pn Paha = - wee - -—_—- GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c. : Page. Geology, Mineralogy and Scenery, of the Connecticut, with a geolo- gical map and drawings of organic senting, by the Rev. Edward Hitchcock, A. M. i] A memoir on the Hionosraphys Scenery. Mineralogy, &e. of the Catts- kill Mountains, by James Pierce, Esq: - - - 86 Speculative Conjectures on the probable changes that may have occur- red in the regions east of the Stony Mountains, by William Mac- lure, Esq. - - - - 98 Geology, Mineralogy, and Scenery ofthe Gongechese witha geological map and drawings of organic remains, by tbe Rev. Edward Hitch- cock, A. M. - - - - - - 201 Notice of the Alluvial District of New-J PEsey) with remarks on its agri- culture, by James’ Pierce, Esq. - 237 On the probable origin of acute Salt Sree: ho Prof. Arnie Eaton, 242 On a Rocking Stone in Durham New-Hampshire, PY Jacob B. Moore, witha plate, No. 10, - - - - - 243 Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals, communicated by various persons, 245 i. By Professor J. F. Dana, of Hanover, N. H. - - 245 2. By Mr. Steuben Taylor, of Brea ents R. 1. - - - 245 3. By Dr. Jacob Porter, ”- - - 246 4, By Mr. T. Stuart of Peacham, Vermont: - - - - 249 5. By Dr. W. Langstaff, - - - - - - - 250 6. By J. P. Brace, - - 250 Notice of a curious Water Fall, and of paieee bare in the rocks, by Professor Hall, - - - - 252 BOTANY. Rey. Edward Hitchcock, on a new species of Bprchinm, with a drawing, - - 103 Professor ie Mitchill and Dr. J ae Torry, ona new Species: of Usnéa from New South Shetland, with a drawing, 104 On the Diversity of the two sorts of Datura found in the {United States, by Dr. William Tully, - - - 254 CONCHOLOGY. Mr. D. H. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta, with eight plates ofthe shells, .— - - - - ee - - 107 Mr. D. H. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta, with two eee Nos. 11 and 12, - - - 258 MATHEMATICS. Heuipastrttion of a Problem in Conic Sections, by Assistant Professor Davies, - - - - - - - : 280 Review of the Garnbridae course of Mathematics—continued—Ele- ments of Geometry, by “a. M. Legendre, Member of the Institute, &c. 283 PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, MECHANICS AND THE ARTS. Mr. Isaac Orr on the formation of the Universe, with diagrams, - 128 Dr. James Cutbush on the formation of cyanogene or prussine, in some chemical processes, not heretofore noticed, - - . - 149 Mr. Henry Seybert’s analysis of manganesian garnet, with a notice of Boric acid in tourmalines, - - - - 155 Dr. William Meade’s letter, with an account ofa travelled stone, —co- pied from the transactions of the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, 15% Professor Cleaveland’s notice of some remarkable ballsofsnow, - 162 Professor J. F, Dana’s miscellaneous notices, - = - 163 vi CONTENTS. Mr. S. Morton’s account of an ancient mound near Wheeling in Va. 166 Dr. James Cutbush on the Greek we - - - - 302 Notice of several Meteors, =) eed = S 315 Professor Dean on that of March, 1822, ' -— - - 322 Dr. Darlington’s Pluviometrical Observations, - 326 Rev. Mr. Emerson’s account of the cure of Asthma by’ a aioe of Lightning, - 329 Galvano-Magnetic Apdaraliae, of Prok Bana with a denne on pl. 10, 330 Analysis of the Glassy Actynolite from Concord i a ” Delaware co. Penn. by H. Seybert, - 331 Analysis of Argentine and Crystallized Steatite, by leis ccr Dewey, 333 - Rev. H. Daggett, on the cutting of Steel by Soft Iron, - 336 Editor on the relations existing between the Deflagrator and Calon otor, and the common Voltaic Baten ina letter to Professor Ro- bert Hare, M. D. - - - : - 337 Editor on the fusion of iplifinaca oe a letter to Dr. Hare, - S41 Experiments upon Diamond, Anthracite and Plumbago with the com-— pound Blow Pipe, ina letter addressed to Professor Robert Hare, M. D. by the Editor, - = = “ = E 349 P. S.—Fusion of Anthracite, dae ms 353 Editor’s notice of the Fluoric acid of Gay Picea Aa ofitsapplication to the etching of glass, with a drawing of apparatus on pl. 10, - 364 INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. I. Domestic. Protest of Mr. Henry Seybert in relation to the discovery of recess acid, in the condrodite, with Mr, Thomas Nuttall’s reply, ‘- 168 Iron Conduit Pipes, - - 173 Notice of American Wedataeite: by Major Delafield, - - 176 Professor Eaton’s notice of the Boletus Igniarius, - - 177 Professor Hall’s notice of the Plumbago of Ticonderoga, ~§ - - 178 Mr. Ebenezer Granger’s notice of a fluted rock at Sandusky, 179 Prof. Keating'on the Cadmia of Ancram, &c. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 180 Editor’s notice of the inflammability of ammoniacal gas, - - 185 ——__—_—_—_—_—_——- crystallization of sulphuric acid, - - 186 ——— an explosion of phosphuretted hydrogen and oxygen gases, - - - - 187 Vindication of Mr. Henry Sey pert claim to the discovery of fluoric acid, in the condrodite, 356 Abstract of the Proceedings of the Riyacarn of Natural History,N. York, 361 Efficacy of Prussic Acid in Asthma, - - - 366 Notice of Dr. Beck’s Gazetteer, - a = - - 367 Dr. Comstock’s Grammar of Chemistry, - - - 369 Mineral Caoutchouc, 4 - = : a ss 2 370 Hudson Marble—Kendall’s Thermometers, - see 371 Salem manufacture ofalaim, &c. — - - - - e 372 Geological Survey on the Great Canal, - 378 Expedition of Major Long and Party to the Rocky Mountains - 374 Philadelphia Water Works, - - - 375 Test for Platinum, - - - - =! 6 - - - 376 American Geological Society—On Animal Fat, - ~ « 377 Editor’s additional notice on the Fused Carbonaceous Bodies, « 378 New Journal—Ittro Cerite, = “ : Q o ‘ 379 f Il. ForEIGN. Dr. Boué’s Notice, of European Continental Geology; in a letter to Dr. J. W. Webster, - - - - 188 Professor Hall’s communication fo Mr. Miron Wintdow, on the min- eralogy of the Island.of Ceylon, - - - - . - 192 Mermaid—Extract of a letter from Batavia, - - - 195 New edition of Mr. Parkes’ rudiments and essays, - “ - 197 ERRATA. Vii fis: Notices from peor Griscom. New work on fossil shells, = = Sh ie yh Sd 197 New Journal of Natural Science at Copenhagen, - - - 198 Colour ofsea water, so Se oP Ss 198 Fossil Remains at Abbeville, - - = =P Rc 199 Singular disease, - - - = - = - 199 Preservation of Potatoes, - = ES ine - = z 200 Zodiac of Denderah, - - a” Sk ais 200 Stereotype edition of Newton’s Priteipias - - - * 379 Travels in America, - - = = + Seah: = e 380 Fossil vegetables—Fresh water formations, - - = 381 New Atmometer—Turquois and Lazulite—Translation on Natural History—West or Lost Greenland, - - - 382 On the limits of the occurrence of F ishes i in high sitqatibne-—Todine. 383 Preservation of Anatomical Preparations—A Chain Bridge—Vegetable Analysis, - - - - - - - 384 A Steam Boat—Vesuvius, = § = - - 385 The mean Temperature of Salem, Mass. and Rome in Ita ly—Skeletons of the Mammoth and elepbare gactdemy of inseripuice and Belles Letters at Paris—City of Odessa 386 Greek Seminary at St. Petertbure weouse of Refuse at Pare 387 Conservatory of Arts and Sciences—Sugar from Beets - 388 Statistics of Egypt, - = = = cs ce 389 Poland—Copenhagen—Fine Arts, - . - - 390 Calligraphy—Switzerland—Abau, ~ - 391 Canton of Geneva—Society of the friends of the Fine nts: - 392 Wire drawing—Hops,_ - - - - - - 393 Electro-Magnetism—Velocity of sound, - ~ 394 Steel—Sal-animoniac, - - 2 395 Vaporization of Ether—Paper Hangings—Brick making —Leipsi Cc, 396 Composition of Meteoric Stones, - - x0) 397 Preservation from rust— ecology; - - - - 398 Cooking Apparatus, - - - - - 399 Salt Petre—Dr. Brewster’s Memoir - - = 400 —S = ERRATA FOR NUMBER I, VOL. VI. This Number of Vol. VI, and indeed the whole volume, was put to press during the unavoidable absence of the Publisher, and was found to contain inaccuracies which he can correct only by noting them in the following manner. Number II, of this volume, it is presumed will be found as free from errors as the nature of a scientific publication will admit. At any rate, the Publisher will effectually guard against a recurrence of a similar misfortune. He could only learn from experience, that a scientific public- ation could not be left with the same safety as ordinary works. [> It is but just to remark, that many of the errors occurred from the il- legibility, and some, from the i inaccuracy of the manuscript. Some also are alterations from copy. Errata, in part first of Mr. Hitchcock’s Sketch.* Page 3 line 10 from bottom for when read where 8 10 dele it 8 for atiissimus’ eae altissimus 10 19 for ruins read veins 12 10 top insert ihe before Connecticut 20 for Saussune read Saussure 14 2 insert the before feldspar * We omit a few errata in the spelling of botanical names, as the correc- tions will be obvious to every botanist, vill ERRATA. Page 15 line 15 from top for fine read firm iy 1 for few read face 18 22 insert zt after east 20 11 bottom for 7f read is 22 19 for slate read state 6 for Hadley read Hanley 24 19 for particles read patches 27 1 for Oxford read Orange 18 for West read New 32 12 insert a period after New-Haven 12 top for rich read rock 34 3 for bearing read leaning 37 12 bottom for mica read mass 38 13 top for noneread nor 42 11 bottom for form read former 55 12 for points read fronts 14 for ledge read ledges 59 11 for amygdaloidal read amygdaloid 62 5 dele the comma after same 70 1 for on read and 84 17 top forhighest read largest In two or three instances the secondary greenstone is said to terminate in Northfield—butfor Northfield,insert “Gill a little south of the meeting house.” Errors in the coloring of the Map. The most southern hill of greenstone in Hast-Haven is omitted. Also a small range of greenstone in the same town, on the east side of Saltonstall’s Pond. Also an alluvial tract in the same town. In some copies the greenstone and old red sandstone in Sunderland, Deer- field and Greenfield, have been made 0 exchange places. The western branch of the Mount Carmel range of greenstone,which ex- tends through Cheshire into Southington, is coloured as alluvion. Errata in Mr. Barnes’ piece on Shells. Page 107 title for D. W. read D. H. 109 note for Goor read Geor 110 line 14 from bottom, after multiplier read is iit 13 for cross read brass 112 4 erase when 125 9 for interiour read anterior 127 17 for small read smooth 122 3 and 18 from top, for heel read keel 119 5 from bottom, for Gass’s read Cass’s Errata in Mr. Orr’s piece on the Universe. Page 129 line 4 from bottom, for sun read system 130 16 for its read their 10 for direct read inverse, perhaps also should 134 22 for or read on [be inserted 137 3 for on read or 139 4 for ainosphere read atmospheres 140 3 for paris read part s 143 6 top for account read physical account 149 13 after otherwise the stop should be a period Page 190, line 15 from top, for Terebatrule read Terebatule Passim for Dr. Borré read Dr. Boué. Pa. 240, line 4 from bottom, for can, read cannot 245, 1 top, for cammunicated read communicated 302, bottom line, in a few copies, for auter, read auteur 330, line 14 from bottom, for 12, read 10 341, 17 top, for Dr. read Prof. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c. —>—— Art. 1.— A Sketch of the Geology, JUineralogy, and Scenery of the Regions contiguous to the River Connec- neut; with a Geological Map and Drawings of Organic Remains ; and occasional Botanical Notices. Read be- fore the American Geological Society at their Sitting, Sept. 11th, 1822; by the Rev. Enwarp Hrrencock, A.M. of Conway, Massachusetts. PART I. Tue region embraced by the accompanying map, and to — which this sketch is principally confined, 1s about 150 miles long and 30 broad; extending from New-Haven to Bellows’ Falls. A leading object of this map is to give an accurate view of the secondary tract extending from New- Haven 110 miles northerly to Northfield. But itis protracted 30 or 40 miles beyond this, on the north, so as to embrace - probably ail the argillite along this river. A considerable extent of primitive is also exhibited on the borders of the secondary. The map is not colored according to the Wer- nerian distinctions of primitive, transition and secondary ; nor according to Macculloch’s division of rocks into unstratified and stratified: but an attempt has been made to give every particular rock that position and extent on the map which vt actually occupies on this portion of the earth’s surface. Every geologist knows, that perfect accuracy in these res- pects, on a map of such extent, would require a degree of Jabour and research, which, none but those whose whole time is devoted to such pursuits, could bestow. Indeed, so Vou. Vi.—No.. ¥: I 2 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. large a part of every country is covered with geest, and so imperceptible is the passage of some rocks into others, leaving the observer in doubt for miles which rock predom- inates, that after all, two equally good geologists would not probably fix the limits of different rocks precisely alike. And to exhibit all the minor salient and reentering angles which any rock makes on the surface, would require a map on ascale five times larger than that used in the present instance. In attempting, therefore, to give every rock that position and extent on the map which it actually occu- pies on the surface, I do not suppose I have done any thing more than to approximate to the truth. It is hoped, howey- er, that the approximation is sufficiently close to answer most of the purposes of geology. 1 trust at least that this outline will furnish assistance to succeeding geologists. In constructing this map I have derived very great assis- tance in the vicinity of New-Haven, from the researches of Professor Silliman, and of Dr. Percival. Indeed, could either of these gentlemen have been induced to form a map of that region, I should gladly have omitted the southern part. Inthe northern part of the map, I have been assist- ed by Dr. J. A. Allen, Lecturer on Chemistry in Middle- bury College, and by Rev. J. Andrews, of Putney. Dr. E. Emmons, of Chester, has also communicated facts of importance. The sides of the map are not precisely meridians; but incline 3 or 4 degrees to the right, as is evident from the fleur de lis attached to the upper right hand corner. The longitude and latitude are marked from those of Deerfield, which have been determined by numerous observations. Having made these preliminary remarks, | now proceed to describe the several rocks occurring in this district, in the order in which they are put down in the explanation of the colours ‘on the upper left hand corner of the map. 1. GRANITE. Coloured purple—or a micture of carmine, red, and Prussian blue. Almost every variety of this rock described by geolo- gists occurs in the region of the map, except the transition Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 3 granite of Norway and Scotland. Its texture varies from the coarsest to the finest grain, and it exists here in most of the forms that have been noticed. East-Haven Granite. _ The deposit of granite marked in East-Haven and Bran- ford, has its southwestern extremity at the Lighthouse, which stands on a sea beaten rock of this description. The grain is intermediate between fine and coarse, and the fels- paris usually reddish. In passing from East-Haven to Branford, we find the granite immediately succeeding the old red sand stone, or the slate rocks of the coal formation, or the greenstone; and all these rocks are nearly on the same level. Their actual contact with the granite, howev- er, has not been observed, being hid by geest. There is no evidence that this granite constitutes a bed in other rocks: On the contrary, it would seem, that it was brought to view along the coast by the abrasion of the gneiss and mica slate, which appear a few miles to the north, and which there lie at a much higher level. On passing east and northeast from this granite deposit, well marked beds of this rock appear; and perhaps all the gran- ite which is found at the mouth of Connecticut river occurs in this form. I do not know exactly how far the East-Haven granite may be traced along the coast. Certainly the gneiss reach- es the sound before we come to Connecticut river. In the cavities of this granite, when it is washed by the tide, one or two species of Lepas and other testacea, have fixed their abodes, finding security in those projecting crags which are so appalling and dangerous to the mariner. Some Ulvae and Fuci, also, are found along the shore. South Hampton Granite. Although the granite thus designated extends but a little distance into South Hampton; yet it contains the South Hampton lead mine, which will, no doubt, be long an in- creasingly interesting focus to which mineralogists will be * 4 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. drawn—and therefore, the specific name above given, may not be unappropriate for this granite. wis A great part of this granite exists in beds in mica slate; gneiss being a rare rock in the vicinity. Indeed, it may be doubted whether the whole range is not in the form of beds. I think, however, it will be found that there is a central ridge which is fundamental, at least two or three miles broad, ex- tending from South Hampton through Williamsburg to the southwest part of Conway and northeast part of Goshen. Certainly, along this line little else appears but granite ; and in some places, as at its northern extremity, this rock forms hills of considerable elevation, and extensive ledges. Beds of granite may indeed be found in the vallies between these ledges; but an observer as he passes over this region and proceeds south to South Hampton lead mine, wil! find it difficult to persuade himself that he is not traversing an original fundamental* deposit of this rock. Or if it exist in beds alternating with mica slate, it will in some instances be found no easy matter to prove it—the mere fact that mica slate is found on both sides of it not being sufficient evidence: the same being the case with an original deposit. I would here suggest whether the mica slate of this re- gion, that contains beds of granite, may not be a newer for- mation, reposing immediately upon that granite nucleus which probably forms the basis rock in New-England. And wherever this mica slate and upper granite is worn away, or there is a projection in the nucleus, the basis rock may appear. Such a supposition will account for all the appearances of the region we are now considering, which is coloured on the map as granite. : ae As we go east or west from what I have called the cen- tral ridge of this granite, the beds of this rock become more and more distinct, the mica slate, however, increasing in — * “The term fundamental, has, it should seem, been gratuitously predi- cated of a particular description of granite; for by the terms of the propo- | sition, the bottom of this formation has never been seen, and consequently we have no means of determining whether it be fundamental or not.’’—Ed. Rev. Jan. 1820, p. 89. ‘ , But, we should ask, whether it be not proper to say of space, that it is in- finite, for the very reason that we cannot limitit? And with equally good reason, it would seem, we may say of granite that it is fundamental, be- cause we have never found any other rock below a particular description of it. ’ Geology, &c. of the Connecitcut. 5 quantity and the granite decreasing. In painting what is denominated the South Hampton granite, I have compre- hended most of the Chesterfield and Goshen granite,* which has become celebrated on account of the interesting minerals found in it—although the mica slate in those towns occupies probably as much of the surface as the granite. The pur- ple colour, or that which represents the granite, has not been extended so far as to embrace all the beds of this rock in this region; but only so far as the granite predominates. Where the mica slate is most abundant, I have put down this rock as covering the whole surface, although it might contain many beds of granite. The inclination of the mica slate strata, or dip below the horizon, aud consequently of the granite beds, varies from 20°"t5; 902: _— frequent opportunities are afforded for obserying the former rock pass under and over the latter. The width of the beds varies from the fraction of an inch to 100 rods: nay, perhaps toa mile or two. So that in the narrow beds, a single glance of the eye will present their roof and floor. In these thin beds there is rarely any fis- sure; but in those several hundred yards in width, are fre- quently observed regular and irregular divisions, as will be more particularly noticed hereafter. _ These distinctly characterized granite beds are not con- fined to the region of the South Hampton granite. A few miles north, indeed, they disappear; but they may be traced southerly into Litchfield county, where they exist abundantly, and are sometimes found in hornblende, slate, and gneiss. A good example of the former may be seen in Granville, about half way between the churches in the east and west parishes; where the layers of hornblende slate are nearly perpendicular. Instances of their existing in gneiss may be seen in abundance on the east side of Connecticut river, in Pelham, Monson, Chatham, Haddam, &c. Indeed, we think the geologist who traverses New-England primi- tive rocks will often be ledto enquire, whether all our gran- * %& ¢ We have visited these localities more than once, and have no hesitation in saying that more distinct and well marked beds do not exist in this part of the United States or Europe; and what renders the fact more interes- ting is, the distinctly stratified structure of some of them.’’—.V. dmer. Rev. No. 29—p. 233. 6 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. ite does not occur in the form of beds or veins. We are not yet, however, prepared to believe any one could con- clude that it does. ltast-Haven granite, Black Mountain, a part of Leverett range, &c. stand as yetin the way of such a supposition. Still less are we ready to adopt the re- cent opinion of a distinguished European geologist,* that granite is not a prumitive rock, and that the only two rocks that are so, are mica slate and gneiss! Thus have we in New-England, as in the east of Ireland, granite of a decided character alternating with mica slate. But this ceases to excite any surprize, since Von Buch and and Jameson have given us an account of the strata of Chris- tiana and Haddington.t The texture of the South Hampton granite is generally rather coarse. ‘There is, however, in this respect, a great variety. The felspar is usually of a fine Shits col and the quartz and mica alight gray. J do not here, however, speak of the granitic veins, some of which traverse the granite itself, and the felspar of which is sometimes flesh coloured. ‘The beds of the South Hampton granite are not rich in minerals, except the lead mine in that town. The veins in this rock, however, contain the fine tourmalines and beryls of Chesterfield, and Goshen, and Haddam. Black Mountain. This lies in Dummerston, Vermont, and consists of gran- ite. A geologist standing in Brattleborough on the argillite is surprized on looking northwesterly, and seeing only four or five miles distant, an abrupt mountain 500 or 600 feet * Dr, Borré. t Porphyry in immense mountains reposing upon lime stone full of petri- factions; a sienite over this porphyry, consisting almost entirely of coarse granular felspar, and in the same manner, a granite not different m its composition from the granite of the oldest mountains—granite above transi- tion limestone ! Granite as a member of the transition formation !’—Von Buch’s Travels in Norway, p. 45. Order of the transition rocks around Christiana, beginning at the top and reckoning downwards. 1. Zircon sienite. 2. Granite. 3. Porphyry. 4. Sand stone. 5. Flinty slate. 6. Compact gray Wacke. 7. Compact slate and black orthoceratite lime- stone. 8. Granite. 9. Clay slate and limestone, probably. 10. Gneiss.—!bd. Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. y high, evincing by its white and naked head that it is gneiss or granite. On visiting it, he will find it to bea fine grained granite. In many parts, however, he will perceive such a tendency to stratification, that he may doubt fora mo- ment whether it be not gneiss. But upon examination he will refer it to granite. ‘The same remark will apply to granite in many other parts of New-England. It seems, and proba- bly is, in many instances, intermediate between well char- acterized granite and gneiss. Black Mountain is not many miles in circuit, and on the north and west, is succeeded by well characterized gneiss. This gneiss is quarried and forms underpinning and step stones; specimens of which may be seen in the foundation of the Meeting house in Brattleborough, East Village. On Black Mountain J noticed some interesting lichens. The most monopolizing of these, are the Gysophoras. G. vellea, papulose and muklenbergu; (Acharius) in some in- stances actually cover precipices 30 or 40 feet high, and crowd one another notwithstanding, so as to force up their broad margins, giving them the appearance of a chapeau de bras. These species are found also on the granite in Mon- tague, and on the greenstone in Deerfield, where occurs al- so g. deusta. On Black Mountain | likewise noticed in abundance Enclocarpon miniatum Ach. and several species of Parmelia and Lecidea. Near its top grows Milium in- volutum (nov. sp. Torrey, MSS.) I cannot but detain the reader a moment to explain the strange nomenclature by which those were governed who originally gave to this granitic peak the name of Black Mountain. Every body in passing is struck with its snow white aspect, and cannot help enquiring the cause of it. I was told that in early days, it was burnt over and derived its specific appellation from this circumstance. Thus an acci- dental and ephemeral fact has fastened a name_ upon it which its constant appearance belies. A similar remark might be made in regard to the name of another mountain in the same vicinity. A person stand- ing in Brattleborough East Village, perceives directly east of him, on the east bank of Connecticut river, a venerable mountain 800 or 900 feet high, seeming almost to threaten him with its overhanging fragments. On enquiring the 8 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. name of it, he will be told it is West River Mountain. And on examination he will find that West River empties into the Connecticut from the west, nearly opposite this moun- tain. shi) Granite range passing from Amherst through Leverett, &c. This granite is generally found ata low level. Almost every other rock in the southern part, excepting the alluvi- on, rises higher than this. Along the central and eastern parts of Amherst itis mostly covered by geest and alluvion. It appears, however, two miles south east of the Collegiate Tnstitution, and I have no doubt that Seminary stands on this rock; although some bowlders of pudding stone ap- pear there. Two or three miles north of the College, it emerges in abundance, and becomes broader through Leve- rett, which is perhaps one of the best places for examining it; especially when we consider its proximity there to pud- ding stone. Mount Toby, which is 800 or 900 feet high, lies on the western border of the granite and consists prin- cipally of a peculiarly conglomerate rock which appears to belong to the coal formation. This pudding stone rises 400 or 500 feet higher than the granite, and in the interve- ning valley the two rocks approach very near each other ; although I have never been able to find the actual junction. The granite, however, near the pudding stone, occurs ia beds in mica slate, and is separated from the pudding stone, by this mica slate, or by hornblende slate, which appears in the valley above named, or by an imperfect variety of sie- nite. The mica slate in this place, and indeed along the whole western border of this range of granite, near the northwest corner of the town, it becomes mere quartzose slate, having a slight glazing of mica, or mica in small scat- tered scales. This quartz is divided in two directions by seams oblique to the face of the layers, so as to separate the rock into very regular rhombs with different degrees of ob- liquity. In hand specimens, indeed, it seems to be limpid quartz in very perfect distinct concretions. In the valley between these rocks appears to have been for ages a war of avalanches between the pudding stone and granite ; in which ic) Geology, §c. of the Connecticut. ee ‘hills amid the air encountered hills, Hurl’d to and fro with jaculation dire,’’ And evidently too to the advantage of the pudding stone: for this is several hundred feet the highest, is more steep and more easily broken up from its bed, so that its debris has evidently gained upon the older rocks, and subjected some of them to its dominion. In this valley the lichens, mosses and fungi, have planted themselves thickly upon the bowlders and decaying logs where they are secured by the dense foliage of the trees from the too powerful rays of the sun and moistened, by the vapour of a smail brook which here finds a passage. You there see Sticta pulmonacea (Ach.) and Jungermannia platyphylla, fantastically fringing the rocks, while the ever verdant Polypodium vulgare frequently crowns the top. Parmelia saxatilis, caperata, and others, several Lecanore and Lecideae, Peltidea canina, Poiena pertusa Ramalina fraxinea and Cenomyce coccifera and rangiferine of Achari- us, Hedwigia filiformis, Bartramia crispa, Polytrichum perigoniaie, several species of Hypnum, Dicranum, Ortho- trichum, and many other genera grow there. On the de- caying trees along this valley, you not unfrequently may see the delicate Boletus versicolor and betulinus, the elegant B. cinnabarinus and lucidus, and the useful B. varius, velu- tinus and igniarius, (Persoon.) Here too may be found Agaricus alneus (Pers.) Dacdalea cinerea and Polyporus abietinus of Fries ; various Thelephorae, Hydra, Clavariae, Pezize, &c. And the margin of the brook has in many places a carpet of Marchantia polymorpha and conica. Near the northern extremity of this valley is a pond, in and around which are many rare and interesting phenogamous plants—such as Drosera rotundifolia and longifolia, Nu- phar advena and Kalmiana Nymphea odorata, Utricularia striata (n. sp. Le Conte) Myriophyllum verticillatum, one or two Charae, Cnicus lanceolatus, attissimus arvensis, dis- color and muticus; Rhynchospora glomerata and alba Na- jas Canadensis and Scirpus subterminalis (n. sp. Torrey MSS.) In the outlet to this pond grows the singular Spon- gia fluviatilis of Linnaeus. But to return to the granite. Along the southern and central parts of Montague, it is greatly hid by the gneiss and mica slate. In the northern part of the town, however, Vor. VI.—No. I. 10 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. near the mouth of Miller’s river, it appears in one or two detached eminences of considerable height; directly west of which, only a few rods, is another hill of puddingstone similar to that of Toby. ‘The granite can be traced nearly all the way through Northfield at a low level, and in the north of this town it seems to pass under the geest and higher rocks, and to appear. again in Winchester and Ches- terfield, of greater width, and here it is beautifully porphy- ritic.- As we go north, therock exists in distinct beds in mi- ca slate and gneiss, and also it appears at the tops of moun- tains sometimes forming conical hills almost naked. Wit- ness the west part of Surrey and Alstead. The texture of this granite is coarse, in some instances very coarse, the plates “of mica being several inches across. Its usual colour is white. A beautiful variety, however, occurs in Leverett, in which the felspar, which is abundant, is of alight blue; the quartz of adark blue, approaching to black; and the mica the usual light gray. Thisa rare va- riety, and a fragment of a crystal of this blue felspar meas- -ured in its longest direction 8 inches. This range of granite contains several veins of metals, such as galena, copper pyrites, blende and iron; which will be more particularly described hereafter. , Much of this range exists in the form of beds and ruins: yet so far as I have ‘examined it, it will not be easy to prove that the whole of it can be referred to this form. Iam yet of opinion that along the central parts of the range may be seen emerging an original fundamental deposit of granite. These are all the depositories of granite of considerable extent, which I have discovered in the region embraced by the map. Granite existsin many other places along this river in beds and veins; but not of sufficient extent to claim to be represented on the map. It is possible, however, that what I call beds and veins, may not in all cases be such: For it is generally allowed, I believe, that the basis rock in all New-England is granite, and this nucleus, if I may so call it, is doubtless very uneven, having many prominences and corresponding hollows. In some places, perhaps, these projections have never been covered by other rocks, such for instance, as black Mountain. In other cases there is every appearance to indicate that the higher rocks have been worn away, and thus the granite has been disclosed: Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 1] for in general, the granite along the Connecticut appears much lowex than the neighbouring rocks, such as gneiss and mica slate. No person who examines the East-Haven granite, or that running through the Leverett, or even the South Hampton deposit, will doubt that some powerful agent has swept away an immense mass of superincumbent rocks of some description or other. Whether this was a primeval northeasterly current as Mr. Hayden maintains, I shall not undertake to decide. Be it, however, what it may have been, wherever it has acted powerlully we may ex- pect to find the granite laid bare. If these remarks are correct, we need not be surprised to find this rock any where, even if we canuot make it form any thing like con- tinuous ranges, and perhaps some of those small masses of granite, which every one who has examined New-Eng- Jand knows, appear so frequently, and which being sur- rounded by gneiss or mica slate, we are apt to refer to beds or veins may, afterall, be the top of a projection of the nucleus of the globe which the abrading agent has laid bare. Bellows Falls Granite. This is of quite limited extent; but the interesting na- ture of the spot where it-occurs induced me to colour it and notice it thus particularly. Fall mountain on the east bank of the Connecticut at Bellows Falls, consists of a coarse, not very perfectly stratified mica slate. At its western foot in the bank of the river, the stratification becomes less dis- tinct, and is at length, about the middle of the stream, en- tirely lost; and the rock becomes an imperfect granite. In other words, there is a graduation from the mica slate into the granite. In the western bank, in the village, the char- acters of the granite are more decided; though even here, J should have no hesitation in calling it a sienitic granite, did it contain any hornblende; but I could discover none. The mica is black and abundant, thus giving the rock a sie- nitic aspect; and it is also traced by veins of felspar and granite like the sienitic granite of Northampton and Belcher- town, to be described hereafter. The ingredients of this rock are arranged when viewed ona small scale somewhat in distinct layers; but when regarded as a whole, I never 12 Geolocy, &c. of the Connecticut. saw a rock farther from stratification. Sometimes the fels- par is wholly wanting, and the rock appears to be mere unstratified mica slate, if such a term does not contain a con- tradiction. Itis of no great extent, being evidently laid bare by the waters of the Connecticut, which here urge their way in foaming fury over its ragged cliffs. The same rock occurs two miles east of the falls; but, as far as I examin- ed it, it seemed to occupy no great space. Stratification of Granite. Probably the granite of Connecticut will leave the ques- tion* on this subject undecided. For some of itis evident- ly stratified and some of it isnot. That which exists in not very extensive beds exhibits, so far as I have examined the subject, the most decided marks of stratification. It is: not unfrequent to see the bed divided into layers parallel to its roof and floor, and from one foot to two feet thick. This is readily distinguished from gneiss by the much greater thickness of the layers and the want of a stratified arrange- ment of the ingredients. In other instances, more rare, however, we observe what Saussune would call vertical plates (feuillets )—that is, thick tables of granite perpendi- cular to the horizon, crossing the bed sometimes at right an- gles and sometimes obliquely. These plates are also found making a dip tothe horizon—In all these cases, however, the plates being parallel, or nearly so, the rock would be properly denominated stratified. Examples of these vari- ous kinds of arrangement may be seen in Conway, Wil- liamsburg, Goshen, and Chesterfield. Yet the greater part of our granite is divided by numerous fissures into these ir- regular blocks that bid defiance to precise description. Granitic Veins. By veins I understand those zones of any particular rocks, or mineral, which traverse another rock, either rec- tangularly or obliquely to the direction of its strata. In crossing the strata they differ from beds. * See Greenough’s First Principles of Geology.—Essay 1. Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 13 Granitic veins are very numerous in many parts of the map, especially in the region of the South Hampton granite. In width they vary from a mere line to 30, and perhaps even 40 feet. But I have not observed any that exceed this breadth. They traverse mica slate, hornblende slate, limestone of a peculiar character, sienite, gneiss and gran- ite. Those which traverse the latter rock differ from it only in being of a finer, or a coarser grain. Yet they are as re- ally veins as those zones of granite traversing other rocks. Examples of these are frequent—as near the South Hamp- ton lead mine. In these veins all the ingredients of granite are’ usually present, but in variable proportion. I have seen some that were nearly or quite graphic granite: But usually the mica is in superabundance, especially in the narrower ones, and often it is of a delicate straw or light green colour, as in Go- shen and Conway. The felspar is sometimes of an ele- gant flesh colour, especially in those veins occurring in the gneiss northeast of New-Haven, in Chatham, Haddam, &c. These veins frequently divide and subdivide like the top of a tree, some of the branches being smaller and some larger. These branches rarely go off from the main stock at right angles, but generally oblique. At one place you will see a vein retaining its width for several feet, or even rods, with mathematical exactness—at another, its width will gradually increase or decrease; and I have seen, in some instances, a sudden reduction of two or three inches, by which a shoul- der was produced. ‘The course of many of these veins is serpentine, resembling that of a river on a map—yet often they scarcely deviate at all from the right line. Some- times they make large curves to the right or left. They usually descend into the rock obliquely to the horizon. They frequently intersect, but I have never noticed any dis- placement of the strata, or mass of the rock, except in the sienite. Some of the veins traversing sienite, (between Belchertown and Ludlow for example,) are so numerous and their intersections so many, that they form what the Germans call a stock worke, except that they are not metal- ic. By these cross veins the surface of the rock is some- times divided into triangles, rhombs, or rhomboids; and sometimes it is tesselated. 14 Geology, §c. of the Connecticut. The veins traversing seinite are most frequently granite, felspar being of a flesh colour. They are more numerous in this than in any other rock, and are ofien intersected by one another and by thin veins of epidote. The crossing of these veins has produced many very interesting and singu- lar displacements of portions of the rock. Where one vein is cut off by the intersection of one that is newer, it is not unfrequent to observe a lateral removal of the former with the. whole mass of the rock surrounding it, from one to six inches. The vein itself, which is thus removed, is rarely altered or injured. One of the most complete and curious cases of this kind is exhibited in Fig. 6. It was sketched by the eye without accurate admeasurement. A. B. C. is a triangular mass of sienite; the sides of which are 6, 4, and 10 feet. A.B. isa fissure in the rock: B. C. a vein of epidote and A C. the line marking the lowest limit of the rock above the soil. The whole rock is unbroken and as firmly united as any rock of this character ever is. There appear originally to have been two veins of granite traversing the rock in its longest direction, the smallest an inch wide at one end and widening towards the «ther, and the longest 2 or 2 1-2 wide. These have been cut through and strangely displaced by nn- merous veins of epidote crossing obliquely. a, a, a, and 0, 6, b, &c. represent the granite veins as displaced. d, d, d, &c. represent the veins of epidote which are rarely more than one quarter of an inch thick, and a few of which are represented on the plate. 7 c isa mass of gneiss or mica slate imbedded in the sienite and crossed by the granite vein 0. The locality of this rock will be described when we come to speak of sienite. In those rocks that are stratified these veins make every possible angle with the direction of the strata. And if I do not mistake, the nearer they approach to the same direction as the strata, the broader they become, and have a nearer resemblance to beds. Sometimes they approach so near the same course as the layers of the rock they traverse, that it requires nice examination to determine whether they deviate at all. A good example of this occurs in a locality which many geologists have visited, and which many more Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 15 will probably visit. I refer to the main body of that enor- mous vein containing the green tourmalin, rubelite, &c. in Chesterfield. We think it might even admit of a ques- tion whether this be a bed or a vein. The veins of which we are now speaking are doubtless contemporaneous ones—that is, such as were consolidated at the same time with the rocks they traverse. There is no seam or layer of another rock at their sides, but they are usually so firmly united to the rock which contains them, that they are separated from these with as much difficulty as they are broken in any other direction. I have, how- ever, frequently noticed a seam traversing the middle of the vein—so that if the rock they traverse be broken up, one half will cleave to one side and one half to the other. A real /usus naturae exhibiting the fine cohesion of these veins to the rocks they traverse, now lies before me. A slab of granite being a vein 2% inches thick, 10 inches broad, and 20 inches long, curved a little upwards at one end, forms the base of the specimen. From the centre of this, rises perpendicularly a bladed, taper-pointed column of a pecu- liar limestone, only 2 inches thick, 10 inches broad at the base, and 26 inches high, appearing as if mortised into the granite. ‘The contrast between the light coloured granite and the dark gray limestone, is very striking. The secret of its having been brought into this singular form appears to be this. It was found in a mountain torrent in Conway, and the granite doubtless once formed a vein in the lime- stone. On one side the limestone has been entirely worn away by the water—and on the other side, it is worn so as to leave only the bladed column above described, which still adheres firmly to the granite. i T have said that these granitic veins are contemporane- ous ones: And it would seem that the judgment of no man could be so warped by theory, as to believe, after examin- ing them, that they were once fissures made in the rocks they traverse, after these were consolidated, and that these fissures were filled by a solution of water above, or by a fiery furnace beneath. There is just as much reason for believing that one of the constituents of granite, quartz for instance, was introduced into the rock in this manner after ihe other constituents were consolidated; or that the imbed- 16 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. ded crystals of porphyry are not of the same age with the base. Granitic veins are numerous in many parts of the map. Commence at Conway and go south, and they will be found in abundance nearly to the ocean. North of ‘this town I have never noticed any. On the east side of Con- necticut river, also, they are not unfrequent, particularly in Connecticut. Many of the interesting minerals of Made dam and Chesterfield occur in them. Veins of quartz are sometimes seen in this region read yersing granite, asin Conway. But they are not extensive, or numerous. I have noticed also that sometimes the gran- ite contains, imbedded in it, masses of mica slate having a curved form and not eter et ; as on the top of the high hill between Williamsburg and Chesterfield. Graphic Gramte. This is a rock not uncommon in the region of the map. I shail notice two of the finest localities. The first is in the red conglomerate, or coarse sand stone, passing. through Deerfield. The imbedded masses in this rock are some-. times the most beautiful graphic granite. The felspar, al- though it retains its lustre most perfectly, appears to be thoroughly penetrated by the colouring matter of the con- glomerate so as to become of a deep flesh colour. The quartz is gray and limpid, or a little smoky, and being arranged somewhat graphically, many of the specimen are truly ele- ant. | : The other locality of this rock, is the Goshen granite, in the northeast corner of the town. The felspar is of a snow white, andthe quartz limpid; and so perfectly graphic is its arrangement, that it bears a close resemblance to the Chinese or Hindostanee characters which are feeynanaly observed on goods from the East-Indies. Porphyritic Granite. This handsome rock occurs in great abundance i in » loose rolled pieces along the range of granite passing through Leverett, &c. The crystals of felspar are from one to two inches long, and a half or three quarters broad, and some- Geology, §c. of the Connecticut. 17 times the few presented is a square. Thus an idea is con- veyed to the observer, at first, that the crystals are rectan- gular parallelopipeds and cubes; although itis well known that felspar never crystallizes in either of these forms. The felspar of these imbedded crystals, when broken, ex- hibits the pearly lustre of the folia very well. The granite containing these crystals is almost uniformly of a coarse tex- ture. This porphyritic granite is carefully to be distinguished from glandulous gneiss, which also occurs abundantly along the Connecticut. Let any one pass from Hinsdale, New- Hampshire to Winchester and he will see numerous bowlders, often ten feet diameter, of a rock having the granite constit- uents and exhibiting no appearance of a schistose structure. In one place at least he will cross the reck in place; and he will have no doubt that it is the most decided granite. And yet itis elegantly porphyritic. This rock occurs also in Chester where Dr. Emmons has traced a range of it five or six miles. Numerous bowlders of this rock are scattered over the town of Woodbridge near New-Haven; but I do not know from whence they originated. Pseudomorphous Granite. I put this adjective to a variety of granite that occurs along the Connecticut, not to show my dexterity at coining new terms, put to make myself understood. JT am inclined, how- ever, to think that the rock to which I refer is not exactly de- scribed in the geological books which I have seen, unless it be by Cleaveland, when he says, “some varieties (of gran- ite) are divisible into imperfectly columnar or tabular con- eretions.” (Mineralogy, vol. 2, p. 732.) It is a coarse grained granite with light coloured quartz and feldspar, ar- ranged in the usual manner. The peculiarity lies in the mi- ea. This is usually dark coloured, and arranged in plates from one to three inches across. The manner in which these are disposed, may be thus explained. Suppose the quartz and felspar to have been cemented together so as to form a perfect graphic granite. Next suppose the mass to be cut in various directions by a fine saw; and in the spaces thus made, imagine thin plates of mica, not more than ;*, of an inch thick, to be fitted. It is obvious that the , Vou. VI.—No. 1. 3 18 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. mass will thus be cut up into segments of pseudomorphous crystals. And so it is in the natural specimens: and it seems as though the hand of nature had really made use of a saw in their construction. ‘The plates of mica meet at various angles, yet never cross each other; and the.smallest piece of quartz or felspar is sometimes bisected, so that a part appears on one side of the plate of mica and a part on the other. This rock occurs in the S. Hampton granite ; and may frequently be found in other parts of the region extending fifty miles south from Conway. Ata little dis- tance the dark bronze coloured mica appears like prisms of some imbedded mineral: and the travelling geologist is of- ten tempted from his carriage in the almost certain expecta- tion of obtaining from this rock shor! or titanium. 2. GNEIss. Coloured Orange. Although this is the most abundant rock in New-England, yet the map includes no very extensive portion of it. It stretches over a broad region without the limits of the map on the east and west, especially on the east. On the west it forms a part of the Hoosack or Green Mountains; though a much less part than has been usually supposed. On the east appears with some interruptions of granite, mica slate, &c. within twenty or thirty miles of the coast, and on the north it spreads over a considerable part of New-Hampshire. The White hills are said to consist chiefly of this rock: though they have not, I believe, been thoroughly explored. The dip of the layers of gneiss in this region varies from 20° to 90°—and it dips, like most other stratified rocks along the Connecticut, to the east. When it approaches to horn- blende slate the dip is generally greater than when pure. This rock often contains crystals of hornblende; in every propertion, indeed, until the characters of gneiss are lost in hornblende slate. Especially is this the case on the east side of Connecticut river. More, however, will be said on this subject when we come to describe hornblende slate. Good examples of this gneiss containing detached crystals and even veins of black hornblende may be seen in the base- ment of the new Collegiate Institution in Amherst. It fur- Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 19 nishes an admirable stone for such purposes; and many quarries are opened in it. Immense tables of it may be procured, and should the mania for constructing pyramids ever seize the inhabitants of New-England, this gneiss might produce masses of stone rivaling in magnitude the im- mense limestone blocks of the pyramids of Egypt. The gneiss of the Connecticut, often alternates with mica slate, and passes into it. In Granville, may be seen gneiss, hornblende slate and mica slate, in various stages of ap- proach to each other, and making various alternations. This mixture of gneiss with other rocks, and the consequent indistinctness of character, render it, in some instances, not very easy to give its limits. I have felt this difficulty espe- cially in regard to the northern part of that gneiss range which occupies the eastern part of Litchfield County and appears so decided in its characters in Bristol, Plymouth, and Canton. In the west part of Granville, I feel confident gneiss is the prevailing rock—although mica slate alternates with it. Yet between Chester and Westfield there is nothing but mica slate, as the prevailing rock, which extends twelve or fourteen miles west of Chester, before we come to gneiss. And north of this we find very little gneiss within the limits of the map except a narrow stratum as we ascend the hill from Cummington to Goshen. I do not, therefore, feel ex- actly satisfied with the northern termination of the Litch- field gneiss as given on the map: but at present it is not in my power to re-examine it. I would here, however, suggest that I have been rather inclined to believe that some of the stratified rocks along the Connecticut pass gradually into other rocks laverally, that is, in the direction of the strata:—mica slate, for in- stance, into gneiss, or hornblende slate; and argillite into mi- ea slate. To establish this fact, however, requires a long series of very close and accurate observation. I merely suggest it, therefore, and do not assert it. In some instances, the ingredients of our gneiss are pret- ty equally mixed: in others they are arranged in somewhat distinct layers, which are generally straight. It is nota rock that is rich in minerals with us. Veins of granite tra- versing it, however, sometimes contain interesting specimens. . Witness the Haddam minerals. 20 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. Glandulous Gneiss. This is very abundant, especially in the gneiss east of Connecticut river. Indeed, a considerable proportion of that range is occasionally glandulous, presenting numerous oval masses, chiefly of felspar. The layers of this variety of gneiss are usually very distinct; and it contains a large proportion of mica, which is usually of a blackish colour; and thus it is easily distinguished from the parppaiuiens gran ite above described: 3. Hornpuenpe Suate, CLEAVELAND. Coloured Vermillion, Red, and clouded with India Ink. This is an anomalous and perplexing rock. It is not generally well characterised in this region: but I have put it down, because a rock approaching nearer the characters of this than of any other, occurs in considerable abundance along the Connecticut. I have no confidence however that I have given in all cases its exact situation or extent. Yet I believe that wherever this stratum is coloured on the map, the rocks may be found in the vicinity. ‘Thus in the range extending from Belchertown to Guilford, Ct. a person willgen= erally find this rock more or less abundant in crossing from the secondary rocks to the gneiss: but sometimes he may thus cross and miss of it, unless he make an excursion to the right or left; and sometimes he must cross a portion of the gneiss before he reaches it. 'The-continuity of the strata of this rock seems to be much less perfect than in the gneiss or mica slate, and the direction of the strata if often oblique to that of other rocks :—a remarkable instance of which occurs in the south east corner of Halifax, Vt. The dip of the strata varies from 45° to 90°, and the schistose structure in the purest specimens is very perfect, the layers varying in thickness from haif an inch to three inches. But there is another difficulty in ascertaining the limits of this rock. It is no easy matter to draw the line between it and gneiss, all, or at least, two of the ingredients of the lat= ter rocks being sometimes present, while more than half of the rock is hornblende. Indeed, I have sometimes been dis Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 21 posed to regard this rock as gneiss containing an accidental proportion of hornblende; and this would have been a satis- factory description of a a tai part of the rock which T have called hornblende slate. But another part appears to be decidedly that species of Werner’s primitive trap de- scribed under the name of hornblende slate in Rees Cyclo- pedia, Article T'rap—that is, it consists of hornblende, gen- erally fibrous and crystalline, having a very distinctly slaty structure. For localities of this well characterized horn- blende slate I would mention the eastern part of Halifax, Vermont, also New Fane and Belchertown, two miles north of the meeting house on the west side of the road, and in the western part of Tolland and Monson. I think however that the largest part of this rock will be found to consist of hornblende, quartz and mica—the latter being usually black and very apt to be confounded with the hornblende, so that perhaps it deserves the name of a granitic aggregate. In some instances, also, this rock contains chlo- rite, and verges towards greenstone slate. It is often strangely intermixed, and alternates with gneiss and mica slate. Another portion of this rock has a porphyritic aspect. fuse the term porphyritic in this place, not in the usual sense, as denoting a compact ground with imbedded crys- tals, but as a “granite ground, in which some crystals are much larger than the rest.” (Bakewell’s Geology, p. 28.) The slaty structure of the rock, though less distinct, is not lost : but the imbedded fragments, or imperfect crystals of quartz or felspar, most frequently the former, give it a porphyritic appearance. These imbedded fragments are frequently granular, while the base is distinctly crystalli- zed. A good example of this variety of rocks occurs in the west part of Chatham and in Shelburne. Sometimes this rock becomes the real sienitic porphyry of authors—its slaty structure being lost. This occurs in Plainfield, in Hawley, a few rods west of the meeting-house, and at the falls in Deerfield river in Shelburne. These porphyritic rocks, however, must be quite different from any thing occurring in Europe by this name, if a re- mark of Brongniart be correct, that “we are not at present able to find a sienite or porphyry which is evidently primi- ‘tive.’ For we have as much evidence of the primitive char- 22 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. acter of the rocks above described, as of the mica slate and gneiss with which they are associated and in which they sometimes form beds. Hornblende slate occurs on the west side of Connecticut river, south of Shelburne, in Massachusetts and Connecticut, also at Plainfield and Hawley. But it is not abundant or well characterized generally, and is much mixed with, and passes into other rocks; and therefore I have coloured it only in the range from Belchertown to Guilford and from Shelburne northward. Good examples of the rock contain- ing quartz and some mica may be seen in the flagging stone of the side walks along the eastern side of the Public Square in New-Haven, and in other parts of that city. 4. Mica Suate. Coloured Green. This is an extensive stratum in the northern part of the map. On the west side of the river it forms the prevailing rocks and its width continues to increase northerly, so that it occupies the principal part of Vermont. Prof. Silliman in his “Tour between Hartford and Quebec,” says that he crossed this slate obliquely from Burlington to Hanover, a distance of 84 miles, and found mica slate by far the most abundant rock on the route. (Tour, &c. p. 386.) In Con- necticut, however, along the river, this rock constitutes no ve- ry broad ranges. Those which are coloured immediately in eontact with the secondary on both sides of the Connecticut are in most places quite narrow, often not more than half a mile, or even but a few rods wide, and sometimes they whol- ly disappear and we pass from the sandstone immediately to the hornblende slate or gneiss. : The dip of our mica slate is variable from 20° to 90°. In Vermont itis usually less than in Massachusetts; especially where we first strike it in passing from the river. Farther south, as in Hadley, Plainfield, Chesterfield, &c. it approach- es 90°. East of Chesterfield the layers of this rock lean to the west. Beyond Chesterfield, on the west, they lean the contrary way—that is, to the east. The same is the case between Chester and Westfield. This fact looks like an indication of a fundamental ridge of granite, extending in Geology &c. of the Connecticut. 23 that direction, as we have already suggested; although it may not yet have made its appearance above the later rocks the whole distance. ; This rock is somewhat Protean in its appearance; yet not very difficult in most cases to be distinguished by care- ful observation. The following varieties have been noticed in this region. 1. A variety already referred to, as occur- ring in Leverett, near the pudding-stone; which is scarcely any thing more than imperfectly limpid quartz, divided into distinct rhombic concretions, about an inch thick, and three or four across the outside, slightly spangled or glazed with mica. 2. Very much like the last, except that it does not divide into complete rhombs, but is only separated by seams oblique to the direction of the strata, and nearly perpendic- ular to the horizon*—Locality, West-River mountain in Chesterfield New-Hampshire. 3. Divided as the last by two sets of parallel planes, forming angles with each other a little oblique: But the mica is intimately disseminated in fine scales through every part of the rock, and the quartz becomes a mere siliceous sand, blended closely with the mica. Surface rarely waving—Locality, Whately, Con- way, &c. 4. Not regularly divided in any direction, ex- cept that of the strata, and much less fissile than the last. Mica scattered in fine scales through the mass, and the silex more abundant than the last—Rock breaking into huge blocks, from one to three feet thick, and often forming, like greenstone, abundance of debris. Locality, West-River mountain and Deerfield. ‘These four varieties occur on the borders of the secondary rocks. 5. Tortuous, wavy and extremely irregular, embracing numerous beds and amor- phous masses of quartz—Mica, very imperfectly character- ised, forming a kind of glazing with the aspect of plumbago. Locality, Conway, Shelburne, Colrain, &c. 6. Quartz and mica in somewhat distinct !ayers—quartz predominating, and mica not very well characterised—abounding in garnets —Locality, Plainfield, Hawley, Conway, &c. 7. Passing in- to taleose slate—mica abundant, having somewhat of a fi- brous aspect and connected with talc. Northfield and Haw- ley. 8. Passing into argillite. Locality, Leyden, Ches- *‘eWhen one set of parallel planes crosses another, are both sets to be cal- led strata, or neither, or only one of them?’ —Grcenough’s Geology, Essay 3. 24 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. terfield, (N. H.) Putney, &c. 9. Not very fissile—break~ ing into thick blocks. Mica, abundant but poorly charac- terised—having somewhat the aspect of argillite—surface slightly irregular, appears as if grooved—Abundant in Cum- mington, Chesterfield, (Mass.) Vernon, Bolton, &c. 10. Quartz granular, abundant and white—resembling gneiss or granite—scarcely stratified at all—Locality, Buckland, Granville, &c. 11. Mica in distinct and abundant plates— layers very little tortuous or uneven. This usually lies next to granite. 12. Passing into gneiss—often rendered por- phyritic by crystals of feldspar. Locality, Litchfield county, The quartz that occurs in this mica slate, especially in the wavy and tortuous varieties, is commonly the white limpid: frequently it is the fetid, and sometimes a rich vari- ety of a delicate red color. 'The coloring matter, however, is apparently iron, and therefore it is not the rose-red quartz. This variety of quartz occurs on the west side of the Con- necticut. ; It has already been remarked, under granite, that nu- merous beds of this rock are contained in mica slate. In- deed, our mica slate more frequently rests immediately up- on granite, without the intervention of any other rock, than does gneiss. It also alternates with gneiss, hornblende slate, argillite and chlorite slate. Small particles of it, in- deed, occur in very many places throughout the whole ex- tent of the primitive along the Connecticut. It is a common remark in geological books, that hills composed of mica slate are usually less steep and more rounded than those of granite. But the reverse is the fact in most cases along this river. The granite hills are gener- ally low and rounded, while some of the most Tarpeian precipices to be found in this region are composed of mica slate. ‘Take for examples West River Mountain, and the high hills of Heath, Hawley, Chesterfield, &c. Mica slate is not wanting in a variety of minerals in this section of the country—such, for instance, as staurotide and garnets in immense quantities in Goshen, Chesterfield, Mass. and from Bolton, Conn. one huudred miles north, to Chesterfield, New-Hampshire. Also the fine Chesterfield sappare. Also the red oxid of titanium, found almost ev- ery where between Conway and Brattleborough, a distance of thirty miles--and the Leyden tremolite—the Putney Geology, Ye. of the Connecticut. 25 green fluor spar, and the Wardsborough zoisite. The Chatham Cobalt mine occurs in mica slate. The cry ptogamous plants that usually overspread a great part of the mica slate of this region, though perplexing to the mere geologist, are yet interesting to the botanist. Among those which adhere to these rocks, or to the little soil that collects in their cavities, may be named, Bartra- mia gracilis, Smith, B. longiseta, Mx? B. crispa, Swartz, Hedwigia filiformis, P. Beauv. in great abundance; .Arrhe- nopterum heterosticum, Hedw. Buxbaumia aphylla, Lan. Fissidens adianthoides, Bryum roseum, Diphyscium folio- sum, Spreng. Polytrichum perigoniale, Mx. Jungermannia complanata, L. J. platyphylla L. Cenomyce phyllaphora, and pyxidata, Ach. Stereocaulon paschale, Parmelia herba- cea,saxatilis and caperata,Porina papillosa,and periusa, Peltr- dea aphihosa and scutata, and Sticta pulmonacea, all of Acharius. In the region of the mica slate, especially in Brattleborough and Conway, we frequently find Bryum cuspidatum,Brid. Hypnum minutuium,Ma. H. flecile;Brid. HI. serpens,L.H. cupressiforme, Hedw. Jungermannia nodifo- ha, Torrey, Maschalocarpus trichonitrion, Hed. Pterigonium subcapillatum,Brid. Neckera minor, Brid. N. pennata, Hed. N. viticulosa, Hed. Cenomyce coccifera, rangiferina, botrys, §c.—Parmelia colpodes, ulothrix, cyclocelis, partetina, plumbea, &¢.—Lecanora tuberculata, subfusca, brunnea, al- bella, §-c.—Lecidea parascena, cameola, demissa, &c.—Us- nea florida and plicata, Cornicularia fibrillosa, Collema tu- naeformis, and Alectoria jubata, all of Ach. Nephroma resu- pmnata, Spreng.Glonium stellare, Muhl. Polyporus abietinus and squamosus, Fries. Hydnum quercinum and cyathiforme, Fries. H. imbricatum, occanum, coralloides and gelatinosum, Pers. Thelephora quercina and terrestris, Cyathus olla and striata, Stemonitis fasciculata, Boletus citrinus, badius, bru- malis, ngro-marginatus, cinnabarinus, velutinus, betulinus, &c. all of Persoon, and many scores besides of Agaricus, Amanita, Sphaeria, Peziza, Daedalea, Helveila, Lycoper- don, Bovista, Scleroderma, Tremella, §c. too numerous to mention in this place. Scattered among the mica slate rocks we frequently find the Felix allolabris, Say, or common snail; and also, in some situations, H. alternata, Say. Ina pond in Ashfield is found Planorbis bicarinatus, Say,and Cyclas similis, Say. Vout. VI.—No. 1. 4 26 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. In springs occurs a species of Lymnaca, Say, and in our lar- ger streams, Planorbis trivolvis and Umo purpureus, Say, or common river clam. 5. Tatcose State. ees Cyc. Bakewell. Talcose Schist. Maccullock. Taleose Slate. Eaton. Colored Gamboge yellow, and dotted with India Ink. Bakewell defines this rock to be “slate containing tale,” (Geology, p. 491,) and Eaton calls it “that kind of mica slate which is distinguished from mica slate by a kind of tale glazing.” In this term I do not include soapstone. There is but one stratum of this rock in the region of the map, of sufficient extent to render it necessary to delineate it. I have sometimes noticed on the east side of Connecticut river a kind of talco-micaceous slate: but not in abundance, and rarely in place. I have crossed the stratum which is colored on the map in Whitingham, Vt. where it is not less than a mile anda half in width. Ihave traversed it also in Hawley and Plainfield, and Professor Eaton says it extends into Worthington—so that on his authority I have extended it thither. The rock is of a much lighter color than mica slate. At a distance, indeed, it has the aspect of gneiss. The tale is nearly white, though sometimes of a light green, and it contains a large proportion of silex. The strata are but little undulating and nearly perpendicular, leaning a few degrees to the west. On its east side, where it passes into mica slate, an intermediate talco-micaceous rock is found, containing numerous distinct crystals of black hornblende, thrown in promiscuously, and exhibiting the most elegant specimens. One variety has a ground that is green; anoth- er has a white ground, and the contrast between these and the imbedded crystals is striking. Large slabs of this rock may easily be obtained; and if it will admit of a polish, it would certainly be a beautiful addition to thosé marbles and porphyries that are wrought for ornamental purposes. The varieties of this rock may be seen in any direction a few rods from the meeting house in Hawley; as likewise many Geology, Src. of the Connecticut. 2% other singular and curious aggregates which I have never seen at any other place. Among these is sienitic porphy- ry—and sometimes the talco-micaceous rock has its surface covered with delicate fascicular groups of hornblende. The micaceous iron ore occurs in the talcose slate, and I have never seen any of this sort of ore in any cabinet that will compare at all for beauty with that in Hawley. 6. Cutorite Sxuate. Cleaveland. Uncolored, but dotted with black. In the region under description, know of but two deposits of this rock of sufficient extent to be marked on the map; viz. at West-Haven and Milford* and in Whitingham, Vt. At the’ former place it is but imperfectly characterised, espe- cially at its Northern extremity. As we approach the coast, in West-Haven, its characters become more decided, and here we find numerous small crystais of octahedral magnetic iron ore disseminated through it. Where the cliffs of this slate have long been buffeted by the waves of the ocean, these crystals have been worn out, and are de- posited in large quantities, in the form of iron sand, on the beach. On the east side of West-Haven harbour, at the Light House, also, this sand appears in equal abundance— and tons of it may easily be collected. On that side of the harbour there is no chlorite slate; and whether the iron sand found there is the remnant of former chloritic strata now wholly disintegrated, or whether it is washed up from the bottom of the Sound, where these rocks doubtless exist, remains problematical. The latter supposition, however, seems most probable. The chlorite slate of West-Haven is extremely tortuous and undulating, and istraversed by numerous irregular seams of white quartz. It alternates with greenstone slate and passes into it; and also with mica slate. These three rocks are often so blended together that the distinctive characters of each are lost. And as we approach the strata of the Verd Antique, they seem to embrace also some of the prop- *West-Haven and a part of Milford have recently been incorporated in- io a separate town by the name of Oxford. 23 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. erties of this, and often to pass into it. Hence it is no easy matter, in many instances, to give a name to the Milford slate rocks, and the alternations above named, and also with unstratified primitive greenstone, are numerous—so that it was not possible in coloring the map to give to each of these rocks the precise situation which they occupy on the surface. The direction of the chlorite slate strata, of which we have been speaking, is from north-east to south-west. They | dip to the south-east, and their angle of depression below the horizon rarely exceeds 30°. Sometimes, however, it is 90°. J think it will be found that the rocks of Woodbridge and Milford pass laterally into one another. Thus, the chlorite slate at its northern extremity is usually somewhat talcose in its appearance, approaching to argillite, and as you pass south, its characters continue to be more and more developed.* The chlorite slate colored in Whitingham, is the best characterised I have ever seenin New-England. It seems to be nearly pure chlorite, yet distinctly stratified, the lay- ers being nearly perperdicular, leaning, however, a few de- grees to the west. I know but little concerning the extent of this stratum. Where I have crossed it, it was less than half a mile in width. I have given it a place principally to excite an attention to it. This rock also occurs in beds in argillite in Guilford, Vt. but they are not extensive. 7. SieniTE. Cleveland! Colored Gamboge Yellow, and crossed by oblique parallel black lines. This rock is marked in three places on the map. The first is in Whateley and of very small extent—the second extends from Whately to the south part of Northampton ; and the third is in Belchertown and Ludlow. The rock in the two last places is very much alike, being for the most part a kind of sienitic granite. In the first mentioned lo- cality the rock is considerably different from that in the oth- *I am indebted to Prof. Silliman for this suggestion. Geology, sc. of the Connecticut. 29 ers. I shall confine my remarks principally to that range extending from Whately to Northampton, because I have examined this most. As above remarked, this range appears to be mostly a si- enitic granite, that is, a modification of granite; and very different from that sienite which is associated with gray- wacke and greenstone. A person coming from the west or north-west towards the village of Northampton, will pass over the most decided granite, associated with mica slate, till he comes within four or five miles of that place. He will then find the texture of the rock to be finer, and in some i#stances it contains a portion of hornblende, while the pro- rtion of quartz is somewhat diminished, the felspar frequently becomes red. Veins of graphic and common granite, epidote, &c. are more numerous, and the rock ap- pears more disintegrated than the coarse grained granite. In one part of a mass of this rock, may frequently be ob- served a considerable proportion of hornblende, thus giving the rock a sienitic aspect, while in another part, only a few feet distant, this mineral is wholly wanting. Coming near- er Northampton, however, we find the hornblende more and more abundant, until we arrive at the eastern edge of the range, where we finda rock containinglittle else than fel- spar and hornblende,forming a real sienite. [have never yet seen a specimen, however, in which careful inspection could not discover both mica and quartz. ‘The felspar is usually deep flesh colored, and the hornblende sometimes black and sometimes green. On the eastern border of this range, especially about two miles north of the village of Northamp- ton, on the west side of the stage road, this sienite assumes a trappose and somewhat columnar form, both among the loose masses and those in place.* Among the debris, the three sided pyramidal form is most frequent; sometimes we find a three sided prism, and sometimes, both among the loose masses and those in place, two, three or four faces of a prism of a greater number of sides. Another spot for observing some interesting facts in re- gard to this rock, is the south part of Whately. Two miles south of the congregational meeting-house, on the road to *T his fact was first mentioned to me by that indefatigable and able natu- ralist, Mr. Thomas Nuttall. 30 Geology, dc. of the Conneciicul. Hatfield, is a manufactory of common earthen ware, and here a small stream, running east, has cut across the great- er part of the sienite range, and laid the rock bare nearly the whole distance, which does not much exceed half a mile. Leta person follow up the south side of this stream, and in some of the ledges he will perceive a distinct strati- fication of the sienite, though of little extent; one part of the same ledge being often stratified and the other amor- phous. In this place he will see, also, numerous intersec- tions of granitic and other veins by which a part of the rock has been displaced. In one of the ledges a little distance from this stream, on the south side of a pond, may be s the prototype of Fig. 6. sities Another interesting fact may be noticed in the sienitic granite along this stream, especially on the northern side, near the earthen ware manufactory. © The rock here contains numerous imbedded masses of other primitive rocks, as gneiss, mica slate,quartz, hornblende, and a finer kind of sienite. And what is peculiar,is that these imbedded fragments are almost uniformly rowunded—-as much so as those contained in the eonglomerated rocks along the Connecticut; and they are often so numerous that the rock appears like a real second- ary conglomerate. ‘T'he masses are very firmly fixed in the base, and often there appears a mutual impregnation and sometimes the veins of granite cut through the imbedded fragments, asin Fig. 6. Thus we have a real conglomerated sienite, and I had al- most said a conglomerated granite: for much of the rock containing these fragments is destitute of hornblende,while all the ingredients of granite are present. And the instan- ces in which this conglomerated rock occurs,are not confin- ed to the particular locality above named—but it is to be found in many other parts of the range. I have seen bowl- ders of it in Surry, Alstead and Walpole in New-Hamp- shire, but I did not there see the rock in place. The Northampton sienitic range lies at a very low level. A considerable part of itis hidden by a deposit of sand through which it sometimes projects. The sienite in Bel- chertown is also rather low. All the remarks above made, in relation to the Northampton range, except that in regard to its conglomerated character, will apply to this. The best route which I have found for viewing this sienite,after cross- Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 31 ing it in several places, is to pass by the right hand road from Belchertown congregational meeting-house, to the. meeting- house in. Ludlow. The narrow deposite of sienite which is first mentioned above, as occurring in Whately, is somewhat different in its ‘characters. Let the observer proceed northerly on the main road from the congregational meeting house one mile, till he comes to the farm ofa Mr. Crafts. On the left hand side of the road he will find a ledge of rocks which are greenstone slate, nearly allied to hornblende slate, and some- times to chlorite slate. J.et him cross these strata westerly, about fifty rods, and he will come to a deposit of decided unstratified primitive greenstone, about twenty rods wide. Immediately succeeding this rock, he will find the sienite above named. It consists of nearly equal preportions of felspar and hornblende, the latter of a dark green and of a distinctly crystalline structure; andithe former white and compact or very finely granular, entirely destitute ofa foli- ated structure, or pearly lustre. These ingredients seem to be promiscuously blended, and the rock appears to be peculiarly well adapted for being wrought and polished for useful and ornamental purposes. The bed is not very ex- tensive, only about six rods wide at the place above men- tioned, and | have never been able to trace it more than one or two miles. It is separated from the mica slate by a nar- row stratum of greenstone slate. : Sienite, or sienitic granite, occurs in many other places along the Connecticut; but in no other place have I found it extensive enough to deserve a place on the map, except perhaps in Chatham, and with the relative situation of this I am not sufficiently well acquainted. Where I have crossed it, it appeared to form a bed in porphyritic hornblende slate. 8. Primitive Grepnstone.—Cleaveland. Colored Carmine or Rose Red, and marked fby parallel lines crossing each other. This is one of Werner’s varieties of primitive trap. If it be asked what that is, [ should suppose Mr. Maclure’ssupposi- tion to be not an improbable one, that “what Werner calls primitive trap may perhaps be compact hornblende; or per- 32 Geology, &-c. of the Connecticut. haps the newest floetz trap when it happens to cover the primitive.” (Journal of Sci. Vol. 1. p. 212.) Yet there are two circumstances in regard to the rock here denominated primitive greenstone, along the Connecticut, which have led me to doubt its exact indentity with our newest floetz trap, or secondary greenstone. 1. The primitive greenstone is never amygdaloidal; while a great part of the secondary is so. 2. The primitive greenstone not merely covers other rocks, but forms beds in them. An example of this may be seen one mile east of the Milford marble quarry on what is called the old road leading to New-Haven ; where the greenstone lies between strata of a rich intermediate, between greenstone slate and mica slate, and the rocks have every appearance of being contemporaneous. Primitive greenstone is colored in the following places on the map, viz. at West-Haven and Milford—at Wolcott—at Whately, in the western part of Northfield and north part of Gill. In regard to that in Wolcott, or the Eastern part of Waterbury, I know but little, it being several years since I observed it, and some snow being on the ground at the time. I put it down merely for the sake of pointing out its locality. The most extensive deposit of the rock is at West Haven and Milford; on both sides, but especially on the east side, of the Verd Antique stratum. The hummocks of it that appear very frequently, but irregularly, very much re- semble the detached hills of secondary greenstone, except that they are less elevated and the blocks of debris are usual- ly larger. A little south of the Derby turnpike, this is the first rock that shows itself as we ascend from the alluvial plain of New-Haven on the Humphreysville turnpike also, there is but a narrow stratum of chlorite slate separating it from the alluvion. This greenstone often becomes stratified on both sides of the ridge, forming greenstone slate. At first, we perceive a partial and interrupted stratification; and in a few feet it becomes decided, extending through the whole mass. There is also frequently seen a double stratification; one set of planes crossing the other rectangularly or obliquely. Well characterized greenstone slate, however, is not abundant in Milford or West Haven. It usually soon passes into chlo- ritic slate, or even into a bastard mica slate. An account of Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 33 these slates has been long since given to the public by Prof. Silliman in President Dwight’s Statistical account of New- Haven, page 11. Their strata run N, E, and 5. W. and dip to the S. E. The angle of depression below the horizon rarely exceeding 30° or 40°, xii Let hand specimens of this primitive greenstone and of the secondary greenstone from East or West Rock be exhibited to a geologist who had never visited the localities, and he would not hesitate, I think, to pronounce that from East and West Rock to be primitive, and the other to be secondary ; and for the reason, that he would find the secondary green- stone to be much the coarsest and most crystalline. The _ primitive greenstone of this locality is fimely granular, and agrees, in this respect, with Jameson’s description of transi- tion greenstone. Indeed, it hasalready been suggested (Jour- nal of Science, Vol. 2. p. 165.) that the Verd Antique of Mil- ford may possibly belong toa transition series; and il so, this greenstone, greenstone slate, and chlorite slate, and even that bastard mica slate which is sometimes found between this marble and the secondary, may belong to the same class. The finely granular texture of transition greenstone, is how- ever, by no means a distinctive character: since both the primitive and floetz greenstones are described as possessing the same. — ‘The range of primitive greenstone in Northfield and Gill, - ¢ommences about two miles north of thenerthern termination of secondary greenstone, and extends into Vernon. Its char- actersare very similar to those of the same rock at Whately and Milford. Some of it however approaches rather nearer the na- ture of sienite: but still the hornblende predominates. It is of- ten stratified and often semi-stratified, becoming greenstone slate. Near the southern point I observed a vein or dike of limpid quartz several rods long and one foot wide, traversing this rock, having, a part of the distance, saalbandeg of felspar.. The primitive greenstone occurring in Whately is some- what different in its-characters from that in Milford. It is coarse and usually highly crystalline in its texture, being some- times rendered almost porphyritic by the imbedded peices of compact felspar, and sometimes being little else than pure hornblende. It is not extensive and alternates in one :n- stance with sienite, the locality of which has heen pointed out in treating of the latter rock. Vou, -VI....No, I. 5 34 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. The greatest part of this greenstone is greenstone slate, the strata having the same direction as that at Milford, and being nearly perpendicular to the horizon, bearing a few de- grees one way or the other occasionally. This slate is alse more crystalline than the same rock at New-Haven. It is howevera less degree of crystallization that chiefly distinguish- es it from hornblende slate, towards which it verges and into which it probably passes.. Notwithstanding the very deci- dedly fissile character of this slate, ] have noticed in some instances a tendency in it to the trappose form; some of the specimens having a cleavage, like many. crystals, in two di- rections, one coinciding with the direction of the strata and the other ruaning across the strata. The proportion of fel- spar in this rock is small, often almost imperceptible. Chlo- rite, however, abounds as in the greenstone slate of Milford ; and often it becomes real chlorite slate. Seams and beds of quartz are common in the Whately rock and also granu- lar epidote. . heat’ ied ands Some of the rock colored, as hornblende slate in Shel- burne, &c. much resembles certain varieties of this green- stone slate ; and were the two rocks contiguous, it would be difficult to draw the line between them. Indeed, by some, this Whately rock would probably be denominated horn- blende slate: but I think there is a distinction between the two rocks; and so long as any of the stratified rocks of Mil- ford retain the name of greenstone slate, it would seem the Whately rock, from its resemblance and similar associations with unstratified primitive greenstone, demands the same ap- pellation. An observer will be struck with the resem- blance of the greenstone strata at these two places, and with their similar situation in regard to mica slate; and he will be disposed to enquire whether these rocks were not once continuous between these two places ;—and in the interme- diate space, he will find sufficient evidence in the great quan- tity of mingled detritus of other rocks, that the higher strata have suffered much from some levelling agent in former: days. Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 35 9. ARGILLITE. Colored Brick Red. The remarks last made in regard to the primitive green- stone, chlorite slate, &c. will apply to this rock. For we find it near the two terminations of the secondary tract and on the game side of it--viz. in Woodbridge at the south end, and com- mencing on the north at Leyden and extending at least as far as Rockingham, Vermont. The northern deposite is much the most extensive and is best characterized. In both places, however, it is often tortuous and slightly undulating, especially when passing into mica slate. It embraces nu- merous beds and “tuberculous masses” of white quartz— pethaps the milky quartz. The passage into mica slate is usually very gradual, the characters of the argillite losing themselves by imperceptible changes in those of the - mica slate, so that for a considerable distance, the observer may be in doubt to which rock to refer the aggregate. The Woodbridge argillite occasionally alternates with mica slate, (Journal Sci. Vol. 2. p. 203.) and I have ascertained that this is the case also with that of Vermont. That which is just beginning to pass into mica slate, alternates also with a peculiar coarse limestone to be described under the next ar- ticle; or rather, the limestone forms beds in the argillite— for instance in Putney. A principal object in extending the map so much beyond the secondary region on the north, was to include all the argillite to be found along the Conneeticut. Whether I have effected this object [ am not certain. The Rev. E. D. Andrews, who communicated to me several facts on this subject, is of opinion that the northern limit of the argillite is on the south side of Williams’ river in Rockingham, three miles north of Bellows Falls; but he had not examined the regions beyond with sufficient care to decide the point with certainty. In Guilford, Vermont, this argillite alternates with a pecu- liar rock which Professor Dewey remarks appears “ to be a talco-argillite with much quartz.” Its stratification is less perfect than the argillite; or, rather, it has more of the ir- regularities and tortuosities of mica slate. Its small extent 36 Geology; &c. of the Connecticut. and imperfect characters prevented my putting it downasa distinct rock. The stage road from Greenfield to Brattle- borough passes over it in the southern part of Guilford. At the same place occurs well characterized chlorite slate; but not constituting any extensive range. bb One mile south of this spot, another rock occurs, which an observer, at first sight, would pronounce to be granite. It is unstratified* and has the color of granite; but seems to be made up chiefly of quartz witha little mica interspersed. It seems to be an aggregate to which no particular name has as yet been applied; although the proportion of mica is so small that it might almost be called quartz simply. It ap- pears to form a large bed in argillite, or talco-argillite. The strata of argillite, both in Connecticut and Vermont, run in a direction nearly N. E. and S. W. and are highly in- clined, generally varying but little from perpendicular. They are undoubtedly primitive—that is, the evidence of this is as great asin regard to the mica slate; both being highly inclined, and destitute of organicremains. Indeed, Bakewell, who has transferred argillite to the transition class, says “mica slate has a near affinity to clay slate; and as I have arranged the latter with rocks of the second class, it may perhaps be doubted whether mica slate should not also have been transferred to the same class.” (Geology p. 83.) Do we not here see to what temptations the system maker is exposed, when pres sed with difficulties? However, as Professor Kidd remarks, *(CBy stratificatien we understand the divisions of a mass of rocks into many parallel portions whose length and breadth greatly exceed their thick- ness.”’ North-American Rev. No. 29, p. 232. <¢Wherea rock is stratified, is it necessarily bounded by parallel surfaces? If so, let us hear no more of mantle-shaped, saddle-shaped, basin-shaped, trough-shaped stratification.” Greenough’s Geology, Essay 1. ] would beg liberty to enquire, whether some of these difficulties might not be removed by defining stratification to be the division of a mass of rock into many parallel or concentric portions? But after all, this, like a thousand other definitions in natural history, is only an approximatien to the truth: For if mathematical exactness be essential, we have never yet seen any rock whose divisions were either parallel or concentric. Bakewell’s distinction (Geology p. 31.) between “the structure which is caused by chemical agen- cy, or by crystallization, and mechanical depositions,’’ would perhaps give relief to some of the difficulties in regard to stratification, were geologists agreed what rocks have a structure caused by chemical agency and what ones are mechanical deposites. But they are not agreed on this point, as is evident from the very example he brings to illustrate his principle, when he says, that the division of slate rocks into layers, is the result of their chem- ical composition. Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 37 it seems “the terms primitive and transition are daily be- coming of less importance.” Quarries have been opened in the Woodbridge argillite and it is employed in New-Haven for building. In Ver- mont also, they have been wrought in Guilford, and Vernon, two also in Dummerston, S. E. of the centre of the town, two in Putney, one and a half miles north of the meeting-house, and one in Rockingham, a mile north of Bellows Falls. In most of these the slate is of a good quality and easily ob- tained; but at present they are not much wrought on ac- count of the little demand for it, and consequent low price. 10. Limestone. _ Granular Limestone, Eaton, Index, §c. Colored with India Ink. This rock, in the country covered by the map, always exists in beds in mica slate and argillite: never occu- pying, however, so much as half the surface. I have co- lored it in that region where it occurs most abundantly, that is, in the mica slate nearest the argillite and the sand- stone; although its beds exist in nearly all the mica slate north of Northampton on the west side of the river. It is remarkably uniform in its appearance. Its exterior, when it has long been exposed to the weather, is of a dark brown color, showing more marks of decomposition than any other rock in this region. The carbonate of lime is usual- ly worn away at least an inch deep on the surface, and the silex and mica are left in coarse grains, or warts, or in projecting ridges. When newly broken the mica is uniform- ly of a light gray, and the texture is coarsely granular and dull, except the glimmering of scales of mica. The con- stituents of the rock are carbonate of lime, mica and silex, in somewhat variable proportions. In a specimen sent to Prof. Dewey, he found about fifty per cent of carbonate of lime and fifty of silex and mica. He judged that the silex constituted about thirty five per cent and the mica fifteen: and he judiciously adds, ‘‘ the mica is in so great proportion, you cannot call it silicious limestone. At least, ought it not to be called a granitic aggregate, or silicious limestone mixed with mica ?” : 38 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. The beds of this rock vary in width from a few inches to 20 feet, and they rarely exceed this. ‘They are un- stratified, are sometimes traversed by veins of quartz, or more frequently granite, and sometimes the rock becomes so mixed with the mica slate, as,to form one of its constitu- ent parts. Rhombic crystals of carbonate of lime, of a yellowish brown color, and agreeing by goniometrical ad- measurement with the primitive form, are found imbedded in this limestone, and sometimes these are connected with irregular masses of quartz, and larger plates of mica. It forms, when blasted, a good stone for underpinning. I have never seen it along the Connecticut, except in the mica slate at the northwest part of the map—none in any part of New-England, nor in any mineralogical cabinet,— yet it seemed to deserve a place on the map, and a descrip- tion. 11. Verp Antique.—Cleaveland. Ophicalce Veinée. Brongniart. t Colored blue, and marked with oblique parallel Vines. The rich and elegant marble obtained from this rock has induced me to give it a place on the map, although its ex- tent is very limited. It extends northerly from Milford harbour, 9 or 10 miles, apparently terminating two miles west of Yale College. It constitutes an extensive bed in chlorite slate, with which it sometimes alternates. I am inclined, however, to the opinion, that the slate lying im- mediately contiguous to the Verd Antique, although not well characterised, approaches nearest to greenstone slate. Yet, decided chlorite slate, appears usually only a few rods distant. In some places, the Verd Antique is a quarter of a mile in width, and forms ledges of considera- ble elevation and extent. It is stratified—the layers being thick and parallel to the slate rock enclosing it. The grain is fine; the rock is traversed by veins of calcareous spar, magnesian carbonate of lime, and asbestus; and is associated with chromate of iron and magnetic oxide of iron, diffused, more or less, through the entire body of the marble, and forming dark spots and clouds. The ser- pentine is twisted and entangled in the limestone in almost every form, and the green color of the rock may in gene- Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 39 ral be imputed to oxid of chrome—sometimes to the pres- ence of serpentine, colored however, probably by the same oxid. gis This rock has been extensively quarried in two places, one in Milford, 7 miles from New-Haven, and the other only 23 miles from the city. From these are obtained a marble which vies for elegance with any in the world. In- deed, in the extensive collection of marbles and porphy- ries in Col. Gibbs’ cabinet in Yale College, we appeal to those who have seen them, whether any specimens exceed, or even equal in beauty and richness the Verd Antique from Milford. The varied clouding and shading of the gray, or blue ground of this marble with white, black, green, or- ange and gold yellow, indeed, with varieties of almost every color of the prism, give it an elegance that can be realized only by those who examine it. The working of this marble is difficult and expensive, and it is earnestly hoped that the patrician part of our community will not, by resorting to Europe for marbles, which, to say the least, are no more elegant than this, compel the proprie- tors of these quarries to abandon the undertaking. Spe- eimens of this marble may be seen in most of the dwel- lings of the wealthy citizens of New-Haven; and many of the monuments in the grave yard of that city, are of the Verd Antique. Several chimney pieces of it may be seen in the Capitol at Washington. Most of these facts in relation to this rock, I derive from the published accounts of it by Professor Silliman. (See Cleaveland’s Mineralogy under Gran. Limestone, Marble, and Verd Antique, 2d Edit. Also, Journal Sci. vol. 2, p. 165.) A minute account of this interesting formation is still wanting; and Mr. Silliman has promised it. (See Jour. Sci. vol. 2, p. 166.) 12. Oup Rep Sanpstone. Werner. Cleaveland. _ Itis agreed I believe among Geologists who have ex- amined this region, that an extensive deposite of this rock exists along the Connecticut. (See Cleaveland’s Mineralo- gy, 2d Edit. p. 759. Eaton’s Index 2d Edit. p. 207. Tour between Hartford and Quebec, p. 21, and Maclure’s Geol- ogy of the United States.) Itis probably the oldest se- condary rock in this region, and generally lies beneath all 40 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. the rest. So that it does not, I apprehend, occupy so much of the surface, as is generally supposed. There is much slaty sandstone, red and gray, and some of it very argilla- ceous, found along this river, which does not appear to be the old red sandstone of Werner; but to bea different formation, which I have denominated the Coal Formation ; . and which others have called gray wacke slate. I know of no instance in which | am certain that decided old red sandstone lies above the coal formation; although they evidently pass into one another. This coal formation, with the secondary greenstone and alluvion, occupies, I should judge, nearly two thirds of the secondary tract along the Connecticut; leaving not more than one third for the old red sandstone. This rock occupies the greatest extent of surface, as the map will show, in the vicinity of New-Haven. Along the western side of the secondary, it may be found all the distance, (occasionally covered by alluvion,) from New-Haven to Bernardston, Mass. Yet, it forms but few ridges or peaks of much altitude until we come to the south part of Deerfield. There it rises ab- ruptly from an alluvial plain in the form of the frustram of acone, five hundred feet above the Connecticut; and the peak is called Sugar Loaf; being but a few rods in diame- ter at the top, and forming a striking feature in the scene- ry of the country. This is the commencement of a range, which, five miles north, rises 700 feet above the adjoining plain, and then slopes to the north, almost disappearing in Greenfield ; but rising again in the northern part of the town and sending off one or two spurs into Gill. The grain, even of the finest variety of this sandstone, may be called coarse. Its colour is dark reddish, some- times presenting spots or veins, of light gray, as in Hat- field, Mass. Its cement is argillo-ferruginous, and the rock usually exhales an argillaceous odour when breathed upon. It contains a large quantity of light gray mica, the plates being sometimes half an inch, or more, across, and insert- ed promiscuously. This description applies to the finest varieties of old red sandstone. But this passes into and alternates with conglomerates of the same general charac- ter and of various degrees of coarseness. The imbedded peb- bles, vary in size from that of a musket ball to four or five inches in diameter. They are usually quartz, felspar, graphic Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. and common granite, and rarely gneiss or mica slate. The coloring matter of the rock, in most instances, has pene- trated through these pebbles, giving the granitic nodules the same color as the rock, and the quartz a bluish as- pect. This conglomerate frequently alternates with the sandstone, and one half of the layer of a rock is sometimes sandstone, and the other half conglomerate, no fissure be- ing between them. Generally speaking, however, the puddingstone increases in quantity and coarseness as we ascend a mountain of this rock, and all the upper part of the hill is sometimes composed of it. Probably more than one half of the old red sandstone in the northern part of the range is this conglomerate; yet, as it is evidently a mere variety of the sandstone, it was thought altogeth- er unnecessary to attempt a division by different colors on the map. A considerable part of the range of this rock colored on the east side of Connecticut river, is somewhat dif- ferent in its appearance from that I have been describing on the other side. At least, there is one very abundant variety that is not found on the west side. It consists of a fine, siliceous, red sand, adhering together with but very little visible cement. It has, however, an argillaceous odour. The coherence is not as strong as in the coarser sandstone, it being slighily friable. This rock may be seen in place in the southwest corner of Ludlow, and the east part of Long Meadow, Enfield, Somers, Ellington, &c.; and it forms a neater and handsomer building stone than any other rock of the sandstone family which I have ever seen. A part of this range of red sandstone, east of Connecti- cut river, appears also to be verging towards the sandstone constituting the coal formation. Examples of this may be seen at the extensive quarry in Chatham, and also in Mid- dletown—there seems to be a gradual passage of one rock into the other—and the strata of both these rocks have their dip in such a direction, as to lead one, at first, to conclude that this old red sandstone lies above the coal formation. The dip of both rocks is tothe east. It does not follow, however, from this circumstance, alone, that the red sandstone does in fact repose on the other rocks. Thus, let A B bea profile crossing the valley of the Connec- ticut, and exhibiting the strata of old red sandstone, haying Vor. VI.—No. 1. § 42 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. a dip as represented by the parallel lines. Let C D bea deposite of the coal formation lying upon the old red sand- stone, the strata of which have the same dip. Now, to an observer passing along the surface from A to D, the red sandstone, between A and C, appears to lie upon the coal formation between C and D, whereas, the reverse is the fact. This might apply to the rocks we are considering ir Connecticut, were it not for what I think to be the fact, that there is a gradual passage of the old red sandstone in- to the coal formation. ) These, and some other circumstances, made me suspi- cious, for a time, that this range of sandstone east of Con- necticut river, might not be the real old red sandstone, but a member of the coal formation ;—and it was not till I had traversed it the third time, that I felt entirely satisfied. But much of it certainly does not differ, at all as I could discern, from the old red sandstone on the western side of the river; and we find likewise the very same conglome- rate. The strata also, are of a similar thickness and dip, varying asto the form, from six inches to two or three feet; and as to the latter from 10° to 30°; usually, how- ever, not more than 10°. This dip, in all the red sand- stone of the Connecticut, is below the eastern part of the horizon, with the single exception of a ledge that appears in the west street of Hatfield, where the dip is to the west. . This rock is extensively quarried for the purpose of building, in almost every town along the river. Noble specimens may be seen in the vestibules of the churches in New-Haven. Geology ‘&c. of the Connecticut. 45 Organic Remains. These are very rare in our old red sandstone. ! found, however, in Deerfield mountain, one or two specimens that belong to the petrifacta of Martin ; there being a perfect substitution of a finer grained sandstone for the original substance. I found only fragments, about four or five inches long, and they appear to belong to the genus phytolite of Gmelin’s Linnaean System, and to the species lignite. They are a third of an inch in diameter, and a little flat- tened ; and seem to agree with Professor Katon’s descrip- tion of certain petrifactions | found i in red sandstone on the Catskill Mountain; (Index p. 211.) which he is inclined to refer se 7 the tribe of naked Vermes.” . Pt Mea Loos Bape se: ie sae ’ These occur in East Windsor, east parish, one hundred rods south of Ketch’s Mills. They belong to the conserva- _taof Martin, and, without much doubt, to the genus zooli- thus of Gmelin. The animal must have been about five feet in length, and lay horizontally in the rock, eighteen feet below its top, and twenty-three below the surface of the ground. The tail bone, as Dr. Porter, who lives near the spot, informed me, projected beyond the general mass containing the body of the skeleton, about eighteen inches in a curvilinean direction. This, of which that gentleman gave me a specimen, was €asily distinguished by its nu- merous articulations. On exposure to the air, the bones begin to crumble and lose the appearance they presented when first dug up. The rock in which these bones were found, is decidedly the old red sandstone. It agrees exactly with; that rock as it exists at New-Haven, and to the distance of one hun- dred miles north from that town. The rock enclosing the bones is a little coarser than the finest varieties of. this rock, and in the rock above the bones, was found some moderately coarse conglomerate. Whatever doubt I had with regard to some other varieties of rock in that vicini- ty, being the real old red sandstone, I could have no doubt in regard to this, after examining it. 44 Geology, We. of the Connecticut. 13. Seconpary Greenstone. Cleavelands Colored Carmine, or Rose Red. To give the ranges of this rock, was one of the princi- pal objects in constructing the accompanying map. For although it be an anomalous, it is a highly interesting formation. ‘The high mural precipices that almost uni- versally show their naked faces in the ridges and hil- locks of this rock—the immense quantity of débris that - frequently slope up half, or two thirds the distance to their summits—and the thin tufts of trees that crown their tops, form much of the peculiar scenery of the Connecti- cut. They remind the European of the basaltic and other trap ridges of Scotland, Ireland, Saxony, Auvergne, Italy, &c. | In regard to the greenstone* north of Hartford, I feel confident that every range of it to be found in place, is in: serted on the map. South of Hartford some small and low hillocks of it. may have been overlooked, notwithstand- ing all the assistance I have received from Prof. Silliman and Dr. Percival. For,in some places, this rock seems to be but a few feet in thickness above the sandstones, and to be less continuous than in the northern part of the map. In East-Haven and Branford especially, there are so many ridges of greenstone, and these so irregular, that it is diffi- cult, on a map of such a scale, to make them all distinct and accurate.| | The most southerly point of greenstone on the map is the bluffin East-Haven, which fronts Long Island Sound, and is about one mile and an half north of the Light-House. The most northerly points of this rock are in Gill and in Northfield. The greenstone which occurs in the upper part of Northfield, is more crystalline and of a coarser tex- . ture than in the intermediate distance, and is undoubtedly * To save room, I shall omit, in the remainder of this article, the term secondary; as applied at the head of the article. + There ought to be a geological map of the region about New-Haven, ona larger scale than the one I have given: and we could name more than one gentlemaa in that city, who is amply qualified for its construction. Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 45 primitive greenstone. Some of the specimens scarcely differ from pure hornblende. Between the two extremities of granite above named, there is not a mile, except in Amherst, where this rock may not be found in some part of the valley of the Connecticut. The most continuous and lofty ridge is that of which West- Rock may be considered as the southern termination—al- though the west rock range is broken off a few miles be- tween Mount Carmel and the Meriden or Berlin moun- tains. This ridge from West-Rock to Cheshire, presses hard upon the primitive rocks, often approaching the slate within a few rods. It presents, on the west, a lofty naked wall, appearing as if nature had erected this mighty ram- part to guard the secondary region of the Connecticut from the encroachments of the primitive; while the great quantity of broken fragments along its base and scat- tered in abundance for four or five miles over the chlo- rite slate and argillite, evince that these ridges of greenstone were once much more elevated than at present. This range divides in the northern part of Hamden, the eastern branch forming Mount Carmel, and the western branch continuing into Southington, where it chiefly disappears, although immense bowlders of green- stone are scattered over the surface until we come to the north part of Farmington. Here the ridge again commen- ces, and inclining considerably to the right, terminates in the north-east corner of Granby, Connecticut, in the Meni- tick or Manitick mountain, on the top of which runs the line between Granby and Suflield. Mount Carmel terminates a little east of north from New- Haven, and until we reachthe Meriden or Berlin mountains, the greenstone disappears. Commencing with these moun- tains,we find an almost uninterrupted ridge ofgreenstone,con- tinuinginto Massachusetts. Its elevation decreases, for the most part, as we go north, until we come to East-Hampton, when it suddenly rises, like the coil of a huge serpent, and forms Mount Tom, probably the highest point in the green- stone ranges of New-England. I do not know that its height has ever been accurately measured: but, comparing it with Holyoke, it cannot be much less than a thousand feet above Connecticut river. Connecticut river crosses 46 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. this range at the north end of Mount Tom, and on the op- posite bank it rises again precipitously and forms Mount Holyoke. This [ found, with a nice sextant, to be eight hundred and thirty feet above Connecticut river. North of Holyoke the greenstone is curved towards the right and continues of nearly the same elevation until it terminates near the north-west corner of Belchertown, having reach- ed the primitive region. . bie Nine or ten miles north-westerly from this: point, we find a narrow ridge of greenstone commencing, and pursuing a course considerably west of north, it passes through Sun- derland, crosses Connecticut river, runs through Deerfield, crosses Deerfield river, and extending through a part of Greenfield, terminates at the falls in Connecticut river. A - few rods east of this termination another range commenc- es and runs east of north through Gill, with some interrup- tions, til! it reaches its extreme northern point in North- field, two miles south of the primitive greenstone. __ It will be seen by the map, that these greenstone ridges separate the old red sandstone from the coal formation nearly the whole distance from Berlin to Northfield; and the rocks of the coal formation are frequently found lying above the greenstone. The range of green stone in Sun- derland is very narrow, and being in an unfrequented spot along the western margin of Mount Toby, it was a long time before I discovered its existence. Having once found it, however, it was traced, without much difficulty, except what an almost impassable precipice presented. It 1s from ten to eighty rods wide. As you ascend the mountain from the west, you first pass over a formation of old red sand- stone, which is here a coarse pudding-stone. Next you come upon the greenstone, most of which is amygdaloidal, and is, so far as hand specimens will enable us to decide, the real toad stone of Derbyshire. Immediately east of the green-stone you find the coarse, brownish red, and the fine, fissile, argillaceous, gray and red sandstone slates of the coal formation. These uniformly rise in higher ledges than the greenstone; even one hundred or one hundred and fifty feet above it. As you pass along in the direction of the greenstone ridge, these precipices are not more than, ten feet from you on one hand, and the greenstone at no Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 47 greater distance on the other. The broken fragments of the two rocks are confusedly mingled together, the sand- stone breaking into large tables, and the greenstone into pieces only a few inches across. These huge tables are covered and fringed with a great variety of cryptogamous plants, such as various species of Pamela, Juggermannia, Sticta, Collema, Bartramia, Hypnum, Polypodium, Aspidium, Asplenum, §c.; most of which are evergreen. And if the geologist be also a lover of this department of botany, he will find the wild and confused blending of such a variety of interesting objects to repay him amply for the labor and even danger of clambering over the fragments. I have never seen any rocks that seemed so congenial to the ow of cryptogamous plants as those constituting Mount “oby. But to return from this digression. As the observer fol- lows this greenstone southerly, commencing at its northern extremity on the banks of Connecticut river, and sees the lofty precipices of sandstone overhanging it, little doubt will remain in his mind that the greenstone actually passes under the sandstone. Yet any one acquainted with the anomalies of trap rocks will have the question arising in his mind, may not this greenstone, after all, here constitute an extensive dike? and he will hardly be satisfied until he sees the actual contact of the two rocks in place. One mile north-east of Sunderland meeting-house, the greater part of the greenstone ridge disappears and seems to run, under the sandstone; but here a few feet of debris hide the actual junction. A little farther south an actual junction is seen; but the huge table of sandstone resting on the trap. is removed a few feet from its original position. And, in- deed, I never knew expectation so frequently disappointed, just at the moment when it seemed about to be realized, as in examining this range. It seems as if nature intended here to teach the geologist a lesson of patience. But, at length, one mile and a half south-east of Sunderland meeting- house, the observer comes to a valley worn by a brook, where finding the greenstone, which thus far has preserved. almost a right line, widening towards the east, and form- ing a reentering angle in the sandstone, the angular point being in the brook; he will have little doubt that . 48 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. the greenstone is here disclosed by the abrasion of the superincumbent sandstone—and on following the line of junction a few rods on the south side of the brook, he will find the sandstone in place lying directly on the greenstone, also in place. ‘To one who has been accus- tomed to see this latter rock mounting above every other and menopolizing so muchspace forits broken fragments, it must be gratifying to see it at last pressed down by a supe- rior stratum, and buried by the debris of a higher rock. In two places south of the point above described, other brooks have worn away the sandstone, and the greenstone forms in it a like reentering angle ; but the actual contact of the rocks is hidden. But Sunderland is not, after all, the best spot for observ- ing the rocks of the coal formation lying above the green- stone. I have been thus particular in describing the range of greenstone in that place, rather to exhibit the difficulties and trials to which the geologist is subject in examining the trap ranges of the Connecticut, than because it was _ necessary for this particular purpose. ., . Let the observer follow the Sunderland greenstone ridge northerly across Connecticut river into Deerfield, and he will here find it widening and increasing in altitude, pre- senting a mural precipice on the west, and a gradual slope on the east. Where it crosses Deerfield river it has every appearance of a vast dyke: although the sandstone rocks do not appear immediately in contact with it. From the top of the greenstone to the bottom of the river is more than two hundred feet. ‘The range continues to the falls in Gill, where, as before observed, it terminates, and is suc- ceeded by the red sandstone or conglomerate. And here would I mention another fact in regard to the greenstone ~ and rocks of the coal formation. The latter do not mere- ly lie above the former, but they alternate with one another. Let the observer pass round the northern termination of the greenstone range first mentioned, and follow down a small river called Fall river, to its mouth, and just at this point he will see the fine-grained, red, fissile, argillaceous sandstone of the coal formation, mounting up fifty feet upon the back of the greenstone at an angle of forty-five degrees: And if he follow down the west bank of the Connecticut Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 49 two miles, he will have repeated opportunities of observing the same fact ; the river having worn away the ro ks so as to afford a fine chance for observation: Let him sow re- turn and cross the mouth of Fall river eastward, following up the north bank of the Connecticut, and he will find the same red slate, cropping out about fifteen rods, when he will come to another ridge of greenstone, under which the slate passes. If he follows the junction of the rocks ob- liquely up the hill, on the east side of Fall river, a hundred rods in a northeasterly direction, he will observe the green- stone lying upon the slate more distinctly. Let him retura to the bank of the Connecticut, where the sandstone slate passes under the greenstone, and he will observe them both extending in the same manner into the stream. If he now go eastward along the bank of the river, he will find green- stone twenty rods, and then the same or nearly the same slate, rising on the back of the greenstone at an angle of forty-five degrees. Thus will he have conclusive evidence of the alternation of these rocks. This alternation, cross- ing this same spot, is represented in the profile accompa- nying the map. No. 8 is the first ridge of greenstone above mentioned: No. 9 the sandstone slate, rising on its back: No. 10 the second ridge of greenstone; and No. 11 the second stratum of the slate. This second ridge of green- stone, as already marked, extends northeasterly into Gill and terminates in the west part of Northfield. Another spot for observing the alternations of greenstone and the coal formation is one hundred rods south-east of Lyman’s tavern, on the north-east side of Mount Tom, in Northampton. A small stream here crosses the road, and in its bed and banks several distinct beds of greenstone, some of them not more than one or two inches thick, may be observed at low water. In the southern part of that extensive greenstone ridge ex- tending from Amherst to Meriden, the sandstone of the coal formation may often be seen on the west side of the greenstone, lying underneath it. The shaft of the copper mine at Newgate prison passes through the greenstone and enters the sandstone: and Dr. Percival informs us (Jour. Sci. Vol. 5, p. 42,) that in Southington, ‘sometimes the sandstone can be very distinctly seen cropping out below the greenstone on the west side of the ridges.” At the Vout. VI.—No. 1. 7 ~ 50 Geology, dc. of the Connecticut. outlet of Salstonstall’s pond in East-Haven, I have observed a grey micaceous sandstone of the coal formation, passing under the greenstone with a considerable dip; and also two miles south of Durham village, on the side of the turnpike leading to New-Haven. Dr. Percival, who has examined most of the greenstone ranges in Connecticut on foot, illustrates his views of the relative position of this rock and the coal formation as fol- lows—referring particularly to the vicinity of Berlin. As you ascend the mountain ridges from the west, the lowest rock you find, after leaving the alluvion, is the old red sandstone, represented below by A. Above this lie the argillaceous sandstones of the coal formation, represented by B. The cap of the ridge C is greenstone; precipitous on the west side, but gently sloping on the east. Passing on we come to another stratum of the coal formation; as D. Next, perhaps, succeeds another ridge of greenstone, E—similar to C; and on its back, we find again the coal formation, F; And sometimes the cap of greenstone is in- sulated, as G. Sometimes we find the greenstone resting immediately upon the old red sandstone, without the intervention of a third rock ; as at East and West Rock near New-Haven. From all that 1 have seen and learned concerning these rocks, I feel therefore, warranted in concluding, that, as a general fact, our greenstone alternates with, or forms beds in, the peculiar rocks of the coal formation; and it seems very probable that both these repose upon the old red sandstone. As the slates of the coal formation dip below the eastern horizon, it would seem we are furnished with the reason why the mural faces of the greenstone are almost universally on the western side of the ranges. — When greenstone rests on the coal formation, the lower part of the greenstone seems to consist of little else thana greyish black, indurated, ferruginous clay. Perhaps even Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 51 wacke* may be found lying between the greenstone and the sandstone, as at Gallows-Hill near Hartford, and on the west side of the Berlin ranges of greenstone. Some of the greenstone occurring in the dykes of this rock in old red sandstone, has a similar aspect. At the junction of the coal formation and greenstone below the falls in Gill, the columnar tendency of the latter rock entirely disappears, and for several feet, the greenstone is distinctly, though somewhat irregularly, stratified; the strata being parallel to the sandstone. This may be seen to most advantage at very low water; and the same may be seen, though less distinetly, along the whole eastern border of this range of greenstone ; and something of it on the east side of all the greenstone ranges along the Connecticut. It ought here to be remarked, also, that this rock appears quite different in its composition on the eastern side, especially of the range passing through Deerfield and Greenfield. The in- durated clay seems in a great measure to take the place of the hornblende, and the basis of the rock has a wacke-like appearance. Much of it is amygdaloidal; but the imbed- ded minerals are usually quite different. On the east side, the most abundant is chlorite, having a radiated aspect, and green earth ; whereas, on the west side, this is scarcely to be found. The radiated zeolite on the west side is finely fibrous; on the east side, the crystals are larger and trans- parent, resembling the Thomsonite of Dumbarton in Scot- land. The rock on the eastern side is, also, more decom- posable than on the opposite side. The eastern side of this rock is not, however, all amyg- daloidal. Near where Deerfield river passes through the range, on the north bank, this rock contains distinct crys- tals, or rather plates of felspar; and thus becomes a porphy- ritic greenstone. “It even approaches to ophites,” says Professor Dewey. The same rock contains good prehnite, and in the prehnite may be found pyritous copper. I should judge that about one half of the greenstone of the Connecticut constitutes the base of amygdaloid, and very much of it appears to be genuine toadstone. The cavi- ties are usually spheroidal or almond shaped, sometimes reniform, and frequently cylindric. Those of the latter *] have recently found wacke perfectly well characterised, and very abundant, at the foot of the very lofty mural precipices, two miles north of Monte Video, on the Talcot mountain, ten miles W. of Hartford.—ditor + © at « iy 4 52 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. ie form are often a foot or more in length, and arranged par- allel to one another; the rock appearing as if bored through repeatedly by an augur. The imbedded minerals are cal- careous spar, analcime, chlorite,quartz, chalcedony, chaba- sie, zeolite, and Professor Silliman has recently discovered gypsum™* in a specimen sent him from Dr. Cooley ; a new fact we believe in Geology, and one which renders it not improbable that this valuable mineral may be found in abun- dance along the Connecticut. This amygdaloidal greenstone is probably most abundant at the lower part of the greenstone ridges; while the upper part is solid and usually columnar. Frequently, however, the columns are amygdaloidal to their top, and sometimes, as in Deerfield, in passing in the direction of the ridge, you will find alternate successions of amygdaloidal and solid greenstone columns. On breaking into the interior of the former, we often find them a rich reservoir of rare miner- als. The cavities are usually small; but sometimes sever- al inches in diameter, occupied by quartz and amethystine geodes, or chalcedony, or agates, or a peculiar pseudo- morphorus quartz to be described when we come to treat of particular minerals. The largest and best agates occur usually among the greenstone that is not much amygdaloid- al, sometimes occupying a cavity, part of which is in one column and part in another. They are very frequent, and some of those recently discovered by Dr. D. Cooley, in Deerfield, are probably the finest yet found in this country. A particular account of them will be given in the proper place. Prehnite sometimes forms a thin incrustration on the columns that are not amygdaloidal; and between the joints of those that are so, is sometimes interposed a thin coating of various minerals,among which epidote frequently redominates. | Some of the amygdaloid is very vescicular, bearing some resemblance to the slag of an iron furnace or lava. The cavities, in certain rare varieties, are various in form; and the base is whitish brown, reddish, and even brick red ; containing, in the cavities, much prehnite, and this mineral, together with calcareous spar, seems, in some instances, to be mixed with the greenstone to form the base. An en- thusiastic Huttonian would doubtless be gratified to find *This gypsum was perfectly fresh—crystalized—white, and retaining its water of crystalization.—Aditor. Geology, Src. of the Connecticut. 53 such a variety. A locality of it may be found one hun- dred rods north of the Deerfield rive: bridge in Deerfield, at the western foot of the trap range. The columnar tendency of our greenstone has often been noticed. It may be seen in almost every ridge in a great- er or less degree, on the mural face—and these columns are sometimes remarkably regular. Good examples of them occur on the south-west face of Mount Holyoke; and still better ones a mile east of the village of Deerfield, a quarter of amile north of the locality of chabasie, analcime, &c. men- tioned in the Jour. of Science Vol. I. p.115. They have from three to six sides, are articulated, the points varying from one to three feet in diameter, and of the same height, exhibiting handsome convexities and corresponding concav- ities. Half a mile south of this spot may be seen columns curving to the right and left as they ascend; thus forming a portion of an arch. The geologist, who traverses this ridge, can hardly avoid traversing in imagination the giant’s causeway, Staffa and the Hebrides. Some of the less perfect columns have a remarkably fis- sile tendency ; forming good hand specimens of pseudo- green-stone slate. Globular distinct concretions of this rock are not unfrequent among the amygdaloid ; composed of concentric coats of greater specific gravity than the rest of the rock. I have noticed them in Deerfield, and on the New-Haven turnpike between Durham and Northford, they are abundant, and from two to twelve inches in diameter. The general aspect of our greenstone, where it has been long exposed to the weather, is reddish brown. When newly broken it is greenish, often somewhat lively. Some- times it is greyish black, and, very rarely, has the color of a brick that has been burnt very hard. This variety is compact and the felsparimperceptible. It is often the fact, indeed, that the two ingredients in other varieties, are not to be discovered by the naked eye, or with an ordinary lens. A question then occurs, whether some of the varieties of this rock are not genuine basalt? Certainly some of them answer the description of that rock, so far as external char- acters are concerned, to say the least, as well as of green- stone. And, indeed, if “greenstone and basalt may not unfrequently be seen passing into each other in the same stone, as D’Aubuisson and Dolomieu have observ- ed,” (Bakewell’s Geology, p. 119,) there seems no rea- i 54 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. son to doubt that this fact may exist in this country as well asin Europe. Were I to refer to particular localities for rocks resembling basalt, I should mention the foot of Mount Tom on the north-east side, and a part of the range passing through Deerfield. It would not surprise me, should future geologists make a division of our greenstone, calling a part of it basalt; dividing the upper part of theridges from the lower, or the eastern side from the western, or both. A geologist, to be able satisfactorily to make these divi- sions, or to decide whether any of our rock is basalt, ought to have traversed extensively and observed minutely the like rocks in Europe; and, therefore, I leave the subject to abler hands. A good locality for observing many of the varieties of greenstone above described within a narrow compass, 1s on the north bank of Deerfield river, about sixty rods from the bridge. Leta person cross the bridge to the north, and take the right hand road, until he comes to where the road passes round the end of the greenstone ridge. Here he will first see the most common variety, having a columnar tendency ; and a few rods beyond, the reddish brown vari- ety,* and in a wall, supporting the road on the right hand, he will find abundance of the porphyritic greenstone, hav- ing a somewhat stratified structure. Here, too, he will find some specimens covered with a ferruginous coating ; so much charged with iron, indeed, that efforts have been made to smelt it. Indeed, a mass of four or five pounds from almost any part of this greenstone range, when held by the side of a compass, will move the needle. It is not always the case, nor even generally, that the greenstone ridges that are marked as continuous on the map, are strictly so. They are often composed of numer- ous peaks or ridges, partially detached, but yet constitu- . ting a single range when viewed at their bases. And some- times, when there appears to an observer passing along the western side of the range to be an uninterrupted wall, clos- er examination will show, that it is made up of several dis- tinct ridges, so lapping on upon each other, and so near one another, that they appear continuous. The mural face of the ridges and hillocks is usually on their western side : but sometimes on the opposite side, as in the high moun- *] have aspecimen of greenstone from a vein in Scotland resembling this, except that the Scottish rock is much coarser. - Geology, &c. of the Connecticul. 55 tain between Durham and Northford; and sometimes on both sides, as Menitick mountain in Granby, Ct. Mount Carmel in Hamden, and Mount Tom in East-Hampton, at its southern extremity. The broken fragments of the green- stone, of almost every shape, seldom of any regular figure, and of various sizes, usually slope up more than half the distance from the bottom to the top of the ledge. This débris is highly interesting to the chronologist, because it furnishes him with a decisive Cosmogonical Chronometer. Every one who lives in the vicinity of these greenstone ridges knows, that every year adds to the loose masses at their base, at the expense of the columns above. The wa- ter infiltrated through the thin soil on their tops, finds its way into the narrow seams between the columns, and there freezes in the winter, and by its expansion, removes the rock a little from its place. This operation is repeated, year after year, and thus some part of the rock is pushed so far over the precipice that its center of gravity falls without the base, and it comes thundering down, usually dividing into very many pieces. Sometimes, if the foot of a column gives way in this manner, the whole column above, perhaps twenty or thirty feet long, is precipita- ted, like a glacier, on the loose rocks below. Sometimes only one or two of the lower joints fall out, leaving the principal part of the column suspended, the shuddering ob- server can hardly tell by what. He will also see evidences in very many places, both in the ledge above him and in the ruins beneath them, of recent instances of this kind. Indeed, in almost any place along these mural points, two or three of the outer columns are easily removed by the application of a lever, being loosened by the ice of preced- ing winters.* Now every one must see that this levelling work cannot have been going on forever; and when we consider how *On tearing down some of these columns a few years since, during the winter, in search of chabasie, &c. I found the spaces between them occupi- ed by an immense swarm of the common musquito. Poor insects! it was all over with them as soon as the avalanche thundered. The Hon. Elihu Hoyt informs me he found a swarm of these creatures in the winter, in a hollow tree, 56 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. very considerable is the quantity of rock yearly detached, and compare this with the whole amount of the débris, the conclusion forces itself upon us that the period when this process began could not have been vastly remote ; in oth- er words, that the earth has not existed in its present form from eternity. Its precise age cannot, indeed, be deter- mined by this chronometer ; but I have often thought that, judging from this alone, we ‘should be led to conclude that Moses placed the date of the creation too far back, rather than not far enough. Greenstone Dykes in Old Red Sandstone. Professor Silliman conducted me to an interesting locali- ty of these in East-Haven. They occur on the main road from New-Haven to East-Haven, less than half a mile from Tomlinson’s bridge. We measured their width, and that of the intervening sandstone, as they appear on the north- easterly side of the road. The road here passes over a small eminence, and the bank, on the north side, in its high- est part, is almost fifteen or twenty feet above the road. The dykes, occurring at this place, are exhibited on the pro- file accompanying the map; and are laid down from a scale of fifty feet to an inch, with the intervening sandstone. In describing them | shall begin at the north western extremity, that is, at the point nearest t New-Haven: but a person wish- ing to find them, will do best to go first to the other end of the profile ; because the dikes are there more distinct. No. 1. (See Profile.) Old red sandstone, coarse and con- taining pebbles so as to form a conglomerate. The dip of the strata is from 6° to 10° below the eastern pe ee The sandstone is very similar throughout. No. 2. Greenstone dike, 4 feet thick. No. 3. Sandstone, 114 feet. This distance was measur- ed by pacing; the other distance by a rule. No. 4. Greenstone, one foot thick. No. 5. Sandstone, 9 feet. No. 6. Greenstone, 9 feet. No. 7. Sandstone, 40 feet. R No. 8. Greenstone, 10 feet. The soil has so covered this spot, and we having nothing with which to penetrate it, we did not actually see the dike. But the walls are distinct, Geology, §c. of the Connecticut. 57 having small peices of the greenstone attached to them, and exhibiting somewhat ofan altered appearance, like the oth- er walls, so that little doubt could remain of this paiva? a gen- uine dike. No. 9. Sandstone, 52 feet. No. 10. Greenstone, 5 feet. No. 11. Sandstone, 45 feet. No. 12. Greenstone, 10 feet. No. 13. Sandstone, 19 feet. No. 14. Greenstone, 7 feet. No. 15. Sandstone, 7 feet. No. 16. Greenstone, 4feet. Here the greenstone is hid by the soil as is also the sandstone atthe other end of the profile: so that by removing this, probably other dikes might be discovered. Thus we have eight dikes in a distance of 21 rods. Some of them require a little attention to discover them; but most of them are very distinct. Some of them we traced several rods on both sides of the road, in a direction per- pendicular to the profile. ‘Their width is sometimes sud- denly decreased, or increased, several inches, so as to form shoulders. ‘They are not exactly perpendicular, but leana few degrees to the west; and thus they are made to form an angle considerably obtuse on their eastern side with the sandstone. The latter rock is often somewhat glazed, hav- ingia specular aspect at the place of junction with the green- stone, and the two rocks are not unfrequently mutually im- pregnated, for several inches, with each other’s properties. I did not notice that the dikes at this place dislocate the strata of sandstone: but I paid little attention to this point. Several dikes, similar to the above, (three at least,) occur in the old red sandstone on the right hand side of the turn- pike fram New-Haven to Middletown, on the east. margin of the salt marsh lying east of East Rock. One of these is remarkably distinct, cutting through a precipice twenty or thirty feet high, and maintaining an uniform width of about a foot. This crosses the strata nearly at right angles; but makes an angle with the horizon of about 45° dipping to the south west. On its roof, or upper side, near the lower ex- tremity, a part of the sandstone strata are thrown upwards. two or three feet ;. and they are affected laterally about the Vor. Vi——-No. 1). g 58 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. same distance. ‘The dike along with the sandstone appears to pass under a hill of greenstone. we On the same turnpike, a few rods north-easterly of North- ford meeting-house, four or five dikes occur; but they are so hidden by the soil as not to be particularly instructive. In passing from Durham to New-Haven on the same road, the first low ridge of greenstone, which we cross, exhibits some- thing, which I was almost disposed to denominate a dike of coarse pudding stone, of the coal formation, in greenstone. Certainly, there appears a peculiar juxtaposition of the two rocks; but probably they exist in beds. Two or three miles north of the dikes of which a profile is given, Dr. Percival found several others; and perhaps they are a continuation of the same. He found one also oa the road from Farmington to Hartford in the rocks of the coal formation. The greenstone found in these dikes has usually the dark compact aspect of basalt—resembling, however, much of the greenstone found along the Connecticut. Yet it seems to want the characteristics of greenstone, and specimens which I collected from the most perfect dike above described, half a mile east of East Rock, even approach towacke. This rock gives an argillaceous odour, is of a greenish grey color, has an uneven fracture, is dull, and much softer than common greenstone}; so that it may be cut with a knife :—and on com- parison with aspecimen of pure wacke from Calton Hill, (Ed- inburgh,) which was analyzed by Dr. Webster, it does not ap- pear to differ, except in its greater hardness and perhaps less softness to the touch. I have little doubt that these dikes will ere long be denominated basaltic dikes: but, for the reason formerly alleged, I forbear to name them thus. ‘They are an interesting feature in our geology, and deserve more at- tention ; and it is peculiarly fortunate that they should be situated so near a geological school and the first mineral cab- inet In our country. Juxtaposition of Secondary Greenstone and Primitive Rocks, The actual contact of these has never been observed along the Connecticut; and I know of but three places where there is a probability of finding the junction—viz. in the northeast part of Belchertown, in Kast-Haven and Bran- Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 59 ford, and in the east part of Woodbridge. So far as I have examined these places, I have always founda valley of geest between the rocks. But this is often very narrow; as for ex- ample half a mile west of Branford meeting-house, where granitic ledges lie on one side of the road and a greenstone ridge on the other. Further examination of this and the other points mentioned above, might discover associa- tions similar to those occurring in the Hebrides. Origin of Greenstone. Does the greenstone of the Connecticut afford evidence in favour of the Wernerian or of the Huttonian theory of its origin? Averse as I feel to taking a side in this controversy, J cannot but say, that the man who maintains, in its length and breadth, the original hypothesis of Werner in regard to the aqueous deposition of trap, will find it for his interest, if he wishes to keep clear of doubts, not to follow the example of D’Aubuisson, by going forth to examine the greenstone _ of this region, lest, like that geologist, he should be compel- led, not only to abandon his theory, but to write a book against it. Indeed, when surveying particular portions of this rock, I have sometimes thought Bakewell did not much exaggerate when he said in regard to Werner’s hypothesis, that, “it is hardly possible for the human mind to invent a system more repugnant to existing facts.” On the other hand, the Huttonian would doubtless have his heart gladdened, and his faith strengthened by a survey of the greater part of this rock. As he looked at the dikes in the old red sandstone, he would almost see the melted rock forcing its way through the fissures; and when he came to the amygdaloidal, especially to that variety which resem- bles lava, he might even be tempted to apply his thermom- eter to it, in the suspicion that it was not yet quite cool. And without doubt he would see many a volcanic crater on the top of these ranges, where, with our dull eyes, we see only a pond or a quagmire. Even the occurrence of this green- stone in beds in sandstone would present no obstacle, since the discoveries by Dr. Macculloch in the isle of Skye of similar beds, of whin stone; concerning which he says, ‘there are no instances but where the alternating beds of trap detach veins or dikes from the lower to the upper beds; 60 Geology, &e. of the Connecticut. or the trap, quitting the interval between two given beds of limestone or sandstone, makes its way across the one immediately above or below, and then proceeds with a reg- ularity as great between some other pair of proximate strata” * (Transac. Geol. Soc. Vols. 3 and 4.) By treating the subject in this manner I mean no disre- spect to any of the distinguished men who have adopt- ed either side of this question. To President Cooper es- pecially, who regards the greenstone of the Connecticut as volcanic, I feel much indebted for the great mass of facts he has collected on the subject. And were [to adopt any hypoth- esis in regard to the origin of our greenstone, it would be one not much different from his. But I confess myself somewhat given to scepticism in regard to any general geological sys- tem extant; and Greenough on the First Principles of Ge- ology has not aided much to remove my doubts. ‘These systems have been productive of great good by spurring for- ward geologists to the collection of facts with a rapidity al- most unequalled in any other science. When these shall be still farther accumulated, it is hoped adel may be expect- ed, that a second Werner. will arise, who, having not merely the rocks of Germany but of the whole world before him, and following the inductive method of Bacon, will be able to construct a system of geognosy that will stand, like the Newtonian system of gravitation, on a foundation too firm to be moved. Perhaps such a system, after all, will prove to be an amalgamation of the theories of Werner and Hutton, and those names, which now form the watch words of op- posing ranks, may descend to posterity, engraven side by side, in harmonious union, on the column that supports the system. If geological enquiries are not ida: to this polit we are much mistaken. President Cooper was led from the ptogle’ inserted in the. first Vol. of the Journal of Science, page 105, to conclude, the Deerfield greenstone to be a dike disrupting the old red sandstone. No distinction is there made between the sand- stone of the east and west range; but since I have ascertain- ed that on the one side is old red sandstone and on the oth- *Tt is by no means improbable that inci connecting dikes may be found between the greenstone beds along the Connecticut. To all the places where | have examined these beds, circumstances were unfavourable for discovering the dikes had they existed. Geology. &c. of the Connecticut: 61 er a sandstone of the coal formation, this greenstone must be regarded as a bed between them.* 14. Coat Formation. Variety of Psammite. Brongniart. Grey Wacke Slate. - Eaton. Colored brown by Umber. It has long been known to mineralogists that coal was found along the Connecticut; and I denominate the rocks containing it the coal formation, simply because its beds occur in them, and in no other rock; the old red sandstone containing none at.all, but lying bedow it. The coal forma- tion embraces numerous varieties and sub-varieties of rocks, most of which alternate with one another and the principal of which are the following. 1. Greenstone. This strictly belongs to this class because it alternates with the other va- rieties and in Berlin contains coal. But there were suffi- cient reasons for giving it a separate color and description, which it is unnecessary here to mention. 2. Trap, Tuff. (Trap Breccia, Cleaveland.) This occurs on the east side of Mount Tom on the west bank of Connecticut river, and ap- pears to lie between other rocks of the coal formation and the greenstone, and perhaps alternates with the greenstone ; though I cannot say much as to its geological relations, as I have but recently discovered the rock and have had little op- - portunity to examine it. It consists of rounded or angular fragments of greenstone, quartz and sandstone, united by a reddish brown abundant cement of comminuted and de- composed sandstone, greenstone or wacke. Scales of mica appear scattered in the rock which seem to have belonged to the sandstone. It exhales an argillaceous odour, is difficult to break, and isabout of the hardness of old red sandstone. The imbedded masses of greenstone are larger than the quartz or sandstone. I noticed some, six, eight, and even twelve inch- es across. Perhaps this rock is not the real trap tuff of Eu- rope. If not, it certainly deserves the name of greensione conglomerate: although many of the imbedded masses and _* Some other corrections needed to be made in the essay accompanying that profile and map. But as I intend to comprehend all that is important in that paper in this Sketch, a particular specification of corrections seems wanecessary. 62 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. the greenstone in the vicinity very much resemble. basalt. The sandstone imbedded is that fine-grained argillaceous variety next to be mentioned. 3. 4 red, very fissile, friable, argillaceous sandstone. It generally contains small scales of mi- caahd is abundant almost every where, frequently lying imme- diately upon the greenstone and alternating with itand with ma- ny other varieties of rock hereafter to be mentioned. 4. A Gray Micaceous Sandstone Slate, not argillaceous, grit coarse, very fissile, layers even, some varieties much resembling mica slate, others containing vegetable remains. 5. A simi- Jar slate; but much finer, harderand the layers undulating. 6. A slate approaching in appearance to shale, but very silicious, harder and very fissile, layers straight, surface not smooth, dark gray. 7. Shale, generally bituminous,veryfissile, frequent- Jy micaceous with and without Ichthyolites. 8.A slaty rock of the aspect of shale, and sometimes much resembling coal, dividing into numerous small pieces of irregular form, and disintegrating when exposed to the air and moisture. At the falls in Gill.’ 9. A slate made up chiefly of indurated clay, sometimes micaceous, easily scratched by the finger nail, liable to disintegration. Falls in Gill, and cave in Sunder- land, not abundant. 10. 4 fragmented rock, the fragments chiefly a reddish brown quartz, appearing as if burnt, ce- ment silicious and apparently ferruginous, rock very hard, and appearing almost like porphyry, unstratified, not abun- dant. In Gill. 11. Gray pudding-stone, distinctly stratifi- ed, layers from six inches to a foot thick. Imbedded nod- ules, quartz, felspar and mica slate, rarely more than an inch in diameter, but very abundant, cement same minerals com- minuted. Island in the falls at Gill. 12. Reddish stratified pudding-stone, coarser than the last, and scarcely differing from the conglomerate accompanying the old red sandstone. Mount Toby, Belchertown and Granby. 13. Very coarse dark gray pudding-stone, scarcely stratified. Imbedded masses often very large, even a foot in diameter, and very abundant, consisting chiefly of mica slate, argillite and chlo- rite slate;, but containing quartz, hornblende, talcose slate, and sometimes granite, cement the same, rocks comminuted. Gill, Montague, Mount Toby, and Durham. Most of the preceding rocks are often found alternating with one anoth- er. 14. 4 gray imperfect limestone, very silicious, in beds in sandstone slate, not fetid, not abundant, Gill. 15. Fetid Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 63 carbonate of lime. At Northford. I do not know its exact relative situation. 16. *Bituminous carbonate of lime, in the coal formation at Southington and Middletown. | In this series of rocks, and in this only, has coal been found along the Connecticut. It occurs at Durham, Mid- dletown, Chatham, Southington, Berlin, Somers, Ellington, Enfield, South Hadley, and Southampton. In most instan- ces it is highly bituminous and burns freely. ‘The seams of it are usually quite thin, rarely exceeding an inch in thick- ness, yet often they are numerous. In Berlin, the coal oc- curs in greenstone in a vein of crystallized quartz. (Journal of Science, Vol. 5, p. 44.) In Southington it is found in shale—in Somers, Ellington and Suffield, in friable argillace- ous slate, (No. 3 above) in Enfield, in beds in gray micaceous sandstone; (No. 4. above) also in the same rock, (“granu- lated schistose aggregate” of Eaton, vide Journal of Science, Vol. 1. p.136,) in the drift of the S. Hampton lead mine. The Connecticut river, in its passage between the towns of Gill and Montague, has cut through the coal formation, except asingle ridge of greenstone on the west, as may be seen by referring to the map. Through a considerable part of this distance, especially in the most in terestingpart, the bassetting of the strata is completely laid bare; and I have annexed to the map a profile of their order and dip, which I shall now proceed to describe. It is a vertical section, crossing the map at the falls in Gill and the strata nearly at right angles, extending on the west to the western part of Shelburne, so as to include a few other rocks beside the coal formation, and on the east, to the mouth of Miller’s river. The chief object of this profile is to give a better idea of the coal for- mation than could be obtained by mere verbal description. That part of it, therefore embracing those rocks, is putdown from a larger scale than the other parts, otherwise the nu- merous alternations could not have been represented. Es- pecially that part between No. 8 and 40, is laid down from a larger scale than the rest of the coal formation, because this is the most interesting part of it and most distinctly laid bare on the north bank of the Connecticut, extending from the falls to the high greenstone ridge 100 rods west of it. This part was observed most attentively, and a quadrant converted into a clinometer, was used for determining the * Bituminous marl slate?— Ed. 64 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. dip. The distances were all estimated by the eye, but it is presumed they will in general be found not far from the truth. From No. 1 to 56, inclusive, the stratified rocks all dip to the east, as is evident from the section. The Nos. included in parenthesis, refer to the general descriptions of the rocks of the coal formation in the beginning of the article. No. 1. Horblende Slate—Strata highly inclined, often be- coming an aggregate of hornblende, quartz and mica, having a porphyritic aspect. . No. 2. Mica Slate—Dip 20° to 30°, undulating and tor- tuous, passing on the east into argillite. . No. 3. Limestone—In beds in mica slate, already descri- bed in the preceding pages. Unstratified. No. 4. Argillite—Dip 60° to 90°. The southern limit of this rock hardly reaches the line of the section: but a mile or two north, its relative position is as represented on the profile. No. 5. Old Red Sandstone—With red conglomerate. Dip usually as much as 20°, being greater than is usual for this rock. _No. 6. Alluvion—A swamp. No. 7. Old Red Sandstone—Dip between 20° and 30°. , No. 8. Secondary Greenstone—It is probable this forms a bed between the old red sandstone and the coal formation : but the former rock is never seen passing under it in this vi- einity ; and, therefore, it must not be thus represented on the profile. Width about half a mile.» On the eastern side it has, for a few feet in width, somewhat of astratified structure. No. 9. Red, Fissile, Friable, Argillaceous, Sandstone, Slate—(No. 3.) It is fine grained and often micaceous, of the color of brick, is easily cut by a knife, yields an argilla- ceous odour, has anundulating surface generally, and is hable to disintegration. ‘This is probably the most abundant of the rocks of the coal formation; and it usually lies next to the greenstone and alternates with it. It is found over a large extent of country on the east side of the greenstone ridge, stretching from Amherst to Berlin; although in Con- necticut it more frequently is wanting in the mica and its surface is more uneven. It forms much of the flagging stone in Hartford and exists in place a foot or two below the surface in that city; though it seems here in some instances’ to approach to the nature of shale. The surface of the lay- ers often appears a little glazed and is sometimes traversed by numerous little ridges a mere line in thicknes and of the Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 65 substance of the rock, which I have sometimes suspected might be petrifactions; and perhaps they are so. When this rock is disintegrated it forms an admirable material for the construction of roads; a good example of which may be seen in the road between Hartford and Weathersfield. Where the profile crosses this rock, it has a dip of 45° ; and as already observed under the article greenstoue, it here mounts upon the back of the greenstone forty or fifty feet. If we follow the junction of these rocks southerly, on the west bank of the Connecticut, we shall find the slate con- forming to the irregularities of the greenstone, thus forming saddle shaped strata. In some instances we notice a sudden curve from this cause, of 90°, At the first copper mine we find on passing down the river, a narrow spur of the greenstone ex~ tends a short distance into the slate, and the veinof ore here passes from the greenstone into slate. Halfa mile south of this point we find the slate crossed obliquely to the direction of the strata by parallel sears dividing it into strips from one to six inches wide and often five feet long. Sometimes we find in these divisions six sided prisms of quartz, lying partially imbedded and exhibiting both terminations in great perfec- tion. I have seen seams very narrow containing green car- bonate of copper, the sides of the vein being beautifully gla» zed, having a highly specular aspect, and forming the saal- bande of the Germans. The width of the rock on the sec- tion is about fifteen rods, extending across the mouth of Fail river. No. 10. Greenstone—(No. 1.) This has been already described when treating of that rock. Thickness of the for- mation, 20 rods. No. 11. Same as No. 9. (No. 3.) Thickness of the stra- tum, 6 rods, dip 45°: No. 12. Red Slate—resembles the last, but is more mi- caceous, is divisible into thinner lamine, elena of which is even, and the coloris less red. A beautiful rock. Thick- ness 6 feet, dip 45°. No. 13. Redd.sh micaceous sandstone-Somewhat cone! om- erated, the imbedded pebbles of quartz and flesh colored fel- spar, small and rounded, less fissile than the last, layers thicker. Thickness twelve feet, dip 40°. No, 14. Same as No. 12. Thickness 15 feet, dip 40°. No. 15. Same as No. 9. Thickness 15 rods, dip 40°, Vol Vi. No. I. ee! 66 Geology, §c. of the Connecticut. No. 16. Reddish gray, friable, argillaceous sandstone slate—Irregular, tortuous, disintegrating at the surface, a lit- tle micaceous, containing numerous small specks of carbon- ate of copper, and appearing to be an imperfect copper ore. Thickness 4 feet, dip 40° . No. 17. Hard, compact limestone—(No. 14.) Fracture dull, containing a large proportion of silex, feebly. efferves- cing with the acids. Thickness of the stratum only a foot, dip 48°, not divisible into layers. This very imperfect and small bed of limestone is the only locality of limestone rock [have ever found in the secondary,region north of Hartford. No. 18. Gray, Micaceous sandstone slate—(No. 5.) Ir- regular, tortuous and undulating, not as easily and as hand- somely separating into layers as the red slate, resembling some varieties of the mica slate, scarcely argillaceous. Thickness 6 feet, dip 40°. No. 19. Same as No. 9. Thickness 12 rods, dip, 43°. No. 20. Coarse, reddish conglomerated sandstone—Con- taining imbedded pebbles. Scarcely different from No. 13, except somewhat coarser. Thickness 6 feet, dip 43°. No. 21. Same as No. 12. Thickness 3 rods, dip 43°. No. 22. Gray, micaceous, sandstone slate—Rough to the touch, coarse, granular, scarcely argillaceous, not separating into so thin layers as the red slates. Surface not undulating ortortuous. Thickness 15 feet, dip 43°. An excellent flag- ging stone. ten No. 23. (No. 9.) Soft argillaceous slate—Surface smooth, scarcely undulating, divisible into thin plates, easily scratch- ed by the finger nail, and consisting of little else than clay moderately indurated. Thickness 5 feet, dip 45°, easily disintegrated, rarely micaceous. No. 24. Gray micaceous sandstone slate—Similar to No. 22, but softer to the touch and finer grained, more undula- ting and divisible into thinner layers, containing vegetable remains converted into perfect coal. These were so numer- ous in one spot, that I thought I had found a bed of coal, Thickness 3 rods, dip 40°. No. 25. Geest—2 rods. /No. 26. Shale—Color very dark, containing sometimes small scales of mica, surface a little knobby, containing abundance of sulphuret of iron and spheroidal nodules from half an inch to two inches diameter, of argillaceous iron ore? Geology, dc. of the Connecticut. 67 very similar to the shale containing the ichthyolite at Sun- derland. Thickness 1 rod, dip 40°. No. 27. Same as No. 24. 2 feet thick, dip 40.° No. 28. A stratum of coarse grayish sandstone, or rather ‘conglomerate, 2 feet wide, dip 40°. a No. 29. Same as No. 24. Thickness 5 rods, dip 40°. No. 30. Geest—10 feet. It may be well, perhaps, here to remark, that shale usually forms the roof and floor of coal beds, and that this geest and that of No. 25 lie immediately below shale. Connect this fact with another, ‘‘ that the seams or strata of coal rise up to the superficies of the globe as well as all other strata, only they do not always push up so bold- ly to the very surface of the ground as many hard stones and other indurated strata are found to do; for on account of the tender and more friable texture of the coal, the super- ficies of the stratum is often mouldered down and lies con- cealed under a thicker or thinner bed or cover of clay, grav- el, sand, or earth.”? (Williams Mineral Kingdom, Vol. 1. p. 135 2d edition.) If then coal can be found along the section here described, (which I suspect to be quite doubtful,) the best spots to search for it are Nos. 25 and 30. No. 31. Shale—10 feet thick, dip 40°, containing abun- dance of nodules of argillaceous iron ore? Rock rather hard for pure shale, not liable to much disintegration. No. 32. Coarse, gray, sandstone or conglomerate—Rock harsh to the touch, imbedded masses not large, layers thick. Thickness two rods, dip 40°. No. 33. Same as No 24. Thickness 3 rods, dip 43°. No. 34. Shale—Alternating with, and passing into, a bluish, gray, fine grained slate, harder than the shale, though perhaps only a variety of it. A little micaceous. Thick- ness 3 rods, dip 43°. No. 34. Blackish gray slate—Similar to that mentioned under the last No. but less fissile and much harder, indeed, it breaks with nearly as much difficulty as greenstone, and where it is worn by the water it somewhat resembles that rock. For it contains numerous irregular cells, sometimes two inches in diameter, formerly filled, probably with argilla- ceous tron ore? On breaking the rock its structure is slaty and it is alittle micaceous. ‘Thickness 2 feet, dip 40°. No. 36. Coarse grayish sandstone or conglomerate—like No. 32, layers 2 feet thick. Thickness 20 feet, dip 40°. 68 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. No. 37. Red slate—As No. 9, but harder and coarser and less irregular on the surface of the layers. Thickness 3 rods, dip 40°. | No. 38. Same as No. 22. Thickness 20 feet, dip 40°. No. 39. Similar to No. 38, but more micaceous and di- visible, into thinner layers; resembles much, certain varie- ties of mica slate, except that the silex has a more earthy as- pect. But it would not be difficult to deceive almost any geologist by labelling hand specimens, mica slate. Thick- ness 2 feet, dip 40°. No. 40. Same as No 37. Thickness 10 feet, dip 40°. ‘This carries us to the dam across the Connecticut. » No. 41. Hard gray sandstone slate—Like No. 22, but more undulating and irregular. Thickness 5 rods, the remaining distance the scale is much reduced. _ No. 42. Very near No. 41, but coarser and not so undu- lating. ‘Thickness 8 rods. No. 43. Coarse gray conglomerated sandstone—layers thick. ‘Thickness 12 rods. No. 44. Same as No. 40. 3 rods thick, dip 35°. No. 45. Alluvion—20 rods. No. 46. Same as No. 32, about 2 rods thick. No. 47. Same as No. 40, 1 rod thick. No. 48. Alluvion—a quarter of a mile; beyond this the section is continued on the south bank of the river. ’ No. 49. Same as No. 37, one half a mile. No. 50. (No. 10.) 4 singular fragmented rock—unstrati+ fied, 20 feet thick, very hard and tough, imbedded frag- ments, chiefly reddish brown quartz, appearing as if it had undergone the action of fire, a little micaceous, cement often blackish, appearing like veins, apparently ferruginous, rock resembling some varieties of porphyry. ; No. 51. (No. 6.) Dark gray, very fissile sandstone slate— Harder than shale, somewhat argillaceous in its odour, a lit- tle micaceous, surface rough and grit coarse, slightly sono- rous when struck, 1 rod thick, dip 40°. No. 52. Same as No. 50, 1 rod thick. / No. 53. Similar to No. 39, 5 rods thick. | No. 54. Alluvion between half and three quarters of a mile. No. 55. Same as No. 9, halfa mile. Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 69 No. 56. Same as No. 51, extending nearly a mile, dip at first 35°, but gradually decreasing to15°. The direction of the strata of this rock is quite different from the other va- rieties, which generally have a direction between north and northeast. But this variety is so much wheeled that it runs not far from east and west; and in passing up the river we sail for a time nearly parallel to the direction of the strata. I do not see why. this rock might not be employed for roof- ing ; and if so, the situation of the quarries would surely be very advantageous. No. 57. Same as No. 9, strata nearly perpendicular, but leaning a little to the east, and their direction nearly the same as that of all the varieties mentioned except the last. Thickness 10 rods. No. 58. (No. 8.) Blackish tortuous slate—Stratification ir- regular and the layers dividing into numerous shapeless pie- ces by fissures in every direction. The surface of these amorphous pieces is frequently a little glazed. Rock, friable, scarcely micaceous, argillaceous, strata leaning a few degrees to the east, 20 rods thick. This rock forms a bed atthe island in the falls in the Connecticut three miles below this spot, and there it is exposed to the occasional action of the water and is disintegrated so as to leave the superincumbent strata projecting over it several feet, and it very much re- sembles impure coal: but I could not determine that it con- tains any. Itis probably a variety of shale. No. 59. Very coarse, dark gray puddingstone—A gene- ral description of this rock has already been given in the be- ginning of this article. (No. 13.) Imperfectly stratified at this place, rather harder than the old red sandstone conglom- erate, yet appearing as if composed of little else than a mass of pebbles, the cement being not abundant, extending at least a quarter of a mile. The Connecticut at this place has worn a passage between this rock and the primitive, and high ledges appear on both sides of the river, which, on comparison, seem to differ almost toto coelo. The pudding- stone extends through Montague, sometimes assuming a reddish aspect, and in Sunderland forms a considerable part of Mount Toby. Here it alternates with the red \and gray slates above described; and it is curious to observe the fre- quent sudden changes from this coarsest of conglomerates te fine grained slates. 70 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. Where the profile crosses this rock, some of the imbed- ded masses appear at their surface as if they had undergone the action of fire. On breaking a mass of gray quartz con- taining a little mica, a zone of half an inch wide appeared at the outer edge, of a brick colour, indicating a chemical change either by fire or water, for the specimen was some- .times covered by water. I have observed little of this peculiar puddingstone in Connecticut, though so abundant in the northern part of the coal formation. It appears, however, in the south part of Durham. No. 60. Geest—covering a narrow valley. No. 61. A narrow stratum of gneiss. No. 62. Granite—This does not appear in abundance on the bank of the river. The best spot for examining it is half a mile south, where it forms a hill 100 or 200 feet high. From the preceding description of this profile, it appears, that after crossing the first ridge of greenstone there is a gradual decrease of the dip from 45° to 15°, and after pass- ing this point, which is not exactly central, but nearer the granite than the greenstone, we find the dip in a contrary di- yection, and almost 90°. Precisely such would be the ef- fect, the Huttonian would say, if we suppose the granite and the greenstone to have been forced up through the strata by a subterranean fire, after these strata were consolidated. And we might expect, also, that this convulsion would pro- duce that wheeling of the strata observed in the central parts. There is something peculiarly striking in this explanation, and an inquiry arises, whether any corresponding facts oc- cur in any other part of the coal formation. At mount To- by, a few miles south of Gill and the highest point of the coal formation, the strata dip to the east at an angle usually less than 10°. And here the greenstone ridge on the west is small, but the granite on the east, at no great distance, is abundant. On the south east side of Mount Holyoke in Belchertown and Granby, the strata dip to the south east, near the mountain, at an angie not less than 45°, and the greenstone ridge here is large. But the rocks that lie on the back of Mount Tom, the highest point of greenstone along the Connecticut, have a dip not generally larger than 20°. And the same remark will apply to many greenstone ridges on the accompanying coal formation in Connecticut. Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 71 The highest point of the coal formation is Mount Toby in Sunderland, which rises between eight and nine hundred feet above the Connecticut. Beginning at Whitmore’s fer- ry, the locality of the ichthyolites, to be hereafter described, and passing up the mountain obliquely to the south-east,we find alternations of most of the rocks described in the above profile. The different varieties of conglomerate are most abundant, and cannot, except that variety which is reddish, be easily confounded with the conglomerate accompanying the old red sandstone. They differ from this latter rock, 1, By being of a light or dark grey color, sometimes a little red. 2. In the greater abundance of imbedded no- dules, and less quantity of cement. 3. In the different na- ture of these nodules, those in the old red sandstone con- glomerate being chiefly quartz, felspar and granite, and those in the coal formation pudding-stone, being chiefly © mica slate, argillite, chlorite slate, talcose slate, and quartz with felspar and granite rarely. 4. The coal formation pudding stone often contains thin incrustations of carbo- nate of lime in the seams and crevices. The red sandstone is wanting in this. ) As a general fact, I feel prepared to state that the rocks of the coal formation lie above the old red sandstone. In most cases these rocks are separated by greenstone, so that their exactsituation cannot be easily ascertained. Along the western face of the greenstone ridge, extending from Mer- iden into Massachusetts, the rocks of the coal formation are often seen cropping out below the greenstone ; and the old red sandstone occurs at astill lower level. This may be seen in the space of a few rods in descending the hill nor- therly, from Newgate prison; and although the actual junc- _ tion of the rocks is not here observable, yet they appear only at short distances from one another. The fact, that the coal formation alternates with greenstone, and that this latter rock always lies above the old red sandstone, is a strong presumptive argument that all the coal formation lies above the old red sandstone,and conclusive evidence that a part of these rocks lie above it. The situation of the rocks about Middletowa, Chatham, &c. which might be urged as an objection to this fact, has been already considered, and | leave it for further examination, 72 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. _ There are many instances, also, in which the rocks of the coal formation pass into the old red sandstone. Let a per- son go to the mouth of Fall river in Giil, where, as already described, he will find the red argillaceous sandstone slate of the coal formation cropping out below the greenstone. Let him ascend Fall river, and he will find this slate be- coming coarser, the layers thicker and the aspect changing, until, within a mile and a half, it becomes decided old red sandstone or conglomerate; the dip, also, diminishing. Or let him follow the road that leads from the mouth of the river to Greenfield, and as he ascends the hill, he will ob- serve a gradation from the slate above named into decided fine grained red sandstone. Much of the rock occurring along the east side of Connecticut river in Somers, Elling- ton, Chatham, in Middletown and Durham, appears to be intermediate between old red sandstone and this slate of the coal formation. Even in Somers and Ellington, where a strip is marked as coal formation, I found little else but this intermediate rock. But as coal has been found there, (Am. Journal of Science, vol. 3, p. 248,) a strip has been colored brown, rather to mark out the locality than the extent, of the coal formation. It is not improbable that some more experienced geologist than myself, may hereafter include the rock I have marked old red sandstone on the east side of Connecticut river as one of the members of the coal for- mation—but I could not do it without doing violence to my own convictions. It may be of importance in a geological view to mention the veins of copper ore so frequently found along the Con- necticut greenstone ranges. All these veins which I have seen, or of which an account has been published, are found on the margin of the greenstone and coal formation; and the veins always pass, either laterally or perpendicularly, from one rock into the other. They are quite numerous, and we have already remarked that copper ore and iron pyrites are not uafrequenily disseminated in the slates. To avoid mistake: I will just mention different spots on the map that are colored as the coal formation. 