun- dred leagues lies between the elevation of seven and nine thousand feet. Consistently with the chemical laws, which have been experimentally ascertained to operate through- out nature, air which has been in contact with water, can neither be cooled nor rarefied without being rendered cloudy by the precipitation of aqueous particles. It follows then, that the air displaced suddenly from the surface of the Gulf of Mexico, by the influx of cold air from the north- east, never rises higher than the elevation mentioned by Humboldt as infested by clouds. Of course, it never crosses the table land which at the lowest is 2,000 feet higher. Qur north-western winds are produced, no doubt, by the accumulation of warm moist air upon the surface of the ocean, as those from the north-east are by its accumulation on the Gulf of Mexico. But in the case of the Atlantic, there are no mountains to roll back upon our hemisphere the air displaced by the gales which proceed from it, and to impede the impulse thus received, from reaching to the shores of Europe. Our own mountains may procrastinate the flood, and cause it to be more lasting and more terrific when it ensues. The direction of the wind is naturally perpendicular to the boundary of the aquatic region pro- ducing it, and to the mountainous barrier which delays the crisis. The course of the North American coast is, like that of its mountains, from north-east to south-west, and the gales in question are always nearly north-west, or at right Vou. V....No., IP. 46 356 On the Gales of the Atlantic States. angles to the mountains and the coast. The dryness of our north-west wind may be ascribed not only to its coming from the frozen zone, where cold deprives the air of moisture, but likewise to the circumstance above suggested, that the air of the ocean is not like that of the Gulf, forced back over our heads to deluge us with rain. Other important applications may be made of our chem- ical knowledge. ‘Thus in the immense capacity of water for heat, especially when vaporized, we see a great magazine of nature provided for mitigating the severity of the wiuter. To cool this fluid, a much greater quantity of matter must be equally refrigerated. Aqueous vapour is an incessant vehicle for conveying the caloric of warmer climates to colder ones. Mistaking the effects for the cause, snow is considered as producing cold by the ignorant; but it has been proved that as much heat is given out during the con- densation of aqueous vapour, as would raise twice its weight of glass toa red heat. Water, in condensing from the eri- form state, will raise ten times its bulk one hundred de- grees. ‘The quantum of caloric which can raise ten bulks one hundred degrees, would raise one bulk one thousand degrees nearly (or to a red heat visible in the day) and this is independent of the caloric of fluidity, which would in- crease the result. Further, the quantum of heat which would raise water to 1000, would elevate an equal bulk of glass to 2000. Hence we may infer, that from every snow, there is received twice as much caloric as would be yielded by a like stratum of red hot powdered glass. It is thus that the turbulent wave, which at one moment rocks the mariner’s sea-boat, on the border of the torrid zone, transformed into a cloud and borne away towards the arctic, soon after supports the sledge or the snow-shoe of an Esquimaux or Greenlander; successively cooling or warming the surrounding media, by absorbing or giving out the material cause of heat. JMagnetic Effects of Dr. Hare’s Calorimotor, 357 Arr. XXI.—WNotice of Magnetic effects produced* by Dr. Hare’s Calorimotor ; by Grorce T. Bowen, of Provi- dence. In Vol. V. p. 352 of the Edin. Phil. Journal, is a de- scription of an electro-magnetic apparatus by Prof, Moll of Utrecht. After having given a description of the instru- ment, that gentleman observes, ‘‘ A remarkable feature in the effect of this spiral voltaic apparatus, is the strong adhe- sion of iron filings to the conductive wire. If the zinc plate be new, or well cleaned, the acid strong, and of course the galvanic process going on with energy, then if iron filings, on a paper, are brought backward and forward, under, and near to the horizontal conductive wire of copper, the iron filings will begin to stand erect as if in the vicinity of a load- stone, and they will even adhere strongly to the copper wire when brought into contact with it.” These observa- tions appearing to me to be interesting, I was desirous of seeing what would be the effect produced by presenting iron filings to the wire which connects the opposite poles of the calorimotor of Doct. Hare. The results of the experi- “ments which were performed with this instruments are as follows :—A large copper wire, about one foot in length, was bent in the form of a semi-circle, and its ends connect- ed by means of small vices to the opposite poles of the ca- lorimotor. The instrument was then immersed in the weak acid solution. On bringing a paper containing iron filings into the vicinity of the copper, which had already become hot, the filings began to stand erect, and when brought into contact with the wire they were powerfully at- tracted by it; adhering to it, and forming a fringe upon its surface. The calorimotor was then raised out of the dilu- ted acid, and it was observed that the filings dropped from the connecting wire, the instant the instrument left the sur- face of the fluid. ‘This experiment was often repeated ; (the size of the connecting wire being varied,) and always with the same results. A platina wire was then bent as in the above experiment, and its ends connected with the op- posite poles of the calorimotor. Upon immersing the plates, and bringing the iron filings on a paper, near to, and into con- tact with the platina, they were powerfully attracted, and *Tn the laboratory of Yale College. 358 Magnetic Effects of Dr. Hare’s Calorimotor. adhered to the wire as in the preceding experiment. The instrument being then raised from the diluted acid, the fil- ings fell from the wire. These experiments were repeated, and varied by employing different metals to compiete the communication between the two galvanic poles. Wires of iron, copper, brass, lead, zinc, silver, and platina were used; the length of the wire employed being in all cases so regulated, that although it became hot, it was not ignited. In every instance the same magnetic properties were exhibited by the connecting wire; the iron filings being strongly attract- ed by it, so long as the calorimotor was immersed in the acid solution, and immediately falling from it when the in- strument was raised from the fluid. In Vol. VE. p. 83 of the work above quoted, are detailed some experiments of Prof. Moll, in which he succeeded in imparting magnetism to steel needles by inclosing ther in a glass tube, about which was wound a spiral of brass wire, and passing strong electrical discharges through the spiral. These experiments were repeated in the following manner: Around a glass tube one quarter of an inch in diameter and four inches in length, was wound spirally, a brass wire, from left to right, forming ten spirals. The ends of the wires were then connected with the opposite galvanic poles and a needle, which had been previously ascertained to be free from magnetism was placed within the tube. The instru- ment was then immersed and remained in the fluid for thir- ty seconds. Upon examining the needle after the plates had been raised from the acid solution, it was found to have become powerfully magnetic, having a north and south pole; one of which was attracted and the other repelled by the poles of a magnetic needle suspended in the usual man- ner—they also took up iron filings abundantly. The end of the needle which had been placed nearest to the copper or negative side of the calorimotor had acquired north po- larity. while that which had been next to the zinc or posi- tive side had acquired south polarity. This experiment was often repeated, and always with the same results; the end of the needle placed nearest to the copper plates con- stantly acquiring a north polarity. One of the needles which had been magnetized in this manner, was again enclosed within the glass tube, its north pole being placed next to the copper side of the apparatus. The plates were immersed, and again raised from the fluid. Magnetic Effects of Dr. Hare’s Calorimotor. 359 Upon removing the needle, its poles were found to have been unaffected, the end which had been nearest the cop- per, still retaining its north polarity. The same needle was again submitted to the galvanic action, its north pole being now placed nearest to the zinc plates. of the instrument ; upon examination, its poles were found to be reversed ; its south pole which had been placed nearest the copper plates, had acquired north polarity, while its north pole which was next to the zine plates had acquired south polarity. _ A common magnetic needle was then enclosed in the tube, its south pole being placed next'to the copperside of the appara- tus. The plates having been immersed the usual time, the needle was examined. ‘The end which had previously been its south pole, and which was placed next the copper plates, had now acquired north polarity, and in every instance that end of a needle which was connected with the negative side of the calorimotor became its north pole, so long as the spiral brass wire upon the glass tube was wound from left to right. 1 then took the same glass tube and wound a brass wire spirally around it, the spirals however, being now wound from right to left. A needle was placed within the tube, and the ends of the spirals connected with the opposite poles of the calorimotor. After the immersion of the plates, the needle was removed from the glass tube and was found to have become magnetic—its north pole being that end of theneedle which had been connected with zznc plates of the instrument,and vice versa. The needle was then again enclosed in the tube and the plates immersed ; its acquired south pole being placed in connection with the zine plates. When examined, its poles were found to be reversed ; its former south pole which had been connected with the zinc plates having now acquired north poiarity; and inall cases, that end of aneedle which wasconnected with the zine plates of the instrument, acquired north polarity, when the spirals about the glass tube were wound from right to left. A steel needle free from magnetism, was then enclosed within a tube of glass four inches long and an eighth of an inch in diameter. This glass tube was then placed within a tube of lead, and the lead tube again enclosed in one of glass, around which was placed a spiral of brass wire, wound fromTeft to right; the ends of the spirals being connected with ihe opposite galvanic poles—The plates were. immersed and suffered to remain in the fluid during half a minute 360 Magnetic Effects of Dr. Hare’s Calorimotor. The needle on examination, was found to have become magnetic; its north pole being that end of the needle which had been connected with the copper or negative side of the calorimotor. It was again enclosed in the tube as