THE AMERICAN
MONTHLY
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL
EDITOR
ROMYN HITCHCOCK, F. R. M.S.
VOLUME VII.
WA SEH DN G Tf ON
GIBSON BROS., PRINTERS AND BOOKBINDERS
MDCCCLXXXVI
THE AMERICAN
MONTHLY MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
INDEX TO VOLUME VII.
PAGE,
Apsolute alcohol... . 2 5.2 3k 216, 217
Algz of fresh-water, key to classifica-
tion of, R. Hitchcock . . . 30, 50,
95, 133, 142, 70
—— hardening with osmic acid . .
E27,
Algo-lichen hypothesis, résumé of, F.
inl. IkVewwllivornr co 6 BiG lo a oo ae IO1
American Association, recent meet-
ing of, J. H. Pillsbury 187
Ameeba, photographs of living . eT
Amphipleura, photograph of ..... 138
Animal Industry, report of the Bu-
TASB. VAS SUNG a eghen eee cere 153
Anthers of willow changing into
Gyratayep leew bd VV ATG!) suleleamen oh 159
Appochromatic objectives and eye-
DIGCES Mv tehsyctone 2) eee Srewtecis 214
GIectives ©. ZEISS 6) chien +: \- 231
Astigmatism, microscopic test of . . 220
Atoms and molecules, size and weight
COMM RR as iewwel y sterols. ws 5; eh won otdes 236
BacwlirssOnsMaAlariay =<: <<. a
heCKentel memes sae 221
Hydrophobia, death from, after Pas-
LOUTSHERCALTINC bar trey ope aye 217
—— distrust in Pasteur’s treatment . 218
inoculation to prevent ..... . 15
Imbedding in celloidine....... . 229
w ater- Joyal! ikon) NSevitial 36S ks ae ee 201
Infusoria, function of pulsating vac-
LIS Ee oobi eae te a 196
===> MEW, Ale Co SUOIRSS 6 Shc o She a 27
new fresh-=water— Vi. .)2 2. 2. 81
-—— new synthesis of pelagic organ-
ASIAN eVEcE succes vel eee ea ess an 189
Micro-organisms and origin of disease 139
— culture methods of, C. P. Bates. 40
—— freezing not fatal toy =e 58
—— investigation of . . ..-) Silas 74
—— methods of obtaining pure cul-
tures! of. <". 2"... ube ane 124
—— of leprosy : ) . .9. 2°-)2) eee 199
—=— of malaria“. = 3-55 {70 eeeee - - 206
—— of milk, F- Hueppe = <=) eae 56
——*Swine-plapue °%) 2 . 3s 204
—— of typhoidfever > ==) 3) -a-aeeee 100
—— some things bacteria do notdo . 195
—- variability of pathogenic ..-. . 201
Microscope stand, Bulloch’s litholog-
teal’ yes. 3! ia roe 10
Microscopie writing: 2 22 eee II5
Microscopical advances—ancient and
modern, G. W. Royston-
PESOEE Sta 2s 3a 08 (27
== exhibitions 2°). =: 22) eae 117
TECOLdS:. aien=\ ee =) 2) 220
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES :
Annual reception San Francisco . . 237
Microscopists, American Society of . 114
Proceedings of American So-
ciety of 76
INDEX. V
PAGE.
Microscopists, American Society of,
(CIN VOTE, Sees ne te sada lS 161
Microtome, a convenient and inexpen-
SRVICRD Tee Sed 3 Sey ge aoe Re hee 175
Miller, M. N., photo-micrography . sie)
Minot, C. S., ‘celloidine in imbedding
Moist chamber, Dallinger’s, D. S.
KI COTE WE LPs i ee ae 26
Molecules and atoms, size and weight
OEM ICIS. aiianis, suk: Ayala eee 236
Sizevofmiltimate, 05 coeur eee: 37
Monosiga limnobia, sp.nov. .....- 227
LOSTES oA aoe Reo Ome Ld tol aecere re 86
Mounting blood corpuscles...... 182
StCOllSe ton its Stseytene ee cs eee 152
—cementfor..... 11g, 176, 78, 177
—— desmids, W. B. Turner....-. 58
diatoms, E. Debes 65. 140, 149
Ss SCNT = A es ince emer 74.
—— medium of high refractive index,
Al neve Wales tesants es yoo nena 3
—— mediums with high refractive in-
dices, W. H. Seaman a EIT 21
E—ODICCESOLe. sleits (), 2 of oe ete 18
— several objects under one cover,
Se (Gey S)ne colts ts boo inboenkomnwcr 64
Miinany GePOSIES tase ee. sssel nieti 40
—— wax as a material for microscopi-
calh GoMEL WV Orceyy i 4s) ee 2 123
Muscle and nerve in sponges..... 205
Wattonal Druggist ....... 215
Notices OF Books:
Bacteria, Anatomy and Physiology
Ot, fe Ws (SURGES oS Glniorc, 5.5 -e 20
Bacteria, on Koch’s Methods of
Studying, T. M. Prudden .. . . 100
Biological Teaching in Colleges,
W/o (Gio Lidl (Ohonl aCen oh eee neces, OG 100
Cocaine in Hay Fever, S.S. Bishop 240
Disinfection and Individual Pro-
phylaxis against Infectious Dis-
eases iG sternberg. - a2 ee 160
Fur Fibres as shown by the Micro-
Scope mite. re vOOLtmm= bel) 160
General Biology, W. T. Sedgwick
AWGuE eee VV SON psu cei a neyien 3) 200
Histological Methods, Notes on, S.
Ea Ge EYE PEND OS EN cay hs Hicbragy 140
beipismeGhas: Dmdiyies sais. Pd oe 20
Kindergarten and the School, the . 180
Lehr buch der vergleichender, Mi-
croscopischen Anatomie ..... 237
TE UNS HASTEN on ap Omen Smee 240
Medical and Surgical Directory of
the United States, R. L. Polk . . 160
Medicine? What is, A. L. Gihon . 120
Microscopical Records ....... 220
New York Medical Monthly, the . . 180
Operation on Drum-head, S. H.
BISHOP seme ce Maes) a Tapeh ory GoNs) is 240
Permanent Removal of Hair by
Electrolysis, S. E. Woody .... 240
Photograph Microscopic Objects,
How to, J. H. Jennings. ..... 100
PAGE,
Physiological Action of the Differ-
ential Pneumatic Process on the
Circulation, E: Piégel eS -424.04 3 60
Pneumatic Differentiation, the Phy-
SICS Of i. 1. udsonn Se: ee 60
Pneumatic Differentiation, Anti-
septic Treatment of Pulmonary
Diseases by means of, H. F. Wil-
Hanser eshte oer ree Mg ee Rh Oe 60
Pneumatic Therapeutics, A. S.
Iml@ealnKo Mt = Eyed jonas ato ae 60
The Methods of Bacteriological In-
VEStISAtlON mews Parsi o cee clien 220
Through a Microscope ....... 220
Nerve in sponges, muscle and 205
New form of fresh-water ccelenterate,
Gl MES WOISOK ocho oe alee z10
Noes. HS macnificationy wie
z | 66 | 170lbs. 50 215 | 347 |308.2 |1-3245
2| 40 | 150 “* 22 217. | 363 |311.5 |1-32r0
3 | 45 | 120 *f 49 285 | 397 |332-9 |1-3001
4 | 45 | 210 “ 43 236 | 357 |298.3 |1-3352
5 | 38 | 120 ¢ 37 259 | 387 |317-46 |1-3150
6! 66! 170 “ 41 268 | 334 |299-5 |1-3339
Number of -
measurements, 242 311.305 I-3212
In the table the results are carried
out to the nearest even figures (the
totals are closer results).
No. 1 was from a man recently
emaciated from a long illness, but
now making flesh rapidly and nearly
to normal weight.
INjon3y the largest corpuscles, were
from an active member of the fire de-
partment, who has the reputation of
being able to work half the night at a
fire and resume his business next day
without losing an hour of time.
No. 5 was fom a mulatto.
The vertical illuminator shows
plainly that blood corpuscles spread
upon glass do not dry as rapidly as
one would suppose.
A periscopic 32-inch eye-piece was
used giving 1500 diameters.
A further series, including a much
larger number of measurements, is in
progress.
S. G. SHanxs, M. D.
ALBANY, N.Y.
O
Dallinger’s Moist Chamber.
BY D..S: KELLICOTE.
The student of protozoic or proto-
phytic life has much and constant use
for growing cells and moist chambers.
The form used by Messrs. Dallin-
ger and Drysdale in their researches
in the life histories of the monads is
clearly one of the most efficient and
desirable for continuous observation
of developmental changes. I have in
use a modification or Hddacion which,
I think, is an improvement and worth
mentioning. Instead of cementing the
thin glass cover, which is the object
carrier, on the glass stage over the
aperture in the same, it is cemented
on a rather deep ring, made by cut-
ting off a glass tube of a diameter
equal to that of the aperture. The
ring may then be cemented to the
stage, or simply made to rest in place
upon it. It will be seen that the
bibulous paper stage may now be
made to fit snug up to the ring, as
the object carrier is lifted above it
into the cell or moist-chamber formed
by the outer glass tube and its thin
rubber cover. Of course it is under-
stood that the ring carrying the object
plate and the stage perforation must
be large enough to admit the sub-
stage condenses To me the modifi-
cation affords advantages ; these will
doubtless occur to any one using this
piece of furniture.
I have e applied the principle of the
above contrivance to the construction
_of a moist chamber which I have in
constant use, and find it handy. An
ordinary glass slip is taken; a ring
with a cover-glass cemented on the
top rests at its centre; then a num-
ber of layers of blotting paper of
proper size, with the centres cut out,
are placed upon the slide sufficient
to reach above the object; the lower
paper should fit snugly up to the ring,
and havea tongue on one side. After
the object is in place, and covered or
not, as the case may be, a slide is put
over all, and the combination put
over a dish of water, with the tongue
of bibulous paper reaching into it.
The drop will not evaporate, and be-
ing surrounded by a quantity of air,
the infusorian or rotifer under obser-
vation will keep in good health for a
long time. Aspecialslide and cover,
3 inches by r4 inches, are rather more
convenient, giving a larger cell than
ordinary slips.
A still better plan is to use two brass
plates, 3 inches by 14 inches, instead
of glass. The lower one is perforated
at its centre, and the ring and object
carrier cemented over it; the tongued
bibulous paper is then put on as be-
fore (only one layer is required to
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. “2T
supply moisture, but an additional
one with a larger hole at the centre |
facilitates the removal of the cover).
The other plate should have a larger
central perforation, over which a ring |
When |
and cover-glass are cemented.
in use this one is placed over the for-
mer, covering the object with the
cell, and the whole placed over a
small dish of water, with the tongue
reaching the water. It will be seen
that an examination with a low power
may be made at any time through the
cover; the cover to be remov ed for
the use of high powers.
After all, how much better are
these devices, or any devices, of the
kind used only for interrupted obser-
vations, and in which the object is
retained in a limited supply of water,
surrounded by moist air, to simply
placing the object onaslide, and cover-
ing by a bottle that has been cut off,
and the edge ground ona plate of glass
with a little emery and water. If the
ground edge has been smeared with
tallow, and some moistened blotting-
paper put in the top of the bottle, the
drop remains without loss, and is
ready for examination by setting off
the cover.
O
Microscopical Advances—Ancient
and Modern.*
BYNG. Wie ROYSTON-PIGOTT, M. A.,
M. D., CANTAB.
In nothing has the progress of mi-
croscopical powers been more pleas-
antly displayed than in the gradual
development of the precise optical
definition of dots and spherules.
In copying with the camera lucida
at a power of 5, I was greatly struck
with Chevalier’s representation of the
‘Podure,’ which was executed by
means of la chambre claire, by a
talented young artist about 1839.
Pritchard speaks scornfully of these
French poduras as being too easy.
These scales (the present Degeerda
domestica), as shown by Chevalier,
are marked with black dots linearly
* From aseries of articlesin 7he English Mechanic,
| angle.
arranged, and in other scales with
double rows of dots, nearly parallel,
and crossing each other at an acute
The contour of the scales in
the steel engraving is decidedly oval.
M. Chevalier was the first to give this
resolution, which he does as fol-
lowing (translation ) :—‘ Podure.
The scales of the Podura have general-
_ ly an oblong form, but are of various
sizes; with a mediocre microscope
their surface appears blank, but with
a perfect instrument one discovers an
infinite number of points oblong,
which imitate straight lines, crossed,
oblique, or wavy, following the
changes of the illuminations. It is
not very difficult to discover these
points upon the largest scales. It is
necessary to ehieosal the smallest, and
we consider them as the best test ob-
jects to show the penetrating power
of the microscope.’
I was not aware of the existence of
this plate in 1869, when I first pub-
lished resolution of this scale. The
merit of this microscope is shown by
the award of the gold medal to
Chevalier by the jury, who declare
that ‘ we have compared it with an ex-
cellent microscope of Amici, the best
of those we possess in Paris, and that
we recognize, not with astonishment,
but with a lively satisfaction, that the
microscope of Mr. Charles Chevalier
is truly superior to that of Amici.’ I
find Chevalier’s plate of the Lepisma
is most exquisitely formed of a double
set of radiating short lines of dots
(denied by Dr. Carpenter).
The English resolution of the Po-
dura is still like a series of oat seeds
arranged somewhat linearly, and the
sharpness of the outlines of these
markings is regarded as a most severe
test for the objective quality (as far
as it goes). Pritchard’s Hair of Der-
mestes demonstrates at sight the pro-
digious advance the microscope has
made. A minute translucent cup,
ornamented with four petals and in-
tense black lines, marks the interfer-
ences of tissues stopping the passage
of light, showing transcendent defini-
28 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[February,
tions. No black cordiform attach-
ments are at all visible. But there
are some scores of the species giving
great differences in detail. The
spherular resolution of these scales
offers an interesting field of research.
The blackness of the spherical rings
shows the small aperture of illumi-
nating cone and objective, whilst the
ribs and membranes are beautiful
studies with the best glasses.
Mr. Slack’s colloid silica slides pre-
sent remarkable examples of minute
refracting spherules, of considerable
variety, developing marginal black
rings and focal disks more or less
bright. Less than 1-g90,oooth, this
bright central disk is scarcely visible ;
but those of 1-60,o00o0th, or less, with
a high but exquisite power, reveal
the focal centre as well as the black
ring in a slightly lower plane. It is
interesting in these objects to select
silica beads of different sizes, repre-
senting those of well-known diatoms,
such as those of Formosum and an-
gulatum for optical comparisons.
When a brilliant white disk in dia-
toms also can be detected, it is gen-
erally accompanied, as before, by a
jet black marginal ring all round the
spherule; and in brilliant spherules
1-40,000th of an inch in diameter this
black ring has been frequently esti-
mated at 1-6th of the disk, or 1-240,-
oooth of an inch thick.
This very ring plays so important
a part in the definition of diatoms,
cells, and molecules that I shall ask
leave to call it the spherule test ring,
or, shortly, the test ring; for, if a
glass giving 800 diameters will not
show it in a minute spherule (1-go-
oooth) it cannot be rated as of the
finest quality. In many experiments
described in these articles, its use and
appearance are of the highest value.
I have to thank Mr. Slack for the
following formula :—
‘The silica films which give the
cracks are made by allowing a solu-
tion of dialyzed silica to evaporate
uponaslide. The beaded silica films
are made by passing silica fluoride
gas through glycerin and water—4 or
5 glycerin and 1 water.’
Black margins can also be seen in
fine hairs of exquisite precision of
definition.
In dealing with such minute mat-
ters, the reduction of diffraction by
a pleasantly subdued light—pale blue
glass has several advantages—an ex-
ceedingly fine glass of quite modern
date (1885) thus showed me, last
night, the extremity of a fine hair less
than a millionth of an inch in diame-
ter without any indistinctness, fog, or
diffraction. ‘Too much pains cannot
be taken with adjusting the screw
collar, and in the selection of the ob-
ject. Generally it should be chosen
as close to the covering glass as pos-
sible: the film of air introduces other-
wise insuperable aberrations which
no action of the screw collar can sur-
mount, unless it be mounted in Can-
ada balsam. And this is more pain-
fully seen with oil immersions and.
dry mounts than with water lenses,
and still more than with the dry ob-
jective. The point of the hair is
often more clearly seen if there be
some subjacent structure.
I shall now beg to record some
rather amazing experiences with the
definition of hairs with the finest glass
I could recently obtain—a 1-12th oil
immersion.
The advance of the accuracy and
power of the microscope is well
shown in the developed structure of
hairs. A favorite object figured in
antiquated books is the hair of the
Indian bat. Quekett represents it as
frilled with a kind of coronet of small
hairs, ringed at regular intervals,
leaving the intermediate transparent
quill exposed.
The drawing now given was taken
by the use of a fine oil-immersion
1-12th, and alargeangle in the oil con-
denser. Instead of frilled hairs,
which are purely imaginary, a beau-
tifully serrated cup, with concave
notches, is seen, and edges as black
as jet, ornamenting the whole of the
stem at equal intervals. After so
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
29
many years of observation of this ob-
ject, this result is perfectly startling,
and throws a strong doubt upon
innumerable accepted appearances.
The black boundary edges are very
nearly 1-100,000 thick.
The hair of English bat also exhib--
its tests of a very high order.
Pritchard’s plate represents it as
tufted with black appendages,
through which a transparent tube is
carried. The complete resolution of
these tufts show that there are inter-
nal tubules somewhat spirally ar-
ranged in great profusion, the edges
of which are marked very strongly
black, with sudden interruptions. A
more intense scrutiny reveals these
tubes filled mostly with brilliant
molecules varying from the 1-80,000
to the 1-120,000 of an inch in diame-
WEEE
A very charming phenomenon is
seen when one stringlet of beads
_partly overlaps another deeper set.
As no light can pass through the
spherules at the overlaps, intense
blackness takes a variety of forms.
The beads are not all quite spherular ;
some are ovoid; solitary beads are
observable, occurring in straight or
curved clusters of two, three, or
more, or in long chains. If an
upper chain is brilliant with focal
light, a lower set is often dark. As
many as a dozen stringlets often ap-
pear packed at one place in different
bunches or fagots, and, of course,
lying in several different focal
planes ; and if the glass be trascend-
ently fine, these spherules glitter
with a variety of focal colors of
great beauty. Pale turquoise and
ruby color, with shades of orange
yellow and pale yellow approaching
white.
Advancing Angular Aperture.—
As already described, a constant ef-
fect of small angular aperture is to
darken organic structure. Black
margins of cylinders, tubes, and
spherules are made darker and
broader. This black margin obeys a
mathematical law. Its breadth va-
!
ries as the refractive index increases,
and as the aperture diminishes.
If the same power be attained,
_ either with deeper eye-pieces and
weak objectives, as contrasted with
shallow eye-pieces and deep objec-
tives, the difference in the appear-
ances is very striking and instructive.
Here is a beatiful example—A/ro-
pos Acherontia (Death’s Head
Moth). Change of angular aperture
gives startling results. The whole
animal bristles with a forest of spear-
lets of exceeding sharpness, each
feather having three or four long
spines.
With low aperture the scales pre-'
sent a superbly rich and dark amber-
brown color by transmitted light.
Tipped with a black point, a thin
line of light runs up the spear edged
with fine black borders. It will be
probably admitted that the black an-
nuli, or rings, of each spherule, if they
exist in this scale, are too deep and
broad under a low aperture to per-
mit any visible streamlets of light to
escape through them, so as to effect-
ively impress their existence upon the
retina of the observer. Beads appear
dark till sufficiently magnified and
illuminated.
But as objectives and eye-pieces are
used of the same power as before un-
der wider angular aperture of objec-
tive vision, this deep brown color
pales. The universal molecular sys-
tem of which the scale is composed
begins to light up and glisten; each
spherule obeys the law enunciated ;
its annulus narrows; the light per-
meates the scale profusely. The
general effect is to change dark into
brighter tints. Enlarged aperture
now enables a sparkling radiance to
steal through the featherlet. As
power is increased, masses of or-
ganic molecules, as yet invisible, con-
tribute streaks and mottlings of pris-
matic colorings. And now, if high
power and large aperture, with su-
perb definition, be employed, a new
vision of beauty and refinement
bursts upon the eye. The scale glit-
30
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
ters with brilliant gems. Since the
molecules lie many deep, some can-
not get light at all, and they appear jet
black; others in lower planes are
brighter. Asthey are found approach-
ing the 1-go,oooth of an inch in diame-
ter, the central focal lights disappear.
To produce the best effects, a con-
denser free from spherical aberration
is employed of about 55 degrees aper-
ture, acting axially with direct light
Some other still more wonderful ap-
pearances will be glanced at further
on, when transcendent definition is
approached. (Bright daylight—
even, I might say, dull daylight—is
‘always preferable for the develop-
ment of superb definition).
Minute focal changes produce ap-
pearances of great Heres showing
the actions of light upon refracting
spherular ines.
Supposing, first, a low focal plane
be taken, there is a brilliant white
disc, surrounded with its jet black
annulus. If the corrections are very
carefully attended to, under correc-
tion causes it to turn crimson red,
with a fainter rim. A true correction
gives a bluish, or peacock blue spar-
kle in the bead. At the highest focal
plane, the emanating cone generally
produces an intensely black dot above
the spherule. These black dots are
seen often enough above refracting
molecules, scattered about insect
scales, especially those placed upon
the cross-bars connecting the ribs.
Such elevated dots may be called
eidolic. If the spherule be large
enough, say 1-20,oooth in diameter,
this eidolic dot takes the form of a
small bead suspended above without
blackness, but faintly and delicately
shaded, so as to look almost planetary.
In observing these niceties, the
greatest care must be taken to reduce
the angular aperture of the condenser
as small as convenient for sufficient
illumination. There can be but little
doubt that a minute pinhole placed
over the condenser reduces the eftect-
ive aperture of both objective and
condenser.
i
Provisional Key to Classification of
Algzx of Fresh Water.—VI1.
BY THE EDITOR.
[ Continued from p. 233, vol. vz. |
Family 1X. @DOGONIACES.
Filamentous alge living in water,
consisting of branched or unbranched
series of cells, with a basal cell. The
basal cell is usually obovate, or
swelled and lobate, often ending in a
disk-like attachment.
Oogonia naked, in the vegetative
series. Antheridia filamentous, con-
sisting of few or many successive
cells. Spermatozoids spherical,
single or two in a mother-cell.
Oospores single in each oogonium,
formed of the entire contents, usually
red when ripe, producing swarm-
cells after long rest.
Asexual propagation by swarm-
spores, formed singly in the vegeta-
tive cells out of the entire contents,
provided with cilia surrounding a
hyaline end.
Synopsts of Genera.
Filaments unbranched, when in
fruit with spherical, tumid cells.
Edogontum, 79.
Filaments branched. Cells with
long bristles. Bulbochete, 80.
79. Genus Gdogonium Link.
Unbranched. Antheridia pro-
duced either on the same filaments
with the oogonia (moncecious spe- .
cies) or on special male filaments of
very different size and origin (di-
cecious species). The male plants
may be short, one or several-celled
filaments, growing upon or near the
oogonia like epiphytic dwarfs (nan-
nandrous or dwarf males), or they
may be in filaments, the male cells
interspersed among the vegetative
cells, resembling the female filament,
or often much smaller (macrandrous
males). The dwarf males arise
from male swarm-cells or andro-
spores. The androspores may be
pr Gee re in two ways :—
In special abbreviated cells of
= female filament (gynandrosporous
species).
[February,
1886.]
2. In androsporangia or abbrevi-
ated cells of the male filaments (idi-
androsporous species). The dwarf
males give rise to spermatozoids,
which escape into the oogonia and
fertilize the oospores.
[In the monecious species the
spermatozoids are produced in short-
ened cells above or below the oogo-
nia. Each of these cells, known as
antheridia, gives rise to one or more
active spermatozoids, which swim
directly to the oogonia, find their
way through its opening and become
merged into the spore.
The androsporangia of the male
filaments of dicecious species resem-
ble the antheridia, but in some spe-
cies the male filament does not give
rise to androspores, there being no
dwarf males produced, but spermat-
ozoids are formed in the short cells,
which are then known as _ antheri-
dia.