1. A large extent in Gill, Montague and Sunderlaud; 2. In Granby, Mass. and Ludlow; 3. A small patch in Somers and El- lington; 4. An extensive range extending from West- Springfield to Berlin; 5. In Hartford, Westhersfield, Mid- Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 73 dletown and Durham; 6. A small patch in East-Haven; 7. A narrow range in Southington; 8. The same in West- field and South-Hampton. ‘The latter, in the northern part, is penetrated by the drift to the South-Hampton lead- mine; but scarcely appears at the surface. In Westfield, however, it is wider. It would seem from the preceding description that all the rocks essential to Werner’s Independent Coal Formation are to be found along the Connecticut, viz. a friable mica- ceous sandstone, shale and pudding-stone, (Cleaveland, vol. 2, p. 508,) and also the greenstone and amyedaloid Professor Jameson has added. Still, however, there are some other circumstances which may leave the geologist in doubt whether the real independent coal formation occurs along this river. ‘Some may suppose the rocks above described to be grey wacke and grey wacke slate ; and if the definition of grey wacke be so broad as to include those pudding-stones whose cement is merely a comminuted portion of the imbedded frag- - ments, it will indeed include not only the pudding-stone of the coal formation above described, but, for aught I can see, even the old red sandstone; and, indeed, what fragmented rock will it not include ?* And besides, many of the argilla- ceous sandstone slates described above, cannot,without diffi- culty be distinguished from certain varieties of grey wacke slate in hand specimens. But the rock usually called grey wacke in Europe has never yet, I believe, been found lying above the old red sandstone, as does the coal formation along this river. It is usually traversed, says Jameson, by quartz in the form of veins, which is rarely, if ever, the case in our rock. It has never been found alternating with beds of any sort of coal, except the coal blende; but eur rock con- tains many beds and veins of that which is highly bitumin- ous. Again, the icthyolites and other organic relics that are found at Sunderland have almost all the rocks of the coal formation lying above them, as may be seen by the sketch of Mount Toby, that will be given when we come *Some judicious remarks on this subject are contained in the North- American Review, No. 29, p. 235. There we figd the following sentence concerning the Roxbury and Dorchester plumb-pudding-stone, which some- what resembles a certain variety described above. ‘This rock forms one vast bed, which we have examined in various parts and feel no hesitation in saying that it isnot the grey wacke of Europ: 20 geologists.”’ Vou. VI—No.; 1. 19 74 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. to describe these remains. Butin other countries “these fossil remains of fishes are found only in strata of very re- cent origin.” (Rees. Cyc. Art. icthyolites.) ' The great dip of many of these rocks may be thought te afford evidence of their being older than the old red sand- stone, or the independent coal formation. But to show that the dip of rocks is a very equivocal criterion of their age, I need only to refer to the recent work of Greenough on the first principles of geology. And besides, it is no un- common thing in real coal fields for rocks to be highly in- clined. ‘This inclination or dip of the (coal) strata is found every where; in some places it varies very littie from the level; in others considerably, even so much as to be nearly in a perpendicular direction;’”? (Rees Cyclopedia, Art. Coal,) and still farther, as already hinted, there is rea- son to believe that Mount Toby, the strata of which are almost horizontal, exhibits the original dip of these rocks, and that those cases in which they are more highly inclined are the result of some Plutonian convul- sion. Such irregularity in the dip of coal fields is ne uncommon occurrence. “In some coal fields,’’ says Mr. Williams, (Nat. Hist. Min. Kingd. vol. 1, p. 93,) “the stra- ta acquire this horizontal and waving position, and afterward, towards the south-west or toward the north-east, the decliv- ity becomes again so steep as to form an angle of 45°, and in some particular instances to approach still nearer to the vertical position.” Upon the whole, I think there are insu- perable objections against referring the rocks of our coal for- mation to grey wacke and grey wacke slate. Another opinion already advanced on the subject is more probable. Itis that of Mr. Brongniart, who gave it after having seen only the rocks containing the Westfield fish impressions. ‘This formation,’ says he, “appears to me to have the strongest resemblance to that of the bituminous mar! slates of the copper-mines in the country of Mansfield and Hesse.” (Journal of Science, vol. 3, ». 220.) The arguments in favor of such an opinion are, 1. The great sim- ilarity in the appearance of the German and American rocks on which the fish are found—one species, at least, being the same in both. 2. The occurrences of copper ores, and similar ones too, along with native copper in both rocks. 3. The fact that both these varieties of rocks lie immedi- ately above the old red sandstone. Perhaps there are oth~ Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 75 er points of resemblance, but I have not been able to find any minute account of the bituminous marlite formation.* On the other hand it may be said that no real bituminous marlite occurs along the Connecticut—provided the grand distinction between this rock and bituminous shale consists, as Professor Cleaveland says, (Mineral. vol. 1, p. 191,) in its effervescence with acids; for our rock, certainly that at Sunderland, does not effervesce with acid, unless it contains, as it sometimes does, a slight incrustation of carbonate of lime. Mr. B. does not consider the occurrence of thin beds or veins of coal as opposed to his opinion; but the strata penetrated at Riegelsdorf in Hesse, in order to reach the fish impressions, are totally different from those occur- ring along the Connecticut. They are as follows: “ No. 1. Ferruginous clayey mould, from one to two fathoms. No. 2. Greyish white limestone, from six to eight fathoms. No. 3. Blue clay, with imbedded fragments of selenite crystals, from eight to ten fathoms. No. 4. Bluish lime- stone, called Rauchwacke, from eight to nine fathoms. No. 5. Grey compact gypsum, traversed by ferruginous loam, from seven toeight fathoms. No.6. Black and grey stink- ~ stone, from one to one and an half fathoms. No. 7. Sand, sometimes loose, sometimes cemented, from one to one and an half fathoms. No. 8. A kind of limestone, called Zech- stein, of a greyish brown color, and soft above towards the sand, but blacker and more compact below; from three and a quarter to three and an half fathoms. No.9. A black slaty stratum, containing pyrites and-forming the roof of the bituminous marl slate, from eighteen to twenty inches. No. 10. Black cupriferous bituminous marl slate, from three to eight inches: this is the principal depository of the icthyo- *Extract of a letter from Dr. J. W. Webster :— “The bituminous marl slate has been one of the most troublesome rocks for years: some have placed it here and some there. From its effervescence with acids we should perhaps more properly put it among the limestones, Again, from the richness of some specimens of it in copper, they would be classed as copper ores—indeed, we know that it is worked for copper. It occurs in the secondary limestone. Its external characters are very little different from those of bituminous shale of the coal formation; but from all I have learned of it, I am pretty well satisfied that it is distinct from and above the rocks of the coal formation. You will note one striking difference be- tween the two—vegetable impressions are abundant in bituminous shale of the coal field; but rare inthe B. M. slate—it is more abundant in fresh water remains.”’ 76 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. lites. No. 1). Gneiss like greyish white rock, consisting of small rounded quartz pebbles, and sometimes of copper and mica, cemented by indurated clay. No. 12. Old red sandstone, or the dead rock, being the fundamental rook of these floetz strata.”” (Rees Cyc. Art. Icthyolites.) Under these circumstances I have thought it safe to de- nominate the peculiar rocks under consideration along the Connecticut, the coal formation. A more complete set of them has been forwarded to Mr. Brongniart, and we wait anxiously for his final opinion. The suspicious circumstan- ces attending them and the occurrence of the coal hitherto discovered in thin beds and veins only, render it very doubtful whether extensive beds of this valuable mineral will ever be found in them. They have been unsuccessfully explored at South-Hadley, Southington and Westfield, Ct. But I would not wish to discourage further search. The decision ef the question above discussed, concerning the precise yank they ought to hold in the rock formations of the globe, is one of considerable importance, since it will depend on that decision whether coal or copper or gypsum may be sought after with the greatest prospect of success. They have long been to me a fruitful source of perplexity, and again and again have I returned from traversing them in utter despair of ever determining their real geological rela- tions. ‘I'o denominate them the coal formation relieves, for a time, most of these difficulties: but that name will ¢heerfully be resigned whenever a more correct one shall be proposed. Organic Remains in the Coal Formation. 1. Icthyolites. These occur at Westfield, Ct. and at Sunderland, Mass. ; and it is said also at some other places, as at West-Spring- field; but I have never seen any, except from these two localities. At Westfield they were found in exploring for coal, lying upon bituminous shale. ‘Two species at least were recognized, one of which Mr. Brongniart calls the Pa- lethrissum freislebenense of Blainville. ‘These impressions have been so repeatedly and accurately described by Prof. Silliman in Cleaveland’s Mineralogy and the American Jour. of Science, that itis unnecessary to be more particular, Geology, Gc. of the Connecticut. 77 At Sunderland these impressions occur in bituminous shale, which often contains a little mica, and generally a ' quantity of iron pyrites, disseminated through the rock. They occur at Witmore’s ferry in the north part of Sunder- lard, in the bank of the river. They are found most abun- dant at the lowest water mark, at which tirne two men, in less than half a day, dug out for me nearly fifty specimens. ~ Sometimes a layer of semi-crystalline dark colored carbo- nate of lime, less than one twentieth of an inch thick, lies between the layers of slate. The substance of the fish is usually converted into coal, the thickness of which is rarely more than one tenth of an inch in any part, and the color is black. In some instances, however, the carbonate of lime above mentioned covers the fish, and has taken the place of the matter of the fins and scales and their original light grey color is preserved so perfectly as to resemble a fish just taken out of the water. Some of the specimens appear contorted; in others the form of the fish is whol- ly lost, the fins and scales and bones, being scattered | about promiscuously, as if the fish had perished in violent struggles, or the rock had been disturbed after its imprison- ment. Yet, in the same specimen that contains one thus mutilated, another will appear not more than a foot distant which is whole. I have found four or five specimens in which the fishes (both of them distinct,) lie across each oth- er; sometimes a very thin layer of shale, and sometimes none, separating them. Ihave another specimen, three feet longand fifteen inches wide, containing seven distinct impres- sions. The shalein which these ichthyolites occur,when rub- bed or held in a flame, exhales a strong bituminous odour.* Among the impressions hitherto obtained, I can easily discover three distinct species that have scales.* Two of these are represented on the accompanying plate; but the third was so much mutilated, that I did not attempt to de- lineate it. For at the best it is no easy matter to represent them so exactly as to be of use. They are usually a little in- distinct on their border,and not unfrequently injured bypyrites. Fig. 1. represents a species that is rare. Fig. 2. shows the most common species. There can be no doubt that this differs generically from the last. *Precisely such a smell is exhaled from the bituminous limestone in Sonthington. *See the end. Pie 78 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. Fig. 3. is probably the same as Fig. 2.; but perhaps not. The outline is given because the fins were more distinct than in the specimen from which Fig. 2.. was copied. These are all of the natural size. Concerning their names, feeling altogether incompetent, I do not even attempt to de- cide. I have not had an apportunity to compare them close- ly with the Westfield icthyolites, and do not know whether they coincide. Another petrifaction occurs with these fishes, which re- sembles the common silver eel, (Muraena anguilla,) or some other species of the eel tribe. The width varies from half an inch to a whole one, and the length from one to two feet. The substance of the eel (if indeed it be one,) is not con- verted into coal, but there is a substitution of the shale of a finer grain, except the head, which is coal. No fins appear, except, perhaps, in one instance, a pectoral one. Some- times, along the centre of the impression, there is a small relief, answering to the place of vertebrae. The course of the impressions is usually serpentine. The geological situation of these icthyolites is interesting. The shale containing them passes under Mount Toby, there being a gradual ascent from this spot to the top of the mountain, two miles distant: so that they lie beneath rocks of the coal formation at the depth of nearly nine hundred feet, most of the varieties described on the profile annex- ed to the map here alternating with one another. The fol- lowing sketch exhibits a section of the shaie of Mount Toby, so far as the geest would admit of examination, on a line passing from the locality of the icthyolites to the highest point of the mountain. I do not suppose it pérfectly accu- rate , but itis probably sufficiently so to answer the intend- ed purpose, viz. to exhibit the situation of the ichthyolites. The numbers in a parenthesis refer to those on the profile that are synonymous. The dip of these strata rarely ex- ceeds ten degrees, and is usually less. No. 1. (No. 59.) Very Coarse dark grey pudding-stone, for an account of it see the reference to the profile, on plate No. 8. atthe end. “ No. 2. Bituminous Shale. This contains icthyolites— strata nearly horizontal—dip never exceeding five degrees. Thickness of the stratum, about ten feet. No. 3. Same as No. 1. except sometimes alternating with Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 79 a pudding-stone, less coarse and more distinctly stratified. Thickness, between two and three hundred feet. No. 4. (No. 9.) Red fissile argillaceous sandstone slate, ten feet in perpendicular thickness. No. 5. Same as No.1. Thickness ten feet—dip six de- rees. : No.6. Same as No. 4. Thickness four feet. No. 7. Same as No. 1. except not so coarse, and more distinctly stratified, agreeing nearer with No. 43 of the pro- file. Thickness fifteen feet. No. 8. Same as No. 4. two feet thick. Where this rock alternates with the pudding-stone the change is very strik- ing. No. 9. Same as No. 7. Thickness fifteen feet. No. 10. Same as No. 4. five feet thick. No. 11. Same as No. 7. twenty feet thick. No. 12. Same as No. 4. graduating into the conglomer- ate—ten feet thick. No. 13. Like No. 1. sixty feet thick. No. 14. Grey argillaceous sandstone slate, sometimes micaceous. Somewhat like No. 23. of the profile, but coarser—liable to decomposition and containing many wa- ter-worn pebbles. Thickness ten feet. This carries us te the Sunderland cave. No. 15. Same as No. 4. fifteen feet thick. No. 16. Same as No. 1. about one hundred feet thick. No. 17. Same as No. 4. except that it is coarser and the layers thicker—about ten feet thick. No. 18. A pudding-stone not differing essentially from No. 1. but frequently of a reddish cast and more distinctly stratified. This continues with little interruption to the top of the mountain; though the soil hides it in most parts, and there may be other alternations which I did not observe. 2. A Clam Shell? I found a specimen at the cave in Sunderland, imbedded in an argillaceous slate, which resembles the common river clam. There was a perfect substitution of siliceous matter. A single specimen only was found, which was forwarded to Mr. Brongniart, and he will be able doubtless to decide whether it is a petrifaction or a peculiar water-worn pebble. $0 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 3. Vegetable Remains. These appear to-be either the branches or roots of trees, or the relics of culmiferous plants, and therefore may be cal- led ignites and rhizolites. ‘They are usually converted in- to a thinvein of coal, similar to the fish. ‘They are com- monly broken into pieces from an inch to two feet long, in the manner represented in Fig. 4. Their width varies from ’ amere line to two inches. They are not jointed—found in abundance at the falls in Gill; also with the icthyolites at Sunderland. The rock in which they occur at both places is hardly bituminous shale; but a greyish micaceous sand- stone. The longest specimen of rhizolite I have seen oc- curs on the road side, one half mile south of Newgate _pris- on; being not less than seven or eight feet in length. 4. Unknown Relic. This is represented as well as it could be in Fig. 5. It is difficult to give a perfect idea of the thing, because there is a relief or swelling along the middle. It sometimes re- sembles the ament of the chesnut, (Castanea americana Mz.) but still more the vertebrae of a fish. But in no ich- thyolite I ever found, did I see any remains of the vertebrae, and it is not probable, therefore, that this belonged to a fish. It is rare—found with the icthyolites at Sunderland. 15. AuLuvion. Colored Gamboge Yellow. By this term I understand those accumulations of gravel, clay, sand, mud and salt, which are post-diluvian, or have probably been deposited since the Noachic deluge by causes at present acting on the globe. Some varieties may be seen along the Connecticut which we shall mention in the probable order in which they were deposited. 1. The alluvion on the sea-coast. This is probably the oldest; because the sea would begin its depositions imme- diately after the deluge, if the situation of any particular lace were favorable—even before it had subsided sufti- Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 81 ciently for rivers to have found their channels. On the map it embraces the alluvial plain around New-Haven and the salt marshes extending some distance on both sides of the city. The plain of New-Haven is made up of coarse sand with some gravel and an intermixture of broken shells and sea weed. The marshes consist of sand, mud and salt. : The region about New-Haven, embraced by this alluvion, is interesting to the botanist, as he here finds many plants not growing in the interior. Among these, we may men- tion Salsola kal, Salicornia herbacea, Triglochin mariti- mum, Statice limonum, Iva frutescens of Lin. and Ammi capillaceum. and Conyza camphorata of Muhl. Limnetis polystachia and juncea of Ph. L. glabra, Muhl. Holcus ‘odoratus, Mx. and Limosella subulata, Ives. Here also, occur the other new species of Prof. Ives, Gnaphalium de- currens and Asclepias lanceolata, along with Plantago maritima, lanceolata, and Virginica of Lin. Eriocaulon ellucidum, Mx. Cassia chamaecrista and Uniola spicata of Lin. &c. &c. Onthe beach we find Fucus nodosus and vesiculosus of Lin.* and adhering to the latter, Mytilus striatulus? (Donov. in Rees.) Here also occur Venus mercenaria, (common clam) Ostrea edulis ? (oyster) and one or two species of 4rca and Anomia, with others I do not know. 2. Gravel. This usually lies beneath all other alluvial deposits along the Connecticut: though it sometimes al- ternates with beds of sand. It is arranged in somewhat regular strata. The pebbles rarely exceed two or three inches in diameter. 8. Clay. This is a coarse kind, such as is used for mak- ing brick; and generally hes above the gravel and beneath the sand and mud, or loam. It probably underlies those extensive sandy plains that occurin Suffield and Windsor, on the West, and in Springfield, Longmeadow, Enfield, East Windsor, and East Hartford, on the east of the Con- necticut. In some places the clay appears at the surface, as in Hartford, Windsor, Deerfield, &c. * On Long-Island, fifty miles east of New-Haven harbor, I found Sphae- rococcus confervoides, Agardh, 5 Vor. VI-—No. 1. 11 82 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. -A. Sand. ‘This commonly lies the highest of the alluvi- on, except insome low meadows that are yearly receiving a deposite of a loamy sediment. The region in which sand occurs most abundantly, has just been mentioned. It is sometimes seen in alternating beds with gravel, clay and Joam. 5. Loamand mud. This is. the most recent of our allu- vion, and depositions of it are frequently made. The Con- necticut indeed, seems, with some exceptions, to have nearly reached its maximum of depositions, rarely flowing over more than a small part of the alluvion along its banks. Bat its tributaries, such as the Farmington, Westfield, Deer- field, and Chickapee, still continue annually, and often semi-annually, to flood the adjacent meadows, and to leave there an additional soil, from half an inch to six inches deep, and though the agriculturalist has sometimes to la- ment the destraction of his crops by these inundations, yet without them his fields would soon become comparatively unproductive. The depth of the alluvion along the Connecticut has never been accurately measured; but I should judge it sometimes to be as great as one hundred and fifty feet : but in general it is much less. It is not unfrequent to find ten or fifteen feet below the surface of the most recent of this alluvion, logs, stumps of trees, leaves, butternuts, wal- nuts, &c. in a partially decaying state, and sometimes we meet with skeletons of the aborigines of the country. But no aurock, mastodon, or megatherium, has yet been dis- covered to give an interest to this alluvial formation. I have found a difficulty in some instances in drawing the line between genuine post-deluvian depositions and geest. In some cases there appears to be a mixture. In other cases the rocks are entirely hid by the soil, and yet the predominant characteristic of the soil is derived from the rock underneath it, although there is a mixture of alluvion. The old red sandstone for instance, and the red slate of the coal formation, are very liable to decomposition, and thus a reddish soil is produced, so manifestly composed of the ruins of the rock, that one is able often to determine from the appearance of the soil at the distance of two or three miles the particular rock that lies beneath it. I have not, Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 83 however, intended to put down the alluvion in all such cases, but have colored the spot according to the subjacent rock, And on this ground I am sensible that there are a number of small parts of the alluvion that ought, in strictness, to have been colored as old red sandstone ; as in East-Hamp- ton and Deerfield; but being so small they were neglec ted. 16. Gerst. Jameson. Deluvian Detritus. Buckland. “By geest,” says Jameson, “is understood the alluvial matter which is spread over the surface both of the hilly and low country and appears to have been formed the last time the waters of the ocean stood over the surface of the earth. And it is probable that Professor Buckland refers to the same deposition by the above synonym. By deluvi- an detritus, he means “fragments of neighboring and dis- tant rocks, and with bones not mineralized—generally in valleys.”” Whatever objections may lie against these defi- nitions, every geologist knows that much deposition exists onthe globe which no one refers to what is commonly un- derstood by alluvion, and which could result from no pro- cesses nature is now carrying on. ‘This is scattered over the most mountainous tracts, and in all cases of consider- able extent, occupies at least three quarters of the surface. It is usually denominated soil, comprehending, however, the bowlder stones and organic remains that soil contains. As a general fact, this geest, in primitive regions, consists of comminuted particles and rolled stones of primitive rocks. In secondary tracts it consists of secondary detritus, though more frequently mixed with portions of rocks ofa primitive character. Along the Connecticut in the primitive region, large bowlders in great numbers are not commonly found remov- ed many miles from the spot where they originated. Strag- glers of this description may indeed be found almost every where; and among all the rocks none seems to be more scattered than granite : though perhaps the numerous beds and veins of this rock found almost every where may ac- 84 Geology, &c of the Connecticut. count for this. But in general along this river, the char- acter of the rolled masses corresponds to the rock in place underneath them ;—that is the greatest number of the loose stones are of the same description as the rock that underlies them. But to this there are many exceptions—a most remarkable one occurs a few miles west of New- Haven in Woodbridge and Milford. The surface is cover- ed with rolled masses, sometimes quite large, of primitive and secondary greenstone, mica slate, gneiss, granite, and almost every other rock, except that which 1s in place viz. chlorite slate, or argillite. In many places on the map which are highly mountainous, the geest is so abundant as to occupy most of the surface ;—the subjacent rock rarely appearing ;—as in the east part of Plainfield and in Shutesbury. The diameter of the loose fragments varies from an inch to twenty, or even thirty feet, and they are usually rounded, indicating attrition. Some of the highest | of these bowlders are found insulated on the pinnacles of gur mountains. There is a particular kind of geest, which I have al- ready mentioned, occurring along the Connecticut, that does not seem to be comprehended in Professor Jameson’s definitions. It is that kind of soil that results from the slow disintegration and decomposition of certain rocks, with a mixture of decaying vegetables. This, as already observed, is not uncommon above the old red sandstone and the red siliceous sandstone slate of the coal forma- tion. And the epithet de/uvian seems to exclude this kind of soil from Prof. Buckland’s deluvian detritus; and so the epithet fluviatile excludes it from the fluviatile detritus of the same author. (Rees’ Cyc. Art. Geology, Addenda.) Hayden’s Hypothesis of a primeval northeasterly current of water. | Tallude to Hayden’s Geological Essays, in which he ex- presses the opinion that the alluvion of our middle and southern states was formed by a current or currents that formerly flowed across this continent from the northeast to the southwest; and I am inclined to believe, (without in- tending, however, to adopt altogether his theory on the — Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 85 subject,) that a careful examination of the bowlder stones along the Connecticut would favor the supposition. Mas- ses of greenstone are found at a greater distance, and in much greater quantities on the western side of the ridges than on the eastern. As we ascend the primitive region on the west side of the river, secondary rolled stones are seen for one or two miles; but on the eastern side, if I mistake not, nothing of this kind appears; and I should suppose the bowlders of Woodbridge and Milford, being evidently brought from the country to the north, would tes- tify in favor of such an hypothesis. Suggestion coneerning Tolled Stones. Is it not a fact that rolled masses are more abundant and more perfectly rounded along the limits between the primi- tive, and transition, or secondary? This question has often occurred to me when travelling in the south eastern part of Massachusetts, when going over the country along the Connecticut in Bernardston and its vicinity, when descend- ing the Hoosack and Green Mountains on the west, and when passing over the country west of New-Haven. If such be the fact it may, when it occurs in the geologist’s tours, be a warning to him to expect a change in the rocks in place. Fact relating to the detachment of large bowlder stones from thear bed. Deerfield river in the greater part of its course is a mountain torrent, very rapid and powerful. It has worn a passage often four hundred feet deep, the banks being al- most perpendicular. Its winter floods are most powerful in effecting this work. The ice freezes three or four feet thick, and when a sudden rain melts the snows on its banks, ' it rises rapidly and lifts up and urges forward with tumultu- ous fury, this immense body of ice. As the banks among the mountains are steep and rocky, they prevent the ac- cumulation of water and ice from spreading to the right or left, and it is raised proportionally higher; and thus an im- mense force is exerted upon obstacles in the bottom of the 86 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. stream, which, in winter floods, is filled with huge masses of ice to the very bottom. In the west part of Shelburne this river descends a | cata- ract thirty or forty feet high. The rock in the bottom of the river is an aggregate of quartz and mica with horn- blende intermixed, and below the falls it is unstratified, al- most without seams and very hard. Yet here we might expect the force of the torrent would be most powerful ; and accordingly we find masses of this rock from one to ten feet in diameter, raised from their bed, and some of them removed down the stream one or two miles, some only a few rods, and | saw one or two of the largest but just be- ginning to be raised from their bed. Previous to viewing this spot, I had no just ideas of the enormous force exerted by a mountain torrent. [Part IL. in the next Number.] Arr. L.*—A Memoir on the Catskill Mountains with notices of ther Topography, Scenery, Mineralogy, Zoology, eco- nomical resources, Sc. By James Pierce, Esq. Tue Catskill Mountains or ranges connected with them, extend from the vicinity of the St. Lawrence to the Alle- ghany ridge. In the neighborhood of the Hudson they sweep in a semicircular form, presenting wild and irregular eminences which rise to a.greater altitude than any moun- tains in the United States, some in New-England excepted. The eastern face of the ridge is steep or precipitous, dis- playing numerous mural precipices of great extent, and of- ten of sufficient width to be distinguished at the distance of twenty miles. ‘They appear encircling the mountain like enormous bands. From the summit ledges, superb views are presented of the great valley of the Hudson, and distant mountains of New-York and New-England; for extent, interest and di- versity, they are unequalled in this country. In the waving profile of the Catskill mountains many su- gar loaf eminences tower above the general range. Among *Originally read before the Catskill Lyceum, but forwarded with additions and corrections, for insertion in this Journal. Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. 87 these the height near Cairo and the Round Top of about equal elevation, are the most conspicuous. ‘Several prominent spurs run from the eastern chain of the Catskill mountains, in a north-western direction, for sev- eral miles. The intermediate mountain vallies are mostly of a good deep medium soil, and afford, when cleared, fine grazing ground. In a state of nature these intervals present towering for- ests of hard maple, beach, hemlock, birch, cherry, spruce, and balsam fir. ‘The surface in general is not too strong for the purposes of agriculture. The most considerable of the ranges which take a wes- tern direction, border the elevated vallies and ravines through which the rivers Kauterskill, Schoharie and Platterkill, take their course. The clove passages formed by the Kauterskill and Plat- terkill in their eastern descent, present as sublime and pic- turesque scenery as this or almost any country exhibits. Though there is considerable similarity in the appear- ance of these cloves, yet some peculiar features make an interesting diversity. The road through the Kauterskill clove ascends gradual- ly near the river, where there appears scarcely space for the road and stream. In many places the traveller looks down from a perpen- dicular and dizzy height upon foaming waters that pursue a raging course among the rocks falling with a deafening noise from precipice to precipice. On the northern side of the river the mountain is lofty and precipitous, exhibiting near its base stupendous pur- pendicular walls of argillaceous red sandstone and grey wacke slate—the strata in nearly a horizontal position. Fre- quently but a small section of the horizon can be seen. Mural precipices rise in succession and tower above the forest. The mountain’s top, which seems almost to over- hang the spectator, is crowned by enormous ledges resem- bling castles or fortifications in ruins, on which a few scat- ‘tered pines preserve their bleak station in defiance of tem- pests, and wave their dark verdure over the cliffs like nod- ding plumes. About two miles from the entrance of the clove the Kau- terskill is passed by a bridge thrown from crag te crag over $8 Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. the brawling stream, which here presents considerable cas-- cades—The mountain seems torn asunder to give passage to the river leaving lofty perpendicular walls of rock on its bor- ders—A short distance above, the stream falls ina circular column near one hundred feet. South of the clove the mountain rises to a great height—its steep northern side is thickly clothed with trees of varied verdure—Riyulets are seen winding rapidly down the glens or sporting in cascades, The most considerable branch of the Kauterskill has its origin in two mountain lakes situated near the Delaware turn- pike, between two and three thousand feet above the Hudson. They cover about two hundred acres of ground, and are very shallow—no where of greater depth than ten feet. They contain cat-fish, and great numbers of the brown va- riety of leeches, some of them six inches in length. _The river from its outlet at the iake descends by rapids and falls,througha romantic ravine to the great clove. In one place it is precipitated perpendicularly about two hundred feet. This fall is often visited by the curious, A road has been recently worked from its vicinity down a wild glen parallel with the Kauterskill, to the clove, to facilitate access to a mountain mass of very friable, fine grained argillaceous red sandstone, supposed by the proprietors of the ground, to be valuable as a paint, although softer, and of a deeper color than the red sandstone observed in almost every ravine of the mountain, yet it does not appear to have sufficient oxide of iron to give it such a body as to form a useful pigment. At the head of the great clove the western branch of the Kauterskill falls perpendicularly one hundred and twenty feet from projecting cliffs, and descends in rapids and cas- cades four hundred feet in about one hundred rods. The Platterkill clove, situated about five miles south of the Kauterskill, is little known, except to the inhabitants of its vicinity. I recently passed up this glen by a narrow dug way which rose to a midway region of the mountain, north of the river Platterkill. ; For two miles you look down the precipitous side into a deep ravine near one thousand feet, where the Platterkill pursues a raging course among the rocks, presenting numer- ous rapids and falls. Lesser streams are seen descending the precipitous south mountain from an altitude of two thou- Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. 89 sand feet in cascades,—sometimes concealed by the forest, and then flashing to light through the evergreen foliage, leap- ing from ledge to ledge, until they mingle their waters with the Platterkill. Few evergreens were observed on the north mountain, but the elevated ridge south of the clove presented an en- tangled forest of hemlock, balsam fir and spruce, with plats of hard maple, beach and birch. The glen of the Platter- kill was filled with sugar-maple, beach, oak, chesnut, ash, birch, cherry, hemlock and spruce. Near the head of the clove the ravine suddenly rises, and the Platterkill, which onthe mountain afiords water sufficient for mill-seats, de- scends from the valley of the summit one thousand feet in a few hundred yards of its progressive course, by a succes- sion of falls over ledges. One of these falls,which is in view from the road, is said to be one hundred and fifty feet in height. From a lofty mural precipice situated at the head of the clove, a striking view is Sieuitcae of this fall and of the deep gulf below. A saw-mill has been recently erected near the road of the summit, on the brow of a precipice overlooking water-falls and wild scenery. The mountain valley, at the head of the clove, is tolerably fertile, but not extensively cultivated. Large tracts of pret- ty level ground are situated to the north and west, thickly clothed with hard maple and beach, which, if cleared, would afford a fine grazing region for sheep and cattle. Uaforta- nately, most of the residents on this part of the mountain are not proprietors of the soil. They prefer stripping the land of its best timber rather than resort to the regular toils of agriculture. A considerable proportion live in log huts without floor or furniture. Bread is rarely seen among them; and but few have gardens. Their principal food, in addition to wild meats and fish occasionally obtained, con- sists of potatoes and pumpkins. They have as few comforts as Rob Roy’s band, or the Children of the Mist. Adjacent to the Platterkill toad on the mountain table land, there are a few small farms under tolerable cultivation. The ascent from the Platterkill to the base of the moun- tain summits, called Round Top and High peak, is gradual through thick groves of maple, birch, beach, cherry and hemlock. Vor. Vil. =No..1. 19 90 Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountaus. The elevated valleys and regions adjacent to those peaks are peculiarly interesting. Groves of lofty spruce and bal- ‘sam fir, straight as the white pine, and presenting a beautiful never fading verdure, occupy, almost exclusively, extensive tracts. Little under-brush obstructs the passage and view, “but the earth and flat rocks are covered by a handsome car- ‘pet of diversified colors composed of a thick and soft velvet ‘moss of a delicate light green, ornamented by gay flowers and tufts of white coral like silvery moss, with other species, —mountain sorrel varying the verdure. The region north of the Platterkill mouatain valley, is ac- cessible for waggons to the base of the Round Top and from ‘thence the ascent Is easy. I passed a night on this peak at an elevation of near 4000 feet above the level of the sea. . Its circular summit is near- ‘ly flat, but slightly descending on every side, and presents about an acre mostly wood-clad. Although the heat of the river valley was oppressive, yet the mountain temperature rendered a large fire comfortable. Invigorated by cold and by breathing freely the pure moun- tain air, a traveller ranges with less fatigue than in the valley of the Hudson, and seldom fails of possessing a good ap- petite. Having enjoyed a refreshing repast, and amused ourselves sometime in conversation, we increased our fire as a protec- tion from beasts of prey, and retired to rest on beds of moss upon which sinall branches of spruce were spread, forming’a soft and dry couch. We viewed through the thinly scatter- ed branches of the, balsam fir, the blue arch of heaven span- gled with stars. The azure of the sky appeared darker from our elevation than from below, and the heavenly bodies to move more brilliantly in their course. The atmosphere which gives a light blue coloring to dis- tant objects, becomes more rare and pure in proportion te its elevation. : Placed far above the haunts of men, no sound was heard save that of a light air, gently breathing through the fine leaved tops of the evergreens. We were, at times, during the night enveloped by passing clouds, but the breeze would soon free us from our dewy mantle. The starry lamps, as if newly trimmed, seemed then to shine with additional lustre. The moon partly shorn of her beams, calmly glided through the sky, motling Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. 9 the woodland steeps and dispensing her influence over hills and plains. We rose at dawn from a refreshing slumber, to view the beauties of rising day. The eastern sky and clouds glowed in the morning light. The sun soon rose with a dazzling splendor over the distant Taconnock mountains, but the immense valley of the Hudson was still clad in gloom.. Twilight is of shorter duration on elevated tracts than in valleys. This probably arises from the rare air of the moun- tains having less refractive power. Objects in the valley were gradually disclosed. Here and there white fogs ap- peared, resting on the waters. But they were soon raised in clouds by the expansive power of the sun, and, tinged with gold and purple, sailed far below us, brushing the mountains with their dewy wings, and dispensing refreshing moisture to the vegetable world. Our prospect, from an eastern ledge of the Round Top, was indescribably grand. We had beneath us, a vast ex- panse like a world in miniature, which we viewed as upon a map. The Hudson, fourteen miles distant, appeared to us near the base of the mountain, diminished to the size of a rivulet or canal. It was in view from the Highlands to Al- bany, together with every city and village on its banks. Sloops, with all their canvass spread, appeared no larger than small sail-boats. The rising sun, gleaming on the waters of the Hudson and its auxiliary streams, and on the lakes of mountain and valley,renderedthem very conspicuous. They appeared like crimson floods or lakes of fire. The mountains adjacent to Lake George, the Green Mountains of Vermont, the elevated ranges of Massachusetts and Connecticut, were 7 view, and their ine cloud like sum- mits seemed mingled with the distant sky. The Fishkill mountain, a continuation of the primitive ranges of the Connecticut ;—the Highlands of New-York and New-Jersey, and the Shawangunk ridge were distinctly traced. ‘The intervening space or valley of the Hudson, ex- hibited the appearance of an immense plain, an alternation of groves and cleared fields. “'Mhe hiils were laid low and the valleys exalted.” Northward, looking down on the Pine orchard and oth- er prospect elevations, which from their base appeared of gigantic size, they now seemed depressed almost to a ley- el with the plain. We viewed the summits, ravines, lakes 92 Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. and streams, upon the broad back of the chain, to great advantage. 'I’o the west, wild wood-clad ranges a moun- tains piled on mountains met the eye. A considerable diversity is presented in the views from the Catskill heights, sometimes the valley is filled with clouds resembling a boundless ocean, while the insulated summits are in the enjoyment of sunshine and a clear sky— put in motion by the wind, the clouds of the valley roll like the waves of a tempestuous sea, and storms are often seen sweeping far below, shroudiug a part of the landscape in midnizht darkness. You may hear the thunder roll, and see the lightning play beneath your feet, while the mountain heights and parts of the valley are cheered by the sun’s rays. The mountain woodland scenery, is particularly interesting— dressed in the gay diversified ‘colors of autumn, when the foliage of the Maple, Beach, Oak, Birch, &c. is dyed with scarlet, purple and orange, intermingled with the dark ver- dure of evergreens. From the Platterkill table land, some of the peaks to the south west appear almost as high as the Round top. The prospects from their summits to the south and southwest is represented as being very striking. The quantity of hem- Jock in the southern section of the mountains seenis inex- haustible. A tannery on an extensive scale might be advan- tageously established atthe base of the Platterkill clove—sev- cra] fine mill seats are there unoccupied ; the distance from that place to the nearest landing on the Hudson, is about ae miles, and there are no heavy intervening hills. ‘Trout e abundant in many parts of the Platterkill, Kauterskill, Sahdhane and most of the mountain streams. About three miles south of the Platterkill and at a préat elevation above the Hudson, a deep body of water one mile in circumference, called Shues lake is situated, and is envi- roned by an amphitheatre of wild, rocky, and fehicia moun- tains. It contains trout of large size. A mineral spring of a chalybeate character, is sich to oc- cur in its vicinity. A mill'stream called Saw-mill Creek has its origin in this Jake and winds rapidly for five miles down the mountain glens without presenting any considerable fails. Passing through the valley of Woodstock, it be- comes auxiliary to Saugerties creek, A beautiful circu- lar basin of water four miles in circumference, called Shan- dago lake is situated in the southern section of the moun- IMr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. 93 tains adjacent to the Bristol turnpike and glass manufactory. It is deep, containing Pickerel, Trout, Perch, and other fish. Several streams which have their source in the moun- tains to the westward of this lake, and pass through roman- tic ravines, are uncommonly well stored with trout. Five hundred of these fish have been caught by an angler in a day. Residents of the mountains informed me they had obser- ved a large cave in the region south of the Platterkill into which a boy had been introduced twenty feet perpendicu- larly by a rope before he reached the bottom. He explo- red a considerable distance without finding a termination. The fact is interesting from its indicating either a limestone region, or a rock decomposing readily from its containing much sulphuret of iron, alum or coal. Caves of considera- ble extent are rarely found except in secondary or transi- tion limestone, the excavations being made in the soft calca- reous rock, by the friction of water. Panthers, wolves, bears, wild cats, and deer are occasion- ally seen in the southern section of the Catskill mountains, but are not so numerous as in the middle region. A Pan- ther measuring in length about ine feet, was recently kil- led in the southern range; this animal is rarely seen; but from its strength size and ferocity, it is regarded with terror -and considered the most formidable beast of the forest ; their color is grey, the head small in proportion, the general form indicating agility ; they have been known in ascending a ledge or tree, to rise ata leap twenty feet from the ground. Of wolves, two varieties inhabit the Catskill mountains; one called by hunters the deer wolf, from his habit of pursuing deer, for which his light grey hound form adapts him. The other of a more clumsy figure with, short legs and large bo- dy, more frequently depredates upon flocks under the pro- tection of man. Foxesand rabbits are numerous, and white hares, martins and hedgehogs sometimes seen, squirrels sel- dom. Rattlesnakes frequent the warm sides of the Catskill moun- tains, but are rarely observed on the summits or northern declivities and ten miles in the interior of the range are nev- er seen. They are in general about 4 feet in length—the skin of one recently kiiled near Shues lake was exhibited to me; it measured between five and six feet. The color of the male is darker than that of the female, they. live to the age of twelve and fifteen years. 94 Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. Copperhead serpents inhabit the lower parts of ravines and eastern face of the mountain, but are not found on the summit. The black, water, striped, and milk snakes are among the harmless reptiles. The Catskill mountains, in wild grandeur and romantic beauty, can compare with the highlands of Scotland, without presenting their barren heath-covered aspect, being from the base to the summit thickly covered by forests. The eastern face of the mountain, though steep and pre- cipitous, supports an almost impenetrable forest. The ledg- es form natural terraces that arrest the vegetable mould. — In the valleys and gradually declining mountain surface of the interior, trees of great size appear, indicating a consid- erable depth of good soil. Gradations of elevation on the mountain are in some de- gree marked by a change of vegetation both as it respects the species and periods of blossoming, and the maturity of fruit, ‘The lower districts and the warm southern exposure of ravines, exhibit trees and plants common in the river valley—oak, chesnut, soft and hard maple, ash, and cher- ry, mingled with a few evergreens. On the peaks, on the cold northern sides of ranges, in moist shaded ravines and elevated valleys, the trees and plants of the green moun- tains and northern parts of New-England occur. You there see thick groves of hemlock; spruce, balsam fir and pitch pine, mingled with hard maple, beach, white and black birch, and cherry. The white pine is not observed on the east- ern range of the Catskill mountains but is fouad in the valley of the Schoharie and adjacent hills of moderate elevation. Among the mountain shrubs, the blackberry, thimbleber- ry, gooseberry, and moose-bush, are noticed ; the whortle- berry is very abundant on the rocky summits, and is the fa- vorite food of bears. The plants of the mountain blossom much later than those of the valley, and a botanist can collect plants of different latitudes, or which blossom at different periods in one day’s research. There are three descriptions of rocks on the Catskill mountains common to the whole chain, and which alternate with each other, viz. red sandstone, gray wacke,. slate and puddingstone. The sandstone is of a fine texture, highly colored by oxide of iron and contains much alumine. Itis Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. 95 found at various elevations, but most frequently as a lower strat- um, and is observed in deep ravines. It is least abundant in the section south of the Platterkill. This argillaceous sand- stene, exposed to air and moisture, decomposes easily and forms a ‘good soil. A second and most common variety is a coarse gray wacke slate, which lies in regular strata, the position in some places horizontal, but in general with a small inclination to the west. It is composed of silicious grains with an argilla- ceous cement. The third description of rock is a pudding- stone containing smooth, and apparently water worn pebbles of different sizes of white, red, and gray quartz, combined by argillaceous, and fine silicious materials. The ledges of ‘pudding-stone which are often of great height and extent, are. most frequently remarked in the upper regions of the mountains. . Ledges of gray wacke slate and argillaceous sandstone, richly impregnated with alum and often embracing sulphuret of iron, are of frequent occurrence. ‘Native alum is abundant near the Schoharie in the town of ‘Blenheim. Itis found ina ledge near the foot of the Kauters- kill clove, and in the rocks of the eastern side of the moun- tain north of the Kauterskill for several miles, sometimes pendant in stalactical form. Alum often occursin the south- ern section, both on the eastern face of the range, and in gray wacke slate of the interior ravines, sometimesin incrus- tations, lumps and stalactites. Profitable manufactures of alum may perhaps be established in the Catskill mountains. ‘The salt can in some places be extracted from the decomposing rock by lixiviation alone, but in general a calcination would probably be necessary. Sulphuret of iron has been frequently noticed in the south- ern part of the mountains, and plumbago in a few places. There are indications of copper. Several tons of iron said to resemble that of the highlands were procured from the Catskill range, in the vicinity of the Bristol glass manufac- tory, but diminishing in quantity, the mine was. abandoned. I have observed narrow strata or seams of coal at several places in the southern part of the Catskill ridge. The widest is situated in a perpendicular ledge of gray wacke slate on the eastern face of the mountain, inthe town of Woodstock, U]- ster County, at'an elevation of about 1000 feet above the 96. Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. Hudson. This seam which has been recently explored, is eight inches wide on the surface, and is observed for some distance on the face of the ledge. The coal is stratified, and inclines with the rock at an angle of near fifteen degrees. Narrow strata of argillaceous slate, imbedded in the gray wack ledges, form the roof and floor of the coal bed. This slate contains alum, and cubic crystals ofsulphuret of iron, and sometimes presents a dark surface glistening with carburet of iron. The coal bed, in exploring, widened to twenty-two jblians but diminishing i in the interior to a narrow seam and the ad- jacent rock being of difficult fracture, the pursuit has been abandoned for the present. Another vein of coal is located in a higher ledge of the same mountain, and coal has been noticed to the south west in this range for three miles. The coal of the Catskill mountain appears of a good quality for upper strata. It is light, shining, and burns with a mod- erate flame proceeding from bitumen or sulphur. If beds of coal of this description could be found five feet in thickness they might be penetrated without breaking the rock, and would be ‘valuable. Vegetable impressions: and narrow seams of coal have been found in gray wacke slate, in the Catskill range bordering the river Schoharie. Flames, from spontaneous combustions, generated in beds of coal or sulphuret of iron have been seen issuing from the ledges of the Catskill mountains by the neighbouring inhab- itants. Combustions of this character often occur in the coal districts of Europe and America. Adjacent to, and forming a threatening canopy over ite entrance of the coal excavation in the mountain near Wood- stock, is a rock of several hundred tons weight. It is sepa- rated from the ledge and balanced on a narrow base of de- caying alum slate by an opposite projection of equal weight. From progressive decay this base is lessening, and the rock will before long be precipitated down the steep side of the mountain. The ledges in this neighbourhood are fast de- composing in many places, from the quantity of alum and sulphuret of iron they contain. The eastern side of the Catskill mountains south of the Kauterskill clove is steep, but thickly clothed with wood ; near this clove at a considerable elevation is noticed an im- mense circular basin resembling a volcanic crater. A basin Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. 97 of similar appearance is situated near the Platterkill ravine. Numerous small precipices are presented on the mountain’s eastern face, some of them of great altitude ; those of a south- ern promontory bordering on the townof Woodstock, are par- ticularly striking; they rise tier above tier in amphitheatric order from the base to the summit of the mountain, in quick succession and great regularity. Upon the summit of each natural terrace is a narrow plain on which the soil accumu- lates. Many,of the ledges of this promontory are ina crum- bling state from embracing saline minerals. In some of the higher rocks, wide strata had mouldered away, leaving tab- ular masses of firm gray wacke slate, projecting twelve and in some places twenty feet. It is probable that this mountain is uncommenly rich in materials for the manufac- ture of alum and. copperas. From the above mentioned promontory which is situated about ten miles south of the Kauterskill clove, the Catskill mountains tend to the south west and sweep with diminish- ed height to the Delaware. About four miles to the west of the village of Woodstock, a spur of considerable elevation strikes off to the south east, leaving a rich and extensive in- terval of semi-circular form. At the angle of intersection of these ranges, the Bristol glass works are situated. Window glass is the principal article manufactured, and four miles north east of this establishment in an elevated and secluded mountain valley, another manufactory of glass has been erected. Sand for these manufactories is procured from Phil- adelphia and the sea coast, and the other materials from a distance. The advantage resulting from the cheapness of wood and soil, will not compensate for the enhanced ex- pence incurred in transporting the ingredients of glass, and the bricks, stone lime and clay, for the furnaces and cruci- bles, and many of the necessaries of life, sixteen or twenty miles over mountain roads. A small hamlet of about thirty houses has been erected adjacent to the upper or mountain glass house, on ground favorable for gardens and meadows. North of this village, an elevated, wood clad and steep mountain, ranges to the westward; its wildly irregular waving summits are several miles in view. _ Vol. VI....No. I. 13 9§ Mr. Maclure on the Geology of part of N. America. Art. III.—Some speculative conjectures on the probable changes that may have taken place in the Geology of the Continent of North-America east of the Stoney Moun- tains ; by Wiutram Macuure, Esq. President of Acade- my of Natural Sciences, at Philadelphia, and of the American Geological Society. Manrip, July 9, 1822. In the present state of our geological knowledge, there are, perhaps only a few facts from which we are permitted to draw conclusions respecting the former state of the earth; amongst which is our entire ignorance with regard to the origin or formation of the primitive class of rocks, we having as yet had no opportunity of observing nature in the act of aggregating or forming such rocks: the other four class- es of Vulcanic, (Volcanic?) Alluvial, Secondary, and Trans- ition, we have either caught nature in the act of aggregating or forming such rocks, or rocks that from direct analogy are so similar in their construction, relative situation, &c. &c. as to warrant a deduction that they were most proba- bly formed after this same manner. Water appears to be the principal agent in changing the form of. the earth’s surface, and by the sea, lakes, and riv- ers, (the most extensive mode of operation ;) when we see a river running between two precipices of rocks in a deep channel, whose stratification and arrangement are the same on both sides of the river, we are naturally led to suppose that the action of the running water wore down that chan- nel, and that at some former period, the two sides of the river, now separated, were contiguous and unbroken: when we cast our eyes over immense tracts, such as the steppes in Russia, the prairies in the United States of America, or on plains that are nearly horizontal, we are tempted to con- jecture that the earth took that form from the depositions from water, &c. &c. &c. | ‘The continent of North-America, east of the stoney moun- tains consists of a ridge of primitive mountains, springing out of the great northern primitive formations, covered to the east and south-east by extensive beds of alluvial, apparently the depositions of the ocean, and on the west side overlayed by Transition and Secondary, filling the immense basin through which the Mississippi now runs with all its attend- ant streams, ~ Mr. Maclure on the Geology of part of N. America. 99 a The utmost stretch of imagination or conjecture can form ne mi no idea of any period of time, when that primitive chain of mountains called the Alleghany, did not exist; but direct m analogy, and perhaps legical reasoning, authorises us to conjecture that there must have been a period, though beyond the date of our records, when neither the alluvial of the ocean, nor the Transition or Secondary depositions cov- ered or overlaid either side of said range of mountains, and that the chain of mountains called the Alleghanies stood alone, and from the nature of the depositions which we npw find covering each side, we may have a right to conjecture that it was surrounded by water; into which run all the rivers that drained said mountains, forming channels deep in pro- portion to the immense length of time they may have run, and consequently much more profound than the channels they afterwards wore in the level country at the foot of the mountains on the retreat of the waters ; at this present time all the waters that fall into that immense basin west of the Alleghany mountains are drained off principally by the Mis- - sissippi and St. Lawrence, and a small part now by the Hudson, although it is probable that formerly a greater pro- portion used to pass by that channel; these then are the only rivers that break through the whole chain of the Alle- ghany mountains, and run into the ocean. | If on a review of any existing series of phenomena, it is permitted to form conjectures on the past, and to look back . on the probable changes, that may have preceded the pres- ent state, we presume that the situation of this continent will warrant such conjectures, and we should be naturally led to suppose, that at some former period, the continuity of the great chain of mountains was unbroken, by any of the three rivers that now drain the great basin; and that the waters confined by the high surrounding ridge would form an immense lake, the surplus of which would naturally fall over the ridge into the ocean, and would in the course of time cut those passages, which would drain said lake, and leave the great interior basin, with all its secondary or de- position formation, as we now find it: as the waters that would fall over the ridge into the sea, must have previously left the sediments in the lake, there would be little or no matter fit for alluvial depositions; and more probably that great alluvial formation, from the bay ef Mexico to Long- 100 Mr. Macilure on the Geology of part of N. America. Island, would not have beenaccumulated at this period, and = the current now called the Gulf Stream, would have then = most probably run along the foot of the chain of mountains. The continent east of the Stoney Mountains, and south of the north edge of the great lake, would then consist of an immense lake, surrrounded on the east and south side by a * strip of high land from one hundred to two hundred miles broad; the rain falling upon which would partly fall into the lake and partly into the ocean, through small rivers, along the mouths of which navigators might have in vain i for rivers proportionate to the apparent extent of the conti nent, as they now do on the coast of New South Wales, for rivers capable of draining so extensive a country. The passage of the St. Lawrence through the high ridge between Quebec and Montreal, must either have been torn asunder by an extraordinary convulsion, been always in that state, or it must have been worn down by the gradual butcon- tinued action of running water, aided by the friction of all the substances it carries along with it ; the undisturbed regularity of all the surrounding strata both on the banks of the St. Law- rence and Hudson, renders the first supposition improba- ble ; on the second supposition that the river had always run freely through the passage in those mountains, it must follow that the river had always run in its bed from Lake Ontario to Montreal, and from the weight of water and ra- pidity of its current, for so long a time, must have worn down a deep channel, and buried itself between high and perpendicular banks; but this does not correspond with the actual state of the river, which from the lake to the rising ground above Montreal runs in a bed very little below the level of the surrounding country, nor does either the present situation of the river or its banks, warrant the supposition that the action of the current had continued so long: by the same supposition the level of Lake Ontario must have always remained as far below the level of Lake Erie as at present, and the waters must have constantly fallen over the ridge at Niagara; but the small progress it has made in wearing away that ridge, compared with the effects of other rivers, (for instance, the Rhine below the lake of Constance with a tenth part of the water has worn a‘deeper bed ten times the distance through the high lands composed of hard- er materials) is against the probability of such a supposition; Mr..Maclure on the Geology of part of N. America. 101 the small distance that the falls of Genesee river have worn its bed from the lake, with the shallow beds of the Oswego and all the other rivers that run into the lake, as well as the general nature of all the Genesee country, op- poses the probability of the supposition or conjecture. The above observations are equally applicable to the beds of the Hudson and Mohawk, before they fall over the ridge, from which it would appear that the most rational conjecture would be, to suppose the St. Lawrence wore down a passage through the high lands between Quebec and > Mokiecel, as well as the Hudson, through the high lands above New-York, and until they had effected such a cut, ‘the whole basin on the west side of the mountains, was the bottom of an immense lake. A similar mode of reasoning supports the conjecture that the basin of the Mississippi made part of the said lake, for © the Tennessee river, while in the mountains under the name of the French Broad, has worn down its bed one hundred to two hundred feet in solid primitive and_ transition rocks, but when it comes into the basin, it is obstructed in its passage, at the Muscle Shoals, by asoft secondary sand- stone; the sources of the Ohio, under the name of New River, &c. &c. &c. have likewise cut deep beds in the mountains before they reach the great basin, but after their union into one great stream, the Ohio is obstructed at its falls near its mouth by a secondary limestone; from all which it would appear probable, that, had those rivers run as long through the secondary formation of the great basin, as their sources must have done to wear these beds so deep in the primitive mountains, the accumulated waters of both the Ohio and Genesee would, long ere this, have worn away all the obstructing secondary rocks, and like all other great rivers that have run long in the same beds, would have been obstructed only by alluvion of their own formation. The Rappahannock, Potomac, James River, Roanoke, &c. &c. &c. that run into the Atlantic, have cut deep beds in their course through the mountains, through the level country their channels are shallow, and they all fall from twenty to thirty feet over the granite ridge into tide water, without hav- ing removed, the fall half a mile from where they begun, which could not have been the case had they run as long in the low country, as they had in the mountains. 102 Mr. Maclure on the Geology of part of N. America. That the branches or sources of these rivers should have run longer in the mountains than they have in the great ba- sin or lower country, can be satisfactorily accounted for, on-_ ly by supposing that they had long been wearing down these beds in the high lands before the great basin or lower coun- try emerged from the waters, and that it has been only since the draining of those waters that their accumulated junction in the bed of the great basin under the level country began the formation of the channels they now occupy. This conjecture may likewise account for some of oe particularities in the state of the animals, originally found o1 this continent, such as the small number and wild condi- tion of the wandering herds found on this part of the conti- nent, whencompared with their neighbours inhabiting the el- evated plains of Mexico; the great deficiency in Terrestial Quadrupeds, compared with the vast abundance of Beavers, Otters, Muskrats, and other amphibious or aquatic animals; the great proportion of Gramnivorous and the small number of Carnivorous; the immense flocks of aquatic birds, and the very few terrestrial; might be mentioned as some of the problems solved by the foregoing supposition. ; The accounting for the existence and extinction of the mammoth would not be difficult, by supposing with Mr. Peal that it was not amphibious, and though originally inhabit- ing the southern parts of the great lake, might in summer occasionally emigrate to the north, and leave their bones on the borders; being deprived of its element by the evac- uation of the great lake, might perhaps be considered as sufficient good reason for their extinction. The large masses of granite, some of them weighing tons, scattered over the secondary between Lake Erie and . the Ohio, while there is not an atom of granite in place near- er than the north side of the lake, would seem to point at the only mode by which they could probably be transported ; by supposing the lake extended thus far, and that the large pieces of floating ice from the north side might carry those blocks attached to them, and drop ‘them as the ice melted in going south; few or none being found south of the Ohio, el that the southern sun melted the ice before it got so far. | Description of a New Species of Botrychium. 103 BOTANY. ‘ Art. 1V.—Description of a New Species of Botrychium; with a drawing ; by the Rev. Epwarp Hrrcucock, A. M.. of Conway, Mass. Tus species grows, not very abundantly, in Conway, Massachusetts. It was first noticed, two years since, and with some doubt, referred to Botrychium lunaria of Swartz and Wildenow. But upon a suggestion of Dr. Torrey that it might be a new species, I have several times re-exam- ined it during the two past summers, and feel so confident that itis specifically distinct from any described Botrychi- um, that I take the liberty to propose for it the name B. simplex. Specific Character. ° Botrychium simplex : Frond simple, 8 lobed, or 3 cleft ; segments unequal ; spike sub-compound, interrupted, uni- lateral, bearing sessile| capsules, in the last part of June, of the size of a mustardseed. In dry hilly pastures. Frond solitary, from a torn membraneous sheath, erect, two to four inches high, glabrous, pale green, consisting of a small spatulate leaf, an inch long, and one third of aninch broad, usually divided into three—rarely four—unequal, somewhat rounded segments, with their margins a little notched. From the base of the leaf, about an inch from the ground, springs a stalk,twice or thrice the length of the leaf, bearing a sub-compound, unilateral, interrupted spiké of capsules, sub-two rowed. Root sending forth stout simple fibres. | _ This species is closely allied to B. lunaria of Europe : but it differs in having a simple, instead of a pinnate leaf “with six or seven pairs of obliquely imbricated, fan-shaped, entire, or notched leafets.’? (Smith in Rees’ Cyc.) And this difference exists in all the specimens, (more than 100} which I have seen—not one being pinnate, or even “ pseu- dopinnate.” (Nuttall.) Also, in having a spike hardly com- 104 Plant of New South Wales. pound; the small branches, that appear along its sides, being scarcely any thing more than an expansion of the common receptacle—whereas.in B. lunaria, the spike is “twice or thrice compound.” Also, in the capsules being twice as large, and the plant half as large. If 1 am correct, there- fore, this species will take its place as the first under the genus; all the other Botrychia having compound fronds. Art. V.—Description of a new species of Usnea, from J South Shetland; by Joun Torrey, M.D. of - York, (with a drawing.) TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Sir, Tue following account of a new cryptogamic plant from New South Shetland, with an explanatory letter from Dr. Mitchili, I send for insertion in your valuable Journal. Letter from Dr. S. L. Mircuity, to Joun Torrey, M. D. New-York, July 1, 1822. My Dear Sir, , | _ Aone the subjects of rational attention at this time, is the land lately found, and now much frequented, beyond Cape Horn. Wed cots Having received from several of my friends, who have visited that antartic region, articles of a zoological and min- eralogical kind, which they had brought home, I was nat- urally induced to inquire for botanical productions. In an- swer, I was informed that, notwithstanding the frequency of lava and volcanic slag, and the occasional eruption of smoke from the earth in different places, the surface was generally covered with ice and snow, even during the southern sum- mer. Thereis not a shrub, nor a tree to be seen; nor any appearance of verdure to cheer the prospect. Captain Napier however improved the opportunity of ex- ainining a rock upon an island of the group called New Plant of New South Wales. — 105 South Shetland, from whose top the snow had been melted; and of gathering specimens of a small vegetable which grows upon it. ‘These he presented io me for consideration. I beg you to accept some of them for your herbarium, with a request that you would communicate to me your opinion respecting them. I show you also another sample of this vegetable, brought from a different place by another person, that you may compare them. Captain Mackay informed me, he had seen a few tufts of dwarfish grass; but as this is rare, it may have been introduced by some visitor or from some ship. According to this view of the matter, the Flora of this new world consists of a single species; which I hope you will be very particular in describing. While I thus lay before you this interesting production, I congratulate you on the receipt of numberless other produc- tions from foreign climes, which our spirited navigators are incessantly presenting to us. _ The specimens presented to me by Dr. Mitchell, evident- ly belong to a species of Lichen. Several of them were covered with small tubercles very much resembling the fruit of Roccella, which, with the habitat of the plant, induced me to refer it to that genus. Ona closer examination, howev- er, I have no doubt of its being a species of Usnea without the proper fruit, merely having the cephalodia which are not uncommon in U. florida, &c. It has the central hyaline thread, so constant and important a character in this genus. According to Acharius, all the Usnez are found exclusively on trees: so that this species, which grows on rocks appears to form an exception to all the rest. In the Flore Francais, however, the U. florida is said to occur sometimes on rocks and the U. articu/ata on the ground. The present species does not appear to be described in the Synopsis Methodia Lichenum of Acharius; T have therefore considered it as a new one, and have called U. fasciata. USNEA Acuariws. Recerracutum universale subcrustaceum teretiuscu- jum, ramosum plerumgue pendulum, fasciculo ductulorum fi- liformi elastico centrali hyalino percussum. Partiale orbi- Vou. Vi.—No. 1. 14 106 Plant of New South Wales. culatum terminale peltatum totum a thallo formatum ejus- que substantia corticali similari undique obductum subcon- colorum, ambitu immarginato plerumque ciliato. Ach. Syn. Meth. Lich. p. 303. ejusd. Lich. Universal. p. 127. t. xiv. f.,5. . Usnea fasciata mihi. U. thallo pendulo scabriusculo tereti glauco virescente ramosissimo, ramis rectis nigro-fasciatis quasi articulatis, ramulis ultimis capillaceo-attenuatis, fibrillis lateralibus nul- lis, cephalodiis sparsis hemisphericis atris. Description.—From two to three inches long, and proba- bly pendulous, roughened by minute papille. Common trunk short, about one line in diameter ; branches dense tapering to a filament at the extremities and appearing beautifully articu- lated by transverse black bands; the joints rather longer than the diameter of the branches. Apothecia—none in the specimens I have seen. Cephalodia scattered, some- times crowded and irregular. Habitat.—On the perpendicular volcanic rocks of New South Shetland. Observations. —This species is nearly allied to Usnea ar- ticulata of Hoffman and the Flore Francais, which is con- sidered as a variety of U. barbata by Acharius, but the lat- ter is distinguished by its gray colour, dichotomous branches and ventricose joints, &c. # EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE. Fig. 1. The plant of its natural size. «« 2. A branch magnified. ‘© 3. A cephalodium magnified. , * 4. A transverse section of the same highly magnified, ce Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 107 CONCHOLOGY. Art. VI.—On the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta; with Introductory Remarks: by D. W. Barnes, M. A. Mem- ber of the New-York Lyceum of Natural History. [Read before the Lyceum. ] INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Tue family of the Naiades, according to M. Lamarck, contains four genera of fresh water Bivales, viz. Unio, Hy- ria, Anodonta and Iridina. To this family belong the Dip- sas of Dr. Leach, and the Alasmodonta of Mr. Say. Sev- eral undescribed species of the Genera Unio and Alasmo- -donta, were brought to our knowledge by the expedition ' sent by our government in the summer of 1820, under Gov. Cass, to explore the North Western Territory ; and others have since been obtained from various sources. Little has hitherto been done by our countrymen in de- seribing these interesting productions of our lakes and rivers. The only American work, of the kind, at present known, is that of Mr. Thomas Say, who published at Philadelphia in in the year 1819, “A description ef the land and fresh-wa- ter shells of the United States.”? This treatise had been pre- viously published in Nicholson’s Encyclopedia. It deserves the thanks, and ought to be in the possession of every Amer- ican lover of Natural Science. It has been quoted by ©. Lamarck, and adopted by M. de Ferrusac, and has thus ta~ ken its place in the scientifie world. But Mr. Say’s tract, though a very commendable perform- ance, was necessarily imperfect. The author himself has described thirty new species of univalves since the publica- tion of his book, and a great part of the splendid collection, brought from the N. W. Territory, was unknown to him. For our first view of them we were indebted to the zeal and 108 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alusmodonta: ! liberality of Mr. H. R. Schoolcraft, Mineralogist to the ex- pedition, who collected them at the expense of much yolun- tary fatigue, transported them a thousand miles, and gene- rously distributed them among the lovers of Natural Science, in New-York and Philadelphia. gay: A second parcel was soon after received from Capt. D. B. Douglass, Professor in the Military Academy at West- Point, and topographical engineer to the expedition, whose avowed object, in sending his collection, was that it might be arranged. and described for the American Journal of Science and Arts. To this gentleman we feel ourselves much indebted, for his valuable and detailed account of the localities of his specimens. What adds to the value of these collections, is, that independent of the numerous species and varveties before unknown, the specimens of the previous- ly ascertained species are in many instances, remarkably large and beautiful. M. Lamarck, in the sixth Volume of his “ Animaux sans Vertebres,” has described twenty-six* species of North American Uniones. He was moreover in doubt of the lo- ealities of several others, which will probably be found to be American. Whether he has,as we strongly suspect, descri- bed some of our species under four or five different names, cannot be certainly determined, as his book contains no fig- ures, and the descriptions are short and equivocal. The Unio purpureus of Mr. Say, purpurascens of M. Lamarck, is common in all our eastern waters, and has a different ap- pearance from every locality. In the Hudson it is small and short; in the Housatonick, long and slender; in the Saratoga Lake, of middling size; in the Kayaderosseras, thick and heavy ; in the Lakes of New-Jersey, large and ponderous. If these are to be made different species, we may as well make four or five different species of the common clam, Venus mercenaria, Linn. from as many different local- ties around New-York. They are really unlike. Not on- ly is the appearance of the shells different to the eye of the naturalist, but also the taste of the included animals, to the palate of the epicure. Who does not know that the Indian corn, Zea Jays, assumes a different appearance in ever latitude from Quebec to Florida? Yet whoever thought of * For eight of these, he quotes Mr. Say’s book, which contains mine. Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 109 making these varieties, different species? We have examin- ed shells from the localities mentioned by .M. Lamarck, and compared them with his descriptions, and, if we do not mis- take, he has fallen into the error of iislkire distinctions with- out a specific difference. But, even if this is admitted, we shall not be disposed very severely to censure, so long as anatomical dissections have not been, and in many cases cannot be called in to decide the question ; for it is, after all, upon the knife that we must depend for perfect accura- cy in this and similar cases. In the mean time, it has been agreed upon by naturalists, to arrange these ani- mals by their shells; presuming always that a different form and figure of covering belonged to an animal of a different organization. It is impossible to decide wheth- er they are “‘the common children of common parents,” otherwise. ‘This is a case precisely similar to that which occurred between Linnaeus and Lamarck concerning the Olives. ‘The former expressed a doubt whether there is more than one species of the Olive, and the latter has des- cribed fifty-nine.”* In most cases wherever M. Lamarck can find a differ- ence, though by his own account, “nothing remarkable,’'+ he makes a different species. ‘Too many as well as too few distinctions undoubtedly defeat the object of the Naturalist, which is to make his readers acquainted with the produc- tions he describes. In the present state of our knowledge we cannot perhaps do better than to take a mean course, and where the discriminations are sufficiently obvious, in important parts and essential particulars, to apply a different specific designation. ‘This course has been attempted in the following notice of undescribed species. We have had the opportunity of examining and comparing a great number of specimens, and very rarely have we given a new specific name to a solitary individual. In cases where the contrary has, from necessity, been done, the specimens were by no means of a dubious character; but healthy, well-grown and perfect individuals, so strongly marked and distinctly char- acterized, as to leave no doubt. F * Dillwyn, page 314. +See U. Georgina and Glabrata of Lamarck. 110 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unto and Alasmodonta. M. Lamarck has confessed the great difficulty of deter- mining the species of the genus Unio on account of their ‘shading and melting into each other in the course of their variations.” This difficulty is surely not obviated by short and equivocal descriptions. Short definitions may have an appearance of scientific neatness, but their brevity is an in- superable obstacle to a learner, especially when, as it com- monly happens, the same terms are applied to different spe- cies. JV. Lamarck applies the term ovate, either by itself or compounded with another word, to the description of thirty- two, out of his forty-eight species. Now it will be apparent to every one that, as this is made a leading feature in his descriptions, it must be the cause of endless perplexity to the unlearned, and of constant uncertainty even to the ex- perienced. For the purpose of discrimination it is useless, and might almost as well have been omitted, unless it had been placed at the head of a section. _ MM. Lamarck dwells most on the external form, and with a great latitude of compound epithets, he has not succeeded in making his descriptions intelligible, without danger of mis- take to those who have not seen Ais specimens. ‘Ten or twelve latin words cannot so describe a Unio as to identify it, and distinguish it from all others. We have therefore adopt- ed full descriptions, the obvious utility of which needs no comment. If short definitions are insufficient, full descrip- tions become absolutely necessary. JW. Lamarck, general- ly mentions the breadth of shells in Millimetres, which we have reduced to inches and lines, or what is the same thing, to inches and decimals. The multiplier °039371, which mul- tiplied by any number of Millimetres gives the correspond- ing English expression, as, Unio Crassidens 105 Millim. 105 X 039371 =4°133955 or four inches and 1 line. Di- viding the English inches by the multiplier, will reduce Mr. Say’s measures to M. Lamarck’s by which means they may be more readily compared. For ordinary purposes 122 Millim. to half an inch, and 4 inches to 100 Millimetres, will be sufficiently exact. But the breadth, or as Lamarck often says the “ apparent length” of the shell is nearly useless without the length 5 for two shells may be of the same breadth, and yet differ total- ly in their other dimensions. For instance, the U. Crassus and U. Nasutus may each be 26 lines broad; but the Cras- Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 111 sus may be as long as it is broad, while the Nasutus is only 1 inch, or 10 lines long. The former may weigh more than half a pound, the latter Jess than half an ounce. The for- mer may be half an inch thick, the latter, as thin as paper. And to say that one is broad and the other narrow, does not obviate the difficulty ; for these terms are altogether com- parative, and, without something for a standard, convey no definite ideas. | We have therefore adopted an improvement which we hope to see become general in the description of Bivalves, that is, to give the length from the summit to the opposite margin; the breadth between the lateral extremities, and the diameter through the disks, at right angles to both the length and the breadth; that is, the thickness through the most prominent part of the body of the animal. We prefer the term diameter to thickness, because the latter is often applied to the substance of the shell; the former never. In deter- mining these dimensions with ease and accuracy, we have constructed a convenient instrument of the following de- scription ; a, a, is a box-wood ruler, one foot Jong, graduated on its up- per side, in inches and lines. 