before; the end which had acquired north polarity being now placed nextto the zincplates. After the immersion of the instrument, the poles of the needle were found to be reversed--the former south pole having now acquired north polarity, and vice versa—the re- sults obtained in this method of operating were always the same; the needle acquiring north polarity at the end which was placed nearest the copper plates, while the spirals of brass around the glass tube, passed from left to right. When the direction of the spirals was changed, and the brass wire wound about the glass tube from right to left; then, that endof the needle which was connected with the zinc plates always acquired north polarity. Being desirous of ascertaining how long it was necessary the plates should be immersed in order to produce these effects, a needle was inclosed in the tube as in the former experiments, and the plates were then immersed, and immediately withdrawn from the fluid. On examination, the needle was found magnetic. Anotber needle having been placed within the tube, the ca- lorimotor waslowered until the plates had descended into the flaid one quarter of an inch, when it was instantly raised. Even in this instance, when the plates had descended only one quarter of an inch into the acid solution, and had remain- ed there only one second, the needle was found to have be- come powerfully magnetic, and readily took up iron filings. This experiment was often repeated,and with the same results. The preceding experiments lead to the conclusion, thatwhen a needle is subjected to the galvanic action in the manner above described, it instantly becomes magnetic, and that end of the needle which is connected with the copper or nega- tive side of the calorimotor, always acquires north polarity, when the turns of the spiral about the glass tube pass from left to right; and that end connected with the copper plates always acquires a south polarity when the turns of the spiral pass from right to left. From these experiments it appears that the same magnet- ic effects are produced by Dr. Hare’s calorimotor, as by power- ful electrical batteries—although he justly considers his instru- ment, as producing a great flow of caloric almost without electricity. Fusion of Charcoal. 361 Arr. XXII.—Fusion and Volatilization of Charcoal, by the Error, wiih remarks on these experiments and on the Galvanic Instruments of Dr. Hare, by Professor Joun Griscom, of Vew- York. On page 108, of the present volume of this Journal, is mentioned the fusion of charcoal by Professor Hare’s Defla- grator. The experiments have been since frequently re- peated, with results uniformly the same. A stronger acid has been employed in some of the experiments, and the effects were more rapid and brilliant. ‘The elongation of the charcoal point of the zinc pole was more sudden and extended to a greater length than before. It accumulated in an instant, to the length of a quarter of an inch, and nothing seemed to hinder its acquiring double that length, except the difficulty of holding the points so accurately, as to prevent their striking against one another, and thus de- taching the projecting mass of melted charcoal. During the fusion, if the points touch, they adhere. On the cop- per pole the formation of the crater shaped cavity was equally sudden and rapid. It was also deeper and larger than in the former trials. Whenever the point of the zinc pole was moved to a new place, the cavity instantly appeared there, and thus the number of cavities was increased at pleasure. With a Deflagrator of considerable size, and in good or- der, these experiments are, in fact, extremely easy, and with charcoai well prepared, will never fail in a single in- stance.* All the results obtained in the former trials were not only confirmed, but were in every respect more stri- king and pleasing. ‘The surface of the fused charcoal was brilliant, with a metallic and frequently irridescent fustre, and the whole appearance was so changed, as to justify the. assertions in the former communication, that the melted sub- stance would never have been suspected, from its appear- ance, to have had any connection with charcoal. Upon the charcoal on the copper side, there was no appearance of fusion; the crater-shaped cavity was extremely well defi- ned and brilliant, with the proper fibrous and porous ap- * Prepared charcoal may be boiled afterwards in water, and will still conduct between the poles and melt as above. 362 Fusion of Charcoal. pearance of charcoal; every thing indicates that the char- coal is wasted from this pole, and is transferred to the other, It seems to pass, in the state of vapour, to be accumulated or condensed on the positive pole by attraction, and then to undergo a fusion by intense heat. It is nothing new in chemistry that a substance should be vaporised first, and fused afterwards. In this instance, however, it is very pos- sible that the charcoal begins to be melted at the copper pole, but is simultaneously carried by a strong current, or attraction to the zine pole, and being there detained by the same cause undergoes a new and more complete and accumulating fusion. It does accumulate with surprising rapidity, three seconds being sufficient to produce a deci- ded result. In order to ascertain whether the air had any agency in producing these effects, the charcoal points were made to communicate in a small glass globe filled with nitrogen.* The light was thought to be even more brilliant than be- fore—the whole globe appeared as if a ball of fire, and the growth of the zinc pole and the fusion of the charcoal, were equally rapid and complete, as in the former instances. The fused charcoal sinks readily to the bottom of strong sulphuric acid. Common charcoal floats upon rain water, with at least half its volume out—we are therefore, justified in concluding that the specific gravity of charcoal. is in- creased at least four times by fusion, and it also becomes much harder. Its properties appear to be altered in other respects. It becomes so incombustible that when ignited on a red hot iron plate with free access of the air, it remains for a long time unaltered, while pieces of common charcoal placed contiguously, burn rapidly; the fused charcoal eventually wastes away although with extreme slowness, but without the ordinary appearances of combustion, and leaves a small porous residuum of a yellowish gray colour. It will occur to every reader, that this combustion ought to be performed in close vessels, in order to ascertain wheth- er the product is any thing else than carbonic acid. This trial has been made, the product was nothing but carbonic acid, and therefore we are authorised to say that the fusion evolves no new form of matter, metallic or otherwise—and * It was prepared by phosphorus over mercury, and stood 17 hours over fused muriate of lime. Fusion of Charcoal. 363 that the fused substance is nothing else than carbon in an extremely condensed state; with a specific gravity superior to that of the Anthracite, equal to that of the heaviest Plumbago, and in some degree approximating towards that of the diamond. The experiment upon which this conclusion was founded, was as follows. Several pieces of the fused charcoal were placed on a small fragment of brick; this was floated ina dish of mercury, and the whole was covered with a small bell glass filled with oxygen gas, obtained over mercury, A burning lens of one foot in diameter and eighteen inches focus, at noon, with a bright sky, (Aug. 29) was made to throw the concentrated rays of the sun, upon the melted charcoal. There was no appearance of combustion, that could be distinguished by the eye, in the bright light of the focus, but, the substance wasted very slowly away, and at length disappeared leaving no residuum. The gas, exami- ned in the usual way, gave carbonic acid, mixed with an excess of oxygen gas, which, after the carbonic acid was removed, sustained combustion as it usually does when pure. The heat of the lens had been so intense as to fuse and vitrify the surface of the brick support. Strong sulphuric acid boiled upon the fused charcoal produces no effect, while with the common charcoal (as it is well known) it is decomposed. The strongest nitric acid in the cold does not affect the melted substance, and even with the aid of a boiling heat, the effect is only slight, and ceases immediately when the heat is withdrawn. The most interesting of these experiments have been re- peated in the presence of Bishop Brownell,* and of Pro- fessor Griscom who were well satisfied with the results. Many specimens of the melted charcoal have been sub- mitted to the inspection of Dr. Hare, who is of opinion that they have undergone a true fusion. This gentleman has also so far repeated the experiments mentioned in the former communication, as to be entirely satisfied of their correctness. * Formerly Professor of Chemistry ia Union College, Schenectady. Vou. V....No. Ef. 47 364 Dr. Hare’s Calorimotor and Deflagrator. Dr. Hare’s Calorimotor. Since the publication of our last number, we have through the kindness of Dr. Hare, obtained this fine instrument, constructed under the direction of the inventor, on a large scale, and in the most perfect manner. We cannot now do any thing more than to say that we find all Dr. Hare’s state- ments fully confirmed. The facilities which this instrument affords for exhibit- ing the new and interesting phenomena of magnetism, as produced by Galvanic Instruments, are, we believe, une- qualled, particularly in imparting a very powerful magnetic virtue to needles and in causing Iron filings to be taken up readily by wires and strips of all sorts of metals—whether Tron® form a part of the connection or pot. We have also been much struck by the permanency of the action of the Calorimotor. The same diluted acid continues to ignite large wires for many weeks in succession, and with slight additions of fresh acid to the fluid, the full effects are at any time easily renewed. Evtract of a letter from Prof. Joun Griscom, dated August 26, 1821, to the Editor. It gives me pleasure to acknowledge that the experi- ments which, in company with Bishop Brownell, I had the pleasure of witnessing in the laboratory of your college on the Sth inst. went to confirm in the most satisfactory man- ner, the statement made in the last number of the Am. Jour- nal relative te the power and operation of Dr. Hare’s Gal- vanic Instruments. The rapidity with which the Calorim- otor causes ihe ignition and even fusion of an iron wire some inches in length, and as thick as a goose quill, and the beautifully variegated coruscations of the burning hydrogen kindled by the ignited wire, and the play of the flame on the surface of the liquid after the plates are raised out of the trough, rendered this experiment at once, one of the finest exhibitions that can be made to aclass. [tis sur- passed by nothing but the overpowering brilliancy of the Deflagrator. The effect of this instrument upon two pieces * See the annexed paper. a — Dr. Hare’s Calorimotor and Deflagrator. 