The plants belonging to this genus
cannot be specifically determined ex-
cept in the. fruiting condition. The
genus may be readily recognized,
however, by the distinct rings about
the ends of the cells, produced by
the peculiar process of cell-divi-
sion.
The oogonia, which are conspicu-
ous, spherical, or oval tumid cells,
irregularly spaced along the fila-
ments, contain the oospores which,
after a period of rest, escape as cili-
ated zoospores which swim about a
short time and come to rest. The
colorless end then elongates, and be-
comes attached to some object, while
the green upper portion grows into a
new filament. The growth of these
young plants can be observed in al-
most every gathering of alge. ]
So. Genus Bulbochete Agardh.
Filaments branched; terminal
cells, and generally all the others
bearing laterally a long, thin hyaline
bristle, bulbous at the base. Fruiting,
and general character of the sexual
organs as in @fdogontum.
[Zo be continued. |
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 31
Staining Tissues in Microscopy.—
II.
BY PROF. HANS GIERKE.
[Continued from p. 15. }
163. Alférow, Serge. Nouveaux
procédés pour les imprégna-
tions a VDargent. Arch. de
Phys., 1874, p. 694.
In place of the ordinary methods,
combinations of silver with organic
acids, as picric, lactic, acetic, or
citric, are recommended. Silver lac-
tate is usually employed 1 to 800 of
distilled water, to which is added to—
15 drops of free acid. The advanta-
ges are that no precipitation occurs
except silver albuminate and silver
chloride, and the preparations are
clearer and finer. The manipulation
with silver lactate is the same as with
the nitrate.
164. Skworzow. Zur Histologie
des Herzens und seiner Hiillen.
Pfliiger’s Arch., viii, 611.
165. Adamkiewicz. Ueber die Be-
handlung von Gefassen mit
Silbernitratlosiing. Berl. klin.
Wochenschr. No. 29, p. 355.
These articles relate to the nature
of the effects produced by silver stain-
ing on epithelium. Skworzow doubts
the existence of a cement substance
between cells, and thinks the peculiar
black lines may be due to the drying
up of the serous fluids. Reckling-
hausen’s little vessels he considers
artificial results of the silver treatment.
On the contrary, Adamkiewicz be-
lieves the dark lines do owe their
origin to an intercellular cement
which lays directly beneath the epi-
thelium, and binds it to its basic
tissue. The lines react like silver
albuminate and resist concentrated
acids.
166. Stricker. Untersuchungen uber
den Eiterungs-process.
Wiener med. Jahrb., 1874,
_ Pp- 379-389.
Stricker says that by impregnating
the cornea of living animals, appear-
ances result differing from those ob-
tained after death. The first method
32 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ February,
consists in dropping in the silver so-
lution, the elemental cells and their
proliferations are brought out as
finely granulated masses. On stain-
ing the dead cornea the vessels stand
out from a basement membrane dif-
fusely colored brown.
167. Hoyer Beitrige zur anatomis-
chen u. histologischen. Tech-
nik. Arch. mikr. Anat., xiii,
649-650.
Hoyer adds to a solution of silver
nitrate caustic ammonia, till the pre-
cipitate begins to dissolve. The mix-
ture is then diluted to 0.75-0.5% of
silver salt. This does. not stain sur-
rounding tissue, only endothelium,
which Show, therefore more plainly.
168. Hoggan, Geo. et Frs. Elizabeth.
Etude sur les lymphatiques de
la peau. Journ. de l’ Anat. et
Phys., 1879; XV, Pp. 54.
Etudes sur les lymphatiques des
muscles striés, l. c. p. 588.
For examinations of the skin these
authors combine salts of silver and
gold. They recommend a simple
apparatus. The piece of skin is
stretched over a rubber ring and a
second ring sprung on it. The cuti-
cle is uppermost when the little dish
thus formed is held so as to receive a
4% solution of silver nitrate ; that is
allowed to remain for 30 seconds,
and then is substituted by a solution
of gold chloride of the same strength.
The muscular sheaths are treated the
same way, only the silver solution is
twice as strong. After acting for a
few seconds the preparation is ex-
posed for ten minutes to the light,
then treated a minute with the $% so-
lution of gold chloride and mounted
in glycerin.
169. Hertwig, R. Ueber den Bau
Ctenophoren. Jen. Zeitschr.
f. Nat., xiv, 313 and 324.
Marine animals are so rich in
chlorides as to stain by silver nitrate
with difficulty, hence it is better to
harden them in dilute perosmic acid,
then wash in distilled water till only
slight precipitation occurs with silver
nitrate, in which (1%) they are put
for about six minutes.
170. Golgi. Sulla struttura delle fi-
bre nervose midolate perifer-
iche e centrali. Arch. per le
sc. med. 1880, iv, 221.
Nerve fibres are treated with
chrome salts, osmic acid, and silver
solution. The fresh nerve of a rab-
bit is put for an hour in a mixture of
ten parts of potassium bichromate
(2% sol.) and two parts of a 1% so-
lution of perosmic acid. The nerve
is then cut in pieces 3 to 1 cm. long
and put back in the mixture, and af-
ter some hours it is changed to a
0.5% solution of silver nitrate, in
which it remains for 8 hours.
Mounts may be in dammar. Bi-
chromate of potash is used alone for
from four hours to 15 days, accord-
ing to the kind of nerves, which are
then treated in the dark for 12-24
hours with silver nitrate, and mounted
in dammar before exposure to light.
171. Sattler. Die Verwendung des
Lapisstiftes zur untorsuchung
der Epithelien. Arch. mikr.
Anat., xxi, 672-677.
A pencil of caustic silver is rubbed
over the surface to be examined, and
it is then placed in water acid-
ulated with acetic or formic acid, ex-
posed to the light for a few minutes,
and mounted in glycerin.
From the microscopical text-books
Gierke extracts :—
172. Ranvier. Technisches Lehr-
buch des Histologie, 1877.
The material, if membraneous, is
to be stretched on a flat surface,
washed with water from a_ pipette
allowed to flow over it, followed im-
mediately by the silver solution, and
again washed with water. Sections
are treated in a similar manner. If
the silver solution is too weak, as
I—500 OF I—1000, or the light too Ze
ble, there is a uniform "coloration
quite different from impregnation
proper, in which the nucleus should
be darkest, the protoplasma lighter,
and the intercellular substance least
colored of all.
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 33
173. V. Thanhoffer. Das Mikroskop
und seine Anwendung.
Stuttg., 1880.
The tissue is taken from the silver
solution and put in a dry dish, while
a 2% solution of acetic acid is
dropped on it continuously witha
brush while exposed to the light.
His pupil, Krauss, has devised a
peculiar method. The material is
taken from the silver, washed and
put in a bright red solution of potas-
sium permanganate. The reduction
is rapid, even in the dark. Some-
times failures occur. It is even pos-
sible to mix the fluids. Another
student, Carl Oppitz, uses silver
nitrate and stannic chloride. Prep-
arations treated as usual with silver
are laid for two or three minutes in
a 4+-4% solution of stannic chloride,
in which they are carefully agitated.
Reduction is rapid and the precipi-
tate very fine grained. Impregnation
with chloride of gold or chloride of
gold and potassium.
174. Cohuheim. Ueber die Endi-
gungen der sensiblen nerven
in den Hornhaut. Arch. pa-
thol. Anat. w. Physiol.,
XXXVIli, 343.
Chloride of gold is substituted for
silver nitrate in a similar process.
The metal is rapidly reduced by the
action of light on organic tissues.
These become yellow, then red, and
finally a bluish black. A 4% solu-
tion of gold chloride is applied, and
then several days of soaking in water
acidulated by acetic acid. Mount in
glycerin or balsam. Different cells
vary in intensity and color. Glands
redden quickly. Many nuclei re-
main colorless. Nerve elements of
both kinds color more quickly than
protoplasm. Capillaries become red,
but epithelium and cement substance
do not take the color.
175. Arnold. Ein Beitrag zu der fein-
eren Structur der Ganglien-
zellen. Arch. path. Anat. u.
fol Aloe d Wb 63
The chloride of gold and _potas-
sium is dissolved in a 1% sol. acetic
acid and the preparation treated with
a bath of this mixture of 02.0-0.05
% strength. In 3-4 hours, or as
soon as a violet tint appears, change
to a 1% acetic acid in which the ma-
terial may rest for 3-5 days till it
assumes a deep color. This method
is particularly adapted to show the
nerve filaments in the ganglions ;
after the connective tissue is dissolved,
moisten with glycerin, to which a
little acetic acid is added, and expose
to the light on a slide resting ona
white surface. In 4 to 5 days the
ganglion cells will be intense, the
muclei clear, the nucleoli feebly red,
the axis and thicker nerve fibres
bright red, but after 8-10 days even
the finer fibres take an intense color.
176. Curvoisier. Ueber die spinulen
und sympathischen Zellen des
Frosches. Centralbl. f. d.
med. Wiss., 1867, No. 57.
A simpler method than the last.
A sympathetic ganglion is slightly
crushed or pulled apart, then laid for
4-1 day in 0.2% acetic acid, dissected
on a slide, and treated continuously
with a few drops of gold chloride,
0.1% sol. while exposed to the light.
(This process succeeds much better
in a moist chamber).
177. Bastian.
Dissolves 1 pt. gold chloride in
2000 dist. water, adds a drop of hy-
drochloric acid. Reduction takes
place in a mixture of equal parts
alcohol and formic acid. The opera-
tion may be hastened by heat, and
our author has also. made double
stainings of silver and gold.
178. Nathusius. Ueber die Mark
substanz verschiedener Horn-
eebilde.ctenwAneha it. Amat.
Jahrg., 1869, p. 69.
Chloride of gold is used in a solu-
tion of 0.005 to 100 of water. The
sections are reduced by a solution of
subsulphate of iron.
179. Gerlach. Artikel Rtickenmark
in Stricker’s Handbuch der
Gewebelehre, 1871, p. 678.
In the examination of the spinal
marrow potassium gold chloride is
34 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
(February,
preferred. The organ is hardened in
ammonium bichromate, then put in
solution of gold chloride (1—10000)
to which a little hydrochloric acid is
added. It takes 10-12 hours to br ing
out a light lilac hue, then wash in
aiated water, and finally in 60%
alcohol, likewise slightly acidulated.
(Gerlach’s gold-stained preparations
are, with respect to the finer nerves,
unsurpassed and rarely equalled.
The acid fuchsin process of Weigert
alone can compare with it).
180. Hénoque. Dumode de distribu-
tion et de la terminaison des
nerfs dans les muscles lisses.
Arch. de l’Anat. et Physiol.,
1870.
181. Klein. Beitrag zur Kenntniss
der peripherischen Verzwei-
gung markloser Nervenfasern.
Gentealnlt f. d. med. Wiss.,
1871, No. 38.
Derselbe. On the peripheral distri-
bution of non-medullated
nerve fibres. Quart. Journ.
Microsc. Sci., vol. xi, p. 405 ;
vol. xii, p. 201.
182. Chrchtschonovitsch.
zur Kenntniss der feineren
Nerven der vaginal schleim-
haut. Weiner Acad. Sitzber,
TO7l, Abth. ii, .iebruar.ep-
201.
All three recommend for very fine
nerves and their branches a particular
gold method. Portions of the fresh
organ are placed for 30-45 minutes
in a 4% solution of gold chloride,
then for 12 to 24 noniee in distilled
water. They are then treated with
an almost saturated solution of tar-
taric acid in a well-corked flask.
Klein and his pupil, Chrchtschono-
vitsch, set the vessel in warm water
of 50° C.and allow all to cool.
Henoque heats the water to boiling
which is thought to injure the epi-
thelium by K. and Ch. The brown
or violet pieces of tissue are cut in
fine sections in which the nerve ram-
ifications may be clearly seen.
183. Boll. Die Histologie und His-
tiogenese der nervosen Cen- !
Beitrage
tralorgane. Arch. f. Psych. u
Nervenkr., iv, 52.
Contains more precise directions on
Gerlach’s gold and potassium chloride
method. ‘The staining is better, the
shorter the time of exposure to the
ammonium bichromate. The ma-
terials do not stain well 8 days old,
after 14 days they are worthless. Al-
cohol should not be used even to
moisten the razor lest it cause a pre-
cipitate. The quantity of solution
(1-10000) need not be so large, and
the sections should not lie in it over
18 hours; 12 is usually the best time.
184. Lawdowsky. Bemerkungen
zur mikroskopischen Technik.
Med. Bote, 1874, No. 37-39;
Russisch.
Expresses dissatisfaction with or-
dinary gold stainings, and recom-
mends a modification introduced by
NesteroffSki in Kieff, which consists
in reducing by ammonium sulphide.
Each section requires about a drop,
which is soon removed by blotting-
paper and glycerin substituted. The
preparations are very clear and trans-
parent, the metallic precipitate being
dissolved. They should be kept in
the dark. The method is especially
adapted to show the network of
nerves in the walls of the colon, the
nerve endings in the muscles, and the
large central nerves.
185. Lowit. Die Nerven der glatten
Musculatur. Wiener Sitzber,
Ixxi, April, 167er
186. Fischer. Ueber ae Endigungen
der Nerven im quergestreiften
Muskel der Wirbel thiere.
Arch. mikrok. Anat., xiii, 356.
To show nerve terminations in
muscles, make a 1% solution of gold
chloride, and a mixture of 1 pt. for-
mic acid and 2 pts. dist. water. A
few c.c. of the last are put in a watch-
glass, and pieces of the tissue under
examination 1 to 2 mm. thick are
dipped in for $ a minute till trans-
parent. They are then dipped for
10-15 minutes in gold chloride till
they are quite yellow. Then in
dilute formic acid in the dark, (apt.
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 35
acid, 2 of water), and then for 24
hours in pure formic acid in the
dark. Finally wash well in distilled
water and mount in glycerin.
187. Thin. A contribution to the
anatomy of the lens Journ.
Anat. and Phys., x, 229.
A solution of gold chloride 4% is
forced into the arteries until the tis-
sues are saturated. The pieces are
then laid ina similar solution for a
short time and may then be tinted
with hematoxylin.
188. Flechsig. Die Leitungsbahnen
im Gehirn und Rtickenmark
des Menschen. Lpz., 1876.
The large nerves are first put in a
1% solution of ammonium bichro-
mate. When hard enough to cut
well into sections, wash, and put into
0.5% gold chloride for 4 to $ hour,
wash well and transfer to 10% solu-
tion of caustic soda. The reduction
is almost instantaneous, the white
substance becomes dark violet, the
gray remains colorless. After laying
for some hours in the soda, the prep-
arations are thoroughly washed,
and mounted in Canada balsam as
usual.
189. Ranvier. Legons sur V/histolo-
gie du systéme nerveux. Paris,
1878.
To bring out the nerves of the
cornea, lay it for five minutes in fresh
filtered lemon juice, then for 15-20
minutes in ec. of a 1% solution
gold chloride, and finally in distilled
water to which a drop of acetic acid
has been added. Reduction follows
after exposure to the light for 2-3
days, and the fabrille of the nerves
show clearly. To bring out the nerve
terminations in the muscles, the
method is to be modified by trans-
ferring the sections of muscle from
the solution of gold chloride to a
20% solution of formic acid for 12
hours in the dark.
190. Hoggan. Combination of sil-
ver nitrate and gold chloride.
See No. 168.
[Zo be continued. |
EDITORIAL.
Publisher’s Notices.—All communications, re-
mittances, exchanges, etc., should be addressed to the
Editor, P. O. Box 630, Washington, D. C.
Subscription price $1.00 PER YEAR Strictly in ad-
vance. All subscriptions begin with the Fanuary
number.
A pink wrapper indicates that the subscripcion has
expired,
Remittances should be made by postal notes, money
orders, or by money sent in registered letters. Drafts
should be made payable in Washington, New York,
Boston, or Philadelphia.
The regular receipt of the JouRNAL, which is issued
on the 15th of each month, will be an acknowledgment
of payment.
The first volume, 1880, is entirely out of print. The
succeeding volumes will be sent by the publisher for
the prices given below, which are net.
Vol. II (1881) complete, g1.50,
Vol. III out of print.
Vol. IV (1883) complete, $1.50.
Vol. V (1884) complete, $1.50.
Vol. V (1884), Nos. 2-12, $1.00.
Vol. VI (1885), $1.00.
Dr. CarRPENTER’S PORTRAIT.—
We regret to announce that the plate
engraved for us, proofs of which had
been received and approved, was
destroyed by the recent large fire in
Philadelphia. The plate was in the
possession of Messrs. Crosscup &
West, who had prepared it with
especial care and correspondingly
excellent results; but their entire
establishment was. consumed on the
night of the 25th, if we recollect
aright, with a loss to the firm of be-
tween $15,000 and $20,000.
Under the circumstances we trust
our readers will accept this unavoid-
able delay in good part, and as for
ourselves we are not disposed to urge
the production of a new plate until
the firm have had an opportunity
to recover somewhat from the inevi-
table consequences of such a misfor-
tune. We hope to have another
plate in time for the April issue, if
not before.
O
Tue Limits oF RESOLUTION.—
In the last number of the ,/ozwsal of
the Royal Microscopical Society,
Mr. Frank Crisp has treated this
subject in his usual able and lucid
manner. ‘The results are of consid-
erable interest.
Referring to the formula which
gives the limit of resolution for any
36 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
(February,
angular aperture, which is expressed
by jae, 4 being the wave-length
of the light, it is obvious that the
limit of resolution for any aperture
depends upon the length of the vi-
brations. In the Numerical Aper-
ture Table which is published from
time to time in this journal, among
the advertisements, the value of
2 is 0.52697, which is the wave-
length of yellow light, and the theo-
retical limit of Hees ieee given in
the table is only true for light of
that particular color. Taking the
wave-length of blue light corre-
sponding to the spectrum line F,
4 = 0.486067, which would give a
smaller value to 0 in the equation,
hence the theoretical limit of resolu-
tion would be materially increased.
In photography the actinic rays are
assumed to be most active between
lines G and H in the spectrum, hav-
ing the maximum action near line
h, 4==0.4000).
According to the table referred to,
the theoretical limit of resolution for
yellow light, or what may be re-
garded as the limit for ordinary white
light, for the highest possible nu-
merical aperture, which is 1.52, is
146,528 lines to an inch. Using
monochromatic blue light the num-
ber rises to 158,845, and in photog-
raphy the limit rises to 193,037, cor-
responding to line % in the spectrum.
Mr. Stevenson has calculated the
limits for various apertures, and em-
bodied them in a table for the journal
referred to.
It will be understood by the reader
that the theoretical results cannot be
fully realized in practice.
More lines can be resolved with
sunlight than with lamp-light, but
this is not due to the preponderance
of short vibrations, as has been quite
generally supposed. The short vi-
brations act upon a_ photographic
plate with greater intensity than the
others, but in eye-observations they
are not strong enough to be effective
against the brighter portions of the
spectrum. Hence with sunlight we
have only the power of resolution of
white light, as given in the table, but
owing to the intensity of the light it
is possible to utilize the extreme
angular aperture of an objective, and
thus approach more nearly to the
theoretical limit. This portion of
the subject is fully explained in the
article referred to.
O
MicroscopicaL SocrETIES.—We
have once more opened a column to
be devoted to reports and notices of
microscopical societies. The Wash-
ington Society desiring to have its
proceedings published, we were glad
to offer such space as can be spared
for the purpose, and at a_ recent
meeting the Secretary was requested
by the Society to send regular re-
ports to the JOURNAL.
Hereafter all news relating to the
societies will be published in the col-
umn now established for the pur-
pose, and we believe it will prove an
interesting part of the JOURNAL.
The W ashington Microscopical
Society, although one of the young-
est, is having ‘good meetings, and
there is always something “brought
forward, either in papers or discus-
sions, that is worth recording. We
receive regularly reports from the
San Francisco Society, which have
been noticed as often as possible, and
no doubt other societies will in fu-
ture send occasional if not regular
notices.
‘
NOTES.
— Messrs. Walmsley & Co. have just
issued the seventeenth edition of their
fully illustrated Catalogue of Microscopes
and Accessories. It is the most complete
microscopical catalogue to be obtained,
embracing the manufactures of Messrs.
R. & J. Beck, Bausch & Lomb and other
makers. The lithological stand deserves
to be well known as a convenient instru-
ment for a moderate price. The new
Star microscope is a $15.00 stand, de-
scribed recently in these columns, well
deserving the praise bestowed upon it.
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 37
The catalogue is sold for ten cents, and
we would advise all microscopists to secure
copies.
— The obelisk which stands in Central
Park, New York City, has been seriously
affected by the severe climate, and disin-
tegration of its surface was proceeding so
rapidly that some method of protection
was considered necessary. A preparation
of paraffin has been applied for the pur-
ose. Mr. P. H. Dudley examined the
shaft during the treatment and found the
surface very porous and full of minute
fractures. Beneath the superficial flakes
he found a growth of green cells, rod-
shaped, with straight sides and slightly
convex ends, 2 to 6 micro-millimetres in
length. He has been unable to find a
description of the plant. An account of
the process of protecting the shaft, as well °
as some remarks of Mr. Dudley, is given
in the Zvansactions of the N. Y. Academy
of Sciences.
— We are pleased to receive a copy of
a very creditable new publication, the
Journal of the Trenton Natural History
Society, the first number of which was
issued in January, published by the
Society at Trenton, N. J. The number
before us is full of interesting articles on
natural history, not too technical to attract,
but well adapted to generalreading. The
Society is to be congratulated upon the
first number, and we trust the effort
will receive the well merited support of
many subscribers. Dr. A. C. Stokes has
an article in this number entitled Notes on
Peridinium and other Infusoria.
— The following process for preparing
a dead black surface on brass, for optical
instruments, etc., is given by Zhe Loco-
motive:—' Take two grains of lamp-
black, put it into any smooth, shallow
disk, such as a saucer or small butter-
plate, add a little gold size and _thor-
oughly mix thetwotogether. Just enough
gold size should be used to hold the
lampblack together. About three drops
of such size as may be had by dipping the
point of a lead pencil about half an inch
into the gold size will be found right for
the above quantity of lampblack; it
should be added a drop at a time, how-
ever. After the lampblack and size are
thoroughly mixed and worked, add
twenty-four drops of turpentine, and
again mix and work. It is then ready for
use. Apply it thin with a camel’s-hair
brush, and when it is thoroughly dry,
the articles will have as fine a dead black
as they did when they came from the
optician’s hands.’
— General John Newton, Chief of En-
gineers, United States Army, originator of
the plan and director of the work, has
prepared a complete account of the
operations for the removal of the obstruc-
tions at Hell Gate, from their beginning
to the explosion of Flood Rock, in Octo-
ber last, which appears with full and
new illustrations as the leading article in
the February number of ‘The Popular
Science Monthly.’
—Mr. J. Trail Taylor, who for fifteen
years occupied the editorial chair of Zhe
British Journal of Photography, having
completed the term of his literary engage-
ment in America, where he has edited for
a number of years our valued contem-
porary, Zhe Photographic Times, has
returned to England to resume his old
position, and will, as in times of yore, be
glad to receive all friends of the Journal,
from home or abroad, at the editorial
rooms, 2 York street, Covent Garden.
We congratulate Zhe British Journal
upon once more acquiring the services of
such an able editor and accomplished
writer.
— At the recent meeting of the Ameri-
can Public Health Association, Dr. George
M. Sternberg received the only first prize
that was given, for an essay on disinfec-
tion and individual prophylaxis against
infectious diseases. This prize was offered
by Mr. Henry Lomb, of Rochester, N. Y.,
who provided the sum of $2,800 to be
distributed in prizes for essays on speci-
fied subjects. Only $1,100 was awarded
in all, and most of the remainder has
been offered by Mr. Lomb to be awarded
for essays this year.
— Prof. D. S. Holman has been pho-
tographing infusoria instantaneously with
the oxy-hydrogen light. He has success-
fully photographed the living Amq@ba in
its various forms, with exposures said to
be about the hundredth of a second, with
a magnification of 250 diameters. Lan-
tern transparencies were made from the
negatives and the images thrown upon a
screen at the Franklin Institute, showing
the organisms magnified ten thousand
diameters. The instantaneous photograph-
ing of infusoria was successfully done
years ago, but at the present moment we
are unable to recall the facts with sufficient
clearness to give any further particulars.