6, c, cross bars, made to stand at right angles, and drop down by hinge joints, d, d, upon the ruler, for the convenience of packing. The bar, c, d, slides upon the ruler by means ofaclasp. The shells, to be measured, are placed between the bars, and the length is read off from below. The instrument measures any irreg- ular body or figure, from one line to one foot in diameter. When used for measuring shells, it may be called a Con- chometer. One advantage of thus measuring shells, is, that those of ihe same species, or the same variety, will be found to have very nearly the same proportions which will hold good as it regards all the varieties of age. ‘These proportions may be 1i2 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodon.a. ealled the law of the species, and every Unio which has the Same proportions, may be presumed to belong to the same specres. ' Another obvious advantage of this method will appear in the following remark. The Unio which we have designated praelongus, is perhaps the Unio purpurata of M. Lamarck, © all the terms of his description may be applied, and proba- bly with truth, to our shell. But then, he “believes that his shell came from the great Rivers of Africa.” This caused a doubt. Had he stated the very remarkable pro- portions of our shell, the identity would have been instantly determined. Had he stated the proportions at all, there could have been no doubt. We have put it into his power to settle the question with certainty. Writers on Conchology differ very much concerning the right and deft, and the base of Bivalves.. JM. Lamarck and the authors of the New Edinburgh Encyclopedia consider the beaks as the base, and the opposite parts, the upper mar- gin: and they give the following direction for right and left. If the shell is placed upon its base or hinge, with the liga- ment behind, then the right and left sides of the shell will correspond with those of the observer. Burrow on the con- trary considers the opposite part to be the base, and the beaks, the summit, and says, ‘“‘ If the shell be placed on its base, with the area in front, and the valves be then divided, the right valve will be opposite the left hand of the examin- er, and the left valve opposite the right.” By placing a Bi- valve in the manner directed, it will be perceived that the two are directly opposite, the right of one is the left of the other. The view which we have hitherto had of these parts, and with which Mr. Say agrees, is expressed in the following directions: Place the shell upon its base with the beaks upward, and the ligament before, (that is from the ob- server,) the right and left valves of the shell will correspond with the hands of the observer. With due deference to the high authority of M. Lamarck, there seems to be a proprie- ty in calling the base of a Bivalve, that part which is down- ward, and from which the foot projects when the animal is in motion. But when the Unio does not, as some. authors seem to suppose, move on its beaks. The beaks are up- wards, and should therefore be called the back rather than the base. This makes a simplicity, in the language of Con- . Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 113 chology, which is very desirable in every science, that the sume terms should have a uniform meanimg. Having learn- ed in univalves what is the mouth and what is the base of a - shell, we apply the same terms to bivalves; but to call the thin, sharp, unconnected edges of a shell, the dorsum or _back would sound very strangely. M. Lamarck has not ventured on so strange an expression; but says commonly the upper margin, the same that Mr. Say calls the “basal edge.” According to thes view of the subject we should agree with M. Lamarck and the Encyclopedia as to right and deft, but not as to base; and with Burrow as to base, but not as to right and left. We call the connected part of a bi- valve the back and the opposite the base. If this is determined, there will remain another point to be settled. Authors have very generally agreed in calling that side of the beaks in which the ligament is situated, the anterior, and the opposite, the posterior. “ But rigidly speaking,’ says Mr. Say, “we seem to be all wrong in our adaptation of these relative terms, because the latter is used to indicate that part of the shell which covers the mouth of the included animal, and which is foremost in its progressive movements. In order to be correct in descrip- tions where the animal is referred to, these terms must be reversed, and ifin descriptions which have reference to the animal, certainly the principle applies to all other bivalves, in which the mouth is similarly situated. The mouth ought always to be considered as in the anterior. For this reason, Cuvier reverses the terms right and left, applying the for- mer to that valve of the Uniones which has but a single , lamelliform tooth, and which is our left valve.* He of course, reverses the anterior and posterior as now applied.’’} It would surely be deemed safe to follow an author so pre- eminent as M. Cuvier, and this mode of viewing the shell _is doubtless most conformable to nature; but as all other authors have a different view, we have resolved, for the present, to adopt the established usage of the term anterior and posterior, and to follow MM. Lamarck as to right and left. te we rightly understand the celebrated French Natural- ist, he is under a mistake in saying that the Uniones “keep * This agrees with Burrow. + Mr. Say’s MSS. Vout. Vi.—No. 1. 15 114 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. themselves buried in the mud, having their beaks turned downward.””* If he means by this that they are usually concealed, or that they lie on their beaks ; we remark that, as it regards those of our country, such is not the fact. In winter they may bury themselves, but in summer we have found them, generally, when at rest, standing with the posterior side inserted obliquely, and the hinge margin the anterior slope, and a small portion of the basal edge ex- serted. Even when they sink below the surface the place of their retreat is conspicuous. In streams which have a rough bottom, and rapid current, they choose the narrow crevi- ces between the stones or under the edges of rocks, and thus defend themselves frominjury. We have never found a live Unio on its back, or on what M. Lamarck and his followers would call the base. While standing in the position above described, they have the anterior side slightly gaping, but on being touched they instantly close. ‘They are usually found in company, rare- ly solitary; and the sand of the bottom is often marked with little furrows made by their passing from place to place. They advance with the posterior end foremost, and the decorticated beaks, seen through the water, bear a strong resemblance to the eyes of a large animal. Deter- ville says “they have been observed to live for several months of the summer in clay too hard to be cut by the hoe, and with but momentary showerstorefreshthem.”’ This, if it be a fact, must rest, for the present, on his authority ; as we know of no one who has confirmed it by observation. We know but little concerning the generation and prop- agation of the species of Molluscous animals that inhabit these shetls. ‘They are generally supposed to be hermaph- rodite per se. If they are really and absolutely so, the num- ber of species must be exceedingly great. M. Lamarck supposes that they are propagated by means of a fecunda- ting fluid emitted into the water. Ifso, they must be male and female. What reason he has for this supposition, we are not informed, but if it be admitted, it will readily ac- count for the numerous varieties of these animals, and it will show also that they are merely vardetes, and not dif- ferent species, that is, they will prove to be the “ common * Is se tiennent enfoncés dans la vase, ayant leur crochets tournés en bas.” —Lam. An, S. Vertebres, Vol. V1. page 70. Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 115 children of common parents, and as much like them as they are like each other.” If the fecundating fluid, emitted by the male, be received by the female, a variety intermediate between them, will be produced. By a second, propaga- tion, by one of the parents and the intermediate, a new va- riety, less different from the former one, than that was from.its parents, will be again produced, and so on, in an endless succession of innumerable varieties. The admis- sion of M. Lamarck’s supposition would confirm the thought which has frequently and very forcibly struck us, that, prop- erly speaking, there is but one species of the whole genus ; and perhaps of the whole family. But this subject is cov- ered with a veil of obscurity. There is yet wanting a series of minute and well-directed observations on the hab- its and manners of this interesting tribe of molluscous Bi- valves. In the mean time we must follow our guides at the hazard of being sometimes misled. Brugiére established the genus Unio, but his original ob- servation on this subject we have not been able to find. The word signifies a pearl, because “ many of them produce ve- _ ry fine pearls,’?* and nearly all of them have a pearly inside called naker or mother-of-pearl. Pliny in his Natural Hist. Lib. IX, Cap. 35, entitled Quomodo et ubi inveniuntur, margaritae, uses the word, gives the reason ofits derivation, and makes it constantly masculine. In this he is followed by our countryman Jr. Say who makes it always of the masculine gender except in that species for which he gives credit to M. Le Sueur. Why the celebrated and accurate M. Lamarck, has chosen to make it feminine, we cannot evenconjecture. Order of description. No certain order has hitherto been adopted by Naturalists in theirdescription of Bi- valves. The descriptions both of M. Lamarck and Mr. Say are without a definite method. ‘Though theygenerally be- gin with the outline of the shell, yet they throw together pro- miscuously the other parts, both internal and external. propose to reduce this subject to order in the following manner. In examining a bivalve, the first thing that strikes the eye of the observer is the outside, the second is the in- side. Hence the description will be divided naturally into two parts, the External and the Internal. As it is by the interior that we determine the genera of the Naiades, as * M. Lamarck, 116 JMr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. well as of many Oceanic Bivalves, it might seem most prop- er to commence with that part in describing. But as the generick characters, standing at the head of the genus are supposed to be known, and are therefore not enumerated in the description, and as the method of commencing with the exterior has been generally adopted, we have not deemed it necessary to depart from the established usage. The parts are two, viz- (A.) Externat. (B.) Internat. Each of these comprehends three divisions, viz. I, Form, II, Color, III, Surface. With sub-divisions as follows, viz. A. ExtTerNaL. \ I. Form anp SuBSTANCE includes . General outline or circumference. . Substance of the shell. . Disks, right and left. . Sides, anterior and posterior. Umbones or bosses . Beaks. Ligament. . Lunules, anterior and posterior. Eight margins viz. a. Hinge, or dorsal. b. Basal. c. Anterior. d. Posterior. e. f. Anterior, dorsal and basal. g. h. Posterior, dorsal, and basal. OD 3H Ob 69 fo IJ. Coxon of Epidermis. II. Surrace. B. InreErnat. I, Form of 1. Cardinal teeth. 2. Lateral teeth. 3. Muscular impressions, or Cicatrices. 4. Cavity of the beaks. Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 117 II. Cotor of Naker. Ill. Surrace. The eight margins explained. Every Bivalve shell may _ be supposed to be circumscribed by an octagon, which wil! be more or less irregular, according to the shape of the shell. The eight sides of the octagon will represent the eight margins, as will be seen by the following figure. Dorsal or hinge j EAN) " « i ie AN wis Sia. See Unio Nodosus. Qs 3 Ri fs. SS. a S) Pa) A >|" This distribution of the circumference of the shell, tends very much to precision in the language of description, for if it be said that any particular margin is rounded, arcuated or emarginate, the part intended cannot be mistaken. To go into an explanation in general, of terms used in descrip- tion, would carry us too far. from our present purpose. We refer to Burrow. We come now to the description of species of the Unio, which we propose to distribute into five* sections, by the form of the Cardinal teeth. UNIO. Generick character from MM. Lamarck. Shell transverse, ! equivalve, inequilateral, free, beaks de- corticated,? somewhat carious, (presque rongés) Posterior * M. Lamarck makes two sections, the principal distinction of which is, non en créfe and en créte, applied to the Cardinal tooth. 118 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodoni«. muscular impression compound, hinge with two® teeth in each valve; the Cardinal one, short, irregular, simple or divided ate two, substriated ; the ather elongated, com- pressed lateral, extending beneath the corselet. Ligament exterior. er 1&2, Generally, but not always when young. 3, Others consider the divisions as separate teeth. Divisions. A. Cardinal teeth direct. B. Cardinal Teeth, Oblique Sections. * Cardinal teeth, very thick. A. ** Cardinal teeth, moderately thick. *** Cardinal teeth, small. **** Cardinal teeth, broad, compressed. _ j ***** Cardinal teeth, narrow, compressed. * Cardinal teeth, very thick, direct. Species. a a a. inside.” 1. Unio Crassus. Fig. 1. 3 ‘iieaies Shell very thick, tumid; Cardinal teeth, lobed, angula- ted; Posterior cicatrix, deep, rough. Unio Crassus. Mr. Say. Unio Crassidens. JM. Lamarck. Mya ponderosa? Mr. Dillwyn p. 51. Mr. Say’s Amer. Conch. pl. 1, fig. 8. Habitat. The Ohio, Mississippi, and the Lakes. Diameter 2°4 Length 3:2 Breadth 4°8 inches. My Collection. Shell oval, ponderous, rounded behind, angulated before; Epidermis blackish frowns surface waved. Cardinal tooth deeply sulcated ; anterior cicatrix wrinkled and striated ; Naker pearly white and iridescent. Remarks.—The varieties of this shell are numerous, and they differ considerably in form and surface. In some, the beaks are large, prominent, re-curved, projecting backwards Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 119 with a deep cavity beneath. In othe the beaks are flat, slightly elevated, having only a small cavity within. . V arieties. -) Oval. Mr. Say’s book, pl. 1. fig. 8. .) Ovate. Mr. S. B. Collins’s collection, hab. Ohio. .) Triangular, do. do. do. .) Quadrangular. My collection. e.) Orbicular. Mr. Collins’s collection. (f.) Undulate. do. do. (g-) Rugose. do. do. (h.) Radiate. Mr. Say’s collection Philadelphia, Ouis- consin. (z.) Unio, giganteus. Mississippi. Dr. Mitchill’s collection. (k.) Deeply folded. Maj. Delafield’s collection. (J.) With the cardinal tooth oblique. Mr. Collins’s col- lection. , Variety (c.) has the beaks projecting and recurved : ci- catrices deep ; primary tooth deeply sulcate ; lateral tooth long, high, and crenulate. Itapproaches our Unio Undatus. The variety (z.) deserves particular notice. A single valve sent by Professor Douglass to Dr. Mitchill, weighs fifteen ounces. It is in every respect, a gigantic shell. The dis- tance between the points of the two lobes of the cardinal tooth, is one inch; the length of the lateral tooth, three inches ; diameter of the posterior cicatrix, one inch, and its depth one fourth of an inch. This shell of which four specimens were obtained by the N. W. Expedition, might perhaps constitute a separate species under the designation of Umo Giganteus. It is three times the size of the largest Unio Crassus, mentioned by Mr. Say and M. Lamarck. Three specimens. Diam. 2°9 Length, 4:8 Breadth, 7:2 inches. 3°0 4:6 7:0 31 4°7 7°1 are preserv- ed in Dr. Mitchill’s cabinet. Another specimen Diam. 2:9 - Length, 4:9 Breadth, 7-0 and weigh- ing fourteen ounces, is preserved in Gov. Gass’s collection, Detroit. Hab. The Mississippi near Prairie du Chien. Prof. Douglass. Variety (&.) has the Epidermis dark brownish red, and the shell is deeply folded like U. Plicatus. Hab. Lake Erie. ( ( ( ( ( i 120 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonia. Mg. Delafield’s collection. “A Diam. 1°7 Length, 2°3. - Breadth, 3:1 Remark.—This shell is thinner than specimens of the same size usually are. | ; 2. Unio Undulatus. Fig. 2. es ee Shell rhombick ovate, with numerous waving folds radia- ting from the beaks. Unio Peruviana ? M. Lamarck. Taken by Mr. Collins in the Ohio and preserved in his collection. Diam. 1°9 Length, 3:4 Breadth, 4°6 Shell thick, very short and obtusely rounded behind ; beaks slightly elevated; hinge-margin sub-alated, compress- ed, carinated, distinct with a furrow on each side ; anterior dorsal margin sub-truncate; Epidermis blackish brown ; surface finely wrinkled transversely ; wrinkles becoming lamellar on the anterior side ; oblique folds deeply indent- ing the anterior margin ; waves largest and deepest below, not extending to the anterior dorsal margin, fine, numerous, curved upwards, and extending to the ligament above ; longitudinal furrows extending from the beaks to the an- terior dorsal margin; decussating the oblique waves; the lowest furrow deepest, the other somewhat obsolete ; disks tuberculated below the beaks. Cardinal teeth sulcated ; posterior cicatrix very rough and deep; Naker pearly white, irregularly spotted with brownish green. Remark.—A large and very beautiful shell. ; j : a. inside. 3. Unio’ Plicatus. Fig. 3. ; i. Guanes Shell sub-quadrangular, tumid, sinuous before with dis- tant oblique folds ; hinge-margin elevated, compressed, car- inated. Unio plicata. Le Sueur. Mr. Say. Unio Rariplicata. JM. Lamarck. | Hab. Ohio, Mississippi, and Ouisconsin. Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 121 My collection. Cabinets of Lyceum and Dr. J\itchill. Mr. Say’s cabinet, Philadelphia. Diam. ‘75 Length, 1.0 Breadth, 1:3 inches. 1:35 1:9 2°4 hae org 23 Se AU Ot Shell thick ; posterior side very short, obtusely round- ed; anterior side compressed, wedge-shaped ; beaks very prominent, large rounded and projecting backwards nearly as far as the posterior side; ligament passing under the beaks, anterior lunule distinct and marked with longitudin- al furrows ; hinge margin alated, compressed, carinated ; epidermis green, becoming blackish as the shell advances in age; surface glabrous, deeply folded; folds indenting the anterior basal edge. Cardinal teeth crenate, sulcate ; posterior cicatrix rough ; cavity of the beaks deep and di- rected backwards. Naker very white, tinged on the an- terior side with rose colour; surface polished and on the fore part iridescent. - Remarks.—In young specimens the folds are visible on the inside, but in older ones the edge is not even indented. This shell very much resembles the variety (d.) of the Unio Crassus. Both shells will stand erect when placed on the posterior side, being supported by the projecting beaks. JV. Lamarck observes that his Rariplicata is nearly allied to his Peruviana, but if we have not mistaken his short definitions, they are much more unlike than the two above mentioned. Our undulatus will not stand on the posterior side, as the beaks project very little. SA 4. Umo Undatus. Fig. 4. ms Sansa Shell, sub-triangular, sub-longitudinal, very tumid, waved ; Tateral teeth, two in each valve. Unio Obliqua? MM. Lamarck. Hab. Ouisconsin and Fox Rivers. Mr, Schoolcraft. Dr. Mitchill’s cabinet. My collection. Mr. Say’s col- lection. Diam. 1°5 ~— Length, 2-1 ~=Breadth, 2-2 Shell thick, disks swelled behind; depressed before ; anterior sideslightly produced, rapidly narrowed, angulated ; beaks projecting backward nearly as far as the posterior Vou. VI....No. If. 16 ¢ 122. Mr. Barnes on the Genera : Unio and Alasmodonta. side, elevated, and recurved, with the ligament passing be- tween them; anterior lunule lodg-heart-shaped, and sepa- rated by a slightly elevated heel ; hinge margin depressed, between the beaks; basal margin waved and rounded be- hind, compressed in the middle, angulated before; epider- ~ mis horn-color, exhibiting a light yellowish green where the surface is worn or rubbed, wrinkled and finely striated trans- versely ; surface glabrous. Cardinal teeth deeply sulcated and crenated; lateral teeth two in each valve! internal or lower one of ‘the left valve small, but distinct and elevated, and both marked with fine dotted striae. Muscular impres- sions deep, posterior one mangh. Naker pearly white. . sedate —This shell, as will be seen by its dimensions, has a more globose form than perhaps any other Unio. « It will stand erect on the. posterior side, and in this position has something of a pyramidal appearance. Variety (a.) Sheil less, very slightly compressed, anterior lunule much flattened, and the separating heel more eleva- ted. No posterior lunule ; ; transverse wrinkles deeper ; hinge bent to nearly a right angle. ‘Teeth somewhat com- pressed. -Naker, pink or flesh colored ; surface polished and iridescent. Diam. 1°0 Length, 14 Breadth, 1°6 Dr. Mitchill’s Cabinet. Remarks.—This shell differs in so many particulars from the former that we might have given it a different specific designation, had we not been averse to doing that in the case of solitary specimens. The double lateral tooth of the lef valve is distinct. \ a. inside. 5. Unio Cornutus. Fig. 5. ii outside. ce Posterior slope. Shell sub-orbicular, divided longitudinally by a regular row of large, distant tubercles. ia! Hab. Fox River. Schoolcraft. My Collection. Diam, 1°0* Length, 1-7 Breadth, 1°8 * Fexclusive of the horns. Mr. Barnes onthe Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 123 Mr. Collins’s colleetion contains a specimen from the Ohio of the following dimensions. | Diam. 1:0 Length, 1°5 Breadth, 1:8 Shell thick, rounded behind, sub-biangulate before. Beaks somewhat elevated and nearly central, with the ligament | passing between them; anterior lunule long-heart-shaped, compressed, distinct by a roundish elevated ridge which ends in a projection on the anterior margin, and marked by small transverse, sub-nodulous wrinkles, and obsolete longi- tudinal furrows; surface waved and on the fore part com- pressed; a regular row of large, distant, elevated and trans- versely compressed tubercles, extends from the beaks to the basal edge, dividing the shell into two nearly equal parts.. Car- dinal teeth, sulcated. Naker, pearly white, and iridescent. Remarks.—This shell resembles the last in its color, out- Ime, and glabrous surface. The teeth very much resemble those of the last, and there is also in the left valve, the rudi- diment of a second internal lateral tooth. The principal dif- ference is in the smaller size of the present shell, and the re- markable row of horns, which furnish the specific designa- tion. ‘These horns are not opposite to each other, but al- ternate, and the highest one is in the right valve, nearly as high as the summit. In both the above mentioned speci- mens, the number of horns is three on each valve, and the rudiment of a fourth on the extremity of the basal edge. We rarely find shells from different and distant localities so much alike. Almost the only difference is in the elevation of the beaks of the former being greater than that of the lat- ter. Exclusive of the beaks, the length, breadth and diam- eter of the shells, is precisely the same. a. inside. 6. Unio Verrucosus. Fig. 6. eR. Shell sub-longitudinal, sub-truncate before, irregularly tu- berculated ; tubercles transversely compressed ; inside brownish red.: Hab. Ouisconsin River. Mr. Schoolcraft. Lake Erie. Major Delafield. The collections before mentioned. Diam. -9—1°6 Length, 1°7-—-3:05 Breadth, 1:°95—3°15 Shell sub-quadrangular, thick, rounded behind, biangu- late and sub-truncate before; beaks elevated and recurved » es 124 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. ligament deeply inserted between the valves; hinge-margin nearly straight, compressed alated, heel-shaped, and making an obtuse angle with the anterior margin; basal margin rounded ; epidermis light green, tinged with reddish brown ; surface of the anterior part “studded with irregular transverse- ly compressed tubercles. Cardinal teeth crenated or sul- cated; cavity of the beaks very deep, compressed angular and directed backwards under the cardinal tooth; Naker brownish red with a tinge of blue, or light chocolate color- ed, slightly iridescent on the anterior part; the other dull and not highly polished; posterior muscular sis ies deep and rough. Variety (a.) has the epidermis of an unbonangentiy light green without the brown tinge. Hab. Lake Erie. Major Delajfield’s collection. Diam. °8 Length, 1°65 Breadth, 1°9 Variety (b.) is a slender and rather thin shell; epidermis very pale green; Naker pearly white, polished ‘and. irides- cent. | Diam. 9 Length, 1:6 Breadth, 1:9 Locality and authority as before. « Remark.—If a straight line is drawn from the beak to the base, through the cardinal tooth, it will divide the tubercu- lated from the smooth part of the shell, in all except the va- riety (6.) in which the tubercles extend a little farther back. . ise 7. Unio Nodosus. Fig. 7. ne ee Shell, sub-quadrangular, sub-longitudinal, emarginate be- fore, knotted, ridged, corrugated; lateral tooth pinnae: abruptly. : Hab. Ouisconsin. Mr. Schoolcraft. Collections of Lyceum and Dr. Mitchill. My Collection. Diam. 1°8 Length, 2°5 Breadth, 3°0 Shell, thick and ponderous, short and very obtusely rounded behind ; beaks distant, elevated, eroded, chalky or greenish white, “with the ligament passing between them. Anterior lunule, compressed, wedge-shaped, separated by a deep groove, ending inthe emargination in front. Ehnge-mar- Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio dnd Alasmodonta. 125 gin, straight with the beaks projecting aboveit; anterior dorsal margin rounded; anterior margin emarginate ; anterior ba- sal margin; compressed and a little shortened, basal and posterior margins rounded. Epidermis horn color, surface irregularly corrugated and tuberculated all over, exceptasmall portion of the posterior side. Tubercles largest near the eentre of the disks, and often eroded; a strong, elevated and nodulous ridge extending from the beaks to the anterior margin and projecting in front. Cardinal teeth sulcated and crenulated. Lateral teeth short, thick, rough, crenated and terminating abruptly at both ends. Cavity deep and angu- Jar admitting the end of the fore finger. Remarks.—The breadth from the emargination to the posterior side is equal to the length of the shell. Two spe- cimens in the Lyceum’s cabinet are wrinkled regularly and beautifully across the transverse strie on the anterior lunule, giving to that part, a feather-shaped appearance. Other specimens have the lunule wrinkled and granulated. This shell will stand on the posterior side though not quite erect, but leaning towards the hinge. , 8. Unio Tuberculatus. Fig. 8. Shell, long-ovate, surface corrugated, waved tuberculated, ribbed. Disks compressed, base falcated. Hab. Ouisconsin, Prof. Douglass. . Cabinets of Lyceum and Dr. Mitchill. Diam. -7 ~— Length, 1.3. Breadth, 2°4 . 1°3 23 4°2 ps a 24 4:5 Shell thick and rugged; anterior side compressed, nar- rowed thin; posterior side rounded, short, obtuse, and broader than the interiour. Beaks flat, placed about two ninths from the posterior end; digament higher than the beaks; hinge-margin nearly straight, elevated, compressed and carinate before; basal margin compressed, falcated ; anterior dorsal emarginate, anterior basal, projecting ; ante- rior margin narrow and rounded. Epidermis dark brown or, horn color. Surface thickly and irregularly tuberculated, tubercles elongated longitudinally ; those near the base larger; an elevated ridge extending from the beaks and 126 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. projecting on the anterior basal edge; irregular profound, nodulous undulations radiating from the elevated ridge to the hinge and anterior margin. Cardinal teeth crenated ; lateral teeth long and striated; posterior muscular impres sion deep, and the anterior half of it rough. Cavity, angu- lar compressed, directed backward under the cardinal tooth, admitting the end of the finger. .Naker pearly white, with irregular spots of greenish, iridescent on the fore part. | 9. Unio Rugosus. Fig. 9. Shell broad ovate; surface wrinkled tuberculated, ribbed, waved; disks swelled; base falcated. . Hab. Qhio. Mr. Collins. Mr. Collins’s Collection. Length, 2:3 Breadth, 2:9 Diam. 1°5 Shell narrowed, compressed and thin before; short, ob- tuse, rounded and wider behind; beaks slightly elevated; ligament more elevated than the beaks; hinge-margin compressed, carinate; basal margin falcate, emarginate, and compressed; anterior margin sub-angulate ; anterior dorsal margin sub-truncate, nearly straight; anterior, basal margin projecting. Epidermis dark brown, under the epi- dermis pearly white. Surface rough and scaly, wrinkled transversely and waved longitudinally, having distant irreg- ular transversely compressed tubercles; a broad nodulous elevated somewhat double ridge extending from the beaks to the anterior basal edge, and projecting on that part; a broad furrow or wave behind the ridge ending in the emar- ginate basal edge; and a furrow before separating the ante- rior lunule; small oblique waves radiating from the ridge to the hinge and anterior dorsal margin. Cardinal teeth sulca- ted; lateral tooth striated rough and in the left valve some- what double: Posterior muscular impression deep and partly rough. Cavity of the beaks angular, compressed and directed backward under the cardinal tooth. Naker pearly white, and on the fore part iridescent. | Remarks.—This shell agrees in some parts of its deserip- stion with the U. Tuberculatus. It is, however, while of the same length, of only a little more than half the breadth, and yet of longer diameter. The tubercles, also are very dif- ferent. In the U. Tuberculatus they are compressed lon- “Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 127 gitudinally, 1 in this transversely, in that they are crowded and small: in this they are distant and rather large. The ele- vated ridge in that is higher and natrower; in this it is broader and more depressed ; in that. it continues of nearly _ the same breadth to the base; in this it diverges at the base, ‘to about four times its breadth at the beaks. The shell above described has the appearance of age. The tubercles, as well as the beaks are much corroded, and the epidermis is cracked and broken in many places. Remarks on the first section, viz. * Cardinal teeth, very thick. To this section belong the U. 'Periwviana, ligamentina and obliqua of M. Lamarck, and the U. Cylindricus? of Mr. Say. The shells in this section bear in many respects, a resemblance to each other. ‘They are all thick, and have a very strong hinge, with, in most cases, deeply sulcated cardinal teeth, and a cavity under the beaks, more or less angular and compressed, extending under the cardinal tooth. They are nearly all waved, wrinkled, or tuberculated on the eutside. From the last two characters, however, some varieties of the U. Crassus are excepted, which have little or no cavity under the beak, and a small external surface. It may perhaps be thought that we have made too many distinctions in this section, and that several of the fore- going ought to belong to the U. Crassus, but they are much more unlike than many which are admitted to be distinct species, and therefore they require a sepa- rate description. And when it is observed that we have mot yet enumerated all that have been supposed to be- long to the numerous family of the Crassus—that the ascer- tained varieties of that species have already been described to the number of eleven from (a) to (/) inclusive ; and that among these varieties are several which M. Lamarck has de- scribed as different species—and that the foregoing are all very distinct from each other, so as to be instantly recogniz- ed by even an inexperienced observer—we shall perhaps be justified in discriminating the above, and several others also, which belong to the next section. (To be continued.) 128 On the Formation of the Uniwerse. a PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, &. — en Art. VII—An Essay on the formation of the Universe: by Isaac Orr, one of the Professors in the Asylum, for the Deaf andDumb, at Hartford, Conn. . TO THE EDITOR. Dear Sir, Ir it is admissible in the explanation of appearanees, to ad- duce a theory, whose absolute and invariable characteristics are wholly coincident with fact; aand whose variable charac- teristics admit of sucha construction, as to be also coincident; and whose allowable irregularities usually exist in those ap- pearances; the present attempt to illustrate one of the most difficult physical subjects will not want an apology, though it should eventually be numbered with other similar at- tempts, that have sunk with their projectors into their own oblivion. It is far from being the least difficulty, to be met by a theory, professing to account for the motion and rela- tive position of the heavenly bodies, that such theories have been so numerous and so utterly visionary, as to stamp seem- ing futility on all. In view ofso formidable an array of ad- verse public opinion, it seems sufficient to collect, arrange, and exhibit the proofs of such a theory, and leave it for oth- ers, who are not personally interested in the decision, to judge of their validity. Whatever is asserted in this me- moir, although perhaps, sometimes passed over rather too briefly, can, I believe, in all cases, ke amply substantiated. In several instances where it is said that assertions are de- monstrable, the demonstrations are omitted, on account of their length, or comparative want ofimportance. ‘They will be given hereafter, if they should be demanded. For sev- eral remarks and demonstrations, with regard to the separa- tion into strata of a finite ocean of concreting aerial matter, when particular gravitation is supposed infinite ; the con- struction of strata by accumulation at their edges; the diur- On the Formation of the Universe. 129 nal motion of the satellites; and the relative position of the orbit of Mercury and the equator of the sun, as well as a va- riety of other useful suggestions, I am indebted to Mr. Fish- er, the late able Professor of Mathematics and Philosophy in Vale College; and while with the remembrance of ‘his former assistance, I mingle regret that he was not permitted privately, as he intended, to lay the following speculations before European minds powerful and acute like his own, and to aid further in rendering them more lucid and satis- factory ; I cannot omit to add, that America, and the world have great reason to regret the premature and tragical death of this distinguished young man. In the examination of the solar and the stellar systems, various phenomena occur, which are much too regular to be considered the pure effects of accident, while on the other hand, they are not sufficiently so to be attributed to the im- mediate operations of an intelligent designing agent. To such operations they have heretofore been attributed, solely because, on any other ground, they seemed utterly inexpli- cable, and the ends aimed atin their existence have been ta- ken for granted, although the human mind could discover nothiag respecting them. Of these phenomena the most ob- vious are, ; ; 1. The primitive-parts of the earth, so far as they have been examined, are apparently the result of purely chemi- cal precipitation. There are sufficient reasons to believe, that the quantity of water above their surface has been very great~ ly diminished. . 2. The sun revolves on its axis, and all the planets in _ their orbits, in the same direction, and nearly in the same plane: and likewise all the planets that have satellites, re- volve on their axes in the same direction as their satellites in their orbits, and nearly in the same plane. wie 3. The planets generally revolve on their axes in the same direction with the sun: and the satellites, so far as their di- urnal motion is known, and prob=bly in most instances, re- volve on their axes in the same direction with their prima- ries. The most remarkable irregularities are near the sun, at the superior extreme of the sun, and probably at the or- bits of the asteroids. 4. The velocity of each planet on its axis, has a general direct proportion to its quantity of matter, and distance from Vo. VI.—No. 1. 17 130 On the Formation of the Universe. the sun: and an inverse proportion to the number and mass of its satellites. ‘The revolution of each satellite on its axis, and its periodical time, are probably equal. 5. The planets, taken with respect to their masses and in- termediate distances, exist in two distinct series, the upper one of which gradually increases, and the lower one grad- ually increases and diminishes in quantity of matter as. we descend toward the sun: and on the contrary, the eccentricities of thé successive orbits have in the upper series a gradual diminution, and a gradual diminution and increase in the lower series. The planets of the upper series are much the largest and most distant apart. With regard to intervening distance an analogy is known to exist between the planetary and lunar systems, and there are rea- to presume that it exists also with regard to eccentrici- ty and quantity of matter. ae 6. The asteroids appear to exist in pairs, two of them having atmospheres: similar to each other, but much ¢reat- er than the atmospheres of the other two; and the individ- ual of each pair which has the most oblique orbit, is in very nearly the same degree the most eccentric, and its mean distance from the sun is in a different degree the greatest. # 7. The rings of Saturn are nearly in the same plane with its equator and satellites: The inner ring is much larger than the outer one, and their angular motion isa little slow- er than that of the planet, but much more rapid than that of. a satellite at the mean distance of its parts. Saturn in con- tradistinction from all the other planets, and from the form which it would naturally assume if it were fluid, is consider- ably depressed about its equator. ia ee 8. The densities of the various planets and satellites are generally in inverse proportion to their quantities of matter, and in a direct proportion to their distance from the sun. 9. Comets move indiscriminately and almost equally in all divections. The perihelia of all of them are between the sun and the orbit of Jupiter ; and the orbits of the interven- ing planets are, with regard to their obliquity, the most ir- « regular. 10. The stars are not uniformly scattered over the firma- ment, but appear in nebulae, which are generally arranged into strata, and run on to a great length. Some of these strata appear parallel to each other, and some in the shape On the Formation of the Universe. 131 ofafan. With the exception of these strata, and numerous subordinate circular collections, the figures of the various clusters seem to be wholly fortuitous, If the primitive rocks were precipitated from water, the precipitation, according to all our experience on the sub- ject, must have been gradual. At the time of such precipi- tation the earth must have had a diurnal motion, because it evidently partakes of the spheroidal form derived from such motion, far below the general level of any rocks with which we are acquainted. ‘This motion, in connexion with the in- fluence of the other bodies in the system, would produce a disturbance in the water around the earth, similar to what the tides now exhibit, but much greater indegree. The una- voidable inequalities in the surface of the accumulating rocks,-would subject them, at least in some degree, to tritu- ration at the prominent parts, and to alluvial deposites in the cavities. But no such deposites can be found. Besides, from our knowledge of their constituent parts, we have every _ reason to conclude, that many of them are not at all soluble in water, whereas by heat and electricity they can all be dissipated. There is, therefore, at least good reason to pre- sume, that by these and other elastic agents they were once separated, and came together either partially by the aid of water, or wholly without it. In the process of the argument it will be necessary to take several things for granted, of which the proof is cumu- lative, or most appropriate in another place. Suppose the gomponent particles of the matter in the solar system to have never come together, but to be mixed indiscriminate- ly, and distributed by means of light and heat, in a flat spheroid, having its greatest diameter some millions of miles longer than that of Herschel’s orbit, and revolving with such rapidity as to throw off portions from its circumference. As the heat and light abandoned it, its various parts would condense either by explosion or sudden combustion, accor- ding to the different forces of attraction among their compo- nent particles. Suppose that by some means or other its motion should be increased to such a degree, that by the time it had shrunk to about midway between the orbits of Saturn and Herschel, it would have thrown off from its cir- cumference as much matter as is contained in Herschel and its satellites. Suppose that its motion should be still in- f 132 On the Formation of the Universe. creased, so that by the time its circumference had arrived about midway between the orbits of Saturn and Jupiter, it would have thrown off as much matter as is contained in Saturn and its satellites. Make the same supposition for Jupiter, and so successively for all the planets below Jupi- ter. This ejected matter, unless the cause of motion were variable in its direction, would be left moving nearly in the same plane. Having lost its equilibrium the mutual attrac- tion of its parts would unavoidably draw it together. It would first collect into small bodies, and these into greater. As soon as reaction took place at the centre of a body, un- less the matter were perfectly dense, there is an infinity of chances against one, that it would commence a circular mo- tion similar in some degree to that of eddies and of whirl- winds. The circular motion of whirlwinds is produced by air proceeding, while unresisted, in a direct course towards a central line. Ina condensing insulated body the cir- cular motion would be produced by the force of the matter proceeding in a direct course towards a central point. This motion would recede from the centre no faster than the reaction between the central wheels, and the aerial matter collecting towards it. When the central wheel had com- menced its motion, the collecting matter would proceed, not ali the way in a direct course towards its centre, but in curved lines eventually becoming tangents to its circumfer- ence. This curved direction would be produced by fric- tion among the extreme concentric strata of the wheel, whose great rarity would render the deviation very gradu- al. There are cases with which we are familiar, where the motion of non elastic matter would be annihilated,while that of elastic matter is almost wholly retained ; and it seems in the case before us, as if the matter would be turned into a eircular course without any very great loss in its acquired rectilinear motion. As the matter accumulated on the cen- tral wheel, there would be a constant increase of compres- sion throughout the whole, which would be always least at the surface and centre, and greatest at some point between them; and from the centre this point would constantly re= cede. For at the extreme circumference, or the place where the matter commenced a curvilinear motion, there would be no increase of compression ; and the strata near the centre having the same increase of weight or pressure - On the Formation of the Universe. 133 upon them as the higher strata, and having on account of their greater degree of compression, a greater power of re- sistance, the spaces which they occupied would not be so much reduced.in a given time, as the spaces of the higher strata. By this increase of compression the matter which at any one moment seemed in equilibrium, would continually. advance toward the centre, and retaining the same actual velocity, its angular velocity would be increased, and the increase of angular velocity would be constantly transmitted from the whole wheel toward the circumference ; in the greatest degree from the point of the greatest increase of compression, and from all parts in a degree proportioned in some measure to their distance from that point. Here we perceive a double and nearly contemporaneous source of increase in the angular velocity at the circumference; the force of the falling matter, and the increase in the compres- sion of the central wheel. The action of the falling matter would be immediate : the effect of the consequent compres- sion would instantly commence, but would be rather more dilatory in their termination. There is another compound source of angular velocity considerably similar to this, but much less in degree and in the rapidity of its operation. According to the known properties of matter, considerable portions of the aerial wheel would concrete by instant ex- plosion or sudden combustion, into a densely fluid or plastic state, and would proceed towards the centre of the wheel, and there forma nucleus, which being aided in the com- mencement of its motion by the aerial part of the wheel, _ would revolve in the same direction. With egard to these condensed portions of the wheel, there are two difficulties to be obviated; the resistance which they would meet in pro- ceeding to the central nucleus, and their lability to strike it in a direction differing from a tangent to its circumference. With respect to the first we may suppose, that the density of the aerial and condensed matter might be very greatly different ; and the supposition is perfectly consonant with our experience. The cohesion of the falling bodies might be so great as to prevent their being dissipated, while at the same time their fluid or’ plastic state would enable them to assume all the length of form which is necessary to reduce their resistance to its smallest degree. The other difficulty is no less easily obviated, for the state of the case renders it 134 On the Formation of the Universe. necessary that the condensed parts, most remote, should by the motion of the aerial parts, be most turned out of a direct course towards the centre of the nucleus ; and the supposi-. tion is perfectly reasonable, that the deviation might 'be so regulated, that all, or nearly all of the condensed bodies would strike the central nucleus in a tangent to its circumfer- ‘ence. By the expulsion of heat and light a compression would take place in the nucleus a little different from that in the aerial part of the wheel, but the same in effect. The various portions of the nucleus, having acquired a degree of actual velocity, would merely by their approach to the cen- tre, increase the angular velocity of the nucleus. It is obvi- ous that the motion derived from this complex source in the nucleus, would not stop at its surface, but would be constant- ly conveyed by means of friction between the concentric strata, to the extreme circumference of the aerial wheel, till the angular velocity become uniform throughout. While this complex process was going on in the planetary wheel, it would collect a belt of the ejected matter fromfilamen- tous substance iscomposed of parts which in their greatest dimensions, are —\— of an inch. Examined by the most powerful lens each filament appears to be a chain of moril- iform articulations, the number of which in the largest fila- ment is about 300. The diameter is not more than = ao of aninch. Though these substances appeared to change their aspects, captain Scoresby could not determine wheth- er they were composed of living animals, having the pow- erof locomotion; but he is convinced that it is to the presence of these microscopic beings that the polar seas owe the various tints of green which are observed in them. He calculates that one cubic foot of this water may con- tain 110,592 globules of these Medusx, and a cubic mile about 23,888,000 hundreds of millions. He supposes that these animalcule furnish nutriment to the Actinia sepia, Foreign Literature and Science. 199 Limax and other mollusces very abundant in the polar seas, whilst these in their turn, are devoured by the various spe- cies of whales that inhabit the same regions. 8. Abbeville department of Somme France.—Fossil re- mains. —There have just been found in several sand pits in the neighbourhood of this town, the bones of Elephants and Rhinoceros, Stagg’s horns, and teeth of a carnivorous animal which M. Traule of that town regards as those of the Lion. These remains have been found at the depth of twenty-five | feet detached and mutilated. They consist of an elephant’s tusk, an atlas and a metatarsus of the Rhinoceros. The en- closure of these fossils is a bed of sharp grained sand. 9. Singular disease.—The workmen of a cotton manufacto- ry at Argues, near Dieppe, were attacked in the beginning of February last with nausea, vertigo and convulsions, which so much affected their imaginations, that they thought they saw spectres and other fantastic objects flying at them and seizing them by the throat. ‘The Doctor not being able in iime to calm their troubled brains, the villagers and country people did not fail to declare according to custom that it was owing to a spell that had beencast upon them at the manufactory. A thousand ridiculous ceremonies were performed to make them believe that the spell was taken off, in order to calm the imaginations of the affected. But this remedy served to confirm an extravagant prejudice and produced only a temporary effect. It became necessary to have recourse to threats, and the fear of being dismissed and thereby losing their means of subsistence, tended at length to restore them to reason. A memoir on the causes of this malady has been pre- sented to the medical society of Dieppe by M. Nicolle, an apothecary of that town, which contains a very exact and curious recital of the distinguishing traits of these spasmodic affections. The author attributes them to the gaseous oxide of carbon, resulting from the decomposition of the oil by the heat of a cast iron stove on which they were in the habit of placing their vessels of that fluid. ‘This gaseous product as it is well known, is lighter than the atmosphere, and in this way the author accounts for the fact, that it was in the upper stories of the manufactory that the people were first affected 200 Foreign Literature and Science. while those on the ground floor were generally preserved from it. 10. The preservation of Potatoes has been lately held up to view in France, as the best security against famine. An account has been given by Cadet de Vaux, of an establish- ment of M. Ternaux at Saint Ouen, for the economical preservation of grain, potatoes, &c. re The potatoes are pared, (the parings being given to hogs and other animals) boiled in steam, spread while hot upon a table, divided by a light instrument, which enables the ‘moisture to evaporate, cooled, and then passed through a granulating sieve, and thoroughly dried in a stove, con- structed advantageously for this purpose. The dry mate- rial when taken from the stove has the form of vermicelli. It may easily be reduced either to coarse or fine flour, by grinding. It is called by M. Ternaux polenta, and requires nothing but a little warm water and salt, to convert it im- mediately into an agreeable and savoury potage. Two ta- ble spoonfulls, which cost only the hundredth part of a sous, are sufliicient to make two plates of soup. When added to bouillon, no time or preparation is necessary, and it is superior in this respect, to vermicelli or flour. . At Moulins, 550 individuals reduced to want, were fed during 18 months at the rate of two centimes and a half, (about 1 of acent) per day. This Polenta, and the gela- 0, ie A tine of bones, are in the art of beneficence, a true philoso- pher’s stone. We may therefore apply to the Potatoe an observation we have seen in les.annales Européans, “ A single vegetable, when its importance comes to be proper- ly appreciated, may work an entire change in the fortune, the habits, the enjoyments, and happiness of a people.” 11. Zodiac of Denderah—This remarkable and curious spe- ccimen of antiquity, transported with so much labor and ex- payee from upper Egypt to Paris, has been purchased by the Xing, and will be placed in a suitable position in the Louvre. Mr. Griscom’s communications on foreign literature and “science, excepting the above articles, came too late for in- sertion in the present number; the remainder are una- voidably deferred. Epitor. © THE 1 te, AMERICAN | JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c. ye : —g—. Arr. ]—-A Sketch of the Geology, Mineralogy, and Scenery of the Regions contiguous to the River Connec- ticut; with a Geological Map and Drawings of Organic Remains ; and occasional Botanical Notices. Read be- fore the American Geological Society at their Sitting; Sept. 11th, 1822; bythe Rev. Enwarp Hircucock, A.M. of Conway, Massachusetts. PART II. Simpte MINERALS. Metallick Veins and Beds. Bevors giving a list of the simple minerals found along the Connecticut, it may perhaps be acceptable to the geolo- gist, to present a short account of those veins and beds of ore, that occur in the district, which either have been, or may be wrought as mines. bo 1. Southampton Lead Mine.* This is a vein containing sulphuret, carbonate, sulphate, molybdate, muriate.and phosphate of lead, with blende, py- ritous copper, &c. The gangue is quartz, with sulphate * For a description of this mine, by Professor Silliman, who examined it in May 1810, see Bruce’s Journal, Vol 1. p. 63. Voi. VI.—No. Hl. 26 4 oa as ES CoS a Ray AP ANG Reet 202. Geology, &c: of the Connecticut. = fy and fluor spar intermixed. The vein declines ten _. or fifteen degrees from a perpendicular ; is six or eight feet MH >: in diameter, and traverses granite and other primitive rocks. -@@% Wt has been observed at intervals from Montgomery to Hat- ; field, a distance of twenty miles: but it is very doubtful, “~~ whether it continues, uninterruptedly, the whole of that ex- tent; indeed, from what I have observed of other lead veins in the vicinity, [ have sometimes been disposed to ques- tion, whether the veins observed at many of these intervals, may not be totally distinct from one another. In Southamp- ton, eight miles south west from Northampton, is the only spot where this vein has been extensively wrought. In that place it has been explored thirty or forty rods in length, to ihe depth of forty or fifty feet, and the galena, which is the principal ore, has been found in masses from a quarter of ar inch, toa foot in diameter. At the depth above mentioned, ihe water became so abundant, that it was thought advisable to abandon a perpendicular exploration, and to deseend to the foot of a hill on the east, nearly eighty rods from the vein, and attempt a horizontal drift, or adit, and ever since its commencement, seven or eight years ago, the working of the vein has ceased. This drift is now carried into the hill, on an exact level, nearly sixty rods, and the workmen told me, that not less than 20,000 dollars had been expended upon it. The rocks that have been penetrated, reckoning from the mouth of the drift inwards, are geest, the red and eray slates of the coal formation, (“‘ granulated schistose ag- gregate,”” Eaton. Journal ofSci. Vol. I. p. 136,) with thin beds of coal, and mica slate, and granite alternating. Probably the fundamental deposit of granite is now uncovered; and the principal vein of galena cannot be far distant. Several small branch veins of crystallized quartz and galena have been crossed ; and several specimens of these, collected by Dr. Hunt, were very rich and beautiful ; the crystals of pure galena sometimes exhibit, on their faces, insulated crystals of honey coloured carbonate of lime. The principal vein will be found not less, I should judge, than one hundred and fifty feet below the surface :—and when that time comes, it is confidently expected, not only that the proprietors will be rewarded for the great expence they have incurred, but, al- so, that many a rich specimen will be found to ornament the Geology, Se. of the Conneciicut. 203 mineral cabinets of our country, and to vie in beauty with the lead ores of Europe. , The mouth of this drift is four or five feet wide, and about three feet above the surface of the water. ‘The water is deep enough, the whole length of it, to admit the passage of a loaded boat. The person wishing to explore this internal canal, must fire a gun at the entrance, or beat heavily with a sledge on the timbers that support the soil; in ten or fif- teen minutes he will perceive a gentle undulation of the wa- ter, and soon after a boat advancing with lighted lamps and a rower; having seated himself on the bottom of this boat, and provided himself with an additional garment, he is pre- pared for his subterranean expedition. As he enters the passage, he will, for a moment, experience, or imagine he experiences, a little difficulty of breathing. But he will soon become reconciled to his condition ; and after passing about one hundred feet in the excavation, for which distance the soil is supported by timbers, he will find occasionally more room, so that he can stand erect. If he looks back, after having advanced several hundred feet, the light at the entrance will appear diminished to the size of acandle; and before he reaches the extremity, it becomes invisible. About half way from the entrance to the end of the drift, he will pass a shaft; down which a small brook is turned, for the purpose of aiding the ventilator. When he reaches the end of the drift, he finds himself to have penetrated nearly sixty rods chiefly into solid rock; a voyage which although inferior to that performed in the celebrated navigation mine, inthe Peak of Derbyshire, is still extremely interesting. The miners do not. quit the drift when they blast; but re- tire behind a breast work thrown up for the purpose. En- iering immediately after an explosion, I did not perceive the air to be in any degree more oppressive than when powder is fired above ground. One man told me that he had been an inmate of that dark recess, eight or ten years, without suffering in his health, and when he returned alone into his dreary prison after conducting me to the day light, he struck up a cheerful song, indicating buoyant spirits and a content- ‘ed mind. Every mineralogist passing that way, will of course visit this drift. Intelligent gentlemen without professional views, ¢ 204 Geology, dc. of the Connecticui. and even ladies not unfrequently enter this cavity, and find themselves amply repaid for their trouble.* 2. Vein of Galena in Whately. This occurs in the north west part of the town, and I for- merly supposed it a continuation of the Southampton vein. But the Southampton vein runs north east and south west, and this in Whately almost exactly north and south. Be- sides. the Southampton vein must turn almost at right angles from Hatfield, in order to be found in the north west part of Whately. This vein may be traced at intervals one hundred rods, and extends into the edge of Conway. At the extremities it traverses mica slate ; butin the middle, it cuts through an extensive bed of granite. Its diameter is usually six or sevy- en feet, and the gangue is wholly common and radiated quariz. Galena, which is the only ore found in this vein, is disseminated through this matrix in considerable abun- dance. Very few effcrts have been made to explore this vein, though appearances at the surface are not unfavora- ble ; and if a horizontal drift were necessary, a deep valley within a few rods on the west, would afford a favourable op- portunity for making it. As nearly as I could determine, this vein is not far from perpendicular to the horizon. 3. Vein of Galena in Leverett. In the south west part of the town—traversing granite— only a foot wide—gangue, sulphate of barytes—deviation north and south—-galena the only ore. 4. Vein of Gaiena, Pyritous Copper and Blende, in Leverett. About two miles north of the vein last mentioned; and it may bea continuation of it. The gangue is quartz, united with sulphate of-barytes; and the galena and pyritous cop- per are disseminated through it in nearly equal quantities. *Thave often thought Professor Cleaveland must have selected the ap- propriate motto prefixed to his Mineralozy, when entering this or some similar drift. eee Ittmest in viscera terrae &c. * Geology, de. of the Connecticut. 205 The blende is much less abundant. The vein is several feet wide, traverses mica slate and granite, and has been conside- rably wrought. 5. Lead Mine at Middletown. IT am unacquanted with the geological situation of this mine. | put it down on the authority of Professor Silliman in Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. 6. Ven of Galena at Bethichem. I mention this on the same authority without any person- al knowledge of it. Itis, however, a little beyond the lim- its of the map. 7. Vein of Galena and Pyritous Copper in Southington. Same authority—gangue, sulphate of barytes and quartz. I believe this vein occurs in the coal formation. 8. Mine of Galena, Blende and Pyrites in Berlin. This occurs in greenstone, at its junction with the coal formation. The gangue is sulphate of barytes. The galena crystals are small ; those of the blende larger; the pyrites is the least abundant. The vein is not now wrought. (Vide Dr. Percival’s Notice, Journal of Science, Vol. 5. p. 44.) Copper Mines and Veins. It has already been mentioned, in the geological part of this sketch, that these ores (like the mine of galena &c. last mentioned,) exist along the junction of the greenstone with the coal formation. ‘The veins frequently pass into both rocks, and are of various sizes and of frequent occurrence. Indeed, they may be found probably every mile or two along the line. where these rocks unite. A few of them, that have obtained some notoriety will be mentioned. 206 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut: 9. Vein of Pyritous Copper and Green Carbonate of Coppes:, at Cheshire. In greenstone and associated with sulphate of barytes, quartz, carbonate of lime and sandstone. (Silliman in Cleaveland’s Mineralogy, Vol. 2, p. 559.) 10. Mine of the Red Oxide of Copper, Green Carbonate of Copper, §-c. Granby. This is better known by the name of Simsbury Mines al- though it occurs within the boundaries of Granby. It was formerly wrought, but being at length abandoned, its shafts and galleries were converted into a state’s prison. The mineralogist who explores this spot, must here contemplate the painful spectacle ofalmost every variety of guiltand crime. Sixty or seventy whites, mulattoes and negroes, scarcely distinguishable through filth, from one another, are here com- pelled by the point of the bayonet to labour at the anvil; while we read in their sullen and ghastly countenances, the inward workings of hearts rendered desperate by crime and punishment. As we descend into the shaft we observe the offensive recesses in the rocks, where these prisoners were formerly confined during the night. But only a few of the most refractory are now compelled to sleep in these damp and dismal dungeons; the government of Connecti- cut being satisfied that this kind of rigor served rather te harden than to reform the criminal. About seventy feet be- low the surface, the conductor pointed out to me a bolt driven into a wet rock, where, recently, one of the prison- ers had been fastened for a week or fortnight, as an extra punishment for peculiar obstinacy; and where he lay, I saw scattered, the leaves of a bible, which, in his desperation he had torn in pieces:—thus spurning alike the laws of God and man! {f we judge from the present appearance of this excava- tion the original vein of ore must have been extremely ir- regular, forming bellies and twitches. It passes through the greenstone and enters the red and gray micaceous sand- stone of the coal formation, which underlies the greenstone. All the varieties of ore I saw at the place were the red ox- Geology, Se. of the Connecticué. 207 ide disseminated in sandstone, and mixed with a small pro- portion of green carbonate of copper. How productive this mine has been, [ do not know. 11. Vein of Green Carbonate of Copper and Pyritous Copper im Greenfield Mass. This is found on the west bank of Connecticut River, one hundred rods below the mouth of Fall river, and about the same distance in a direct line from Turner’s Falls. It occurs at the junction of the greenstone and red slate of the coal formation, and passes obliquely into the hill of green- stone on the one side, and into the slate on the other in the bed of the river. The principal vein is five or six feet in diameter, and the matrix, toadstone, which is traversed, in the direction of the vein, by several veins of sulphate of barytes, which form saalbandes. The principal ore that appears at the surface is the green carbonate, the pyritous copper being rarer. 12. A similar vein in the same township. About a mile below the vein just described, (down the stream,) is another, which I am told is very similar and therefore needs no description. In other places between these veins, I have noticed, in the red slate, veins of the green carbonate of copper, not more than a quarter of an inch thick, while the walls are glazed so as to resemble pol- ished steel; constituting handsome specimens of the Slick- enside of the Germans. Mines, Veins, and Beds of Iron Ore. 13. Micaceous Tron Ore in Veins, in Montague. Near the north line of the town, a little south west of the mouth of Miller’s river, a granitic hill of considerable extent and elevation is traversed by veins of this ore in all direc- tions ; constituting one vast stock werke. The principal vein is nearly ten feet in diameter, and the gangue is quartz. I do not see why this ore could not be profitably wrought. See Journal of Science, Vol 1, p. 438, where this ore is descri- bed under the general name of specular oxide of iron. 208 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 14. Mine of Magnetic.and Micaceous Oxide of Iron, in Haw- ley. This exists in the north western part of the town, in beds, in talcose siate. The folia of the slate are nearly perpen- dicular to the horizon, and the principal bed of the ore va- _ ries from six inches to three or four feet in thickness, and numerous thin beds occur at the sides. The mine has been opened twenty or thirty rods long, and thirty or forty deep. The magnetic oxide is probably most abundant: but the micaceous oxide has not till lately been wrought, through an impression that it could not be smelted! One or two tons of it lie beside the mine ready for the mineralogist. I have never seenany ore of this sort, that will bear any comparison for beauty and richness of appearance with this. It has a schistose, gently undulating structure, and plates of it may be easily obtained, a foot in diameter, possessing a highly glistening aspect. But it is no very easy matter to get at this mine, on account of the extreme roughness of the coun- try for several miles around it. 15. Mine of Magnetic and Micaceous Oxide of fron, in Ber- nardston. This occurs in beds in talco-argillite, and is so similar to the last described, that additional remarks are unnecessary. I do not know to what extent it has been wrought. 16. Vein of Micaceous Oxide of Iron, in Jamaica in Vermont. - This exists in dolomite, and is very beautiful. It has been used as a substitute for smalt, and answers well. I do not knowitsextent. Itis a few miles beyond the northern lim- its of the map. 17. Mine of the Brown Oxide of Tron, in Salisbury in Con- necticut. This, as well as the two following mines, occurs a consid- erable distance beyond the limits of the map. I merely men- tion them, however, because of their interesting nature; and Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 209 in giving a list of the simple minerals, I do not intend to be scrupulously confined to the region embraced by the map. This mine is wrought in a bed inclay. For further partic- ulars see Prof. Silliman’s account of this ore, in the Journal of Science, Vol. If. p. 212. 18. Mine of the same ore, in Kent, in Connecticut. This is found, like the last, in a bed in clay. See Vol. II. of the Journal of Science, p. 216. 19. Mine of Carbonate of Iron, in New-Milford, m Connecti- cut. This exists in a vein, in gneiss ; and its gangue is quartz. See Journal of Science, Vol. Il. p. 226. 20. Bed of Bog Iron Ore, in New-Braintree, in Massachu- Sseits. This ore is not uncommon along the Connecticut; but | have never examined a bed of it, except in New-Braintree, in Massachusetts. It lies in a valley, in a country of gneiss, only a few feet below the surface; and has been explored to a considerable extent. 21. Mine of Arsenical Cobalt, in Chatham, m Connecti- cut. It exists in a bed, ia mica slate, varying in width from a few inches to a few feet. The matrix is a mixture of horn- blende and actynolite, in which the ore is disseminated. It was explored several years since, and has been again open- ed recently; the undertaking is now, however, abandoned. Arsenical sulphuret of iron, arsenical nickel, and arseniate of cobalt are found in this mine in small quantities. Vou. VI.—No. II. 27 210 - Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 22, Mine of Bismuth, Silver, Argentiferous and Common Galena, Blende, Tungsten, Tellurium, Magnetical and Common Pyrites, Spathic Iron, Native Sulphur, Pyritous Copper, dc. in Huntington, in Connecticut. The various minerals mentioned above, have been found in a vein traversing gneiss, although it has yet been explored only a few feet in depth. The gangue is quartz. For a more particular description of this in- teresting spot, see various articles by Professor Silliman, in the first five volumes of the Journal of Science. In the above enumeration several small and unimportant veins of ore have been omitted ; and probably many impor- tant ones are yet undiscovered. In some instances I have met with men who profess to have found beds or veins of ore, but will not disclose the spot, because they intend to render themselves independent by their discoveries. In- deed, were the mineralogist to pay attention to all he will hear on this subject in his travels, he would be led to sup- pose that every town, and even every farm, is a rich reposi- tory of metals. For he will often be told, how in such a mountain the aborigines used to obtain iron, lead or silver; or how, insuch a place, the lightning frequently strikes, as a certain indication of metallic ores; or how in sucha place ihe mineral rod will work; anda thousand such mummeries, by which honest but credulous men are frequently deluded, and sometimes ruined. List of Simple Minerals found along the Connecticut. I have already remarked, that in giving this list, I should not be confined precisely to the limits of the map; but where an interesting mineral has been found a few miles be- yond these, I shall notice it. I shall annex to each species and variety, merely the localities and name of the discover- er, except in cases where I am able to add some particulars not heretofore published. ‘To save all further trouble of reference, I have taken the second edition of Cleaveland’s Mineralogy as astandard for names and arrangement. And, indeed, I feel as if a better disposition of minerals could scarcely be made, in the present state of the science, than that excellent work presents. Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 211 _ The species and sub-species are numbered in order from first to last. The varieties also, whenever they occur, are usually numbered. : 1. Nitrate of Potash. Efflorescing on the soil under old buildings, &c, 2. Sulphate of Barytes. At Cheshire, Southington, Far- mington, New-Stratford, and two miles from Hartford. (Sil- liman.) Also at Berlin. (Percival.) Also at Hatfield. (Gorham.) Also at Middlefield. (Eaton.) Also at South- _ampton lead-mine, at the Leverett lead veins, and at the Greenfield copper veins. At the three last mentioned pla- ces it is chiefly the lamellar variety. 3. Calcareous Spar. 1. Crystallized. At the Marb'e Quarry in Milford, in rhombic crystals; also in the lead mine at Middletown. (Silliman.) Also at the lead mine in Southampton, in lim- pid and straw-colored crystals on galena and quartz. Forms of the crystals. 1. A dodecaedron, composed of two six- sided pyramids, applied base to base. (hog-tooth spar.). 2. A short six-sided prism, terminated by three-sided pyra- mids. 3. The same, with all the solid angles of the prism truncated; forming a crystal of twenty-four faces. Also, in greenstone in Deerfield and Greenfield; and in a coarse limestone in Leyden, Conway, &c. in rhombs. 2. Laminated. At Milford Hills. (St/iiman.) Also, in veins in greenstone, Deerfield. 4. Granular Limestone. At Milford Hill, embracing the bed of Verd Antique Marble. (Si/diman.) In Wilmington, Vt? &. Concreted Carbonate of Lime. 1. Calcareous Incrustations. In the Coal Formation in Sunderland, &c. 212 Geology, &c. of the Connectieut. 6. Argentine. At Washington, Litchfield Co. (Brace.) 7. Magnesian Carbonate of Lime. pl+ Crystalyzed. (Rhomb Spar.) Near New-Haven, with jestus in Serpentine. (Si//iman.) Abundant at the Milford arble Quarry. Also at Middletield, in Soapstone. (Dew- "¥.) Aiso at Southampton lead mine. (Eaton.) 2. Dolomite: At Washington and Milford Hills. (Sid- man.) Also at Litchfield. (Brace.) Also at Middlefield. (Dewey.) Also at Jamaica, in Vermont. (J. 4, Allen.) 8. Brown Spar. At Leverett, in a vein of galena, pyrites, copper and blende, grouped in rhombic crystals on quartz; the lamellae usually curved. 9. Fetid Carbonate of Lime. At Northford. (Silliman.) 10. Bituminous Carbonate of Lime. Near Middletown, with Ichthyolites. (Sidiman.) Also at Southington, in the Coal Formation. 11. Phosphate of Lime. 1. Apatite. At Milford Hills. (Stddiman.) 12. Fluate of Lime. Cubic and massive fluor spar occurs in Huntington—also chlorophane in the same place. (Silli- man.) Also at Middletown. in the lead, &c. vein. (Brace.) Also at Southampton lead mine, green and purple. (Gibds.) Also at Deerfield, crystallized in dodecaedrons? purple—in a loose stone, which contained also a crystal of galena. (Coo- ley.) Also at Putney, massive and grass green, forming a vein in bastard mica slate. (Si/liman.) Also at Westmore- land, light green. (Hall.) Also at Conway, massive, light green, in small quantities in a vein in mica slate. 13. Gypsum. In amygdaloidal greenstone in Deerfield, in small quantities; ‘“crystallized—white, and retaining its water of crystallization.” Found by Dr. Cooley, and de- termined by Professor Silliman. This has been already mentioned in the geological part of this sketch. Geology, &c. of the Conneetrcut. 213 14. Sulphate of Alumine and Potash. (Alum.) In Ley- den, efflorescing on bastard argillite. Also in Conway, on mica slate. 15. Common Quartz. 1. Limpid Quartz. At Grafton in Vermont, remarkably pure. (Hall.) Also at Plainfield. (J. Porter.) Also in the veins of lead, &c. at Southampton and Leverett, and the copper veins in Greenfield, in six-sided prisms. At the lat- ter place it occurs with both the terminations perfect. Also in veins in sienitic granite, at Northampton. Also in ge- odes in greenstone at New-Haven, Berlin and Deerfield. Also in veins and geodes from one to ten inches diameter, in mica slate in Conway. The crystals are of every size from one tenth of an inch to two inches diameter, and occur in vast quantities. In the same town fragments of crystals occur, as transparent as the quartz from Madagascar, 2. Smoky Quartz. At Torrington and Cornwall. (Brace.) Also at Plainfield and Brattleborough ? amorphous, 3. Yellow Quartz. In crystals at the Southampton lead mine; of a honey yellow, resembling the Siberian topaz. The coloring matter appears to penetrate the crystals. Al- so ia small quantities at the lead mine in Leverett. 4, Rose-Red Quartz. At Southbury, very abundant. (Sz- liman.) Also atChatham and East-Haddam. (T. D. Porter.) Also at Deerfield ; a single specimen in alluvial soil. 5. Irised Quartz. At Plainfield. (J. Porter.) Also at Leyden, in mica slate. 6. Milky Quartz. At Litchfield. (Brace.) Also at Cum- mington and Plainfield. (J. Porter.) ‘The specimens that I have seen of this variety (and they are scattered abundant- ly over the mica slate region west of Connecticut river,) are rather poorly characterized, seeming to be intermediate be- tween limpid and milky quartz. 214 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 7. Radiated Quartz. In the Southampton, Whately and Leverett veins of galena; in abundance. Also in Conway, in veins and loose masses. 8. Tubular Quartz. In greenstone, Deerfield—Lamellae usually applied to one another by their broader faces, and separating as thin as mica, but very brittle. Sometimes. they intersect and produce cells of various forms. Also in Conway, in large loose masses among mica slate. Pieces more than a foot in diameter have been noticed, having both the structures above mentioned. The plates forming the cells are sometimes covered on their broader faces with mi- nute quartz crystals. In some specimens there is a gradation from tabular to common amorphous quartz; the folia becom- ing less and less distinct, and finally disappearing. 9. Granular Quartz. At Vernon, Vermont, forming a bed in argillite. (J. 4. Allen.) 10. Pseudomorphous Quartz. At the Southampton lead mine and in Deerfield greenstone—the impressions being cubical. Atthe latter locality also, a very curious variety of this mineral occurs. The quartz is the common limpid kind; passing, however, in some parts, into chalcedony ; and it contains numerous cavities that diverge from a centre. Their form is that of a four-sided, nearly rectangular prism, generally a little flattened, and, of course, lessening to a point at one end. ‘Their length is from half an inch to four inches. A complete sphere is seldom filled by them; usu- ally not more than a quarter part of it; and at their outer extremity they are so scattered as not to fill half the surface of the sphere. I have sometimes observed these cavities proceeding from different centres, crossing one another. Although it is no uncommon thing to meet with these eavi- ties, yet I have never found any mineral occupying them. An interesting question then occurs; by what were they once occupied? The probability is, that it was some vari- ety of zeolite. Yet no zeolite of this description has been found in the greenstone in the vicinity. It exists in balls perfectly filled; the crystals usually circular, and the con- eretion never much larger than a musket ball. But thezeo- lite, it is well known, does occur in radiated masses several Geology, &c of the Connecticut. 215 inches in diameter, the outer extremity of which presents the form of the prism. Iam rather disposed to believe that these cavities were once filled by a mineral not differing much from the Thomsonite of Dumbarton in Scotland. Some varieties of quartz occur along the primitive region of the Connecticut that can hardly be referred to any of the preceding. ‘Thus, there isa variety very abundant in beds and tuberculous masses in mica slate and argillite, which differs in nothing from limpid quartz, except that it is color- ed crimson red; and perhaps it ought to be referred to fer- ruginous quartz; but it diff-rs from that commonly so cal- led. Another variety is abundant every where, in large rolled masses, of a reddish grey color when broken, with a chonchoida! uneven fracture—the structure being almost granular, and the aspect considerably like hornstone. Anoth- er variety, more rare, occurring in pudding-stone, is of a light blue color, and scarcely translucent; but it can hard- ly be called the blue quartz of mineralogists. Another va- riety is found in granite and in loose masses, and is nearly black, and only, semi-transparent. Another variety has a tinge of yellow—another of green, &c. 16. Amethyst. At Wallingford, Farmington, Berlin and East-Haven. Also at Mount Tom in East-Hampton. (Sil- liman.) Also in greenstone, Deerfield, forming geodes of a light purple; crystals from one tenth of an inch to an inch in diameter. Also in Westminster, Vermont, in crystals an inch and an half in diameter. 17. Ferruginous Quartz. At Litchfield. (Brace.) 18. Fetid Quartz. I have recently found this in several places, from Woodbridge, near New-Haven, to Bellows- Falls in New-Hampshire, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles, in loose rolled masses. In the vicinity of Con- way it isvery abundant, and occurs crystallized in the com- mon six-sided prisms; which are sometimes so flattened as to be three times as broad as thick. In Conway it occurs in veins in mica slate and granite ; less fetid, however, than that which is found loose on the surface. It is traversed by thin seams, or veins, apparently ferruginous; its color is nearly milk white and its lustre a little resinous. In some specimens the fetid odour is very strong. 216 Geology, S:c. of the Connecticut. 19. Chalcedony. } 1. Common Chalcedony. At East-Haven, in greenstone. (Silliman.) Also in the same rock at Southington, Far- mington, Hadley, Sunderland, Deerfield, Greenfield, Gill, and indeed, in almost every greenstone hillock and ridge from New-Haven to Gill. Its color is light grey, deep grey, brownish, yellowish and greenish grey; it occurs botryoi- dal, mammillary, cylindrical and reniform, and is often of a ee or milky appearance, and frequently, strongly trans- ucent. ) 2. Cacholong. In greenstone, Deerfield. It is associated with common chalcedony, and frequently, envelopes it, or constitutes some of the bands of agates. Its color is milk or yellowish white. 3. Carnelian. In greenstone, Deerfield. United with common chalcedony and cacholong, into which it passes. Its color is usually pale or yellowish red. Jt is not abundant. Also at East-Haven. 4. Sardonyx? Some specimens of the carnelian in Deer- field greenstone, being reddish yellow and orange, appear to belong to this variety ; butit occurs in so small quantities as hardly to be worth noticing. Agate. This occurs at East-Haven and Deerfield; and as it is composed of varieties of chalcedony and quartz, this seems to be the proper place to notice it. A description of a part of the agates occurring in these localities has already been given with sufficient minuteness in the American Jour- nal of Science, and in Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. But since the publication of those accounts. Dr. Dennis Cooley has discovered a new locality in the Deerfield greenstone, from which he has obtained specimens so much superior to those heretofore found that they deserve a particular notice. The following is a description of specimens in his possession. No. 1. Longer diameter of the face of the agate, nine inches—shorter diameter, six inches. Outer zone, greenish chalcedony, half an inch broad. Second zone chalcedony, Geology, Se. of the Connecticut. D17 a little tinged with red, a quarter of an inch broad. The cen- tre is occupied by an amethystin2 + veode of a light purple. Weight of the whole agate, twenty- -three pounds. No. 2. Face seven inches by four—Outer band,. one fourth of an inch wide, of yellowish red carnelian; second band greyish white chalcedony, one fourth ofan inch. The remainder of the space is, occupied by a geode of limpid quartz. The outer coat of carnelian is broken off from a large part of this specimen, leaving bare the whi ish chalce- dony, ‘and it hasa strong resemblance to the human crani- um; exhibiting similar protuberances and concavities. No.3. Face three inches in diameter—outer band of yellow- ish red carnelian—second do. chalcedony a little tinged with red, one tenth of an inch—third do. cacholong, one tenth of an inch—fourth do. light carnelian, one tenth of an inch. The centre is occupied by common quariz, not forming a geode. No. 4. As it appears at one end: Diameter of the face three inches—outer zone three fourths of an inch thick, of yellowish green chalcedony—second do. carnelian, one fourth of an inch—third do. quartz, having a greasy aspect —fourth do, dark grey transluceat chalcedony, a mere line in thickness—fifth do. quartz or milk colored chalcedony, one tenth of an inch—sixth do. dark grey chalcedony, a line broad—seventh do. quartz, one fiftieth of an inch—eight do. dark grey chalcedony, a line broad—ninth do. quartz, one tenth of an inch—tenth do. chalcedony, a line broad—elev- venh do. quartz, one fiftieth of an inch—twelfth do. a line of chaleedony—thirteenth do. quartz, one thirtieth of an inch—fourteenth do. a line of chalcedony. The centre is occupied by limpid quartz. This is a fortification agate, and the parallelism of the several bands is most exactly. preserved, and the angles are perfect. Viewed ona face at right angles to that above described, this specimen exhib- its a fied or ribband agate. No. 5. Made up of an almost countless number of dark- er and lighter colored b ands of whiteand grey chalcedony ——two or three small agates appearing on the same face. Vol. VI. =—ING.F 2 wa 28 218 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. This appears to be a real chalcedonyc ; and such specimens are not uncommon.” * / No. 6. Fortification and Eyed Agates, in cr same speci- men. One of the latter is an inch-in diameter, and has six or seven zones of lighter and darker chaleedony and one of carnelian, enveloping a nucleus of light blue chalcedony. These specimens seein to want nothing but a polish to make them equal to any in the splendid ‘cabana New- Haven. The rock in which they occur is not strictly amyg- daloidal, but contains only a few large cavities; and so firm- ly are the agates fastened into their bed that one is often obliged to break them out by piecemeal; thus ruining the most superb specimens. The larger ones are not very abun- dant. ‘The rock, however, has not been penetrated very far. . Siliceous Sinter. At East- Haddam, i in gneiss and in- eae mica slate. (7. D. Porter and Webster.) 21. Opal. “Common opal has been found in Litchfield, though rarely.” (Brace. ) 22. Flint. Near New-Haven ene in Woodbridge in roll- ed masses. (Silliman.) Dak Howton, At Litehfield. (Brace.) At the Southamp- ton lead mine; also in Conway. Also in greenstone at Southington and Deerfield. At the latter place it occurs in nodules often four or five inches in diameter. Its colors are erey, green. black with a tinge of red, and dark blue. Its fracture is sometimes a little chonchoidal and. glistening, sometimes dull and splintery; and it is scarcely translucent atthe edges. Some specimens considerably resemble sili- ceous slate, and others appear like prase. But Professors Silliman and Dewey (the latter of whom has examined it chemically,) agree in calling it hornstone. Also in Sunder- land in greenstone, in narrow veins—well characterised. 24. Jasper. Near New-Haven in rolled masses. (Gibbs.) Also at Cummington on the banks of Westfield river. (J. Porter.) Also on the banks of Deerfield river in Deerfield, Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 219 and in Conway, Leyden, &c. in rolled fragments, red, black and yellow. _ . em 25. Corundum. At Litchfield, massive and in six-sided prisms, imbedded in massive sappar. (Brace.) 26. Cyanite. At Litchfield, Harwiston, Watertown and near New-Haven. Ci At the former place a mass of this mineral, associated with talc, sulphuret of iron ‘and corundum, is supposed to weigh one thousand five hundred pounds. (Brace.). Also at Middle-Haddam. (Eaton.) Al- so at Chesterfield, Mass. in loosé masses in mica slate; where its bladed or imperfect ptisms, are two feet long. (Hunt.) Also at Granville. (Dewey.) Also at Plainfield. (J. Porter.) Also at. Grafton, Vermont, and Charlestown, New-Hampshire. (Hall.) Also at Bellows.Falls. (Silli- man.) Also at Deerfield, in mica slate. (Williams.). 