365 leaving no doubt upon the mind of either of us who witness- ed for the first time the operation of this new machine, that tlre charcoal was not only fused but volatilized ; at least the piece that was connected with the negative pole of the bat- tery. No sooner had the ignition completely taken effect than it was discovered on stopping the action, that instead of a point on the end of the negative charcoal, a cavity or crater of considerable extent had been formed, the edges of which were pointed or jagged. The piece attached to the positive pole on the contrary was increased lengthwise by a cylindrical protuberance, which, when the operation was protracted, grew thicker at the extremity, acquiring an ir- regular knob, the surface of which was compact, smooth and glossy, resembling not a little in appearance, the sur- face of hematitic iron ore. The extent of this projection corresponded with the depth of the cavity in the other piece, so as to leave no room for doubt that the thoroughly ignited matter of the negative piece had been transferred by the power of the electro-calorific current to the positive charcoal; and the appearance of the surface, especially when viewed with a magnifier, indicated the fusion of the transferred portion. ‘There was, it is true, no direct evi- dence of liquifaction; and it is, I conceive, possible that the carbonaceous matter may have been volatilized, and again condensed, without that intermediate change, asin the case of many other solid substances by heat. But, however that may be, the phenomenon, as it respects the charcoal, is dif- ferent from any thing that has heretofore been published, and it furnishes an additional and striking instance of the power of the voltaic current, and of the superior efficacy and convenience of Dr. Hare’s instruments. The entire ab- sence of insulation between the adjacent pair of plates, and the great facility with which their immersions and emer- sions can be effected, will doubtless give this ingenious mod- ification of the galvanic apparatus a decided superiority over every other. The fluid employed in the experiments above mentioned, had, | think you informed me, remained in the troughs several weeks or months. The new deflagrator, described by Dr. Hare in the last No. of the Journal, which I had an opportunity of seeing at the college in Providence, is still more convenient. In that, the plates remain fixed, 366 Condrodite. of well prepared and pointed charcoal was truly interesting, while the troughs are raised and lowered by levers which are easily moved by placing the foot on a treadle. Arr. XXUI—* Additional facts respecting the Condrodite and its identity with the Sparta mineral. (Maclureite of Seybert, Brucite of Cleaveland,) in a letter addressed ta the Editor, dated Philadelphia, August 26, 1822. SIR, Since my communication concerning the Maclureite was transmitted to you, I observed, in the Annales des Mines, a memoir by the late Professor Hatiy on the Condrodite. By crystallographical investigation he identified that sub- stance with the mineral found near Sparta, N. Jersey ; he states, that Berzelius arrived at the same determination by Analysis, and that he considered it a Silicate of Magnesia. From the above statement, it was evident to me, that some error existed with regard to the composition of these sub- stances, because the experiments, related in my paper con- cerning the Maclureite, unequivocally prove the presence of fluoric acid in the mineral found in New-Jersey. As the celebrated Swedish Professor announced the chemical inde- tity of these substances, without his having detected Fluoric Acid,{ 1 was induced to procure some of the mineral from Finland, and obtained a small quantity of it. The speci- men was brought from Sweden by Mr. William Maclure; it was imbeded in a gangue of Carbonate of Lime, associa- ted with bjue Spinelle, and a greenish mineral resembling Pargasite; from these substances it was, as much as possi- ble, separated by mechanical means. ‘To free it entirely from the Carbonate of Lime it was boiled with Acetic Acid, the res due, after this treatment, weighed 1.20 grammes, it was calcined at a red heat, during one hour, in a platina crucible, with six times its weight of crystallized sub-carbo- nate of Soda, the matter after calcination was treated with * Received too late for insertion with Mr. Seybert’s Analogies.—£d. + Annales des Mines, Tome, C. p. 527. et sequen. ¢ See Journal of Royal Institution of G. B. for 1822. No, 24. Obituary. 367 water, and the solution was filtered to separate the insoluble residue ; Acetic Acid in excess was added to the filtered li- quor; by means of Ammonia, it proved to haveretained no Silica; the solution was freed from Carbonic Acid by su- persaturation with Acetic Acid and subsequent ebuilition, the excess of Acetic Acid was neutralized with Ammonia, and the solution was treated with Muriate of Lime; this oc- casioned a white floculent precipitate, which, when heated with concentrated Sulphuric Acid, disengaged vapours, hav- ing the odour of Fiuoric Acid, and they corroded glass with energy; therefore this precipitate was Fluate of lime. It was out of my power to estimate the quantity of Fluoric Acid contained in the mineral, owing to the small quantity I had at my disposal, more especially as it was intimately inter- mixed with blue Spinell and Pargasite. From the prece- ding facts I do not doubt, if the mineral from Finland be again examined, it will prove to be a Fluo-Silicate of Mag- nesia, and that the two substances in question must, as such, be hereafter ranked in our Mineralogical systems. I submit this letter for publication in the next number of your interesting Journal. And am, very respectfully, Your obedient servant, H. SEYBERT. ART. XXIV.— Obituary. PROFESSOR FISHER. Preruars most of our readers are apprized of the fact,— that Professor Fisher was among the number of those, who perished in the wreck of the Albion, on the morning of the 22d of April last. Soon after the news of the death of Professor Fisher was confirmed, an Eulogy embracing the principal circumstan- ces in his life and character, was delivered in the College Chapel, by Professor Kingsley: and the parts of the fol- lowing account which are marked by inverted commas, are taken from that performance. 368 Obituary. * AvexanpER Mercatr Fisuer, late Professor of Math- ematics and Natural Philosophy in Yale College, was born in Franklin, Massachusetts, in the year 1794, July 22; the oldest child of his parents, who still live to mourn, with their remaining children, his untimely death. Of his childhood and early youth, it may be sufficient to state, that he soon discovered an aptitude for learning, and a strong desire fora public education,—a disposition which his pa- rents very wisely determined to foster and indulge. After completing the preparatory course of study, he entered Yale College in the year 1809. Here he was immediately distinguished for his sobriety, his diligence, his scrupulous attention to all the regulations of the College, and his rapid advances in the studies of his class. So early did his real character as a scholar unfold itself, that in the very first term of his college life, he took a place among his companions, where he saw no superior,—a station which he never relin- guished.” “Tt deserves, likewise, to be here mentioned, that he early gave evidence of an independence of mind, a disre- gard of the opinion and practices of otiers where they at all interfered with his own views of right,—as honourable as it is rare, and which, perhaps, more than even his native sagacity and penetration, contributed to his success as a scholar. If he wished to secure the approbation and es- teem of those around him, he knew well, it was not to be sought by connivance at fauits or base compliance with corrupt solicitations, but to be commanded by a resolute performance of his duties as a member of the institution, and a strict obedience to the dictates of his own con- science.” ‘At every exercise, whether recitation or lecture, he was always present, always attentive, and always prepared.” “Yet in this exact and punctilious attention to his duties as a student, he was never, it is believed, suspected by any one of his companions io be influenced by unworthy mo- tives:—the honours of College were his right; every one admitted his deserts; he looked for no favours, and practi- ced no artifice. His preeminence in scholarship caused no relaxation of his efforts. His industry was unremitted ; and his attachment to knowledge seemed strengthened as his acquisitions increased.” Obituary. 369 ** While an undergraduate, he excelled in every part of collegiate study, but was, perhaps, most distinguished in the branch of pure and mixed mathematics ; for progress in which he was peculiarly qualified by the rapidity of his perceptions, and habits of close, and long continued atten- tion; which enabled him, with apparent ease, to trace quan- tities in their remotest relations, and disentangle the most complicated theorems. That he would be eminent in this department of science, was then easily foreseen ; if his fu- ture situation in life should be such, as to allow bim an op- portunity to cultivate his favourite studies. He received his Bachelor’s degree, in the year 1813, and left the College with a reputation, which few at the same period of their lit- erary life, have attained ; a reputation created by nothing casual or adventitious, and which did not exceed his merits. ‘‘The two years which followed, he spent partly in his native town in attending to moral and metaphysical science, and partly in commencing a theological education at the Seminary in Andover. In the year 1815, he was elected to the office of Tutor in Yale College, a place for which he was known to possess the highest qualifications, and in which no doubt was entertained he would contribute, in the full. proportion of his talents, tothe usefulness and reputation of the seminary. Nor were the expectations which the friends indulged of his success, in any respect disappointed. He at once engaged in all the duties of his station, both as an instructor and a governor, with a readiness, an ability, and a devotion to his object, which soon satisfied those, who had an opportunity to observe his progress, that great as was his capacity for the acquisition of knowledge, his talent for communicating it to others, and for distinction in the whole routine of academic life, would not be less conspicuous. “In the year 1817, he was elected Adjunct Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in the College, and in 1819, entered upon the full duties of his office. From the moment he was designated to this place, all his views, wishes and exertions seemed directed to the single object of quali- fying himself for the entire discharge of its obligations. His ambition looked to no other station of usefuliess and dis- tinction; he well knew his own peculiar talents, and that here was the station where he could exert himself the most successfully and honorably. From the time of his gradua- 370 Obituary. tion, though his studies had been chiefly directed to theo- logical and moral inquiries, yet he never relinquished his attention to his favorite