—In a recent lecture on ‘ Matter, In-
cluding Radiant Matter,’ by A. E. Outer-
38 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
(February,
bridge, jr., before the Franklin Institute,
some striking statements were made con-
cerning the extremely minute size of the
ultimate molecules. The lecturer said :—
‘The gold-beater, as you doubtless know,
will hammer out the metal into leaves so
thin that more than 4,000 are required to
make a pile one millimetre in thickness.
But vastly thinner gold leaves may be
obtained in another way. By electro-
plating a known weight of gold upon one
side of a sheet of copper “foil of given
dimensions, a coating of gold may be
obtained upon the copper whose thickness
is readily ascertainable by a simple cal-
culation; then, by using a suitable sol-
vent, the copper may be removed, when
the leaf of gold will remain intact.
‘After a series of careful experiments,
I have obtained, in this way, sheets of
gold, mounted on glass plates, which are
not more than soboo Of a millimetre thick;
and I have some specimens to show you
which I have good reason to believe are
not more than goggo9 Of a millimetre.
To give you an idea of this thickness, or,
rather, thinness, I may say that it is about
zip part of a single wave-length of light.
‘Taking Sir William Thomson's esti-
mate of the size of the final molecules,
and considering that each layer corres-
ponds to one page of a book, our thinnest
film would then make a pamphlet having
more than a hundred pages.’
— Among the many gorgeous objects
for the polariscope, the ethyl ether of
gallic acid, or ethyl gallate, first brought
to notice by Dr. Christopher Johnston (see
this Journal, vol. iv, p. 192), cannot be
surpassed by any crystals we have seen.
The finest crystals of this compound that
have come to our notice are those pre-
pared by Prof. W. H. Seaman, of this city,
who may have some preparations that he
would exchange for first-class mounts.
The method of preparing the compound
is described in this Journal, vol. v, p. 82,
— We would like to know for what
reason Dr. T. B. Redding, in the Physzo-
Medical Journal, is abusing eminent
scientific gentlemen so unreasonably.
Really, we cannot see any good to come
of such articles as he has been writing
upon ‘The Molecular Theory of Sound,’
and it is a great pity that so much ink and
paper should be wasted in such a manner.
To characterize a correct explanation of
physical phenomena as a ‘fraud’ is not
very elegant, to say the least; and as for
such specious language as we find in his
apparently interminable discussion of this
subject, it can only mislead the ignorant.
Yet for that reason it should not be print-
ed. The truth seems to be that Dr. Red-
ding does not understand what he so
roundly condemnsandridicules. It would
seem he has founded his knowledge upon
Professor Tyndall’s excellent book, which
is a published course of popular lectures
on the subject. These have been entirely
misunderstood by the writer, or wilfully
misconstrued. No one who is not a
scientific man should criticise a subject in
physical science. It is useless to give
serious attention to such articles. It is the
height of absurdity for a writer to declare
that a man like Tyndall has given pub-
licity to statements. ‘érroneous from
beginning to end.’ Which is the greater,
Tyndall or his critic? Which is the more
competent to deal with this subject? We
can .only protest against the publication
of such nonsense. It is somewhat con-
soling, however, to think that in this
enlightened age pseudo-scientific cranks
cannot do much harm to the progress of
science.
— It is frequently deananle to have a
liquid preservative of the same specific
gravity as water. Probably the nearest
approach to such a medium is the one
recommended to be used with Deane’s
gelatin medium, having the following
composition :— Rectified spirit, 134 02z.;
Water, 1% oz.; Glycerin, 5 fl. dr. This
can be used as a preservative, or a speci-
men may be placed in the medium under
a bell-jar until most of the alcohol has
escaped, leaving the denser glycerin and
water.
— At the 36th meeting of the Washing-
ton Microscopical Society, held Dec. 22d,
Dr. J. M. Flint, Surg. U. S. N., who is as-
signed to professional duty of the Fish
Commission steamer ‘ Albatross,’ made
an interesting exhibition of a collection of
foraminifera, obtained during the cruises
of the ‘Albatross,’ from the dredgings and
soundings off the eastern coast. The
specimens, which had been carefully se-
lected and mounted as a type-series on
the rotary object-carriers described last
year,* attracted much attention, and were
greatly admired both for their perfect form
and the excellent manner they were
mounted,
The rotary object-carrier is not merely
a convenient device for the display of ob-
jects, but it is a most excellent device to
aid the systematic student. A large num-
ber of forms or varieties may be mounted
together in the most favorably condition
for study and comparison.
* Vol. vi, p. 204.
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 39
CORRESPONDENCE.
Is it Codonella?
To THE Epiror:—In Mitt. aus der
Zool. Stat. zu Neapel VI, p. 196, Professor
G. Eutz describes a ciliate infusorian with
the name Codonella lacustris,n.sp. The
descriptions and reasons for referring it
to the genus Codonella were drawn from
a study of specimens, ‘wenn auch nicht
ganz gut,’ prepared by Dr. E. Daday, and ;
which were collected in a fine net from
Mez6-Zah in Siebenbiirgen and from a
pond at Budapest. He considers the spe-
cies the same as that described, the shell
only being known, by Dr. Joseph Leidy, in
Fresh-water Rhizopods of North America
as Difflugia cratera, but which he sup-
posed might pertain to a species of Infu-
soria of the genus 7zz¢énnus rather than
to the Rhizopoda. In the fall of 1880 I
was fortunate enough to take the animal
living from the water supply of Buffalo,
and in October of that year I advised Dr.
Leidy by letter that I had so taken it
and that his conjecture as to its infuso-
rial affinities was correct. I have taken
it sparingly at different times since, and
from such examination as I have been
able to give it and from a consideration
of its characters and habits presented by
Mr. Vorce in the paper cited below, I
regard the species more properly classi-
fied with the 7Zzz¢annz than with the
Codonele, and have so recorded it in my
notes under the name 7zz¢innus cratera.
In vol. ii, p. 223 (1881), this Journal,
Mr. C. M. Vorce reported the living ani-
mal taken from the Cleveland, O., water
supply, and gave an account of its appear-
ance and behavior. Mr. Vorce has also
referred to it under the name 7zné2nnus
sp. in the Proc. Amer. Soc. of Micr., vol.
iv, p. 193 (1882) and Pl. III, fig. 34.
If itis in fact a species of Zznzdénnus,
whose species ?
D: 5S. KELLICOTT.
BUFFALO, N. Y., Nov. 5, 1885.
ee
Preserving Urinary Casts.
To THE EDITOR :—Regarding urinary
casts, as also pus, epithelium and sper-
matozoa, I have quite a number of speci-
mens of each, in as many different pre-
serving media. In each case the mother
liquid (urine) has outlived all others, and
now, after a lapse of four years, they are
just beginning to disintegrate.
In my experience there is no better
| medium than the mother liquid for such
specimens.
Boston, Mass. GaP ae
O
Restoring Mounts
To THE EpITrorR:—Can any reader of
the Journal tell me how to remove beads
of moisture from a dry slide of P. angu-
latum ?
O
A New Find of Fossil Diatoms.
To THE EDITOR :—At a late meeting of
the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences,
Dr. George A. Kéing called attention to
the occurrence of diatoms in clay taken
from a railroad cutting within the limits
of that city, and that he had identified
three species of /¢nnu/aria therein. I
wrote to him for a sample of the clay, and
found that the material was quite rich in
diatoms, and that the following genera
were well represented, viz:—/innularia,
Stauronets, Navicula, Surirella, Nitzschia,
Cocconema, Encyonema, Cymbella, Ept-
themia, Gomphonema, Eunotia, Fragilla-
via, Cocconets, Cyctotella, and several
small species of genera not identified ;
also sponge spicules of various forms.
K. M. CUNNINGHAM.
MOBILE, Ala., Jan., 86.
WIT ee pie
Ti @une. Die
Thirty-seventh meeting, January 12th,
1886. Prof. W. H. Seaman read a paper
on Mounting Media of High Refrac-
tive Powers, which is published in full
on another page. He showed specimens
mounted in the two new media described,
and also in several other of the newer
media of high refractive powers. He
thought the solutions of phosphorus in oil
of cassia, and sulphur in anilin were new.
Mr. Hitchcock said that sulphur had
been used as a mounting medium, but
not in the manner proposed by Prof.
Seaman.
Dr. Taylor asked as to the practicabil-
ity of using an alcoholic solution of bal-
sam as a mounting medium.
Dr. Schaeffer said that he had begun
to use alcohol balsam in 1872 and had
continued to use it ever since. The solu-
tion should be made by heating the
| hardened balsam and adding to it, while
hot, absolute alcohol.
Mr. Hitchcock showed a specimen of
A. pellucida, mounted in Prof. Smith's
40 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY.
(February.
stannous chloride medium, and resolved
by -a Zeiss ;4; homogeneous immersion
objective, with an A eye-piece. The
markings were clearly and _ distinctly
shown over the whole length of the
diatom.
Thirty-eighth meeting, Tuesday, January
26, 1885. The Society took up for con-
sideration the discussion, continued from
a preceding meeting, of the preservation
and mounting of urinary deposits.
Dr. Caldwell showed crystals which
had been mounted in alcohol balsam
since last May which showed no signs of
change. Dr. Schaeffer said :—For tempo-
rary preservation, allow the urine to stand
in a conical glass till the sediment has
settled, draw of the supernatant fluid and
replace it by a mixture of alcohol,
glycerin and water in equal parts. Agi-
tate the contents of the glass, again draw
off the fluid and replace it by more. Con-
tinue this process until there can be no
trace of urine left. For permanent pres-
ervation and mounting he had found this
mixture to answer as well as anything for
casts, epithelium, etc., though he could
not boast of great success. For crystals
he advised the use of an aqueous alkaline
solution for phosphates, and balsam for
other forms. In response to a question
by Prof. Seaman, he said that he had never
used acetate of alumina to preserve casts.
Mr. Hitchcock read an extract from a
letter from Dr. C. P. Pengra, of Boston,
Mass., in which the writer stated that he
had numerous mounted specimens of
casts, epithelia, etc., and that he had
found no medium so satisfactory as the
mother liquid itself. Mr. Hitchcock said
that this corresponded to his own experi-
ence, and that he had had best success
with urine to which a little carbolic acid
had been added than with any other
medium.
Prof. Seaman showed a slide containing
a mixture of several of the more common
forms of uric acid, and also slides of uric
acid from some of the larger moths.
Dr. Flint presented for distribution some
diatomaceous material dredged by the
‘Albatross’ from a depth 1,440 fathoms.
E. A. BALLocu, Seer.
oO
SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.
Regular meeting, January 13th. A slide
of Bugula (Cellularia) avicularia, one of
the marine polyzoa, was donated by Mr.
Howard, and shown under polarized light.
The subject appointed for discussion,
‘Culture Methods used in the study of
Micro-organisms,’ was introduced by Dr.
C. P. Bates. He stated that the absorb- -
ing interest attending the study of unicel-
lular organisms during the past few years,
especially of that group known by the
generic term bacteria, and the variable
conditions under which they require to be
observed, had necessitated the use of nu-
merous fluid and semi-fluid culture media.
A brief description of some of these was
given, together with the modes of prepara-
tion and preservation usually employed.
The respective merits of fluid and of
gelatinous media were alluded to, Dr.
Bates being evidently inclined to follow
Pasteur, in giving preference to the for-
mer. By means of apparatus constructed
by himself, he demonstrated his method
of sterilizing and preserving culture fluids.
Various forms of culture tubes were
shown, and also numerous other devices.
At the conclusion quite an animated dis-
cussion arose as to the respective merits
of the gelatin method of culture and that
of Pasteur, who still employs fluid media
in his investigations.
A. H. BRECKENFELD, Secr.
, Exchanges.
[Exchanges are inserted in this column without
charge. They will be strictly limited to mounted ob-
jects, and material for mounting. }
Wanted: Cleaned St. Vincent material, for cash.
E. A. SCHULTZE,
Tompkinsville, Staten Island, N. Y.
For Exchange: Eyes of Limulus, and leaves of
Deutzia scabra, rich and beautiful stellate hairs,
for finely mounted slides of diatoms or polycystina.
W. E. DAMON,
Care of ‘liffany & Co.,
New York City.
Seeds of Orthocarpus purpurescens in exchange
for other objects, mounted or unmounted.
EDWARD GRAY, M. D.,
Benicia, California.
Diatomaceous clay from this place, and fine slides
of Foraminifera, for fine slides, material or back num-
beas of A. M. M. Journal.
E. H. RICHARDS,
Woburn, Mass.
Wanted: Well cleaned and selected Foraminifera,
for which cash will be paid or slides given
EDWARD G. DAY,
Riverside, Conn.
Hundreds of varieties of fresh-water Alge, including
Volvox, Desmids, Rivularia, Draparnaldia, Tetra-
spora, &c., &c., for selected exchanges by list.
J. M. ADAMS,
Watertown, Md.
THE AMERICAN
MONTHLY
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
Wor VII.
Wasuinetron, D. C., Marcu, 1886.
No. 3.
The Microscopical Study of Rocks.*
BY J- S. DILLER, ASST. GEOLOGIST,
Wissen Gah ONE. SURE Ys.
The speaker began by calling at-
tention to the extensive use of the
microscope in the study of rocks, and
briefly reviewed the history of its ap-
plication in the development of mod-
ern petrography.
The earlier observations pertained
chiefly to precious stones and their
inclusions, but M. F. Ledermiiller
and H. Baker soon after the middle
of the eighteenth century called atten-
tion to the structure and genesis of
Gives. In 1780 C. A. Gerhard
studied mineral sections under the
microscope in discovering the struc-
ture of chiastolite, but it is important
to note that these sections were
studied only in reflected light. The
preparation and study of the first
really thin sections in transmitted
light was effected by William Nicol,
who, in 1831, discovered the calcite
prism that bears his name. ‘The in-
vestigations of Nicol, in connection
with those of Sir David Brewster
and Sir Humphrey Davy, concerning
the optical properties of minerals,
were of prime importance in the de-
velopment of petrographic research.
There are two ways in which a
rock may be prepared for microscopi-
cal investigation. It may be pulver-
med or it may be sliced., As the
preparation of thin slices of rocks is
attended with considerable difficulty
and their pulverization is easily ac-
complished, the earliest microscopical
observations of rocks were made upon
* Abstract of a communication to the Washington
Microscopical Society, Feb. gth, 1886.
their powder. Before the close of
the eighteenth century Dolomieu and
others had used the microscope in
studying pulverized rocks. These
observations were soon followed by
those of Zincken in Germany, but it
was not until many years later that
the microscope was systematically em-
ployed in petrographic research.
This important application was made
by Henry Clifton Sorby, who was the
first to fully appreciate the value ofthe
microscope in studying rocks. He
published in1858 in the Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc., London, a paper
‘On the microscopical structure of
crystals, indicating the origin of min-
erals and rocks,’ and may be con-
sidered the chief initiator of modern
petrographic methods. The seed
sown by Sorby in England soon bore
abundant fruit in Germany, for in
1863 we find F. Zirkel publishing the
first of a number of books which
mark the beginning of an epoch in
geologic investigations. A host of
enthusiastic Germans who were well
prepared for the work then took it up,
and micro-petrography developed
with wonderful rapidity. To Prof.
H. Rosenbusch,who in 1873 published
the first volume of his Mikroskopische
Physiographie (der petrographisch
wichtigen mineralien), and a second
volume (der Massigen Gesteine) in
1877, the greater portion of this rapid
development isdue. These masterly
works have laid open such fertile
fields for investigation, and inspired
so much enthusiasm into their cul-
tivation that it is not surprising to find
petrography one of the most progres-
sive of all the branches of science.
42 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ March,
The first important petrographic
work done in this country was by
Zirkel for the Fortieth Parallel Sur-
vey, but at the pesent time there are
nearly a score of investigators, most of
whom were students of either Zirkel
or Rosenbusch, actively engaged in
research.
Although it will hardly be admitted
by microscopists gener ally, neverthe-
less the microscope appears to be a
much more important instrument in
the study of inorganic than organic
nature. The molecular structure
brought about by vital force is not
of such a sort as to impress its char-
acter upon transmitted light. On
the other hand the inorganic bodies
which occur in nature as minerals
have each its peculiar form of crystal,
and each so modifies the light trans-
mitted through it as to indicate the
system of its crystallization. The
great value of the microscope in the
study of petrography arises largely
from the facility it aflords for Oboe
ing minerals in transmitted light.
"ihe speaker remarked that it would
not be appropriate at this time to en-
ter into a discussion of the great geo-
logic problems, the solution of which
depends so largely upon the revela-
tions of the microscope. He had,
however, brought with him several
microscopes of French and German
patterns showing the modifications
which especially ‘adapt them to petro-
graphic work. Besides the ordinary
parts of a compound microscope, the
instruments exhibited had each a
polarizing apparatus, a rotating stage,
and a lens beneath the stage, so that
when desirable investigations may be
made in converging light. Itis very
important to eS e fhe ‘objectiv e so ad-
justed to the axis of the stage that
when the latter is rotated the object
under examination may not be turned
out of the field of vision. In the
German instruments made by Voigt
and Hochgesang in Gottingen, and
Fuess in Berlin, either the ‘objective
or the stage is adjustable to the other,
but in the Nachet microscope a much
better plan has been adopted of sep-
arating the tube into two parts, and
supporting the objective from the ro-
tating stage in such a way that both
Aisles together about the same axis.
The French instrument has a great
advantage over all others in the use
of a spring clamp for fastening the
objective to the tube, and an arrange-
ment for swinging the analyzer in and
out of the tube, which greatly facili-
tate rapid examinations.
The speaker then exhibited some
small specimens illustrating the way
in which thin sections of rocks are
prepared for microscopical investiga-
tion. The rock chips are first ground
perfectly flat upon one side and then
cemented by Canada balsam upon a
thick slip of glass. The other side is
then ground | down, the preparator
holding the slide by the slip of glass
to w eh it is cemented. The coarse
grinding is done upona cast-iron plate
by harag or upon rotating disks of the
same metal, using in hom cases No.
60 emery. The cece is finished
upona smooth glass plate with FFFF
best English washed emery.) [tvs
then detached by heat from the thick
slip, transferred to a thin transparent
one and permanently mounted in Can-
ada balsam.
——0O0—_—_
Occurrence of Red Snow.
I was
recently
Society on
nevalts, which
snows red.
All the observations of naturalists
point directly to the higher mountain
slopes as the birthplace of the plant
from which the red deposits origi-
nate, although they are mentioned by
many of fe relators as being found
near glacier cliffs, as at Beverly and
Banines Bay, in the Arctic seas, by
Kane and Ross. In all countries
where glaciers exist, an exuberant
growth ee lichens immediately fol-
leas the denudation of the rocks from
which a high midsummer tempera-
interested in the paper
read before the Biological
the ‘ Chlamydococcus
tinges the Arctic
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 43
ture has rapidly melted the snow ;
and in all the crevices soil and mois-
ture enough collects to induce a pro-
lific vegetation, which passes from
germ to maturity in a very brief
period. The deposits of red vegeta-
ble matter would be readily and
naturally attributed to the landwash
from the melting, except for the fact
that they are often found many miles
away from the mountain valleys—
farther than they could travel before
they lost their color by weathering.
I don’t know that my observations
will be of the slightest value, but will
say that while cruising along the
Labrador coast in lat. 53°, in com-
pany with Prof. Elliott Coues and
others in 1860, we saw a large gothic
iceberg of opaque dead white, whose
facade was crossed by a transverse
vein of brilliant crimson. The com-
plexion of the ice, and the situation
of the red streak on the face of the
berg, indicated plainly that the posi-
tion of the latter was on the surface
of the superficial or topmost stratum
of the glacier from which the berg
was broken off, and therefore that the
red deposit was of recent origin, and
probably of the previous summer,
because the rate of progression of the
glacier toward the sea is only a few
inches an hour, and its source was
several miles back among the moun-
tains. The section of ice which
formed the berg was not far back
from the front when the red deposit
was made.
The phenomenon of red snow
should not be a mystery to sub-Arctic
travellers, who are perfectly aware
that prolific vegetation is not incom-
patible with boreal meteorology.
The requisite conditions of heat and
subsoil moisture are present to a
superlative degree during the short
midsummers which have no long in-
terval of night to chill the earth, and
maturity is reached in an incredibly
short time by a sort of forcing pro-
cess which is even now being imi-
tated by advanced agriculturists, as far
as a practicable application can be
made. Readers of Arctic narratives
are apt to gather the impression that
the polar belt is always frigid, and
that ice is perpetual and the only pro-
duct. Ive seen strawberries growing
beside an ice-field in latitude 60 de-
grees.
I have never noticed any red seams
in the South Alaskan icebergs like
the one described in the Labrador
berg, but the source of Atlantic ice-
bergs is much farther to the north,
all of them being formed north of
latitude 60 degrees, which is the birth-
place of the most famous of the
Alaska glaciers. It is likely that the
boreal faunas are different in respect
to lichens and mosses, as they cer-
tainly are in respect to other forms
and orders.
CHARLES HALLock.
O
Staining and Double Staining
Vegetable Tissues.
[We have been asked from time
to time by correspondents to give
references to good processes of stain-
ing and double staining vegetable
tissues. Various excellent processes
have been published in these pages
to which the reader may refer
through the indexes, but in addition
to these we have been quite at a loss to
give satisfactory replies to such inqui-
ries. We have therefore decided to
republish the methods of Dr. George
5S. Beatty, which were given ten years
ago in the Pop. Scz. Monthly and
reprinted in the Amer. Four. Micr.
and Pop. Scz., believing that they
will serve every purpose. Of these
methods we may say that, so far as
we are aware, they are as good as
any since devised. Dr. Beatty’s
stainings, even at the present day,
command a high market value when
they can be found for sale, which is
seldom the case. ‘We may also add
that we can vouch for the excellence
of the processes as given, from’ per-
sonal experience.
The reader who may wish to ex-
periment in this fascinating work will
it THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ March,
find invaluable aid in the articles on
‘Staining Tissues in Microscopy’
which Prof. Seaman has translated
for the journal.—Ep. |
All vegetable sections, and some
leaves, may be prepared for staining
by soaking them in alcohol, or ina
mixture of dilute nitric acid and
chlorate of potash; but I much pre-
fer the results obtained by first
bleaching them in ‘ Labarraque’s so-
lution of chlorinated soda,’ and then
treating them with alcohol for a few
hours. In half an ounce of the soda
solution a large number of sections
may be placed, but not more than a
dozen half or one-inch leaves, or
parts of large leaves cut into inch
pieces. Leaves in greater number
adhere to each other, and thereby
take longer to bleach.
Sections of matured wood should
be kept in this solution from twelve
to eighteen hours; sections of stems,
leaves, and petals from six to eighteen
hours; pistils and stamens, and sec-
tions through the gynecium and re-
ceptacle of flowers, from two to six
hours.
Leaves and petals should not only
be bleached by the Labarraque, but
should also be rendered translucent.
This is accomplished in from six
hours to six days.
If delicate leaves show evidence of
disintegration after they are bleached,
but before they have become translu-
cent, they should be removed to al-
cohol, after washing them in water
as described below. This renders
them translucent within two days.
After removing from the Labar-
raque, put them into half a pint of
clear water. Change the water five
times during twenty-four hours, acid-
ulating the third washing with five
or ten drops of nitricacid. Sections
can be washed in half the time re-
quired for leaves.
Next, put into alcohol, which in a
few hours prepares them for stain-
ing.
In alcohol, tissue may be kept for
months without turning yellow.
I.—STAINING LEAVES AND PETALS.
For staining leaves and petals the
best dyes are anilin blue and hema-
toxylin.
Other anilins than the blue may
be used, but they are not so pleasant
to the eye, and are harder to work,
as they fade out in both alcohol and
oil of cloves.
Red anilin may be used, one quar-
ter of a grain to an ounce of alcohol ;
violet, one-half grain; and green,
three grains.
To make the blue anilin dye, dis-
solve in a mortar half a grain of
‘Nicholson’s soluble blue pure’ in
one ounce of 90-93 per cent. alcohol,
which has been acidulated with half
a drop of nitric acid; then filter.
Dilute a portion of this with alco-
hol to obtain a quarter-grain solution.