27. Staurotide. At Bolton, East-Hartford, Beacon-Hill, Litehfield, Harwinton and Chatham. (Siiiman, Brace, Ea- ton and Woodbridge.) Also at Cummington. (J. Porter.) Also at Bellows Falls. (Hall. ) The range of mica slate in which this mineral is found in Bolton, Chatham, &c. extends, with little interruption, into New-Hampshire and Vermont, at least as far as Bellows Falls; and its aspect is very simi- lar throughout, and,scarcely a mile of the distance is it want- ing in staurotide; or rather, wherever I have crossed it, (in perhaps fifty places.) this mineral occurs; as in Vernon, where it is in vast quantities, in North-Wilbraham, Ludlow, Shutesbury, Leverett, Northford, Hinsdale, Chestentield, Putney, Westminster, &c. In Chesterfield, New- Hamp- shire, Dr. J. A. Allen found crystals an inch nal one fourth in diameter, and two inches and an half long, in the valley south-west of the meeting-house. A range of similar mica slate extends through Chesterfield, Mass. into Cummington, Plainfield, Hawley, &e. and here also staurotide occurs in ence: In Chesterfield I noticed a mica slate rock, two or three feet thick, Pootainine seven or eight distinct layers of this mineral. / 28. Bate, At Haddam, in mica slate and granite. (Si/- himan and Webster.) Also at Bellows Falls. (Hal/.) 220 Geology, Scv of the Connecticul. 29. Chrysoberyl. At Maddam, on both sides of the river, in six-sided prisms and six-sided tables, i in granite. (Gibbs. ) 30. Zircon. At Sharon, Litchfield county, in+ quartz. (Stlliiman.) Also at Brimfield, in gheiss. (Eaton.) 31. Siliceous Slate. . Basanite. Sometimes found in alluvial soil on the Hale of Deerfield river; but perhaps brought thither by the aborigines, who made. use of this and of jasper for barbs” to their arrows and pikes. ae 32. Pitchstone. Near New-Haven. (Silliman. ) , 33. Mica. 1. Laminated. At Leverett, Alstead, &c. 2. Lamellar. At Woodbury it is violet. (Si/diman.) Also at Goshen, Mass. yellowish green and violet, and some- times in rhombic tables..(Gibbs.) Of the same colors at Bellows Falls, in granitic veins. (Silliman.) Most of the mica in the eranitic veins in Conway, Ashfield, Williams- burgh, Chesterfield, &c. is straw yellow,” BV 5 a rose- red, and in these veins it exists in excess. It occurs in these and other towns also, in granite of a smoky or nearly black color. 3. Prismatic Mica. Near Watertown. (Silliman.) At Litchfield. (Brace.) Neil 34. Shorl. tame | 1. Common Shorl. At Haddam, in six-sided prisms, ‘ter- minated by three-sided pyramids. (Gabbs and Webster.) It occurs in almost every town in the primitive region along the Connecticut. Localities where it is found abundant, or beautiful, are Pelham, Shutesbury, Orange and Brattle- borough. At the latter place it is found abundantly near the centre of the town in mica slate orhornblende slate ; and also near the north line of the town (mentioned in Cleaveland’s Mineralogy as occurring: in Dummerston,) it Geology, Yc. of the Connecticut. 221 exists in crystals half an inch in diameter and often four or five inches long, sometimes terminated by three-sided pyr- amids, in common white quartz.’ The contrast renders the specimens quite beautiful, and one large loose mass lies on the surface nearly (wo feet in diameter, which would be an ornament to a mineral cabinet. 2. Green Tourmaline. At Chesterfield and Goshen, Mass. (Gibbs.) These interesting localities have been so well described by Col. Gibbs, as to render any farther remarks unnecessary. (Am. Jour. Vol. I. p. 346.) 3. Indicolite. At Chesterfield and Goshen. (Gibds.) At Bellows Falls. (Scd/iman.) “At Hinsdale, New-Hamp- shire, in granite, in great abundance. (J. 4. Allen.) .This locality is found most readily by taking the road from Hins- dale to Winchester. : 35. Rubellite. At Chesterfield and Goshen, Mass. (Gibbs. ) See his account in the Journal of Science, as above cited. 36. Feldspar. , -1. Common Feldspar. Near Haddam, greenish and trans- lucent. (McEwen.) In the same vicinity itis of a light flesh color, and in Jarge masses in granitic veins and beds. Also of the same color in pudding-stone, Deerfield. Also in large, bluish, imperfect crystals, in granite, Leverett. It occurs, of course, abundantly in all that part of the map colored as granite, gneiss and sienite. . 2. Adularia. At Haddam. (fT. D. Porter.) At West- Springfield and Southampton lead mine. (Waterhouse.) At Brimfield. (Eaton.) . 3. Siliceous Feldspar. (Gibbs.) At Chesterfield, Mass. and Haddam. (Gibbs.) Also at Goshen—a new variety, discovered by Dr. Hunt. . 37. Precious Emerald. At Haddam? For a discussion of the subject whether this mineral exists in the United States, see Cleaveland’s Mineralogy, Vol. 1. p. 341. 222 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 38. Beryl. At Brookfield, Huntington and Haddam. (Sid- liman.) Also at Litchfield. (Brace.) Also at Chatham. (Mather.) Also at Chesterfield, Mass. and Goshen. (Gibbs.) At Chesterfield and Haddam the crystals are sometimes from nine to twelve inches in diameter. At Goshen some are rose-colored. J-found some crystals of beryl four or five miles north of the centre of Haddam. oa 39. Garnet. At Haddam—four inches diameter. (Siddi- man.) Also at Tolland, nearly rose-red. (Webster.) Also at the cobalt mine, Chatham, in mica slate, crystallized in rhombic.dodecaedrons, or rather six-sided prisms termina- ted by three sided pyramids—the prisms often considerably elongated—color pale red—size that of a common musket bullet. Alsoat Plainfield, in limpid quartz, in trapezoedrons, or having at least as many as twenty-four sides—color of the mass nearly iron black. Found by J. Porter. Also at the same place in talco-micaceous slate, in dodecae- drons; color brownish red; size of a pea. Also at the same place, in dodecaedrons, truncated and striated on all their edges by hexaedral faces; presenting thirty-six faces in the whole—color dull red—size of a common: bullet. Also at the same place in talcose slate, in dodecaedrons of the same color, sometimes two inches in diameter. Also at Chesterfield, Mass. with sappar, in trapezoedrons ; color light rose-red—size ofa pea. Also in hornblende and mi- ca-slate, in Conway'and Deerfield; color nearly black— crystals dodecaedrons—-sometimes as large as a Common bullet. Also in Conway, a loose mass, almost wholly made up of small black garnets’in dodecaedrons—size less than one tenth of an inch in diameter, and with scarcelyany dif- ference in the size of hundreds. Also at Marlborough, Ver- mont, one mile south of the meeting-house, in dodecaedrons of a cherry-red, in chlorite slate; but hardly the precious garnet. They'occur at this spot in immense quantities, and beautiful specimens may easily be obtained. A bun- dred other localities of the common garnet might be men- tioned; since it occurs in all our primitive rocks: but the most interesting have been noticed. “1. Pyrope. At Brimfield, Mass. in granite, the feldspar of which is light green—in rounded irregular masses of a del- dis ¥ Geology, Yc. of the Connecticut. 223 icate poppy red, much resembling some varieties of the ru- by. ‘It scratches crystallized quartz,’? says. Professor Dewey, ‘“‘and melts, rather hardly, into a dark enamel.” Found in digging a well. | 2. Colophonite. At Conway ? 40. Magnesian Garnet. At Haddam. (Vide Cleaveland’s Min. Vol. 2. p. 777.) ~ 41. Epidote. At Milford Hills, in primitive greenstone. (Siulliman.) Also.at Litchfield and Washington, in graphic granite and sienite; crystallized. (Brace.) Also at Had- dam, crvstallized. Also at Tolland. (Webster.) Also at Athol, Worcester county, Mass. in prismatic bladed crys- tals, associated with black radiated schorl and hornblende. Also in Shutesbury, in small crystals in gneiss.’ It occurs also in a great many other places, disseminated in various rocks, and not very interesting. . i. Zorsite. At Haddam. (Webster.) Also at Wardsbo- rough, Vermont, in much compressed, greenish grey, pris- matic¢ crystals; sometimes a foot long and-one or two inch- es wide. (Dewey.)- Discovered by Dr. J. A. Allen. Also at Leyden, Brattleborough and Westmoreland. (Hall.) 2. Arenaceous Epidote. At Haddam. (Webster.) Also at Shutesbury, Leyden, Shelburne, Buckland, Whately, Belchertown, Monson, anda great number of places, in hornblende and greenstone slate. 42. Prehnite. Near New-Haven, in secondary green- stone, in radiated masses, or in veins. Also at Woodbury, in the same sort of rock, in mammillary, botryoidal and al-. most globular masses. (Sti/limun.) Also between Simsbury and Wintonbury, in mammillary masses in greenstone. (Hayden.) Also in Deerfield, Greenfield, and, indeed, in almost every part of the secondary greenstone ranges from New-Haven to Gill; mall the forms mentioned above. Jn Deerfield the radiated masses sometimes contain pyritous copper. They occur there, also, on pseudomorphous quartz, having evidently been formed since the decomposition of the crystals originally occupying the cavities. In the same » 224 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. place, | have found prehnite crystallized in groups on chal- cedony; but could not determine the form of the crystal. Also near Bellows Falls in primitive rocks. I saw speci- mens in the cabinet of Dr. Wells; but was not informed of the precise locality: yet the mica attached ‘to the speci- mens indicated their detachment from the older classes of rocks. , 43. Stilhite. At Woodbury, well characterized. (Sidl- man.) Also-at Deerfield in secondary greenstone ; usually associated with chabasie. Its crystals appear to be right prisms,: whose bases are rhombs with angles of about 60° and 120°. They. rarely exceed one tenth of an inch in their longest direction. They are frequently grouped so as to become mere foliated masses. The lustre of the fo- lia is pearly, and they are usually’ a little curved; color white. ‘On hot coals it whitens and before the blow-pipe intumesces and melts into a white spongy enamel. It is but rarely met with. ; 44. Zeolite. Near New-Haven it is found in secondary greenstone, crystallized, or radiated, or mealy. (Sidiiman.) Also at Deerfield, in radiated fibrous masses, sometimes as largeas amusket bullet,or morerarely an inch in diameter. 45, Laumonite. In secondary greenstone, also in loose rolled masses of pudding-stone near New-Haven. (Stldiman.) 46. Analcmme. At East-Haven, with chalcedony and agates. (7. D. Porter.) Also ‘at Meriden, Connecticut. (Silliman.) Also at Deerfield, usually in laminated or ra- diated masses, which are reniform, cylindrical and nearly spherical. Very rarely in trapezoidal crystals—color white, grey aid flesh-colored. Associated with calcareous spar, quartz, chalcedony, &c. and frequently effervesces a little with the acids. : 47. Chabasie. At Deerfield, in cavities and seams in se- condary greenstone ; usually crystallized in transparent, or brownish, or yellowish crystals; presenting the primitive form, from one twentieth to one fourth of an inch in diame- ter, insulated and grouped on limpid, pseudomorphous and * Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 225 tabular quartz, chalcedony, balls of zeolite, &c. Hundreds of specimens have been obtained at this place. ‘To procure them, however, requires much labour. 48. Apophyllite. Near Saybrook, Connecticut. (Gibbs.) 49. Tremolite. At Milford, Washington, Goshen, Canaan, (Conn.) &c. in dolomite and granular limestone. (Silliman.) A mineral is found at Leyden in great quantities, associated with quartz, limestone &c. and sometimes forming the gangue of the red oxid of titanium; the same occurs also at West Ha- ven or Orange in hornblende—also at Leyden? at Colrain? at Shelburne? at Conway? at Goshen? (Mass.) at Guil- ford? and Brattleborough ? Vt. and in various instances, in vast abundance: this mineral has generally been called tremolile, and sometimes zoizite, but it is probably scapolite. 50. Asbestus. At New-Haven and Milford, in serpentine, very beautiful. (Silliman.) Also at Pelham, Mass. where it occurs with serpentine and talc. ac anthis- At New-Haven and Milford. Also at Wash- ington. (Silliman.) 51. Augite. At Litchfield in dolomite—the whitish varie- ty. (Brace.) Also at Brookfield and Washington in dolomite. (Eaton.) Also at Goshen, Mass. in granite, in flattened greenish gray prisms, sometimes eight inches long and two inches wide. This locality is one mile north of the meet- ing house, on the road to Ashfield. Also at Deerfield, in secondary greenstone, associated with quartz and calcareous spar, either in irregular veins or imperfect crystals—colour black—not abundant. 1. Sahlite. Near New-Haven in serpentine rocks belong- ing to the formation of verd-antique marble. (Silliman.) 52. Common Hornblende. This, of course, occurs in great quantities as a constituent of several rocks marked on the map ; indeed, it may be found in a good degree of pu- rity almost every where along the Connecticut, either in place or in rolled masses. Vol. VI.—WNo. 2. 29 - 226 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 1. Lamellar Hornblende. Good specimens are found in Holland Mass. (Eaton.) Also in Leverett, Sunderland, Con- way, &c. of a black colour, in Shutesbury it is green. It is found in sienitic granite and gneiss, in scales that are easily mistaken for black mica. 2. Fibrous Hornblende. At Leyden, the fibres very fine. Also near Bellows Falls. extremcly beautiful, associated with quartz. Aijso in Shelburne, Conway, Goshen, &c. in mica slate, in large and broad fibres or lamellae. 3. Fascicultic. This is composed of fibres, or ratherin many instances, of lamellae, frequently more than ~; of an inch broad, diverging at both ends, soas to occupy usually, as many as 60° of a circle. These lamellae are commonly inserted perpendicularly to the folia of the slate in which they occur. and are applied to each other by their broader faces, being bent outwards on both sides, somewhat like a bow, and pre-. senting elegant and very perfect fascicles. Tne fibres or lamellae, scarely, if ever, cross one another; yet some- times they diverge in nearly straight lines, and sometimes are so much curved as to resemble very exactly a sheaf of grain when standing erect. (See Plate 9,) The figure in the plate does not give a representation more regular or dis- tinct than many of the most perfect specimens present. The length of the fibres or lamellae varies from one to four inch- es. Itis foundi mica slate and talco-micaceous slate in Hawley, Plainfield, and Conway. Probably this variety is comprehended under Fibrous Hornblende by Cleaveland ; and perhaps specimens as perfect as those described above are not unfrequent. But so exact and striking an instance do these exhibit of the fascicular structure of minerals, that I could not resist the temptation to denominate them Fusci- cultte. A. Hornblende Slate. For an account of this, see the Geo- logical part of this sketch. 53, Actynolite. At Saybrook, and near N. Haven in ser- pentine. (Silliman.) Also at Litchfield. (Brace.) Also at Middlefield. (Dewey.) Also at Hawley. (Eaton.) Also at Cummington. (J. Porter.) Alsoat Windham in compressed Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 227 four sided prisms, in steatite and talc; the specimens su- perb. (Hall.) Also at Chatham Ct. near the bank of the river opposite the upper ferry in Haddam, in an enormous granitic vein; associated with black schorl, magnetic oxide of iron, &c. Also at Belchertown, Also at Shutesbury in gneiss. Alsoat New Salem inacicular crystals in chlorite. Also at New Fane, where it was discovered by Dr. J. A. Allen. It occurs in steatite in four sided, sometimes very perfect, sometimes flattened and striated crystals, five or six inches long, often half an inch broad, generally radiated, sometimes curved and crossing one another. The colour is a dark beautiful green, and the specimens are very elegant. 54. Anthophillite. It is said to have been found near Saybrook (Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. ) 55. Diallage. In serpentine rocks near New-Haven— well characterised. (Hall.) Also in Conway? in granite. 56. Macle. At Bellows Fal's, Croyden, Cornish, Charles- town, Langdon and Alstead in argillite. (Hall.) According to Mr. Nuttall, the foliated mineral occurring so abundantly in the mica slate in Chesterfield, Plainfield, Hawley, Heath, &c. being usually inserted in small bronze coloured plates, nearly at right angles with the folia of the slate, may be macle. 57. Serpentine. 1. Precious Serpentine. At Milford, in nodules or irregu- lar masses in primitive limestone. (Silliman.) 2. Common Serpentine. In extensive beds and variously blended with limestone at Milford and New-Haven, forming the Verd Antique. (Silliman.) Also at Westfield in granite. (Eaton.) Also at Middlefield, associated with steatite. (Dew- ey.) Also at Grafton, Windham and Putney, Vermont, in large insulated masses weighing many tons. (J. A. Allen.) Also at Pelham Mass. in a large loose mass penetrated by asbestus and associated with tale. Also at Leyden, Shel- burne, Deerfield, &c. in small rolled masses. 58. Talc. 228 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 1. Common Talc. At Haddam, Litchfield and Southamp- ton. (Cleaveland) Also at Cummington in steatite. (J. Por- ter.) Also at Middlefield in steatite. (Dewey.) Also at Windham in steatite—lamine very large and beautiful. (Hall.) Also in New Fane in steatite—specitnens laminated and el- egant. (J. A. Allen.) Also at Pelham, associated with ser- pentine and asbestus. Also at Rowe. 2. Indurated Talc. At Milford marble quarry. (Silli- man.) 3. Scaly Talc. At Windham and New Fane. (J. A. Allen,) = - Steatite. 1. Common Steatite. Near New-Haven and at Litchfield. (Cleaveland.) Also at Middlefield connected, with serpen- tine and mica slate, and crystallized in six sided prisms ter- minated by six sided pyramids. (Dewey.) Also at Grafton and Windham. (Hall.) Also at New Fane and Marlbo- rough. (J. A. Allen.) Also at Savoy and Cummington (J. Porter.) Also at Westminster, Vermont, where, as well as at Grafton, it is wrought into aqueducts and answers a valuable purpose. Also at New Salem forming a bed in gneiss. 2. Potstone. At Grafton, Vermont, in large quantities. (Hall.) 60. Chlorite. 1. Common Chlorite. Near New-Haven, penetrating quartz and calcareous spar, and in greenstone. (Silliman.) Also at Saybrook, crystallized. (T. D. Porter.) Also at Wardsborough, Vermont, in dark green folia. (Dewey.) Also at Halifax, Leyden, Conway, &c. foliated. Also at Miller’s Falls in Montague penetrating milk white quartz. Also at New Salem. Also in greenstone amygdaloid at Deerfield, Greenfield, Gill, &c. It fills two thirds of the cavities in some varieties of greenstone, and to the naked eye has a radiated aspect, but Professor Dewey remarks, Geology, &c. of the Conneeticut. 2.29 that it does not appear to be radiated under a magnifier, great or small; but to consist of folia curiously arranged often with no regularity and their length somewhat greater than their breadth.”’ 2. Chlorite Slate. For an account of this, see the map and the Geological part of this sketch. 3. Green Earth. A art of the chlorite described above in the amygdaloid in Deerfield, &c. appears to belong to this variety. 61. Argillaceous Slate. 1. Argillite. 2. Shale. 3. Bituminous Shale. For a description of these minerals the reader is referred to the Geological part of this sketch. 62. Claystone. This is found in rolled peices in the bed of Connecticut river below where it cuts through the coal formation at Gill; and probably this mineral is worn from thence by the water. The pieces frequently occur in the form ofa prolate spheroid, sometimes flattened, even to the shape of a wheel, and sometimes assuming shapes bearing a resemblance to the sculptured images of Persia and India. It is opaque—colour, light gray—scarcely adheres to the tongue, and yields a slight argillaceous odour—fracture dull and uneven, a little conchoidal—easily scratched with a knife and even by: the finger nail; yet its particles scratch iron. It does not effervesce with acids. 63. Clay. 1. Porcelain Clay. At Washington Ct. in small quantities. (Cleaveland.) Also at Plainfield. (Silliman.) Also at Con- way and Leyden in small quantities. "2. Potters Clay. In the older alluvion along the Connect- icut, abundant. . 230 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 3. Loam. In the newest alluvion along the Connecticut. 4. Fuller’s Earth. At the bed of iron ore in Kent. (Silli- man.) | 64. Sulphur. This occurs pulverulent in small. quantities in mica slate, in Warwick, Shelburne, Conway, &c. Per- haps it proceeds from the decomposition of some sulphuret. 65. Graphite. At Cornwall, Connecticut. (Brace.) Also at Tolland. (Webster.) Also at Hebron and Sharon. (Cleaveland.) Also between Sturbridge and Holland, Mass. 66. Coal. At Durham, Middletown, Chatham, Southing- ton, Berlin, Suffield, Enfield, Somers, Ellington and South Hadley. (Silliman.) Also in the drift of the Southampton lead mine. From some of these localities, the coal is high- ly bituminous, in others scarcely so atall. 67. Lignite. 1. Jet. At South Hadley. (Gibbs.) \ 68. Peat. In small quantities at Leverett, Mass. 69. Native Silver. At Huntington in the bismuth mine. Also at West River Mountain, Chesterfield, New-Hamp- shire. (Silliman.) After the remarks and explanations giv- en by Prof. Silliman. (Am. Journ. Sci. Vol. LI. p. 74. note,) no reasonable doubt can remain concerning this last locality. 70. Sulphuret of Silver. In Connecticut it is said to have been found. (Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.) 71. Native Copper. At Bristol, Connecticut, in a vein with the red oxide of copper. (Gibbs.) Also on the Ham- den hills, a mass of about ninety pounds, adhering to the rock. Also twelve miles from New-Haven near the Hart- ford turnpike, a mass of six pounds in alluvial soil. (Silli- man) Also at Whately, Mass. in geest, on the limit be- tween the primitive and alluvial soil, and about five miles Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 231 from secondary greenstone or the coal formation. The piece weighs seventeen ounces and very much resembles the last mass above described, exhibiting imperfect rudi- ments of octaedral crystals on the surface, and being encrust- ed by green carbonate of copper. The cavities also con- _tain a very little red oxide of copper. 72. Sulphuret of Copper. Near New-Haven, at Simsbury mine, &c. (Silliman.) 73. Pyritous Copper. At Cheshire, Simsbury, &c. (Silli- man.) Also at the Southampton lead mine, where it occurs amorphous and crystallized in regular tetraedrons which are insulated on calcareous spar. For the specimens contain- ing these crystals, | am indebted to Dr. David Hunt. Also at the Leverett lead mine amorphous. Also in greenstone, Deerfield. Also at Greenfield in veins, in greenstone and sandstone. 74, Variegated Pyritous Copper. This occurs sparingly disseminated in calcarescus spar in sandstone of the coal for- mation. In the island in the middle of Connecticut river at the falls in Gill. 1am indebted to Prof. Dewey for the de- termination of this mineral. 75. Antimonial Gray Copper. Near Hartford, in the red sandstone formation. (coal formation ?) (Maclure.) 76. White Copper. At Fairfield ?* Connecticut. (Silli- man.) 77. Red Oxide of Copper. At Bristol, in a vein with na- tive copper. (Gibbs.) Also with native copper in the green- stone mountains extending northerly from New-Haven. (Silliman.) 78. Green Carbonate of Copper. At Greenfield, near the Falls in Gill, in two veins with pyritous copper, in considera- ble abundance near the surface. {t is amorphous and ever earthy. * There is great reason to believe that this locality is not correct.—Editor. ¥ “4 232 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 1. Fibrous Malachite. At Cheshire, &e.’ in small but good specimens. (Silliman.) 79. Arsenical Iron? or Arsenical Sulphuret of Iron? At Gill in a loose mass weighing several pounds. Found by Dr. Alpheus Stone. 80. Sulphuret of Iron. (Pyrites—Iron Pyrites.) This is found in every town and in almost every rock along the Connecticut ; as in the bituminous-shale at Westfield and Sunderland, compact and amorphous; also in other rocks of the coal formation. Also at Plainfield, disseminated in limpid quartz. Also at Hawley, compact and unmixed with any gangue. Also at Halifax, Vermont in an immense mass found in digging a cellar. Also with micaceous oxide of iron at Montague. Also at the Southampton lead mine, beautifully crystallized in octaedrons which are truncated in all their angles. It is grouped or insulated on crystallized quartz, and the crystals are about as large as a small shot, yet perfectly distinct and weil marked. 81. Magnetic Sulphuret of Iron. At Brookfield, abundant in granite. Also at Huntington with bismuth, &c. (Silli- man.) Also near Woodbury in gneiss. (Katon.) 82. Arsenical Sulphuret of Iron. At Derby Middle- town, and the Chatham Cobalt mine. (Silliman.) Also at Leicester, Mass. in gneiss. (Dewey.) 83. Magnetic Oxide of Iron. At Somerset, Vermont, in beds frem one inch to two feet thick, in mica slate. (J. A. Allen.) At Chatham, near the bank of the river, Oppo- site the upper ferry in Haddam, in a granite vein with schorl, actynolite, garnets, &c. ‘The crystals are octae- drons, well defined, and often nearly an inch in diameter. Also at Plainfield, Shelburne, Athol, Shutesbury, &c. in smaller octaedrons in mica slate and gneiss. Also in beds in talcose slate at Hawley. Also in beds in Bernardstown. 1. Iron Sand. At West Haven beach abundant. (Silli- man.) Also on the beach near the Light House in East Haven in great abundance. Also a little below Turner’s Falls in Gill, on the southeast bank of Connecticut river. * Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 233 84. Specular Oxide of Iron. _ Sometimes covering quartz and other minerals 5 5 as at New Fane and Leyden; but not abundant. 85. Micaceous Oxide of Iron. At Jamaica, Vermont, in dolomite; very handsome. (J. 4. Allen.) Also at Haw- ley and at- Montague: for a description of which, see the general view of mineral veins aud beds that precedes this list of minerals. 86. Red Oxide of fron. : i Scaly Red Oxide of Iron. At Rent Scare okie, (Gibbs.) | | pap ped Hemauiten Ad Kenta: (Gibbss) 87. Brown Owide of Iron. 1. Brown Hematite. At Salisbury and Kent, Connecti- cut. (Siiiman.) Also at Westriver mountain in Chester- field, New-Hampshire, in mica slate. j 88, Argillaceous Ovnide of Iron. 1. Granular Argillaceous Oxid of Iron. At Salisbury. (Cleaveland. ) 2. Nodular Argillaceous Oxide of Iron. At Putney, Ver- mont, in beds of common clay. The masses are oval and elongated, ernbracing an earthy nucleus. Also near the falls in Gill; in a dark hard slate of the coal formation. 3. Bog Ore. At-New Braintree, Massachusetts, where itis wrought—also at Greenfield. ~ 89. Carbonate of Iron, (spathic iron.) At New-Milford, in abundance, (Silliman. ) 90. Sulphate of Iron. eer er on mica slate in small _ quantities in Conway, Hawley, &. 91. Chromaie of Iron. At New-Haven and Milford ; dis- Vou. VI.—No. IT. 30 234 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. seminated in the verd Antique marble. (Sidliman.) Also at Middlefield in serpentine. (Eaton.) ' Also at Cummington, well characterized and almost exactly resembling the Bal- timore chromate ; in a loose mass—Found by Dr. J. Por- ter. 92. Sulphuret of Lead. At Middletown, Southington, and Huntington, where it is uncommonly argentiferous, and at Bethlehem, (Silliman.) Also-at Berlin, (Percival.) Also at Southampton, Montgomery, Hatfield, Leverett, where are two localities, and Whately. At these places the struc- ture of the ore is commonly foliated, sometimes granular and sometimes in cubical crystals. 93. Carbonate of Lead. This exists in the cavities of the matrix of the lead mine at Southampton. Its colour is white or mixed with yellow. - Before the blow pipe it de- crepitated and readily yielded a globuleof lead. It occurs crystalized.as follows.—1. Two six sided pyramids united at their bases and deeply truncated at their apices—making fourteen faces to the crystal—2. A six sided prism, ter- minated by four sided pyramids, two of the faces being en- larged—fourteen faces to the crystal.—3. Tabular prisms with bevelments on the edges; but the precise form I could not determine. . These tables frequently cross one another. ai, 94. Carbonated Muriate of Lead. At the Southampton lead mine in light green groups of cubic crystals, termina- ted by tetraedral pyramids. (Meade.) . 95. Sulphate of Lead. At Huntington with argentifer- ous galena. (Silliman.) Also at Southampton lead mine, in plates or tables on galena. (Meade.) 96. Phosphate of Lead. At Southampton lead mine, in light green spherical masses, having a radiated structure. 97. Molybdate of Lead. At Southampton lead mine in tabular, wax yellow crystals. (Meade.) 98. Sulphuret of Zinc. At Berlin. (Silliman.) - Also at Southampton lead mine, foliated and crystallized. The | Geology, §c. of the Ciengationt 235 crystais are so grouped that it is difficult, in the specimens which I saw, to seize upon the precise form. I think, how- ever, I found the octaedron with truncated pyramids. Also at Leverett, foliated. 99. Avena Nickel. At Chatham, associated with ar- senical cobalt. (Pierce and Torrey.) ding Aecchaal Cobalt. Av Chatham. (Silman, 101. Arseniate of Cobalt. At Chatham. . (Pierce and Torrey.) : 102. Oxrde of Manganese. At Leverett, in alluvial soil forming a bed five or six inches thick a few inches below the surface. It isin rounded irregular masses from the size of a pea to an inch in diameter and considerably resem- bles granular oxide of Iron. . Also at Deerfield; forming crusts on quartz and mica slate. 103. Native Bismuth. At Huntington. (Silliman.) 104. Native Antimony. At Harwinton, Litchfield coun- ty, in broad plates. (Silliman.) | 105. Sulphuret of Antimony, At Harwinton.* (Silli- man.) Also near South Hadley. (Gibbs.) . 106. Native Tellurium. At Huntington, associated with tungsten, bismuth, silver, &c. (Silliman.) 107. Sulphuret of Molybdena. At Saybrook. (T. D. Porter.) Also at East-Haddam and Shutesbury. (Silliman.) Also at Brimfield. (Eaton.) 108. Yellow Oxide of Tungsten. A new species discov- ered, analyzed and described by Professor Silliman. At Huntington ina gangue of quartz. 109. Calcareous Oxide of Tungsten. At Huntington. (Silliman. ) 110. Ferruginous Oaide of Tungsien.. At Huntington. (Silliman. ) * 104 and 105 need confirmation.—Editor. 236 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 111. Red Oxide of Titanium. Near New-Haven—also at Oxford inJarge geniculated crystals in mica slate—also at Huntington, at the bismuth, mine;—crystals as large as the thumb and geniculated. (Silliman.) Also at Litchfield, sometimes reticulated on mica slate. (Brace.) Also at Worthington, Massachusetts, in quartz. (Brace.) Also at Leyden, in four or eight sides, often handsomely genic- ulated, generally striated, crystals; in limpid quartz, tremo- lite and hornblende. Some of the specimens have several. geniculations and areas large as the thumb. Hundreds of ood specimens have been collected at this locality. Also at Brattleborough, Colrain. Shelburne, and Conway, in quartz, mica slate and tremolite, At Shelburne | found its crystals penetrating a vein of quartz in mica slate in place. In Conway a few small crystals have been observed exhib- iting the primitive form and presenting the ‘ kind-of twin crystal,” described in Rees Cyclopedia, Art. Rutile. This mineral, indeed, may be found in almost any spot between Conway and Brattleborough, on a strip several miles wide. 112. Silico-Calcareous Oxide of Titanium. At Brattlebo- rough, near the north line of the town ina bowlder of gra- nite, which has flesh coloured feldspar—colour dark brown, or chesnut. Some of the crystals appear to be six sided prisms. (Dewey.) These prisms are terminated, if I mistake not by three sided pyramids. I also noticed a four sided, flattened and striated prism, whose terminations could not be determined. ‘sa 113. Ferruginous Owide of Columbium, At Haddam, in granite. (Berzelius and Torrey.) Remark:—Since the above list of localities was comple- ted the following have occurred; but as they cannot be conveniently inserted in their proper places they may be mentioned here. , Fibrous Limestone, Satin Spar, in bituminous shale— with Ichthyolites at Sunderland. Andalusite, at Litchfield, Delafield. [To be concluded in the next Number. | Mr. Pierce on the Alluvial District of New-Jersey. 237 Arr. I1.—.Votice of the Alluvial District of New-Jersey, with remarks on the application of the rich mari of that region to agriculture. By James Pinrce, Esq. The triangular peninsula situated in the southern part of New-Jersey is bordered on the south and east by Delaware Bay and the ocean, on the north by the Raritan, and west by the river Delaware. « It is about one hundred and ten miles in length by eighty in breadth, and is entirely alluvial. South of the Nevesink hills it seldom rises sixty feet above the sea. These hills border Amboy Bay and the entrance of Shrewsbury creek for several miles, and extend with di- minished height to the Delaware. They are elevated adja- cent to the sea three hundred and ten feet above its level, and occupy ground where formerly the waves of the ocean roll- ed. ‘They rest in some places on banks of oyster-shells and other marine relics, blended with clay and sea-mud. Above the calcareous beds is a layer of dark clay. A sandy earth highly colored by oxide of iron and imbedding red- dish brown sand and pudding stone cemented by iron, com- poses the higher strata—large rocks and beds of ferrugin- ous sandstone, apparently in place, of a more recent forma- tion than the alluvial region below, and embracing sufficient metal to be called an ore of iron, are of frequent occur- rence. Particles of iron are blended with the sand of the beach. Some of the streams which descend from the top of the clay strata are red with oxide of iron. Efflorescences of the sulphates of iron and alumine are often observed. Flame proceeding from the spontaneous combustion of gases probably generated in beds of sulphu- ret of iron, has been noticed on these mountains. The strata of the steep eastern declivities are exhibited by frequent land slips. Buta small portion of the eastern section of the Nevesink hills is under cultivation. They present a woody region, in which deer are sometimes shel- tered. From the summit of these hills a view of the ocean is disclosed in grandeur unrivalled on our sea-board. The coast is presented to the north-east and south as far as vis- ion can reach. The land prospect is extensive and inter- esting. 238 Mr. Pierceon the Alluvial District of New-Jersey. Sandy-Hook, situated east of the Nevesink hills, from which it is separated by a narrow bay, is six miles in length ; in width it seldom exceeds half a mile. It was formerly an island, butthe channel affording a direct water communication between the sea and Shrewsbury river, isnow filled up. This peninsula exhibits an alternation of barren sand hillocks, plains and cedar thickets. The sand-banks are often laid low by sweeping tempests. ‘I'he hillocks of Sandy-Hook and of our southern sea-board are many of them formed by the lodgment of sand around a cedar or other bush, increas- ing with the growth of the plant, and when the bush is no more the hill disappears. ‘The beach and sandy elevations from a short distance resemble a snow covered surface. There is no creek or inlet on the sea-shore from the light-house, which is situated on the northern extremity of Sandy-Hook, to Long-Branch, a distance of twelve miles. A walk or ride upon the hard beach at low tide is interest- ing, particularly by moon-light, when an extensive range of coast is seen, whitened by successive breakers—wrecks of vessels are visible at short intervals, melancholy monuments of the dangers of the sea. For many miles no houses, enclosures or signs of human occupancy are in view. Long-Branch is much resorted to for sea-bathing ; its situation is good. ‘The land: adjacent to the ocean is at this place compact, and rises perpendicu- larly from the beach near twenty feet. Waves in a tempest often roll over this bank, making encroachments by their friction. The neighboring country is level, free from marshes, and under cultivation. ‘The boarding-houses are situated about twenty rods from the water, leaving hand- some lawns in the intermediate space. The high banks of the sea and of Shrewsbury river are formed by strata of sand, clay and sea-mud. The clay isin many places white with saline efflorescences, principally sulphate of alumine. Much of the land situated in the northern part of the pe- ninsula is under cultivation, and in some of the townships of Monmouth county, adjacent to Amboy Bay and the ocean, a considerable portion of the land is good, and has been ren- dered very productive by the application of marl. Six years since, but one or two small beds of this valuable ma- nure were known in this region, and but few experiments of its utility had been made. ‘The inhabitants, ignorant of its Mr. Pierce on the Alluvial District of New-Jersey. 239 character and value and of modes of examination, had pass- ed rich beds without regard; marl is nowextensively used and highly esteemed. The marl district extends from the hills of Nevesink ad- jacent to the ocean, to the Delaware, and is in width about twelve miles. Marl has been discovered in numerous pla- ces ofthis tract. It is often noticed on the banks of streams and breaking out of hills of which it forms the nulceus, wav- ing with the surface, and thus rendering access easy. These beds, apparently inexhaustible, are in some places elevated near one hundred feet above the level of the sea. This marl is composed of sand, clay and calcareous earth, blended with shells and other marine organic remains, in different stages of decay. The shells, more or less entire, are not mineralized. Exposed on the surface they gradual- ly decay, furnishing fresh manure for the soil. I visited several beds of marl and found them of a pretty uniform character. The color is generally grey or greyish white, and good in proportion to its whiteness, which indi- cates the quantity of calcareous earth it contains. From thirty to eighty loads of marl, according to its strength, are spread upon an acre. Itis believed that a good dressing will last from twelve to twenty years. The lands of Mon- mouth county are said to be enhanced in value more than halfa million of dollars by the discovery and use of marl. A respectable farmer of Middletown mentioned to me, that five years since he contemplated abandoning his large farm for land of other districts, as his own was unproductive. Learning the discovery of marl, he made himself acquainted with the modes of examining, and found good beds of this manure in almost every field, and liberally applied dressings to the soil. In walking over his grounds I observed rich white marl breaking out of banks and hillocks, and the streams paved with decaying marine shells. For more than a century this land had been regarded by the proprietors as useless. The farm in its improved state exhibited a gratifying sight; the hills where formerly thorns, thistles and mullens disputed the dominion, now supported luxuriant corn. Ex- tensive verdant meadows were clothed with a rank second crop of grass; numerous stacks of grain and well-filled barns evinced the productiveness of these fields, which are now estimated at three times the former value. 240 Mr. Pierce on the Alluvial District of New-Jersey.” This marl is adapted for both sandy and clay earths. It was remarked to me by farmers of Monmouth county, that Jands manured with mar! are less affected by dry weather than other grounds. ‘This doubtless arises from its render- ing the soil a better medium ito retain moisture. When there is too much clay, the numerous shells and fragments in the marl] keep the soil loose and suffer water to penetrate —and if too sandy, the calcareous ingredients attract and retain moisture, while the wae of the marl improves the texture of the soil. The rich marls found in Monmouth county adjacent to navigable rivers, might be advantageously: transported. to fertilize the sandy lands of the southern ae of Long and Staten Islands. Though marl is now employed ina comparatively small district of New-Jersey, it is probable from the character of the region, that it may be found throughout our alluvial sea- board, and would be very valuable where gypsum is power- less. Strata of marl have been passed through in sinking wells many.miles south of ee and also near the Delaware. Shells and the bones of fish are often disclosed by exca- vations, made far from the ocean. _ Banks of oyster-shells covering extensive tracts and of unknown depth, have been observed in the interior of the southern States. It is from such calcareous ingredients that marl soe shettioess its virtue. Organic remains of the land and sea have beet found as- sociated in the marl beds of New-Jersey, at a considerable elevation above the Atlantic. Among these are bones of the rhinoceros and other animals of the. eastern continent, some of them of extinct species, elephants’ teeth, deers’ horns, bones of the whale, sharks’ teeth and entire skeletons of fish, together with gryphites, sition cardites and various shell-fish. The origin of these banks of shells and bones may, I think, with propriety be ascribed to the deluge recorded in sacred history. The events which have since occurred within the observation of man can account for the various phenomena remarked in this alluvial district. The interior of the peninsula is covered by extensive for- ests of pitch pine and shrub oak. Settlements are here and Mr. Pierce on the Alluvial District of New-Jersey. 241 there located in this region of wood. The soil, exeept on the borders of creeks, is pretty uniformly sandy. Adjacent to the Delaware river and bay and the sea coast, there are wide tracts of salt meadow which are in a few places improved by embankments. The climate near the coast is so mild that herds of cattle subsist through the win- ter upon these meadows, and in the neighboring thickets, without expense to the proprietors. Cattle range the forest in a wildstate. Deer, foxes and rabbits are numerous, and wolves and bears are sometimes seen in the wilds of New- Jersey. Much fine wood is shipped to bean tg and New-York from this region. The peninsula, four fifths of which is now a useless waste, might by proper cultivation be rendered very productive. Its situation between the two largest cities of America, and nearly environed by navigable waters, would enable the in- habitants readily to bring their produce to a good market. A tract of a few miles in width from the sea-board might be improved by marl, sea-weed, fish, &c.; the remainder by gypsum, which is adapted for sandy soils. Pine lands, situated in the counties of Columbia, Albany and Saratoga, and other parts of the State of New-York of a similar char- acter with those of New-Jersey, have been rendered very valuable by gypsum and rotations of crops, often producing from twenty to twenty-five bushels of wheat to the acre. The sandy soil is in time changed to a rich vegetable mould —gypsum would probably render the pine lands of the southern states productive. . The climate of New-Jersey is well adapted for grain, In- dian corn, fruit and melons. Cotton might perhaps be there naturalized and profitably cultivated. Herds of cattle and sheep can be supported at little ex- pense. The sea-coast is said to be favorable for the pro- duction of good mutton and wool. The creeks and rivers of the peninsula are not numerous or considerable—they are generally bordered by a rich soil. Salt may be advantageously manufactured on the islands and low Atlantic shore of New-Jersey; by evaporating sea- water. Extensive beds of the variety of argillaceous oxide of iron called bog-ore, are common in the south-western part Vol. VI.—No. 2. 31 242, On the Origin of Salt Springs. of the alluvial of New-Jersey, from which good iron for castings may be extracted. It is generally mixed with mountain ore in the furnace. . The phosphate of iron is not unfrequently found imbedded in the bog-ore of New-Jersey. A valuable chalybeate spring, is situated in the town of Shrewsbury. White pipe-clay is abundant near Amboy Bay and the Delaware. The inhabitants of the New-Jer- sey sea-board generally subsist by a little farming, wood-cut- ting, fishing, and grazing of cattle on the salt-meadows. Art. IL.—On the probable Origin of certain Salt Springs. ' By Professor Amos Eaton. To the Editor. Every fact which tends to disclose that hidden operation of nature by which the Salt Springs of the west are produc- ed, is interesting to the geologist.* I took a specimen of the rock called water limestone from a hill adjoining Nine-mile Creek, a few miles west of the Onondaga salt-springs. If.this specimen be pulverized and examined ever so minutely, it presents nothing to the sens- es resembling common salt, (muriate of soda.) I do not mean that the elementary constituents cannot be found in it, but I do not propose. here to have any reference to a chemical analysis of the rock. On exposing a fresh frac- ture of a specimen from this rock, for two or three weeks in a damp cellar, it shoots out crystals of common salt, suffi- cient to cover its whole surface. It may be proper to state, that | have made the trial only in very cold weather; during which time a fire was sometimes made in the cellar room. I do not know, however, that these circumstances had any influence on the result. ; S This proves conclusively, that one rock at least, repos- ing over the floor of the salt springs, contains in itself the. * This discovery, made in my first excursion on the canal route, in the employment of the Patroon of Albany, (the Hon. S. Van Rensselaer,) I take the liberty to communicate in his absence ; because I know it is not his wish to withhold interesting subjects one moment from the public. As the exten- sive circulation of your Journal will bring this fact to the knowledge of * scientific gentlemen in the vicinity of other salt-springs, it may induce sat- isfactory research. On a Rocking Stoné in Durham, N. Hampshire. 243 materials for the spontaneous manufacture of salt. I say the floor, because I have ascertained that all the salt-springs along the canal route, from Lenox to Montezuma, are sup- ported on the same continuous rock. It has long been a prevailing theory, that a vast mine of ) salt exists in the vicinity of these springs, which is continu- ally dissolving, and thus yields the supply of salt water. Much time and money have been spent without success, in boring to great depths with the expectation of discovering this mass of rock salt. But if such rocks as that of Nine- mile Creek, be found of sufficient extent, the origin of the salt waters of the west will find a more satisfactory solution. And there may be many kinds of rock, besides the water limestone, which contain the elementary constituents of common salt. I am; respectfully, Yours, &c. AMOS EATON. Troy, March 1, 1823. hes REMARK. The observation made by Mr. Eaton is very interesting; but (if we understand him correctly,) the water-limestone forms the roof of the salt-springs, or, at least, is so situated, that the water can percolate this stratum, by the natural ef- fect of gravity. We can have no doubt, that this is Mr. Eaton’s meaning, although there is some ambiguity in his language. Editor. Art. 1V.—On a Rocking Stone in Durham, New-Hamp- shire. By. Jacop B. Moore. Concord, N. H. Oct. 22, 1823. . TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Srr—Having noticed in the last number of the “Ameri- can Journal of Science” an account of a Rocking Stone in Putnam county, New-York, in which mention is also made of the rock at Durham in this State,—I take the liberty to enclose you a description of that rock, which you may rely upon as accurate. 244 Ona Rocking Sione in Durham, N. Hampshire. “Tn the town of Durham” says Dr. Morse, “is a rock computed to weigh sixty or seventy tons. It lies so exact- ly poised on another rock, as to be easily moved with one finger.” Curiosities of this kind naturally excite attention, and from their rare occurrence, seem to merit a particular description; for were they the works of art, we should be surprised at the human ingenuity which could adjust the mighty balance; and as works of nature, they do not fail to excite our admiration. The rock at Durham isa detached block of coarse granite, of about fifteen feet in diameter on the top, and nearly round; and averaging about seven feet in thickness. It is situated on arise of ground in the south- erly part of the town, and in the neighborhood of a chain of granite ledges, which extend through the town and appear to be of primitive formation. The owner of this rock is a man nearly eighty years of age, who was born and always resided in the vicinity. At the age of twenty-four he came into possession of the farm upon which the rock is situated, and has since lived about fifty rods from it. He states, that. formerly the wind would move the rock, and that its vibra- tions thus occasioned could be plainly seen at some distance. It was always easily moved with the hand, until some three or four years since, a party of gentlemen from Portsmouth visited it, and after several hours of labor, succeeded in moving it from its balance with levers. It was a barbarous curiosty, of which it is hoped the persons concerned are now ashamed! The rock cannot now be moved; although, in looking at it on the sides marked 1 and 2 in the following lan, a person would be led to think otherwise. The left hand bottom figure (See the plate at the end,) represents the rock at Durham as it now lies, thrown to the right from its equipoise, and resting on two points. It also presents the side marked 3. The figures 1 and 2, present views of the sides thus marked, in the figure first mentioned. The figure 4 represents the surface ofthe rock, fifteen feet. in diameter, nearly round. The weight of this stone prob- ably approaches the estimate of Dr. Morse. Besides this, I know of no rocks of a similar description, excepting one, weighing from fifteen to twenty tons, in An- dover in this State, and one of smaller size in Ashburnham, Mass. Both these may be easily moved several inches by the hand; but their appearance is uninteresting, compared with the former situation of the rock at Durham. Localities of Minerals. 245 Art. V — Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals, cammunica- ted, by various persons. , 1. By Professor. J. F. Dana, of Hanover, N. H. 1 Hornblende. Superb specimens of crystallized horn- blende, imbedded in lameflar hornblende, or confusedly ag- . gregated—bladed and promiscuous, in quartz; Iron mines, Franconia, N. H. . ‘ 2. Garnet. Amorphous and imperfectly crystallized—the faces of the crystals remarkably smooth and perfect; Fran- conia mine. 4 ' 3. Epidote. Crystallized; same place. — . 4, Green quartz. Containing hornblende—colored by ep- idote. These are beautiful specimens. Franconia. 5. Asbestus. This mineral has a peculiar appearance. It occurs in masses or rather sheets of one or two inches thick, and of various extent. The fibres are intimately united, and: are curved in every direction. Franconia. ) 6. Stawrotide. Franconia. Sulphuret of Copper. Franco- nia. 7. Cyanite. Of alight bluish grey. Hartford, Vt. 8. Sulphuret of Iron. Deeply truncated on the angles of the cube, forming a solid of fourteen sides. Hartford, Vt. 9. Galena. In a vein of quartz traversing mica slate. Lebanon, N. H. : 10. Granular Argillaceous Oxide of Iron. Sharon, Vt. 11. Carbonate of Iron. In rolled masses of quartz, on the banks of the Connecticut. Hanover, N. H. 12. Plumbago or Graphite. Large specimens—equal to the Borrowdale. Bristol, N.H. This has just been discover- ed—it is abundant; five hundred pounds were sent to Bos- ton as asample, as the owner informs me. At the Franconia iron mine, near the furnace, I noticed a peculiar slag, which resembles perfectly some varieties of pumice-stone. 2, By Mr. Sreusen Taytor, Preceptor of the Charles- field Street Academy, at Providence. a, 1. Quartz Crystals are found pure and well defined, from one to two inches in length and from one third to three 246 Localities of Minerals. fourths of an inch in diameter, in the western part of Gran- by, in a field a few rods north east of a blacksmith’s shop, occupied by Mr. Tracy Cannon. In some of the rocks they form geodes of considerable size. Of these I obtained some specimens which, when placed near the blaze of a candle, exhibit a remarkably brilliant and beautiful ap- pearance. ahi ‘ 2. Black Tourmaline. Of this mineral there is a remark- - able localitity in Barkhampstead, on the farm of William Taylor, Esq. The rock in which it is found is a fine-grain- ed granite, penetrated by a vein of quartz nine or ten inches wide. From this vein elegant specimens may easily be ob- tained by means of a hammer or sledge. I succeeded in getting one crystal, which is more than an inch in diameter and five inches long. The rock is situated about fifty rods W. N. W. of Mr. Taylor’s house, and about the same distance east of the turnpike road leading from Hartford to Albany. 3. Garnets of twenty-four sides, of the size of a musket- ball, are found in great abundance on what is called West- Hill, in the town of New-Hartford. The spot which I visit- ed is on the farm of Mr. Silvester Seymour, about forty rods west of the house occupied by Mr. Michael Olmstead. The rocks and stones in which they occur are easily broken in pieces, and the visitor will be detained but a few minutes in obtaining as many specimens as he wants. 3. By Dr. Jacox Porter. 1. Calcareous Spar, beautifully crystallized, at Chester. Emmons. 2. Stalactites and Stalagmites, at the cave lately discov- ered in Lanesborough. When this cave was discovered, it was filled with stalactites and stalagmites of the most fantas- tic appearance, some of which were shown at a house near the cave. The most curious have been removed by the visitors ; I obtained, however, a plentiful supply of the less interesting ones. There are several turnings or windings in this cave. Breathing is free here and lamps burn perfectly well.* ‘ *The other facts stated by Dr. Porter may be found at p. 41, Vol. IV. of this Journal. Localities of Minerals. 247 3. Black Fluate of Lime, in Huron county, Ohio. 4. Gibbsite, of Torrey, on iron ore, at Lenox. Emmons. 5. Limpid Quartz, at Newport, N. ¥. ninety-five miles north-west of Albany. The crystals are perfectly transpa- rent, and terminated by pyramids at both extremities. The largest that I have been able to procure is about an inch long and about three fourths of an inch in diameter. These specimens, together with those from Fairfield, which exact- ly resemble them, are the most beautiful rock crystals that I have ever seen. 6. Blue Quartz, in amorphous masses, at Cummington, Bridgewater, Pembroke and Marshfield. 7. Rose Quartz, beautiful, and in considerable quantities, in a ledge at the east part of Chesterfield. . 8. Jrised Quartz, in large quantities, at Chesterfield. Its colors, which are generally red, yellow or orange, and very delicate, seem to arise from a thin coat of metallic oxid on the surface of the specimen, or in its fissures. 9. Milky Quartz, at Abington, the cavities frequently lined with crystals. 10. Greasy Quartz, at Plainfield. 11. Arenaceous Quartz, at Plainfield and Cummington, often in large masses. It is sometimes burnt and pulverised for sand. 12. Stalactical Quartz, at some falls in a brook in Middle- field. The crystals, which are small and have a slight tinge of red, are formed on serpentine, evidently in a man- ner similar to that of stalactites. ‘The specimens are singu- larly beautiful. Emmons. 13. Amethyst, a single crystal of a delicate purple, dis- covered at Abington. 14. Fetid Quartz, at Cummington. 15.’ Chalcedony, at Middlefield. It is of a milky or red- dish color, with blood-red spots. The cavities are lined with the most minute and beautiful crystals, which are sometimes blood-red, but generally white or bluish. Em- mons. 16. Opal, at Middlefield. It is covered with small crys- tals, whose color is white,.slightly tinged with blue or yel- low. Emmons. 17. Hornsione, at Middlefield. EEmmons. * 4 248 Locahities of Minerals. 18. Jasper, dark-colored and red, on the beach at Marsh- field, many of the specimens beautiful. 19. Agate, at Chester. Emmons. 20. Kyanite, very dark-colored, in mica slate, at Chester and Chesterfield. | 21. Mica, dark-colored, at Savoy. The layers separate surprisingly on being heated. 22. Green Mica, at Cummington and Plainfield. 23. Black Mica, associated with garnets, at Plainfield. 24. Mica, white and yellowish, abundant at Williamsburg. 25. Chabasie, in cuboidal crystals, at Chester. Emmons. 26. Tremolite, well characterised at Chesterfield. Tremolite, in shining, radiated fibres, associated with white quartz and beautiful garnets, at Cummington. The rock in which these minerals are contained, has a strong smell of sulphur. 27. Asbestos, adhering to a large mass of actynolite, at Windsor, near the Cummington soapstone quarry. 28. Hornblende, at Hawley, Plainfield and the neighbor- ing towns. Many of the specimens, particularly those from Hawley, present crystals resembling bundles of rods tied together near the middle, and thence diverging, which give them a very singular and beautiful appearance. ‘29. Serpentine, in loose masses, at Cummington and Plainfield. It takes a fine polish. 30. Chlorite. abundant and extremely beautiful, at Haw- Jey and Plainfield. 31. Graphite, at Hinsdale. 32. Sulphuret of Iron, in small but beautiful crystals at Hawley. 33. Micaceous Oxide of Iron, beautiful and in large quan- tities, at the iron-mine in Hawley. When pulverised it makes a beautiful paper-sand. At a manufactory in Cum- mington it is enclosed in tin cylinders, and used for clock- weights. 34. Brown Hematite, bearing a striking resemblance to the Salisbury ore, at Richmond. Emmons. 35. Chromate of. Iron, at the Cummington soap-stone quarry. Only a small mass has as yet been discovered. 36. Plumbago, at Cummington, Worthington and Chester. These minerals may be seen in the collection of the wri- ser. Specimens have also been presented to the cabinet of Localities of Minerals. 24y Yale College, the Lyceum of Natural History, New-York, and the Troy Lyceum of Natural History. Plainfield, November 1822. REMARK by Dr. Porter. Some of these localities are already known to the public, and are here cited again for the sake of conveying some ad- ditional information. For my knowledge of several of them, Iam indebted to the gentlemen whose names are annexed. 4, By Mr. J. Srvart, of Peacham, Vermont. 1. Asbestos and Serpentine. One piece of the latter was from the mountain in Kellyvale, and the other from the streets of Peacham, where it is stated to be very abundant. Of the asbestos, one kind occurs in rolled pieces, which, when broken, are found to contain a substance in color and texture resembling the finest cotton. ‘The other is discoy- ered in crevices of the rocks of serpentine, and more resem- bles flax. The place from which they were obtained is in Kellyvale, about twenty miles from Canada. The adjoin- ing country, like most of Vermont, is primitive. The stones are principally. granite. Farther back in all direc- tions, are almost Alpine mountains. Approaching the quar- ry from the south, it is level for some distance, until we ar- rive upon the top of a steep precipice, about two hundred feet high, at the foot of which there is a very- small stream. All along the declivity are masses of serpentine, much of which is rolled to the bottom; and from appearances the same mineral extends to a great distance into the side of the precipice. The quantity of asbestos as well as serpen- tine, seems inexhaustible. But though the serpentine would make excellent chimney-pieces, &e. yet it will probably -never be wrought, on account of the difficulty of transpor- “tation. 2. Quartz. Finely crystallized as. usual in six-sided prisms. Lyndon, Vermont. 3. Cyanite, in small quantities, small garnets, and tourma- line, are found in Peacham and its vicinity. Vou. VI.—No. 2. 32. 250 ; Localities of Minerals. 5. By Dr. W. Lanestarr. 1. Quartz, and a greén substance which appears to be augite or coccolite—found in gneiss near Cold-Spring landing. | 2. Coccolite, in foliated limestone ; same locality with the zircon. 3. Do. in quartz—same locality. sank in mass—same locality with the zircon. 4, J Augite, abundant inthe the gneiss rocks at Cold- ii Si a iT pring Landing. | Do. containing sphene. Cold-Spring Landing, N. J. 5. Scapolite, containing Plumbago. Hamburgh. 6. Brucite. Hamburgh. : 7. Black Mica, in augite. Cold-Spring. 6. By J. P. Brace. In Southbury, the greenstone formation visible in Wood- bury continues west of the meeting-house, between the Pompanaug creek and the Housatonic—extending six or seven miles in length, being composed of several ridges, in all about a mile in breadth. The minerals connected with this range are :-— 1. Chalcedony, resembling that of Patterson, N. J. of a beautiful blue—covered frequently by botryoidal concre- tions of cacholong. : 2. Amethyst. The crystals of this mineral are often quite regular, with both terminations visible, and the coloring matter more uniformly diffused than is common in the ame- thyst of Woodbury, New-Haven and Patterson. Some specimens which I saw in the cabinet of Dr. L. Smith were very beautiful. 3. Common Opal, of an inferior quality. 4, Prehnite, occasionally. 5. The agates of this range are in nodules, composed of layers of blue and white chalcedony. These layers are, principally, incrustations of a solid nucleus of quartz, and are often quite handsome. 6. Agatized Wood, in the south part of the town—found by Dr. Smith. It presents distinct branches, with their knots, bark and ligneous layers often visible, sometimes four Localities of Minerals. 251 or five inches in diameter. It is principally hornstone; its cavities are lined with minute quartz crystals and layers of chalcedony. Itis of a grey or black color—specific gravity 2.6. 7. Fibrous Carbonate of Lame, in bituminous limestone, exists here. 8. The Rose Quartz is south-west of the meeting-house about three miles, and is in great quantities. It requires blasting, however, to obtain good spectmens.* . 9. Laminated Feldspar, of a pearly white color, is found in Bethlem, resembling in external characters the siliceous feldspar of Chesterfield. 10. Plumose Mica, in Woodbury and Washington. 11. Zeolite, in reniform masses of nfinute fibres, and in fascicular groups of fibrous crystals—in a vein in mica slate. Litchfield. ai 12. Fetid Quartz, in Litchfield, well characterized—of a dark greyish blue, (the common color,) and of a pure white, (the last, I believe, an uncommon color for this variety.) _ 13. Pinite. Litchfield. Specific gravity 2.768—infusi- ble—massive—im perfectly foliated—-cross fracture uneven-— color dark brownish green—fissures stained by iron—soft, easily scratched with a knife—powder unctuous—streak white. Spangles of a hexagonal or nearly circular form appear on the fracture when held to the light. Lustre of the cleavage, glistening—of the fracture, dull—adheres to the tongue. Some imperfect crystals appeared. on the surface of the mass—apparently six-sided prisms, truncated on all the an- gles, and, in consequence, having a cylindrical form. Asso- ciated with quartz, mica and oxide of iron. REMARK. The Editor’s opinion being requested, respecting, the last mentioned mineral, he has to add nothing more, than that he coincides in opinion with Mr. Brace, and that there is a great resemblance between the Litchfield pinite and that of Haddam.—Ed. *Dr. L. Smith will supply, in exchange, any gentlemen with the South- bury minerals. 252 Notice of a curious Water-Fall, Se. Arr. VI.—Notice of a curious Water-Fall, and of Howaba: tions in the Rocks. By Professor Haut, To the Editor. In proceeding from Middlebury to Woodstock, on the di- rectest turnpike road, the traveller, soon after he passes the tavern on the summit of the Green Mountain, notices a. small, rapid, pellucid streamlet, which accompanies him. nearly the whole distance down the mountain. He con- stantly hears its music, as it murmurs along its rug- ged course, and admires the transparency of its waters. This is one of the branches of the White river. About three miles from the tavern he crosses a rivulet, a little above where it empties into the former stream. He advancesa few rods farther, and meets another. It comes from the north, and is called by the mountaineers, the North Branch. A little more than a quarter of a mile from the turnpike, up this stream, is an object which merits the attention of the curious. I have recently, been in company with the Rev. Professor Keith of William and Mary College, Virginia, to examine It. There is a road cut, but not much travelled, along the western side of the North Branch, at a small distance from the stream. From the road the water is seldom visible, be- ing concealed by a thicket of evergreens, and, in some pla- ces, by the banks which intercept the view of it. Its noise may be distinctly heard. The better to accomplish our object, we proceeded up this road nearly halfa mile, which brought us to the head of a succession of the most singular and interesting rapids that I ever saw. Here the student of nature would stand aston- ished to see how great effects have been produced by an apparently trivial cause. oe At the northern extremity of the rapids, the ledge over which the water passes, is a variety of common chlorite rock, of a very dark brownish green color, containing veins of milky and greasy quartz. I have never before seen chlorite in such large masses. ‘The fracture in one direction is ex- tremely uneven. It may be scratched easily with the fin- ger-nail, It is composed of minute scales, which are some- ‘a Notices of a curious Water-Fall, &c. 253 what unctuous. At numerous places in and near the stream, we saw chlorite slate in abundance. Along the lower part of the rapids, the rocks are chiefly mica-slate. These rocks, as well as the chlorite, are in situ. But there are thousands of tons of stones, principally rolled quartz, scattered over the surface, on both sides of the rivulet, forming an irregu- lar pavement, which are evidently out of place. They were, unquestionably, transported hither by the impetuosity of the current from higher lands, where they had their origin. The water, at the time of our visit to the rapids, was un- commonly low. At the head of the falls we measured the brook, and found it only two feet and four inches wide, and three inches deep. At high water it covers an area about two rods in width. At the point where the rivulet is most contracted, it takes a perpendicular leap of eight feet and ten inches into an oblong basin, which we ascertained to be seventeen feet in width. This capacious basin has, manifestly, been formed in the chlorite rock. solely by the incessant friction of the water. From the south side, where the basin is open, the water flows off calmly in a canal in the rock, a few inches wide, and regular, as if cut by the chisel, for two or three rods, and then precipitates itself into a second cavity, eighteen feet in width and fifteen in depth, produced, evidently, in a manner similar to the first. The water, after travelling about six miles farther, has formed another basin, still larger, but less deep, than the last; its width being twenty-six feet and its depth twelve. There is a succession of cavities, or basins, at small in- tervals, for a distance of three hundred and thirty paces, or nearly one fourth of a mile. They are all wrought in the solid rock. Their forms are very dissimilar ; some resem- bling a deep pot, and others an immense oven, inverted. We observed but a few small cavities, such as are generated in the Connecticut river, at Bellows Falls, by the rolling of a single stone. Tam aware, that the traveller who visits this spot at the season we did, will, at once, pronounce this puny brook to- tally inadequate to the production of these wonderful cavi- ties. But his sentiments will alter, when he considers that a vast stratum of snow falls, annually, on the Green Moun- tains; which, when it dissolves in the spring, swells this rivulet,during a number of weeks, to a mighty torrent. Marks 254 Dr. Tully on Datura. of violence are every where visible in the large collections of logs and brushwood, and even of whole trees, accumulated in various places, and in the transportation of ponderous quartzy stones for many miles, andin the heaving of them up, on high masses of chlorite and mica-slate, to which they have no re- lationship. Should you, sir, ever find it convenient to cross the Green Mountain from Windsor to Middlebury, I hope you will take the trouble to view this admirable specimen of nature’s workmanship. The labor will, I assure you, be richly re- warded. Your very obedient F. HALL. BOTANY. — Art. VII—Dviversity of the two sorts of Datura found in the United States. Two sorts of Datura, which present considerable differ- ences to the eye, are well known to be common in many parts of the United States. One of these has been general- ly supposed by botanists to be the Datura-Tatula, and the other the Datura-Stramonium of Linne. Their specific di- versity, as far as | am informed, remained unquestioned till Dr. Bigelow advanced the opinion that they are mere varie- ties, and.stated the concurrence of Sir James Edward Smith, who, it seems, made his decision from an examination of the specimens in the Linnean Herbarium. Mr. Elliott has since expressed his doubts upon the same subject. Although most of the principal authorities, such as Linne, Gmelin, Willdenow, Persoon, Turton and many others in Europe, and likewise Muhlenburg and Pursh, in America, are in opposition to the opinion under consideration, yet, as there can be no question that the decisions of the gentle- men above mentioned are entitled to the highest respect, I should not at this time venture to suggest any doubts of their correctness in the present instance, had not long-con- tinued and close observation convinced me, that they are, in fact, perfectly distinct. Dr. Tully on Datura. 255 1 have no hesitation, however, in admitting the inadequa- cy of the distinguishing marks which have been selected by every writer with whom I am acquainted. The erect spi- nous pericarps, the ovate or, if flattened, the cordate and sharply dentate and glabrous leaves are unquestionably com- mon to both the American sorts. Even most of the addi- tional circumstances which are commonly mentioned inci- dentally, arenearly uniform ineach. The D.Tatula, although occasionally larger and less slender than the D. Stramonium, is by no means generally so, noris there a regular and uni- form appreciable difference (indeed it is scarcely ever to be observed in American specimens,) between the length of the flowers and the turgidness of the perianth of the two sorts; in both, the stalk is generally smooth and divided at an acute angle, the leaves are as sharply dentate and as much sinuated in one as the other, and in some instances they are both attenuated into the petiole, or both, as it were, truncate at the base. In the smaller plants of each sort, the stem is commonly pithy, and in the larger of each, it is hollow. _ The white corol of the one, which verges to a cream col- or, and the pale blue or light purple of the other, striped with deep purple on the inside, are indeed almost always observable, but not sufficiently prominent for distinction; but the purple stalk sprinkled with green points in the one, and the uniform green stalk of the other, I have reason to think, are invariable and permanent. I have been many years in the habit of observing the two sorts and noticing this difference, and for ten years at least, I have viewed them closely, in reference to their distinction of species. My observations have been made both where they grew entirely separate, and where they grew together, and I have cultivated them in both situations,without ever be- ing able to discover the least approximation of the one to the other, or to detect any intermediate specimen; and contra- ry to my expectations, I have never seen, among the plants produced from seeds, and growing together, any evidence of promiscuous impregnation and the production of hybrids. Even in the spring season, the last year’s dead and half de- cayed plants of each sort, may always be distinguished with perfect facility. In places where only one sort has been common, time immemorial, Ihave never known the other make its appear- 256 Dr. Tully on Datura. ance, when it could not be decidedly traced to some other place, where it was previously known to grow. Thus, there was none of the pea-green sort in New-Haven, till in- troduced by Professor Ives, nor in Middletown, till brought from the meadows of Wethersfield, where it has long been common, by the ice which was deposited in such immense quantities, by the freshet of 1818. In fact, I find the strongest reasons for concluding that there are as fixed and permanent specific distinctions be- tween what has been supposed in this country, to be D. Ta- tula, and what has been considered D. Stramonium, as are to be found in the science of Botany. 1am well aware that the maxim, that for the distinction of species, regard is not to be had to color, size, taste, smell, or to the external sur- face, is, in general, correct; but as there is no one of those characters which are commonly the most permanent, that is not occasionally variable, so too rigid an adherence to the above principle, may lead to error. Color, at least, when established by sufficient observation to be permanent, [ think may he safely assumed as a specific character. Were I to define the term species, I should say it deno- ted all such individuals as are alike in every characteristic which is incapable of change by climate, soil, cultivation, tame, or in short any accidental cause, and which 1s permanent and continued by propagation from seeds. If this is correct, a species may be distinguished by any uniform and invariable peculiarity which is thus perpetuated, and no two differing individuals are to be considered as mere varieties, unless their peculiarities are changeable and evidently occasioned by soil, climate, cultivation, or other accidental causes, and are by no means to be certainly perpetuated by seeds. If then the colour of the stalks of the two sorts of Datura in question is once established by adequate observation, to be permanent and invariable peculiarities, it is, in my view, mat The similarity of the plants in other respects, falls far short of proving them to be only varieties, as it is well known that distinct species often so nearly resemble each other, as that their claim to distinction, can be estab- lished only by long-continued, and close comparative exam- ination ; and on the other hand, varieties are occasionally ‘so diverse, that equal pains is necessary to establish their specific identity. The great similarity of the different spe- Dr. Tully on Datura. Q57 cies of Trillium, Erythronium, Statice, Actea and of a vast number of other genera, has long been a fruitful source of discrepancy among botanical authors, and a multitude of instances may be specified, in which plants for a long time, not even considered as distinct varieties, have ultimately been found to be different species, as for instance, Veratrum-album and viride. Berberis-vulgaris and Canadensis, etc. ete. Although I have never seen any other species of the ge- nus Datura, yet judging from the descriptions given by au- thors, | am inclined to think that there is much of this close similarity and affinity, between several of them, and al- though it was not my intention to raise any question at this time, except respecting the two American plants, yet I can- not forbear remarking in this place, that if the best repre- sentations of the European Stramonium are correct, there is some ground for suspecting at least, that the Stramonium of that region, is specifically distinct from either of the sorts found in America. I have formerly compared our plants with Woodville’s plate, and I now very well recollect the conclusion, without being able to specify the precise rea- sons. At present I have only a wood cut of Bewick' before me, which appears at least, to be very weil executed, and which to the best of my recollection, corresponds to the engraving of Woodville. In this, the shortness and infla- tion of the perianth, the companulate rather than the infun- dibuliform corol, the round-oval form of the anthers, and the greater width and shortness of the leaf, are prominent peculiarities. I have certainly never met with any Ameri- can specimen that possessed, or even approximated to them, and I think the European and American sorts ought still to be diligently compared in their living state. If they are distinct, it is most probable, that more definite peculiarities may be found, but even if there should not be, still, provid- ed these should prove uniform, invariable, and permanent, it might possibly warrant considering them distinct. | am no advocate for the hasty and careless multiplication of spe- cies, and till decisive and distinct marks can be found, those which are closely allied, should by all means be considered as varieties. Inthe present state of my information, howev- er, I cannot but view the two American sorts of Datura as specifically distinct, and I believe this has long been the de- elared opinion of Professor Ives of Yale-College, and some Vol. VI.—No. 2. 33 wali 258 Mr. Barnes onthe Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. others whose attention has been particularly turned to the. subject for some years past. Under this impression [I shall venture to suggest an emendation of the specific characters of the plants in question, in the following terms, viz. Datura Tatula, caule purpureo punctis viridibus asperso, pericarpiis spinosis erectis ovatis, foliis ovatis dentatis gla- bris. : Datura Stramonium, caule viridi, pericarpiis spinosis erectis ovatis, foliis ovatis dentatis glabris. The facts that the corol of D. Tatula is generally pale blue, or purple. striped with deep purple inside, and that of D. Stramonium white varying to cream colour, ought to be added by way of observation. The Datura from the Cape-of-Good-Hope, which has been lately called Tatula, must, without doubt be consider- ed as entirely out of the question in this discussion, and even if the European and both the American plants, be ul- timately decided to be mere varieties, that ought unques- tionably to have another name. Middletown, (Conn.) Jannary 1821. CONCHOLOGY. —fe- —- Art.—VIII.—On the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta; with Introductory Remarks: by D. H. Barnes, M. A. Mem- ber of the New-York Lyceum of Natural Mistory.* (Concluded from pa. 127.) UNIO. ** Cardinal teeth moderately thick, direct. OBSERVATIONS. Tun shells of this section are, in general, not very thick. They have the beaks slightly elevated, or nearly flat. The [* Read before the Lyceum. |} Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonte. 259 external surface is neither waved nor tuberculated. The teeth are less sulcated than those of the former, and only cren- ulated, or striated, generally triangular and elevated, and, in magnitude, bear a proportion to the thickness of the shell. The cavity of the beaks is small, or none, and neither angu- lar nor compressed. The shells have a smooth and regular appearance, and five of the seven species have the inside pur- ple. SPECIES. | a. outline 10. unro ELLIpTicus. Fig. 19. . 2b ; c. four d. sizes. Shell regularly oval, thick, convex, glabrous, beaks depressed. ‘Teeth elevated, triangular, striated. Unio Crassus. Mr. Say. Plate 1 fig. 8? Mya Complanata? Dillwyn. page 51. Inhabits Fox River. Mr. Schoolcraft. Dr. Mitchill’s Cabinet. My Collection. Diam. 1.0—2.0 Length 1.7—3.2 Breadth 2.5—4.9 inches. Shell long before, and short behind, equally rounded at both ‘extremities; beaks nearly flat; ligament elevated above the beaks; epidermis yellowish brown, obscurely rayed, rays disappearing in o!d specimens ; slightly flattened on the an- terior slope ; teeth deeply divided, elevated, finely striated ; anterior cicatria wrinkled ; posterior rough ; cavity of the beaks considerable. Maker pearly white, iridescent, and sometimes, of a beautiful flesh colour. a. inside. b. outside. Shell oblong oval, biangulate before, rayed, hinge margin straight, compressed, sepbebaped, teeth finely striate. 11. unto carmnatus. Fig. 10. Inhabits Fox River. Mr. Schoolcraft. Dr. Mitchill’s Cabinet. My Collection. 260 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. Diam. .7—1.3 Length 1.2—2.3 Breadth 2.1—3.7 inches. Shell transversely elongated, sub-pentangular, moderately thick, rounded behind; beaks slightly elevated, approxi- mate; hinge margin straight, elevated, compressed, keel- shaved, longitudinally furrowed, fuscous with submembra- naceous strie; anterior dorsal margin straight and sub- truncate; basal margin rounded; epidermis greenish yellow, with broad dark green rays; surface glabrous. Cardinal teeth slightly striated, nearly smooth; posterior cicatrix deep and striated; naker very white, iridescent. Variety (a) obscurely rayed, more convex, compressed on the base, and gaping behind. Inhabits Lake Champlain. My Collection. Remarxs.—This is a beautiful species. It cannot be confounded with any of the varieties of the Cariosus or Ra- diatus, on account of the primary teeth, which are entirely different. We have so many specimens of this shell, and they are all so perfectly characterized, and so much alike, that there can be no doubt of its being entitled to a distinct appel- lation. In several of the specimens, the epidermis is worn off, exhibiting a flesh-coloured substance beneath. 12. unio aLatus.—Shell ovately triangular; hinge margin elevated into a large wing; valves grow- ing together on the back of the ligament, inside purple. Unio Alatus. Mr. Say. Unio Alata. M. Lamarck. American Conchology, plate 4. fig. 2. Inhabits Fox River. Mr. Schoolcraft. Wisconsan. Capt. Douglass. Cabinets of the Lyceum and Dr. Mitchill. -We have every size of this shell from one inch to six inches and nine tenths broad. A full grown specimen measures as follows, viz. , Diam. 2.0 Length 4.7 Breadth 6.9 A middle aged and very splendid specimen measures Di6 L40 B6.0 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 261 Shell moderately thick; disks flat and compressed, long before and short behind ; beaks depressed ; ligament conceal- ed within the valves; hinge margin very much elevated and compressed; basal margin nearly straight; anterior dorsal margin incurved or emarginate; anterior margin rounded and broad ; posterior margin rounded and narrow ; surface deeply wrinkled. Teeth elevated and crenate ; anterior ci- catrix very broad; posterior composed of three distinct impressions, two small ones before the large one, and also a row of very small impressions across the cavity of the beaks, before the cardinal tooth. Naker red-purple and very bril- liant ; cavity of the beaks small and indented with from six to ten minute impressions in a row nearly longitudinal. Remarxs.—The hinge margin is less elevated, and the colour less brilliant, in old than in young and middle aged specimens. The former approach the regular oval form, the latter are broad ovate. None of the specimens in our collections exhibit the char- acter mentioned by Mr. Say, viz. ‘‘the external laminated tooth obsolete, only one in each valve being perceptible ;”’ and the tubercles, mentioned by him on the inside, appear only in very old specimens. M. Le Sueur thinks that the remarkable union of the valves above the ligament ought to characterize a distinct genus. This union can seldom be observed in Cabinet spe- cimens, as the part is very fragile. Of the numerous speci- mens in our collections, one only retains the full elevation of the wing; the rest having been broken in transportation. This is the most splendid species of the Unio yet known, and it is so remarkably characterized as readily to be distin- guished from all others, except perhaps the Unio Gracilis ; which, though perfectly distinct, might, at first view, be mis- taken for the young of this species. outline of three sizes. Shell much elongated transversely, narrow, thick, tumid, beaks flat; lateral tooth long, thin; inside purple. 13. unio praLonous. Fig. 11. 262 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta- Unio purpurata? = M. Lamarck. Inhabits Fox River. Mr. Schoolcraft. = Wisconsan. Capt. Douglass. | Cabinets of the Lyceum and Dr. Mitchill. My Collection. Diam. 1.7—2.1 Length 2.5—2.7 Breadth 5.8—6.4 Shell very long oval; anterior side somewhat pointed, posterior side short, rounded, obtuse ; beaks depressed ; /ig- ament elevated above the beaks; basal margin slightly com- pressed, shortened, or, in old specimens, arcuated; in young rounded ; epidermis blackish brown, with fine interrupted wrinkles placed in longitudinal rows, having somewhat the appearance of strie. Young specimens are rayed with yel- lowish olive, and have the epidermis smooth and glabrous. Naker purple of different shades according to the age or per- fection of the specimen, sometimes tinged with irregular spots of greenish, particularly under the beaks, with a row of small muscular impressions in the cavity. Remarxs.—This shell is probably the Unio purpurata of M. Lamarck. (See introductory remarks.) We have every size from the breadth of one inch, to six inches and four lines. Variety (a.) Shell on the inside striated longitudinally. Naker red-purple, very splendid. Variety (b.) Naker whitish green on the margin, and pur- ple in the centre. An uncommonly beautiful shell, tinged with copper ? My Collection. a. inside, b. outside. Shell elongated transversely, thick, gibbous ; lateral tooth very thick, incurved, inside purple. 14. unio cipposus. Fig. 12. Inhabits Wisconsan. Mr. Schoolcraft. My collection. Lyceum’s Cabinet. Mr. Say’s Collection. Philadelphia. Diam. .75—1.3. Length 1.15—1.9 Breadth 2.4—4.0 Shell much elongated transversely, thick and heavy, ra- pidly narrowed and rostrate before, narrow and rounded be- Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonté, 263 hind, sub-cylindrical, disks somewhat compressed ; anterior side very much produced; beaks flat; ligament elevated; anterior dorsal margin depressed and flattened; basal mar- gin nearly straight ; epidermis blackish brown, finely stria- ted and deeply wrinkled transversely; naker purple of dif- ferent shades, often with a purple centre and white margin. Teeth crenate; lateral tooth rough, very thick, bending downward, terminating abruptly and folded over towards | the interior of the shell. - Remarks.—This shell in many respects resembles the preceding, but it differs from it in being less, thicker in pro- portion to the size, more attenuated before ; and it may be distinguished from all others by the unusual thickness of the lateral tooth. It is also more depressed immediately be- hind the beaks, and the thickness of the anterior part of the shell is very unusual, being in some specimens greater than that of the posterior. In one specimen the lateral tooth of the left valve measures two lines in thickness, and the chan- nel of the opposite valve is two and a half lines broad. 15. unio cuneatus.