mathematics, nor much abated his attachment and zeal for natural science. The consequence was, that though young for so responsible an office as the Professorship of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Yale College, yet his attainments were universally thought by the friends of the institution to be adequate to the place: and those who were best acquainted with his habitsof study and his actual acquirements, were the most confident of his success. “* As his prospects for life had now changed, his studies were accommodated to his new situation; without, howeyv- er excluding those subjects of moral science, which had received so much of his attention, and whose importance and value he had so justly estimated. He immediately en- tered, with all the ardor of youth, and the zeal inspired by a favorite pursuit, upon a plan of mathematical and philo- sophical study, embracing every topic of these enlarged scieuces, in their widest extent. With what success he prosecuted his design, is well known to most of this audi- ence. Inthe time which elapsed from his election to his new office, to his departure for Europe, he had examined and digested the writings of the principal philosophers of Britain, tracing every discovery, theory, and illustration to its source ; and had read, with the same attention, many of the most valuab/e publications of the mathematicians and philosophers of France. He had, in the same time, pre- pared a full course of lectures in Natural Philosophy, both theoretical and experimental, which for copiousness, clear- ness, and exact adaptation to the purposes of instruction, equalled the highest expectations of his friends. Having thus far accomplished his original design, he resolved on an excursion to Europe, not so much for the sake of making new acquisitions in science,—for the knowledge of Europe- an philosophers is found in their books,—as to visit the pla- ces of public instruction, and examine by actual inspection the modes of communicating knowledge in the foreign uni- versities,—to form an acquaintance with men who were dis- tinguished in his own department,—and to obtain such information as might enable him more fully to aid in raising the scientific character of his country, and in promoting Obituary. 3%) tue usefulness and prosperity of his college, tothe interests of which he was entirely devoted. Every preparation was made which was thought necessary to secure the attainment of his object ;—and after the fullest inquiries and taking the best advice, he embarked at New York, for Liverpool, on board the Albion packet; where, to use his own language, in the last communication received from him, ‘“ every thing seemed to promise a quick, safe and agreeable passage.” — On the first of April last, he left his country, full of anima- tion and zeal, and attended with the ardent wishes of his friends for the success of his enterprize.” . It appears from a comparison of the several accounts which have been published of the loss of the Albion,—— that, for the first twenty days after leaving New York, the weather was moderate and favorable; and that about one o’clock on the afternoon of Sunday the 21st, the ship made the south of Ireland. Soon after a gale commenced, which blew the remainder of the day with great violence. About half past 8 o’clock in the evening, the Albion shipped a heavy sea, which threw her on her beam ends, and took the mainmast by the deck, the headof the mizenmast, and fore topmast, and swept the decks clear of every thing, including boats, compasses, Wc. and stove in all the hatches, state- rooms and bulwarks in the cabin, which was nearly filled with water. Atthe same time, six of the crew, and one cabin pas- senger, Mr. Converse of N. Y. were swept overboard. The axes being lost, no means remained of clearing the wreck, and the ship was unmanageable. About three o’clock, the ship struck ona reef of rocks about one hundred yards from the main land. ‘This, as afterwards appeared, was in Court- macsherry-Bay, about three miles west of the old head of Kinsale. In about half an hour the ship went to pieces; and all the cabin passengers except Mr. W. Everhart of Chester, Pennsylvania, were lost. It is understood that Prof. Fisher, as well as some others, was considerably in- jured when the masts were carried away ;—and at the time the other passengers went on deck, after the captain had in- formed them of their imminent danger, he remained below in his birth. Whether he afterwards came up, and what were the particular circumstances of his death, is unknown. Vou. V. 48 372 Obituary. The character of Prof. Fisher is thus drawn by the au- thor of the Eulogy. ‘“‘'The character of Professor Fisher, such as it appeared to me from familiar acquaintance and long observation, J should fear to delineate in any other place than this,—-where there are so many who can testify to the justness of the de- scription, and shield me from the charge of fanciful and ex- travagant panegyric. But here I do not hesitate to exhibit it as it was,—in perfect confidence, that what I say will re- ceive the fullest attestation from those who hear me. “‘ T have already alluded to the quickness with which he apprehended the most remote truths: but rapid and almost intuitive as were his perceptions, no one could be more free from the fault of precipitate judgment. Caution, no less than activity, constituted a prominent feature of his mind ; and on whatever subject he had formed an opinion, seldom could a difficulty be suggested, which he had not foreseen, or an objection which he was not prepared to remove. To this union of a cautious and quick judgment, of ready de- cision and prudent wariness, no doubt the scheme of study, which he early adopted, and to which he constantly adhered, very greatly contributed. Whatever book he read, it was the subject of which it treated, that received his first and principal attention. He examined the statements and rea- sonings of an author, less to know his peculiar views and manner of unfolding them, than to aid his own investigations, and obtain materials for thought and reflection. Hence, while he was familiar with books within the range of his studies, and minutely acquainted with the opinions and rea- sonings of others, he preserved his independence of mind. The operations of his understanding were very little lable to be embarrassed with conflicting opinions, adopted at dif- ferent times, with equal confidence. He was enslaved to no system, was facinated with no work on account of its an- tiquity or its novelty,—he brought the merits of a writer to the standard of his own intellect,—and his judgment, though soon formed, he seldom found reason to vary. “With a mind so unshackled, he was in a high degree prepared for original investigation: and here perhaps was to be found his most distinguishing characteristic. What- aver subject he examined, he was almost certain to find Obituary. : 373 some new method of supporting orillustrating truths already known, or by the aid of discoveries already made, to advance to some new and more remote conclusion. ‘“ As might be expected, he was confident in his own opinions,—but not impatient of contradiction; he was al- ways candid and ingenuous,—asserted his own views with- out dogmatism, and defended them without obstinacy. His deportment, on all occasions, was unassuming and modest, marked with no pretension, and the farthest removed from ostentation or display. If in the society of his friends, or in more enlarged circles, he conversed on subjects connect- ed with his peculiar pursuits, these were never topics of his own selecting, but introduced by others. His studious and retired habits may have given him among those who imper- fectly knew him, the appearance of reserve; yet among his familiar acquaintance, his disposition seemed frank and open, his affections warm, and he discovered those qualities which are usually thought to prepare, ina high degree, those whe possess them, for social and domestic life. ** As to the extent of his scientific and literary attainments, ihe proofs he has given of eminence in mathematical and physical knowledge, leave no room in this department for doubt or hesitation... Whoever has watched the progress of his studies, or the course of his instruction, or has examin- ed his communications to the public, will need no further evidence of talents and acquisitions in his own peculiar prov- ince, of the first order. But his researches, as before inti- mated, were not confined to mathematics and physics. The philosophy of the mind was likewise his favorite study. He was familiarly acquainted with the writings of the most dis- tinguished metaphysicians, and had examined with the closest scrutiny, their various reasonings, speculations and theories. If his knowledge of the exact sciences qualified him to pursue with uncommon advantage the evanescent and less easily defined objects of intellectual plilosophy,-—his knowledge of the laws of the human mind, its capacity, and the proper region for the exertion of its powers, was no less useful in directing and regulating his physical inqui- ries. ‘This rare union of two kinds of knowledge so differ- ent, and the want of which union has so often been attended with injury to both, was considered by the friends of Pro- fessor Fisher as constituting one of his chief excellencies, 374 Obituary. and affording the surest promise of future usefulness and distinction. Besides his acquirements in the branches of knowledge already mentioned, and which formed, no doubt, his favourite subjects of research, he ever continued to cul- tivate a taste forclassical learning, was familiar with the litera- iure of England and France, and, indeed, there are few top- ics of miscellnaeous knowledge, to which, with his great industry and exact method in the employment of time, he had not been able to give a portion of his attention. ‘© What he was as an officer of this College, is best known to his brethren of the immediate government and instruc- tion ;—and to them particularly, I wouldappeal for the truth of the declaration,—that here he was a model of integrity and faithfulness, which it would be well for all in similar sta- tions to imitate, but which few can hope to excel. Who ever knew him neglect or decline any duty? The interests of the institution, were with him, the primary object of at- tention and regard. ‘To know those who were under his government and instruction, and to be known by them; to encourage the studious, and to expose the negligent and the vicious ; to unite firmness and discretion, a due regard to the circumstances of individuals, with an impartial execu- tion of the laws, was his constant aim, and formed the dis- tinguishing traits of his academic character. “I have only to add,—that to his other qualities, was united a deep sense of religious obligation. All his conduct seemed marked with an exact and unvarying conscientious- ness. Few have manifested a higher reverence for the di- vine law, or failed less in their obedience to the precepts of the gospel. * Such is an outline of the character of him we have lost. He was one whose talents and acquisitions we deservedly held in the highest estimation; one who was an ornament to this College, and seemed destined by his zeal and activity, and the boldness and success with which he entered on the most arduous courses of scientific research, to be an honor to his age and country. But heis gone: and it becomes us to submit without murmuring, to this severe, and to us mysterious dispensation, of a righteous providence. But though resignation is our duty, neither the principles of true philosophy, nor the precepts of christianity, forbid us to unite with his numerous friends, and, especially, with his Obituary. 