The formula for the hematoxylin
dye is given further on.
A bright purple dye, good for
leaves and sections, is made by steep-
ing fresh berries of the Phytolacca
decandra in alcohol. The stainings
are quite permanent, but the dye
does not keep over six weeks.
To Stain Leaves and Petals tn
Anilin Blue.
1st. Transfer several small leaves
from alcohol to about half a drachm
of the quarter-grain blue.
If not stained of sufficient depth of
hue in one hour—
2d. Transfer to the half-grain blue
for a quarter or half-hour.
3d. Brush in 93 per cent. alcohol
with camel-hair pencil, and trim the
edges of cut leaves. Any excess of
color may be soaked out in this di-
lute alcohol.
4th. Put into half a drachm of ab-
solute alcohol for half or one hour.
In this but a trace of color will be lost.
5th. Put in oil of cloves for one
hour, or until ready to mount in Can-
ada balsam and benzole.
To Stain Leaves and Petals tn
Hematoxylin.
1st. Transfer from alcohol to water
for five minutes.
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 45
2d. To 3 per cent. alum-water for
ten minutes.
3d. To hematoxylin dye, diluted
with an equal part of 3 per cent.
alum-water, for one hour.
4th. To full strength dye, if neces-
sary, for half or one hour.
5th. To alum-water for a moment,
or until any excess of color is soaked
out.
6th. Brush thoroughly in water,
and put into one ounce of clean water
for fifteen minutes, to remove alum
crystals.
7th. To 93 per cent. alcohol for
fifteen minutes.
8th. To absolute alcohol for two
hours, or longer.
gth. To oil of cloves for one hour,
or until ready to mount.
Some leaves, chiefly ferns with
sori, may be double-stained with
hematoxylin and anilin blue; the
former going to sori and spirals, the
latter to other parts. The process is
first to stain in hematoxylin, and
then to soak the color in part from
the body of the leaf by putting it in
alum-water. Next carry through
pure water and alcohol to a_half-
grain anilin blue solution for thirty
or forty-five seconds, and proceed as
you do with a single blue staining.
II.—DOUBLE STAINING OF SECTIONS.
For double stainings I use hama-
toxylin and carmine, and blue, green,
and red anilins.
Of the red anilins I prefer that
‘known under the head of magenta
or roseine pure, though fuchsin, pon
ceau, and solferino may be used.
These anilins are manufactured at
the Atlas Works of Brooke, Simp-
son & Spiller, London.
The anilin dyes are made by dis-
solving the quantity given in each
process with aid of mortar and _ pes-
tle, in one ounce of 93 per cent. al-
cohol and filtering.
The hematoxylin and carmine
dyes are made according to the fol-
lowing formule :
Hematoxylin Dye.
Ground pamcatliy,s wood, 4 ounce.
Puly. alum, I
Mix and Braraten in a mortar for
twenty minutes, then add five ounces
of hot denied: water, and let it
stand for two days. Filter, and to
each ounce of the dye add two
drachms of 75 per cent. alcohol. In
twenty-four hours again filter to re-
move precipitated alum. This dye
is made somewhat after Dr. Arnold’s
formula ; he using the extract instead
of the wood. It keeps, with occa-
sional filterings, in well-stoppered
bottles for two months.
Borax Carmine Dye.
Pulv. carmine, ; 7s grains.
Saturated aqueous solu-
tion of borax, 7s fl. dr:
Mix and add Bpcolete al-
cohol,
Filter and collect crystals when
dry. Dissolve nine grains of crystals
in one ounce of distilled water.
This is Dr. J. J. Woodward’s for-
mula; but not so strong, as his is a
saturated solution.
15 drachms.
Ammonia Carmine.
Buly-rcarmine, .. -) 9) yanetalus:
Water of ammonia, 20 drops.
Absolute alcohol, 5 ounce.
Glycerin, anne Tar ass
Distilled water, TNs
Put the pulverized carmine in a
test-tube, and add the ammonia.
Boil slowly for a few seconds, and
set aside, uncorked, for a day, to get
rid of excess of ammonia. Add the
mixed water and glycerin, and next
the alcohol; then filter.
Process I1.— Zo Stazz Sections with
Magenta and Blue Antlin.
1st. Transfer from alcohol to ma-
genta dye (one quarter of a grain to
the ounce), and let it remain from
fifteen to thirty minutes.
2d. Soak in alcohol for about the
same time, or until the color is en-
tirely, or in great part, removed from
parenchymal tissue.
3d. Place or hold in a quarter or
a half-grain anilin blue solution from
fifteen to forty-five seconds.
46 7 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ March,
4th. Shake in absolute alcohol for
a few seconds.
5th. Put in oil of cloves for ten
minutes.
6th. In clean oil of cloves for ten
minutes.
7th. In half a drachm of benzole
for five minutes.
Sth. Mount in Canada balsam
softened with benzole.
The benzole may be omitted, as it
sometimes slightly contracts delicate
tissue, but it causes the mounting to
harden much more rapidly, and,
perhaps, is beneficial in preserving
the magenta.
Process I1.— Zo Stazz Sections in
Magenta and Blue Compound.
rst. Mix seven drops of a one-
grain solution of magenta with five
drops of a two-grain solution of blue
(non-acid).
2d. Into this purple mixture put
your section for five or ten seconds.
3d. Shake rapidly in absolute al-
cohol for a few seconds.
4th. Treat with oil of cloves and
benzole, as in Process I.
Process II].— To Stain Sections in
Green Anilin and Carmine.
Ist. Put your section in a three-
grain solution of iodine-green, and
let it remain for one or two hours.
2d. Soak in alcohol for five or ten
minutes, for reasons given above.
d. Put in water for a minute.
4th. In the borax carmine from
thirty to forty-five seconds.
sth. Shake rapidly in water, and
soak out any excess of carmine that
may be taken up.
6th. Put inalcohol for ive minutes.
7th. In clean alcohol for ten min-
utes.
Sth. In
minutes.
oth. In oil of cloves for fifteen
minutes.
roth. Mount.
Process I1V.—7o Stazz Sections in
Green Antlin and Carmine
Compound.
tst. Mix fifteen drops of borax
absolute alcohol for ten
carmine with fifteen drops of the
three-grain iodine-green solution.
2d. Transfer section from alcohol
to water for a minute.
3d. Put in the dye from thirty to
sixty seconds.
4th. Shake rapidly in water, and
soak out any excess of carmine that
may have been taken up.
5th. Treat with alcohol and oil of
cloves as in Process ITI.
Ammonia carmine may be used in
the same proportion as the borax.
Formerly, in Process III, I used the
carmine before the green, but I now
follow Dr. B. W. Banton plan of
using the green first, as far better re-
sults are thereby obtained.
To stain sections in hematoxylin
and anilin blue, the mode of proced-
ure is the same as for leaves; but
they stain more rapidly, and only re-
quire the dilute dye.
Whether sections are stained by the
alternate, or by the compound meth-
ods, the selection of colors is the
same. The red and green anilin and
the hematoxylin go “to spirals, bass
cells, scattered fniehened cells, and,
sometimes, to thick epidermis aoe
hairs.
The blue anilin and carmine always
go to parenchymal and often to thin
epidermic and hypodermic tissues.
The selection of color in matured
wood is different, as will be seen
further on.
It is not possible, I think, to give
a satisfactory explanation of doupe
staining of either animal or vegeta-
ble tissues. We can only say that
certain dyes seem to have an affinity
for certain cells. This is best shown
by soaking single stainings in a fluid
that removes hei color. If sections
stained in red or in green anilin be
soaked in alcohol, and those stained
in hematoxylin in alum-water, the
color will rapidly leave the loose
parenchyma, but will be retained for
many days by the denser cells, as
spirals, bass, etc.
On the other hand, specimens
stained in blue anilin, if left in alco-
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 47
hol, and those stained in carmine, if
left in water, lose the color much
more slowly in the parenchymal than
in other parts.
In my previous paper on double-
staining of wood, etc., I said, if the
blue was used before the red anilin,
the selection of color was reversed.
This is true as regards matured wood,
but does not hold good when stems
and midribs are under treatment.
Matured wood is better stained by
the alternate methods. In longitudi-
nal cuts, the first color used goes to
longitudinal woody fibres, the sec-
Aad. to spiral vessels, ducts, and bark.
Sections of stems and leaves not in-
frequently give better results by the
compound methods. These results
are superior to those obtained in
wood, for the reason, I think, that in
the latter there are not the same ex-
tremes of hard and soft tissues.
Double stainings should be exam-
ined by artificial light. Compound
dyes should be used immediately
after they are made.
Care should be taken to obtain a
good article of absolute alcohol.
That manufactured by Dr. E. R.
Squibb, of Brooklyn, N. Y., gives
me perfect satisfaction, while a eae
man article I have used bleaches blue
and green anilin stainings as though
it contained some alkali.
Benzole instantly fixes those ani-
lins that fade in alcohol and oil of
cloves; but it does not do to transfer
objects from alcohol to benzole, ex-
cept through the medium of oil of
cloves, on account of the injurious
contraction it causes.
It should be borne in mind that
chlorinated soda acts somewhat in-
juriously upon starchand protoplasm.
This is not the case with dilute nitric
acid and chlorate of potash, nor
with alcohol.
In regard to fading, an experience
of eighteen months enables me to
speak quite favorably.
Some few leaves stained in blue
anilin and in hematoxylin fade in-
juriously ; others lose little or no
color. Sections double-stained in
green and carmine have _ perfectly
stood the test of twelve months.
Those in magenta and blue as a rule
hold well.
If the effects produced by staining
properly prepared vegetable tissues,
with one or two colors, were more
generally known and availed of, the
study of vegetable histology would
be even more attractive than at pres-
ent. So striking and precise is the
manner in sc rnieth certain dyes seize
upon certain tissues, that it must be
seen in order to be fully appreciated.
A word about the cutting of sec-
tions, for much depends upon this
preliminary step. They must be
cut thin and even.
Vegetable parts cut into pieces
should be kept in alcohol for a week
or two before sectioning. If leaves
become crisp, which rarely occurs,
a few minutes residence in water
renders them pliable. ,
In making sections of leaves,
longitudinal cuts of midribs may be
made, or vertico-transverse cuts
through the midrib, including one-
third of an inch of leaf on either
side, or through several veins ; leaves
and small stems held against a piece
of potato or turnip that has been
hardened in alcohol may be cut
with a razor flat on the side, which
is inferior when the back is held to-
wards you. Alcohol should be
poured over the object and razor
while cutting. Large stems are bet-
ter cut in a section machine, using
parafine as an imbedding agent.
The object should be flooded with
alcohol while cutting, and the paraf-
fine should be trimmed to a cone-
shape around it after every two or
three cuts.
A knife I use with my section cut-
ter acts so satisfactorily upon both
animal and vegetable tissues that I
will describe it. It weighs 74 ounces
(avoirdupois). The handle is stout,
and is 44 inches long, the blade is "4
inches long by 14 Favaied wide, the
back being 4 inch thick. The infe-
48 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ March,
rior side, holding the back towards
you, was first ground flat and after-
wards slightly concave from back to
edge. A similar knife I find is fig-
ured in Mr. Rutherford’s ‘ Outlines
of Practical Histology.’
A list of some of the vegetable ob-
jects I have found most interesting
may be acceptable to some of your
readers :—
Leaves. — Drésera rotundifolia,
Dionea muscipula, Hepatica trt-
loba, Oxalis stricta, flava, hirsuta,
and Bowzet; Deutztia gractlis,
cruenta and Fortune; Tradescan-
tia zebrina, Eucalyptus globulus,
Buchu serratifolia, Cassia acuté-
folia, Rhus Toxticodendron, Adt-
antum cuneatum and pedatum,
Pterts serrulata, Elaeagnus.
Sections of Stems and Midribs.—
Ficus elastica, Strelitzia Regina,
Althea rosea, Asclepias cornuta,
Rubus villosus, Impatiens Balsam-
tnta, Pterts aguilina and serrulata,
Paulownia tmperialis.
Sections of Stems.—Aspcdium
Filix mas, Ricinus communis,
Masa sapientium, Euphorbia splen-
dens, Datura stramonium, Dra-
cena Braziliensts, Atlanthus.
————
Photo-Micrography.—LV.
BY THE EDITOR.
| Continued from page 10. |
3. Illumination.
It is not unlikely that some of our
readers have been surprised ata re-
mark made in the course of these ar-
ticles to the effect that, in certain
cases, lamp-light may be even better
than sunlight. The statement, how-
ever, was not carelessly made. In
this article we have to consider the
various methods of illumination that
are used, and it will be well first to
briefly notice the peculiarities of the
light from different sources. First,
it should be observed that the light
that acts most rapidly upon the sen-
sitive photographic plate is that
which is found in the blue portion of
the spectrum, the maximum action
upon bromide plates being between
the Fraunhofer lines F and G, the ex-
act position varying with the nature
of the sensitive emulsion. The usual
range of sensitiveness of the ordinary
commercial plates is between lines F
and H, diminishing almost abruptly
below F and more gradually in the
violet and ultra-violet, extending as
far as N. In other words, the great-
est sensitiveness is in the blue and vi-
olet, not as some have supposed, in
the ultra-violet. For this reason, it
may be incidentally remarked, the
visual and actinic foci are coincident
if we focus with blue light. The
ordinary dry plates, however, are
acted upon by yellow light if the ex-
posure be long enough. For this
reason the plates are handled in ruby
light in the developing room.
‘From this we can understand the
reason for the assertion that lamp-
light may possess some advantages
over sunlight in photographing par-
ticular objects. Take, for example,
a preparation having much yellow,
chitinous structure. Lamp-light
being deficient in blue rays, a long
exposure can be given with the yellow
rays passing through the object be-
fore the blue of the transparent field
has weakened the other portions of
the plate by over-exposure. In prac-
tice, however, this will only be
found advantageous in particular
cases, and we do not advise the use
of any artificial light when the sun-
light can be used. But probably by
far the greater number of those who
use the microscope are obliged to
work at night, and for them artificial
light of some kind is necessary.
We cannot, in consideration of
what we have seen, fully agree with
the opinions expressed by our able
correspondent, Dr. Miller, on page
19. What we need in photography
is a light that will affect the sensitive
plate, and having that we can take
good photographs.
In the days of collodion, plates
were far less sensitive than the mod-
ern dry plates, and clear sunlight was
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
49
quite necessary for high-power work.
Now it is no longer so. It is prin-
cipally a matter of time. There is
nothing about artificial light inim- |
ical to photographic action, and |
while we admit the truth of Dr. Mil- |
ler’s criticism concerning much of the
amateur work with flimsy apparatus,
the fault, we take it, is not so much
due to the imperfections of the ap-
paratus as in the inexperience of the
operators. It may be confidently as-
serted ‘that excellent work can be
done with lamp-light with powers
up to 1500 diameters ; but it requires —
skill and patience, as well as a power-
ful light.
We have to consider
now the manner of using
sunlight, the electric
light, and lamp-light.
In working with sun-
light it is very desirable
to have a heliostat. A
very expensive form of
heliostat is not necessary.
Mr. E. Kiibel, of Wash-
ington, furnishes an in-
strument that is in all re-
spects satisfactory for
this purpose, for a rea-
sonable price. Itis rep-
resented in fig. 9. Full
instructions for setting
the instrument are sent
with each one, and there
is no difficulty in obtain-
ing a practically steady
the appearance of the object, partic-
ularly when a momentary cloudiness
causes delay in the exposure. A
rapid worker, however, will not lose
many plates from this cause, and the
want of means to invest in a_ heli-
ostat need not deter any person from
undertaking work with a common
mirror, which can be made to follow
the sun by a simple mechanism, op-
erated inside the window.
The mirror or heliostat should be
mounted on a solid support outside
the window, orona heavy base-board,
upon which the microscope and cam-
era are also fixed, thus insuring solid-
il NU
beam of light after the
adjustments are once
carefully made.
Equally good photo-
graphs can be made by
reflecting the sunlight
from a mirror mounted in any conven-
ient manner, but as the light reflected
upon the object is then constantly
changing with the position of the
sun, one can never be quite sure that
the illumination is good when the
plate is exposed. The few moments
that will elapse between focussing
and exposing the plate will some-
times make a surprising difference in
Fic. 9, Heliostat.
ity to the arrangement. At the Na-
tional Museum the camera, having a
bed more than five feet in length,
rests upon a 2-inch plank, having a
guide running along one side against
which the side of the camera-bed
rests to maintain it in line. In front
of the camera is the microscope,
firmly screwed to a block of proper
height, ‘and at the outer end of the
50 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
{ March,
board is the Ktibel heliostat. The
whole apparatus rests upon a solid
table-case, with drawers for accesso-
ries. When a photograph is to be
made the window is opened and the
base-board pushed forward until the
heliostat is outside in position. The
window is then closed, and the ap-
paratus is ready for use.
The light from the heliostat is re-
ceived upon a convex lens of con-
venient focal length—the one we use
is two inches in diameter and has a fo-
cus of twelve inches—and may be di-
rected upon the object either with or
without the mediation of a substage
condenser. ‘The light should not be
focussed upon the object, however,
owing to the heat, which would be
likely to injure the mount. A short
distance either side of the focus the
heat will not be sufficient to do
harm.
A cell with parallel glass sides,
containing a solution of ammonio
sulphate of copper should be inter-
posed between the lens and the ob-
ject, to give a powerfully actinic blue
light without the glare of strong sun-
light. The cell should be about half
an inch in thickness. The solution
is made by dissolving blue vitriol in
water and adding ammonia until the ©
precipitate which forms at first is re-
dissolved. It is usual to focus the
object with bright sunlight, then to
interpose the blue cell and make the
exposure.
In using the electric light, it will
be found most convenient to employ
an incandescent lamp, although the
arc light is much more powerful.
The incandescent light is more
steady, more easily managed, and
quite as satisfactory. To treat this
part of the subject in full, however,
would require more space than can
be given at this time. We will only
add that several manufacturers have
introduced lamps well adapted to this
work, and no special instructions are
necessary.
In using lamp-light the best form
of burner is one having a very broad,
flat wick, the edge of which should
be directed toward the object. A
wick three or four inches broad is
desirable. Such lamps as are used
in the best stereopticons give an ex-
cellent light for this purpose. The
light should be condensed upon the
object by suitable lenses. With a
common bull’s-eye lens and an Abbe
condenser in the substage, excellent
work with powers as high as a 4 can
be done, using the light of an ordi-
nary hand lamp.
Next month we shall describe the
process of taking the picture.
| Zo be continued. |
O
Provisional Key to Classification of
Alge of Fresh Water.—VII.
Bi
THE EDITOR.
[ Continued from p. 31.|
Family X. CoLEOCHETACEA.
Small disk-like families, light
green, forming a flat or cushion-like
parenchymatous thallus ; cells oblong
or expanded in front, sometimes
bearing long, colorless bristles on the
back or upper surface.
The oogonium is a single cell at the
end of a vegetative series. The an-
theridia give rise to a single spermat-
ozoid in each, which are set free and
move by the aid of two cilia. The
fertilized oogonia become enclosed
in a protecting coat, rest through
the winter, and in the spring the con-
tents divide, giving rise to several
swarm-cells, which escape and grow
into new plants. ©
Asexual reproduction by means of
swarm-spores, formed within any of
the vegetative cells, with two cilia.
81. Genus Coleochete Brébisson.
Thallus pale green, forming small
disk-like growths on other alge, dead
plants, etc., consisting of series of
radially disposed cells, often laterally
connected. Some of the cells bear
long, hyaline hairs.
[This is a very common genus,
representatives of which can be
found almost always growing on the
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 51
sides of aquaria, where they appear
as i circular specks. |
V. ORDER ZYGOSPORE.
Bane free or in filaments, green or
brown; reproduction by a special
act of copulation or conjugation, in
which the contents of two cells of
similar form unite to forma single
primordial cell, which becomes
clothed with several envelopes and
forms a zygospore.
Without copulation an azygospore
may be produced. Asexual propa-
gation by repeated division in the
same direction. No swarm-cells.
FAMILIES.
Single cells or filaments un-
branched. ConjuGaT@ X.
Unicellular, silicious.
BACILLARIACE XI.
The family Bacillariacee will be
omitted from this classification, as
will be also the desmids which have
- already been so well treated by Mr.
Wolle in his excellent book.
Family X. CONJUGAT.
Cells single, free, or united in fila-
ments, with green contents ; chloro-
phyll in bands on the cell-walls, in
axillary plates, or in pairs of radiate
masses. Walls not silicious.
A. ZYGNEME#. Group I.
Cells cylindric, confervoid, light-
green, in somewhat gelatinous fila-
ments. The zygospore forms three
successive coats on its surface; the
outer being thin soon disappears,
leaving the middle thick coat as the
outside covering. Se Interesting and well de-
scribed.
J. M.
Gc:
58 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ March,
6. Hair of Bat. E. Pennock. A
test object for moderate powers.
Box J* came to this circuit Feb.
23d to be filled. We have put ina
preparation showing male and female
fruiting filaments of CGdogonium
Bosctt prepared in 1882.
Mr. Thomas Christian has contrib-
uted a special box, which he very
kindly sent to us for examination
before starting it on its way through
the circuits. It contains six eepellent
mounts of selected and arranged dia-
toms, which are deserving of critical
examination. The preparer is very
expert in this work.
NOTES.
— Anew process a double staining has
been published by A. Garbini,* particu-
larly applicable to thin sections of animal
tissues. Two solutions are used ; the first
is composed of anilin blue, soluble in
water, I grm., distilled water I00 c.c., ab-
solute alcohol 1-2 c.c.; the second is com-
posed of safranino.5 grm., distilled water
100 c.c., absolute alcohol 50 c.c. The
sections, either free or attached to the
slide, are placed inthe anilin blue for 1-4
minutes, then immersed ina I per cent.
solution of pure ammonia, until the excess
of color is removed, and immediately
placedin ao.5 per cent. solution of hydro-
chloric acid for 5-10 minutes. After wash-
ing in water the sections are placed for 4-5
minutes in safranin, and finally in abso-
lute alcohol.
— It appears from recent experiments
that extreme cold does not kill microbes
of putrefaction. Even at a temperature
of — 80° F. their life is not destroyed, and
sealed tins and flasks containing putres-
cible materials exposed for hours to that
low temperature began to decompose
when thawed.
— Mr. W. B. Turner, in Journ. R. Micr.
Soc., advises the following process for
mounting desmids :—
‘When quite fresh gathered, wash and
place in a solution of chromic acid, so
weak that it requires three days to decol-
orize a large desmid. When the color has
gone, Wash well in at least two waters and
stain with anilin. Fix with a little tar-
taric or weak nitric acid. Then washand
* Diun nuovo metodo per doppia colorazione. Zool.
Anzeiger, ix, (1886), 26.
mount in camphorated or carbolized
water (about Io to go per cent. distilled
water).’ The author states that all deli-
cate alge may be mounted in this way,
even the delicate Draparnaldia.
— There is strong evidence, which is
likely to prove conclusive when the inves-
tigations in progress are completed, that
a recent outbreak of scarlet fever in the
parish of Marylebone had its origin in
milk supplied from a certain dairy. The
results are looked for with great interest, as
much light may be thrown upon the
origin of the disease.
— In a communication to the Société
Belge de Microscopie, M.M. Klement
and Renard have presented an interest-
ing collection of chemical tests, based
upon reactions producing crystalline
forms. The full paper will be published
in the Annales of the Society, but in the
Bulletin a brief résumé is given, which
includes a list of the principal reactions
of elements and the names of the crys-
talline compounds obtained by the reac-
tions. This list is of considerable value
to chemists and persons working in
micro-chemistry.
— Messrs. A. Woodward and B. W.
Thomas have studied the foraminifera
of the boulder-clay from a well-shaft at
Litchfield, Minn. Their results are pub-
lished in the report of the geological sur-
vey of Minnesota. The foraminifera
belong to the cretaceous shales which are
found in the clay. Two plates are given,
the genera figured being Zextularia,
Spiroplecta, Gaudryina, Bulrissina, Glo-
bigerina, Lagena, Operculina, and Uvig-
evina.
CORRESPONDENCE.
To THE EpITroR:—In answer to Mr.