—Shell ovate wedge-shaped, thick, gibbous ; disks swelled, anterior lunule fur- rowed ; lateral tooth thin; inside purple. Inhabits the Ohio. Mr. S. B. Collins. Mr. Collins’s collection. Diam. 1.6 Length 2.3 Breadth 3.8 Shell elongated and sub-triangular, thick and ponderous; anterior side narrowed, thin, angulated, wedge-shaped, compressed ; umbones large and somewhat elevated; beaks low and distant; anterior lunule long-heart-shaped, large, distinct with an elevated ridge and longitudinally furrowed ; posterior lunule small and deep; basal margin slightly rounded ; anterior margin narrow and angulated; anterior dorsal, rapidly narrowed ; posterior dorsal impressed ; epi- dermis blackish brown, somewhat ferruginous ; surface fine- ly wrinkled, an elevated ridge extends from the beaks to the anterior basal margin, and terminates in an angle on the fore part. Cardinal teeth deeply divided and sulcated ; lat- eral tooth long, curved, and not very thick; cicatrices deep ; cavity of the beaks small and not angular; naker brownish purple, iridescent. 264 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. Remarxs.—This shell differs from the foregoing one, in its outline, inits greater length,less breadth,and in being more tri- angular. In that the lunules are not distinct; in this they are strongly marked. The lateral teeth of the two differ in length, thickness, direction and surface. This shell, if the thickness only were observed, might be mistaken for a vari- ety of the Crassus; but the teeth are totally different. 16. Unio Purrurevus.—Shell not very thick, ob- liquely sub-truncate before; beaks depressed; epi- dermis without rays, glossy; Unio Purpureus. Mr. Say. Unio Purpurascens. M. Lamarck. Unio Rarisulcata? Unio Coarctata? Unio Rhombular => M. Lamarck. Unio Carinifera? | Unio Georgina ? American Conchology, Plate 3. Fig. 1. Inhabits Lakes and Rivers eastward of the Alleghany mountains. Cabinet of the Lyceum. My collection. The varieties, which are exceedingly numerous, differ very much from each other in the length of the diameter, some measuring 13 lines, and some only 5. The length and breadth are generally in the proportions of 3 to 5. Mr. Say’s figure measures length 1°4, breadth 2-6, and many specimens are twice as broad as they are long. Diameter 1°3. Length 2:5. Breadth 4:5. Inhabits Stony Creek, near Princeton, N. J. Mr. Sears. 1-1 1°8 3°45 Inhabits the Kayaderosseras. 15) Hi 1-5 3°0 Inhabits the Housatonick. Shell sub-oval, ovate-oblong, ovate—rhomboidal, oblong- ovate; thi, or not very thick; disks convex, convex-de- pressed, or somewhat compressed ; before somewhat angu- lated or rounded obliquely ; base rounded, straight, a little shortened, depressed, sub-sinuate, or coarctate-sinuate; heaks not prominent; hinge margin elevated, compressed, Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 265 carinate or depressed ; epidermis has generally a silky lustre; surface with smaller wrinkles placed between larger ones, or with transverse elevated distant furrows, or smooth; car- dinal teeth small, or not very large, sulcated or striated ; naker livid, cerulean, green, purple, red, violet, white, with various shades and mixtures of these colors; no cavity under the beaks. Remarxs.—The terms of the foregoing general description are taken from Mr. Say’s and from the six species of M. La- marck mentioned above. Thisisa very common shell, ofa reg- ular and uniform appearance, without prominence of parts, or strongly marked characters; which perhaps induced M. Lamarck to say ‘it is nothing remarkable.”’* | Amidst a va- riety almost. infinite, like that of the human countenance, there is still a characteristic identity of this species, which can scarcely be mistaken by an experienced observer. One variety of the Radiatus from the Saratoga Lake approaches nearest to this species, but the least appearance of rays for- bids its association. * * * Cardinal teeth small, direct. 17. Unto Rapratus.—Shell broad-ovate, thin, fine- Jy striated, glossy rayed, within bluish white, or tinged with red. | Unio Ochraceous. Mr. Say. Mya Radiata. Mr. Dillwyn. Unio Radiata. M. Lamarck. American Conchology, plate 2, fig. 8. Tohabits lakes and rivers of North-America. Cabinet of the Lyceum. My collection. Diam. ‘6—-9 Length 1-2—1°5 Breadth 2:0—2°5. Shell with the anterior side broad, thin and fragile, disks in old specimens somewhat convex ; in youug, depressed ; beaks slightly elevated and approximate; ligament eleva- ted; hinge margin elevated, compressed, carinate; basal margin commonly a little depressed, and sometimes arcua- ted ; anterior margin narrow; posterior broad; anterior dorsal sub-truncate; epidermis greenish yellow or olive- brown, rayed with dark green, and very finely striated trans *See An. Sans Vertebres, Vol. VI. p. 74, U. Georgina. Vou. VI.—No. 2. 34 266 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. versely ; surface smooth and shining. Cardinal teeth cren- ulated, cavity of the beaks small; naker bluish white, or reddish yellow; surface smooth and pearly. Variety (a) very obscurely rayed and much like Unio Purpureus in shape. Inhabits Saratoga Lake. Variety (6) oval or very nearly as broad behind as be- fore. } Inhabits the Wisconsan. Capt. Douglas. 18. Unio Mucronatus. Fig. 13.) a of the Shell ovate, broader behind ; base compressed, fal- cated ; beaks small, elevated, acute, inside pur- ple. Inhabits the Wisconsan. Capt. Douglass. My collection. Diam. :7 Length 1:3 Breadth 2:3. Shell ovate, moderately thick, produced, narrowed, and _ compressed before ; rounded and broad behind ; disks com- pressed ; anterior lunule long,-distinct, with a marginal fur- row; posterior lunule small, deeply impressed ; hinge mar- gin rounded ; basal margin arcuated ; 3 anterior dorsal rapid- ly narrowed and slightly emarginate ; epidermis horn-color, ‘and obscurely rayed ; surface smooth; cardinal teeth ser- rate sulcate; cicatrices deep ; naker purplish on the mar- gin, and whitish 3 in the centre. Remarxs.—This species bis somewhat the outline of the Unio Tuberculatus, but the outside is smooth. The in- dividual above described is probably not more than half grown, as the umbones are very little eroded. 19. Unio Inrtatus.—Shell oval, thick, tumid, beaks broad, obtuse behind, wedge-shaped be- fore, inside pearly white. Inhabits the Wisconsan and Lake Erie. Capt. Douglass. Dr. Mitchill’s Cabinet. My collection. Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 267 Diam. 1-4 Length 1-7 Breadth 3-2. Shell about equally broad before and behind, thick and very much swelled, the diameter being almost equal to the - Tength; beaks broad round and somewhat elevated; poste- rior side very short and obtuse; anterior side wedge-shap- ed produced. Hinge margin nearly straight, and parallel to the base; basal margin straight and slightly compressed in the middle; epidermis yellowish-green, rayed; surface wrinkled and striated transversely ; cardinal teeth elevated, pointed, sulcated; lateral teeth papillous; posterior cicatrix deep, and somewhat rayed with elevated lines; Fai: d the beaks moderate; naker pearly white and iridescent; ternal surface papillous. Remarxks.—This shell is less than the Unio Siliquoideus, and also more rounded and gibbous, shorter behind and proportionally longer before than that species. The varie- ties of the two species approach each other, and are to be distinguished only by the teeth. B. TEETH OBLIQUE. ** ** Cardinal teeth, broad, oblique, compressed. ! a small size. 20. Unio Ventricosvs. Fig. 14. < 6 large size. c the first variety. Shell large thick triangularly ovate, convex; um- bones large, round, prominent ; beaks recurved ; cavity capacious. Mya Radiata. Dillwyn’s Letter to Dr. Mitchill. Unio Cariosus.. Mr. Say’s Letter to the Author. Inhabits the Wisconsan. Mr. Schoolcraft. Mississippi, near Prairie du Chien. Capt. Douglass. Cabinets of the Lyceum and Dr. Mitchill. My Collec- tion. Mr. Say’s Collection, Philadelphia. pc Diam. 2.5 Length 3.5 Breadth 4.5. Shell with the anterior side very broad, sub-truncate ; posterior side rapidly narrowed, sub- “angulated: disks very convex ; umbones large, ose elevated ; beaks recurved 268 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. over the ligament ; ligament large and prominent, passing under the beaks ; anterior lunule depressed at the margin, fuscous, broad-heart-shaped,: longitudinally waved; hinge margin depressed between the beaks; posterior slope car- inate ; epidermis yellowish olive, becoming chesnut brown on the umbones ; rayed with green, more conspicuous in young specimens; in old ones the dark chesnut brown covers the whole and conceals the rays; surface smooth and shining, reflecting the face of the observer; young shells are splendent, having a much stronger lustre on the outside than on the inside; cardinal teeth broad, prominent and obliquely flattened ; lateral teeth broad, elevated and ter- minating abruptly before; cicatrices large ; cavity of the beaks unusually large ; naker pearly white; surface smooth, but not highly polished. Remarkxs.—There is a remarkable uniformity in the di- mensions of the full-grown specimens of this species. This shell is more capacious than any other of the genus hitherto described. It most resembles the wnio ovatus, but its great- er capacity, darker color, its smooth,shining and rayed sur- face will distinguish it without mistake. Variety (a) shell broader, less ovate, nearly oval and rounded on both sides. A fine large shell. It measures Diam. 2.3—2.8 Length 3.1—3.8 Breadth 4.1—5.4, | Inhabits the Wisconsan. Mr. Schoolcraft. Variety (6) shell light green, rayed, compressed. Inhabits the Wisconsan. Variety (c) shell with the teeth slightly elevated ; cardi- nal one formed by a serrated edge of the shell, and a slight projection within, Inhabits Barbadoes Neck, N. J. near New-York. Mr. Bradhurst’s Collection. Diam. 2.5 Length 3.5 Breadth 4.8. Variety (d) a shell from the Delaware approaches this species. The form and colourare similar. It is however less, the largest measuring scarcely 2.3 inches broad; ma- king the shell not more than one fifth the size of those de- scribed above; also the beaks and bosses are less promi- Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 269 nent, the rays fewer, and the polish Jess brilliant. It ap- proaches the Unio Cariosus. Inhabits the Delaware at New Hope. Mr. J. Sears. My Collection. tai Remarxs.—With the most respectful deference to the two distinguished Naturalists whose names are mentioned above, I have ventured to differ from them both, as they do irom each other. I think a slight examination of our Cab- inets would convince either of them that this shell requires a separate designation. Two bivalves can scarcely be more unlike than this and the Unio Radiata of Lamarck; and the recent discovery, of the variety C, in our own waters, which produce thousands of the Unio Cariosus, seems con- clusive as to that.. This variety it will be observed has precisely the same diameter and length as the shell from the Wisconsan, and the difference in the teeth may be acciden- tal. There is the same necessity for distinguishing these as any others. ‘They are totally unlike. ives tie outline 21. Unio Sitievoimevs. Fig. 15.< of the | 3 _ Shell. Shell long-ovate, sub-cylindrical, thick, regularly rounded, rayed, beaks slightly elevated, cavity small; inside white. Inhabits the Wisconsan. Capt. Douglass. Dr. Mitchill’s Cabinet. My Collection. Diam. 1°3—1°6 Length 1°8—2:1 Breadth 3:3—3°8. Shell elongated transversely, disks swelled ; beaks about one fourth from the posterior extremity; hinge margin straight ; basal margin convex depressed ; anterior margin rounded ; ‘posterior sub-angulated ; epidermis yellowish ol- ive rayed with distant dark green narrow lines; surface deeply wrinkled, and somewhat imbricated; strie dark and lamellar on the anterior slope; smooth and bright on the centre of the disks; cardinal teeth elevated crest-like compressed, and very oblique; in some specimens nearly parallel to the edge of the shell; lateral teeth long and 270 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. straight ; cavity of the beaks small and rather shallow, na- ker pearly white and iridescent,surface smooth and polished. Variety (a) shell less, more ovate, broader before, hinge margin more elevated. Remarxs.—This is a beautiful and elegantly formed shell. It somewhat resembles a pea-pod; hence its name. It agrees in color and surface with the Unio Ventricosus, but differs in being of smaller size, longer in proportion, more cylindrical, less inflated, beaks much less elevated, and cav- ity less capacious. wi 22. Unio Ovatus.—Shell roundish-ovate, convex, umbones elevated, beaks recurved, anterior lu- nule flattened ; teeth crest-like elevated. Unio Ovatus. Mr. Say. Unio Ovata. M. Lamarck. © Inhabits the Ohio. Mr. Collins. Maumee, at Fort Wayne. Mr. Sears. Mr. Collins’ Collection. My Collection. . Diam. 1-6—2°0 Length 2:-3—3-0 Breadth 3°3—4:0. American Conchology, plate 2, fig. 7. . Shell usually broader before, and narrower behind the beaks; but in the figure referred to above, the contrary is ‘observed ; thin when young, and not remarkably thick when old; disks swelled; umbones prominent; ligament partly concealed ; anterior lunule flattened, and fuscous, somewhat waved with strie and wrinkles becoming lamel- lar; hinge margin making. an angle with the anterior and posterior dorsal ; epidermis yellowish, or horn color; sur- _ face glabrous, deeply wrinkled, wrinkles appearing on the inside ; cardinal teeth crest-like, elevated and compres- sed; lateral teeth elevated; in some specimens, short, crooked, and apparently deformed; in others, straight; cicatrices smooth and polished; cavity large and rendered somewhat angular by the flattening of the anterior slope ; naker pearly, bluish white ; surface, in old specimens, pa- pillous, in young, smooth. Remarxs.—The angular appearance produced by the flattening of the anterior slope, readily distinguishes this Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 271 species. It most resembles the. Unio Ventricosus; but is less, thinner, “ more flattened and even slightly concave on the anterior slope, from the oblique. carina to the angle at the termination of the ligament.” Mr.Say says the Ovatus is not rayed, and our specimens accord with his description, but M. Lamarck mentions a variety with rays from Lake George. 23. Unio Cariosus.—Shell ovate or oval, inflated, not very thick, beaks somewhat prominent, cav- ity moderate. Unio Cariosus. Mr. Say. Unio Cariosa. M. Lamarck. Inhabits Lakes and Rivers of N. ey My Collection. Diam. 1:6, Length 2°3, Breadth 8°7. American Conchology, plate 3, fig. 2 The dimensions and description of this shell vary so much that it is difficult to find a sufficient number of perma- nent characters by which it may be distinguished. It re- sembles in this respect the Unio Purpureus; for of the twelve characters mentioned by Mr. Say, and the six men- tioned by M. Lamarck only four can be considered as in any degree permanent ; and of these M. Lamarck has men- tioned but one, and that is “ inflated.” 'The colour, form and size of the shell constantly vary. It is commonly broader before, but often equally broad at both extremities ; and somewhat pointed. It is never very thick ; often very thin; commonly a medium. ‘Those from the Hudson are thin and small, from the Raritan thicker and broad ; from the western waters middle sized and of considerable thickness ; ; disks swelled, umbones elevated ; ligament exterior and el- evated ; epidermis olive-brown or greenish, and commonly radiated. Internal colour bluish white, reddish, rose, or salmon ; surface often warty. Variety (a) Cardinal teeth multipartite. {inhabits Lake Ontario. Mr. Bradhurst’s Collection. 272 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 24. Unio Prawus. Fig, 16.) Outline of Shell rhombick-oval, thin, beaks depressed ; disks flattened, compressed ; teeth slightly elevated, smooth. : Inhabits the Wisconsan. Mr. Schoolcraft. My Collection. Diam. 1°3 Length 2:8 Breadth 4:8. Shell with the beaks flat, ligament broad and deeply in- serted between the. valves; hinge margin straight and par- allel to the base; basal margin slightly arcuated ; anterior dorsal margin subtruncate ; epidermis brownish yellow ; surface deeply wrinkled ; cardinal teeth smooth, polished and slightly elevated; lateral teeth long and slender; ci- catrices rough; cavity very small; naker bluish white tin- ged with purple and green. Internal surface wavy and tu- berculated. Remarxs.—The flatness of the shell and the smooth- ness of the teeth, readily distinguish this species from all its congeners hitherto described. It has been supposed to be the Unio Anodontina of M. Lamarck ; but besides being four times as large, it has not at all the general habit of an Anodonta ; wherereas M. Lamarck observes that his shell “ might be mistaken for an anodonta unless it should be carefully observed.” ** ** * Cardinal teeth small, oblique. ee) a inside. 25. Unio Trianeuxaris. Fig, 17. } h Guten: Shell triangular, gibbous inflated, rayed, gaping ; anterior slope flattened, ribbed, cancellate ; in- side white. Inhabits Bois-blanc Isle, Detroit River. Major Delafield. Dr. Mitchill’s Cabinet. Major Delafield’s Collection. My Collection. Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonia. 273 Of this remarkable shell we have four specimens ; Diam. ‘6 Length -625 Breadth 1°05 inch. 625 1 ink “75 “8 1°5 : 8 1°3 Shell moderately thick, acutely angulated before obtuse and somewhat angulated behind ; disks inflated; anterior slope flattened and forming a right angle with the disk, rib- bed longitudinally and wrinkled transversely ; beaks one third from the posterior extremity, decorticated approxi- mate and somewhat elevated ; anterior lunule oval-heart- shaped; posterior lunule not distinct; basal margin a little depressed near the anterior extremity ; anterior mar- gin straight, and its edge not entire ; epidermis yellowish- green, rayed with dark green, finely striated transversely, and with from three to six more conspicuous transverse wrinkles. Anterior slope marked with longitudinal ribs which are beautifully cancellated by the strie and wrinkles passing over them, ribs projecting and forming a dentated edge ; shell slightly gaping at both extremities; cardinal teeth two in each valve, compressed and crenulate, lamellar teeth short, projecting, finely crenulate, and terminating ab- ruptly ; naker bluish-white iridescent. Remarx.—This shell resembles, in shape, the Alasmo- donta marginata, but it is a well characterized Unio. 26. Unio Nasutus.—Shell oblong-lanceolate, thin produced and pointed before, hinge margin ele- vated, compressed, carinate. Unio Nasutus. Mr. Say. American Conchology, plate 4, fig. 1. Inhabits the Delaware. My Collection. Diam. °5 Length 1-0 Breadth 2-2. Shell thin and slender; disks compressed ; beaks depres- sed; ligament elevated and slender; anterior lunule dis- tinct, somewhat depressed at the margin, and with obsolete longitudinal ribs; hinge margin straight; basal margin nearly parallel with the hinge, slightly divergent ; anterior Vou. VI.--No. 2. 35 174 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. extremity pointed, posterior rounded ; epidermis greenish brown ; surface striated, glabrous ; cardinal teeth slender ; lateral tooth Jong and thin; naker bluish-white varied with wax-yellow, and sometimes tinged with violet, and irides- cent; cavity of the beaks, scarcely any. Remarx.—This cannot as M. Lamarck supposed be his Unio Nasuta, for it has no sinuses on the basal margin, is not ‘‘ crooked” nor ‘ obliquely attenuated.” 27. Unto Gractiis.—Shell ovately triangular, very thin and fragile, hinge margin elevated ; valves connate ; ligament concealed. Unio Alatus. Mr. Say. Inhabits the Wisconsan. Mr. Schoolcraft. And the Lakes. Mr. Say. Cabinet of the Lyceum. My Collection. Diam. 1:0—1°2 Length 2°2—2°5 Breadth 3-1—4°1. Beaks depressed, and placed far back; ligament between the valves, and covered; anterior lunule distinct and obso- letely ribbed; hinge margin elevated into a large wing; epidermis sea-green, wrinkled and striated transversely ; obscurely radiate and glabrous; cardinal teeth very small, scarcely projecting; lateral teeth very thin and finely stria- ted ; channel just sufficient to admit the point of the thumb nail; naker bluish-white tinged with violet, and beautifully iridescent. Remarxs.—This shell differs from Unio Alatus in being much thinner, broader in proportion, lighter color both in- side and outside, produced and somewhat pointed behind ; anterior slope in a straight line with the alated projection. It differs entirely in the shape and proportion of the teeth. 28. Unio Parvus. Fig. 18. vias Shell oblong-ovate, small, convex, sides round- ed ; beaks slightly elevated, inside pearly white, Iridescent. | Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 275 Inhabits the Fox River. Mr. Schoolcraft. Cabinet of the Lyceum. Mr. Collins’s Collection. Mr. Say’s Collection, Philadelphia. Diam. *35—-525 Length -4—-6 Breadth °75—1°2. Shell rather thin, beaks placed about one fourth of the length from the posterior extremity, ligament very narrow, anterior lunule distinct and obsoletely ribbed; basal margin slightly shortened; epidermis brownish ; an obtuse slight- ly elevated rib from the beaks to the anterior basal margin; lateral tooth rectilinear rounded at the end, and parallel to the base ; naker very brilliant. Remarx.—The smallest and most beautiful of all the genus yet discovered in America. Summary of the Unio. Species described, - - - - - 28 Varieties particularized, - - - - 23 Total of species and varieties, - ~ 5 ool Of which Mr. Say formerly described, - 8 We have given new specific names to - 20 Of which M. Lamarck had perhaps previously no- ticed - - - - - - - 3 End of the Unio. ALASMODONTA.* Generick Character. Shell transverse, equivalve, inequilateral, free; beaks decorticated; posterior muscular impression compound ; hinge with prominent cardinal teeth in each valve, but without lateral teeth. *¢Froma, without, Aacua (aerieua?) ascale, and fous a tooth,’’—Mr. Say. 276 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. OBSERVATIONS. This genus was established by Mr. Say. The shells are- distinguished from those of the genus Unio, by the want of the lateral lamellar tooth, the place of which is commonly occupied by a slightly elevated fold; but no channel can be perceived, nor any interlocking or matching together of the opposite.folds. In many specimens the part is perfectly smooth. The sinus at the anterior termination of the lig- ament is visible in all, and exactly resembles that of the Unio ; as do also the colours of the epidermis and of the interior ; but the polish of the inside is generally much less brilliant than that of the Unio. The habit of the shells is similar, many of them becoming thick and large. M. Lamarck seems not to have noticed this genus. He makes the same remark of his Hyria,* that Mr. Say does of this, “‘ that together with the Dipsast of Dr. Leach it com- pletes the connexion between the Unio and Anodonta.” But no part of his generick character agrees with the pres- ent genus except that the shell is equivalve, which is the case in the whole family. The auricles} of his Hyria and the lamellar tooth forbid the supposition, that he could have intended this shell by his description. It is however properly one of his Naiades, and should be placed next to the Unio. ~ We subdivide the Genus into two sections, commencing with those that resemble the Unie and ending with those that approach the Anodonta. Sections. * Shells thick and large. * * Shells thin and small. * Generick character of the Hyria of M. Lamarck, Shell equivalve, ob- liquely triangular, auriculate, truncated and straight at the base; hinge with two teeth slightly elevated; (rampantes.) the cardinal or posterior tooth multipartite, divergent, the interior parts less; the other or lateral tooth very long and lamellar; ligament external and linear. (Naker very brilliant, ) A pine Dipsas of Dr. Leach, has the lamellar lateral tooth, but no cardinal eeth. } Processes on each side of the beaks, like the scallop, Pecten opercularis. Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 277 — * Shells thick and large. Species. 1. ALASMODONTAARCUATA. Fig. 20. ; b young, > old. Shell ovate, elongated transversely, thick ; base ar- _cuated ; ligament elevated ; beaks depressed ; ci- catrices rough. Hab. West Canada Creek. Mr. R. N. Havens. Asmall streamin Tappan. Mr. J. Sears. Cabinets of the Lyceum and Dr. Mitchill. My Collection. Mr. Say’s Collection. Diam. 1.2—1.6 Length 2.1—2.6 Breadth 4.1—5.5 Shell thick; disks convex above, and compressed below; anterior side very much produced ; beaks slightly elevated; ligament. elevated above the beaks; hinge margin elevated, compressed, carinate; basal margin arcuated; anterior margin narrow and somewhat pointed; posterior margin rounder and broader than the anteriour ; ant. dorsal margin rapidly narrowed and subtruncate ; post. dorsal impressed behind the beaks; epidermis brownish black; surface, in young specimens, smooth and glabrous, in old ones, much eroded, scabrous and broken. ‘Teeth éwo in the right and one in the left valve, triangular, elevated and crenate ; muscular impressions rough; cavity of the beaks small ; naker bluish white, on the fore parts, lightly iridescent, the rest dull. Young specimens have the center of a pale flesh colour, and old ones are frequently marked with ir- regular greenish spots. Remarxs.—The remarkable change in the form of this species by age, as represented in the figures, might induce an observer to suppose that the shells belonged to different species; but the specimens in our collections of every va- riety of form, from those that are straight or even slightly rounded on the base, te those that are deeply arcuated, show clearly that they a// belong to the same species. It is sur- prising that a shell so large, and frequently occurring in our waters should so long have been overlooked. This has 278 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. probably arisen from the supposition that it belonged to the genus Unio, as in its exterior it resembles some varieties of the U. purpureus. 2. ALASMODONTA RuUGOSA.—Fig. 21. Shell oblong- oval, anteriour side with deep divergent folds. Hab. Wisconsan. Capt. Douglass. Fox River. Mr. Schoolcraft. Dr. Mitchill’s Cabinet. My Collection. Mr. Say’s Collection. Diam. 1.0 Length 2.0 Breadth 3.7 Shell cblong-oval, about equally broad before and be- hind; beaks slightly elevated, wrinkled and decorticated, exhibiting a wax colour beneath ; ligament external and as high as the beaks ; anteriour lunule distinct with a slightly elevated ridge extending from the beaks to the ant. basal margin; basal margin a little shortened; the other margins regularly rounded; epidermis chesnut brown, with a silky lustre ; surface of the anteriour part folded in a pinnate form; folds deeper above and somewhat obsolete below the ridge, curved upward and extending to the hinge and anteriour margins, indenting the edge and visible on the interiour. Teeth large and elevated with a fold behind ; cicatrices smooth ; cavity small; naker pale flesh coloured in the center, pearly white on the margin with a narrow border of dark chocolate colour; surface smooth and gla- brous. Remarks.—This is a very beautiful shell, and unlike any of its congeners. In the one figured, the left valve is slight- ly compressed, the right a little gibbous and the base crook- ed, which may perhaps be accidental. 3. ALASMODONTA COMPLANATA. Fig. 22. Shell ovate- ly quadrangular, hinge margin elevated into a large wing ; valves connate ; ligament conceal- ed. Hab. Fox River. Mr. Schoolcraft. Wisconsan. Capt. Douglass. Mr. Barnes on the Crier Unio and Alasmodonta. 279 Cabinets of the Lyceum, and Dr. Mitehill. My collection. Mr. Say’s collection. Diam. .9—1.4 Length from beaks to base 3.0 Breadth 5.0 Length from the top of the wing 4.3—4.5 Shell very short behind; disks much flattened; umbones depressed; beaks slightly projecting; ligament between -the valves ; anterior lunule much compressed and folded across the transverse wrinkles; hinge margin elevated into a large wing, straight and forming an obtuse angle with the post. dorsal margin ; basal margin slightly rounded, nearly straight; anteriour and posterior margins somewhat angula- ted; anteriour dorsal margin arcuated, or somewhat emar- ginate ; epidermis chesuut brown, glossy; surface some- what deeply wrinkled and striated transversely ; slightly elevated ridges and furrows diverging from the beaks to the anteriour margin, and distinctly impressing the inside. Teeth elevated, sulcated and radiating from the beaks; ci- catrices smooth; cavity small and angular; naker bluish white and iridescent; surface smooth, and polished, in old specimens spotted with green. Remarxs.—This shell resembles the Unio Alatus, in the elevation of the wing and the connexion of the valves, and might at first sight be mistaken fora variety of that species; but it differs in generick character, in shape, and in colour. ** Shells thin and small. 4. ALASMODONTA MARGINATA.—See Mr. Say’s de- scription. 5. ALASMODONTA uNDULATA.—See Mr. Say’s de- scription and figure. These two species were the only ones known when Mr. Say published his description. The former of them is very common and-assumes a great variety of forms and colours. Those that were brought by the N. W. Expedition are lar- ger than those of our eastern waters. They have the epi- dermis pale green, rayed; they are gibbous ; have the beaks elevated, and base falcated. Diam. 1.0 Length 1.4 Breadth 2.4 280 Demonstration of a Problem in Conic Sections. Our thanks are due to the following gentlemen, for spe- cimens and information. Gov. Cass of the Michigan Territory. Capt. D. B. Douglass, Topographical Engineer tothe N. W. Expedition. Mr. H. R. Schoolcraft, Mineralogist to the N. W. Expe- dition. ; Mr. Thomas Say, Philadelphia. Doctor S. L. Mitchill, Major Delafield, Mr. S. B. Collins, Mr. J. M. Bradhurst, Rev. J. Sears, Mr. R. N. Havens, Mr. E. Norcross, of the American Museum. raf New-York. MATHEMATICS. Art. [X.—-Demonstration of a Problem in Conic Sections: By Assistant Professor Davigs. Military Academy, West-Point, Jan. 20, 1823. To the Editor. 'Sir—In the first volume of Dr. Hutton’s Mathematics. (second American edition. p. 470,) we find the following article—‘‘ If there be four cones, having all the same ver- tex, and all their axes in the same plane, and their sides touching, or coinciding in common intersecting lines ; then, if these four cones be all cut by one plane, parallel to the common plane of their axes, there will be formed four hy- perbolas, of which each two opposites are equal, and the other two are conjugates.”” The intersections of a plane, and the surfaces of four cones, having a common vertex, touching each other in right-lined elements, and having their axes in one plane, are not conjugate hyperbolas, as Demonstration of a Problem in Conic Section. 281 asserted by Dr. Hutton; and the principle which he has adopted as general, obtains in one case only. As I have not seen this error corrected, nor any other method laid down by authors on conic sections for obtaining Conjugate hyperbolas by means of intersecting four cones situated as above, I send you the following, thinking that it may possi- bly merit a place among the mathematical articles of your Journal. Let LAC, HAF, HAL, and CAF, be four cones, having a common vertex A, their axes inthe plane of the paper, and touching each other in the right-lined elements, CAH, and LAF. a j Ifthe two cones CAL and FAH be cut by a plane QCBDE, parallel to the line PG) er ovalt “initersect’ the’ aes OY VA a cones in opposite hyperbo- las; and if we take the plane perpendicular to that of the paper, these hyperbolas will! __ : D a be orthographically -project- si edin the line EQ. If through either of the points C, or D, ' é in which the cutting plane —-}-_0 Lae meets the right-lined ele- ; ments AC, AD, another plane be passed parallel to H % the line KAB, this plane will intersect the two cones LAH and CAF, in opposite hyperbolas, and these hyper- bolas will be conjugates to the former. ; 3 La j ce ee Demonstration. Pass any plane as GF perpendicular to the axis of the cone GAP, it will intersect its surface in a circle, and the plane QE in a right line, which will be a common ordinate at the point E, to the transverse axis of the hyperbola, and the diameter GF of the circle. Since the triangles CAB. CGE and DEF are similar, CB is to AB as CE to EG, and CB is to ABas DE to EF; and by multiplying together Vor. VI.—No. 2. 36 282 Demonstration of a Problem in Conic Sections. the corresponding terms of these proportions, we have CB? to AB? as CED toGEF. But the rectangle GEF is equal to the square of the ordinate of the circle or hyper- bola at the point E, therefore AB is the semi-conjugate ax- is of the opposite hyperbolas, whose transverse axis is CD. Let now a plane HL be passed perpendicular to the-axis AK ofthe cone HAL, it will intersect its surface ina circle, and the plane DI in a line ; this line will be a common or- dinate of the hyperbolas whose transverse axisis DN, and to the circle whose diameter is HL.. Since the triangle DAO, DLI and EIN are similar, DO is to AO as DI to IL, and DO is to AO as IN to IH; by multiplying the correspond- ing terms of these proportions, we obtain DO? to AO? as DIN to HIL. But the rectangle HIL is equal to the square of the ordinate of the circle or hyperbola at the point I, and therefore the hyperbolas having DN for a transverse axis have AO for a semi-conjugate. Since CB is equal to AO, and AB to DO, the transverse axis of the hyperbolas whose vertices are C and D, is equal to the conjugate axis of the hyperbolas whose vertices are D and N, as they are respectively equal to QCB and QAO, and the transverse axis of the latter hyperbolas, is equal to the conjugate of the former; the four hyperbolas are therefore conjugates. It follows from this demonstration that, if either two of the opposite cones, be intersected by a plane parallel to their common axis, the distance of this plane from the axis, is always equal to the semi-transverse axis of conjugate hy- perbolas, and that these hyperbolas may be formed by in- tersecting the other two cones by a plane parallel to their common axis, and at a distance from it equal to the semi- transverse axis of the first hyperbolas. The cutting planes are at unequal distances from the axes of the cones, to which they are respectively parallel, unless those axes make with the right-lined elements of their corresponding cones, angles of forty-five degrees, in which case the hyperbolas are equilateral, and may be cut out by one plane parallel to the axes of the four cones. : 1 am, Sir, with great respect and consideration, you obedient servant C. DAVIES, Asst. Prof. Nat. and Ex. Phi’y. ‘lo Prof. B. Silliman, New-Haven. ae = Cambridge Course of Mathematics. 283 Art. X.—Elements of Geometry. By A. M. Lecennre, Member of the Institute and Legion of Honor, of the Roy- al Society of London, Sc. ; translated from the French for the use of the students of the University at Cambridge, New-England. Cambridge, N. E. Hilliard & Metcalf, 1819. p.208. ° M. Legendre has long been regarded, as one of the great luminaries of mathematical science. His rectilineal and spherical trigonometry, appended to his Elements of Geometry, though not very extensive, is marked with pro- foundness and originality. His ‘ Essai sur la Theorie des Nombres,’’ (of which the second edition, much larger and more complete than the first, was published at Daris in 4to in 1808,) contains the principai results of Fermat, Euler, and Lagrange, together with the fruit of his own investiga- tions, upon that difficult and important branch of mathe- matics. It contains also some of the most interesting dis- coveries of M. Gauss, upon the same subject. ‘The first elements of the ‘Theory of Numbers,” or, as it is some- times called “‘ Transcendant Arithmetic,’’ are demonstra- ted in the seventh book of Euclid, with elegance and rigor. We have some other ancient fragments on the properties of numbers, but this branch of mathematics has been much more cultivated by the moderns than by the ancients. In- deed, our system of Arithmetical Notation, which ap- proaches perhaps as near perfection as any in this world, and the resources of our Algebra, have given the moderns animmense advantage over the ancients in investigating the general properties ofnumbers. Of the “Theorie” of Legen- dre, M. Gauss thus speaks: Dans cet intervalle, i] a paru un excellent ouvrage d’un homme qui avait déja rendu de trés-grands services 2 |’Arithmétique transcendante, dans lequel il a non-seulement rassemblé et mis en ordre tout ce qui a paru jusqu’a“présent sur cette science, mais ajouté beaucoup de choses nouvelles qui lui. sont propres.* Be- sides these, he is author of a new method for the determin- ation of the orbits of comets; Exercises upon the Integral *Recherches Arithmétiques traduites par Delisle, preface p. 14. 284. Cambridge Course of Mathematics. Calculus; and various academical memoirs. In the late great trigonometrical surveys in France and England, op- erations which have contributed so much to our knowl- edge of the earth we inhabit, and to the honor of the na- tions engaged in them; the instruments used were of such exquisite construction, that the angles were measured to a fraction ofa second. Hence, the spherical excess, that is, the excess of the three angles of the triangles, measured in these surveys-on the surface of the earth, above two right angles, became apparent. It was necessary, therefore, to estimate this excess. The prompt genius of M. Legendre furnished for the occasion a theorem, founded on the fact, that the spherical triangles whose angles are measured in trigonometrical surveys, have their sides very small when compared with the radius of the sphere, which is, in this case, the radius of the earth. ‘The theorem adverted to, reduces the resolution of these spherical triangles, to that of rectilineal triangles, and admirably unites conciseness with a sufficient degree of exactness. The theorem is this: “4 spherical triangle being proposed, of which the sides are very small in relation to the radius of the sphere, if from each of its angles one third of the excess of the sum of its three an- gles above two right angles, be subtracted, the angles so di- minished, may be taken for the angles of a rectilineal trian- gle, the sides of which are equal in length to those of the pro- posed spherical triangle.” M. Legendre has givenademon- stration of this very valuable theorem, in the appendix to his Trigonometry. The Elements of Geometry now under consideration, were composed during that period of the French history, when the ancient foundations of society and government were undermined, and the political edifice throughout Ea- rope, rocked with fearful convulsions on its base. The great French philosophers and mathematicians saw plainly, that in order to conciliate the popular favor, and aveid the jealousy of the reigning authority, they must, as far as pos- sible, render their favorite pursuits subservient to objects of immediate and practical utility. They had seen the emi- nent talents and conspicuous, virtues of Lavoisier, insuffi- cient to save him from the scaffold; and the illustrious but unfortunate Bailly, who had formerly been the idol of the French nation, and who had devoted his: life to the inter- Legendre’s Geometry. 285 ests of science and bisiacbaile had fallen a victim of the most sanguinary tyranny, before their.eyes. The subse- quent organization of a system of public instruction, gave the French mathematicians an opportunity of rendering eminent services to the government. The utility of the exact sciences to the views of the French nation, as con- stituting the basis of the science of war, called into full ex- ercise allsthe mathematical talents in the kingdom. But above all, the establishment of the National Institute con- centrated the talents of the nation, and the pensions and high honors which were liberally bestowed, especially up- on those who successfully cultivated the exact sciences, gave an astonishing impuise to mathematical learning. To these circumstances we owe the geometry of Legendre, the numerous elementary treatises of Lacroix, Laplace’s System of the World, Lagrange’s Theory of Analytical Functions, Poisson’s Mechanics: and an immense number of other works of the highest merit, which cannot now be mentioned. The exact sciences are vastly indebted to the French revolution and its long train of consequences, what- ever may be its ultimate effect upon the progress of knowl- edge ingeneral. The science of calculation is now invest- ed with such resources, that almost nothing is too compli- cated, or too stubborn to yield to its power. Before proceeding to a particular examination of the work before us, we feel called upon to say a few words up- on the enquiries,—what ought an elementary treatise of geometry to contain, in the present state of the pure and applied mathematics ?—and why we should adopt M. Le- gendre’s treatises, or that of any other modern writer, in preference to ‘“Euclid’s Elements,’ which have been used, for the most part, as a text-book in the American colleges. With respect to the first enquiry, it is plain, t that an ele- mentary treatise cannot contain all the truths within the compass of elementary geometrical investigation. The properties which belong to the figures of elementary ge- ometry, and the relations which these properties sustain to each other, are innumerable. Some of these properties and relations have never been applied to any practical ob- ject, others form links more or less important in a long chain of connected truths, others are truths important in 286 Cambridge Course of Mathematics. themselves, independently of their connections, while a multitude of others, without doubt, remain still undiscover- ed. The general principles with a view to whichan ele- mentary treatise of geometry ought to be composed, in the present state of mathematical science, we think, are these: ist. All those truths should be selected, which admit of extensive applications as well to ordinary practical purpo- ses, as in the higher branches of mathematics. *2d. The demonstrations should unite, as far as possible, the ele- gance and rigor of the ancient geometers, with a greater degree of conciseness. 3d. The demonstrations should be so constructed as to exclude, as far as possible, propo- sitions merely subsidiary; that is, propositions which are of no practical importance in themselves, but only steps in demonstrating others. 4th. Indirect demonstrations should be avoided, as much as-possible. In general, those proofs are the best, which establish the truth proposed upon an immoveable basis, and, at the same time, clearly shew its connection with other truths already known, and render sensible, the transition from a proposition to that which follows it. 5th. The truths demonstrated should be ar- ranged in the most. natural order, and well connected with each other. 6th. The synthetic method of demonstration should be employed, as being peculiarly appropriate to el- ementary geometry. 7th. Great care ought to be used to preserve. a uniformity in the style of the demonstrations, and an analogy between the different parts of the treatise. We shall be better understood on this point, by taking an example. Parallelograms upon the same base, and of the same height, are equal. Also, parallelopipeds upon the same base, and of the same height, are equal. The form- er of. these propositions, has the same relation to areas, that the latter has to volumes. On account of the simi- larity of the propositions, their demonstrations ought to be similar. The preservation of this analogy not only gives elegance to the demonstrations, but much assistance to the memory. The question, why students in mathematics should use a modern treatise of geometry, in preference to the Elements of Euclid, is of far more difficult discussion than the prece- ding. Kuclid’s “Geometry has come down to us clothed with the authority of the high antiquity of two thousand Legendre’s Geometry. 287 years, and in this work he appears to have collected all the elementary truths of the science, which had been discoy- ered at the time in which he lived. It was composed un- der the patronage of the Ptolemies, and in the school of Alexandria. With respect, however, to the influence which antiquity ought to have upon our opinion of any work of science, we entirely agree with Professor Playfair. “The infancy of science,’’ says he, “could not be the time when its attainments were the highest; and before we suffer ourselves to be guided by the veneration of anti- quity, we ought to consider in what real antiquity consists. With regard to the progress of knowledge and improve- ment, we are more ancient than those who went before us. The human race has now more experience than in the gen- erations that are past, and of course may be expected to have made higher attainments in science and philosophy.’’* Euclid’s Geometry is the only elementary work on the subject, that has come down to us from very remote times. But we do not know how it can be proved, that it was the only work of the kind which existed at that period; much less do we know, how it can be shewn that it was the best. If we had other ancient elements of Geometry, our views of Euclid’s might possibly be considerably different. Notwithstanding what is here said, we profess the high- est veneration for the genius of Euclid, and we are perfect- ly aware of the extent of our obligations to this great father ef geometrical science. But while we would be foremost to grant him the full measure of his merit, we are convin- ced that the admiration bestowed on him, has sometimes been extravagant and absurd. His Elements have been re- presented as absolutely perfect,—incapable of improvement. Take the following passage as an example: ‘“‘ A geometer who hasstood the test of more than two thousand years ; who has resisted the attacks of so many critics, and supported the weight of so many commentators; whose writings kept alive the sacred fire of science when it was almost extin- guished over the whole earth, and now shine with undi- minished lustre amidst the greatest splendor of scientific discovery ; such an author is not to be moved by the praise or the censure of modern criticism; his place in the tem- ple of fame is irrevocably fixed, and nothing remains for us. *Diss. on Math. and Phys. Science, p. 50. . | 288 Cambridge Course of Mathematics. but to hail him as one of the immortals.”* As aspecimen of rhetoric, this may be very fine, but we are persuaded that its merit ends here. While a multitude of books, which cost their authors much labor and reflection, are dai- ly passing into oblivion, and while the whole volume of na- ture lies open to our investigation, itis absurd to say that any human work in any age, or in any department of learn- ing, ever has or ever will put a period to the progress of improvement, and arrive at perfection; a state which van- ity on the one hand, and enthusiasm on the other, have dreamed of, but which the nature and destiny of human things forbids us to expect ever to attain. Dr. Johnson flattered himself for a while, he says, that his Dictionary, which he had labored many years and with so much appli- cation, would fix the English language, and put a stop to those alterations which time and chance had before been suffered to make in it without opposition, but he after- wards found, that he had indulged expectations which nei- ther reason nor experience could jastify.t Se But to be more particular: we shall endeavor to shew. that Euclid’s Elements contain many imperfections which are remedied in those of Legendre and Lacroix; and that their Elements contain much.valuable information which will in vain be sought forin those of Euclid. Our remarks, however, will be very brief, as it would be inconsistent with our limits to enter into an extensive view of the sub- ject. . One particular in which the Elements of M. M. Legendre and Lacroix are more valuable than those of Euclid, is, that the latter treats the doctrine of ratios and proportion in B. Vth asa separate branch of geometrical enquiry ; while the former make the usual applications of this doctrine to geo- metrical figures, without considering the demonstrations of its principles as a subject belonging to geometrical investi- gation. The demonstration of the first principles of the theory of ratios and proportion belongs to arithmetic, and its full developement to elementary algebra. Itis because most of us have learned this theory from Euclid, that we are apt to imagine some almost necessary connection be- tween it and geometry. ‘his has been so much the case, that Euclid’s aathority has been followed by almost all the *Edinb. Review, Vol. IV. p. 257. +Preface. Legendre’s Geometry. 289 English writers on geometry to the present time, while the French mathematicians have for a long period investigated the principles of ratios and proportion by arithmetical and algebraic methods. Even the Edinburgh Encyclopeedists, who have made Legendre’s Elements the basis of their ar- ticle Geometry, have in this part entirely deserted him, and have introduced the theory of ratiosand proportion essential- ly after the manner of Euclid. At the same time, the author of the article referred to, confesses, that “it might with pro- priety be inserted, rather asa preliminary theory, than as forming a part ofgeometry.* It was necessity, and notchoice, that led Euclid to connect the theory of ratios and propor- tion with geometry. In his time algebra, to which we have before said that this theory in all its extent belongs, was unknown. When, therefore, Euclid wished to apply pro- portion to geometrical figures, it was necessary for him to investigate its principles by geometry, as the only means with which he was furnished. Euclid is not in fault for the course which he pursued. He did all that could be done, in the circumstances in which he was placed. But for us, who are in possession of algebraic methods, at once easy _and elegant, to pursue the same course, is entirely a different thing. ‘To do so, is not less absurd than it would be to set about determining the obliquity of the ecliptic to the equator by means of the gnomon, when-we have the theodolite and repeating circle; or to pursue Aristotle’s method of philoso- phising, when we have so long followed that of the illustri- ous Bacon, with such splendid success. The theory of pro- portion as given by Euclid, is extremely tedious, circuitous and difficult to be understood by beginners. ‘The reason of “ this is, that geometry in its nature is of very little generality, and in its construction is not sufficiently flexible to admit of easy application to the subject. But by making use of al- gebra, which at the same time accommodates itself to the suject with great facility, and is a language vastly more gen- eral than geometry, the whole theory of ratios and propor- tion flows in the most natural and easy manner, from the simplest properties of equations. Again, the Elements of Euclid contain too many proposi- tions merely subsidiary, and propositions which are of almost no practical utility, and have no connection with the suce- * Edinb. Encye. Vol. IX. pp. 658, 669. Vor. VI.—No. 2. 37 290 Cambridge Course of Mathematics. ceeding and higher parts of mathematics. The seventh proposition, B. {. difficult for beginners. is given only for the sake of the eighth, and is of no further use whatever. The sixteenth is evidently implied in the thirty-second, and therefore is of no use, except as being subsidiary to the de- monstration of others. Propositions forty-fourth and for- ty-fifth, are not of sufficient use to compensate for the space which they occupy. In B. II. the sixth, eighth, tenth and eleventh propositions, with some others relating to the properties of straight lines variously divided and produced, are very unimportant and tend to discourage beginners by the fediousness and difficulty of their demonstrations. They are omitted by Hutton and other late English writers, as well as by Legendre and Lacroix. Many of the proposi- tions in B. III. are, also, of small practical utility. and are not used in subsequent parts of the science. The demon- strations of many of them are indirect, of some of them, ar- tificial ; and the construction of. some of the figures, is un- natural and difficult to be conceived. ‘To one or another of these objections, the following propositions are liable 5 fourth, fifth, sixth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth. The fourth B. contains an incomplete view of that part of the science which it embraces. Jt cught at least, to comprise an investigation of the approximate ratio of the circumfer- ence to the diameter of a circle. Of B. sixth, we have to say only, that M. M. Legendre and Lacroix have demon- strated the same truths in a more simple and equally rigor- ous manner, that they have divested them of much techni- cal language which rendered them difficult to be understood, and that they have supplied many propositions of extensiye . use in the subsequent parts. if. Another particular, on account of which we must give the preference to the Elements of Legendre and Lacroix, respects the arrangements. It is by a different and more skillful ar- rangement, that they have contrived to avoid, much more than Euclid has done, subsidiary propositions,indirect demon- strations, and unnatural constructions. Perhaps we may here be expected to furnish the instances, in which their arrange- ment is superior to that of Euclid. But by way of excusing ourselves from this, we must beg leave to observe, that a question of arrangement is of so extensive a nature, that we could not do justice to our views of the subject, without en- 29% Legendre’s Geometry. 298, tering into long discussions and giving numerous details, which must *be imperfectly understood without diagrams and without a minute comparison of the arrangement adopt- ed by the writers of whom we are speaking. This is a particular upon which a sound opinion cannot be formed without personal inspection. We think that the conclusion at which we have arrived, and which we have stated at the beginning of this paragraph will be inevitable in the mind of every one who will be at the pains of a comparison some- what extensive and elaborate. All that we ask of our read- ers on the point now under consideration, is, that they will not conclude us to be entirely and necessarily wrong, until they have given the subject an attentive examination. ‘In his judices desidero, qui tractarunt in sua amplitudine.* We trust that this will not be considered an unreasonable claim upon their candor. , On the geometry of solids or volumes, also, the elements of Legendre and Lacroix are very much more complete, than those of Euclid. On this point, it is impossible to convey an adequate idea to those who are not, to a consid- erable extent, acquainted with the subject. At the time of Euclid, the geometry of solids appears to have been quite imperfectly investigated. It is true, that before this period, the five regular bodies had been studied in the celebrated school of Plato; and Archimedeshad made his brilliant discov- eries in relation to the properties of the sphere and cylinder. But the properties of Polyedrons in general, and their meas- ure, have not received, until within a short period, the at- tention which their importance merited ; and M. Legendre in particular, has contributed much to the elucidation of the subject. M. Cauchy, also, has done considerable towards the perfection of this part of elementary geometry. We are now sufliciently prepared to enter with advan- tage upon an examination of the work before us. The definitions and axioms are Jaid down very much in the usual style. The latter are nearly the same in substance with those of Euclid, and differ from them principally in the cir- cumstance, that the idea of equality is not drawn out into particulars. ‘They are but five in number. It is evident he does not attempt a complete enumeration of them, a thing which no geometer has accomplished. A straight line is defined to be, ‘“‘the shortest way from one point to * Valckenaer ad Herodotum, p. 585. 292 Cambridge Course of Mathematics. another,”’? which is better than any other definition of it, since it is of more easy and extensive application than any other. We think the most natural way of giving a general definition ofa point, a line, and a surface, is, to contemplate a surface, as one of the limits terminating a solid. which has necessarily three dimensions; a dine as a limit terminating a surface; and a point, as a limit terminating a line. These definitions flow naturally from the definition of a solid, in defining which there is no difficulty. When these defini- tions are obtained in this way, and viewed in this light, they have less the nature of abstractions, than when stated in the common way ; since the real existence of limits of these different kinds, can no more be called in question, than that of the solid from which they are all ultimately derived. His definition of an angle, is more happily expressed than usual. ‘‘ When,” says he, “ two straight lines meet, the quantity whether greater or less, by which they depart from each other as to their position, is called an angle; the point of meeting or intersection is the vertex of the an- gle; the lines (comprising the angle) are its sides.” Very various definitions of an angle, have been given by geome- ters. That of Euclid, is certainly faulty. In fact, if we define an angle by the inclination of its lines, the expres- sion is both obscure and pleonastic. If we say that an an- gle is the meeting of two lines, the expression directs the attention entirely to the vertex. On the whole, we believe it best to understand by the term angle, the indefinite space comprised between two straight lines which meet each other. The celebrated D’Alembert proposed to limit this space by an arc of a circle described from the vertex as a centre with any convenient radius, but this is introducing a foreign idea into the definition. The space in question, is perfectly distinguished from all other space. The defi- nition suggested above, comprises all the properties usual- ly ascribed to an angle, such as addition, subtraction, coin- cidence by super-position, &c.. But besides this, the ad- ditional valuable circumstance included in the idea of an angle, that it comprises the space included within its sides, prevents the awkwardness and tedious circumlocution, with which every one must have felt the geometry of planes and solids to be invested. This is a point, in which we think Lacroix has the advantage over Legendre. Euclid has Legendre’s Geometey. 293 sometimes used the word angle in the sense above defined. (B. XI, 20, 21, 22, &c.) and if any one will make the exper- iment he will find it more natural to attach that idea to it in all cases. If it is objected, that the space which we in- clude in the idea of an angle is indefinite in extent, we an- swer, so are the sides of the angle of indefinite length ac- cording to the common definition. If the indefinite space be an objection in the one case, so are the indefinite sides in the other. But the fact is, that the circumstance of the sides and space comprised being indefinite, has no connex- ion with any of the properties of an angle, nor with any in- vestigations in which angles are employed. The elements of Legendre are divided in the original into eight books, four of which treat of plane, and four of solid geometry. These books are changed into sections by the translator, and the principles are numbered from be- ginning to end, for the sake of more convenient reference. The first section contains the properties of straight lines which meet, those of perpendiculars, the theorem upon the sum of the angles of a triangle, the theory of parallel lines, &c. and corresponds nearly with B. J. of Euclid. The doc- trine of parallel lines has long been considered as present- ing one of the greatest difficulties which belong to ele- mentary geometry. Euclid treated the subject, by intro- ducing as an axiom, what is more justly considered a prop- osition. Later writers have uniformly experienced the same difficulty, and some of them have fallen on strange means of passing overit. ‘“ Bezout est dissimule’ le vice du raisonnement,” says Lacroix.* Some writers have trans- posed and shifted the difficulty, until they have obscured it under long and intricate reasonings. Such a course, we deem entirely inconsistent with the duty of an elementary writer, which is to give peculiarly clear and exact ideas upon every subject which he undertakes to elucidate. We do not think that Legendre himself has shed any new light on this subject; though his management of it, exhibits the immense vigour and grasp of his mind. The eleventh edi- tion of his Elements is different, in this respect, from the preceding editions. He says in the preface, ‘d’apres Pavis de plusieurs professeurs distingués, on s’ est déter- miné a rétablir, dans cette onzieme édition, la théorie des * Géométrie, p. 23. 294 Cambridge Course of Mathematics. paralleles a-peu-prés sur la méme base qu’ Euclide. Ii en résultera plus de facilité pour les étudiants, et cette rai- son a paru prépondérante, d’autant que les objection aux- quelles est encore sujette la théorie des paralleles, ne peu- vent étre entierement résolues que par des considerations analytiques, telles que telles qui sont exposées dans la note deuxieme. If he had adopted more nearly still the course pursued by Euclid, he would have treated the subject more to our satisfaction. In truth, Euclid’s method, we think, admits of bat little improvement. Legendre has given in the text a mere graphical proof of the principle involving ‘the difficulty ; while in note II, he has connected with, and applied to, this graphical proof, a rigorous demonstration without assuming any new axiom. ‘The demonstration, however, is entirely analytical, and the reasoning will not readily be followed by those who have not considerable ac- quaintance with the theory of equations and functions. — There is no writer with whom we arc acquainted, that has treated the doctrine of parallel lines with so much ad- dress, and in so unexceptionable a manner as Lacroix. His method is not much different from that of Euchd, and differs from it principally in the circumstance, that it pre- sents the difficulty reduced to its least dimensions. ‘The proposition in which this difficulty is so reduced, is this ; a straight line which is perpendicular to another straight line, is met by all those which are oblique to this other ; consequently, upon a plane, there are none but straight lines perpendicular to the same straight line, which do not meet, that is, which are parallel to each other. The imperfection of the theory of parallel lines consists in the difficulty of proving this principle. Lacroix, making use of that definition of an angle to which we gave the prefer- ence, has given a demonstration of it taken from Bertrand,* which is short, free from obscurity, and perfectly satisfac- tory. After all that has been said, we have long been of the opinion, that the difficulty respecting parallel lines, is in a great measure, imaginary. The method by which La- croix has disposed of the difficulty is much to be preferred to that of any other writer, yet we never examined the sub- ject as treated by any author, when, we think, any one *Developpment nouveau de la partie élémentaire des Mathematiques, Geneve, 1778, 2 vols, 4to. Legendre’s Geometry. 295 could, for a moment have doubted, whether the conclusions were established with complete certainty by the evidence adduced. Those who have objected most to the theory of parallel lines, as usually laid down, belong to that class of mathematicians who insist upon a rigour of demonstration not accommodated to the imperfections attending all hu- man things, and which aiming at an imaginary perfection, is very unreasonably dissatisfied with evidence which es- tablishes its results with perfect certainty. The theorems that we possess respecting the properties of parallel lines, we regard as undeniably certain; any difficulties, therefore, relating tothe manner in which they are demonstrated, we cannot but consider essentially imaginary. . . The second section, comprises the elementary proper- ties of the circle, together with those of chords, of tangents and the measure of angles by arcs of a circle. This sec- tion contains all the principles which are of importance in B.11. of Euclid, and some others both of great use in ordin- ary practice, and in the succeeding parts of the science. These two sections are followed by the resoltition of a number of problems relating to the construction of figures. The third section contains the -measure of stirfaces, their comparison, the properties of a right angled triangle, those of equiangular triangles, of similar figures, &c. In this sec- tion, he has blended the-properties of lines with those of surfaces, but in this arrangement, he has followed the ex- ample of Euclid, and the propositions in this way, admit of being so well connected, that we doubt whether a better arrangement can be obtained. In giving the definitions which relate to this section, he says, ‘‘I shall call those fig- ures equivalent, whose surfaces are equal. ‘Two figures may be equivalent, however dissimilar ; thus a circle may be equivalent to a square, a triangle to a rectangle, &c. The denomination of equal figures will be restricted to those which being applied, the one to the other, coincide entirely; thus two circles having the same radius are equal, and two triangles having the three sides of the one equal to the three sides of the other, each to each, are also equal.” In the use of these definitions, he ts followed by Lacroix. We are persuaded that a distinction between equality by equivalence, and equality by coincidence, is expedient as a matter of convenience, and as a means of enlarging our 296 Cambridge Course of Mathematics. power of expressing the properties and relations of figures. According to Legendre’s plan, the meaning of the term equal, is unnatural. We should have preferred to apply the term coinczdent to those figures which are proved to be equal by superposition, and to have designated by the term equiv- alent, all the remaining part of the common signification of the word equal. Coincident and equivalent figures are both equal, but these terms designate different kinds of equality, and, we think, the introduction of them would contribute to the perfection of the language of geometry. Equality by coincidence alone, 1s comprised in the sixth of his axioms, in which he says, “two magnitudes, whether they be lines, surfaces or solids, are equal when being ap- plied the one to the other, they coincide with each other entirely, that is, when they exactly fill the same space.” This section is concluded, by demonstrating, that the diag- onal and side of a square, are incommensurable quantities, and by an investigation of the approximate ratio of the one to the other. It is remarkable what could have Jed Plato,* to attach such an importance to this principle, as to regard as unworthy the name of man, him who was ignorant of it. It is demonstrated in prop. CXVII. B. X. of Euclid, and in several modern treatises of geometry. It is of no great im- portance, either when veiwed by itself, or in connexion with other truths. . : The fourth section treats of regular polygons and the measure of the circle. It is well known, that the problem of finding a square equal in surface to a circle whose radius is given, or as it is usually termed, the problem of the quad- rature of the circle, is much celebrated in the history of ge- ometry, and has very much occupied the attention of mathematicians. Now we can easily demonstrate, that a circle is equivalent to a rectangle contained by the cir- cumference and half the radius, and by finding a mean pro- portional between the circumference and half the radius, we have the side of the square. The problem of the quad- rature of. the circle, is, therefore, reduced to finding the circumference when the radius is given, and to effect this object, it would be sufficient to know the ratio of the circum- ference to the diameter, or to the radius. Mathematicians have not been able to obtain this ratio but by approxima- * Laws, B. VI. Legendre’s Geometry. 297 tion, though it has exhausted all the resources of human skill and invention, and it strongly reminds us, that imperfec- tion is attached even to the most certain and most perfect of the sciences. The approximation of this ratio, has, however, been carried so far, that if it were exactly known, it would have no practical advantage over the approximate ratio. It would now be considered absurd, to spend much time in attempting to square the circle. Archimedes obtained the ratio of 22, which is sufficient- ly near for common purposes, and has been much used. Metius gave a much more exact value of this ratio in the expression 355, Other mathematicians have found the value of the circumference, when the diameter is unity, 3,141592653 &c. Euler gives an approximation of this ra- tio which extends to 127 decimal places,* ‘and this number has been extended evento 140places. The roots ofimperfect powers are not known with greater exactness, than this ratio. Legendre has not given the ratio, that has lately been discovered by the English in their researches into the learn. ing of the Eastern Indians, but we think it ought to have a place, both on account of its exactness and its remarkable origin. This ratio, which is 2227, is contained ina work of the Brachmans entitled 4yeen Akbery, and.is not only much more approximate, but also is regarded by them as more ancient than that of Archimedes. It is, doubtless, to be re- garded as a part of the immense wreck of ancient learning which is scattered all over India. In that interesting coun- try, ‘‘we every where find methods of calculation without the principles on which they are founded; rules blindly — followed without being understood; phenomena without their explanation; and elements carefully determined, while others more important, and equally obvious, are alto- gether unkuown.”’f ‘The Indian ratio corresponds to 3.1416, and must have depended on a polygon of 768 sides, where- as that of Archimedes depends upon one of 96 sides. Two lemmas are given as the basis of the investigation of the measure of the circle, which is otherwise conducted after the manner of Archimedes. Two methods of approx- imation are there given for its quadrature. An appendix * Introduction 4 analyse infinitésimale, Tome I. p92: + Edinb. Eneye. Vol. ll. p. 550. Vor. VI.—No. 2. 38 298 Cambridge Course of Mathematics. is attached to this section, in which a few of the elementa- ry properties of isoperimetrical figures are demonstrated. Among the rest, it is shewn, that among polygons of the same perimeter and of the same number of sides, that is a maximum which has its sides equal ; that of all triangles formed with two given sides making any angle at pleasure with each other, the maximum ‘is that in which the two given sides make a right angle; that among polygons of the same perimeter-and the same number of sides, the regular polygons a maximum ; and that the circle is greater than any polygon of the same perimeter. This isa very beautiful, interesting and useful addition to elementary geometry. Until a short time since, it was supposed, that no regular polygons, except those treated.of B. IV. of Kuclid, and the several series depending on them. could be inscribed in, or circumscribed about, a circle by geometrical means. The difficulty, however, ahiel had arrested the progress of this part of geometry ever since the time of Euclid, has at length been surmounted by M. Gauss, a Professor at the university of Gottingen, and one of the greatest mathema- ticians of the present time. ‘The work containing the ori- inal demonstration is entitled, ““Disgwisitiones Arithmetica, Lipsie, 1801,” and a French translation of it was published by M. Delisle at Paris in 1807. | In this demonstration. itis shown. that the circumference of a circle may be divided into a number of equal parts designated by the formula 9”-++1, when this is a prime number. Some of the numbers resulting from this formula are 17,257, 65537, &c. The circumstance that M. Gauss? invention is limited to the cases where the formula 2"-++1 designates a prime number, greatly diminishes its value. No demonstration of this principle has, we believe, found its way into any elementa- ry treatise of geometry, and we are not sure, that it is capable of a strictly geometrical elementary demonstra- tion. The first section of part IT. contains the properties of planes and solid angles. This part is intimately connect- ed with the demonstrations of the properties of solids, and figures in which different planes are considered. A com- plete underestanding of it is indispensable, also, in descrip- tive geometry, where the principal difficulty consists in Legendre’s Geometry. 299 conceiving clearly the situation of the various planes used, and their projections. The Ui, is treated ina clear and rigorous style. The second section of part IT. treats of polyedrons and of their measure. jWe have before suggested, that we feel ourselves unable toconvey an adequate view of the merit of this part of Legendre? s work. Those who are only acquaint- ed with the geometry of soiids or volumes as given by the older writers, we are sure, will be surprised and delighted at the luminous and novel manner, in which this part of el- ementary geometry is exhibited. On volumes he has made a distinction between two different kinds of equality anal- ogous to that which we before noticed with respect to the comparison of surfaces. “Pwo solids; two solid angles, two spherical triangles, or two spherical polygons, may be equal in all their constituent parts without coinciding when applied. [t does not appear that this observation has been made in elementary books ; and for want of having regard to it, certain demonstrations founded upon the coincidence of figures, are not exact. Such are the demonstrations, by which several authors pretend to prove the equality of spherical triangles, in the same cases and in the same man- ner, as they do that of plane triangles. We are furnished with a striking example of this by Robert Simson, who, in attacking the demonstration of Euclid, B. XI. prop. 28, fell himself into the error of. founding his demonstration upon a coincidence which does not exist. We have thought it proper, therefore, to give a particular name to this kind of equality, which does not admit of coincidence; we have called it equality by symmetry ; and the figures which are thus related, we call symmetrical figures. me We think, as in the case of surfaces, that the defects in the. usual langage would have been better supplied by calling those figures which would coincide, coincident figures, that is, figures equal by coincidence; and those figures which will not coincide, symmetrical figures, that is, figures equal by sym- metry. In the propositions relating to polyedrons, as well as in those relating to polygons and solid angles, those having re- entering angles are excluded as not belonging to the ele- * Trans. Note 1. p. 202. 300 Cambridge Course of Mathematics. ments of the science. The author has very properly con- fined himself to the consideration of convex lines and surfa- ces, which are such, that they cannot be met by a straight line in more than two points. Hehas completely reformed the ordinary definition of similar solid polyedrons, though he has followed that of similar rectilineal figures containing, as it does, three superfluous conditions. ’ j In the latter part of the note just referred to, Legendr says, “‘ the angle formed by the meeting of two planes, and the solid angle formed by the meeting of several planes in the same point, are distinct kinds of magnitudes to which it would be well perhaps to give particular names. With- out this, itis difficult to avoid obscurity and circumlocu- tions in speaking of the arrangement of planes which com- pose the surface of a polyedron; and as the theory of sol- ids has been little cultivated hitherto, there is less -incon- venience in introducing new expressions, where they are required by the nature of the subject.” According to the suggestion here made, M. Lacroix has introduced into the geometry of planes and volumes, a very convenient system of new expressions, and some slight alterations in the nota- tion, by which much circumlocution is avoided, and our power of expression much enlarged. ‘The translator has adopted one of these changes in the notation, which con- sists merely inplacing the letter designating the vertex of the polyedron first, with a hyphen between it, and the oth- er letters. This very trifling change, contributes consider- ably to the facility of following the demonstrations. La- croix’s improvements in general, could not be conveniently adopted by the translator. The third section of part II. relates to the sphere and spherical triangles. This is an important addition to the el- ements of geometry, as it is not of difficult demonstration, and is of extensive utility in its applications to geography, &c. as wellas in the succeeding parts of mathematics. It is designed in particular to be introductory to spherical trigonometry. The fourth section of this part, is employed in investiga- ting the properties and relations of the sphere, cone, and cylinder. The general method of demonstration in this section, is that of Maurolycus, a Sicilian geometer, whe flourished in the middle of the 16th century. This meth- Legendre’s Geometry. 301 od is indicated in Euclid B. XII. prop. 16th. It consists in assuming two concentric circumferences, and circum- scribing about the smaller a regular polygon which does not touch the greater; or inscribing a regular polygon in the greater, which does not touch the smaller. On these polygons, as bases, in case circumstances require it,regular polyedrons are supposed to be constructed, and it is de- monstrated, that the assigned measure of the solid or sur- face in question,cannot be that of one greater or less, with- out falling into the absurdity of concluding that a figure con- tained by another is the greater of the two. These de- monstrations are long,.and on account of the frequent repe- tition of the same constructions, become somewhat tedious. But they have the merit of being plain, and satisfactory, although indirect; and we think, on the whole, that the method pursued by Legendre is the best. Lacroix’s man- ner as it respects these demonstrations, is much more con- cise, but it is too abstract, and difficult to be seized; and Cavalleri’s method of indivisibles is not sufficiently rigorous to be used in elementary geometry. _ After what has been said, it is scarcely necessary to ob- serve, that American mathematical science, is under great obligations to the translator, for giving Legendre’s elements in so handsome an English dress. ‘The only fault we have to charge him with, is, that he did not furnish us with the entire work, as it came from the hands of the author. Con- siderable of that part which in the original is printed in fine type, and almost all the notes, are omitted in the transla- tion. These omissions we very much regret. By pre- serving the original difference in type, the work would have been equally convenient for academical instruction, and the additional expense of printing the parts omitted, would have been quite trifling. As it now is, we are pur- suaded, that all lovers of mathematical learning, after hav- ing perused the translation, will feel induced to go to the expense of sending out for the original, for the sake of those parts, which the translation does not contain. The notes are a great curiosity, and would be likely to inspire a taste for the higher mathematics. The translation is executed faithfully, and it is accurate- ly printed. A list of errata, however, to some extent might be made out, though none is given. In the demon- 302° - Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. stration of No. 283, the phrase at least.is used,where there should be at most, and vice versa. We would suggest whether the reasoning of No. 283 is satisfactory ; and whether it would not be better to deduce the lemma im- mediately, from the definition of a straight line. Such a line being the shortest distance between two points, any line connecting these two points and varying from the straight line, is greater than it ; and the more any line al- ways remaining convex,varies from the straight line between its extreme points, the greater is such line. The Edin- burgh Encyclopedists have laid. down an axiom nearly equivalent to the lemma under discussion. PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, MECHANICS, AND THE ARTS. — Art. XI.—Remarks concerning the, composition and proper- ties of the Greek fire; by James Cutzusn, A. 5S. U.S. A. and Acting Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the U.S. Miltary Academy. . Havine been engaged for some time in collecting facts, both ancient and modern, in relation to pyrotechny, with the view of forming a complete system on that subject; I ne- cessarily examined all the writings extant on the Greek fire, and other incendiary preparations. Although nothing fully satisfactory, asto the real composition of the original Greek fire, can be stated, yet we are assured from various author- ities, that the principal ingredient was naptha, which with other substances, (camphor appears to have been one,) in consequence of its great inflammability produced the extraordinary effects recorded in history. The Greek fire was invented by Callinicus of Heliopolis, a town in Syria, who used it with so much skill and effect during a naval engagement, that*he destroyed a whole fleet of the enemy, in which were embarked 30,000 men.* * The Noveau Dictionaire Historique par L. M. Chaudon et F. A. Delan- dine, article Callinicus, speaks of him thus: ‘¢ Callinique, d’ Héliopolis en Syria, auteur de la découverte du Feu grecque. L’ empereur Constantin Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. 303 it appears that in the reign of Louis XV, a chemist of Grenoble; Dupré de Mayen, discovered a composition similar in effect to the Greek fire of Callinicus, which was exhibited at Brest, and proved successful, but the prepara- tion was kept secret. The original Greek fire was used in 1291, and also in 1679, besides the periods hereinafter men- ‘tioned. Writers have defined it to be a sort of artificial fire, which insinuates itself beneath the surface of the sea, and which burns with increased violence when it mixes with water. They also say, that its directions are contrary to the course of natural fire, for the flames spread downward, to the right or left, agreeably to the movement which is given. That it was a liquid composition, we may infer from the modes of using it, which were several. It was employed chiefly on board of ships, and thrown on the vessels of the enemy by large engines. It was sometimes kindled in par- ticular vessels, which might be called fire ships, and which were introduced among a-hostile fleet; sometimes it was put into jars, and other vessels, and thrown at the enemy by means of projectile machines, and sometimes it was squirted by soldiers from hand engines, or, as it appears, blown through pipes. This fire was also discharged from the fore part of ships by a machine constructed of copper and iron, the extremity of which is said to have resembled the open mouth and jaws of a lion, or other animal. They were painted, and even gilded, and were capable of project- ing the liquid fire to a great distance. ' In the History of Inventions and Discoveries by J. Beck- man, public professor of Economics in the University of Gottingen, | find the professor has examined the subject of Greek fire. He observes expressly, (Vol. IV. p. 85.) that the machines which the ancients employed to throw this fire, were spouting engines, and remarks, that ‘‘ John Cameniata, speaking of his native city, Thessalonica, which was taken by the Saracens in the year 904, says, that the enemy threw fire into the wooden works of the besieged, which was blown into them by means of tubes, and thrown from other Porphyrogenitus s’ enservit pour bruler la flotte des Sarrasins. L’eau qui éteint le feu ordinaire, n’avait aucun empire sur ce nouveau fléau du genre humain. Cet ingrédient qu’on appeloit aussi l’huile incendiaire, le feu marin, le feu liquide, dévoroit, dit-on, le fer and les pierres, suivoit toutes les directions qu’on voulait lui donner, and ne pouvoit étre éteint qu’avec du vinaigre, du sable ou de urine,’ &c. Callinique vivait vers an 670 de Jésus-Christ.” 304 Dr. Cuthbush on the Greek Fire. vessels. This passage, which I do not find quoted in any of the works that treat of the Greck fire, proves that the Greeks, in the beginning of the tenth century,-were no longer the on- ly people acquainted with the art of preparing this fire, the precursor of our gunpowder. 'The emperor Leo, who about the same period wrote his 4rt of War, recommends such engines, with a metal covering, to be constructed in the fore parts of ships, and he twice afterwards mentions engines for throw- ing out Greek fire. In the east, one may easily have con- ceived the idea of loading some kind of pump with the Greek fire; as the use of a forcing pump for extinguishing fires was long known there before the invention of Callini- cus.”” ‘ Writers differ considerably as to the composition of the Greek fire, properly so called, as there were many prepara- tions some hundred years after the discovery, which went under that name. It is certain, however, that the Greeks had a knowledge of a very highly combustible preparation, which water could not extinguish, and which from its nature, (reasoning a priori,) must have had the property of decom- posing water itself; thereby furnishing a supporter of combus- tion, or possessing so much oxygen as to support the com- bustion of the inflammable substances even in contact. with water. Either one or other of these conclusions appears reasonable, if we admit that the composition actually burnt under water. Some writers are of opinion, that nitrate of potash was one of the ingredients; but of this we have no positive proof. Mr. Parkes (Chem. Catech. p. 465) speaking of some of the uses of saltpetre, remarks, that “it was used by the ancients in that destructive composition of antiquity, the Greek fire. Sulphur, resin, camphor, and other combusti- bles, were melted with it, and in this melted mass woollen cords were dipped, which were afterwards rolled up for use. These balls being set on fire were thrown into the tents, Xc. of the enemy; and as the combustibles were furnished with a constant supply of oxygen from the nitre, nothing could extinguish them.” He also observes: ‘For many centu- ries the method of making this dreadful article of destruc- tion was lost; but it has just been discovered by the libra- rian of the elector of Bavaria, who has found a very old latin manuscript. which contains directions for preparing. it.” Mr. Parkes is certainly in error when he says that the origin- Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. 