375 parents and other relatives, in mourning his early departure. The best feelings of our natures, the kindest affection of our hearts, are expressed in our tears; and the Saviour himself, wept at the death of his friend. Long will it be, before the event we this day deplore, shall be recollected within these walls without the deepest sorrow ;—or the name of him we have lost, be here mentioned without awakening the tenderest sympathy.” The articles furnished by Professor Fisher for this Jour- nal are the following. Essay on Musical Temperament. Vol. I. Remarks on Dr. Enfield’s Institutes of Natural Philoso- phy. Vol. I. On some recent Improvements in the construction of the Printing Press, &c. Vol. 11. On Maxima and Minima of Functions of two variable Quantities. Vol. V. Among articles furnished by him for other works, the fol- lowing may be mentioned— Solutions of various Mathematical Questions, under the signature X, in the “* American Monthly Magazine,” com- menced in New York, in the year 1817. Ameng these, the solution of a Prize Question, proposed by Professor Adrain, as to the most advantageous position of the sail of a windmill, when the ratio of the velocities of the sail and wind is given, is deserving of particular notice. Solutions of various questions under the signature of Nov- Anglus, in Leybourn’s Mathematical Repository. Observations on the Comet of 1819, and calculation of its orbit, in the fourth volume of the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. i cannot dismiss the subject of the preceding notice, without adding my own testimony to the merits of my la- mented friend and coadjutor, Professor Fisher. It is nat- ural to dwell, with fondness, upon the character ofa depart- ed friend, and the more so, when a sudden and tragical death 376 Obituary. has separated him from us. But, after making every proper deduction on this account, I can ‘truly say, that Mr. Fisher was the most extraordinary man of his years, whom I have ever known. Acquisitions, equal to his, at the age of twen- ty eight, I have never seen; nor a more vigorous and acute intellect at any age. His moral characteristics—founded on the elevated principles of the Christian religion, which he fully embraced—were distinguished for unsullied purity and inflexible integrity. ‘To his extraordinaty scientific at- tainments, he added the finish of classical and polite litera- ture, derived from the best ancientas well as modernsources; his elegant taste embraced the fine arts in their extent and variety, and he was satisfied with nothing, even in the decorum and accommodations of private life, which was not adapted to the same elevated standard. Inthe management of this Journal—for the support and prosperity of which he ever manifested a warm zeal—he was an important auxilia- ry; and no other opinion was ever thought necessary, when he had once given his, (which was often asked,) especially on subjects of mathematical and physical science. Perhaps, it is not improper to add, that, ata period, when, from the failure of health, it appeared probable that the Journal must either be relinquished, or pass into other hands, Pro- fessor Fisher, was the man who would have been depended upon to assume that responsibility. His projected scientific and literary tour, excited in my mind the strongest interest—it commanded such efforts as I could make for the promotion of his object, and I looked for- ward with high raised hopes and expectations, to the period of his return, when, I doubted not, he would bring back with him, the richest harvest of knowledge, unalloyed by any thing that could give pain to the most affectionate and tothe purest of his friends. But it pleased the Almighty to dash him upon the rocks, and to overwhelm him in the ocean, at the moment when Europe, so long and so ardently de- sired, had just broke on his view! A few of his personal friends in this place, have procured an excellent portrait of him to be painted by an eminent artist,” and to be hung in the room which was lately the scene of his labours ‘and instructions. An engraving of it is prefixed to this number. Epiror. * Mr Sam. F. B. Morse. +By Mr. 8.58. Jocelyu Foreign Iaterature and Science. 377 INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. —>>— 1. Foreign Literature and Science. 1. Analysis of an Ore of Stlver—An Analysis of An- umoniated Sulpburet of Silver, (Red Silver,) has recently been made in the laboratory of M. Berzelius at Stockholm, by P. A. de Bonsdorf, Adjunct Professor of Chemistry, at Abo. According to Klaproth, this mineral contains :— Silver 60 Antimony 19 Sulphur 17 Oxygen 4 100 Proust makes it contain, 3 per cent. of Oxide of Iron, 3 of Sand, and 3 of Water,—6 loss. The process of Bonsdorf appears to have been carefully conducted, and his result is— i Oxygen. Sulphur. Silver 58.94 2 which would § 4.36 8.768 Antimony weal require ee 8.423 Sulphur 16.61 Earthy substance .30 Loss 1.31 100. In reflecting on this result, (says the author,) we see that the given quantities of silver and antimony are susceptible of combining with nearly the same quantity of sulphur. We know that the sulphuret of silver contains 2 atoms of sulphur and 1 atom of silver, and that the sulphuret of An- timony is composed of 3 atoms of sulphur and 1 of anti- mony. Consequently, the chemical constitution of the an- timoniated sulphuret of silver will be expressed by 2S6S ? + 3AgS7and the calculated results will become— 378 Foreign Literature and Science. Silver 58.98 Antimony 23.46 Sulphur 17.56 100. The mineral examined, was the Red Silver of Andreas- berg. Ann. de Chem. Jan. 1822. 2. Solubility of Magnesia.—Very different degrees of solubility have been assigned by different chemists, both to pure magnesia and to the carbonate, in hot and in cold water. According to Dr. Henry, water dissolves— zuaa Of magnesia. According to Kirwan, According to Dalton, ;;455 Dr. Thomson states it to be entirely insoluble. The same uncertainty prevails with respect to the carbonate. Dr. Murray states that water takes up z,45;5, and Mr. Brande, that this saltis perfectly insoluble. Dr. Fife of Edinburgh has recently examined this sub- ject, and finds that water at 60° dissolves ;,1,, of its weight of magnesia, and that at the boiling temperature it takes up only zg4a5- Magnesia then, like lime, has the property of | to] ee | o| oe being much less soluble in hot than in cold water. It is the same with the carbonate. Water at 60° dissolves 5,’ at 212° _ To prove the greater solubility in cold than hot water, it is only necessary to heat, gradually, a transparent cold solu- tion in a glass with a long narrow neck to prevent too great evaporation. At the instant of ebullition a flocculent mat- ter is precipitated. Ed. Phil. Journal. 3. Heat.—The power of different substances to conduct heat, by transmitting it from particle to particle internally, has been newly examined by M. Despretz. He finds the con- ducting power of copper to be greater than that of iron, in the proportion of 12 to 5. Zinc and tin do not differ much from iron. The conducting power of lead is less than half that of iron, and five times less than that of copper. Mar- Foreign Literature and Science. 379 ble conducts twice as well as porcelain, but the conducting power of marble is nevertheless but 1; part of that of iron. Brick has much the same power as porcelain, namely, half that of marble. An. de Chem. Jan. 1822. 4. Means of preserving eggs.—M. Cadet of Paris, re- lates that on the 24th of November, 1820, he put half a dozen fresh eggs into a glass jar, and filled up the jar with lime water, containing an excess. of lime. On the Sth of September, 1821, the Council of Safety charged Messrs. Marc and Pariset to examine the result of this trial. One of the eggs, which by accident was cracked without being broken, was found to be entirely coagulated, but did not emit the least unpleasant odour. The others were full and had preserved entirely their transparency. When boiled during three minutes, they appeared very delicate and of an excellent taste. Idem. 5. Steam Boats are employed at Stockholm (Sweden) for the purpose of towing ships into and out of port, when contrary winds prevail;—and this process is found to be much preferable to the method before used, in regard both to expense and celerity. 6. Mechanics.—The Emperor of Germany, convinced of the advantages which will result from a more profound knowledge of the theory and proper construction of water mills has lately offered a thousand golden ducats (about $2000) to the author, whether a native or a foreigner, who, in the course of a year, shall furnish the best work on that subject. Asit is designed for the use of workmen, great perspicuity will be requisite. fev. Ency. 7. Geneva.— Society for the advancement of Arts.—This society was founded in 1776, by the instrumentality of the celebrated Saussure. Jt has rendered very important ser- vices to the Cantons, and with a view to more extended usefulness, it has recently undergone some internal modifi- cation. It is now composed of three great divisions or classes, viz: that of the fine arts, that of the arts of indus- try, economy, and commerce, and that of agriculture. Any person who feels interested in the progress of the useful Vou. VY. 49 380 Foreign Literature and Science. arts, and wishes to contribute to their prosperity may be- come a member of either of the classes, simply by being proposed by two members, accepted by its committee, and paying the annual sum of forty florins, ($3,75 cts.) By a further contribution of twenty florins, he may become a member of either of the other classes. The members of each class enjoy the privilege of attending all its delibera- tions, of communicating their researches, of asking for in- formation, proposing questions on the subject of prizes, elec- ting committees, and assisting in the general meeting of the Society. 8. Geneva.— Mutual Instruction.—Notwithstanding its detractors, and the hostile insinuations which were recently advanced in the discussion relative to the best means of perfecting literary studies in Geneva, the plan of mutual in- struction is making incessant progress. In the course of the last year, Lancasterian schools have been erected in the towns of Carouge and Versoix, and in the communes of Laney, Perly, Certour, Meinier and Cholen. ‘The goy- ernment, always ready to favour useful enterprizes, has lib- erally assisted these new institutions, whose beneficent in- fluence it wishes to extend to all parts of the Canton. ‘The large building newly constructed in the court of the college of Geneva, will contain 300 or 400 pupils. This large school is the third which has been instituted in the principal town in the Canton.