Bulloch’s first question in the December
Journal, I should say the magnifying
power would be, 2.¢., the image would be
smaller than the object in proportion of 1
to 9.
re to the formula of a 2-inch eye-piece,
I give the following measurements of
one belonging to a large Beck stand
which is practically a 2-inch eye-piece :—
Focal length of field-lens, small
central pencil, in inches, 2.460
Focal length of eye-lens, central
pencil, . aye . 1.384
Thickness of field- lens, 0.203
Thickness of eye-lens, oo OMn22
Inside distance between lenses, 1.975
Focal length of eye-piece, . 1.96
_ pees ™ =
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
59
Taking ten inches as the distance of
distinct vision, the magnifying power of
the lens, f= 1.96, is 6.1.
The companion eye-piece varies a little
in all the above measures from this one
and its focal length is some .02 or .03 less,
say 1.93.
As a test of the correctness of the above
calculated power of the eye-piece, I meas-
ured the power of a Beck's % with the
eye-piece, using a camera lucida 1o inches
from the axis of the tube to the paper, and
found it to be 71 or 72 times. Using the
formula of Prof. Abbe, as given in the
Journ. R. Micr. Soc. by Mr. Frank Crisp,
and in this JoURNAL, vol. v, p. 21, I find
the ‘ optical tube length’ was 8.7 inches
and the power between 68 and 6g times.
Lewis H. Noe.
[We have received a communication
from Mr. Bulloch discussing this subject
from his own point of view, which we are
obliged to hold over until next month.—
Ep. ]
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES.
WASHINGTON, D. C.
At the 39th meeting, February oth, Mr.
J. S. Diller made a communication on
the Microscopical Study of Rocks, an
abstract of which is published on another
page.
In response to a question by Mr. Hitch-
cock, the speaker stated that he had
never made sections of anthracite.
Prof. Seaman said that in his opinion the
use of polarized light was of as much value
in organic as in inorganic microscopy,
and cited the use of this agent in differ-
entiating starches, and in detecting the
presence of horn, teeth, etc. He related
an instance where he had been asked to
examine a piece of pillow-ticking which
it was supposed had been in use so long
that the feathers had become incorporated
with the cloth. The use of polarized
light enabled him to distinguish the
threads of cotton from those of the
feather fibre, and upon investigation it
was found that the cloth had been woven
of a thread composed of mixed fibres of
cotton and feathers. Shortly after, he
had seen a notice that this kind of cloth
was being made in Paris as an entirely
new product.
Dr. Caldwell called attention to the use
of polarized light by Prof. Taylor in dis-
tinguishing genuine butter from its imita- |
tions.
Dr. Schaeffer said that he had been
told by a former president of the Erie
railroad, that the microscope was of the
greatest assistance in the laboratory op-
| erated in connection with that road, in
determining the value of the various
deposits of rock along the line.
At the goth meeting, February 27th, Dr.
E. P. Howland gave a short talk on polar-
ized light, illustrating his theme by nu-
merous pieces of apparatus. He also
showed a new projecting microscope,
arranged for him by Queen & Co., having
the lens combination beyond the focus
and accompanied by an amplifier.
Mr. Hitchcock showed specimens of
Palmella (Tetraspora bullosa), gathered
during the week, and also a mounted
specimen of Cegodonium Boscit showing
male and female filaments.
E. A. BALLOCH, Seer.
WELLESLEY COLLEGE.
We have a number of notices of recent
meetings of this flourishing Society which
we are unable to publish for want of
space—it is quite as much as we can do to
publish the reports of meetings as they
are held, so it is with regret that we must
set aside these interesting notices. The
Society was established in 1877. Meet-
ings are held monthly during the College
year. The membership varies from 25
to 4o. The officers for 1886 are :—Miss
Alice Ames, President ; Miss Mary Mos-
man, Secretary; Miss Lucia Clark, Cor.
Secretary.
The Society has at command the hun-
dred and twenty microscopes belonging
to the College, the College library, a large
number of periodicals bearing on micro-
scopic subjects, anda collection of nearly
seven hundred slides. It is mostly com-
posed of students. Two or three lectures
each year are given under its auspices
to the whole College by distinguished
lecturers, and at least one exhibition.
BUFFALO MICROSCOPICAL CLUB.
The programme for the current year
has been issued. The officers are as fol-
lows :—President, L. M. Kenyon, M. D.;
Recording Secretary and Treasurer, John
F. Cowell; Corresponding Secretary, Ada
M. Kenyon; Advisory Council, D. S.
Kellicott, Geo. E. Fell, M. D., Lee H.
Smith, M. D.
Regular meetings are held on the sec-
ond Tuesday of each month.
MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.
After a brief address by the President,
Dr Veale siatch)( Mr: HitGe Carter'pre-
60
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ March.
sented a slide of Stomoxys calcitrans, and
gave the characteristic differences of the
two genera, Sfomoxys and Musca, espe-
cially of the mouth-parts as adapted to
biting. He also called attention to the
position of the teeth and their distinctive
arrangement. The entire evening was
devoted to the subject, and slides of a
large number of species of different
genera were exhibited.
JOHN WALKER, Secr.
SAN FRANCISCO.
At a meeting held January 27th, micro-
scopes by Bausch and Lomb and by
Zeiss were shown and commented upon.
Dr. Ferrer gave an account of Koch’s
method of gelatin culture. After alluding
to the disadvantages of the fluid media
method, still adhered to by Pasteur and
his followers, a brief sketch was given of
the gradual evolution of the gelatin
method, from the first tentative efforts of
Krebs and Brefeld up to the perfecting
of the present admirable system by Koch,
who was the first, practically to realize
the advantages offered by a culture me-
dium sufficiently transparent to admit of
direct microscopical examination, and at
the same time sufficiently non-fluid to
facilitate the growth of different germs in
separate colonies. After giving formulz
for the preparation of the gelatin, and
describing the methods of its sterilization,
Dr. Ferrer outlined the subsequent pro-
cedure, which is briefly as follows :—A
small portion of the bacterial material
about to be studied is transferred by
means of a previously-heated platinum
needle to some culture-gelatin placed in
a test-tube and rendered fluid by warmth.
The germs thus introduced are distributed
as evenly as possible throughout the
liquified gelatin, and this is then poured
upon a glass plate about 4-5 inches
square, and is there spread out in a thin
layer. The plate is then covered bya
bell-glass to exclude dust and undesired
germs. The gelatin solidifies on cooling,
and the various germs contained therein
multiply into separate colonies. The
growth of these can be watched at any
time under the microscope. While some
accidentally introduced forms will occa-
sionally be found, yet the majority of the
colonies will be seen to be those of the
organism specially inoculated. From
the latter a small portion is taken bya
sterilized platinum needle and with this
is inoculated a previously prepared test-
tube partially filled with sterilized gelatin.
In this the organisms thrive and multiply
and thus is obtained an absolutely pure cul-
|
|
}
]
|
ture of the desired germs. The mouths
of the test-tubes are closed with cotton,
previously sterilized; the platinum nee-
dles are intensely heated just before use,
and in fact at every step of the process the
* very greatest precautions are taken to pre-
vent the introduction of undesired germs.
It is an interesting and very important
fact that nearly all bacterial organisms
show distinctive peculiarities in the meth-
ods of their growth in gelatin. Some
liquify the culture medium, others do not,
and those of the latter class are especially
characteristic in the appearance of the
colonies.
A. H. BRECKENFELD, Rec. Secr.
NOTICES OF BOOKS.
The Physiological Action of the Differ-
ential Pneumatic Process on the Circu-
lation. By E. Fiegel, M. D.
Pneumatic Therapeutics. By Alfred S.
Houghton, M. D., and P. C. Jensen, M.
D.
Two pamphlets reprinted from the Journ.
Amer. Med. Ass.
The Physics of Pneumatic Differentiation-
By Joseph Ketchum, and the Present
Status of the Pneumatic Treatment of
Respiratory Diseases. By E. Darwin
Hudson, Jr., M. D.
Pneumatic Differentiation.
F. Williams, M. D.
Antiseptic Treatment of Pulmonary Dis-
eases by means of Pneumatic Differen-
tiation. By Herbert F. Williams, M. D.
Three pamphlets reprinted from The
Medical Record.
The five pamphlets afford an excel-
lent summary of the theories and results
of pneumatic treatment of disease.
By Herbert
Exchanges.
[Exchanges are inserted in this column without
charge. They will be strictly limited to mounted ob-
jects, and material for mounting. ]
Wanted: Fine pc''.ns _foraminifera, diatoms
(cleaned preferred), and all kinds of good material
for mounting. Lists exchanged and a full equivalent
given. M. A. BOOTH,
Longmeadow, Mass.
Wanted: Cleaned St. Vincent material, for cash.
E. A. SCHULTZE,
Tompkinsville, Staten Island, N. Y.
For Exchange: Eyes of Limulus, and leaves of
Deutzia scabra, rich and beautiful stellate hairs,
for finely mounted slides of diatoms or polycystina.
WwW
Care of T iffany & Co.,
New York City.
\ .
WILLIAM BENJAMIN CARPENTER
AMER. MICR. JOUR., VOL. VII, FRONTISPIECE.
THE AMERICAN
MONTHLY
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
Wrox. V EI.
Wasurneton, D. C., APRIL, 1886.
No. 4.
Notes on the Biological Examina-
tion of Water, with a few Sta-
tistics of Potomac Drinking
Water.*
BY THEOBALD SMITH, M. D.
It is well known that micro-organ-
isms belonging to the class bacteria
or schizomycetes are incapable of
being nourished by inorganic sub-
stances alone; they require, in addi-
tion to certain inorganic salts, sub-
stances derived from animal and
vegetable organisms. According to
Nageli the nitrogen is obtained from
compounds having the structure of
amides and amines, the carbon from
compounds which contain the group
CH. tor CH.
From this it follows that the more
bacteria a certain quantity of water
contains, other conditions remain-
ing the same,f the more organic mat-
ter it holds in solution or suspension.
To determine the number and kinds
of bacteria which a given water con-
tains has been of late termed the bio-
logical analysis of water. Dr. R. Koch
was the first to suggest and apply
this biological test to drinking water.
The enumeration of bacteria was only
made practicable by his method of
gelatin plate cultures, as the elabor-
ate and tedious processes of Miquel,
Fol, and others by means of liquid
cultures in tubes can never become
generally useful.
* Abstract of a communication presented to the Bio-
logical Society of Washington, March zoth, 1886.
+ This limitation must always be borne in mind.
- Thus distilled water, from which small quantities were
occasionally siphoned out, kept in the laboratory un-
disturbed for one or two months, contained 18,750
bacteria in 1 c.c. One month later the same water con-
tained 41,512 in 1 c.c. If distilled water can sustain
such a large number of germs the number which
natural waters would contain under like circum-
stances must be enormous,
The method consists briefly in add-
ing to a quantity of sterilized nutritive
gelatin, liquified by gentle heat, a
eee quantity of ‘he water to be
tested, thoroughly mixing the two,
and pouring the mixture upon a glass
plate where it rapidly solidifies. The
individual micro-organisms are thus
separated from one another; each
multiplies into a colony, which be-
comes visible to the naked eye in one
to three days, and each colony, the
progeny of the germ originally sown,
is therefore to be counted as one.
Finally, it is customary to calculate
from the results obtained the number
of germs in I c.c.
T he quantity of water to be taken
depends on the number of bacteria
probably present, and must be so
chosen that this number is conve-
niently and correctly estimated.
An important fact in connection
‘with this mode of analysis is the rapid
multiplication of germs in water after
it has been kept in tubes or bottles at
the ordinary temperature of a room
for a short time. A specimen of
water containing about 3,000 germs
at the time it was collected, Patien
kept in the ‘laboratory one day, con-
tained at least 60,000 germs. Several
causes may be assigned for this in-
crease ° There may be some. or-
ganic residue in the collecting tubes
which has survived a temperature of
150° -170" C., to which they are ex-
posed for the purpose of sterilization.
This source of error may, I think, be
avoided by thoroughly flaming the
collecting tube before use. It seems
reasonable to suppose that by this
means all organic compounds will be
brokenup. 2. Natural waters usually
62
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[April,
contain living forms, both animal and
vegetable. When collected in test tubes
or stoppered bottles, these forms of
life usually perish, and then become
the prey of bacteria, which feed upon
their dead bodies and multiply.
Standing water therefore becomes an
organic infusion comparable to artifi-
cial culture liquids.
It is therefore essential that water
be examined immediately after it is
collected, or else placed in conditions
which will prevent the multiplication
of the bacteria. The collecting tubes
should be placed upon ice, or kept at
a temperature at least below 50° F.
The relation of minute vegetable
and animal forms, such as_ unicel-
lular and higher alge, rhizopods
and infusoria, to the healthfulness of
water is still a matter of conjecture.
It is well known that the richest
microscopic fauna and flora are to
be found in standing and very slowly
flowing waters, while in fresh water
from springs there is very little life
of any kind. According to Magnus*
the presence of algze is not detrimental
to the quality of drinking water pro-
vided the volume of water is at no
time diminished to such an extent as
to cause the death of these alge and
thus furnish food for bacteria.
The effect upon water of a pro-
longed stay in reservoirs needs also
careful examination. The alge
which require sunlight, and probably
some animal forms which live in
flowing streams, when suddenly
brought into deep reservoirs may die
and furnish food for bacteria. At
the same time this bacterial vegeta-
tion may thrive only on the bottom
where the organic debris subsides,
and if the temperature be low bac-
terial multiplication may be retarded.
These factors will counteract each
other more or less so that it is diffi-
cult at present to state definitely how
flowing water is affected when, col-
lected in reservoirs until comparative
experiments have been made.
There are two reasons why waters
* Wolffhiigel; Wasserversorgung, 1882. S. 131.
containing a large number of bacteria
should be looked upon with suspi-
cion: 1. The source of the bacteria
may, at some time, prove a source of
disease germs, since bacteria in
general come from decomposing
organic matter. 2. Waters which are
able to support a large number of bac-
teria may be able to sustain pathogenic
bacteria. The latter may even mul-
tiply in the water before it is con-
sumed.
It is now generally believed that
the specific microbes which are the
cause of cholera and typhoid fever,
and we may add some of the milder
forms of intestinal disturbances, are
usually introduced into the system in
the water consumed. It is not un-
reasonable to suppose moreover that
drinking water may be the vehicle of
other diseases under exceptional cir-
cumstances. From this it follows
that the water supply of communi-
ties should be under constant, careful
observation and that any changes in
its quality from time to time should
be noted and investigated, and that
the best methods of purifying and
filtering should be employed before
it is distributed for consumption.
The final test in the biological ex-
amination of water consists in the
actual demonstration of disease germs
in the water. Here we meet with
ereat difficulties. In the first place it
is highly improbable that even a bad
water contains disease germs, except-
ing in times of epidemics. In the
second place, most of the disease
germs with which we are acquainted
srow very poorly, or entirely fail to
develop on gelatin. And nearly all
disease germs multiply far more
slowly than the putrefactive bacteria
among which they grow and by
which they are soon overgrown.
Thus the bacillus of tuberculosis
grows only at the temperature of the
body, and hence would not appear in
the gelatin layer, assuming that its
spores are present.
There is, however, another class of
microbes not yet fully understood,
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 63
which produce disorders of the diges-
tive processes by setting up fermenta-
tions. These fermentations, in turn,
develop gases and products of an irri-
tating character which may cause
local catarrhs. or be absorbed into
the blood, and produce symptoms of
poisoning. This class of bacteria is
as yet hypothetical, so far as our
knowledge of special forms is con-
cerned, yet it should merit the atten-
tion of students of hygiene, and de-
serves careful investigation.
How we shall test the disturbing
action of bacteria found in drinking
water is another difficult question.
The usual experimental animals, such
as rabbits, mice, guinea-pigs, pigeons,
etc., show different powers of reac-
tion to certain disease germs, not only
with reference to man, but also among
themselves. Gaftky* found none ot
these animals susceptible to the mi-
crobe of typhoid fever both when
introduced subcutaneously or with the
food. Consequently this germ can
only be determined by its mode of
growth in various culture media and
its microscopic characters. This is
virtually true of the cholera-bacillus
also, since it requires in guinea-pigs
the use of caustic potash and opium
to make the animal organism a favor-
able medium for fae multiplication
of this germ.
oD
The biological examination of water
to-day is ieretare merely quantita-
tive, but it covers a ground very im-
perfectly covered etetatore by chem-
ical analy sis. The fact that micro-
organisms can be removed from water
by filtration points out to us the direc-
tion in which this method of analysis
canbe made useful. Wemustkeep the
sources of our drinking water as pure
as possfble in the first place, and sub-
ject it to careful filtration before use.
This will set aside the hunting for
disease germs when the damage has
been done and will give us the com-
forting assurance that the only real
* Mittheilungen a. d. Kais. Gesundheitsamt, Berlin,
li, 395.
elements of danger have been almost
entirely removed.
The effect of filtration on the chemi-
cal and biological ingredients of drink-
ing water, and the efficiency of the
ies employed, has been carefully
noted from day to day for more than
a year past at Berlin. The following
table * gives the monthly average of
Bacar in one cubic Beanie = of
drinking water before and after filtra-
tion :—
| River water—| In one of
before filtra- | Parseeees the city
tion. ration. | houses.
1064 265 409
1440 eer 157
2496 | 63 114
3251 2 50
466 27 26
81x | 57 34
864 39 29
685 98 84
1843 16 34
Potomac water, as is but too well
known, becomes exceedingly turbid
after prolonged rains or storms. The
suspended matter, chiefly inorganic,
slowly subsides after a time, leaving
the water comparatively clear.
Efforts are now being made to obtain
an appropriation for the purpose of
subjecting the water to thorough
filtration. This is certainly very
desirable when we consider the
amount of earthy matter which the
water holds in suspension after every
severe rain, not to speak of the
large increase in bacteria at this
time, pointing to a large accession of
organic matter. The table below
gives the number of bacteria in one
cubic centimeter of water and shows
how the number of bacteria rises
and falls with the turbidity. Each
determination is the average of two
closely agreeing independent plate
cultures of the same specimen of
water taken from a constantly flowing
faucet in the basement of the Agri-
cultural Building.
* Arbeiten a. d. Kais. Gesundheitsamt, Berlin, i, 7.
64 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[A pril,
Liquefying bac-
mes Remarks.
terla IN I C.C. 2
Date.
Bacteria
in rc.c
very turbid.
w
re)
co)
ll
er)
uo}
re)
Ke)
nu
SICIVUUTY
becomes clear.
Uo
co
ur
Ww
Il
tal
very turbid.
(heavy rains).
s
onoprOun
aaaagqnaag
From these figures it will be seen
that on March 18 the comparatively
clear water, owing to continued dry
weather, contained about 338 bac-
teria. Soon after, heavy, prolonged
rains brought the water into a very
turbid condition and the number of
bacteria rose quickly to 2961.
It will also be observed that the
number of germs which liquify the
gelatin does not necessarily grow
larger with the increase of the total.
They are most abundant proportion-
ately in the clear water and are pre-
sumably the natives of the water, the
other bacteria being washed in by the
rains from decaying vegetation.
From one city pump 600 bacteria
in I c.c. were obtained. From
another two examinations gave re-
spectively 3,162 and 857 bacteria.
The slightly turbid water of the Poto-
mac is therefore more trustworthy
than the very clear water of these
pumps. It is quite probable that
the wooden barrel of these ancient
structures contributes a fair quota to
the whole number in the water.
How these figures should be inter-
preted remainsa very delicate question
until water from a large variety of
sources shall have been examined.
The application of this method is still
in its infancy and premature conclu-
sions can only bring it into discredit. It
now becomes necessary to furnish for
ita practical basis by examining what
we consider the best as well as the
poorest waters according to a strictly
uniform process, In this connection
the carefully weighed words of the
author of this method might be of
service. It being questioned at the
last cholera conference at Berlin as to
what he considered good water, Dr.
Koch* said :—
‘A large number of micro-organ-
isms indicates that the water has-
received admixtures in a state of de-
composition and loaded with micro-
organisms, impure tributaries, etc.,
which might contribute, in addition
to the many harmless bacteria, also
pathogenic forms, that is, infectious
matter.... Experience thus far has
shown that in good waters the num-
ber of germs capable of development
varies between 1oand 150. As soon
as the number considerably exceeds
this limit, the water must be suspected
of receiving contributions from pol-
luted sources. If the numberreaches
or exceeds 1,000 I should not permit
its use as drinking water, at least not
in times of a choleraepidemic. The
number 1,000 is chosen by me as ar-
bitrarily as has been the case in se-
lecting the limiting values in chemi-
cal analysis, and I allow each one to
change it according to his convic-
tions.’
6
A Method of Mounting Several
Groups of Small Microscopic Ob-
jects Under one Cover.
The following directions for mount-
ing pollens will suffice for other small
objects :
The pollens should be gathered
from freshly opened flowers, and may
be teased from the anthers with a
needle into small bottles, which, after
the pollen is thoroughly: dry, should
be kept corked.
Prepare a card marked with three,
four or five spots, all arranged within
the limits of a three-fourths of an
inch cover-glass, place a glass slip
upon the card, and puta minute drop
of turpentine on the slip over one of
the marked spots. A needle with a
little turpentine on it will serve to
* Deutsche Med. Wochenschrift, 1885, Sept. 12.
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 65
conyey a small amount of pollen from
the bottle to the drop of turpentine on
the slip. Cohering masses of pollen
should be separated with the needle
and spread as evenly as possible over
one-eighth of an inch of space on the
slip. A small drop of balsam, just
sufficient for the purpose, is_ then
dropped on the pollen.
The next specimen of pollen is
similarly arranged over another spot,
and a small drop of balsam apphed
as before. When the several pollens
are in place the slide should be set
aside and covered with dust for
twenty-four or forty-eight hours, or
until the balsam has become some-
what hardened and the pollens fixed
in their respective places. A drop
of fresh balsam may then be placed
in the centre between the groups and
a cover applied with very gentle pres-
sure, and all allowed to harden as
usual. If the first balsam drops are
not sufficiently hard when the cover-
glass is adjusted the fresh balsam will
liquify all too rapidly, and the pol-
lens will run together or creep out
with the surplus balsam.
Too strong a pressure will also
cause the pollens to mix by producing
currents in the balsam as the cover
settles into place.
The names of the flowers from
which the pollens were gathered
should be written on the label in
small characters and occupy the same
relative positions as the specimens
do under the cover. This will enable
one to find a given specimen or name
quickly
This method may be employed for
foraminifera seeds, diatoms, scales,
or any other small objects which
might be placed together for the pur-
pose of comparison.
S. G. SHANKS.
6)
The Mounting of Diatoms.*
BY E. DEBES.
Regarding mounting media, I wish
to remind the reader that, notwith-
* Translated and condensed from Hedwigia by F.
Dienelt.
standing the high refractive index of
monobromide of naphthaline, Thou-
let’s solution or phosphorus, on ac-
count of the many difficulties in ma-
nipulation and the great uncertainty
as to durability, the use of these me-
dia cannot be reeommended. I have
obtained very good results from sty-
rax and liquidambar, refractive in-
dex about 1.63, and after consider-
able experience am fully convinced
that both media possess very desira-
ble qualities, and are as easily manip-
ulated as Canada balsam, but never
become as brittle as the latter. The
brown color, especially of styrax,
does not much exceed that of old
Canada balsam and is said to disap-
pear entirely on bleaching in direct
sunlight.
Styrax or storax, L7guédambar
ortentalzs Miller, is a native tree of
Asia Minor and Syria. Gum styrax,
the product, contains cinnamic acid
and styracin, both soluble in petro-
leum ether or petroleum benzine.
By adding either of these to the gum
in a shallow vessel over a hot-water
bath, and stirring well with a glass
rod, both components are easily got
rid of. The styrax has to be thor-
oughly dehydrated after pouring off
the solution. A bottle contained
sixty grams, price two francs and a
half, but was found not to be per-
fectly free from styracin, and had to
under go a short process.
Liquidambar styractfua LL. is
a native tree of the United States,
similar to styrax in all respects, and
has to be treated the same. Balsam
of tolu, reeommended by Mr. C. H.