305 al Greek fire, if to such he alludes, was altogether used in balls; he may probably have inferred so from the manner in which our modern war incendiaries are prepared and used, such as the light-ball, various carcasses, &c. some of which are thrown by hand, ‘and some from mortars and howitzes. The compositions used i in modern pyrotechny for the pur- pose of firing buildings and the like, are remarkably in- flammable, and from the manner in which they are prepar- ed are almost inextinguishable ; all which appear to. have originated from the heretofore celebrated fire rain of Liemanwick. Even the so called incendiary rocket of Congreve, which is nothing more than an ordinary rock- et having a sheet iron case, is Joaded in the head with a sim- ilar composition; in fact that, and other descriptions of the Congreve rocket, I can clearly shew was not an original in- vention of Colonel Congreve. On the subject of incendiary and other military fire works, the French have certainly laid the foundation, for the very preparations now used by the British, for the formule for such preparations may be traced to the French service. It appears, however, that the Greek fire could be ex- tinguished only by urine, sand, &c. The following extract from James’s Military Dictionary p- 329 is to this point: ‘Tt is composed or made up of naptha, sulphur, bitumen, gum, and pitch ; and it can be extinguished only by vinegar Giteed with urine and sand, or undressed leather and green hides. © Respecting a similar composition to that of the Greek fire, or one which seems to partake of the same properties, 1 find the author of a French work, entitled Ocwvre Militaire, has given the following preparation, which it is said cannot be extinguished by water: Pitch, rosin, tallow, camphor, turpentine, salt-petre, liquid varnish, oil of sulphur (not sul- phuric acid) linseed oil, rock oil, flax, and charcoal finely pulverised. After melting the solid substances, as pitch, &c. with the oils and varnish, the charcoal and flax are ad- ded, and the composition made into balls, previously mix- ing with it before it grows cold, some quicklime in powder. This preparation we are told, - susceptible of the most sub- tile and destructive fire. It is hardly necessary to remark, that a composition of this kind must be highly inflammable, and, with the addition of nitre, burn with great rapidity. Vol. VI.—No. 2. 39 306 Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. The fire stone of the French, an incendiary "preparation, is in some respects analagous; it is used either in bombs along with powder, or made into carcasses in the usual manner. The Moors were in possession of the secret for preparing the Greek fire in 1432, according to the testimony of Broequire. Bertrandon de la Brocquire was in Palestine in 1432 as councellor to the duke of Burgundy. He was present at Barrat durivg one of the Moorish celebrations: “It began,” he remarks, ‘in the evening at sunset.. Numerous compa-. nies scattered here and there were singing, and uttering loud cries. While this was passing, the cannon of the castle were fired, and the people of the town launched into the air, ‘hein haut et bein loin, une maniere de feu plus gros fallot que je veisse oncques allume.” They told me they made use of such at sea, to set fire to the sails of an enemy’s vessel. It seems to me that it isa thing easy to be made, and ata little expense, it may be equally well employed to burn a camp or a thatched village, or in an engagement with cavalry to frighten their horses. Curious to know its composition, I sent the servant of my host to the person who made this fire, and requested him to teach me his method. He re- turned for answer, that he dared not, for that he should run great danger were it known; but there is nothing a man will not do for money, I offered him a ducat, which quieted his fears, and he taught me all he knew, and even gave me the moulds in wood, with the other ingredients, which I have brought to France.” eres , Although La Brocquire may have brought the secret to Europe, yet it does not appear to have been used, nor has it been promulgated. We may infer here, that as moulds were used, it is very probable that the solid ingredients were first melted together, and cast in moulds previously to their solu- tion in some inflammable oil, which in all probability was naptha; or that the composition was used in a solid state, as in some of the modern incendiary fire works. But the for- mer inference is more probable. ff Whatever idea we may entertain of the effect of the Greek fire, or of compositions having a similar character, we may justly conclude, that the present gun powder possesses ma- ny superior advantages; and in fact some authors are of opinion, among whom we may mention the celebrated French Pyrotechenist, Ruggeri, that the accounts we have Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. 307 of it, such as its fire descending, &c. are incompatible with the nature of things, and consequently exaggerated. We have some remarks of professor Beckman in relation to salt petre, which have also a bearing on the subject of the Greek fire. Speaking of salt-petre, Vol. Il, p. 462 he says: Though it can be certainly proved, that the natrum of the an- cients was alkaline salt, it is difficult to determine the time when our salt-petre was discovered ormade known. As many have conjectured, that it was a component part of the Greek fire, invented about 678, which, in all probability, gave rise to the invention of gun powder. ‘I examined the prescrip- tions for the preparation of it. The oldest, and perhaps the most certain, is that given by the princess Anna Commena; in which I find, only resin, sulphur and oil, but not salt-petre. K’lingerstein (Dissertat. de igne Greca,) therefore, judges very properly, that all recipes in which salt-petre occurs are either forged or of modern invention. Of this kind are those which Scaliger, at least according to his own account, found in Arabic works, in which mention is made of olewm de nitro and sal peire. But it does not occur in that prescrip- tion of Marcus Grecus, and copied by Albertus Magnus, who died in 1280.” Beckman infers, that the first certain mention of salt petre is in the oldest account of the prepa- ration of gun powder, which became known in the 13th century, about ‘the same time that the Greek fire, of which there were many kinds, began to be lost. The work of Albertus Magnus, and the writings of Roger Bacon, who died in 1278, contain the oldest information on gunpowder. But it is somewhat remarkable, that the manuscript preserv- ed in the electoral library at Munich, announced for publi- cation by Mr. Von Arretin, coniained, it is said, the true re- cipe for making the Greek fire and the oldest for gun pow- der. The same writing, it also appears, was printed from two manuscripts in the library at Paris; for Professor Beckman’ observes, that a copy was transmitted to the library at Gottingen by M. Papert Dutheil, conserva- teur des manuscrits de la bibliotheque.* He also adds, that it contains many recipes, with a few variations, as in Alber- * Liber ignium ad comburendas hostes, auctore Marco Greco; on traite des feux propres 4 détruire les ennemis, composé par Marcus le Grec. Publié @apres deux manuscrits de la bibliothoque nationale. Paris 1804, three sheets in quarto. 308 Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. tus Magnus; that Bacon employed this writing, which was mentioned by Jebbin the preface to his edition, from a copy preserved in the library of Dr. Mead; that of this Marcus Grecus nothing at present is known, except that according to some he lived in the ninth, and according to others in the thirteenth century ; and that Cardan in giving directions for making a fire which can be kindled by water, mentions Marcus Gracchus, but not Gracecus. It may be sufficient here to remark, that professor Beckman, after examining attentively all authors on the subject, is inclined to accede to the opinion, that gun powder, was invented in.India, and brought by the Saracens from Africa to the Europeans.. A knowledge of gun powder may have been brought into Eu- rope at the time of the crusades. It was employed in 690 at the battle near Mecca. In 1798 M. Langles read a pa- per in-the French National Institute, in which he endeavour- ed to prove that the Arabians obtained a knowledge of gun powder from the Indians, who had been acquainted with it in the earliest periods. The use of it was forbidden in their sacred books. leis ! | Whatever notice has been taken of the Greek fire, in the manuscript alluded to, whether it really gave rise to our present gun-power, or whether a knowledge of gua-powder came indirectly from India to Europe; it is very probable that it may have lead to enquiries, which finally eventuated in the knowledge and‘use of gun-powder. Besides, the opinions already given respecting the composition of the Greek fire, we might enumerate many other authorities. Porta, for instance, in his Magie Naturale, remarks that it was composed of the charcoal of willow, sait, burnt brandy, sulphur, pitch, frankincense, flax and camphor, and that camphor alone has the effect of burning in water. He re- marks also, that when Constantinople was attacked, the em- peror Leo burnt the vessels or boats, to the number of one thousand eight hundred, by means of the Greek fire. The Journal des Savans, 1676, p. 148, speaks of the origin and use of the same fire. In 1249, at the siege of Damietta, the French experienced the destructive effects of it. The Journal des Savans for 1666, mentions a machine which, when applied against a vessel, communicates fire to it imme- diately, withoutinjuring the person whouses it. In the French Gazettes for 1797, M. Chevalier announced that he had Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. 309 invented an inextinguishable incendiary fuse, which is thrown by fire arms. and calculated toset fire to the rigging of ships. It appears also, that Dr. Dupre, whose name we have men- tioned, published in the French Journals that he had invent- ed a composition, which had the same properties and effects as the ancient Greek fire, and possessed the means of ex- tinguishing it. An experiment was made at Versailles, to the satisfaction of all, and the secret was purchased by Lou- is XV. The Rev. J. P. Caste in 1794 laid before the French National Convention, a new invention for the pur- pose of war, consisting of a carcass-composition, which noth- ing could extinguish, and resembled in that respect the Greek fire. At the commencement of the late war with Great Brit- ain, several persons directed their attention to the discovery of some new incendiary preparation, which would possess the properties of Greek fire; but none of them proved suc- cessful. -Of one in particular I was an eye-witness. . A preparation of the kind was shown to the corporation of Philadelphia, of which I was then a member, and some ex- periments made with it. It was nothing more than spirits of turpentine, holding in solution camphor, and mixed I think with turpentine varnish; it was, when used, to be put into bottles, and by means of a fuse similar to that of a grenade, set on fire—the bottle being thrown by the hand into an enemy’s ship or among sails or rigging. Ruggeri, a modern French author, inspeaking of incendiary fireworks, mentions also the Greek fire. He observes that it was composed of naptha, sulphur, bitumen, camphor and petroleum, all mixed together; that it was invented by Cal- linicus, and employed against the Saracens as an incendia- ry; that Pliny in his time mentioned a combustible sub- stance, which was thrown’ upon armed men, and burnt and destroyed them in the midst of the battle; that it was employed successfully by the successors of Constantine, and that its composition was kepta state secret; that the Turks used it, or a composition of a similar nature, at the seige of Damietta in 1249, forty-five years after the death of Roger Bacon; and that when the composition and effects of gun- powder became known, it was no longer in use, and the se- cret of the original preparation seemed to have been lost. 310 Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. Several historical writers have noticed the Greek fire, among whom Gibbon, and our learned and much to be la- mented Ramsay, may becited. Gibbon, in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol, vii. p. 282. re- marks, that the deliverance of Constantinople may be chiefly ascribed to the Greek fire. It appears that Callinicus, the inventor, deserted from the service of the Caliph to that of the Emperor; and Gibbon is of opinion that this discovery or improvement of the military art, was fortunately reserved for the distressful period, when the degenerate Romans of the east were incapable of contending with the warlike en- thusiasm and youthful vigor of the Saracens. He is also of opinion that little or no credit can be given to the Byzantine accounts, as to the composition of the fire, although from their obscure and fallacious hints, it should seem that the principal ingredient was naptha, a liquid bitumen which springs from the earth.* This was mixed-with sulphur, and with the pitch extracted from the evergreen firs, according to the testimony of Anna Commena, (Alexid. I. xiii. p. 383,) and Leo, in the nineteenth chapter of his Tuctics, speaks of the new invention. Gibbon describes the effect of the Greek tire nearly similar to that we have already stated ; viz. that the fire was strong and obstinate, and was gwekened by water—that sand, urine and vinegar were the only substan- ces that could damp its fury; that it was used for the annoy- ance of the enemy both by sea and land, in battles or in seiges, and was either poured from the ramparts in large boilers, or launched into red hot balls of stone or iron, or darted in arrows and javelins, twisted round with flax and tow, which had deeply imbibed the inflammable oil; that at other times it was deposited in fire-ships, or blown through long tubes of copper, fixed on a prow of a galley; that its composition was kept secret at Constantinople, pretending that the knowledge of it came from an angel to the first and *TIn a note to Gibbon, p. 283, we reaad—*The naptha, the oleum incendia- rum of the history of Jerusalem (Gest. Dei per Francos, p. 1167.) the orien- tal fountain of James de Vitry, is introduced on slight evidence, and strong probability. The name by which Cinnamus calls the Greek fire, corres- ponds with the locality where naptha was found, between the Tigris and the Caspian sea. Pliny (Hist. Natur. ii. 109.) says it was subservient to the revenge of Medea, and according to the etymology, naptha was signifi- ed ; a fact which leaves no doubt that naptha was the principal ingredient of the Greek fire. Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. 311 greatest of the Constantines, with a sacred injunction not to divulge it under any pretext, &c. He also remarks, that af- ter it was kept secret above four hundred years, and to the end of the 11th century, it was stolen by the Mahometans, who employed it against the crusaders. A knight it ap- pears, who despised the swords and lances of the Sara- cens, relates, with heartfelt sincerity his own fears, at the sight and sound of the mischievous engine that discharged a torrent of the Greek fire, the feu gregeois, as it is styled by the more early of the French writers. ‘It came flying through the air,’’ says Gibbon, quoting Joinville, (Historie de St. Louis,) ‘like a winged long-tailed dragon, about the thickness of a hogshead, with a report of thunder, and the velocity of lightning; and the darkness of the night was dis- pelled by this deadly illumination.. The use of the Greek, or as it might now be called the Saracen fire, was continued to the middle of the fourteenth century, when the scientific or casual compound of nitre, sulphur and charcoal, effected a new revolution in the art of war, and the history of man- kind.” : Dr. Ramsey, our learned historian, (Universal History, vol. 11. p. 150,) gives a similar account;.and Morse, in his Universal Geography, p. 558, after speaking of the Naptha springs of Persia, remarks that, when it is scattered on the sea and inflamed, the flame is often wafted to a great dis- tance. | Thevenot (Travels in the Levant) tells us, that in the 52d year of the Hegira, (A. D. 672) Constantinople was beseig- ed in the reign of Constantine Prognatus, by Yesid, the son of Moauir, the first-caliph of the family of the Ommiades, when the Greek emperor found himself so pressed, that he was almost reduced to despair. But the famous engineer Callinicus invented a kind of wild fire, which would burn un- der water, and by this means destroyed the whole fleet. The fact that the incendiary preparation of Callinicus was extremely destructive, and spread dismay among the ene- my, is therefore warranted by the historical accounts we have mentioned. Pinkerton in his Petralogy, vol. ii. p. 148, speaking of the Naptha of Baku, which exists on the western side of the Caspian sea, concludes that this substance was brought to Constantinople, where it formed the chief ingredient of the 312 Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. noted composition called the Grecian fire; which, burning with increased intensity under water, became a most formi- dable instrument against an inimical fleet. The Naptha springs were visited by Hanway, who has given a detailed account of them: also by Kempfer, and Gmelin. Hanway observes, that the quantity is so great, that the Persians load it in bulk in their wretched véssels, so that sometimes the sea is covered with it for leagues together ; and that when the weather is thick and hazy, the springs boil up the higher, and the naptha often takes fire on the surface of the earth, and runs in a flame into the sea in great quantities, to a dis- tance almost incredible. Besides the former use of naptha for the preparation of the Greek fire, the ancients, especially the Magi performed various tricks, or deceptions with it, principally on account of its extrenie inflammability. Some of these deceptions are recorded in history. According to Plutarch, the great infammability of naptha was exhibited to Alexander’ the Great at Ecbatana, with which he was astonished and de- lighted, and the same author, as well as Pliny and Galen in particular, asserts that it was with naptha, that Medea de- stroyed Creusa, the daughter of Creon. She sent to this princess a dress, previously soaked in it, which burst into flames as she approached the fire of the altar. It is sup- posed to have been naptha also, in which the dress of Her- cules was dipped, and not the blood of Nessus, that took fire in the same manner. When offerings caught fire impercep- tibly, it is conjectured that this oil must have been employ- ed. . isto From the facts thus given we may conclude, Ist. That the Greek fire, so called, was composed for the principal part of naptha; 2d. That the naptha, as it is a powerful sol- vent of rezins, must have been combined either with liquid turpentine, or rozin, and probably with camphor, as inflamed camphor resists considerably the action of water; 3d. That the composition of the original Greek fire was fluid, as it was thrown out by forcing pumps, or through pipes which could not have been the case had it been solid; 4th. That although generally used in a fluid state, it was sometimes employed like the modern carcass by soaking in it tow, &e. and then used as an incendiary ; 5th. That it does not ap- pear upon any testimony extant that nitre, or salt petre en- Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. 313 tered into its composition; 6th. That as it regards sulphur, that substance might have been employed, as oils will read- ily unite with it, a fact well known in the proportion of the balsam of sulphur of the old pharmacopeias; and 7th, and lastly, that when gun powder became known, it superceded the Greek fire, the true preparation of which was lost. It is evident, nevertheless, that as we possess a more perfect knowledge of the properties and effects of bodies than the ancients, a composition might be made, or the present in- cendiary fire works improved, so that water itself would not extinguish flame, but on the contrary facilitate combus- tion. For this purpose I submit the following hasty interog- atories: What would be the effect of nitrate of potash, camphor, and naptha, if mixed and inflamed, and then brought into contact with water ? What would be the effect if a given quantity of gun pow- der were added, the naptha being previously thickened by the addition of turpentine, or in its place with tar, or some rosin dissolved in the naptha ? If in lieu of nitre, chlorate or hyperoxymuriate of potash be used, would not the effect be more powerful, and deto- nation probably follow ? Suppose the ingredients of which gun powder ts compo- sed, viz. nitrate of potash, eharcoal, and sulphur be added separately, in due proportions, to a compound of naptha and camphor, with or without the addition of spirits of tur- pentine ; would not such a mixture resist very powerfully the action of water ? If to the above be added quicklime aceon would not the quicklime when brought in contact with water increase the combustion by becoming slacked, and consequently evolve caloric, provided that no combination was previous- - ly formed with the oil and lime, forming a soap of lime ? What would be the effect, if with the substances before mentioned (the composition being sufficiently thick,) the filings of iron, or in preference zinc were added, especially if the matter in the state of combustion be brought in con- tact with water ? Vor. VI.—No. 2. AQ 314 Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. If phosphuret of lime be used, would it not add to the combustion when water is thrown on, or the inflamed sub- stance put into water, by decomposing that fluid ; thus pro- ducing phosphureted hydrogen gas ? . Not having a sufficient quantity of naptha, prevents our making such experiments with that substance. As a sub- stitute, we would recommend highly rectified oil of turpen- tine, which might be employed, in many respects like nap- tha, and be susceptible of great inflammability. We know it to have been used in incendiary fire works, especially in the experiment we mentioned to have been made in Phila- delphia during the late war. Nearly of the same charac- ter is the fire-flask or jire-botile, which is nothing more than a bottle charged with grain-powder mixed with a com- position called fire-stone. ‘The bottle is covered with a cloth and sewed, and then coated-with pitch. The mouth is secured with parchment, and when used, a match is in- serted, and inflamed. It is then thrown by the hand. Having mentioned an incendiary preparation invented, or recommended by Casimer Siemienowich, which appears to have been predicated on the effects of a Greek fire, and which is mentioned by him in his work, entitled 4rtzs Mag- ne Artillerie ; it may not be improper to add, Sremeno- wich’s Fire-rain, as the preparation ts called, is calculated for firing the houses of a besieged place or city, which are covered with shingles, laths, stubble or reeds. It was na- med fire-rain from its resemblance to a shower of rain. Several formule are given for this preparation ; but the original appears to have been the following : Take 24 parts of sulphur, and melt it in a copper or iron pot, over live coals without flame, and then throw in 16 parts of nitrate of potash, and mix it with an iron spatula. Remove the vessel from the fire, and when the composition has become rather cold, stir into it 8 parts of grained gun powder. Pour the mixture on a slab, and allow it to cool. Before using it, it is broken into pieces of the size of a walnut, and put into shells along with quick match and gun pewder. The shells are discharged from mortars in the usual man- ner, which burst, and thus the composition is dispersed in the state of inflammation. This composition it will be suffi- cient to add, is now disused ; but it gave rise to prepara- Notice of several Meteors. 315 tions of a more powerful nature, and having the same use, as, for instance, the roche ’a feu of the French, usually called fire-stone ; a composition which is either used in lumps and put into shells with powder, or made into car- casses, or fire balls. We do not know of any imitation of the original Greek fire having been used in modern war- fare, but have no hesitation in believing, that naptha pre- pared as already stated would in many cases prove advan- tageous. It seems to be well calculated for close naval combat, if the object be to. destroy the sails and rigging of anenemy’s ship. The rapidity and extent of its combus- tion, added to the circumstance of its peculiar properties, that of resisting the action of water in particular, contribute altogether to this opinion. West-Point, Dec. 11th, 1822. Arr. XII.—METEORS.* Tue appearance of the Meteor, which in March 1822, passed over some of the northern states, brought to our recollection, some statements of similar events, which have been a good while on our files. Perhaps we cannot offer an adequate apology to those who were so obliging as to communicate them, why they have not been published ear- lier. By the delay, they will have gained at least this ad- vantage, that their importance will be increased, by being presented in connexion with the more recent, and perhaps more interesting phenomenon of the same class.—Edttor. Meteor in Ohio. Extract of a letier from Dr.Henny Mannine, fo the Editor, dated Youngstown Ohio, Jug. 9, 1819. A large meteor made its appearance on the evening of July 24th. I had a clear view of it at the time it exploded * This article was prepared for the June No. ofthis Journal 1822, but has been unavoidably postponed to this time, April 1823. 316 Notice of several Meteors. and for a few seconds before. The pleasing surprise which the view of it occasioned prevented me from at first attend- ing to the time, but as nigh as I could estimate, it was about three minutes from the apparent explosion until the report was heard. The sound resembled that of a heavy cannon at 3 or 4 miles distance fired in a still evening. The course was nearly north. A gentleman who was in the township of Gustavus precisely 20. miles north from the place where I was, saw the light and thought the sound succeeded in something more than a minute. It is a little more than 40 miles from this place to the south shore of Lake Erie ; and much of the country south of the lake, is still a wilderness, making it uncertain whether any discoveries will be made if meteoric stones have fallen. If they should be discovered, perhaps they will not be worth sending a distance to analyze, the results of former experi- ments having been so uniformly the same. e- The Pennsylvania Meteor of Nov. 1819. The following account of the meteor which was seen in Chester county, Pennsylvania, on the 21st of Nov. 1819, we have extracted from the American Watchman. After some introductory observations the Editor remarks :— ‘While standing in the open air, we were surprized by a sudden flood of light sufficient to enable us to read the smallest print. We soon..discovered, a firebalb, in anotion in a direction east northeast, and 50 or 60 degrees above the horizon. It passed a little to the south of our zenith, towards the opposite point of compass, and about 30 degrees above the western horizon it became invisible. This body was, perhaps, about two seconds in progression, before we saw it; from which we infer, that it first appeared about 30 degrees above the eastern horizon; hence it travelled, whilst within view, about 120 degrees in the heavens, and ina period, we believe, of not less than five nor more than ten seconds. The size of the body, when first observed, might be about half that of the full moon. The tail which projected from it. was of a conical shape, well defined, and extending from the ball to the apex, about 4 or 5 degrees. Natice of several Meteors. 317 No sparks were observed. The whole appeared to bea compact mags of fire,in which was combined all the red- ness of Mars, and the softer light of the moon. The whole appearance was sublime, beyond description. At about 30 degrees from the zenith, westward, it began rapidly to decline, and in two seconds became, to appearance, extinct; its tail, in the mean time, lengthening to 10 or 15 degrees, forming a narrow red streak of evanescent fire. About three minutes after it had disappeared, a noise was heard resem- bling cannon, or distant thunder, and in a westerly direc- tion.” A letter respecting this meteor, addressed by Mr. Samuel Turney to the Editor, and dated Chester county, Pennsyl- vania, Dec. 9th, 1819, states:— *‘It passed near Easton on the Delaware, and a sound was heard in the direction of the body. Easton lies nearly north from us. It first appeared here in the northeast at an elevation of about 45 degrees. Its light was very vi- vid—a blaze streaming from it to a considerable distance. When it had arrived at abont 40 degrees from the horizon in the south or southwest it suddenly disappeared, and after a lapse of two, three, or four minutes, two reports were heard. The sound continued (a succession of echoes I sup- pose) for many seconds. You will not hesitate to pronounce this for the want of a better name.a terrestrial comet. That it was a solid body cannot be doubted if we consider its velocity. Its height must have been at least twenty miles, and it passed through our hemisphere in a very few seconds. No gaseous body could be carried at this rate, moving as they uniformly do, I believe, with the currents in the air. The sound heard at Easton about sixty miles north of us, could not be the same, I think, with that heard here, which came from a point not less than thirty miles to the south. The body then must have been ignited a second time. I have not been able to get such information as I wish with regard to the apparent size of the body. Itis, by many who were capable of judging in such a case,declared to have been of about one third of the apparent size of the moon, by which I understand that its diameter appeared to them 318 Notice of several Meteors. about equal to a third part of the moon’s. ‘Taking this apparent diameter and the distance of twenty miles we shall make the body more than one hundred yards in diameter. My estimate of its elevation above the earth is obtained by comparing the observations made by various persons in dif- ferent positions. . | The course of this meteor compares very well with tha which passed over Connecticut in 1807. May it not be the same ?* [now suppose it to revolve round the earth. If it be the same, it is a little extraordinary that it should pass so near to the former meridian. But perhaps it has - made several revolutions since that period.”’ Meteor of March 9, 1822. As the only sources of information within our reach, we were laying by the newspapers, containing the accounts of this meteor, when we observed with pleasure, that Theo- dore Dwight, Esq. Editor of the New-York Daily Adverti- ser, had collected the most interesting of these accounts in- to one view, of which we gladly avail ourselves on the pres- ent occasion, as the facts are worthy of being preserved, and it is only by accumulating well authenticated facts of this kind, that we can hope to solve the phenomena of Meteors. The Meteor. ‘Phe late meteor was seen in this city sometime after 10 o’clock; its direction being from southwest to northeast. It appeared to many persons as large as the moon, emitting a brilliant light, which lasted but a few seconds. It appears froma statement in the Troy Post, that it was seen by a number of gentlemen in that city. One of them, accustomed to astronomical observations, states, that when he saw it first, it was at the altitude of 46 degrees, * Its size, as conjectured by Mr. Turney, is much less than the estimated size of that meteor.—Ed. Notice of several Meteors. 319 bearing north 20 degrees east. It disappeared at -the alti- tude of 22 degrees, bearing south 80 degrees west. The report, supposed to be caused by its explosion, reached the place of observation about seven and a half minutes after its disappearance. To several, who observed it in full view, it appeared equal to about two-thirds of the apparent diam- ter of the moon, leaving a luminous track in the heavens which was not totally extinguished in several minutes after the meteor disappeared. ‘The same persons heard two dis- tinct explosions, with a very short interval of time between them. ‘The last they supposed to have been caused by the bursting of one of the largest subdivisions, immediately after the main body had been severed by the first explosion. Mr. Doty has published a letter in the Albany Gazette, communicating his observations on the meteor as it appear- ed to him. He wason the Mohawk turnpike, near Cana- joharie, about 10 o’clock P. M. when he observed it. He first observed a sudden flash of light which appeared to ex- tend from the heavens to the earth, and was followed by a momentary darkness, as if a cloud had passed over and in- tercepted the light. ‘This darkness was soon dispelled, and the blazing meteor was in full view over his head, appearing to be twenty or thirty feet in diameter, and soon began to extend itself to the northeast and southwest. increasing in extension, and decreasing in its flaming appearance, until nothing was to be seen but two detached parts of it rapidly moving in different directions towards the northeast and southwest. Mr. Doty calculates that it was five or six min- utes from the first appearance of the meteor until it finally vanished, and from six to ten minutes from its first appear- ance before the report of its explosion reached him, which resembled the noise of distant cannon, and was followed by a strong sulphurous smell, that lasted fifteen or twenty min- utes. Its explosion, from his statement, also appears to have sensibly affected several houses. ; The Cherry Valley Gazette also mentions this remarka- ble phenomenon. It was seen about 10 o’cleck from that place, globular in its appearance and uncommonly lumin- ous, moving with great velocity from northeast to southwest, and when it disappeared its explosion was distinctly heard. It was visible for several seconds, and from its uncommonly $20 Notice of several Meteors. vivid appearance, caused many persons to close their eyes, rendering candles for an instant perfectly useless. _ ‘The Oxford (Chenango) Gazette says, it resembled a ball of fire, the apparent diameter of which was about six feet; and that it was more brilliant than the most vivid flashes of lightning, or eventhe meridiansun. © | The Herkimer paper observes, that an explosion was heard from the south, about four minutes after the meteor passed, which resembled the discharge of four or five pie- ces of artillery. A writer in the Sangersfield, Oneida, Intelligencer, says :— “ After passing almost in a direction from north to’ south, for the space of half a mile, it passed me, as near as I could judge, about three hundred yards, when it burst with a vi- olence which seemed to throw all nature into convulsions, It discharged its massy balls of electric fire in every direc- tion, when all disappeared before they reached the ground; leaving in its train an astonishing mass of livid fire, which remained after the explosion, for the space of ten minutes, and then gradually disappeared like the rain bow.” The Sentinel (printed at Saratoga Springs) says :— ‘A very large and brilliant meteor passed near this vil- lage on Saturday last in the direction of southwest. The light produced, for a few seconds, was sufficient to enable many of the inhabitants to discern, in their dwellings, the most minute objects. A report, like the sound of distant thunder, succeeded.” It was seen about 10 o’clock, at Ballston Spa, and a pa- per printed in that village, says, its light was so intense “as to arrest persons walking as if they had received an electric shock. At an elevation of about 10 degrees it gave out corruscations like a beautiful rocket—leaving a lumin- ous train, and on its disappearance, two and some say three, reports were heard.” _ The Montreal Herald, thus notices the meteor as seen at that place. “As two gentlemen were walking down St. Paul-street about half past 9 o’clock last Saturday night, their attention was attracted by a flash of light that illuminated the atmos- phere, notwithstanding the radiance of a full moon, As it apparently proceeded from the south side of the river, and Notice of several Meteors. 32] the line of houses intercepted their view, they turned down one of the little streets leading to the quay, where having arrived, they beheld alittle to the westward of Laprairie, an arched four of fire, vividly delineated in the heavens, and concaving towards the earth. After a minute or two, it dis- appeared, having been probably caused by the eruption of a ball of that element which emitted the flash.” The Quebec Gazette gives the following description of it. “ The meteor of Saturday evening, the 9th of March, was seen from the vicinity of this city in a southwesterly di- rection, at about 10 o’clock. It had, when first descried, the appearance of a shooting star, larger than a star of the first magnitude. Its altitude about 45 degrees, its direction in a straight line towards the earth, inclining towards the west; at about half the descent, it divided into numberless pieces, having the appearance of the stars usually thrown from sky rockets, but of a superior brilliancy and beauty, the whole disappearing before they reached the horizon. The sky was clear, the moon nearly at full, in an opposite direction, and the light of the meteor when it divided, was so strong as entirely to destroy the shadows of the moon light and throw them into a contrary direction. From the meteor having been seen at Montreal and Quebec very nearly in the same direction, its distance must have been great.” The Salem (Washington county) Post, says, “Its first appearance was northeasterly about 20 degrees above the horizon, that it passed above the polar star, dis- appeared about 30 degrees above the horizon, near the con- stellation Orion; was visible about one minute, and that it appeared about as large as the full moon.” In addition to the above named places it was seen a Bos- ton, Bennington, Vermont, Utica, Johnstown, in Montgom- ery county, Buffalo, various places in New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania, but no particular aon tions accompanied the accounts. The Springfield (Massachusetts) Federalist, states, that an extraordinary meteor was seen on Saturday night, the 9th of March, by several persons in that town and vicinity. It was uncommonly large and brilliant. Vol. VI.—No. 2. 41 322 Notice of several Meteors. The Eastern Argus, printed at Portland, state of Maine, says the meteor was seen in that town at a quarter past 10 o’clock in the evening of the 9th, in a direction nearly west, its magnitude nearly that of the moon—its brilliancy very great—and when it exploded, scintillations, not unlike those of sky rockets, were scattered northerly and southerly. The same meteor was seen in various places East of New- York. The Bridgeport Courier says, “its size appeared to be that of a large artificial globe, and moved with great velocity in a direction from northeast to southwest, leaving a trail of immense size and peculiar brightness.” It is remarked by a Boston Editor that this meteor must have been very large and the sound at its separation louder than the loudest thunder, as its explosion was not only seen in many opposite places, but heard from Portland, in the state of Maine to 60 miles west of Albany. A writer inthe Albany Daily Advertiser in commenting on Mr. Doty’s statement mentioned above, says; “‘ Kight minutes was the time between its appearance and the report of its explosion, its distance from him must have been about one hundred miles, for sound travels about thir- teen miles in a minute. From these data we may calculate that the place where it was vertical must be about seventy miles from Albany in a northwesterly direction, and that its size was near a mile in diameter; but to enable us to calcu- late with greater accuracy its height, dimensions, and the tracts of country over which it passed, observations at places to the west as well as to the east of it are necessary.” | Remark by the Editor, December 9th, 1822. The following communication from Professor Dean of the University of Vermont has been recently received, and we give it in connexion with the preceding communications to which it bears an important relation. To the Editor of the American Journal of Science. Sir, _The meteor of last March (1822) has ceased to be the subject of general conversation, but it is not the less inter- Notice of several Meteors. 323 esting to those who wish to explore the causes of such phe- nomena. The following observations would have been communicated immediately had I not hoped to obtain oth- ers to compare with them; but in this I have not suc- ceeded, and I now transmit them with such inferences as they afford: Capt. Allen Wardner of Windsor, Vt. states, that on the 10th of March, about 10 o’clock in the evening, he was walking along the east side of what is ¢alled the tontine building in that village and had just reached the southeast corner, when the first corruscation burst -forth. His first thought was that a large barn northwest of the tontine had suddenly burst into a flame, and he hastened on to get a sight of it across the southwest corner of the building, but had not proceeded more than three steps when the body of the meteor came in sight over the south end of the roof, and he had a full view of it for more than 40 degrees mov- ing southwest and descending towards the horizon, until it disappeared behind the ridge of a house forty or fifty rods distant. It was excessively bright, and sparkles were fly- ing from it in all directions and left a dusky reddish track which continued especially about the middle of its length fortwo minutes. He thought it was nearly round, and its diameter somewhat less than that of a ball] which surmounts the dome of the Episcopal Church which was near its ap- parent path. . The village of Windsor is by estimation in Jat. 43° 29’ lon. 72° 29’. | had no theodolite to determine the azy- muth, but I ascertained the meridian sufficiently near, as I thought, by the north pole, and measured the sides of a right angled triangle, one angle of which was contained be- tween the meridian and the end of the building, and find- ing the angles by the traverse table, I ascertained that it declined 20° 30’ toward the west. The second or third ~ steps taken after the first flash subtended an angleat the west corner of 3° 45’, so that the bearing of the meteor when first seen was about north 65° 45’ west. Capt. W. had no object by which to regulate his recollections of the altitude, but he fixed on-a point the altitude of which I found to be 29° 30’. I determined the azymuth of the me- teor at its disappearance in the same manner, and found it to be, south 67° 30! west, and its altitude 11° 30’. Then 324 Notice of several Meteors. withdrawing from the ball on the top of the church till Capt. W. thought its apparent diameter was about equal to that of the meteor, I measured it with a sextant and found it 10’. ; Col. Lemuel Page, of Burlington, Vt. was in his back yard at the time above mentioned, and had his attention ar- rested by what is commonly called a shooting star, no way differing from such as frequently appear in considerable numbers. When he first saw it he thought it about in the centre of the triangle formed by lines joining Mars, Castor, and Procyon. - It moved on southwesterly, passing a little southeast of Procyon, and about one third of the way from Procyon to Sirius it suddenly broke out in great splendor, and continued its course flashing and sparkling, east of Si- rius, and disappeared, apparently by extinction, near the tops of some trees about twenty rods distant, considerably above the mountains in that direction. Col. P. thought its motion exactly perpendicular to the horizon. The dise appeared to be nearly circular, and its diameter about half the breadth of a certain chimney a few degrees east of its apparent path. The place of this observation is in lat. 44° 28’, lon. 73° 15’. The azymuth of the meteor during its whole course as determined both by the north pole and the globe, was bout south 34° west. Its altitude when first seen by Col. P. was about 62°, the first coruscation when it became an object of general attention, and when Capt.W. first noticed it 35°, and at its disappearance 6°. Its apparent diameter, obtained by measuring the breadth of the chimney with a sextant was 12’. The places of the meteor computed from these observa- tions, by Dr. Bowditch’s rule given in Mem. A. A. Vol. 3, are, at its first brilliant coruscation, lat. 43° 54’, lon. 73° 47', about fifty-nine miles from Burlington and eighty-three from Windsor, over the unsettled part of Essex county, N. Y. about fifteen miles west of Crown Point, and at its dis- appearance from Capt. W. lat. 42° 45’, lon. 74° 49’, one hundred and forty-four miles from Burlington and one hun- dred and thirty-three from Windsor, over the western part of Schoharie county, and its motion south 34° west. In the former place according to Capt. W’s. observation it was about forty-one miles from the earth, according to Notice of several Meteors. 325 Col. P’s. only thirty-four; in the latter place Capt. W’s. observation makes its height about twenty-nine miles. If these agreed better with each other, and could be depend- ed upon as nearly accurate, it would be easy to compute from them its height and distance at the beginning and end of its appearance to Col. P. But altitudes estimated ander. the impression which such a phenomenon cannot fail to produce must be considered as very uncertain what- ever may be the judgment and fidelity of the observers. The probability is that when first seen by Col. P. it was near the zenith of Essex, a village on the west shore of Lake Champlain thirteen miles from Burlington, and when it disappeared from him it had reached nearly to the zenith of Wilksbarre in Pennsylvania, about two hundred and fifty miles from Burlington. The absolute diameter of the meteor, computed from the apparent diameter above estimated and the mean distances of the observers respectively amounts to about one third of a mile. I hardly dare to make any estimate of its velocity. I have heard no estimate of the duration of the appearance of the body ofthe meteor greater than five seconds and this would imply a velocity much greater than that of the earth in its orbit. The observation of its first appearances as noticed by Col. Page is I believe rather uncommon, though perhaps they may always commence in the same manner without being noticed till their light is greatly increased. Much of the country over which it passed being a wil- derness, and none of it populous, it is not probable that if any fragments fell from it, they were recognized next day as any thing more than common stones. The testimony of Mr. Doty who according to the news papers saw it at Canajoharry passing near the zenith con- firms the course above computed. Yours with high respect, JAMES DEAN. 326 Dr. Darlington’s Pluviometrical Observations. Arr. XIII.—Pluviometrical Observations, made at West- Chester, Penn. by Wu. Darutneton, M. D. and commu- nicated in a letter, dated Wasuineton City, Feb. 14, 1823. Sir, In the year 1817, (on the 20th of June,) I commenced keeping an account of the quantity of rain and snow which fell in the borough of West-Chester, in the State of Penn- sylvania—a statement of which I now submit to you; and if you should be of opinion that it is worthy of preservation in your Scientific Journal, it is entirely at your service. If observations of this description were made for a series of years, in the various sections of the United States, they ‘would undoubtedly tend to furnish us with more accurate conceptions of the nature of our climate, as well as with the means of comparing it with that of other countries. They would also enable us to ascertain, in the course of time, the real character of those changes which are supposed to be ta- king place in the climate of this continent, by reason of cul- tivation, clearing of forests, and other causes. Some useful data, likewise, might possibly be afforded by such accounts, to assist Medical Philosophers in investigating the causes and character of prevailing diseases, in the country. In the - present instance, I have to regret the occurrence of an hia- tus in the account, from 29th November 1819, to March 7th 1820, owing to the accidental loss of my memoranda for that period: but the statement for the residue of the time embraced, may be relied upon as being complete, and tol- erably accurate. I am sensible that it would have been much more satisfactory, if it had been accompanied with Thermometrical and Barometrical observations; but I had it not in my power to furnish a statement of that sort as ful- ly as could be wished, and have therefore omitted it alto- gether. Dr. Darlington’s Pluviometrical Observations. 327 Synopsis of Pluviometrical observations. Months. | 1817 | 1818 | 1819 | 1820 | 1921 | 1822 aol —_‘_¥___+__ ee ee) ee er January - - 2.1 1.1 aia 43 2.3 | 2.4 February - - 2.0 4.0 tye 3.9 43} 3.3 f’m 6th March ete S351 4.35 13 1.6 DA ena. April. i We 2.77| 2.6 2.1 3.45] 32] 3.5 May shan eaceiee 4.75 7.9 12) | Sr | eed 9. June ; Bl AG) |. Mele Bolg BA ly. 405), » Sealineee July 255| 8.25. 3.47|) 43 | 40) 36 hint® August 7.05 4.7 4.2 2.9 1.9 Qiao September 42 4.4 1.95 4.1 7.9 45 | 45 October 207 | 1.2 1.5 10.1 54) 25) 88 November .| 5.85 | 3.45 ; Bale he| dibRotawsty oneal pi as fees oo 2) 1286) == 3.6 3.5 1.45} 2.8 [Inches 30.82 | 48.83) 31.12] 435 | 526 | 39.3 | 46.38 Thus it appears that the average quantity of water which fell in the time stated, was about forty-six inches a year. The greatest quantity, 52.6 inches; (viz. in 1821) and the least, in any entire year, 39.3 inches (in 1822.) The quan- tity, in 1819, was probably still less;. being only 31.12 inch- es from Jan. 1, to Nov. 29. I find by my notes, that the quantity of snow which fell, during the above period, was as follows: Inches. Inches. In 1818, there was snow 12. equal to 1.7 of water ** 1819, (to Nov. 29.) 45. =). 00d © 1820, (from March 6.) 4. : 3 “ 1821, - - - 30. = 4, ede k “¢ 1822, - - -.. 22, - 2.2, a snow 113. 12.6 water The water which fell in the form of snow, is included in the foregoing table of rain. : The number of days of falling weather, so called, (inclu- ding both rain and snow) in those years, is exhibited in the following table: by which it appears that the highest num- ber is 103, (in 1818) and the lowest, in any entire year, 84, (ia 1822.) The average number of days, on which there 328 Dr. Darlington’s Pluviometrical Observations. fell either rain or snow, is about 91 out of 365; or about one day in four, of the year. Tasue, showing the number of days of falling weather in each month, in the years noted. Months. | 1817 | 1818] 1819 | 1820 | 1921 | 1822 | S¥e") oA) SR SENS fF are WEA CL oa 4 |B ace eee a eT ‘January -- 7 5 = rhs 8 6 63 ‘February - - 5 8 - - 11 6 714 , irae dil elect ays 9) DALAL ; Beart ad-) aaa ‘April sitet 11 6 4 8 10 | 8 May: ee 13 16 14 13 yea ea June ; nae Me: 5 7 MO mM Oe = Suly 9 8 8 9 9 9 | 9 August 9 10 9 6 5 4 ih September 6 8 Cai 3 M1 Mt 7 \October 9 3 4 5 5 4. oie | i 3 to |November 6 6 Nov.29 5 7 10 6 December 6 10 - - 7 9 9 8 ‘Days 50. | 103 | 83 65 (99 | a4 lon The latter part of the summer of 1822, was marked by a severe drought—so mnch so, that many wells and springs dried up, which had never before failed within the memory of the oldest inhabitants. Even the rain which did fall, seemed to be speedily dissipated, without producing any re- freshing effect upon vegetation. The season was also re- markable for the prevalence of intermittent fevers, in the neighbourhood of West-Chester; a form of disease which has hitherto been extremely rare ir that vicinity. Along the waters of the Schuylkill, and Susquehanna, fevers of a more malignant type prevailed extensively. I am, Sir, very respectfully, © your most obed’t. WM. DARLINGTON. Prof. Sirtiman, New-Haven. Cure of Asthma by a Stroke of Lightning. 329 Art. XIV.—Cure of Asthma by a Stroke of Lightning. (Communicated by the Rev. Rate Emerson.) Norfolk, Nov. 25, 1822. To the Editor. Dear Sir, I know not whether electricity has ever been tried for the relief of persons afflicted with Asthma. If not, perhaps the following circumstances may suggest the propriety of making the experiment. One year ago last August, Mr. Martin Rockwell of Cole- brook, Conn. was severely affected by a shock of light- ning, which struck his buildings within about ten feet of him. He was standing at the time in a leaning position, looking out at a window, bearing most of his weight on his left foot, and supporting himself by his right arm, with his hand on a moist platform connected with a sink, and these together forming a connection with the part of the building where the charge fell. Without his either seeing the flash or hearing the noise, his right arm and left leg were instantly paralyzed, andsense and reason were for a few moments sus- pended. On recovery, his first thought was that his arm was gone, and he put up his left hand to feel if it were yet on him. He did not recover the use of his arm or leg for an hour; and they continued sensibly affected for some days. No other part of his body was particularly affected, except the chest. He felt a strong sensation at the lungs, and they continued sore fora numberof days. I state these cireum- stances, as they evince that a heavy charge of electricity passed through the vitals. Mr. R. is now fifty years of age, and from his youth had been so subject to the asthma as to be often unable to rest in bed for a number of months together, especially in au- tumn. Since this event, however, he has been entirely free from it, except in one or two instances he has felt a very slight degree of it, after great fatigue, and under the pressure of a severe cold. He has now passed the second autumn in health since this kind preservation of life and re- rnoval of disease. Vor. VI.—No. 2. 42 330 Galvano-Magnetic Apparatus of Prof. Dana. I visited him soon after the shock, and witnessed the de- molishing effects of the lightning. The place where it struck is a projection of one story, at right-angles with the house, which is two stories high, and within a few feet of their junction. Mr. R. wasin the house at the time. It was rather difficult to decide whether the lightning ascend- ed or descended—the appearances rather indicated the lat- ter. The side of the building was laid nearly bare of its covering, from the eaves to the ground; and most of the nails in a contiguous door were started, and one window near the angle with the house was completely shivered, and the glass thrown outward, | suppose by the concussion, and ihe pressure of the air or fluid with which the apartment was filled. Much smoke and sulphureous smell were ob- served on entering this apartment. The point at the eaves where the first vestiges of the lightning were perceivable, was directly under the branches, and but three feet from the trunk of a lofty poplar, which remained unhurt—thus affording an additional proof to what is statedin your No. for June last, that this tree isa poor conductor and no safe-guard against lightning. I would remark also, that there was a good rod to the house, sixty-three feet distant from the smitten spot. Art. XV.—Galvano-Magnetic Apparatus of Prof. Dana. = (See Figure 6 in Plate 12 at the end.) A, is a cork through which passes a strip of sheet copper C, about one quarter of an inch wide and eight inches long, bent at the bottom like the letter U, so as partly to inclose the strip of sheet zinc Z, of the same width as the copper; NS is a steel wire five inches long, around which passes about seventy-five turns of brass wire. One end of this passes through a perforation in the upper part of the cop- per, and the other through a similar perforation in the zinc. The brass wire is covered with sewing silk; when his little apparatus is placed in a tall glass jar containing water, acidulated with sulphuric or nitric acid, the wire NS soon arranges itself in the plane of the magnetic meri- dian; the steel wire becomes a temporary magnet, and will ‘Mr. Seybert’s Analysts of Glassy Actynolite. 331 attract fine iron filings, so long as the apparatus remains in the dilute acid, but instantly loses that power when with- drawn from the liquid. One curious result is presented by this apparatus, which we should not have anticipated from experiments made by myself with common electricity, and which I sent to you when I Jast wrote, nor from the experi- ments of Mr. Bowen, with Hare’s calorimotor; it is this: when the spiral brass wire passes from right to left, the north pole is found on the negative ‘or copper end; if from left to right, that pole is found on the positive or zinc end; this effect is like that noticed by Van Beck. It certainly in- dicates another point of difference, which Dr, Hare justly asserts to exist between common galvanic instruments and his calorimotor; and the result of Mr. Bowen’s experiments, and my own with common electricity, points out an analogy between the effects of the common electrical machine and ofthe calorimotor. [| have tried in vain to communicate such a degree of magnetism to silver and platina wires by this little apparatus as to induce them to assume a north and south direction; and I have in vain attempted to influence delicately suspended galvanic apparatus by the rays of light separated by a prism; but I doubt not that some for- tunate philosopher, in possession of a heliostadt, will be able to produce some effect in this way. Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. HA. Art. XVI.—Analysis of the Glassy Actynolite from Concord Township, Delaware Co. Penn. By. H. SEYBERT. Coxor inthe mass, emerald green; powder greenish white. Lustre vitreous. Translucent. Fracture in one direction fibrous, in the opposite irregular. Very frangible. Scratch- es glass. Structure fibrous and fasciculated. Specific gravi- ty 2.987. Fusible, before the blowpipe, into an opake greenish enamel. Analysis. A. 3 grammes of the mineral, in the state of an impal- pable powder, after exposure to a red heat, with the contact of air, had assumed a reddish tinge, and weighed 2,98 332 = Mr. Seybert’s Analysis of Glassy Actynolite. grammes; but as the protoxide of iron contained in the mineral must, during the calcination, have passed to the state of peroxide, and as the absorption of oxygen, estima- ted by calculation, is 0.011 grammes, therefore the mois- ture expelled by calcination amounts to 0.031 grammes on 3 grammes, or 1.033 per hundred. B. The calcined mineral (4) was exposed to a red heat during thirty minutes, in a silver crucible, with 9 grammes of caustic potash. - The cold mass was of a pale green co- lor; it communicated to the water with which it was treat- ed, a lemon yellow color, thus indicating a trace of chrome. The mixture was treated, in the usual manner, with an ex- cess of muriatic acid, and the yeilow solution thus produc- ed, was evaporated toa dry gelatinous mass, which was treated with diluted acid and again moderately evaporated. The residue was treated with more water, and the solution was filtered; the silica collected on the filter, after being washed and calcined, weighed 1.69 grammes on 3 grammes, or 96.333 per 100. C. After the liquor (B) was neutralized with caustic pot- ash, on the addition of the hydro-sulphate of potash, a black precipitate was formed, which, after being washed and cal- cined with nitric acid, weighed 0.19; this precipitate, when treated with caustic potash, was found to consist of 0.14 grammes of peroxide ofiron, and 0.05 grammes of alumine, by difference 1.666 per 100. Owing to the green color of the mineral, the iron must be estimated as a protoxide, and the 0.14 grammes of peroxide are equivalent to 0.129 grammes of protoxide on 3 grammes, or 4.30 per 100. The alkaline liquor holding the alumine in_ solution, appeared to be yellow from chrome contained in the min- eral; to detect the chrome, the alumine was precipitated, by exactly neutralizing the liquor with muriatic acid; on the addition of acetate of lead, there was produced a precip- itate of muriate of lead, intermixed with a yellow precipi- tate of chromate of lead; to another portion of the hquor, nitrate of silver was added; the muriate of silver was like- wise intermixed witha red precipitate of chromat of silver, but the chrome seemed to be very trifling. ) D. When oxalate of potash was added to the liquor (C) it occasioned a white precipitate, which, after a strong cal-. cination, afforded 0.32 grammes of lime on 3 grs. or 10.666 per 100. Analysis of Argentine and Steatite. 333 E. The liquor (D). when treated with an excess of caus- tic potash, afforded 0.72 grammes of magnesia on 3 grs. or 24.0 per 100. The constituents of this mineral are, therefore, Per 100 parts. A. Water - - 1.033 Containing oxygen, B. Silica - 56.333 - - - - 28.33 C. Protoxide ofiron 4.300 =. - rs - 00.97 C. Alumina - 1.666 D. Lime =o =) 10.666: >= - - - 03.84 E. Magnesia - 24.000 - - - - =. oa So) C. Protoxide of chrome a trace. 97.998 100.000. 2.002 Loss. Art. XVI.—Analysis of Argentine and Crysiallized Steatite- ' by Professor Dewey. Argentine. At the lead-mine in Southampton, Mass. a mineral is found in considerable quantity, which is a nearly pure car- bonate of lime, and has the following characters. It gen- erally consists of undulated, not parallel, laminz, of a pear- ly shining lustre, often of a beautiful silvery white. Some- times it is in thin plates, which intersect and form small cells, containing crystals of calcareous spar. The thin la- minze are translucent. Sometimes it is less laminated and more compact, with less lustre, and the cross fracture Is slightly granular. It was supposed to contain magnesia, and three years since | examined it without detecting any of this earth. It was then laid by as a beautiful carbonate of lime, without a suspicion of its being one of the sub-spe- cies of this mineral. The characters proveit to be 4rgen- tine. It occurs on very compact granite, and is also associated with fetid quartz, which is found in small masses in it and upon it. When it joins the quartz it is more compact and 334 Analysis of Argentine and Steatite. hard, and a small quantity of silex seems to enter into the composition of the mineral. Heated to a temperature of 300° or 400°, it did not lose weight. [t gave no indications of even a trace of oxide of manganese, which is sometimes found in argentine, and of only a very small quantity of magnesia. At least, only a minute quantity was separated from the lime by carbonate ofammonia. 100 grs. of the mineral yielded, of Carbonic acid - -. 41. grs. Lime say tele - 54. Silex - 2 =. GoD Magnesia and Oside of Iron 0.75 Loss 1.00 probably carb. acid. 100.00 If the the silex is to be considered an accidental ingredi- ent, arising from the specimen being associated with quartz, this argentine is a very pure carbonate of lime. Crystallized Steatite. Having ascertained that the mineral contained silex, magnesia, alumine, water, and oxides of iron and manga- nese, one hundred grains of a very large and fine crystal were analyzed to ascertain the proportion of the ingredi- ents. Inthe previous trials, the proportion of some of them had been found, but as they were not much different from those obtained from this crystal, it was judged proper to rely on the results last obtained. In heating the mineral, there was sometimes more and sometimes less than fifteen per cent. of water liberated ; but the water is taken at fif- teen percent. In heating the mineral with sulphuric acid, there was no indication of fluoric acid, which is sometimes found in a variety of steatite. Indeed, the corrosion of the glass vessel in which the experiment is performed, is some- what equivocal, as sulphuric acid heated to 500° or 600° will act upon the potash or soda in some kinds of glass at least, and an actual corrosion take place. Oxalate of am- monia gave no indication of lime. The method of analiz~ ing those magnesian minerals which are decomposed by Analysis of Argentine and Steatite. 335 acids, ts too well known to make a more detailed statement necessary 1n the present case.’ Muriatic acid dissolved all the mineral except the silex, which weighed 50.6 grs. From the muriatic solution carbonate of ammonia threw down the oxide of iron, being 3.25 grs. equivalent, according to Brande, to 2.59 grs. of protoxide of iron. Pure potash separated the alumine, estimated at 0.15 gr. The ammoniacal solu- tion contained the magnesia and oxide of manganese. This solution was evaporated, and the ammoniacal salts were separated by sublimation; the magnesia and manganese remained. They were then converted to sulphates; the solution evaporated to dryness, and the dry mass was kept at a red heat for halfan hour. The water was thus driven off from the sulphate of magnesia, and the sulphate of man- ganese being converted to the deutoxide of manganese, a red- dish powder was thus diffused through the sulphate of magne- sia. The whole weighed 87.5 grs. and dissolved in water except one grain of deutoxide of manganese, equivalent to 1.1 gr. of the peroxide. This contained, therefore, 86.5 grs. forthe sulphate of magnesia, equivalent to 28.83 grs. of pure magnesia. The result is, Water - = 15.00 grs. Silex < i= - 50.60 Oxide of iron =.02.59 Magnesia = 28.83 Oxide of manganese 1.10 Alumine - - 0.15 Loss = - - 1.73 - 100.00 This result contains a proportion of ingredients between those given by Klaproth in his analysis of steatite from two different places. There can be no doubt, therefore, that these crystals are real steatite. The form of some of these crystals, is that of a six-sided prism terminated by six-sided pyramids, often variously truncated. Some of them appear to be four-sided prisms terminated by a four-sided pyramid. They are unques- tionably the crystals intended by Jameson, as they are found ima similar situation to those mentioned by him, 336 On the Cutling of Steel by Soft Tron. though they seem not to be pseudomorphous. The locality is described, Vol. V. p. ‘249 of this Journal. They are sometimes covered with a very fine grained and close brown- ish steatite, in which, as in the asbestus, the crystals leave _their form. The specific gravity of the crystalsis less than that given to steatite. In the various specimens | have tried, it has been found very nearly 2, sometimes a little more or a little less. Their specific gravity may be taken at 2, water being unity. ana Art. XVIII.—On the Cutting of Steel by Soft Iron. Extract of o letter to the Editor, from the Rev. Herman Dac- ceTT, Principal of the Foreign Mission School at Corn- wall, Conn. : ; : Cornwall, Feb. 3, 1823. Dear Sir, ; I take the liberty to communicate to you a fact, which has lately come to my knowledge, and which, I judge, may be of considerable use in mechanics, and perhaps in philosophy. It may not, however, be new to you. Mr. Barnes, (a cabinet-maker of this place) had occasion to repair a cross-cut saw, (a saw to be used by two persons) of a very hard plate, which would require considerable la- bor, in the usual way of filing. He recollected having heard that the Shakers sometimes made use of what he called, a buzz, to cut iron. He therefore made a circular plate of soft sheet iron, (a piece of stove pipe,) fixed an axis to it, and put it in his lathe, which gave it a very powerful rotary motion. While in motion, he applied to it a common file to make it perfectly round and smooth; but the file was cut in two by it, while it received itself no impression, He then applied a piece of rock-crystal, (a piece of which, he in- - forms me, he once presented to you,*) which had the desir- ed effect. He then brought under it, the saw-plate, which, in a iew minutes, was neatly and completely cut through longitudinally. When he stopped the buzz, he found it had received no wear from the operation, and that he could im- mediately apply his fingers to it, without perceiving much *It was a peice of a very fine and large crystal of smoky quartz.—EKdiior. Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. 337 sensible heat. During the operation, there appeared a band of intense fire around the buzz, continually emitting sparks with great violence. He afterwards marked the saw, for the teeth, and in a short time cut them out, by the same means. It seemed evident, that the buzz, in effecting the division, never came in actual contact with the plate. Was this fire the electric fluid? If so, might it not be obtained, in greater quantity, and be made more effective for chem- ical purposes, by some such machine, than in any other way? | Arr. XIX.—On the relations, existing between the Defla- grator and Calorimotor, and between those urstruments and the common Galvanic or Voltaic Batteries, in a letter to Professor Robert Hare, M. D. from the Editor. Yale-College, April 4, 1823. Dear ‘Sir, Through the medium of this Journal, (Vol. 4. pa. 201, and Vol. 5, pa. 102,) I have already communicated to you and to the public, the singular fact, that your Deflagrator will not act with the common Galvanic Batteries, in whatev- er mode they may be connected, and that, although belong- ing to the same class of instruments and evolving the same imponderable agents, there still exists between them a total incompatibility. This incompatibility, it will be remember- ed, does not begin to be overcome, until the pairs of galvan- ic plates are reduced to twenty, in number, when the pow- er of the Deflagrator begins to pass, and increases until one pair only is interposed, when it passes apparently without diminution. . lam induced again to call your attention to this fact, for the sake of connecting it, with some observations which I have recently made, upon the relations between the Calori- motor and Deflagrator, and between these instruments, and the common Galvanic Batteries, for it is only by varying our observations and experiments, that we can hope to ar- _ rive at a just explanation, of the singular phenomena exhib- ited by these instruments. . Vol. VI.—No. 2. 43 338 Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. 1. I connected the zinc pole of the Calorimotor, with the copper pole of the troughs, and vice versa, and then dividing the troughs (containing three hundred pairs of four inch plates,*) at another place, connected them at these new poles by points of well prepared charcoal; the sparks passed free- ly and vividly, nor did it, apparently make any difference, whether the plates of the Calorimotor, were immersed in the fluid, or not. I then disconnected the troughs from the Calorimotor, and connecting them together, received the spark, which was quite as vivid, as when the Calorimotor formed a part of the series. I now immersed the Calori- motor, and found that it acted by itself, with its appropriate energy, readily igniting iron, and displaying its usual mag- netic activity. ) 2. The Calorimotor and Deflagrator were connected in such a manner, that the former was interposed between the two equal divisions of forty coils each, contained in the two troughs of the Deflagrator; in different trials, the connexion was varied, sometimes the zinc poles, and sometimes the copper poles of the two instruments, being connected, and at other times, the zine of the one being joined to the cop- per of the other, and vice versa. When the metals of both instruments were in the air, only avery feeble spark passed through the charcoal points con- necting the proper poles of the Deflagrator. When the plates of the Calorimotor were immersed, those of the De- flagrator being in the air, the spark was not increased, buf remained feeble as before. The coils of the Deflagrator being then immersed, the usual splendor of light, instantly burst from the charcoal points, and all the dazzling bright- ness and intense heat of the instrument were displayed, but without any increase of power derived from the Calorimotor. The plates of the Calorimotor were now raised from the fluid, those of the Deflagrator remaining immersed, but the light and heat were equally brilliant as before. The De- flagrator and, Calorimotor were now separated, and each produced its appropriate effects, in full energy. 3. The Calorimotor—the Deflagrator and the troughs, containing the three hundred pairs of four inch plates, were now connected into one series, in such a manner, that the Calor- * Cemented in the usual manner, into mahogany boxes. Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calormotor. 339 imotor was interposed between the two halves of the Defla- grator, the proper poles of the latter instrument were con- nected with the two divisions of the troughs ; first, zinc, with eopper, and copper with zinc, and then the reverse, and the power was received at the proper poles of the troughs, char- eoal points being used as before. When the metals both of the Deflagrator and Calorimotor were in the air, a spark passed, such as corresponded with the power of the troughs only; when the Calorimotor was immersed, this power was neither increased nor diminished ; but when the Deflagrator was immersed, its power flowed freely through the batteries, and was received apparently undiminished atthe charcoal points, but did not appear to de- rive any increase from the troughs. This was the fact, whether the Calorimotor was, at the moment immersed, or not, but the lifting of the coils of the Deflagrator out of the fluid, immediately reduced the spark, to that which the troughs alone would afford. The several instruments being now disjoined, each acted by itself, in its own appropriate character. 4. The original experiment of connecting the troughs with the Deflagrator only, was now again repeated, and with the same result as before; the power of both instru- ments was so destroyed, that only avery minute spark could be seen, and that with difficulty. From these experiments, and those formerly related, the following conclusions may be drawn :— 1. The galvanic troughs and the Deflagrator paralyse each other, and cannot be made by any means hitherto tried, to act in concert. ee 2. The Calorimotor does not impede the action of the troughs; it allows their energy to pass through itself, but contributes nothing to aid their power and cannot be made to project its own power through the troughs. 3. The same fact is true of the Calorimotor in relation to the Deflagrator; the powers of these instruments cannot be made to unite, only the Calorimotor allows a transit to the power of the Deflagrator ; but the Deflagrator does not in its turn, transmit the power of the Calorimotor. 4. The Calorimotor, however, when connected, at once with the troughs and with the Deflagrator enables them so far to unite, that the deflagrator acts through the troughs, 340 Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. but without deriving any increase of power from them or from the Calorimotor; the Calorimotor then is an intermedium for the troughs and the deflagrator otherwise incompatible. 5. It is impossible as far as experiment has gone, to obtain any increase of power by combining the different kinds of voltaic apparatus, and indeed it may be doubted whether, when the power passes at all, through the instru- ments of different kinds, there is not always some loss, from the increased extent of connecting surface. Tome 6. These various facts are probably all referable to the different powers, belonging to different proportions of the calorific, electrical, and luminous influence, excited by these different instruments, agreeably to the theory, which you have ingeniously proposed and ably defended; this view accords also with the known results of the combinations of ponderable elements, in different proportions, as of nitra- gen and oxigen, and of carbon and oxigen, and of carbon hidrogen, and nitrogen. 7. Weare thus sent back, to study our imponderable el- ements anew, and to learn, that the voltaic power is not electricity alone, nor heat alone; nor light alone, but a com- pound of these three agents, variously proportioned in dif- ferent cases, and in different modifications of apparatus. This, it appears, is also true, of the common mechanical and atmospheric electricity. REMARK. As the magnetic influence attends all the modifications of electricity, natural and artificial, and of the voltaic power, including your new instruments; and as it is exhibited also by the solar beam, we are left in doubt, whether to regard it as a Mere appendage of these powers, or of some one or two of them, or as a distinct influence or energy, zncidental- ly associated, with the colorific—calorific and electrical powers. But, as the magnetic influence is marvellously more pow- erful, in the Calorimotor, than in the case of any voltaic, electrical or optical instrument, and as the Calorimotor evolves chiefly heat, and produces its magnetic effects best when it produces no light and no perceptible electrocity, it would seem, as if the magnetic influence were rather an at- Fusion of Plumbago. 341 tendant, on caloric, or at least in a greater degree, than on any other power. i It is extremely obvious, that, on all these-subjects, we are still very humble learners; we may however, confidently hope, that out of these diversified results, and from others still to be obtained—some grand simplification will hereaf- ter arise, which will reconcile all apparently discordant facts, and perhaps evince, that all the imponderable influences are merely modifications. of one power—that they consti- > tute the atmosphere, which connects physical existence with its author, and exhibit to us. in the natural world, the most immediate and wonderful efflux of his omnipotent energy. Your friend and servant, B. SILLIMAN. Art. XX.—Fusion of Plumbago. Notice of the Fusion of Plumbago, or Graphite, (commonly called black lead,) in a letter to Dr. Robert Hare, M. D. from the Editor, dated March 26, 1823. My Dear Sir, In a former letter published in this Journal, (Vol. V. pa. 108,) and in an additional notice, (pa. 361 same Vol.) I gave an account of the fusion and volatilization of charcoal, by the use of your Galvanic Deflagrator. Ihave now to add, that the fusion of plumbago was accomplished yesterday by the same instrument, and that I have, again, obtained the same results to-day. For this purpose, from a piece of _ very fine and beautiful plumbago, from North-Carolina, I sawed small parallelopipeds, about one eighth of an inch in diameter, and from three fourths of an inch to oneinch and a quarter in length; these were sharpened at one end, and one of them was employed to point one pole of the deflag- rator, while the other was terminated by prepared char- coal. Plumbago being, in its natural state, a conductor, (although inferior to prepared charcoal,) a spark was read-_ ily obtained, but, in no instance, of half the energy which belongs to the instrument when in full activity, for the zinc coils were very much corroded, and some of them had fail- ed and dropped out; still the influence was readily convey- 342 Fusion of Plumbage. ed, through the remaining coils. As my hopes of success, in the actual state of the instrument, were not very san- guine, I was the more gratified to find a decided result in the very first trial. To avoid repetitions | will generalise the results. The best were obtained, when the plumbago was connected with the copper, and prepared charcoal with the zinc pole. The spark was vivid, and globules of melted plaumbago could be discerned, even in the midst of the igni- tion, forming and formed upon the edges of the focus of heat. In this region also, there was a bright scintillation, evidently owing to combustion, which went on where air had free access, but was prevented by the vapor of carbon, which occupied the highly luminious region of the focus, between the poles, and of the direct route between them. Just on and beyond the confines of the ignited portion of the plumbago, there was formed a belt of a reddish brown color, a quarter of an inch or more in diameter, which ap- peared to be owing to the iron, remaining from the com- bustion of the carbon of that part of the piece, and which, being now oxidized to a maximum, assumed the usual co- lor of the peroxide of that metal. : - In various trials, the globules were formed very abundant- ly on the edge of the focus, and, in several instances, were studded around é0 thickly, as to resemble a string of beads, of which the largest were of the size of the smallest shot ; others were merely visible to the naked eye, and others still were microscopic. No globule ever appeared on the point of the plumbago, which had been in the focus of heat, but this point presented a hemispherical excavation, and the plumbago there had the appearance of black scorie or volcanic cinders. These were the general appearances at the copper pole occupied by the plumbago.. On the zinc pole, occupied, by the prepared charcoal, there were very peculiar results. This pole was, in every instance, elongated towards the copper pole, and the black matter accumulated there, presented every appearance of fusion, not into globules, but into a fibrous and striated form, like the half flowing slag, found on the upper currents of lava. It was evidently transferred, in the state of vapor, from the plumbago of the other pole, and had been formed by the carbon taken from the hemispher- ical cavity. It was so different from the melted charcoal, described in my former communications, that its origin Fusion of Plumbago. 343 from the plumbago could admit of no reasonable doubt. I am now to state other appearances which have excited in my mind a very deep interest. On the end of the prepared charcoal, and occupying, frequently, an area of a quarter of an inch or more in diameter, were found numerous globules of perfectly melted matter, entirely spherical in their form, having a high vitreous lustre, and a great degree of beauty. Some of them, and generally they were those most remote from the focus, were of a jet black, like the most perfect ob- sidian; others were brown, yellow, and topaz colored; oth- ers still were greyish white, like pearl stones with the trans- lucence and lustre of porcelain; and others still, limpid like flint glass, or, in some cases, like hyalite or precious opal, but without the iridescense of the latter. Few of the globules upon the zine pole were perfectly black, while very few of those on the copper pole were otherwise. In one instance, when I used some of the very pure English plumbago, (saw- ed from a cabinet specimen, and believed to be from Bor- rowdale,) white and transparent globules were formed on the copper side. When the points were held vertically, and the plumbago upper- most, no globules were formed on the latter, and they were unu- sually numerous, and almost all black, on the opposite pole. When the points were exchanged, plumbago being on the zinc, and charcoal on the copper end, very few globules were formed on the plumbago, and not one on the charcoal ; this last was rapidly hollowed out into a hemispherical cav- ity, while the plumbago was as rapidly elongated by matter accumulating at its point, and which, when examined by the microscope, . proved to bea concretion in the shape of a cau- lilower—of ‘volatilized and melted charcoal, having, in a high degree, all the characteristics which I formerly describ- ed as belonging to this substance. Indeed, I found by re- petitions of the experiment, that this was the best mode of obtaining fine pieces of melted charcoal. In some instances, I used points of plumbago on both poles, and always obtained meited globules on both; the re- sults were however, not so distinctas when plumbage was on the copperand charcoalon the zine pole; but the same elon- | gation of the zinc and hollowing of the copper pole took place as before. I detached some of the globules, and part- 344 Fusion of Plumbago. ly bedding them in a handle of wood, tried their hardness and firmnéss; they bore strong pressure without breaking, and easily scratched, not only flint glass, but window glass, and even the hard green variety, which forms the aqua for- tis bottles. The globules which had acquired this extraor- “dinary hardness, were formed from plumbago which was so soft, that it was perfectly free from resistance when crush- ed between the thumb and finger, and covered their surfa- ces with a shining metallic looking coat. These globules sunk very rapidly in strong sulphuric acid—much more so than the melted charcoal, but not with much more rapidity than the plumbago itself, from which they had been formed. The zinc of the deflagrator is now too far gone to enable me to prosecute this research any farther at present; as soon as the zinc coils can be renewed, J shall hope to resume them, and I entertain strong hopes, especially from the new improved and much enlarged deflagrator, which you are so kind as to lead me soon to expect from Philadelphia. April 12.—Having refitted the Deflagrator with new zinc coils, I have repeated the experiments related above, and have the satisfaction of stating that the results are fully confirmed and even in some respects extended. The De- flagrator now acts with great energy, and in consequence I have been enabled to obtain good results when using Plum- bago upon both poles. Parallelopipeds of that substance, + of an inch in diameter and one inch or two inches long, being screwed into the vices connecting the poles, on being brought into contact, transmitted the fluid, with intense splendor, and became fully ignited for an inch on each side; on being withdrawn a little, the usual arch of flame was formed for half an inch or more. Indeed when the instru- ment is in an active state, the light emitted from the plum- bago points, appears to be even more intense and rich than from charcoal; so that they may be used with advantage, in class experiments, where the principal object is to exhibit the brillancy of the light. - QOn-examining the peices in this, and in numerous other cases, | found them beautifully studded with numerous glo- bules of melted’plumbago. ‘They extended from within a quarter of an inch of the point, to the distance of } or + of an inch all around. . They were eee than before and per- Fusion of Plumbago: 345 fectly vistble to the naked eye; they exhibited all the col- ours before described, from perfect black, to pure white, including brown, amber, and topaz colours; among the white globules, some were perfectly limpid, and could not be distinguished by the eye trom portions of diamond. In different repetitions of thé experiment with the plumbago points, there were some varieties in the results. In one in- stance only, was there a globule formed on the point; it would seem as if the melted spheres of plumbago as soon as formed, rolled out of the current of flame, and congealed on the contiguous parts. In every instance, the plumbago on the copper side, was hollowed out, into a spherical cavity, and the corresponding peice on the zinc side, received an accu- mulation more or less considerable. In most instances and in. all when the Deflagrator was very active, besides the glo- bules of melted matter, a distinct tuft or projection was form- ed on the zinc pole, considerably resembling the melted charcoal, described in my former communications, but ap- parently denser and more compact; although resembling the melted charcoal, as one variety of volcanic-slag resem- bles-another, it could be easily distinguished by an eye fa- miliarized to the appearances. In one experiment the cav- ity, and all the parts of the plumbago at the copper pole were completely melted on the surface, and covered with a black enamel. The appearances were somewhat varied when specimens of plumbago from different localities were used. In some instances it burnt, and even deflagrated, being completely dissipated in brilliant scintillations; the substance was rapidly consumed and no fusion was obtained. This kind of effect occurred most distinctly when there was a plumbago piece on the copper side, and a piece of char- coal on the zinc side. I have already mentioned the cu- rious result which is obtained when this arrangement is re- versed, the charcoal on the copper, and the plumbago on the zinc side; this effect was now particularly distinct and remarkable, the charcoal on the copper side was rapidly vol- atilized, a deep cavity was formed, and the charcoal taken from it, was instantly accumulated upon the plumbago point, forming a most beautiful protuberance, completely distin- guishable from the plumbago, and presenting when viewed by the microscope, a congeries of aggregated spheres, with every mark of perfect fusion and with a perfect metallic lus- Vou. VI.