—fev. Encye. 9. Rural Economy.—An experienced farmer of the Netherlands assures us that an ounce of saltpetre dissolved in a pint of water with an ounce of flour of su'phur, and scattered upon grain in a granary, is an infallible means of preventing it from spoiling. —/dem. 10. Agriculture, Liege, Nether/ands.—Onue of the prize questions proposed by the “Society of Kncouragement and Emulation,” of that city, and decided at its public session last year, was, Is it better to mow the first crop of grass in the seasonwhile it is still tender—or not until it has acquired full maturity ond produced seed? 'The prize was divided between C. J. Van Hoosebeke and H. P. Tilleman. They both decide, in their memoirs, that it is better to mow at Foreign Literature and Science. 381 the time of inflorescence, because the plants are at that time more replete with nutricious juices. Idem. 11. Brussets.—Encouragement to Science.——Count Sack, who has published a voyage to Surinam in two vol- umes 4to, remarkable for the luxury of its typography, has received lately from the king, as a reward for the service he has rendered to science, a rich gold medal, very tastefully wrought. On one side is the portrait of the king, and on ihe reverse, this inscription :—A Sackio, libero baront, pro oblato munere litterario, rex, 1819. M. de Sack proposes to make another voyage to America, and add new riches to those he has collected in that part of the world. An kng- lish translation of his first volume has already appeared. Idem. 12. msterdam.—A society has for some time existed in this city for the amelioration of the instruction and civiliza- tion of the Israelites of the lower class. It is composed of persons of every sect, whose philanthropic efforts have al- ready produced happy results. 13. The Royal Academy of Paintings at Amsterdam, has just been inaugurated in its new locality. ‘The building is divided so as to accommodate 400 pupils. Already it has become impossible to admit all that have presented ; the number of whom exceeds 1200, which is certainly very considerable, since there exist in this city other establish- ments which have the same end, and which owe their ori- gin as well to the care of the municipal authority as to that zeal for the arts which animates so many of the inhabitants. Idem. 14. Bourdeaux.—Steam-boats meet with full success in this city. Four of them go daily from Bourdeaux to Langon, and ascend the river as high as the tide will admit. Two of them make the passage as far as Pauillac on the Gironde, and even in the season of sea bathing, to Royan. Another steam-boat constructed at Bourdeaux has been sent to Havre, where it is employed in crossing to and from Hon- fleur. An eighth will soon issue from the same ship-yard, 382 Foreign Literature and Science. which is to be sent to Martinique for the service of that Island. Rev. Ency. 15. Astafort.— Mutual Instruction.—Two children ex- tremely addicted to stuttering, were admitted to the Lan- casterian schoo! of this town. The frequent repetition of the exercises in a loud voice, and the assiduous care of the master, completely succeeded in curing them of this distress- ing habit which was the more difficult to remedy, as it was hereditary. Idem. 16. Caen.—A school of mutual instruction has been lately opened in the Central prison of Beaulieu, by the care of the director of that establishment. All the prisoners are willing to profit by the lesson, and their progress has been very satisfactory. The reading of religious and moral works has already had a remarkable influence upon them. No doubt remains that this result will be as happy here as it has been in other similar places, especially in the prison of Montaign at Paris, and in the matson de detention at Saint Dennis. Idem. 17. Paris —The Linnean Society of this city held on the 28th December, 1821, its first public annual session since its reorganization, under the presidency of M. de Lacépede. This day was chosen from its being the anni- versary of the death of the illustrious Tournefort, who open- ed the way for Linneus and his disciples. In the opening discourse, M. de Lacépede shewed the extent and importance of the labours of the Society, and fe- licitated himself on his having been one of its first found- ers in 1788, and on the happiness of surviving so many dis- tinguished men who had been cut down by the fury of fac- tion, to preside on this day at the reorganization of a socie- ty, destined to reestablish and to propagate the sound doc- trines dictated by Linneus, and to finish the edifice erected to the genius of the Swede by the gratitude and admiration of French naturalists. ‘This discourse was received with great applause. M. Thiebaut de Berneaud, perpetual secretary, gave an account of the labours of his learned brethren. He first took a rapid view of the early period of the Linnean Socie- Foreign Laterature and Science. 383 iy, of the persecutions it had experienced, and of the mel- ancholy end of its most zealous founders. He stated the efforts which had been made in 1797, to re-establish this firm institution ; and he gave a succinct analysis of the me- moirs read at his private sessions. They are numerous, and extend to all the branches of natural history. This statement of the secretary and the memoirs to which it al- ludes, will appear in the first volume of the Acts of the Lin- nean Society. The eulogium on Tournefort was pronoun- ced by M. Lefebure, one of the vice presidents, in which he forcibly recapitulated the services rendered by this phi- losopher. to the most attractive of the sciences. A discourse was pronounced by Dumont d’Unville, a skillful mariner and profound naturalist, on the Volcanic isles of Santorin. In the neighbourhood of Yuctot, department of the Seine iferieure, there is an oak remarkable for its antiquity, and for the existence of a chapel in the cavity ofitsshell. This chapel has been known one hundred and twenty-five years ;_ it is attended by a priest, who has his habitation in the up- per part of the trunk. The top of the tree was broken off more than fifty years ago, and has been replaced by a stee- ple. The branches of this tree are covered every year with foliage. The Society offer a gold medal of the value of 300 francs, to the author of the best nemoir on the movements and condition of the sap in all the phases of vegetable life, and in the different seasons of the year. The results must be drawn from reiterated experiments and new considera- tions. Idem. @ 18. 4 Religious Tract Society has been established in Paris for the purpose of spreading either gratis or at a very low price, small tracts, which shall present under various forms the most important truths and the finest lessons of christianity as it is contained in the gospel. 19. Conservatory of Arts and Trades at Parts.—A new amphitheatre has been erected at this noble Institution, for the purpose of accommodating those who shall attend the lectures on the application of science to the arts. It is uni- versally approved for its elegant form, its distributions and, the ingenious manner in which it is carved. The Session 384 Foreign Laterature and Science. was opened on the 8th of January last by Charles Dupin, in quality of professor of mechanics applied to the arts. He was followed by Clement Desormes, professor of chemis- try, and lastly by J. B. Say, professor of economy of indus- try, (économie industrielle.) 20. Mineralogy.—F. S$. Beudant is about to publish at Paris his mineralogical and geological tour in Hungary, in the year 1818. The price of the three volumes with the atlas, is seventy francs. 21. The Himalaya chain of mountains.—-A report was made to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, on the 17th of Feb. 1821, by Capt. Hodgson and Lieut. Herbert, relative to the trigonometric measurement of the mountains of the central chain of Himalaya. This important memoir con- tains, Ist, a physical description of those countries, and of the instruments employed in the operation. 2d, latitudes of the five principal stations, deduced from a series of 122 ob- servations of the height of the sun or stars. 3d, longitude of one of the stations, viz. place of departure, deduced from the latitude of Jupiter. 4th, the determination of a base of 27,000 feet. 5th, the chain of triangles to the number of 121. 6th, a table of heights above the level of the sea of thirty-eight summits or peaks of the mountainous chain, covered with snow. The greatest height is 25.589 feet, = five miles nearly,) lowest height 16.043 feet. The Himalaya has more than twenty summits higher than Chim- borazo. 22. Tribe of Scotacks.—-Few geographers or translators have spoken of the Scotacks,a people of Hungary, remarka- ble with respect both to their number, and their manners. They are of Sclavonian origin, and form a race between the Sclavons, the Vasmiaks, and the Poles; but they differ totally from those nations by their dialect, character and customs. According to some travellers, they have, almost all of them, men and women, white hair, it being very rare to find any one with dark locks. They live in patriarchal style, and assist each other as parts of the same family; the father confides the oversight of his house to the son whom he thinks best qualified for the trust, and the others respect Foreign Literature and Science. 385 and obey his orders, whatever may be his age. They are a pastoral people; they purchase every year in Transylva- nia and Moldavia, flocks of sheep which they fatten in the summer, and sell them afterward in the market of Han- nasalva, or in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. Many of them are waggoners, and transport wine and leather to Po- land, Russia, Prussia, and Austria. The Scotacks never make war against the other tribes, on which account they have preserved their dialect free from the mixture of for- eign idioms.—Rev. En. Feb. 1822. 33. Geneva.—A young lady born blind, but distinguish- ed by her talents and amiable disposition, imagined that if some mechanic would invent a printing press adapted to the use of the blind, she could communicate her thoughts by that means to her distant friends. She imparted this idea to Francis Huber, the celebrated writer on Bees, who as it is well known, is also blind. Immediately by the help of his domestic, Claude Lechet, a man endowed with uncommon mechanical talents, Huber invented and con- structed a press, which he sent to the young lady, with an assortment of types. After a very short apprenticeship, she was able to enjoy in perfection this precious method of communicating her thoughts. We have seen a letter of thirty-three lines addressed to her benefactor, composed and printed by herself, with common ink, without any fault or typographical irregularity.—Jdem. 24. The German Language appears to be making rapid progress in Italy, and especially in Lombardy. Gratui- tous professorships are every where erected. At the Ly- ceum of Milan, more than 200 pupils frequent the German course, and nearly 30U learn the language in other schools. The number of persons who are enabled to read the best German works, amounts, it is said, in that city, to 5000. 