Kain, I found in my experiments in
no way superior to Canada balsam ;
its refractive index is slightly above
it, but can never reach, far less ex-
ceed, that of styrax. In mounting
the more robust and all convex and
strongly curved forms, Canada _bal-
sam, owing to its lighter color, is
preferable. Before using, Canada
balsam ought to be heated in a shal-
low vessel over a hot-water bath,
| stirred well with a glass rod, up to
66 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[April,
twenty-four hours, until after cooling
it is found to be very brittle; it will
dry a great deal faster in mounts af-
terwards.
In general mounting, transfer with
a pipette the quantity needed from
the previously well-cleaned material
to a bottle. and fill up with distilled
water. After the diatoms have set-
tled, drain off the water and renew,
and continue this process till the last
trace of alcohol in which the cleaned
diatoms had been kept is removed.
Now place the well-cleaned covers
on a smooth, preferably black, plate
of glass or hard rubber; by breath-
ing on the glass before placing each
cover and lightly pressing them down,
they will Pere sufficiently. After
agitating the material, take up and
drop on each cover sufficient to fill
the whole surface, and protect them
from floating dust under a bell-glass,
and let them remain till they are dry.
To prevent jarring the ‘settling dia-
toms and secure an even distribution,
it is safest to let the covers remain
where they have been filled. Treated
thus the diatoms will settle very uni-
formly, and all annoyance from the
tendency diatoms not freed from al-
cohol have to form clusters and run
together on applying heat will be
avoided. Attention has to be paid to
the proper density of the material.
If the covers, as has been recom-
mended, have been placed on a dark
surface, one soon gains experience
enough to be Bblen to tell whether
things appear about right. As soon
as the covers are dry, “transfer them
on a slide to the mounting micro-
scope and examine for particles of
dust that may have settled on them.
Remove them to the glass plate as
before and put a drop an the mount-
ing medium on each ; letthem dry un-
der the bell-glass e) the consistency
of syrup. Now put them on the
well-cleaned and centered slides, ap-
ply gentle heat and the covers will
settle level, and the medium will
distribute itself evenly to the edge if
the right quantity has been used. In
using a chloroform solution the cov-
ers may be transferred to the slides at
once. Remove the mounted slides to
a tin case with removable shelves of
stiff cardboard that have strips pasted
on them, and place them covers
downward. This will tend to keep
the diatoms in contact with cover
and insure free circulation. To fa-
cilitate drying, the tin case may be
placed on a stove or in an oven, but
care must be taken not to let the
temperature rise above 50° Celsius.
If the material has been well
cleaned, the often recommended burn-
ing of diatoms on the covers becomes
not only unnecessary, but often proves
injurious, as many of the finer forms,
also polycystina and sponge spicules
often present in fossil material, are
apt to warp and crack or turn black.
In mounting diatoms as test objects
burning is advantageous, as it brings
the diatoms in closer contact with the
cover, and the cracks are not of as
much consequence if the structure is
well preserved.
For dry mounts, it is well to al-
ways have a number of slides ringed
with shellac cement, or Canada bal-
sam in chloroform on hand, to insure
the thorough hardening of the cells.
Place the covers on the cell and run
a hot glass rod around the cover to
soften the surface of cell; this will
attach the mount firmly.
In mounting selected diatoms,
transfer the material freed from alco-
hol to large covers, protect them from
dust, and let the water evaporate ;
place the cover containing the ma-
terial and another to hold the selected
forms on a slide, and put it under the
mounting microscope, using powers
of from thirty to sixty diameees The
| bristles from the eyelash of the hog,
fastened to wooden handles, make
a good instrument for transferring.
They are very stiff, elastic, and taper
to fine points. A number of these
mounters ought to be prepared, as it~
is an easy matter to select them from
finest to coarse, and have them ready
as occasions require. The selected
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 67
forms ought to be placed close to-
gether, and laid, as far as practicable,
inthe position most suitable to mount-
ing afterwards, for instance, Hafodzs-
dus and similar forms with convex
side down, always working with great
care, as a single careless motion may
destroy the work of hours. By using
a piece of cardboard of convenient
size, pierced on opposite sides to
hold a string, the string to be grasped
by the teeth, a very good shield is
formed, and all danger from losing
or disturbing the selected diatoms by
breathing avoided.
In selecting the robust or convex
forms, and preventing loss from flying
of the bristle or cover, the cover may
be moistened with kerosene diluted
with benzine, which may be easily
evaporated afterwards.
To mount the selected forms, the
cover has to be coated with a thin
film of bleached shellac dissolved in
ether, well filtered through bone-
black; place the cover on a warm
slide, and apply a small drop of the
shellac solution; attach it and the
cover containing the selected material
to a slide, and transfer it to the
mounting microscope; moisten the
clean cover with kerosene as above,
and transfer the diatoms; place them
carefully ; they will move freely on
the moist surface. : When the cover
is filled, remove it to a slide, evapor-
ate the kerosene slowly over a lamp
flame. The diatoms will become
firmly attached to the softening shel-
lac film ; apply the ie cineiane Of
course alcoholic or chloroform solu-
tions are out of question, and benzine,
benzole, toluol or xylol solutions have
to be used. On mounting the cover,
a small drop of the medium must be
first placed on the slide, the cover
put on it and gently pressed down,
and the medium that may exude re-
moved with brush moistened with
chloroform on the turn-table. Glass or
zincfoil cells cemented to the slides
afford a safe protection against crush-
ing or displacement.
To attach selected forms to the
cover in dry mounts, pure glycerin
diluted with alcohol and _ distilled
water answers well. The film will
stay moist a good while, but may be
perfectly evaporated by heat after-
wards, the diatoms becoming fixed
securely. For the more robust forms
a little gum-arabic may be added, but
care is necessary not to overheat and
discolor the gum in solution after-
wards. ;
O
Photo-Microgr
BY THE EDITOR.
| Continued from page 50. |
The focussing of the image upon
the ground glass is now to be con-
sidered. The importance of careful
focussing is obvious to every one, but
it should be remembered that in the
case of objects of a particular kind, a
perfectly sharp focus may not be the
correct focus. This is due to the
difference between the focus for vision
and the focus for paotee= any. Mr.
J. D. Cox has shown* that in photo-
graphing diatoms he would occasion-
ally get a positive photograph instead
of a negative , the lights and shadows
being rev Sacih just as they are when
we mens up and down while looking
at the markings directly. ‘This is
particularly noticeable when using
lenses not specially made for photog
raphy ; but as it is purely a matter
of focus, such errors can be avoided
with any lens by moving the objec-
tive back from the slide eau the fine
adjustment, after the image on the
screen is sharp to the eye. The ex-
tent of the movement should be ascer-
tained by experiment, probably not
more than half a turn of the milled
head will be required, but obviously
no rule can be given as it will de-
pend upon the lens, the microscope,
and the length of the camera. It is
more for low powers than for high.
First take a picture of a diatom or
other delicate object with the focus
sharp to the eye. Then, if the picture
*The Actinic and Visual Focus in Photo- Microg-
raphy, etc., vol. vi, p. 193.
\i
68
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ April,
is not sharp, try changing the focus
until a satisfactory result is obtained,
and note the correction required for
all subsequent work.
It is by no means an easy matter to
focus a delicate microscopic object on
the ordinary ground glass of a camera,
because the grain of the glass inter-
feres, particularly when a magnifying
glass is used. To overcome this
difficulty, several methods may be
adopted. Perhaps the simplest is to
substitute a plate of plain glass for the
ground glass, and mount a simple lens
as a focussing glass, with its focus
adjusted to the plane of the surface
upon which the image is received.
An ordinary bank-note’ detector will
serve the purpose perfectly well. In-
stead of removing the ground glass to
substitute a plain one, ine inne may
be used in an ordinary plate-holder.
An excellent plan was described
two years ago in these columns by
Mr. George O. Mitchell.* This
device consists of a strip of wood car-
rying an ordinary eye-piece The
focussing screen is removed, and the
eye- piece adjusted to receive the
image while the strip of w coal rests
across the end of the camera. First
focus an object on the ground-glass,
then remove it and adjust the ocular,
by sliding it out or in, until the image
is sharp. The device is then ready
for use. If it be found that the pic-
ture is not sharp, although carefully
focussed, because of the reasons
already mentioned, it will be advis-
able to change the position of the
ocular so that when the object is
sharply focussed for the eye it will
give also a sharp photograph.
Having focussed the object the
sensitive plate may be introduced
and the exposure made. In filling
the plate-holder in the dark room
the plates should be removed from
their box, held in the left hand, being
careful not to touch the sensitive sur-
face with the fingers, and the surface
lightly brushed with the soft brush
to remove particles of dust which
“* Vol. Vv, p-8t.
would show in the picture. Place
them immediately in the holders,
and as a precaution, when working
by daylight, wrap the latter in a dark
cloth, as some plate-holders are not
absolutely light proof.
As regards the length of exposure
ie is FAS: useless to give any in-
structions, as this must be learnt by
experience. Mr. Walmsley gives
the following times of exposure for
his apparatus, which may be sug-
gestive to beginners using lamp-
light —
14 inch, 3 to 45 seconds.
e
BA" bic mf Tee
F . 1 to Iz minutes.
ce
10 ii wy to 3
1 (a4 6c
Tg Se 5 to Ar eS
In using sunlight the exposures
must be made exceedingly short. For
objectives lower than a i-inch a me-
chanical shutter is almost indispensa-
ble with bright sunlight, for an ‘ in-
stantaneous by hand’ exposure would
spoil the plate with too much light.
Still, this depends upon so many
conditions that it is almost useless to
say this. Experience alone can
teach the proper exposure.
DEVELOPING.—Before attempt-
ing to develop a plate the beginner
will do well to refer to the remarks
on page 202 of the preceding volume,
briefly explaining the chemical op-
erations involved.
A word of caution to the amateur
photographer may not be amiss. Not
everything that is published, even in
the journals devoted to photography,
can be accepted without question.
The practical photographer may well
smile at the impractical schemes and
devices of the amateur, his wonder-
ful achievements with new developers
of complex composition, and his re-
markable discoveries of the effect of
microscopic quantities of various
inert chemicals in the developer.
It is safe to say that a large propor-
tion of photographic ie eee is very
useless reading. It is rarely that the
new developers, that are constantly
being brought forward, are in any
€
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 69
respect better than those that have
served for years. Therefore, as a
general rule, the amateur who cares
a save plates would do well to
avoid new developers. The principle
of most of them is this :—Jones
thinks he will make his developer
different from any other, and experi-
ment with it, so he weighs out so
much sodium carbonate, and so much
sodium sulphite, and the proper
amount of pyro. He now mixes his
developer and perhaps gets a fine
picture. The next thing is to write
a paper to read before the photo-
graphic society, and exhibit a nega-
tive developed with Jones’ dev eloper.
The story he relates is about like
this :—‘ The plate was under exposed,
so that I did not expect to get any-
thing, but the negative ana every
detail of a fully ‘exposed plate.’ It
is noticeable that in all such communi-
cations the pictures are remarkably
good, but the exposures very much
over or under-timed !
One peculiar feature of such com-
munications is that the plates are
never properly exposed.
We have read a great deal of such
palaver—a great deal too much of it.
Either the authors of it are them-
selves very much deceived, or they
are far more expert operators than
we ever hope to be.
Still, it is our firm conviction, in
spite of the voluminous testimony on
the other side, that nothing is more
incorrigible than a plate that is really
under exposed. Granting that care-
ful development will Ae much to
bring out very faint detail, no amount
of fussing will make a good picture
out of a plate that has not received
approximately the proper exposure.
This is said for the encouragement
of those who, placing their faith
upon accomplishments that are less
remarkable in fact than in the telling,
are led to attempt what is impossible,
and, disappointed at their failures,
lose confidence in themselves.
On the other, hand, an over-ex-
posed plate can be restrained in de-
| velopment to a wonderful degree ;
but even here there is a limit beyond
which it is not possible to get bril-
liant negatives.
But it is not only the amateurs who
are at fault in this matter. The
teaching and, if we may judge from
their writings, the practice of pro-
fessional photographers is very ir-
rational in regard to development,
and many a w riter from this class has
added his full quota of absurdities,
and given instructions for devel-
oping pilates not properly exposed
which we are morally certain would
ruin any picture under the conditions
named.
The beginner may accept any kind
of developer whatever, so long as
the proportions of the ingredients
are within reasonable bounds, and
learn to make good pictures with it.
Without having experimented to
prove it, the writer is of the opinion
that the time of exposure must be
regulated by the composition and
strength of the developer; in other
wor aay that to obtain the same result
with two different developers the
exposures must be different. In this
way only does it seem possible to
reconcile the practice of different op-
erators, some of whom, for example,
use developers twice as strong in
pyro or iron as others.
The formulas we shall give are such
as we can recommend from practical
use, not that they are any better than
others, but that they will make pic-
tures equal to any we are perfectly
certain. If the reader will be satis-
fied to use them, or any others that
are recommended by competent au-
thorities, and not waste time in trying
to discover the merits of new mixtures
which are quite as likely to be bad as
good, success is sure to follow; but
having adopted a developer that is
none to be good, do not change it
until Ge meestiiti in its use, for eines
are more likely to be due to inexpe-
rience than to the developer.
We should not fail to direct the
attention of readers to the method of
70 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ April,
taking negatives on paper which has
been perfected by the Eastmann Com-
pany, of Rochester. A holder car-
rying either twelve or twenty-four
paper plates is provided to fit any
camera. Full descriptions of the
apparatus are given in their circu-
lars, so that it is not necessary to
more than refer to it here. We can
say, however, that the paper nega-
tives are very convenient, and partic-
ularly desirable for field work, be-
cause of their lightness and compact
arrangement.
| To be continued. |
O
Staining Tissues in Microscopy.—
X.
BY PROF. HANS GIERKE.
| Continued from p. 54. |
195. Owsjaunikow. Ueber die Wirk-
ing der Osmiamid verbindun-
gen Fremy’s auf thierische
Gewebe. Mélanges biol. tirés
du Bull de Acad. de St.
Petersb., vii.
Recommends Fremy’s osmiamid
verbindung 1—1000 of water in place
of perosmic acid. That has the same
advantages as the latter, and is desti-
tute of the smell and injurious action
on the skin.
roo. M: Schulze. Arch
Anat., vii, 180.
Potassium acetate is recommended
to mount preparations of osmic acid
in, for glycerin is seldom pure enough,
usually containing lead salts. Potass
acetate is used like elycerin.
197. Ranvier. Sur les éléments con-
jonctive de la moelle épiniere.
Compt. Rend., Ixxvii, 1024.
A complete jeeibtiea of the nerves
of the spinal marrow occurs when
treated by a solution of perosmic acid
—300 injected, and after some time
pressed out.
198. Pouchet. De l'emploi des solu-
tions concentrées d’acide os-
mique. Robin’s Journ. de
PAnat., 1876, p. 525-
Contains nothing new on osmic
acid.
mikr.
199. Broesicke. Die Ueberosmium-
saure in Verbindung mit Ox-
alsdure als mikroskopisches
Farbemittel. Centralbl. f. d.
med. Wiss., 1878, No. 46, pp.
833-836.
Fresh or recent material is laid for
an hour in a one per cent. perosmic
acid solution, then after washing in a
cold saturated solution of oxalic acid
for 24 hours, it m ay be exam-
ined in water or glycerin, but the two
should not be meu Mucin, cellu-
lose, amylum, bacteria, the outer
layer of fungi, the membrane of
Schwann, bony fibres and bones,
and the axis-cylinder of nerves re-
main colorless. Intercellular sub-
stance, the cornea, walls of the capil-
laries, vitreous humor, and vitelline
membrane dye a crimson red. Mus-
cles, sinews, hyaline cartilage, and
other elements rich in albumen, stain
darker. The gray matter of nerves,
cell protoplasm, and neuclei stain a
Wwine-red.
200. Parker. On some applications
of osmic acid to microscopic
purposes. Journ. R. micr.
Soc eas 381- 282%
Perosmic acid is recommended for
tender objects, as crustacea, insects,
plant tissues, etc., followed by the
action of alcohol.
OTHER METALLIC SALTS.
201. Landois. Die impragnation der
Gewebe mit Schwefelmetal-
len. Centralbl. f) deemed:
Wiss., 1865, No. 55.
The tissues are first put in solutions
of metallic salts, and when thoroughly
soaked the metal is precipitated by
dilute solutions of hydrogen sulphide,
or ammonium sulphide, after careful
washing. Salts of lead, iron, copper,
platinum, and mercury give the best
results.
202. Polaillon. Etudes sur la texture
~des ganglions nerveux péri-
phériques. Journ. de l’Anat.
et Phys., 1866, iti, 43.
The organs are hardened ina solu-
tion of ferric chloride, then thoroughly
washed, and treated with tannic acid
1886.]:
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. Tink
till sufficiently black. Applied to
ganglia, the nerve elements are
stained while connective tissue re-
mains colorless.
Fr. Eilh. Schulze. Eine neue
Methode der Erhartung und
Farbung thierischer Gewebe.
Centralbl. f. d. med. Wiss.,
1867, No. 13.
Palladium chloride is particularly
recommended for hardening and
staining, especially for muscular tis-
sue, also for the cells of glands and of
epithelium containing granular pro-
toplasm, while all connective tissues,
fat, etc., remain colorless. Pieces of
material as large as a bean are put in
a solution of 1-Soo to 1-1500; about
1-1000 is best. In 24 hours they
may be cut into sections, and will be
found a golden yellow. They. may
afterward be stained red with ammo-
niacal carmine.
204. Bastian. Recommends palla-
dium highly when used ac-
cording to 117, 1869.
Leber. Zur Kemstniss der Im-
pragnations-methoden der
Hornhaut und ahnlicher
Gewebe. Arch. f. Opthalm,
XIV, 300.
In examinations of the cornea,
various metallic salts besides silver
were employed. A combination of
potassium ferridcyanide and ferrous
salts was deemed preferable. The
fresh cornea of a frog is laid for five
minutes in a 4 to 1% solution of a
ferrous salt, carefully deprived of
epithelium, thoroughly washed and
transferred to a 1% solution of potas-
sium ferridcyanide in which it is
shaken till deeply blue. The same
result may be attained by precipita-
tion from a 2% solution of ammonio-
cupric sulphate with slight excess of
ammonia and a 5% solution of potas-
sium ferrocyanide. Plumbic acetate
and potassium chromate give a yel-
low stain.
206. Henle und Merkel. In Henle’s
Handbuch des Nervenlehre
des Menschen. 1871.
Sections of large nerves are laid in
205.
solutions of palladium chloride, 1-300
to 1-600, till they acquire a straw
yellow color, which takes 1-2 min-
utes. They are then placed in am-
moniacal carmine.
207. v Thanhoffer. Das Mikroskop
und seine Anwendung. 188o,
143.
Recommends palladium chloride
to stain the nerves of the cornea.
208. Golgi. Un nuovo processo di
tecnica microscopica. Rendic.
R. instituto Lombardo, xu,
206-210.
Pieces of the larger nerves 1-2
cm. in diameter are hardened in
M6ller’s fluid or in potassium bichro-
mate. After ge days they are
put in 0.25 to 0.5% solution corrosive
sublimate. This must be renewed
daily for 8-10 days, when the reac-
tionijas -complete. | (he. pieces sane
colorless and have the appearance of
fresh horn. The finished sections
are well washed and mounted in
elycerin balsam. The reaction
affects the ganglion cells and their
processes, also unstriped muscle.
The elements appear white by
reflected, and black by transmitted,
light. The best results were ob-
tained from the cortex of the cere-
brum, less satisfactory from that of
the cerebellum, and none from the
spinal marrow.
COMBINATION METHODS.
209. M. Schulze und Rudneff. See
I
Preparations of Osmium
stained in ammonia carmine.
210. Fr. Balk. Schulze. See 203:
Preparations of palladium chloride
are tinged with carmine.
211. Henle und Merkel. See 206.
Nerve sections treated as per 210
in strong solution of ammonia-car-
mine become bright red in the cen-
tral axis while the gray matter re-
mains yellow.
212. Schwarz. Ueber eine Methode
doppelte Farbung mikroscop-
ischer Objecte und ihre An-
wendung, etc. Sitzber, d. k.
Acad. d. Wiss. Wein, lv.
aiKe
72 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[April,
The preparations are treated? first
with carmine then with picric acid.
The material is then placed in a
mixture of 1 part creosote, Io pts.
vinegar, and 20 pts. water, boiled
one minute, dried and cut into sec-
tions, which are put for an hour in
dilute vinegar, then washed and
stained with a rose color solution of
carmine, washed again and laid for
two hours in a solution of picric acid
0.066 gm. to 400 c.c. water. Mount
in dammar. Muscles, cell contents,
vessels, and nerves will be yellow,
connective tissue and nuclei red.
213. Ranvier. Technique mikro-
scopique. Arch. de Phys.,
T9085.N6. 2; p:'219; Nos,
p- 666.
Highly recommends a mixture of
picric acid and ammoniacal carmine.
The fluid should look like gooseberry
juice and, as it is ene: to mold,
should be kept corked with a cork
soaked in camphor tincture.
214. Strelzoff. \_Zur Lehre der
Knochenentwickelung. Cen-
tralbl. f. d. med. Wiss., 1873,
No. 18, p. 277-78.
Derselbe. Ueber die Histogenese
des Knochens. Unters a. d.
pathol. Inst., Ziirich; 1873,
p- I-9
In the study of the development of
bone, neutral carmine and hzema-
toxylin are found to dye calcified
substance blue, new formed material
red. (Unfortunately these beautiful
preparations are not permanent, the
hematoxylin bleaching in a few
years. )
215. Rouget. Cfr., 162.
Preparation treated with silver
are placed for 2-3 hours in a mixture
of ammonia carntine: glycerin, and
alcohol.
216. Merkel. Technische Notiz.
Unters. a. d. Anat. Anst.
Rostock, 1874, p. 98.
Dyes the brain and spinal marrow
in a mixture of carmine and indigo
carmine. The gray matter feconee
blue, blood corpuscles ereen, tie
rest red. Bones damnicied in Mol-
ler’s fluid and hydrochloric acid be-
come blue in the formed material,
the rest red.
217. Baber. E. Cresswell. Note on
picrocarminate of ammonia.
Quart. Journ. “mier ser
1874, Pp. 251-3.
Repeats the statements of Schwarz
and Ranvier.
218. Duval. Procédé de coloration
des coupes du systeme nerveux,
Journ. de Anat. 1876, p. III
Ses
Applies carmine the usual way,
transfers to alcohol, then for to—12
minutes in anilin blue (10 drops sat.
sol. to ro grains absolute alcohol)
and mounts in balsam. Nerve cells
and nerve axis stain reddish violet,
the vessels viclet blue. Connective
tissue, the pia mater and its pro-
jections become blue.
219. Norris and Shakespeare. A
new method of double stain-
ing. Amer: oun ied:
Sci., 1877, January, and,
220. Merbel. Double staining with
a single fluid. Monthly Micr.
Journ., 1877, Nov. and Dec., ,
p: 242:
Two solutions are made.
mine 2, borax 8, distilled water 130
parts. B, indigo carmine 8, borax
8, distilled water 130. Rub in a
mortar, filter and mix equal parts of
the two solutions. Lay sections a
few minutes in alcohol, then 15-20
minutes in this mixture, and an equal
time in a saturated solution oxalic
acid, wash and mount in balsam.
The fundamental part of connective
tissue, cartilage and bone will be
blue, cell structure red, ganglion cells
purple, their nuclei red, and the nu-
cleoli blue, the sheath of the nerve
axis blue or green, the axis cylinder
green.
221. Schiefterdecker, Kleinere his-
eS Mittheilungen, II
iiiiae eine neue Farbungs
Bee des Central nerveu-
systems. Arch. Mikrosk.
Anat. xv, 38.
Henle and Merkel published in the
A, car-
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 73
Handbuch der Anatomie the first
method of double staining with pal-
ladium chloride and ammoniacal
carmine. Schiefferdecker replaces
the last by sodium picrocarminate,
in a cold saturated solution of which
the sections remain for 8-10 minutes
after 1-2 minutes treatment with pal-
ladium chloride. Mount in shellac
orbalsam. The preparations darken
after mounting. The sodium picro-
carminate alone is good for staining
ganglion cells.