—No. 2. AA 346 Fusion of Plumbago. tre. I would again recommend this arrangement when the object is to attain fine pieces of melted charcoal. April 14.—In repeating the experiments to day, I have obtained even finer results than before. The spheres of melted plumbago were in some instances so thickly arran- ged as to resemble shot lying side by side; in one case they completely covered the plumbago, in the part contiguous te the point on the zinc side and were without exception white, like minute, delicate concretions of mammillary chalcedony ; among a great number there was not one of a dark colour except that when detached by the knife they exhibited slight shades of brown at the place where they were united with the general mass of plumbago. They appeared to me to be form- ed by the condensation of a white vapour which in all the experiments, where an active power was employed, I had observed to be exhaled beiween the poles and partly to pass from the copper to the zinc pole, and partly to rise ver- tically in an abundant fume like that of the oxid proceeding from the combustion of various metals. I mentioned this circumstance in the report of my first experiments (see Vol. 5, p. 112 of this Journal,) but did not then make’ any trial to ascertain the nature of the substance. Although its abundance rendered the idea improbable, I thought it pos- sible that it might contain alkali derived from the charcoal. It is easily condensed by inverting a glass over the fume as it rises, when it soon renders the glass opaque with a white lining. Although there was a distinct and peculiar odour in the fume, I found that the condensed matter was tasteless, and that it did not effervesce with acids, or affect the test colours foralkalies. Besides, as itis produced apparently in greater quantity, when both poles are terminated by plumbago, it seems possible that it is white volatilized carbon, giving origin, by its condensation, in a state of greater or less purity, to the grey, white, and perhaps to the limpid globules.. The Deflagrator having been refitted only at the moment when a part of this paper had already gone to the press, and the remainder is called for, [ am precluded by these circum- stances from trying the decisive experiment of heating. this white matter by means of the solar focus in a jar of pure ox- ygen gas, to ascertain whether it will produce carbonic acid gas. Fusion of Plumbago. 347 This trial I have this morning made upon the coloured globules obtained in former experiments ; they were easily detached from the plumbago by the slightest touch from the point of a knife, and when collected in a white porcelain dish, they rolled about like shot, when the vessel was turn- ed one way and another. To detach any portions of un- melted plumbago which might adhere to them I carefully rubbed them between my thumb and finger in the palm of my hand. I then placed them upon a fragment of wedge- wood ware, floated in a dish of mercury, and slid over them a small jar of very pure oxygen gas, whose entire freedom from carbonic acid, had been fully secured by washing it with solution of caustic soda, and by subsequently testing it with recently prepared lime-water; the globules were now exposed to the solar focus from the lens mentioned volume 5, page 363. It was near noon, and the sky but very slight- ly dimmed by vapour; although they were in the focus for nearly half an hour, they did not melt, disappear, or alter their form; it appeared however, on examining the gas that they had given up part of their substance to the oxygen, for carbonic acid was formed which gave a decided precipitate with lime-water. Indeed when we consider that these globules had been formed in a heat vastly more intense, than that of the solar focus, we could not reasonably expect to melt them in this manner, and they are of a character so highly vitreous, that they must necessarily waste away very slowly, even when assailed by oxygen gas. Ina long continued experi- ment, it is presumable, that they would be eventually dissi- pated, leaving only a residuum of iron. That they contain iron is manifest, from their being attracted by the magnet, and their colour is evidently owing to this metal. Plumba- go, in its natural state, is not magnetic, but it readily becomes so, by being: strongly heated, although without fusion, and even the powder obtained from a black lead crucible after enduring a strong furnace heat, is magnetic. It would be interesting to know, whether the limpid globules are also magnetic, but this trial I have not yet made. I have already stated, that the white fume mentioned above, appears when points of charcoal are used. [have found that this matter collects in considerable quantities a little out of the focus of heat around the zinc pole, and occa- sionally exhibits the appearance of a frit of white enamel, 348 Fusion of Plumbage. or looks a little like pumice stone, only, it has the whiteness of porcelain, graduating however into light grey, and oth- er shades, as it recedes from the intense heat. In a few instances I obtained upon the charcoal, when this substance terminated both poles, distinct, limpid spheres, and at other times they adhered to the frit like beads ona string. Had we not been encouraged by the remarkable facts already stated, it would appear very extravagant to ask whether this white frit and these limpid spheres could arise from carbon, volatilized in a white state even from charcoal itself, and condensed in a form analagous to the diamond. The rigorous and obvious experiments necessary to deter- mine this question, it is not now practicable for me to make, and I must in the mean time admit the possibility that alka- line, and earthy impurities may have contributed to the result. In one instance contiguous to, but a little aside from the charcoal points, I obtained isolated dark coloured globules of melted charcoal, analogous to those of plumbago. The opinion which I formerly stated as to the passage of a current from the copper to the zinc pole of the deflagrator, is in my view, fully confirmed. Indeed, with the protec- tion of green glasses, my eyes are sufficiently strong, to en- able me to look steadily at the flame, during the whole of an experiment, and I can distinctly observe matter in different forms passing to the zinc pole, and collecting there, just as we see dust, or other small bodies driven along by a com- mon wind; there is also an obvious tremor, produced in the copper pole, when the instrument is in vigorous action, | and we can perceive an evident vibration produced, as if, by the impulse of an elastic fluid: striking against the opposite ole. re : If, however, the opinion which you formerly suggested to me, and which is countenanced by many facts, that the poles of the deflagrator are reversed, the copper being positive and the zine negative be correct, the phenomena, as it re- gards the course of the current, will accord, perfectly well, with the received electrical hypothesis. — The number of unmelted substances being now reduced to two, namely, the anthracite, and the diamond, you will readily suppose I did not neglect to make trial of them, as however, the diamond is an absolute nonconductor and the anthracite very little better, I cannot say I had any serious hopes of Experiments upon Diamond, Anthracite and Plumbago. 349 success. I have made various attempts, which have failed, and after losing two diamonds, the fragments being thrown about with a strong decrepitation, I have desisted from the attempt, having, as I ae a more feasible project in view. I trust you will not consider the details of the preceding pages, as being too minute, provided the subject appears to you as interesting as it does to me. The fusion of charcoal and of plumbago, is sufficiently remarkable, but the evident approximation of the material of these bodies towards the condition of diamond, from which they differ so remarkably in their physical properties, affords if I mistake not, a strik- ing confirmation of some of our leading chemical doctrines: I remain as ever your faithful friend and servant, B. SILLIMAN. -Arr. XXI.—Experiments upon Diamond, Anthracite and Plumbago with the compound Blow Pipe, in a letter ad- _ dressed to Prof. Robert Hare, M. D. by the Editor. Yale College, April 15, 1823. ™ My Dear Sir, ; Having last year, caused to be constructed, an apparatus, capable of containing fifty-two gallons of gas, for the supply of your compound, or, oxy-hydrogen blow pipe, and capable of receiving a strong impulse from pressure, | have been in- tending as soon as practicable, to subject the diamond, and the anthracite to its intense heat. Although their being non- conductors, would be no impediment to the action of the blow pipe flame on them, still, obvious considerations have always made me consider the success of such experiments, as very doubtful. I allude of course, to the combustibility of these bodies, from which we might expect, that they would be dissipated by a flame, sustained by oxygen gas. My first trials were made by placing small diamonds in a cavity in charcoal, but the support was, in every instance, so rapidly consumed, that the diamonds were speedily displa- ced, by the current of gas. Tnext made a chink ina peice of solid quick lime, and crowded the diamond into it; this proved avery good support, but the effulgence of light was so daz~ 350 Experiments upon Diamond, Anthracite and Plumbago. ling, that, although, through green glasses, I could steadily inspect the focus, it was impossible to distinguish the dia- mond, in the perfect solar brightness. This mode of con- ducting the experiment, proved, however, perfectly manage- able, and a large dish, placed beneath, secured the diamonds from being lost, (an accident which | had more than once met with) when suddenly displaced by the current of gas; as however, the support was not combustible, it remained permanent, except that it was melted in the whole region of the flame, and covered with a perfect white enamel of vit- reous lime. The experiments were frequently suspended, to examine the effect on the diamonds., They were found to be rapidly consumed, wasting so fast, that it was necessa- ry in order to examine.them, to remove them from the heat, at very shortintervals. They exhibited however, marks of in- cipient fusion. My experiments were performed upon small wrought diamonds, on which there were numerous polished facets, presenting extremely sharp, and well defined solid edges and angles. These edges and angles were always rounded and generally obliterated. 'The whole surface of the diamond lost its continuity, and its lustre was much im- paired; it exhibited innumerable very minute indentations, and intermediate and corresponding salient points; the whole presenting the appearance of having been superficially soften- ed, and indented by the current of gas, or perhaps of having had its surface unequally removed, by the combustion. In various places, near the edges, the diamond was consumed, with deep indentations, and occasionally where a fragment had snapped off, by decrepitation, it disclosed a conchoidal fracture and a vitreous lustre. These results were nearly uniform, in various trials, and every thing seems to indicate that were the diamond a good conductor, it would be melt- ed by the deflagrator, and were it incombustible, a globule would be obtained by the compound blow pipe: In one experiment, in which I used a support of plumba- go, there were some interesting varieties in the phenomena. _ The plumbago being a conductor, the light did not accumu- late as it did when the support was lime, but permitted me distinctly to see the diamond through the whole experiment. It was consumed with great rapidity ; a delicate halo of blu- ish light, clearly distinguishable from the blow pipe flame, hovered over it; the surface appeared as if softened, numer- Eaperiments upon Diamond, Anthracite and Plumbago. 351 ous distinct but very minute scintillations were darted from itin every direction, and I could see the minute cavities and projections which I have mentioned, forming every instant. In this experiment I gave the diamond but one heat of about a minute, but on examining it with a magnifier, I was sur- prised to find, that only a very thin layer of the gem, not much thicker than writing paper remained, the rest having been burnt.* frets I subjected the anthracite of Wilkesbarre, Penn. to similar trials, and by heating it very gradually, its de- crepitation was obviated. It was consumed, with almost as much rapidity, as the diamond; but exhibited, during the action of the heat, an evident appearance of being superficially softened; I could also distinctly see, in the midst of the intense glare of light, very minute globules forming upon the surface. These when examined by a magnifier, proved to be perfectly white and limpid, and the whole surface of the anthracite exhibited, like the dia- mond, only with more distinctness, cavities and projections united by flowing lines, and covered with a black varnish, exactly like some of the volcanic slagsand semi-vitrifications. The remark already made, respecting the diamond, appears to be equally applicable to the anthracite, i.e. that its want of conducting power, is the reason why it is not melted by the deflagrator. and its combustibility is the sole obstacle to its complete fusion by the compound blow-pipe. Inext subjected a parallelopiped of plumbago to the com- pound flame. It was consumed with considerable rapidity, but presented at the same time, numerous globules of melt- ed matter, clearly distinguishable by the naked eye, and when the piece was afterwards examined, with a good glass, it was found richly adorned, with numerous perfectly white and transparent spheres, connected also by white lines of the Same matter, covering the greater part of the surface, for the *Tn Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. for November 1821, Vol. 58, page 386, I observe the following notice by Mr. John Murray. ‘By repeatedly exposing a diamond to the action of the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe in a nidus of magnesia, it became as black as charcoal, and split into fragments which displayed the conchoidal fracture. It will be found, that this gem affixed in magnesia soon, flies off in minute fragments, exhibiting the impress of the conchoidal form. In lately exposing the diamond fixed on a support of pipe-clay, to the igni- ted gas, I succeeded in compietely indenting it :—examined it after the ex- periments, it exhibited proofs of having undergone fusion.” 352 Experiments upon Diamond, Anthracite and Plumbago. space of 4 an inch at, and around the point, and presenting a beautiful contrast, with the plumbago beneath, like that of a white enamel upon a black ground. In subsequent trials, upon pieces from various localities, foreign and domestic, (confined however to very pure spe- cimens,) I obtained still more decided results; the white transparent globules became very numerous and as large as gmall shot; they scratched window glass—were tasteless— harsh when crushed between the teeth, and they were not magnetic. ‘They very much resembled melted silex, and might be supposed to be derived from impurities in the plumbago, had not their appearance been uniform in the different varieties of that substance, whose analysis has nev- er, I believe, presented any combined silex, and neither good magnifiers, nor friction of the powder between the fin- gers, could discover the slightest trace of any foreign sub- stance in these specimens. Add to this, in different exper- iments, I obtained very numerous perfectly black globules, on the same pieces which afforded the white ones. In one instance they covered an inch in length, all around, many of them were as large as common shot; and they had all the lustre and brilliancy of the most perfect black ena- mel. Among them were observed, here and there, globules of the lighter coloured varieties. In one instance the entire end of the parallelopiped of plumbago was occupied by a single black globule. The dark ones were uniformly at- tracted by the magnet, and I think were rather more sensi- ble to it than the plumbago which had been ignited but not melted. We know how easily, in substances containing iron, the magnetic susceptibility is changed by slight varia- tions of temperature.. I am aware, however, that the dark globules may contain more iron than the plumbago from which they were derived, as the combustion of part of the carbon, may have somewhat diminished the proportion of that substance. I find that the fusion of the plumbago by the compound blow-pipe is by no means difficult, and the instrument being in good order, good results may be antici- pated with certainty. As the press is waiting while I write, itis not in my power to determine the nature of all of these va- rious coloured globules, and particularly to ascertain wheth- er the abundant white globules are owing to earths combin- ed with the plumbago, or whether they are a different form Experiments upon Diamond, Anthracite and Plumbago. 353 of carbon: If the former be true, it proves that no existing analysis of plumbago can be correct, and would still leave the remarkable white fume, so abundantly exhaled between the poles of the deflagrator, and so rapidly transferred from the copper to the zinc pole, entirely unaccounted for. I would add, that for the mere fusion of plumbago, the blow- pipe is much preferable to the deflagrator, but a variety of interesting phenomena in relation to both plumbago and charcoal are exhibited by the latter and not by the former. Hoping that if these subjects have not already. engaged your attention, they will speedily do so, I remain my dear Sir, as ever, your friend and servant. B. SILLIMAN. Postscript, Aprill8. Fusion or ANTHRACITE. The anthracite of Rhode-Island is thought to be very ‘pure. Dr. William Meade, (See Bruce’s Journal, pa. 36) estimates its proportion of carbon at ninety-four per cent. This anthracite I have just succeeded in melting by the compound blow-pipe. It gives iarge brilliant black globules, not attractable by the magnet, but in other respects not to be distinguished from the dark globules of melted plumbago. The experiment was entirely successful in every trial, and the great number of the globules and their evident flow from, and connexion with, the entire mass, permitted no doubt as to their being really the melted anthracite. _ The Kilkenny coal gave only white and iransparent.glob- vices; but it seems rather difficult to impute this to impuri- ties, since this anthracite is stated to contain ninety-seven per cent. of carbon. I have exposed a diamond this afternoon to the solar fo- cus in a Jar of pure oxygen gas, but observed no signs of fu- sion, nor indeed did I expect it, but I wished to compare this old experiment with those related above. The diamond is now the only substance which has not been perfectly melted. I inserted a piece of plumbago into a cavity in quick lime, and succeeded in melting it down by the blow-pipe into two or three large globules, adhering into one mass, and occupy- ing the cavity in the lime; these globules were limpid, and nothing remained of the original appearance of the plumba- go except a few black points. Vol. VI.—No. 2. 45 354 Fluoric Acid of Gay Lussac. Arr. XXII.—Fluoric Acid of Gay Lussac,and its application to the eiching of glass.—Epitor. As we have not seen any notice, that this powerful acid has been obtained in this country, we will briefly mention, that we procured it in full strength, during the late winter, and comparing it with the account given in the memoir, in the ‘Recherches Physico-Chimiques,” of Messrs. Gay Lussac and Thenard, observed with much satisfaction that its prop- erties fully justify their statement; not that we think their researches or those of Sir. H. Davy, needed confirmation, but, notices of interesting facts by different persons especially in different countries are not without utility. The leaden apparatus, recommended for procuring pure fluoric acid, we have found so liable to fusion, and besides the failure of the experiment, and the loss of the apparatus, the fumes are so noxious and even dangerous, that we were induced to resort to the use of vessels of pure silver. For this purpose, an alembic* was made of the capacity of 16 fluid ounces, with a head and tube of the capacity of two and a half, and the tube was made to fit accurately the mouth of a silver receiver of the capacity of three and a half ounces. The latter (see the apparatus represented at fig. 7, plate 10.) was made, in the form ofa bottle, and furnished with a sil- ver stopper, ground so as to fit air tight; it being intended to serve, both asa receiver, and a containing vessel, for the acid, thus obviating the necessity of transferring it into another vessel. _ Two ounces of very pure fluor spar from Shawneetown were introduced into the alembic, and four ounces of sul- phuric acid were added ; there should be no excess of acid, ‘lest it should attack the silver. The whole apparatus was placed under a flue; the receiver was kept cold by ice, and a few live coals being applied beneath the alembic, served to disengage the acid, which was condensed in the receiver, without the ad of water. *The alembic was made thick and heavy, and furnished with a silver cap, so that it might be used without its head, as a large erucible. ; The cost of the entire apparatus, alembic-head, tube, cap and receiver, was about sixty dollars. Fiuoric Acid of Gay Lussac. 356 An ebullition was soon heard in the alembic, and occa- sionally there was a puff of dense fluoric acid vapor, from the mouth of the receiver, which, to avoid explosion, was allowed to remain a little loose around the tube. We did not measure the acid which we obtained, but judged that it was about one ounce in quantity. The fumes that occasionally broke out from the appara- tus, instantly and powerfully corroded some articles of glass that were near by, and the contact of them with the skin or lungs, was most anxiously avoided. For this purpose, the hands were covered with very thick gloves, and the acid was never poured from the bottle, except under the flue. Whenever the bottle was opened, a dense cloud of white vapor appeared, and when a drop of the acid was al- lowed to fall into water, it produced much the same com- motion and noise as red hot iron; exciting great heat and ebullition. A few drops placed in a small concave copper dish, instantly inflamed potassium, which burnt with a bright light, and. was immediately dissipated. A drop of the acid, let fall into a dry wine-glass, or upon a dry glass plate, promptly corroded and dissolved the surface, with as much energy as that with which sulphuric acid acts on potash. For the purpose of procuring an acid adapted to the purpose of etching on glass, the experiment was repeated, with this difference, that half an ounce of water was placed in the receiver. ‘This acid however, proved too powerful for this purpose, as it corroded and destroyed the varnish* used to ‘protect the glass. When it was diluted with three or four parts of water, it acted in the happiest ,manner. Plates of glass being properly prepared, with the compo- sition of bees’ wax and turpentine, and surrounded at the edge by a rim of the same substance, were perfectly etched in the course of a minute or two. The progress of the corrosion in the parts denuded by the graver, could be distinctly seen. The same portion of acid, by pouring it from one plate to another, served to etch several in succession; and indeed with *The common engravers’ varnish is very apt to be destroyed, even by a very weak acid; but we found that the varnish or mastick recommended by Gay Lussac and Thenard, made by melting together common turpentine and bees’ was, formed a perfect protection while the acid was of proper strength. : 356 On the Discovery of Fluoric Acid in the Condrodite. this active agent, even when largely diluted, it is necessary to be very much on our guard, lest the corrosion go too far, and attack the plain parts of the glass. In this manner, the rich and beautiful picture, represent- ing the Oto Council, as delineated in the atlas, illustrating the narrative of Major Long’s expedition, was elegantly etched in {wo minutes. ; We have, for a course of years, tried many experiments upon the etching of glass, by the fluoric acid vapor, and have usually succeeded more or less perfectly ; but we can confidently recommend the pure diluted acid, as being en- tirely superior, in energy, neatness, and ease of manage- ment. Although the strong acid is violent and dangerous, in the extreme, and should be by no means allowed to touch the skin, either in the fluid or vaporous state, the diluted acid may be managed with ease and safety. Still, a pupil, who incautiously dropped some of the latter upon his hand, experienced inconvenience for six weeks—that period hav- ing elapsed before the sore was healed. It is proper to remark, that whenever the acid was pour- ed from the receiver, the latter was firmly grasped by tongs of a peculiar construction, in order to avoid the danger of having the liquid come in contact with the hand. INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. —— I. Domestic. 1. Vindication of Mr. Henry Seybert’s claim to the dis- covery of fluoric acid in the condrodite, (Maclureite of Mr. Seybert, yellow mineral of Sparta, N. J.) Philadelphia, Feb. 25, 1823. Sir, Burt for some erroneous statements in Mr. Nuttall’s reply to my letter of the 11th November, 1822,* our Controver- sy might have terminated. I feel it, however, a duty to — *See Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. VI. p. 168, & seq. On the Discovery of Fluoric Acid in the Condrodite. 357 correct these statements, and the more especially, as it will be done with the aid of facts that are important in the history of the mineral in question. Mr. Nuttall says, ‘‘ If lam called upon, as you are aware, by Mr. H. Seybert to say when and where, I had heard of the existence of Fluoric acid in the Brucite or Condrodite, J might refer him back to a period when he was too young to have been acquainted with even the name of Chemis- try.”* J put no such questions to that gentleman: ona former occasion he told us, that ‘‘ the condrodite, or Bru- cite, almost peculiar to Sparta, discovered likewise by the celebrated Berzelius, in Finland, accompanied by gray Spinelle is (according to an unpublished analysis which I made in 1820,) a Silicate of Magnesia with an accidental portion of Fluoric acid and Iron.”t Mr. Nuttall did not then refer to any analysis made prior to that which he pre- tended to have made; my protest was therefore directly against his being the discoverer of the fluoric acid in this mineral. From the fact contained in my letter, above re- ferred to, Mr. Nuttall, as far as concerns himself, has been obliged to renounce every pretension, heretofore made by him, on that subject. Mr. Nuttall seems still disposed to believe, that the fluoric acid in this mineral is an accidental ingredient, and he attributes its presence to ‘‘the contiguity of slender veins of fluate of lime to the masses of condrodite or Brucite near to Franklin furnace, atSparta.”{ The fact, however, is that Sparta is six miles distant from Franklin furnace, and! do not know, that any one has hitherto an- nounced that fluate of lime, lies contiguous to the carbonate of lime in which the Maclureite at Sparta isimbedded. I found none of it when] examined that locality. What in- fluence the fluate of lime, at Franklin furnace, may have had in the composition of the Sparta mineral, I must leave to be determined by those who are more disposed than J am, to speculate on this subject. Again, if fluate’of lime had been found contiguous to the Maclureite of Sparta, what chemist would pretend, that the magnesia in the latter *See Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. VI. p. 171. tIbid, Vol. V. p. 245. fIbid, Vol. VI. p. 172. 358 On the Discovery of Fluoric Acid inthe Condrodite. would have decomposed the former,to combine with its flu- oric acid. In support of this belief, Mr. Nuttall tells us, that this mineral has been found at West-Point, in New-York, and that it has been observed with idocrase and mica from Vesuvius : he then says, “‘ in these no trace of fluoric acid has as yet been discovered.” To obviate this seeming ob- jection, I will ask Mr. Nuttall if he knows, that the constit- uents of the specimens from the localities which he has ci- ted, have been ascertained. -As faras my knowledge, ex- tends, no chemist has yet analyzed them, and I confidently anticipate, that when they shall be examined they will all prove to be fluo-silicates of magnesia. Analogy authorises such anticipations. Jf we even admit, that no fluoric acid has yet been discovered in the cases cited by Mr. Nuttall, we are not thence to infer, that this acid does not exist there, because we know that, that acid escaped the notice of Berzelius, when he analyzed the condrodite, found in Finland, and that I afterwards detected it in that mineral, though no fluate of lime accompanied the specimen which I examined.* In the next place Mr. Nuttall tells us, that the Sparta mineral ‘‘ was announced by Professor Cleaveland in his first edition of Elements of Mineralogy under the name of Brucite.” J am surprised at this assertion and will thank Mr. Nuttall, to point out the page in Cleaveland’s first edi- tzon, where the word “ Brucite” is imprinted. I maintain that it cannot be found in any part of that valuable work. The term ‘ Brucite’? was announced, for the first time, in 1819 to be “anew species in mineralogy, discovered by the late Dr. Bruce. We hope to publish in the next number a description and analysis of it.”’t Notwithstanding the anx- iety for an analysis of what some now pretend to be this mineral, none was published prior to mine, in 1822, al- though eight numbers of Professor Silliman’s Journal, ap- peared subsequently to its being mentioned in that work. I maintain, that Dr. Bruce considered the Sparta mineral, a silico calcareous oxide of titanium. For my proofs, I refer * Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. V. p. 366. Hbid, Vol. I. p. 439. {Ibid, Vol. V. p. 336. On the Discovery of Fluoric Acid in the Condrodite. 359 to the Mineralogical Journal of Dr. Brace,{ to Professor Cleaveland’s works,{ and the late illustrious Haty.§ The last named philosopher has told us, that he received some specimens of this mineral from Doctor Bruce, with the in- formation that it wasa Silico Calcareous Oxide of Titanium, and that he, relying upon the Doctor’s account of it, adopt- ed the error, until it was removed by his own crystallo- graphical investigation, and by Berzelius’ account of the analysis which he made of it; he then considered it a Sil- cate of Magnesia,|| substituting one error for another. Such was the state of their knowledge, on the continent of Eu- rope, concerning the composition of this mineral, at the close of 1821, and in Great-Britain, they had made no fur- ther progress concerning it in 1822.* . Notwithstanding the facts above referred to, Mr. Nuttall, in his reply, relates that Dr. Langstaff, of New-York, as long ago as 1811, analyzed the Sparta mmeral, and he then gives the doctor’s account of it as follows, viz. “it yielded about, Silex - - 32 Oxide of Iron - 6 Magnésia - 51 Water - - 2 and by abstraction, Fluoric Acid ren Qe 100 The reader will estimate the value and necessity of the word “about” in the foregoing statement, when the num- bers given conduct us to so exact a result! Dr. Langstaff was a pupil in Dr. Bruce’s Laboratory, and it 1s now as- serted, that the above analysis was made there in 1811. Is it probable, if such had been the fact, that Dr. Bruce would have remained, until his decease, ignorant of it? or that, if he had known it, he would, several years thereaf- +Bruce’s American Mineralogical Journal, Vol. 1. 239. tCleaveland’s Mineralogy, p. 158, first edition, 1818. ¢Annales des Mines, Vol. VI. p. 527. \[!bia. *Journal of the Royal Institution of G. B. Vol. XII. p. 329. 360 On the Discovery of Fluoric Acid in the Condrodite. ter, consider this mineral a Silico Calcareous Oxide of Ti- tanium, and make a misstatement to Hatty? Can we sup- pose that Dr. Langstaff would have withheld this informa~- tion until December, 1822, eleven years after he claims to have made the discovery? Why did he not add his analysis* to the short notice of the Brucite, when it was first announced in 1819? It was then named to the world, without an indication of any one of its phys- ical or chemical characters; not a word was even said about the bed where nature had castit! These gentlemen might with equal propriety claim any new substance con- taining fluoric acid and magnesia. Notwithstanding all their efforts, not one of them has cited a single experiment which he made with this mineral! When Mr. Nuttall first claimed the discovery of the fluoric acid, in the Sparta min- eral, he at the same time said, that his results were con- firmed by Dr. Torrey’s experiments.t Why did he then neglect the more important one which he now urges in fa- vor of Dr. Langstaff? he alone can account for the omis- sion. In his late reply to me he says, that Dr. Torrey, five years ago, ‘also found the existence of fluoric acid, as well as the other ingredients mentioned in the analysis of Dr. Langstaff.”{ From these statements it would seem, that Dr. Langstaff, in 1811, made an analysis of the mineral from Sparta, and that his results were confirm- ed by Dr. Torrey in 1817; still the Brucite was introduced to the scientific world in 1819, only with its name, without character, and regardless of its birth-place! Now they even dispute who discovered this mineral. Whilst Dr. Bruce liz- ed, that merit was given to him; but since the decease of that gentleman, his former pupil, Dr. Langstaff, claims the discovery for himself! This might be considered of no consequence to the question, did it not prove, how opinions concerning facts, that we supposed long ago well establish- ed, have been changed to answer temporary purposes. When the name “ Brucite”’ first occurred in the Journal of Science and Arts, I supposed it was intended to desig-~ *The annunciation of that mineral was made, not at the instance of Dr. Langstaff, but by the request of Col. Gibbs; the promised analysis was, however, never forwarded.—Ep. tJournal of Arts and Science, Vol. V. p. 245. fibid, Vol. VI. p. 172. Transactions of the New-York Lyceum. 361 nate the red owide of zinc, discovered near Sparta, and first analyzed by the late Dr. Brucé; there was great reason for this opinion, because we derived our knowledge of that new species from the labors of that gentleman. In conclu- sion it is presumed, that no new claimants will urge fur- ther pretensions, and I flatter myself, that the facts which have been stated will satisfy every candid reader. | have to express my regret for the necessity of this appeal, but, at the same time, hope you will consider it entitled te a place in the next number of the Journal. With sentiments of regard and esteem, your obedient servant, H. SEYBERT. 2. Abstract of the Proceedings of the Lyceum of Natural Mistory, New-York. Mr. Pierce read some “ observations on the Geology of the Catskill Mountains,” (pub. in No. 9, of this Journal,) and presented a collection of minerals and fossils from the dis- trict described. Dr. Van Rensselaer presented a perfect specimen of the Cyperus papyrus, callected by himself from the river Ana- po, near Syracuse, in Sicily, accompanied. by a paper illus- trative of its natural history, and its uses in the arts. ‘Dr. Dyckman, in the name of Dr. Stevenson, presented a collection of Plants, and a box of minerals from France. A letter was received from Mr. Pierce, announcing the discovery of a copious chalybeate spring near Litchfield. Mr. Blunt presented some fine specimens of Zoophites from Bermuda. A paper was read by Dr. Dekay on a new and beautiful species of Sertularia, from the bay of N. York, the S. utri- eularis, with the following specific characters. S. caule simplici, vesiculis utricularibus diaphanis, ore stricto, mar- gine nigro, &c. itis nearest allied to the S. cupressina. By a letter since received from the celebrated Lamouroux, it appears he has adopted the name and description. Mr. Emmet read a report on an ore of iron from the Highlands of N. York, which was referred to him for ex- amination. It is a magnetic oxide of a granular texture, mixed with a substance resembling quartz in appearance, of Vox. VI.—No. 2. 6 362 Transactions of the New-York Lyceum. a yellowish white colour, and nearly opaque. This sub- stance Mr. Emmett submitted to a number of experiments, and determined it to bea phosphate of lime. It is probably the cause of that property of iron, called red-short. . A note was received from Mrs. Mitchill, accompanying a valuable donation of Shells. | . gated A paper from Mr. Jacob A. Vandenheuvel was read on the domestic origin of N. American Bees, and many inter- esting particulars of the Honey Bees of Guiana, S. America accompanied by a case containing twenty species, collected by himself. Pub. in No. VII, this Journal. Dr. Akerly presented a suite of Potter’s clay from differ- ent States. ! Dr. Torrey presented specimens of plants collected by himself on Long-Island, among which were several new species of the myriophyllum and Fuirena. Mr. Halsey presented a collection of plants from the vicin- ity of New-York. ad The committee reported a new species of Sphex carolina, and another species of Sphex from parasitic chrysalids. A letter was read from Mr. Prince, communicating the fact of a new chesnut produced by the intermixture of the cas- tanea vesea, and the castanea pumilla. Specimens of the Hybrid were shown. Pub. in No. VII, this Journal. Dr. Torrey presented a collection of plants made by him- self in the Pine Barrens of New Jersey. A letter was read from Mr. Schoolcraft containing obser- vations of himself and others during the Exploring Expedi- tion to the N. West, with a drawing of the Sand tree of Mich- igan, described in his Journal, since published. A memoir on the cetaceous animals was read by Dr. De- kay. It would appear that out of twenty species belonging to this order, thirteen are found occasionally in our waters. Col. Gibbs presented, through Dr. Torrey, some fine specimens of Iron ore, and of the corundum of Naxos. A communication was received from Major Delafield with a valuable donation of minerals and organic remains, collect- ed by him on the northern boundary of the U.S. The fossils and sulphates of Strontian are peculiarly beautiful. President Mitchill communicated some interesting partic- ulars of the Xyphias Gladias. Transactions of the New-York Lyceum. 363 Dr. Van Rensselaer presented a collection of dried plants from the Alps of Savoy. _ Mr. Anderson presented specimens of graphite from Pen- | sylvania and some pencils manufactured from the same, on which a committee reported favourably. President Mitchill communicated a description of an ani- mal brought by Mr. Schoolcraft from the regions situated around the sources of the Mississippi. It is a beautiful ani- mal, and resembles the Sciurus Striatus, or ground squirrel. Dr. “Mitchill terms it S. tridecem lineatus, or Federation squir- rel, in allusion to its thirteen stripes and numerous spots. A detailed account has been published in the New-York Med. Repos. new series, Jan. 1821. The President at the same time exhibited a dried specimen of the mus bursarius, gopher or pouched rat, (brought by Capt. Douglass,) from Lake Superior, with some observations upon it. Pub. No. IX, this Journal. A communication was received from Dr. Dekay, with a collection of minerals made by himself 1 in France and Great Britain. ‘A letter was laid on the table from Mr. J. Blunt, accom- panied by a bone of a Mastodon from Catskill Moun- tains. Dr. Dekay communicated a description of a species of Ophisaurus, from the borders of Lake Michigan, brought thence by Capt. Douglas. It was conceived to be a new species and was named O. Douglasii. Some remarks were read from President Mitchill on the Proteus Anguinas of Carniola and on the Siren Lacertina of Carolina, and a letter from Judge Woodward on the tides of Lake Erie. | A paper was read, by President Mitchill on the Coca of Pera, Erythoxylon Coca, much used by the natives for food and medicine. Mr. Schoolcraft presented some minerals and fresh water shells collected during the Exploring Expeditions to the N. West, under Gov. Cass. Mr. Barnes, from the committee on these shells, reported several new species and varieties, particularly of the genus Unio, and announced his determin- ation of a more detailed report. Collections of minerals from New South Shetland, and one of pumices from the same place was presented by Capt. Mackay and Capt. Johnson. 364 Transactions of the New-York Lyceum. Dr. Torrey read a report an the ceraphron destructor, a parasitic animal that preys upon the cecidomya destructor, and which has been supposed erroneously to be injurious to wheat. ; “RE -A communication was received from Dr. S, P. Hildreth on a species of Spatularia from the Ohio, supposed to be new. - A valuable donation of Scientific books received from Mr. J. Eastburn. President Mitchill presented a description and specimen of a new species of Scomber, which he named S. quinque aculeatus. . ' A donation was received from Dr. Hosack of a splendid copy of Wilson’s Ornithology in 9 vols. x Mr. Barnes read an Essay on the Geology of the region around New Lebanon. Published in No. XI this Journal. The Rev. Mr. Schaeffer read a paper on‘a fossil bone (head of the tibia) of a mammoth found in Lancaster Co. Penn. Ten large bones were found, but most of them were too much decomposed to be preserved. Mr. Halsey read a paper on the cheirostemon pentadac- tylon of Humboldt. . Mr. Barnes read a paper on a new species of bivalve mo- lusca, found by Mr. J. Cozzens near New-Orleans, and which Mr. B. names Mytilus Striatus. Dr. Torrey communicated a locality of cyanite, discover ed on the island of New-York, by Mr. J. Cozzens. This mineral had not before been observed in the vicinity of New-York. A drawing and description of the Balenopterus acuto-ros- tratus was presented by Dr. Dekay. This animal was taken off Sandy Hook, and exhibited as a curiosity in this city. Mr. Barnes read an Essay on the Genera Unio and Alas- modonta. Pub. in No. XIII this Journal. i Dr. Van Rensselaer read an Analysis of Dr. J. W. Web- ster’s Work on the Geology of the Azores, accompanied by Observations on the Lavas and Pumices of the Lipari Isl- ands, in the Mediterranean. fs Dr. Torrey read a description and analysis of a new min- eral from Richmond Mass. It is nearly a pure Hydrate of Alumine, and is named Gibbsite, in honor of a distinguished American Mineralogist. Pub. in the New York Med. and Phys. Journal. Transactions of the New-York Lyceum. 365 President Mitchill communicated an account of his dis- section of the Balenopterus acuto-rostratus lately exhib- ited. A communication was received from Dr. Beckwith ac- companying specimens of the natural wall in North Caro- lina. Dr. Torrey reported that a mineral from Hudson, N.Y. presented by Mr. Barnes, was a variety of Jade, called Nephrite. It much resembles the Nephrite of Rhode-Island, being infusible by the blow pipe. Dr. Torrey read a memoir on the Usnea fasciata, a new cryptogamic plant from New South Shetland, with an ac- companying letter from Dr. Mitchill. Pub. ‘in No. XIII this Journal. A communication was received from Major Delafield, de- tailing information of a gun of ancient construction found in the Chesapeake, covered with siliceous pebbles, forming puddingstone. A valuable donation of books was received from Col. Gibbs, and another from Dr. Dekay. The President read a.communication on the progress of Natural History during the recess of the Lyceum since May last. Mr. Barnes read a description of a new species of Myti- lus, from New South Shetland, which he names M. Antarc- ficus. Dr. Torrey communicated an account of a new locality of Stilbite and Laumonite. ‘They occur in small crystals in a cellular felspar near cold spring in the Highlands of New York. The Stilbite was described in No. XII. The Lau- monite is disseminated with the Stilbite, but is in much smaller quantity. It occurs in small white four sided prisms, nearly right-angled, with summits very obliquely truncated. The lateral planes are distinctly striated longi- tudinally. Mr. J. Cozzens read a-paper on the acid existing in the berries of the common sumac, (Rhus glabrum) detailing the experiments by which he has ascertained it to be malic acid in nearly a pure state. Dr. Torrey laid on the table specimens to illustrate his intended paper on the minerals of Sparta, N. J. 366 Efficacy of Prussie Acid in Asthma. A combination of unavoidable circumstances has prevent- ed the earlier appearance of this abstract. It is intended to give a notice of the proceedings of the Lyceum, in each succeeding number of this Journal. * >> t 3. Efficacy of Prussic Acid in Asthma. To the Editor. , From Tuomas Hupearp, M. D. President of the Medical Society of Connecticut. Sir, By your politeness I was furnished, about three years since, with a vial of Prussic Acid, prepared by M. Robi- quet, according to the directions of Dr. Magendie of Panis. ‘Since that time, I have made use of that, and several oth- er portions of that medicine. The disease in which | have found it most useful is Asthma, and for the purpose of re- commending trials of that medicine in this disease, T am in- duced to make this communication. Sis Without going into. the detail of the cases, I barely, stat the fact, that I have not failed to relieve the disease in a Sin- ele instance, in which I have prescribed the prussic acid, and some of the cases have been very severe, and many other means of relief had been tried in vain. I do not think proper to mention the particular doses of the medicine,’as it is found of unequal strength in the shops, and being a medicine of great power, it ought not to be ad- ministered without the direction of a physician. Suffice it {o say, that the medicine should be given three, four, five, or six times in twenty-four hours, in such doses as may pro- duce its peculiar effects, in some degree, on the system. Ina few days the symptoms will probably abate, when the medicine may be given in smaller or less frequent dos- es, and if the symptoms entirely disappear, the medicine may be wholly omitted. Ido not pretend that the disease may not recur; but in each subsequent occurrence, by an early administration of the medicine, the paroxysms may be abated in violence and duration, by which means the general health of the patient will in most cases improve. This I consider of great consequence in such a distressing disease as this is, in some instances. J know a gentleman Notice of Dr. Beck’s Gazetteer. 367 who has usually kept it by him for two years, and resorts to it with as much confidence of relief, as a patient whose pains had been repeatedly relieved by opium, has recourse to that medicine. Sometirnes he has not had occasion to use the acid’ for three or four months in succession. Pomfret, March 24, 1823.: 4. Notice of Dr. Beck’s Gazetteer. (Communicated -) “A Gazetteer of the States of Illinois and Missouri,” 8vo. pp- 352. by Lewis C. Beck, A. M. has lately been publish- ed by C. R. & G. Webster, Albany. Dr. Beck isa Mem- ber of the New-York Historical Society, and has resided sometime in Missouri. By traversing a considerable por- tion of these States, by the aid of several intelligent gentle- men in them, by access to the records of the States, and by * other means, Dr. B. had accumulated a mass of materials which he has formed into this work, and which make it ve- ry valuable to the citizens and travellers, and very interest- ing to all who desire information respecting this important section of ourcountry. The Gazetteer contains a “general view of each State—a general view of their counties—and a particular description of their towns, villages, rivers, &c. &c.” Itis accompanied by a map, “ protracted from man- uscript surveys, obtained at St. Louis and Vandalia,” which appears to have been formed with great care. There are also several other engravings. illustrative of the descrip- tions of particular objects. The “general view’ of each State embraces those particulars which belong naturally to Geography, as well as antiquities, land districts, history, minerals, &c. The botanical names of the principal gene- ra of plantsin Missouri, and of the trees of Illinois, are also given, and will be relied on by all who know the success of Dr. B. in the science of Botany. A Gazetteer must of ne- cessity be, to a certain extent a compilation ; but the read- er will find abundant proof of Dr. B.’s diligence, research, and originality. The arrangement would perhaps be im- proved by placing all the towns, &c. in both States, in one alphabetical arrangement instead of two. The work is 368 Notice of Dr. Beck’s Gazetteer well compased and neatly printed, and deserves the patron- age of the public. Thearticle, Military Bounty Tract, p. 128, and p. 291, contains much very important information to the settlers, and those who propose to remove to these States. The articles, Pike County, Fort Chartres, Fort Dearborn, Monk Mound, and Vandalia, under Illinois ; and Fenton, Noyer Creek, St. Louis, Strawberry Rwer, under Missouri, are particularly interesting. | _ On page sixteen, the length of the Ohio River is stated to be one thousand one hundred miles, but the true length ‘is, by actual measurement, according to Mr. Darby*, nine hundred and forty-eight miles. Si cog On p. thirteen, is a correction of a mistake in Mr. School- craft’s “ Narrative Journal,’ which was repeated in the North-American Review, No. 36, respecting the average descent of the Mississippi. Mr. S. states the elevation of the source of the Mississippi to be one thousand three hun- dred and thirty feet about the tide water of the Hudson, _and the length of the river, three thousand and thirty miles. This would give an average descent of nearly forty-four hundredths of a foot, or about five and a quarter inches a mile. This is a far less descent than is given either by Mr. S. or the Reviewer. This mistake was early pointed out to the latter, and is too considerable not to merit attention, especially as this descent is to account for the rapid current of the Mississippi, whose velocity is generally estimated from three to four miles, and by Dr. Beck, from two to four milesanhour. The velocity acquired in falling, with- out resistance, through five and a quarter inches, is about one foot and a half a second, and would be the velocity of the river, if there were no resistance. Allowing this to be the mean velocity of the river, it would be only one mile and one forty-fourth an hour. But considering the resist- ance from the bends, sand-banks, counter-currents, &c. it cannot be supposed that, with only this descent a mile, the velocity can be .more than one mile an hour.. Mr. Darby thinks that the velocity of the current has been much over- stated, and that “below the Ohio the entire mass does not move as much as one mile an hour,”’—that even the veloct- ty of the upper current is much less than has been general- ay stated. He also estimates the descent of the Mississippi *Art. Mississippi River, in the New Edinb. Encyc. Dr. Comstock’s Grammar of Chemistry. 369 below the Ohio, at only three and a half inches a mile, which would produce, were there no resistance, a velocity of only eighty-five hundredths of a mile an hour. He also estimates the elevation of the source of the Mississippi* to be less than that given by Mr. Schoolcraft; and, if the tide water of the Hudson is lower than the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, the descent of the Mississippi must be propor- tionally diminished. It seems pretty evident that the al- lowed velocity of the river is too great for the estimated descent. It is certain, at least, that a more accurate de- termination of the velocity of the current, as well as of the elevation of the source of the Mississippi, is very desirable ; and it is to be hoped that the remarks in Dr. Beck’s Gazet- teer will lead some of the western gentlemen to a satisfac- tory result on one or both of these particulars. D. 5. Dr. Comstock’s Grammar of Chemistry. In the fifth volume of this Journal, the publication of this work was mentioned. We by no means hold ourselves responsible to give opinions of new works, but we owed the respectable author of this manual, good-will enough to have said a few words on the merits of his book, had it not been postponed from mere inability to peruse it. If our opinion be of any consequence in this case, we are gratified in saying that Dr. Comstock has executed his work with very creditable ability and address. It is concise, perspicuous and select, and bears strong internal evidence of being the offspring, to a great extent, of a practical man, who writes with the precision which can be derived from experience alone. Those chemical compilations which are made by men who have never performed what they describe, resemble the fictitious travels of imaginary adventurers, who delineate countries which they have not seen. In chemis- try, the audivi may give a man many good ideas, useful to himself; the vzdz will still more enlarge his knowledge— but it is ‘only the fect which qualifies him to instruct others. _Dr. Comstock’s experiments are well chosen, well-describ- ed, and made intelligible and practicable by wood cuts in- serted in the pages of the work.{—Ed. '* Art. Navigation Inland, in the New Ed. Encyc. +Perhaps it is a mark of his good judgment and prudence that he has omit- Vor. VI.—No. 2. 47 370 Mineral Caouichouc. 6. Mineral Caoutchouc. This remarkable mineral, hitherto nearly or quite confined to the Owdin mine at Castleton, in Derbyshire, has been re- cently fourd at Southbury, twenty miles N. W. of New- Haven. This region is a secondary trap basin (see Vol. II» pa. 231 of this Journal) and although only six or eight miles in diameter, it presents all the characteristics of the great trap region of Connecticut and Massachusetts described by Mr. Hitchcock. Among other things, it contains slaty rocks with bituminous minerals; these have induced a research for coal which is now going on. We understand that they find bituminous slate or shale with small veins of coal. Spe- cimens confirming this statement are now on the table, and they exhibit fibrous limestone, forming very distinct veins, or rather layers, running parallel with, and lying between those of the slate. The fibres of the satin spar or fibrous limestone, are one inch and more in length; they are often cracked in the direction of the fibres and between them there are veins occupied by the mineral caoutchouc. It has but little elasticity, it is soft, easily impressible by the nail, and compressible between the fingers like potassium, and can be formed into a perfect ball; its colour is jet black; some varieties of it are a little harder, and have a re- sinous and splendent lustre, and a flat conchoidal fracture ; it burns with extreme brilliancy with much black smoke and an odour between that of a bitumen and that of an aro- matic; during the combustion, drops of liquid fire fall ina stream, or in quick succession, and with a whizzing noise exactly like the vegetable caoutchouc and it melts precise- ly as that substance does. Rubbed on paper it leaves a black streak and acquires a high polish, it does not remove pencil marks from paper. ‘The veins containing this min- eral are about one quarter of an inch wide and several inch- es long.—Ed. April 10, 1823. ted to describe the most dangerous fulminating preparations, lest his readers should incur injury from attempting the experiments. ‘There are a few ty- pographical errors ; the most important which we observed is, that hydrogen stands as the basis of nitric acid, (p.21.) We do not observe any table of errata. ‘This little work cannot fail to be very useful in schools, and to pri- vate experimenters, and contains a great deal ina small compass. Hudson Marble and Kendall’s Thermometers. a7 1 7. Hudson Marble. The territories of the United States are rich in marbles, well adapted by their beauty and firmness, to architectural and sepulchral and other ornamental, as well as useful pur- poses. We have omitted as yet to mention one which is wrought by Mr. Charles Darling at Hudson, and is obtained from the vicinity of thattown. We did not see this mar- ble in place, but no geologist would hesitate on inspecting it, to refer it to the transition class, and indeed Hudson is in the midst of that strip of transition country, which Mr. Ma- clure designates in his geological map, along both sides of the Hudson. This marble is of a greyish colour, with a slight blush of red; its structure is semi-crystalline and in some places highly crystalline, especially in and around the organized bodies, which, in vast numbers, itembraces. Among them, the en- crinite, is very conspicuous, and frequent, and when the mar- ble is polished, the organized bodies, congealed in a bright cal- careous bed, and often more brilliant themselves than the me- dium in which they are fixed, give it a very fine effect; this is particularly true in large slabs, which present great diver- sity of appearance and could scarcely be distinguished from the similar transition marble. of the Peak of Derbyshire which it greatly resembles, and quite equals in beauty and firmness.—Ed. ; 8. Thermometers. We have observed with satisfaction, the progressive im- provement in this country, in the manufacture of glass in its most important branches, and especially of thermometers, so indispensable to all researches on heat, and to many arts, depending on its laws. Mr. Fisher of Philadelphia, Mr. Pool of New-York, and Mr. Pollock of Boston, (besides probably others not within our knowledge or recollection) are advantageously known to the public, as manufacturers of thermometers, and of various articles, of philosophical ap- paratus. Their situation, in our principal cities, gives them facilities for being known, and for introducing their articles to the public approbation which they have justly obtained. 372 Salem Manufacture of Alum, &c. Perhaps it is not generally known, that in one of our vil- lages, excellent thermometers, of every variety of construc- tion, may be obtained. They are the work of a self taught artist, Mr. Thomas Kendall Jr. of New Lebanon, whose in-: genious device for graduating tubes of unequal bore, is men- tioned at pa. 398, Vol. 4, of this Journal.*. We have sev- eral of Mr. Kendall’s thermometers, constructed for partic- ular purposes, and with which, as regards both the neatness and accuracy of their execution, we have every reason to be well satified. Some of them are particularly convenient, as they are constructed with naked balls, and with the contiguous part of the tube descending below the scale, which fits them for im- mersion in liquids, at the same time that they are conven- iently packed in travelling cases, and will answer well for chemical, medical, and meteorological observations. We are assured that upon Mr. Kendall’s plan of gradua- tion, if the bore of a tube is of a regular ¢aper, there is no more difficulty in making a correct thermometer of it (even if it varies so much, that the space necessary for three de- grees at one end makes but two at the other,) than of one that is uniform throughout. The substance of Mr. Kendall’s improvement, we under- stand to be, a method of dividing right lines into any number of parallel divisions, with equal ease and accuracy, whether equal or unequal: applicable to the manufacture of mathe- matical instruments, but more particularly to the graduation of thermometer scales, which almost universally require un- equal divisions. This method may also be applied to the division of circles, and would be of great use to the artist in manufacturing machinery which required a great number and variety of cogs, as with an engine constructed on this principle, one number would be as easily obtained as another.—Ed. 9. Salem Manufacture of Alum, &c. i. We contemplate with particular satisfaction, every ad- vance made in our domestic arts and manufactures, and re- * Tt will not diminish the value of that notice, if we mention, that it was written by the late Professor Fisher, after mature consideration of the sub- ject. Geological Survey of the Great Canal. 373 gard every new step of this kind, as an addition to our na- tional resources. yt 2 i Excepting the natural alum of the caverns in Tennessee and of some other regions of the West and South, and that, occasionally found, in our schistose rocks, and used in these cases, more or less, for domestic dyeing, and other purposes, we were not aware that the United States possessed any re- source for this article independent of the foreign markets. Some time since, we were informed that a manufactory was established at Salem in Massachusetts, and the proprie- tors have recently put us in possession of a set of specimens, which prove that the effort has been completely successful. Among the crystals of alum, are some of great size, and ex- quisite beauty and transparency, exhibiting to the naked eye, in a very striking manner, the successive layers of super-posi- tion and the progressive increments and decrements. A part of an octaedron lies before us, complete, except on the side where it adhered to the mass. It measures nearly five inches by four, and has the most perfect finish on its faces, and solid edges and angles, which are in every part, replaced by trun- cations. Some crystals of rather smaller size are quite or nearly perfect. We are aware that fine crystals of alum are not rare in manufactories, but we have not seen these equal- led even by the similar productions of the celebrated establish- ment near Glasgow. ‘There can be no question from the appearance of these crystals, as well as from that of the amorphous masses, of the extreme purity of these materials. Perhaps they are even purer for this reason, that the alum is not manufactured (as we understand,) from the usual source, namely, the decomposed alum slates, but from the direct syn- thetical union of sulphuric acid with the argillaceous earth. The sulphate of copper, (blue vitriol,) made at this estab- lishment, is equally perfect in its kind, presenting crystals of extreme finish and beauty. The skill manifested in the manufacture of these articles, clearly evinces, that the persons conducting this establish- ment, are quite equal to the task which they have underta- ken, and are fairly entitled to the public confidence.—Ed. 10. Geological ee on the Great Canal. The patroon of Albany, the Hon. Stephen Van Rensse- laer, with his usual liberality, has undertaken the expense of 374 Expedition of Major Long and Pariy. procuring a Geological survey, to be made of the whole re- gion, contiguous to the great canal, and of all the interesting tracts in its vicinity, extending from Albany to the Falls of Niagara. For this purpose, he has employed Professor Amos Eaton, with the aid of several assistants, and their task is al- ready advantageously commenced. Mr. Eaton is well known to the public as an active, industrious, and faithful observer, and we look to a happy issue of this great enterprise, which we trust will be honourable to all concerned.—Ed. 11. Expedition of Major Long she ea to the Rocky Moun- tains. We have recently perused, with great satisfaction, the narrative of the expedition of Major Long and party to the Rocky Mountains, by order of the government of the Uni- ted States. This narrative is contained in two large octa- vo volumes, illustrated by an atlas with maps, geological sections, and perspective views. The happy and success- ful execution of this arduous enterprise reflects equal honor upon the government who patronized, and upon the gentle- men concerned in the expedition. | Their commission included the geographical and physic- al features of the country, the details of Botany, Zoology, Geology and Mineralogy, the condition of the native tribes, the climate, and in short every thing which could be inter- esting, either to science or politics. This difficult task was most ably and faithfully executed, and if it were consistent with the design or limits of this work to attempt an analysis of the volumes in question, we should find the task very dif- ficult, because it is scarcely possible to abridge the interest- ing and important details with which they abound. A successful generalization may indeed be exhibited, with respect to the ‘geological features of the country; but it would be unhappy to exhibit the subject in a state less per- fect than that which it assumes in the narrative itself. We perused with no small regret the account of the vast sandy desert which, for the distance of five hundred miles from the feet of the Rocky Mountains, presents a frightful waste, scarcely less formidable to men and animals, than the desert of Zahara; and we contemplated with admira- Philadelphia Water Works. 375 tion and sympathy, the toils and sufferings and perils, en- countered by the adventurers, who, on more than one occa- sion were near starvation, or on the point of being over- whelmed by hordes of barbarians.—Ed. 12. Philadelphia Water Works. This fine city is now abundantly supplied with good wa- ter, from the Schuylkill, and a magnificent establishment for that purpose is completed at Fair Mount, five miles above the city at the falls of the Schuyikill. The entire expense including the purchase of the scite is $426,330, but the money appears to have been well bestowed, as the success of the experiment is complete. The river at the falls is about nine hundred feet wide; the depth at high water is thirty feet; its average rise and fall is six feet, and it is lable to sudden and violent freshets. ‘“ The whole. length of the overfall is one thousand two hundred and four feet, and the whole extent of the dam including the west- ern pier about one thousand six hundred feet,” backing the water up the river about six miles. The water power created, is calculated to be equal to raise into the reservoir by eight wheels and pumps, upwards of ten millions of gallons per diem. The river, in the dry season, will afford four hundred and forty millions every twenty-four hours;—andas it is calculated, that forty gallons upon the wheel will raise one into the reservoir—eleven million of gallons may be raised each day. Many interesting particulars, detailed in the last report of the watering committee,* which is illustrated by a large copper plate sheet, exhibiting a plan and perspective, we must omit—and proceed to state, that the machinery in ac- tual operation, is able to raise upwards of four millions.of gallons in twenty-four hours into the reservoir, which is of such an elevation as to afford the hydrostatic pressure ‘of ninety-two feet, throwing upon the pumps a pressure of seven thousand nine hundred pounds. ‘here are two re- servoirs, one of which is one hundred and thirty-nine feet by three hundred and sixteen, and twelve feet deep, hav- ing the capacity of three millions of gallons ; It is connect- ed with another reservoir which contains four millions of gallons. The water being raised into these, one hundred * Forwarded by the kindness of Mr. George Vaux. 376 Test for Platinum. and two feet above low tide, and fifty-six above the highest ground in the city ; is thence conveyed in the iron pipes described in our last Number, (page 173,) the whole ex- tent of which is now thirty-five thousand two hundred and five feet, “and in no instance has a leak been discovered.”’ The greater part of the pipes now laid are of American manufacture, none ever having been imported except as samples. . The system obviously admits of indefinite extension. The committee justly remark that ‘‘the uses and importance of this water, it is impossible sufficiently to value. The additional cleanliness of the city, (which with the suburbs contains between 120,000 and 130,000 people,) the supply of the neighboring districts for culinary purposes, as well as for purposes of refreshment—the great advantage in case of fire—the ornament of fountains in the public squares so wisely provided by our great founder—the benefit to man- ufactures, and the establishment of water power in the city for various purposes, may be named among the advantages of this new work ; but above all we are to place its effect upon the health of a great and growing community, which of itself would justify a much greater expenditure.” Ed. 13. Test for Platinum. In the course of various trials, with hydriodic acid,-upon metallic solutions, we were recently much impressed with its remarkable effect upon the muriate of platinum. If dropped into a solution of this salt, even when extremely dilute, it produces, almost immediately, (and immediately if the solution be of only moderate strength) a deep wine red, or reddish brown colour; by standing a few minutes, itgrows much more intense, and becomes very striking, af- ter the lapse of ten minutes. It much resembles the effect of the recent muriate of tin, but is a more delicate test than that, as it produces decided results where that gives but a» faint change of colour. By standing a day or two, the so- lution becomes covered on the top, and on the sides of the vessel, with a film of perfectly metallic platinum. From this circumstance, it appears that the test operates by redu- cing the solution to the metallic state. Perhaps this effect was favoured by the manner in which the hydriodic acid On Animal Fat. 377 was prepared. It was done by putting phosphorus to about an equal bulk of iodine placed under water, in a glass tube ; an immediate action ensued consisting, apparently, in the decomposition of water—oxygen being thus imparted to the phosphorus and hydrogen to the iodine. The hydri- odic acid, thus formed, of course remained mixed with phosphoric acid, containing perhaps an excess of phospho- rus. I did not make the trial with the pure hydriodic acid, and cannot positively say what agency the phosphorus might have had,in producing this effect. Evenif the phos- phorus should prove to be essential, perhaps the observa- tion may be still worthy of beimg preserved. No other metallic solution gave similar results.—Editor. 14. American Geological Society. From its munificent President William Maclure, Esq. the society has recently received a box of the lavas of Ve- suvius—Beudant’s Geological travels in Hungary 4 volumes with maps—a continuation of the Revue Encyclopedique, and of the Journal de Physique—Conybeare and Philips’ Geology of England, and a case of the Glauberite of Spain. Major Delafield has presented to the society a box of minerals consisting principally of the boulder stones found on the shores of the upper lakes, but embracing also vari- ous domestic and foreign specimens. 15. On Animal Fat. Stearine and Elaine. {Communicated by Professor Eaton. | An intelligent tallow-chandier, Mr. W. Parmelee of Lansingburgh, informed me, a few days since, that the tal- low of beeves, which are slaughtered during, or at the close of the hot season, makes much harder candles, than of those which are kept until the weather becomes cold. This fact, he said, had always been known to tallow-chandlers ; but he gavea reason for this difference, which I believe you will think worthy of scientific investigation. Mr. P. had not noticed the distinction made by chemists between the olive-oil-like part, called elaine, which lique- Vou. VI.—No. 2. Ag 378 Additional Notice on the Fused Carbonaceous Bodies. fies at 60° Fahrenheit, and the hard part, called stearine, which remains solid at 100° Fahrenheit. But he had sepa- rated the two substances, and re-combined them in various ways. Without any chemical analysis, he had compared the elaine of tallow with the sweat of cattle, and found a great resemblance in their sensible qualities; though the latter contained a larger proportion of water and of muriate of soda. From these observations he infers: that during the hot part of the season, when cattle sweat profusely, such alarge proportion of the elaine is evacuated through their skins, that the stearine is left in a much larger proportion than that which is found in their tallow after the sweating season has passed. With Mr. P.’s permission, | communicate these observa- tions, inthe hope that some American chemist, who has suf- ficient leisure, will compare the results of an accurate analy- sis of the elaine and sweat of beeves. It may throw some light upon the science of animal economy, and of the prox- imate principles of animal matter. Troy, N. Y. Jan. 13, 1823. 16. Additional Notice on the Busca Canbondncin Bodies. If melted charcoal, plumbago and anthracite do really approximate towards the character of diamond, we ought to expect that, in consequence of fusion, there would be a diminution of conducting power, with respect both to heat and to electricity. This I find to be the fact. As soon as the point of charcoal is fused by the deflagrator, the power of the instrument is very much impeded by it; but as soon as the melted portion is removed, the remaining charcoal conducts as well as before; and so on, for any number of repetitions of the experiment, with the same pieces of char- coal. The globules of melted plumbago are absolute non-conduct- ors,as strictly so as the diamond. This fact is very pleasingly exhibited, when a point of prepared charcoal, connected withthe zinc pole of the deflagrator, is madeto touch a glo- bule of melted plumbago, however small, still adhering to a parallelopiped of plumbago, in its natural state, screwed into the vice connected withthe copper pole; not the minu- test spark will pass; but if the charcoal point be moved, Foreign Literature and Science. 379 ever so little aside, so as to touch the plumbago in its com- mon state, or even that which has been ignited, without be- ing fused, a vivid spark will instantly pass. This fact is the more remarkable, because it is equally true of the intensely black globules which are sensibly magnetic, and therefore contain iron, as of the light colored and limpid ones, which _ are not attractable. The globules of melted anthracite are also perfect non- conductors. This may appear the less remarkable, because the anthracite itself is scarcely a conductor; at least, this is the common opinion, and it certainly is strictly true, of that of Wilkesbarre and of that of Kilkenny; for, when both poles are tipped with those substances, there is only a minute spark, which is but little augmented when charcoal terminates one of the poles. But the fact is re- markably the reverse with the Rhode-Isiand anthracite ; this conducts quite as wellas plumbago, and I think even better, giving a very intense light, and bright scintillations. I have now no doubt, that the deflragrator will melt it, but have not had time to complete the trial. If it should be said that the conducting power of the R. I. anthracite may be owing to iron, we are only the more em- barrassed to account for the fact, thatits black melted globules areinsensible to the magnet, and are perfect non-conductors. It will now probably not be deemed extravagant, if we conclude that our melted carbonaceous substances approx- imate very nearly to the condition of diamond.—Ed. April 23, 1823. 17. New Journal.—The first No. of the Boston Journal of Philosophy and the Arts will be published in the month of May. : 18. tro Cerite—Col. Gibbs has discovered the Ittro — Cerite at Franklin in New-Jersey. II. Foreien. 1. Stereotype Edition of Newton's Principia.—A very el- egant stereotype edition of the ‘“ Principia’’* has made its appearance from the University Press at Glasgow, conduct- *Of which a copy is now in our hands. 380 Foreagn Literature and Science. ed by Messrs. Andrew and John M. Duncan. Itis a reprint of what has been known by the name of the ‘“ Jesuit’s edi- tion of the Principia,” first published at Rome by two learn- ed French ecclesiastics, Thomas Le Seur and Francis Jac- quier; and embracing their celebrated commentary. The objects of this commentary are, as explained by the authors themselves, “to throw light upon such parts of the work as are difficult or obscure; fully to demonstrate those truths which Newton has announced, but neglected the proof; and to bring into clearer view some of the less obvious beauties that abound in the demonstrations.” The authors of the commentary have enriched their work with occasional treatises, taken from the writings of distin- guished men, on various subjects, both mathematical and physical; as, the tract on the Conic Sections—a concise, but elegant specimen of geometrical reasoning, which ap- pears to be the production of a professor at Geneva; and the well-known essays of Bernoulli, Euler and M’Claurin, on the motions that prevail in the waters of theglobe. To these are added dissertations on the general principles of Mechanics, and the elements of the fluxionary calculus; together with many of the observations, experiments and reasonings of philosophers, both before and since the days of Newton. Solutions also, of ingenious and useful prob- lems often recur. Perhaps it is the chief fault of the work, that its authors have too carefully attempted to explain every point that seemed in the least degree obscure, and thus increased its bulk, without adding proportionally; to its value. The present edition is published in the Latin, and comprises four handsome octavo volumes. When the value of the Principia and the scarcity of for- mer editions are considered, this must be deemed an impor- tant addition to the list of new publications; and the influ- ence which original works of this high character always ex- ert upon the progress of useful science, renders it desirable that, if introduced into this country, the work may meet with encouragement equal to its merits. q 2. Travels in America.—J. M. Duncan, A. B., of the University Press, Glasgow, author of “A Sabbath among the Tuscarora Indians,” is preparing for publication an Foreign Literature and Science. 381 account of Travels through part of the United States and Canada, in 1818 and 1819, intended chiefly to illustrate subjects connected with the Moral, Literary, and Religious condition of the country. Those who enjoyed the pleasure of Mr. Duncan’s acquaintance, while travelling in this country, will expect much from his intelligence and candor, and we confidently believe they will not be disappointed.—Ed. 3. Fossil Vegetables—We have received from Mr. Adol- phus Brongniart of Paris,a work ‘Sur la classification et la distribution des Végétaux Fossiles””—illustrated by litho- — graphic plates. It is an elaborate and valuable work and an analytical notice of it by Dr. J. G. Percival will appear in our next number.—Editor. Communicated by Dr, Jeremiah. Van Rensselaer. 4. Fresh. water formations—From the new edition of Cuavier’s work on Organic Remains, it appears that the fresh water formations of Paris and Rome are precisely similar : presenting the following order of succession from below up- wards. 1. A compact limestone analogous to the Jura limestone, or even perhaps to chalk—rarely containing petrifactions. 2. The coarse sandstone formation, composed at its low- est part of bluish argillaceous marl, with shells, and towards its upper part of reddish sandy limestone, and sometimes of marine sandstone. 3. The volcanic breccia, in all its modifications, lying above this formation. 4. The fresh water formation. Messrs. Brongniart and Brocchi, who have examined to- gether these formations, conclude that there are two kinds of fresh water formations, very distinguishable by external characters, which indicate their difference of origin. The one produced by solution and precipitation, more or less pure and crystalline, has issued from the interior of the earth with the waters which have carried them to the sur- face of the soil. ‘They may be formed at all elevations where similar waters may have issued, and the height at 382 Foreign Literature and Science. which they occur is not always a proof of that to which the fresh water has been elevated. These are the most exten- sive. The other, of a coarser texture, resulting from the abra-~ sion and washing of the surface of the rock, is formed by means of sediment at the bottom of still watersinto which they have been carried. They are much less diffused, less pure, and may contain remains of marine bodies. - - - A bitter principle - - - Wf \ ’ { 1 F ; or . : = y 5 , —“chthyolita S Legetable ZL» Wie CS Wi * C643 Fiyl¥es : j Kg. 1. pa. B34 VA a lig. 1. pa.77. Fug.3. ae WSs ISS a 7 cS se Zs NS \ W\ AK ANS WAKA \\\ UNIAN RA : : : : : j he SANK \ A\ \\\) \\ g Granite veins in Scuenite oa VENA A pa. 14. HAN Hy UN na eeetony pees is : 4 : ON = = Si = = = — S_ = : eof ———— ae % i 2D SY, Pets a3 Ws Net. of D2, 9p pat04. Aiaculite Y: M Hitchcock. % SY ES Se eee ites 2 4 Doolillle sc. mM y hig 1. ae a I iain todbing Stone 4 Pe Ape i ; ~ KES % < A | "1 | eN Pe. 243 Sier Apparatus for Fluoric Acid. pa 354. ~ * I, PD pe p> CIEE a DE Dua Galvano Magnetic ’ p i 385 5 Instrument Pu. 330 - gpa on e BIE. BM ee Wy. - A wp res Ow * Ll Weas : Gath TN ie MH, See = z Bi = = z = z = z z 2 Zz SS Z See oe Zs — = == 3 Z @p§ —S== SS = a Y . BAe a : Cartna Lttd | PLATE 122. ly € Lhe, te Sf elle, ee Mad weotlovla oe ees {old ) Sees - Di ORNS Mii bre te * ty ad ty SAC AN aie ia TOE ELT Lf A Dolittle se. yes ae ie N S w\ 7 | Nae . S . N \ S XN (QANX \ N . \S | Ly y puodtor LO i’ Pez Wa (SAL : Gi J Wy: c Wheerres O7L ¢ Bot Z Ui, re ) COSALOMOIEE — SEM OL 4 Fig ll : 2 - Wpsix Lert a < ( ot Fig. 16 —- LO 77. y Df : Dye V2, : YE Miguotlitis Chita C Uf elects Dieis de iS LPUCA ae ; > te) Yeo Prarige lop ts ie Vi eed bs? ee aN ih OF SCIENCE, CONDUCTED BY < a A celicceer 2 s é " mmRcE OF F LONDON, MEMBER oF ie ROYAL MINERALOGICAL / SOCMTY OF DRESDEN, AND OF VARIOUS LITERARY AND ; _ SCIENTIFIC. SOCIETIES IN AMERICA. Y *% ‘ti jae: - NEW-HAVEN: PR ape v! ) PUBLISHED “oe Sy CONVERSE, FOR THE EDITOR. pre So ae ‘Sold by tak Publisher uaidbtowe & Spalding, N ped Maou E. Littell, Phil- - adelphia and Trenton, si, J.); Davis & Force, Washington, wD. C.); eae Hun ngton & Hopkins, artford + 7 Cummings & Hilliard, Boston ; Good- Phy Caleb Atwater, Circleville, Ohio; Cr "Thomas JS: Ray, Augusta, Geo. ; Henry Whipple, Salem, Mass. ; Edward J. Coale, Baltimore ; Timoth 'D. Por- ter, ‘Columbia, = 'C.y Miller & Hutchins, Providence, R. I.; Thomas R. Williams, Newport, (R. 1.) ; William T. ‘Williams, Savannah, Geo. ; Luke Loomis, Pittsburgh, Pa. ; Daniel Stone, Brunswick, Me. ; Professor D,. 1A London. . sere soe ee ae » Sew eas: Vi nNo acon 1823. x * : ale Glazier & Co. Hallowel, Maine: A.T. Goodrich & Co. New-York; Olmsted, Chapel aN aha N.C.; John nasa ns 68, Fleet-street, a GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c. ART. I.- ti. Ml. aN VI. ~ XI. . Mr. Isaac Orr on the formation of the cient . Dr. James Cutbush on the fanaa of cyanogene the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh. . Professor Cleaveland’s notice of Some mepkabla balls ofsnow. = - - - . Professor J. F. Dana’s iiecellanaslies notices. CONTENTS. i iGaclhey. Mineralogy and Scenery of the Connpetin 1. cut, with a geological map.and drawings of organ- ic remains, by the Rev. Edward Hitchcock, A.M. A memoir on the Topography, Scenery, Mineralo- gy, &c. of the Catskill wire. by James Pierce Esq. - Speculative Conjentaree’ on the probable dhanies that may have occurred in the regions east of the Stony Mountains, by William Maclure Esq. - ‘BOTANY. Rey. Edward Hitchcock, on a new ss of oan trychium, (with a drawing.) - . Professor S. L. Mitchill and Dr. John Toney s ona new species of Usnea from New South Shetland, , (with a drawing.) - - - -~ = - 104 CONCHOLOGY. Mr. D. W. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alas- modonta, (with eight plates of the shells.) - PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, &c. 107 (with diagrams.) = - or prussine, in some chemical Brome not heretofore noticed. - BP . Mr. Henry Seybert’s analysis of mangafesian gar- net, with a notice of Boric acid in tourmalines. 155 . Dr. William Meade’s letter, with an account of a travelled stone,—copied from the transactions of Mr. S. Morton’s account of an ancient mound near Wheeling in Virginia. She - : 103 128 9 149 158 | 162.4 166 ESE ag a Sobek aes on nthe 8. eels s notice of se iddamuability of diiienniaalilt ie 185 9, ———__——_ - crystallization of sulphuric acid. Fal 10. ———— an explosion of aes aoe eee : “trogen a and ee apace Be ay #e Uo ore Dr Mah Nace of Bosca Continental Geol att fy “iialetier to Dr. J. Ww. Webster. babiatee sie = ae .e mineralogy af the he of Gen hae : ract of a letter from Batavia. iaenres * n of Mr. Parkes rudiments and rey -: tat Pew SH | Notices from Professor Griscom. . New Merk on fase ahi: #4 \ joan s fod e vn New Journal of Natural Science at Copenhagen. aed Color of sea water. - a‘ Fossil Remains at Abbeville. te . yy: ‘Singular disease. - + EP ier era em 10. Preservation of potatoes. 8 AN pte a i oe au Zodiac of Denderab. Gio Mies Vee ae sien esate : Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil.) we 188 ye eT ! ge Y Tp is” ned in ee ee B58 _yohime stipulated to contain at leas pages ; the six volumes, already oi over four pier ye kc hay aD trated by: EES) aay ak i) : A ERM es cs ‘ i % Pe 3 "Three dollars a volume in ‘advance. new volume is of course a discontinuance. eee sos ab _ && Term of credit to general ny ad e ‘months ap ‘ “cation of, No. 1. o! oy j eect cdl patnrcaeli: came too late for this ni - We are requested to mention that a paper from D. _the discovery of Idocrase and other minerals will ap ear . Communications for No. 15, to be in hand by the middle o __ ALL our correspondents, and especially Bora: TS, a lepibins every technical word in every seienc it ¢annot be misread; and every author of a lication, who does not write a ae sch should ause copied. . Fc i Ne . 240, line 4 Fees orth: a ca read VT Ns, 245, a a top, for camm. 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