25. Rome.—The celebrated Abbe Mai, has discovered, it is said, some classic manuscripts which he thinks will probably prove as interesting as the treatise of Cicero De Republica. He hopes soon to publish a part of them. 386 Foreign Lnterature and Science. 26. Lithography.—M. Montin has discovered near the town of Cervesa, in Spain, a quarry of stone fit for Li- thography. From experiments made at Madrid, in the lithographic press of de Brussi, its quality appears excel- lent. This discovery will be extremely advantageous to Spain, and even tothe south of France. 27. Maestricht.—A school of mutual instruction has been some time established here, of which 250 of the pu- pils did not know even the alphabet, on their admission.— Nine months are found sufficient to enable them to read; but, what is more, in another nine months they become acquainted with the French as wellas the Dutch Language, by reciting the lessons alternately in both. ‘Their progress in writing is not less rapid, and in 18 months they learn to calculate. Many among them that had been for years in other schools without learning to count beyond a hundred, have acquired such a habit of calculating and reasoning, that the most difficult problems do not discourage them. Next year we shall learn how much time will be requisite for the study of the grammar of the two languages. The principles of linear drawing are to be taught to those in the 8th writing class. ‘The success of this school shows that simultaneous instruction in the two languages, is perfectly adapted to border schools. 28. Besancon—France-—The Academy of Science and Belles-letters of this town, offers a gold medal for the best essay on the question——7'o0 what extent has the princi- ple of honour contributed to the splendor and true glory of the French Monarchy ? 29. New Astra! Lamp.—M. Georget, lampist, Rue St. Honoré, No. 2, Paris, makes new lamps, of which the reservoir of oil is placed above the light, so that it furnishes a constant level by a uniform conductor. The crown, thus becoming useless, is suppressed; whence it results that the shadow produced by the horizontal circle cannot take place. These lamps have the further advantage of veing easily transported, without the least danger of spilling the oil. Foreign Literature and Science. 387 30. 4 Carpet has been manufactured at the Royal estab- lishment of the Savonnerie at Paris, destined for the Hall of the throne, which is believed to be the largest that has ever been executed. It is 50 feet long, and 30 wide, and might have been dene in one peice agreeably to the de- sign, but it would have required in that case, 9 years for its execution. Fer the sake of greater expedition it was divided into three parts which have been accomplished in three years. Agreeably to the details that have been fur- nished, it has cost in labour alone 50,000 francs, ($10,000.) 31. Iodine as a Medicine. We have already stated the beneficial results which M. Coindet had obtained in em- ploying Iodine in the treatment of Goitre ; but then this cu- rious substance was administered internally, and we have had occasion to remark that in some cases, unpleasant symptoms were produced by the local action of the fodine upon the mucous membranes of the stomach. ‘The same pi-ysician has since tried to introduce this substance into the animal economy by simple friction, and he announces a success equal to the former. ‘Twenty-two patients of different ages and sexes, have been treated by this new process. They had all very large goitres; more than one half of them were completely cured in the space of from four to six weeks, and the others in a greater or less degree. The ointment which Dr. Coindet employs, is composed of half a gros of hydriodate of potash with 1} oz. of hogs lard. The partis rubbed morning and evening with a por- tion of ointment as large as a nut, until the whole is ab- sorbed. Dr. Coindet states that he has used Iodine in the treat- ment of scropula, “with a success which surpassed his hopes.”—An. de Chim. 32. The Muriate of Copper and Nitrat of Soda of Peru —From a statement made by M. Mariano de Rivero, a Pe ruvian, it appears that the muriate of copper, so much ad- mired for its fine colour, is found in large quantities in the district of Tarapaca, in the gold and silver mines. It ac- companies the ore called Yabicova, and is found in veins, in such quantity, as to give rise sometimes to extensive work~ ings. The Indians of Atacama extract it, grind and sift it, and sell it in the state in which we see it. They call it 50 388 Foreign Lnterature and Science. 4renilla. It is used in all Peru and especially in the prov- ince of Arequipa and in Chili as sand in letter writing. The muriate in these grains is mixed with quartz which is its gangue. The nitrate of soda in the district of Atacama is found in beds of variable thickness, extending more than fifty leagues, covered with clay. The quantity is so great that more than 40,000 quintals have already been obtained, and the propri- etor will engage any portion that may be desired. The salt in some places is extremely pure ; in others it is mixed with clay, which is easily separated by solution and crystal- lization, 33. Galvanic Instruments— Electro Magnetism.—The beautiful discovery of Oersted of the magnetic power of the galvanic battery, has excited the zealof philosophic experi- menters almiost every where. A magnificent apparatus was constructed last year at the Imperial Museum of Florence, under the direction of Count Girolamo de Bardi, director of that establishment ; and the experiments with it were per- formed by himself, assisted by M. Gazzeri, professor of chemistry in the hospital of S. Maria Nuova of that city, and Car. Antinori, professor of a philosophical cabinet, to- gether with Prof. Pictet, and Dr. Marcet, of Geneva, whe were then in Florence. This machine consisted of six plates of zinc each, with a double surface of copper, and containing in the whole 41016 square inches of active surface. The plates of copper were put together so as to form cells or troughs,.in each of which a zinc plate was immersed and kept insulated from the copper by being previously put into a linen bag. Brass conductors establish the communication between the zine of each trough and the copper of the adjoining one. Any of these conductors could be instantly removed or re- placed, by which means the voltaic current could be stop- ped, or the whole or any part of it be brought into immedi- ate activity. With a long funnel of six orifices, the whole of the troughs could be filled at once. The troughs were well compacted in a wooden frame and mounted on small whee!s. The calorific power of this machine was such as to ignite fourteen inches of platina wire one third of a line in diameter, ina few seconds. A steel wire of twice Foreign Literature and Science. 389 the diameter was melted in five seconds. A careful estimate of the calorific power of this instrument, was made by Prof. Pictet, in successive intervais of one minute each, by immer- sing the conducting wire in a silver cup which weighed fifty-nine grains, containing seventy-two grains of water, into which a thermometer was plunged with a very small bulb. The bulb rested on the conducting wire in the bottom of the cup. When the conducting wire was about eight inches long, the thermometer rose in one minute from 43° to 821° Fahrenheit, and in one instance, with a very short wire, from 43° to 111° Fahrenheit, in the same time. Witha short platina wire as a conductor, the water soon acquired the boiling temperature ; and what was well worthy of re- mark, the ebullition ceased instantly on the interruption of the circuit, and tnstantly re-ccommenced on its renewal, without any appreciable time between the cause and effect. This fact appears to prove that the progress of heat in the galvanic battery, from its connection with electricity, is, like the latter, altogether inappreciable, notwithstanding that tt moves this solid matter. When the conjunction between the poles was formed by two platina wires, of different diameters, placed parallel to each other, the larger wire was always ignited, but the stnaller one never. When the same two wires, attached end to end, formed the connection, the smaller wire was always ignited, when attached to either of the poles. A sewing needle, placed at right angles to the conjunctive wire and above it, acquired magnetism in three seconds. When the conjunctive wire was placed exactly in the di- rection of the magnetic meridian, a magnetised needle, free- ly suspended under it, declined 72° from the N. to the W. Two conjunctive wires were placed very near each oth- er, but without touching; they then cut each other at right angles, in a horizontal place. A magnetic needle was then brought under them, and its north pole stood between the south and east, and when placed above them, the same pole stood between the north and west. The conjunctive wire was twisted into a spiral form and placed with its axis in the magnetic meridian. The needle being placed under the spiral, its north pole deviated 70° from N. to W. and when 390 Foreign Literature and Science. placed above the same spiral, the needle took the opposite direction. A platina wire which formed part of the voltaic circuit, strongly attracted iron filings, (as Mr. Arago had observed with respect to copper.) A tin wire did the same, but mel- ted almost instantly. The following experiment was made with the common electric machine :— A needle was placed within an iron spiral, and the Leyden bottle was discharged through the latter. The needle was magnetized but not the spiral. This was repeated many times with the same results. M. A. Van Beck, of the Philosophical Society of Utrecht in Holland, also states the results of an experiment with a single combination of copper and zinc. ‘The zinc plate was 3600 centimetres, (about 1440 inches,) square, and the plates of copper were, as in the Florence machine, formed into a trough which contained the fluid, consisting of sixty parts water, one part sulphuric acid, and one part nitric. ‘The galvanic current being disposed in a direction paral- lel to the magnetic meridian, caused a needle eight inches long to decline 70° to the E. and to the W. according as it was placed above or below the conductor ; whilst witha very small and susceptible needle, the galvanic current seemed to prevail entirely over the terrestrial magnetism, in giving it a declination of 90°. The conjunctive wire, in this instrument, also attracted iron filings very forcibly. The filings remained attached to it as long as the poles were united, but fell off immediately on the cessation of the current. A small bar of steel was perfectly magnetised, by M. Van Beck, in five minutes, by placing it in a tube of glass sur- rounded spirally by a brass wire which formed the connec- tion. The north pole is formed on the negative side when the spiral is wound from the right, and on the positive, when it is wound from the left. He also proved that steel may be magnetised in the same manner with great facility by the common electric machine, by a discharge of the bat- tery through the brass spiral, or even that of a Leyden bot- Foreign Literature and Science. 