222. Klemensiewicz. Beitrage zur
kenntniss der Farbenwechsels
der Cephalopoden. Sitzber.
d. Acad. d. Wiss. Wien, xxviii,
(1878).
Rub together 1 grn. carmine with
30 drops concentrated ammonia and
dilute with 200 c.c. water. Mix two
parts of this carmine with one part
cold saturated solution of picric acid
and heat on the water bath S—1o hours.
Add dilute ammonia to replace loss
if necessary and evaporate to #
or 4 of first quantity. Little or no
precipitate should appear on cooling.
Theclear liquid when finished should
be dark red in deep layers with a yel-
lowish cast in their strata.
223. Lang. Eine neue Tinctions
methode. Zool. Anz. ii
(1879), 45.
Double staining by eosin and pi-
crocarmine is much praised, since it
penetrates whole animals and differ-
entiates not merely nuclei and simi-
lar bodies but also the protoplasm of
ganglia cells and nerve fibres. ava
a 1% solution of picrocarmine and ¢
2% solution of eosin in water. Saale
whole specimens (Planaria) in this
mixture 4 days, then in 70% alcohol,
then in 90% till no more color is ex-
tracted.
224. Seiler. Practical hints on pre-
paring and mounting animal
tissues. Am. Mo. Micr.
Journ.; i, 220.
The solutions, (a), carmine 1.0
grn., borax 3. 5 grn. aad: Gests 050 C.C.\,
95% alcohol 330 c.c.; (b), eae
chloric acid 1.0 grn., Pee ps
(c), solution sodium sulphindigotate
2 drops, 95% alcohol 330 c.c. So-
dium sulphindigotate is made by di-
gesting the best Bengal indigo with
fuming sulphuric acid, washing out
excess of acid, and precipitating with
salt. The well-washed precipitate
is dissolved in warm distilled water
to saturation. The preparations are
cleared up with benzol and finally
mounted in alcohol balsam.
25. Gage. Preparation of Ranvier’s
picrocarmine. Amer. Monthly
Micr. Journ., 1, 22.
Dissolve 1 pt. carmine in 50 pts.
strong ammonia, and 1 part picric
acid in too pts. water. Mix both
solutions, evaporate at 45° C. to 4
volume, filter through double paper
and dry. A Soiition of powder, I
pt. to 100 should be clear. If not
after filtering, standing several days
and again filtering, add the ammonia
in equal quantity again, and evapor-
ate. If clean add to‘each 1e0 cise.
250C.c. pure pelycerin, andiios csc:
95% alcohol. This solution is very
permanent.
226. Mayer, P. See No. 28.
Picrocarmine is recommended as
staining more precisely than any
other color. It is prepared by adding
a concentrated water solution of
picric acid to ammoniacal carmine
2.25) till a precipitate begins to fall.
227. Neumann. Die Pikrocarminfar-
bung und ihre Anwendung auf
die Entwickelungslehre.
Arch. Mikr. Anat., xvili, 130-
LOn:
To avoid the occasional failures of
picrocarmine, treat sections stained
by Ranvier’s method with acidulated
elycerin (1 pt. hydrochloric acid to
200 glycerin), and control the reac-
tion by the aid of the microscope, and
then mount in gly cerin.
228. Richardson. Section of larynx
of human fetus. Quart.
Journ. Mier.,.1830,/p.. 122.
Describes a combination of car-
mine, picric acid, and madder.
[Zo be continued. |
74
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ April,
EDITORIAL.
Publisher’s Notices.—All communications, re-
mittances, exchanges, etc., should be addressed to the
Editor, P. O. Box 630, Washington, D. C.
Subscription price $1.00 PER YEAR _S¢~ ictly in ad-
vance. All subscriptions begin with the Fanuary
number.
A pink wrapper indicates that the subscripiion has
expired.
Remittances should be made by postal notes, money
orders, or by money sent in registered letters. Drafts
should be made payable in Washington, New York,
Boston, or Philadelphia.
The regular receipt of the JoURNAL, which is issued
on the 15th of each month, will be an acknowledgment
of payment.
The first volume, 1880, is entirely out of print. ~The
succeeding volumes will be sent by the publisher for
the prices given below, which are net.
Vol. Il (1881) complete, $1 50.
Vol. III out of print.
Vol. IV (1883) complete, $1.50.
Vol. V (1884) complete, $1.50.
Vol. V (1884), Nos. 2-12, $1.00.
Vol. VI (1885), $t.00.
Mountinc Mepia.—The several
articles that have been published in
this journal during the past yea ur*
have drawn attention to this impor-
tant subject, and we hope to hear of
beneficial results from the application
of some of these media in special in-
vestigations. Their value is not fully
appreciated by most observers, but
when it is fully recognized some of
them will come into extensive use.
There are some peculiarities which
cannot escape notice when mounts in
the various media are compared.
For example, as Prof. Seaman has
observed, in the medium prepared
with anilin and sulphur there is a
brilliancy about the diatoms not ob-
served in the other media. Prob-
ably this is somehow related to the
dispersive as well as the refractive
power of the medium. The fact is
important, and deserves more atten-
tion than it has received.
A medium of still higher refractive
index than any hitherto described has
been prepared by Dr. Morris, of New
South Wales. He has used sulphur
alone, which has a refractive index
-of 2, by melting it upon the slide and
pressing the cover with the diatoms
attached down upon it. A mixture
of selenium and sulphur, used in the
same manner, gives a medium with
* Vol. vi (1885), pp. 161, 182, 217; vii (1886), 3, 27.
arefractive index of 2.3, and selenium
alone can be used, having an index of
2.6. The Amphipleura was shown
more than a year ago in sulphur by
Mr. G. D. Hirst, with a 4 water im-
mersion objective by Ze ‘in a man-
ner scarcely to be surpassed by the new
oil immersion, thus proving Dr. Mor-
ris’ theory that a highly refracting
mounting ‘medium enables low- angled
objectives to compete in resolution
with the new oil immersions.’* It
seems scarcely necessary to point out
the error that this language might con-
yey... bhe mounting ncaa cannot
increase the limit of resolution of a
lens, since this is a function of the
angular aperture. What it does do
is to make certain objects, or the reso-
lution of fine details, more distinctly
visible when viewed with an objec-
tive capable of resolving them. Thus,
while mounting media do not add to
the resolving power, they nevertheless
may add very much to its effectiveness
as an instrument of research. This
is clearly seen in the case of minute
markings on diatoms, for, with Prof.
Smith’snew media, the Amphipleura
is as easily resolved, with suitable ob-
jectives, as the Pleurosigma angu-
/atum is with a good 1inch. But,
apart from resolutions, the visibility
of any minute object is also greatly
increased by using the proper edie
for mounting, ae the advantage of
the new media can be as well demon-
strated with an inch objective as with
a twentieth.
——o
INVESTIGATIONS OF MICcROBES.—
It is a pity that persons in high places
do not more frequently consider the
evil consequences of undertaking in-
vestigations which they are utterly
incompetent, either by training or
knowledge, to conduct. There seems
to be an opinion prevailing among
many that any one can make investi-
gations on microbes and their rela-
tions to disease; so here and there a
professor in a college in some distant
educational centre suddenly «springs
* Froc. Roy. Soc. N. S. W. (1884).
-1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
75
upon the unsuspecting public with a
new microbe which he has discovered,
and immediately the news is spread
abroad by the press, and the pub-
lished discovery, utterly without the
slightest foundation, which has per-
haps involved a few hours of super-
ficial observation, requires months of
arduous systematic labor before it can
be absolutely refuted.
If men occupying positions as col-
lege professors court notoriety in this
way, utterly regardless of the require-
ments of Barly work, or of their own
responsibility as students of science
to assist rather than retard the pro-
gress of scientific discovery, it is
proper that their pretensions should
be freely criticised.
Those who are even slightly fa-
miliar with the literature relating to
microbes and their connection with
diseases will freely acknowledge that
M. Pasteur is a reasonably good au-
thori ity upon cer tain parts of this great
subject. Indeed there are very few
men who have worked as carefully
and thoroughly as M. Pasteur. One
of the results of M. Pasteur’s work
has been the discovery of a method
of preventing the disease known in
has as rouger by inoculation.
Now, Julius Gerth, State Vet-
erinarian ae Nebraska, obtained some
of M. Pasteur’s vaccine last Octo-
ber, and in November he inoculated
twenty-six pigs with it. We will
not give the details of the experi-
ment; suffice it to say that after the
inoculation, microscopical investiga-
tions were made by Prof. Charles E.
Bessey, ‘with the aid of the uni-
versity microscope, the only one in
this section of the country with
which reliable scientific work can
be done,’ as the Webraska Farmer
puts it, and the identical germ de-
scribed by Pasteur was conn Un-
fortunately, Prof. Bessey’s name is
mixed up with this work, but we
can hardly believe that he is in any
way responsible for it. Well, when
these hogs, after inoculation, were
exposed to the contagion of hog
cholera, by allowing them to come
in contact with diseased animals,
most of them died.
As a result of this laborious inves-
tigation by Dr. Gerth, extending over
nearly the whole of four ee the
work of years by Pasteur is declared
to be overthrown, and we find an arti-
cle in The Breeder’ s Gazette headed
‘ Inoculation for Hog Cholera a Fail-
ure !’
Let us now consider the facts in
the case. The experiment has
proved absolutely nothing. If Dr.
Gerth had chosen to ieee himself
concerning this matter before under-
taking his experiments, he might have
lear aed) by application to ee Bureau
of Animal Industry, that the swine-
disease of France, which Pasteur
has studied, is not the hog-cholera
that affects our animals; and for this
reason it is not to be expected that
inoculations by Pasteur’s virus would
confer immunity. Moreover, he
might also learn that the microbe of
the disease in this country is not
Bacillus suts but a species of the
genus Lacterzum, a discovery that
eR recently been made in the labor-
atory of the Bureau in this city, the
credit of which is due to the pains-
taking researches of Dr. Theobald
Cote under the direction of Dr. D.
E. Salmon, chief of the Bureau. He
might also learn something about in-
oculations from the same source.
The case above mentioned is bad
enough, but we have one other that
for downright quackery and charla-
tanism exceeds anything else that has
recently come to our notice. We
cannot characterize it in any other
way. If it be more charitable to at-
tribute it to want of knowledge, then
we ask, what business has any man
to pose as an investigator of germ
diseases who is so absolutely igno-
rant of the necessary conditions for
such work as to ask for samples of
blood collected and dried on bits of
cloth to be examined for specific
germs?
We regret to see that such a valua-
16 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ April,
ble and widely read paper as the
Prairie Farmer has been led to
support such pretensions, but we
must quote a few lines from that
paper to show the matter in its true
light. The article is headed ‘ Hog
Cholera.. Important!’ and refers to
the losses already sustained by reason
of the prevalence of the disease, and
then continues as follows :—‘ Dec.
4th we announced that Dr. J. A.
Sewell, formerly Professor of Natural
Science in the Illinois State Normal
University and now President of the
Colorado Univer sity at Boulder, Col.,
proposed to go into a thorough in-
vestigation of hog cholera, and had
special facilities for doing so, without
cost to the public. All. he asks is
many small specimens of blood from
diseased animals.....
‘ All that is necessary is to slightly
prick the diseased hog, anyw Bere in
its body, with the point of a pen-
knife or large needle, so that a few
drops of blood will start out. Catch
these in a little clean vial.....
‘If a vial is not at hand, catcha
few drops on a bit of clean, un-
starched cotton cloth, dry- it without
heat, and enclose it in a letter.’
Was there ever more arrant hum-
bug in the guise of science? Profes-
sor Sewell proposes to study the
microbe of this disease, which has
proved one of the most puzzling and
difficult of germ diseases to experi-
enced observers, without the slightest
training for the work. Does he not
even know that microbes are con-
stantly in the air and everywhere,
and that blood cannot be collected in
a bottle or on acloth (!) without con-
tamination? Is it strange that ‘ He
has discovered a new microbe in
every blood specimen received?’
Only one, indeed, why not say a
dozen, for they were certainly present
—hbut they are probably not new to
science.
ro)
AMERICAN SocreEtTy OF MuIcro-
scopists.—The Proceedings of the
eighth annual meeting of this So-
ciety, held last year at Cleveland,
have recently been issued, comprising
a volume of 258 pages, quite fully .
and well illustrated. There is a
heliotype plate illustrating Mr. J. D.
Cox’s article on the actinic and vis-
ual focus in photo-micrography ; a
plate of infusoria by Professor Kelli-
cott, and another heliotype plate il-
lustrating Dr. Detmer’s article on
poisonous dried beef. This plate
might as well have been omitted,
since, while it does suggest JZcro-
cocc? ina general way, it is no special
aid to the imagination, and besides,
the significance of those organisms
is at least uncertain.
Mr. Kruttschnitt also gives a well
executed plate in explanation of his
work on pollen-tubes. Among the
other illustrations we notice three by
Dr. L. M. Holbrook, which, since
they represent not what is seen by the
eye, but what all pupils of Dr. Heitz-
mann are taught to believe should be
seen, and therefore must be delineated,
are only misleading and should Have
been excluded. The structure rep-
resented has not been shown in any
photo-micrograph, and can only be
discovered by a few misguided indi-
viduals. W hy , then, should a large,
representative body of microscopists
encourage and propagate such er-
roneous ideas?
Wedo not attempt a comprehensive
notice of the volume for the reason
that already some of the articles have
appeared in these columns, and those
who wish to see the others can obtain
the volume from Dr. J. E. Fell of
Buffalo, for $1.50 if we recollect
aright. A practical form of home-
made heliostat for photo-micrography
is described and figured, which may
prove of value to those who prefer to
construct rather than to buy their ap-
paratus.
The volume is a very creditable
one and the editorial work has been
well done.
fe)
New OsjEcTIVE AND OcULAR.—
Dr. Henri Van Heurck has recently
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. TT
described* a new objective constructed
by Mr. Zeiss with some new glass of
high refractive power which has re-
sulted from numerous experiments
conducted by Professor Abbe. From
the article referred to we compile this
brief notice. The desired qualities
of glass not being obtainable from
manufacturers, Mr. Zeiss, aided by
aliberal subsidy from the government,
courageously undertook to make it.
He put up a glass furnace and finally
produced what was Heaptioth
The objective i isa 4-inch, N. A. 1.4.
This is not so high a numerical
aperture as has been obtained in
England, where 1.5 has been reached ;
but the Zeiss objective is decidedly
superior to the other because the new
glasses permit of more perfect cor-
rection of the aberrations. With the
vertical illuminator the silvered A.
pellucida is resolved in beads over its
entire surface with such purity that
each bead may be counted. In addi-
tion to the objective, Mr. Zeiss has
also made several oculars with the
new glasses which also possess great
advantages over those in use, partly
due to the construction. One ofthem,
intended to be used instead of the
ordinary amplifier for projection and
photography, iscomposed of aslightly
biconvex field lens combined ah a
plano-concave at a proper distance,
with a diaphragm above. The dis-
tance between the two lenses is regu-
lated by a delicate adjustment. After
focussing with an ordinary ocular,
the Tae is replaced by the projecting
ocular and, without changing the
focus, the image is made “perfectly
sharp on the screen by moving the
upper lens of the ocular.
O
THE ROTIFERA OR WHEEL ANI-
MALCULES.—This is the title of a
valuable and elegant work now be-
ing published by Messrs. Longmans,
Green & Co., London. The authors
are C. T. Hudson and P. H. Gosse,
both well-known workers in this in-
* Moniteur du Praticien, February, 1886.
teresting field. In the publishers’ an-
nouncement it is stated that :—‘ The
two authors, independently of each
other, had for many years been accu-
mulating materials for a monograph
on the Rotter or Wheel-Animal-
cules. and had almost abandoned the
intention when they chanced to be-
come acquainted with each other’s
design, and then found that, by a
great piece of good fortune, their
respective stores of notes and draw-
ings to a large extent supplemented
one another, and that they had thus
between them observed and drawn
the whole of the known British
species.
O
Some NEw Anp Rare Diatoms.—
We are indebted to Messrs.«W. C.
Walker, of Utica, and H. H. Chase,
of Geneva, N. Y., for the first part
of a folio publication which they pro-
pose to issue as occasion may require,
describing new and rare diatoms.
The part before us includes seven
folio pages of printed text descriptive
of the species, and two photograph
prints from drawings, mounted on
cards of the size of the pages. The
authors do not undertake this meri-
torious work with the intention of
making money by it, but they are,
nevertheless, we believe, not averse
to receiving numerous orders, which
will materially aid in paying the ex-
penses of what must be a rather ex-
pensive undertaking. The illustra-
tions are certainly “entirely satisfac-
tory, but we cannot understand why
the negatives are not taken directly
from the objects instead of from draw-
ings. No doubt there are good
reasons for the plan adopted, but at
first thought it would seem to in-
volve andideeible unnecessary
labor in making drawings. Orders
should be sent to etthen of the
authors whose addresses are given
above. We bespeak a hearty sup-
port of this enterprise by micro-
scopists generally, and especially by
the large. number of those interested
in diatoms.
78 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ April,
NOTES.
— Messrs. Emmerich & Son have re-
ceived copies of the English catalogue of
Zeiss, which they willsend to any address
for ten cents, as announced in their ad-
vertisement. We have no doubt this new
catalogue will attract much attention.
Mr. Zeiss is so well known among the
microscopists of this country that a de-
scription of his stands and apparatus in
English will be of great interest.
—Mr. W. G. Blish, in the Sczentific
American, states, that to preserve paste
eels, the paste should be kept in a wide
mouth bottle, loosely stoppered, placed in
a cool place. If the eels are not doing
well, he adds a piece of bread, or prepares
some fresh paste, preferably of rye flour.
Paste containing a good supply of eels
will keep for weeks without moulding.
CORRESPONDENCE.
Magnification.
To THE EpiTor :—Sufficient time has
been given for answers to the series of
questions propounded on page 240
(vol. vi), in reference to magnification.
Without wishing to be at all personal, the
questions evidently were not understood,
or no measurements were made. Were
it not for the signature, the so-called an-
swers on page 20 of the current volume
would not be worthy of serious consider-
ation. It would be well to have more
practical measurements and less theory.
It is a ‘ poor rule that does not work both
ways.’ In answering the first question
he says a one-inch lens magnifies 7.9 di-
ameters, and on page 11 of the catalogue
which he refers to a one-inch eye-piece
magnifies 11 diameters, and on page 12
a one-inch objective magnifies g diam-
eters.
I am pleased to know that a 10-inch
tube is just 10 inches long (254 mm.),
but after 30 years’ experience I have
never seen a microscope with a tube of
that length—a full length tube of a ma-
jority of microscopes is about 9 inches.
I am acquainted with the different the-
ories inreference to it, but would it not be
better to define what is meant by giving
the distance from the front of the objec-
tive to the top of the eye-piece, or from
the front of the objective to the diaphragm
of eye-piece? Not one person in a hun-
dred can locate the posterior focus of his
objective and measure the distance from
the diaphragm of the eye-piece.
In regard to the first question, the near-
est lens which I have is ;%% of inch fo-
tus, and it magnifies 9.23 times ; a I-inch
lens would magnify about 9.2 diameters.
The focus was found by measurement
with a focometer. The theory on which
it is constructed is that the distance be-
tween conjugate foci of a lens is just four
times the focus for parallel rays.
In regard to the second question, Mr.
Tolles’ formulas for a two-inch eye-piece
have been given as follows :—
1. Field glass, radius 1.5, aperture 1.2.
Eye glass, radius 0.8, aperture 0.59.
Distance apart 2.6, flat sides.
Field glass, radius 1.4, aperture 1.12.
Eye glass, radius 0.8, aperture 0.59.
Distance apart 2.5.
Field glass, radius 1.3, aperture 1.12.
Eye glass, radius 0.79, aperture 0.59.
Distance apart 2.42.
In reply to the third question, I would
say the nearest lens I have has a focus of
2.05, and magnifies 3,873 times. The
estimated magnifying power of a 2-inch
lens is about 4.5 diameters. The first
formula for a 2-inch eye-piece I have not
measured, but I believe it would magnify
about 4.25 diameters. The second form-
ula gives magnification of 4.5, and the
third 4,348 diameters.
The fourth and fifth questions are still
open.
i)
Oo
WALTER H. BULLOCH.
CuHIcaGco, Ill.
)
Durability of White Zinc Cement.
To THE EDITOR :—Some two years ago
I bought Mr. A. C. Cole’s Series No. 3
Educational Preparations, including 24
slides. The slides are perfect models of
neat mounting, cell rings of white zinc.
In no case has the cement run in. I
found the other night that a slide of adi-
pose tissue had begun to spoil. On hold-
ing the same to the light, I found on ex-
amining the ring with a small lens a great
number of transverse cracks, caused by
shrinkage. I have turned a fresh ring of
marine glue in fusil oil overlapping the
white zinc on all the slides.
What would you suggest ?
Fr. DIENELT.
[ White zinc cement, when it hardens so
much that it cannot run in, is very likely
to crack after a while. The best remedy
is a coat of shellacin alcohol, and a fresh
ring of white zinc cement outside of that
if the color is objectionable. The prep-
aration is then perfectly secure.—ED. ]
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 79
To THE EpiTor :—A friend here, who
has attained celebrity as a cleaner of
marine muds, has recently received from
Vienna a slide of which I think an account
will be of interest to your readers. The
design is formed on the cover-glass, and
consists of three hundred and forty-one
distinct objects placed in position with an
almost absolute degree of perfection, and
are as follows :—In the centre is an Avach-
notdiscus, around which are grouped forty
wheels of Chzvodota, twenty red, green,
and blue-tinted diatoms (Acénocyclus),
twenty scarlet butterfly scales, alternating
with twenty diatoms (.Sw7zre//a), forty red,
green, and blue-tinted diatoms (Actzmocy-
clus), one hundred wheels of Chzvodoza, in
twenty groups of five each, twenty plates of
Synapta, twenty anchors of Syvzafp/a, al-
ternating with twenty groups of diatoms,
three in each (.Surive//a).
Along with this slide came a type-plate
of thirty-five selected diatoms of the Rich-
mond fossil earth, and a beautiful thin
section of Jutland cement-stone showing
many species of diatoms 77 sz/w in the
rock section.
Mosiuez, Ala. K. M. CUNNINGHAM.
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES.
WASHINGTON, D. C.
Forty-first regular meeting.
Dr. T. Taylor addressed the Society on
the subject of artificial butter. Thespeaker
stated that an item had recently been going
the round of the papers purporting tocome
from Prof. Weber, of the Ohio State Uni-
versity, to the effect that the so-called St.
Andrew’s cross, hitherto supposed to be
peculiar to butter, could be produced in
any fat by the addition of salt and water,
and that therefore the microscopic tests
for butter were valueless.
He had had some correspondence with
Prof. Weber, and had also received pho-
tographs of various fat globules, showing
the cross, made by Prof. Detmers of the
same institution, which he exhibited. As
he had expected, the newspapers had
made Prof. Weber say more than he in-
tended to say, and had not given the real
purport of his experiments. In absence
of full information he could not say just
what the scope of Prof. Weber’s experi-
ments was, but in his opinion the speci-
mens which Prof. Weber had examined
consisted of various fats which had been
triturated with water until the mass con-
sisted of globules of fat surrounded by
thin films of water. Each globule, under
these conditions, was a polarizing body,
and, accordingly, showed the cross. The
use of salt and water was not essential.
But the tests for butter rest upon an
entirely different basis, the presence of the
cross being only incidental. In butter we
have a perfectly clear body having a defi-
nite structure by transmitted light.
Prof. Weber's specimens show simply
a semi-solid fatty mass, structureless by
transmitted light. Again, if we find in any
given specimen, the crystals peculiar to
lard or other fats, that fact is enough to
prove adulteration, so far as the law is
concerned, whether the cross be present
or not.
Dr. Schaeffer asked whether it would
be correct to assume that any fatty glob-
ule showing the cross must be from the
milk of a ruminant animal, or, in other
words, that such a globule must be butter.
Dr. Taylor replied that no such assump-
tion could be made.
Dr. Taylor further stated that the cross
found on the globule of boiled butter was
pecular to butter only as relating to the
stellar crystals of lard and the foliated
crystals of beef, employed in the manu-
facture of oleomargarine, and this propo-
sition, Prof. Weber admits—that is to
say, the Professor admits that butter crys-
tals of globose form always exhibit a cross,
while those of lard and beef do not. Thus
far he admits, in his official report, Dr.