391 tle. Indeed when the current is drawn through the spiral by taking sparks from the conductor, the steel becomes evi- dently magnetized.* Bibliotheque Universelle. 34. Electro-Magnetism.—Professor C. W. Bockman, of Carlsriike Baden, in a memoir addressed to Prof. Pictet, states that he has repeated the experiments of the Chev. Yelin, of Bavaria, relative to the magnetism produced by common electricity, and finds that when steel needles are, either enclosed in a glass tube or enveloped in waxed cloth, silk, wood, ivory, or paper, and a wire turned spirally round the envelope, the steel is always magnetised when a Leyden bottle is discharged, or when strong sparks are passed through the spiral wire. He has demonstrated that the magnetic force increases with the electric tension or num- ber of discharges to a certain extent, when it acquires a maximum. It seldom went beyond fifteen or twenty discharges, with common electric bottles. The magnetism appears also to be increased by increasing the number of turns in the spiral wire. * After the paper, ‘¢ On the magnetic effects produced by Dr. Hare’s Calo- rimotor,’’ was printed, Professor Silliman received the notice in the text. I was entirely ignorant of the experiments of Mr. Van Beck, when mine were undertaken, and all the information | now possess on the subject is de- rived from the above notice. There seems, however, to have been a difference in the results obtained by Mr. Van Beck and myself; that gentleman found that the end of the needle which was connected with the zinc plates of his battery, acquired north polarity when the turns of the spiral of brass wire about the glass tube passed from left to right—and south polarity, when they passed from right to left. ‘The results obtained by me were directly the re- verse of these : ; and in my experiments, (which have been often repeated in the presence of Professor Silliman,) the end of the needle connected with the zinc plates, always acquired south polarity when the turns of the spiral passed from left to right, and north polarity when they passed from right to deft.—I will now add the result of an experiment which has been performed since the publication of my paper. A brass wire was wound about a glass tube from left to right, until half of the tube was covered by the wire, when the direction of the spiral was changed, and the wire wound about the re- maining half of the tube from right to left. A needle, free from magnetism, having been enclosed within the tube, the ends of the spiral were connec- ted with the opposite poles, and the plates immersed, and again raised from the fluid. On removing the needle, its two ends were found to have ac- quired north polarity, while the middle had acquired south polarity. This experiment was often repeated, and the same results chenoee noel. BOWEN. September 4th, 1822, 392 Foreign Literature and Science. He found that magnetism was produced ina needle, fixed in the axis of a glass cylinder or bottle of eight inches, and even of thirteen inches in diameter, surrounded by a spiral. He contrived to turn a metallic wire into a spiral of seven feet in diameter, and found that needles placed in the axis were slightly magnetised by strong discharges through the spiral. Idem. Prof. Erman, of Beriin, has shown the connection be- tween magnetism and voltaic electricity, in the following in- genious way. In a silver or copper crucible he places a watch glass, and in the glassa small mass of zinc. A strip of zinc or of tin is fastened at one end to the mass of zinc, and extending upwards and outwards over a pasieboard band in which the cup rests, it is fastened at the other to the cup itself. This forms a complete voltaic circuit, and the current is established as soon as the cup is filled with acidu- lated water. When the apparatus is suspended to a thread, and a magnetic bar is brought near it, either an attraction or a repulsion takes place, according to the direction of the galvanic current in the apparatus and the magnetic current in the bar. Bib. Uni. 35. Estimation of the mass of water which flows down the Rhine, at Bale.x—The determination of this curious problem has been undertaken with much address by M. Escher, of Linth. The rise and fall of the water is ascer- tained with sufficient precision by a Rhonometre. A sec- tion of the bed of this river was obtained by measurement, and the mean velocity of the water carefully determined. The result is that the medium quantity of water which flow- ed down the Rhine in one year, is 1,046,763,676 cubic toises of 1000 feet each. To form an idea of this volume, the author supposes for a moment a basin of fifteen leagues in length and five in breadth ; for example, the lake of Constance. He found that the flow of the Rhine in 1809, poured into that basin, would raise it to the depth of fifty-six feet. If then the lake of Constance were empty, it would require many years for the Rhine at Basle to fill it, for the mean depth of that lake, in all probability, greatly surpasses fifty-six feet. Foreign Literature and Science. 393 It would be interesting to the readers of this journal to be able to compare with the above result, the cubic amount of water which flows annually down the precipice of Niagara, by actual measurements of the river at some convenient place above the falls, and accurate calculations founded upon them. An estimate might be formed of the whole mass of Lake Erie; and admitting that it received no supplies, the time requisite to disembogue itself at the present rate of discharge over the falls might thus be approximated. 36. Hospital of Mount St. Bernard.—It appears in a ‘Notice or memoir upon the natural history of St. Ber- nard,” by the Pere Biselx, prior of the convent, that from thirty to thirty-five thousand ratioas of food are annually distributed to travellers of all conditions. The cold and exposed situations which the benevolent inmates of that great hospital voluntarily inhabit, subjects them to acute and incurable rheumatisms, and obliges them when still young to descend to the plains, and drag out a life of pain and dis- tress. This evil is found to be susceptible of remedy by such alterations of the edifice as modern science is compe- tent to effect ; but their funds are exhausted in the relief they extend to the pressing wants of travellers. T’o enable them to accomplish those improvements so essential to their own comfort, a subscription has been proposed, and De Candolle and Turretini, bankers of Geneva, have agreed to become the depositaries of whatever may be offered for that purpose. Their correspondents in London are P. L. Le Cointe & Co. and in Paris, Vassal & Co. Professor Pic- tet and De Candolle, of Geneva, are associated with the bankers in the disposal of the funds. Bib. Tniv. 37. Extensive Draining.—The Prince De B. a very rich landed proprietor in the government of Koursk in Russia, had on his estate a marsh or swamp of 7800 acres, which in the spring of the year became a lake. and pro- duced absolutely nothing but reeds and rushes. In its driest state neither man nor beast could cross it without hazard. In the course of his journies in other parts of Europe, especially in England, the prince became satisfied that his lands might be rendered much more productive. An Eng- 394 Foreign Literature and Science. lishman, on learning the situation of this marsh, undertook to drain it; and in the course of a year from its commence- ment, the work was completed, and this vast tract which was only a reservoir of unwholesome miasmata was con- verted into a fertile soil, adapted to the various agricultural productions, This prince having tried all the pleasures which fortune and high rank can yield in the luxuries of a court, has retwwed to his estates, and finds in a devotion to objects of utility and to the amelioration of his people, the secret of being truly happy. Idem. 38. Galvano-magnetic-condenser.—A delicate instrument for exhibiting the magnitiferous property of a weak gal- vanic combination, has been invenied by M. Poggendorf of Berlin. It is simply a wire rolled in the form of a spiral so as to make thirty or forty turns. ‘The wire is covered with silk in the same manner as the large cords of a_harpsi- chord are with fine wire. The spiral is placed vertically, and asteel needle, not magnetic, is suspended horizontally within it, on a vertical pivot. ‘Thus arranged, if one end of the spiral be brought into contact with a zinc plate, and the other end with a copper plate, and the zinc and copper be each connected with a humid substance, or water acidu- lated with nitric acid,——the needle soon acquires polarity, and arranges itself in the magnetic meridian. M. Oersted considers a needle thus mounted as a galvanoscope much more sensible than a prepared frog. Ed. Phil. Jour, 39. A soft crystal of quartz —In a memoir on the mar- ble of Carara in Italy, by Em. Repettu, the following sin- gular fact is mentioned by the author. In the spring of 1819 Mr. del Nero proprietor of one of the quarries in the Vossa del |’Angelo, in sawing out a large block destined for a column in the temple of St. Francois at Naples, discovered in the interior of tne marble, what the workmen term a lucica, viz. a crystal of calcareous spar of considerable size. In digging this out they found a cavity in the marble lined with crystals of quartz, and containing about a pound anda half of liquid perfectly transparent and slightly sapid. ‘They observed with surprise in this cavity a protuberance as large as a finger, transparent and which appeared to have all the characters of a rock crystal of that Foreign Literature and Science. (395 size. M. del Nero, delighted to find himself in possession of one of the finest crystals of hyaline quartz, which the country had produced, proceeded to disengage it at the base; but to his inexpressible surprise, he found it elastic and of a pasty consistence, taking any form his hand gave it, but rapidly growing harder, and soon becoming quite solid, aad assuming the appearance of calcedony or porcelain. Ina moment of vexation he threw it among the rubbish, and thus lost a specimen which would have been highly inter- esting to the curious. He assured me, (and his assertion was repeated by other witnesses worthy ot confidence) that facts of the same na- ture had occurred to them more than once. I made him promise that if another such instance should present, he would impress his seal upon the crystal and send it to me at Florence, with the water which the cavity might contain. Professor Pictet remarked that he saw at Florence in the collection of Dr. Targimi, a rock crystal containing several drops of petroleum insmall cavities without communication with each other or with the air. One of them was open- ed to satisfy Sir H. Davy, when at Florence, of the nature of its liquid contents. Bib. Univ. 40. A simple but interesting galvanic instrument is descri- bed by Professor De la Rive of Geneva in the Bib. Univ. of December last.