Taylor’s experiments are confirmed. The
speaker stated that the microscopic test
of oleomargarine had no direct relation
to the question of the butter crystal, but is
founded on the fact that normal butter is
not a polarizing body while oleomargarine
is. Therefore, when in practice, a pure
butter is examined under polarized light
and selenite plate, the only color observed
is that produced by the use of the selen-
ite. Now remove the butter and substi-
tute for it a slide of oleomargarine of
commerce, when it will be observed that
the color is no longer visible, but instead
a great profusion of prismatic colors ap-
pear, combined generally with the crys-
tals of lard. In testing oleomargarine for
lard crystals or amorphous fats, [examine
itas I findit. I do not boil it; itis the
foreign fats I look for first. Should I de-
sire to know the character of the butter in
the compound [ boil the specimen.
Prof. Weber’s first step was to boil his
oleomargarine ; hence, he got only butter
crystals, the fats were absorbed.
Dr. Howland showed slides of anti-
pyrin evaporated from alcoholic solution.
B. AY BALLOCH, Rec. Seer.
80 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ April.
SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.
The annual meeting was held February
roth, when the President, Dr. Mouser, read
his annual address, expressing much satis-
faction in the condition and prospects of
the Society, and briefly reviewing the work
of the past year.
The officers of the present year are:
President, S. M. Mouser; Vice-President,
E. J. Wickson; Treasurer, A. M. Hickox;
Corresponding Secretary, Charles W.
Banks; Recording Secretary, A. H. Breck-
enfeld.
At a meeting held February 24th, Mr.
Payzant showed the well-known but ever-
interesting spores of Aguzsetum, and called
attention to the wonderful sensitiveness to
moisture possessed by the spirally-coiled
‘elators’ with which each spore is fur-
nished.
A piece of wharf timber, completely rid-
dled by the perforations of 7eredo navalis,
the ship-worm, was shown by F. L. How-
ard, who read a short paper descriptive of
the structure and habits of this destructive
mollusc, and also of Lzmnoria terebrans,
a marine crustacean of the order Isopoda.
The latter organism is almost as destruc-
tive to submerged timber as the teredo,
but is much smaller, its length being only
about one-sixth of an inch. It is of ash-
gray color, eyes black, each composed of
about seven ocelli, thorax 7-jointed, each
joint bearing a pair of short legs. It has
two pairs of jaws, and a pair of strong man-
dibles, used for boring the wood. When
touched or disturbed, the animal rolls itself
into a ball. Its method of boring differs
from that of the teredo. The latter bores
smooth cylindrical perforations, which be-
come lined with a calcareous incrustation.
These excavations are always made in the
direction of the grain of timber, and only
deviate from the course when an obstacle
is met with, such asa hard knot, or the cal-
careous tube of a neighboring toredo. But
Limnoria appears to prefer cutting the tim-
ber across the grain. Living specimens of
both animals were shown to those present,
and were examined with much interest.
The Recording Secretary stated that he
had brought a number of slides which he
proposed to show under the micro-polari-
scope. Briefly alluding to the nature of
polarized light, he drew attention to the
rapidly increasing employment of the po-
lariscope in microscopical research.
Under his new ‘universal’ binocular,
A. S. Brackett exhibited various prepara-
tions.
At a meeting held March roth, a slide
of Spirogyra crassa, in fruit, was handed
~ mounted in phosphorus.
in by Mr. Breckenfeld, who stated that
Dr. Cooke, in his recently-published work
on ‘ Fresh-Water Algz,’ gave .16 mm. as
the largest recorded diameter of the fila-
ments of this interesting species — the
largest of its genus. But in the slide
under consideration, careful measure-
ments showed the average diameter of
the filaments to be 1-150 of an inch
(=.17 mm.), while in many cases the
diameter exceeded .18 mm. The Cali-
fornia variety was, therefore, the largest
in the world, owing probably to ‘our
glorious climate.’ The plant was found
growing in a ditch near Napa.
Under a Spencer dry -inch objective,
of 115° angle, were shown specimens of the
exquisite diatom, Ces/odiscus superbus, and
also the strize, or markings on the valves of
No. 18, on Méller’s probe-platte of diatoms,
The latter dia-
tom was also shown with a Gundlach fifth.
The ‘Improved Beck Microscope Lamp,’
just received by Dr. Selfridge, was exhib-
ited by him to the members present. It
has facilities for changing the direction,
angle, color, and intensity of the illumi-
nating beam, and seems in every way ex-
cellently adapted to the requirements of
the working microscopist.
A number of objects were splendidly
shown with Dr. Stallard’s fine one-twelfth-
inch oil immersion lens, of 1.43 numerical
aperture, made by Powell & Leland.
At the meeting of March 24th, Mr. E.
H. Griffith, of Fairport, N. Y., was present.
His reception was very cordial, and the use
of the Society’s rooms were tendered him
during his stay in the city. Mr. Griffith ex-
tended a warm invitation to the San Fran-
cisco Society to attend the coming meeting
at Chatauqua, N. Y.
Mr. Griffith presented to the Society a
handsome Griffith self- centering turn-
table.
A slide of the fossil deposit at Barbadoes
was shown by Mr. Norris.
A most interesting demonstration of the
capabilities of the oxy-hydrogen micro-
scope was then given by Mr. Edward W.
Runyon. The microscopical attachment
was of Mr. Runyon’s own designing, and is
screwed to the front of the lantern. The
nose-piece, to which the objectives are at-
tached, slides on three polished steel rods,
as does also the stage with its substage,
and both can be clamped in any desired
position. The objectives used in the ex-
hibition were a half-inch and an inch by
Bausch & Lomb, and also a half-inch by
Gundlach.
A. H. BRECKENFELD, Rec. Secr.
THE AMERICAN
MONTHLY
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
Wor V LT.
Wasuineton, D. C.,
May, 1886. No. 5.
Notices of New Fresh-Water Infu-
soria.—V.
BY DR. ALFRED C. STOKES.
Physomonas elongata, sp.
(Figs 1 and 2).
Body elongate-ovate, somewhat
changeable in shape, twice as long
as broad, often widest posteriorly,
and somewhat curved toward one
side anteriorly; free-swimming or
temporarily attached by a short, in-
conspicuous, posteriorly developed
pedicle; frontal border obliquely
truncate, the lip usually prominent ;
primary flagellum sub-equal to the
body in length, the secondary one
about one-third that length ; contrac-
tile vesicle single, small, spherical,
situated in the anterior body-half
near the lateral border; endoplasm
colorless, eee granular. Length
of body, 3555 inch. Habitat.—
Swamp water with decaying vegeta-
tion, from South Florida.
This conspicuously differs from
the previously recorded forms in the
absence of the subspherical contour
commonly considered characteristic
of the genus. The very short, tem-
porarily developed pedicle is another
well-marked point of divergence be-
tween this and the other two spe-
cies. Frequently no distinct pedicle
can be discerned, the attachment ap-
pearing to be accomplished by a
slight extension and conspicuous
acumination of the posterior extrem-
ity. Reproduction takes place by
longitudinal fission, the smaller more
nearly spherical resultant zooids be-
ing abundant in the same infusion
with the larger ovate individuals.
The species was abundant in its hab-
nov.
itat. The contractile vesicle is placed
on one side near that part of the
frontal border opposite to the lip-like
projection. Its movements are quick
and snapping.
Tetramtitus vartabtlis, sp. nov.
> S}
_ (Figs. 3, 4, and 5).
Body soft, changeable in shape,
obovate, with the anterior border
obliquely excavate, a short lip-like
prominence at its upper angle, or sub-
pyriform or subspherical, the frontal
border rounded, the posterior ex-
tremity obtusely pointed or evenly
convex ; flagella four, subequal, ex-
ceeding or “equalling the body in
length, inserted near the centre of
the anterior extremity; contractile
vesicles two, situated near the frontal
border, not close together ; nucleus
obscured by the gr anular endoplasm ;
food engulted at any portion of the
surface; body without grooves
Length, ;;'55 to z5, inch. Habi-
tat.—Standing water with decaying
vegetation.
This form markedly differs from
the three previously described spe-
cies in the entire absence of the lon-
gitudinal grooves and flattened cutic-
ular surfaces characteristic of those
animalcules. The species here de-
scribed was observed among decaying
vegetation with water from the cypress
swamps of South Florida. It was
accompanied by very many forms
familiar in our more northern waters,
and is itself probably not restricted
to Florida.
Urceolus sabulosus, sp. nov.
(Figs. 6 and 7).
Body flask-shaped, soft, flexible,
and elastic, normally compressed
82 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[May,
and somewhat gibbous, about twice
as long as broad, widest centrally,
obtusely pointed posteriorly, the en-
tire surface more or less covered,
often almost concealed, by adherent,
irregular and angular sand grains;
anterior extremity COiist iad to
form a short neck-like prolongation,
the circular border thickened. ex-
panded, and _ obliquely truncate ;
flagellum large, equalling or exceed-
ing the body in length; nucleus not
observed ; Contractile vesicle ( ?)
single, laterally placed near the an-
terior extremity ; pharynx apparently
extending to near the body-centre.
Length of body, ;}, inch. Habi-
tat.—Fresh water with Alge.
The movements of this remarkable
infusorian are usually rather rapid,
resembling those of Urceolus cyclos-
toma (Stein) Meresh. (Phialonema
cyclostoma Stein), the obliquely
truncate anterior extremity being ap-
plied to the submerged surface, and
the body lifted at an acute angle, the
vibrating tip of the flagellum ap-
pearing to be the only means by
which an advance is made. The
oral region and the entire body are
very soft and elastic, but scarcely
changeable in shape. The food par-
ticles and frequently small aggrega-
tions of minute fragments are drawn
into the oral aperture with some
force, often being quite violently
dragged away from their attachment.
The ‘phary ngeal passage and nucleus
were ppecuned by the abundance of
the cuticular coating of sand grains ;
the former, however, appeared to
reach the centre of the body.
The cuticular investment of sand
grains which is almost unique among
the fresh-water Infusoria, seems to
be entirely under the creature’s con-
trol, so far as the amount and ar-
rangement of the constituent parti-
cles are concerned. The process of
obtaining these grains is, so far as I
have observed, simply one of adhe-
sion. The infusorian passes above a
coveted particle and it adheres to the
presumably viscid surface. This is,
at least, the. process which takes
place on the stage of the microscope,
the silicious and other fragments ad-
hering wherever they come in contact
with the body surface. Their subse-
quent arrangement into the semblance
of a protective sheath I have not been
able to satisfactorily observe. It
seems, however, to be accomplished
by a slow movement or superficial
and deliberate circulation of the ecto-
plasm, by means of which the grains
are gradually moved into their places
according to their size and shape.
For several years I have frequently
met with small, ovate, actively-mov-
ing, uniflagellate organisms, the en-
tire speeds being more or less abun-
dantly clothed wale minute sand
grains; and now that this remark-
ably interesting infusorian has been
observed, to associate these little uni-
flagellate sand-bearers with it is an
irresistible impulse; but, although
the supposition of their intimate
connection is plausible, it has no
other than an imaginary basis. The
particular organism from which
figure 7 was made was ;34;5 inch
in length, and its load of sand was
unusually large. Similar but very
much smaller forms have been re-
peatedly observed from widely-sepa-
rated localities. These very small
uniflagellate bodies, however, are
generally the bearers of very few
sand particles, which are often ag-
gregated at the rounded summit or
on one lateral border. I now sus-
pect an intimate connection between
these little creatures and the mature
Urceolus sabulosus. If they are
not immature or developing forms.
of Urceolus, then they must -be a
unique species of Monas.
Chrysopyxts triangularts, sp.
nov. (Fig. 8.)
Lorica triangular, sessile, com-
pressed, the height slightly exceed-
ing the breadth, the posterior ex-
tremity truncate, the basal angles
rounded; lateral margins converg-
ing, with a more or less conspicu-
ous sub-central convex projection ;
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 83 -
aperture apical, the border produced
as a short, subcylindrical neck, the
-anterior margin truncate, not evert-
ed; enclosed animalcule subspheri-
cal, yellowish. Height of lorica
ae00° Width at base 754 inch; di-
ameter of enclosed zooid 3,4, to
z3uy inch. MHabitat.—The cypress
swamps of South Florida; abun-
dant on various confervoid Alge.
Chrysopyxts macrotrachela, sp.
nov. (Fig. g.)
Lorica somewhat bottle-shaped,
the body triangular, about twice as
high as wide, the posterior border
truncate, the basal angles rounded,
the lateral margins converging,
slightly convex ; aperture apical, the
border produced as a long, narrow,
Ssubcylindrical neck-like prolonga-
tion, in length equaling or slightly
exceeding the height of the lorica-
body, es pitetiot: margin truncate,
conspicuously everted. nee of
lorica et the neck 3,4, width
ob base 74/55 tO zy 3 length of neck
sano tO ge'zy inch. Habitat.—In
company with Ch. ¢triangularis,
but less abundant.
Chrysopyxts ampullacea, sp.
nov. (Fig. 10.)
Body of the lorica subhemispheri-
cal, the posterior border truncate,
the lateral margins rounded; aper-
ture produced fee a neck- ine pro-
longation in length equalling the
omen of the lorica, narrowest at
its origin, the lateral borders gradu-
ally diverging to the truncate frontal
margin. Height and diameter of mie
lorica body and length of neck 2250
inch; diameter of the enclosed ani-
malcule gy'g) inch. Habitat.—The
cypress swamps of South Florida.
Prorodon limnetis, sp. nov.
(Fig. rr.)
Body ovate, subcylindrical, soft
and flexible, twice as long as broad,
slightly curved toward one side ati-
teriorly, the lateral borders gently
concave, both extremities rounded ;
cuticular surface longitudinally striate
finely and entirely ciliate ; oral aper-
ture eccentric, the oral cilia more
conspicuously and abundantly de-
veloped than those of the general
surface ; pharyngeal passage a conical
rod-fascicle extending to near the
body centre; contractile vesicle sin-
gle, spherical, postero-terminal, fre-
quently leaving after systole a number
of small, spherical vacuoles ; nucleus
ovate, laterally placed in the posterior
body-half ; endoplasm semi-opaque
by the inclusion of peo dark
corpuscles. Length of body 54, inch.
Habitat. ‘Standing water, with de-
caying vegetation “from the cypress
swamps of South Florida.
This form seems to most nearly
approach P. teres, Ehr., differing
from it chiefly in the somewhat ec-
centric position of the oral aperture
in the well marked antero-lateral cur-
vature, and the slight but noticeable
concavity of the jaeeral borders. The
movements are rotary on the longitu-
dinal axis.
Trachelophyllum clavatum, sp.
nowa) (Pig. 12.)
Body elongate, flask-shaped or sub-
clavate, Sasha flattened, five to
six times as long as broad, elastic and
flexible, the neck-like anterior portion
scarcely distinguishable from the body
proper ; cilia vibrating irregularly
and somewhat independently ; oral
aperture terminal; pharynx an ob-
conical fascicle of fine rod-like ele-
ments, extending through the anterior
one- Eel of the body ; nucleus sin-
gle, ovate, subcentral; contractile
vesicle single, spherical, postero-
terminal, frequently leaving two or
more smaller vacuoles ie systole ;
endoplasm granular. Length of body
743 inch. Piainitae —Standing water
on decaying vegetation eon South
Florida.
The animalcule’s movements are
rather slow and smoothly gliding,
with frequent bending and curving
of the anterior region as the creature
searches heaps of detritus for food.
The pharyngeal fascicle is distinct
even during life, but after death by
iodine poisoning, the body becomes
diffluent and the pharynx floats out
84 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[May,
as a disarranged cluster of extremely
fine hair-like rods. There seems to
be no connecting membrane. Dur-
ing life the infusorian has the power,
which it frequently exercises, of ex-
panding the posterior portion of the
fascicle and thus apparently separating
the constituent rods. After death the
latter become entirely free, except at
the anterior points of attachment
around the oral aperture. The
species is the only one thus far re-
corded with a single nucleus.
Perisptra str ophosoma, sp. nov.
(Bie. 12)) 3
Body elongate ovate, often some-
what curved toward the right-hand
side, about four times as long as
broad, bearing a ridge-like elevation
extending as a single. long spiral from
the left-hand corner of the obliquely
truncate anterior border to the evenly
rounded posterior extremity; cilia
long and fine, arranged in a row on
each side of the spiral elevation ;
contractile vesicle single, spherical,
postero-terminal ; nucleus ovate, near
the centre of one lateral border ; oral
and anal apertures not observed ; en-
doplasm crowded with small, oblong,
cele bordered corpuscles. Length
gy inch. Habitat.—Standing water
with Sphagnum. Movements rotary
on the longitudinal axis.
The cilia Sa the general cuticular
surface are very fine and extremely
difficult to see when the infusorian
is swimming; only when weakened
by prolonged confinement beneath
the cover-glass, or when dying from
the effects of dilute solution of per-
chloride of iron, can the observer
positively determine their existence.
Lacrymarta teres, sp. nov. (Fig.
14). ;
Body elongate-clavate, subcylin-
drical, very soft and flexible, six to
seven times as long as broad, narrow-
est and somewhat attenuate and de-
pressed anteriorly ; posterior extrem-
ity rounded; anterior border ob-
liquely and convexly truncate ; cuticu-
lar surface finely striate longitudinal-
ly ; ciliain the apical groove Sandee: -
general cuticular surface not con-
spicuously differing in size; contrac-
tile vesicle consisting of two con--
spicuous spherical vacuoles, one
postero-terminal, the other situated
in the anterior body-half near one
lateral border, the two connected by
a narrow, tortuous, canal-like chan-
nel penetrating the endoplasm, and
often laterally developing spherical
or irregular lacune; oral aperture
terminal; endoplasm granular.
Length of body ;4, to +4, inch.
Habitat.—Standing water with de-
caying vegetation from the cypress
swamps of South Florida.
This species differs from Z. traz-
cata Stokes, not only in size and
more cylindrical contour, but chiefly
in the possession of the complex con-
tractile vesicles, and in the absence
of the remarkably convoluted nucleus
characteristic of that infusorian. The
animalcules abounded in the habitat
mentioned, but in none, even after
the repeated application of reagents
and _ staining fluids, could a nucleus
be ohecancen
The oral aperture is remarkably
expansile. Repeatedly the infusorian
has been observed to seize Dexdzofrz-
cha plagia Stokes, so that the latter
animalcule was at right angles to the
body of the Lacrymaria, yet the oral
aperture expanded until its width al-
most equalled the length of the cap-
fo)
tured zooid, a length equal to about
aha inch.
Leucophrys curvilata, sp. nov.,
(Fig. 15).
Body ovate, one and one- half to
twice as long as broad, slightly widest
posteriorly, somewhat curved toward
the left-hand side, the right-hand bor-
der longest, the left-hand margin ante-
riorly concave, the dorsal surface con-
vex, the ventral flattened; anterior
border obliquely excavate, the poste-
rior evenly rounded; the cuticular —
surface longitudinally striate ; cilia of
the posterior border longest and most
conspicuous ; peristome field extend-
ing through the anterior one-fourth of
the ventral aspect; oral aperture
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 85
ovate ; pharyngeal passage long, tub-
ular, curving toward the right-hand
side and extending to the centre of
that border, apparently ciliated ; nu-
cleus band-like, convolute, subcen-
tral; contractile vesicle posteriorly
placed, with a channel like
diverticulum extending to the
centre of each lateral border ;
endoplasm colorless, trans-
parent, or containing numer-
ous dark granules; anal aper- [
ture in close proximity to thet ‘2
contractile vesicle. Length
of body ;4, to st, inch.
Habitat. — Standing water g
with decaying vegetation.
Occasionally a posteriorly
developed emargination is
temporarily developed, due
probably to the position of
the anal aperture. Conju-
gation has been frequently
observed, union taking place
by means of a portionof the
antero-ventral region, and ap-
parently involving the oral
aperture, the zooids then
swimming with the ventral
surfaces parallel. No trace
of the animal chlorophylle
which so crowds the subcuti-
cular region of ZL. emargt-
mata Stokes, is here visible,
the endoplasm being almost
hyaline.
Strombidinopsis acumt-
nata, sp. nov. (Fig. 16).
Body elongate-ovate, sub-
cylindrical, slightly con-
stricted anteriorly, less than
three times as long as broad,
somewhat gibbous posteri-
orly, that extremity termi-
nated by a short, conspicu-
ous, eccentric acumination; an-
teriorly somewhat laterally curved,
—
the oral aperture surrounded by a
slight depression and followed by a
conical, longitudinally plicate pha-
rynx; adoral ciliary wreath circular,
the cilia but slightly longer than those
of the general surface ;
contractile
New Fresh-water Infusoria.*
vesicle near the posterior extremity ;
endoplasm granular. Length of body
the frontal border centrally elevated, | ;4, to g4, inch. Habitat.—Standing
* EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.
Fig. 1,2. Physomonas elongata.
Fig 3, 4,5. Zetramitus variabicis.
Fig. 6,7 Urceolus sabulosus.
Fig. 8. Chrysopyxis triangularis.
Fig. 9. Ch, macrotrachela.
Fig. 10. Ch. ampullacea.
Fig. 11. Prorodon limnetis.
Fig. 312. Trachelophyllum clavatum.
Fig. 13. Perispira strophosoma.
Fig. 14. Lacrymaria teres.
Fig. 15. Leucophrys curvilata.
Fig. 16. Strombidinopsts acuminata.
Fig. 17. Vorticella Floridensts.
Fig. 18. Cothurnia Canthocampti,
86 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[May,
water with decaying vegetation from
South Florida.
Usually the prominent acumination
projects suddenly from the rounded
extremity; with other individuals
from the same infusion the part more
gradually tapers from the body. The
movements of the zooid are rapid,
irregular, and difficult to follow. The
structure can be satisfactorily studied
only after death by poisoning, or when
the animalcule is taking food. Inthe
latter case the body is shortened and
broadened, while the oral aperture
is greatly Hilatede easily engulfing, as
repeatedly witnessed, ‘the compara-
tively large Chzlomonas parame-
ceum Ehr.
Vorticella Floridensts, sp. nov.
(Fig 17).
Body conical- -campanulate, chang-
able in shape, less than twice as long
as broad, very finely striate trans-
versely; peristome exceeding the
body in width, the border everted
but scarcely revolute; ciliary disc
elevated ; pedicle three or four times
as long as the body, the muscular
endoplasm colorless,
thread stout ;
finely granular ; contracted body sub-
pyriform, the posterior extremity
Se Cae em See z sake ae
invaginate. Length of body 3h
inch. Habitat. water
from the cypress swamps of South
Florida.
The change in the form of the
body consists chiefly of elongation
and compression with irregularly
developed lateral depressions.
Cothurnia Canthocam ptt, sp.
nov. (Fig. 18).
Lorica ovate somewhat gibbous,
less than three times as long as broad,
widest centrally, the anterior border
truncate, not everted, the aperture
circular ; pedicle straight or slightly
curved, transversely plicate, from one-
third to one-fifth the length of the
lorica; enclosed zooid transversely
striate, attached posteriorly by a
short continuation of the external
foot-stalk ; when expanded, only the
peristome border usually extending
beyond the lorica. Length of Sheath
34, inch. MHabitat.—On Cantho-
camptus minutus.
This differs from C. astacz Stein,
which it somewhat resembles, in the
absence of eversion of the anterior
border, the transverse striation of
the cuticular surface, and in the very
short distance to which the expanded
zooid extends beyond the lorica mar-
gin. In size the twoare very similar.
oO
Mosses.*
The mosses are humble plants, but
they have no insignificant part to
play in the economy of Nature, or in
the coloring of the landscape; trees,
rocks, and old ruins lookgrand un-
der their covering ; whilst the va-
rious species of Sphagnum, which
grow in boggy places, perform an
important part in the formation of
turfy soil. These aquatic mosses
grow very rapidly, so as in a very
short time to occupy the whole of
the pools which they inhabit. The
genus Phascum are very minute
species, found plentifully in fallow
fields, but the large family of Hyp-
nums are the most conspicuous, and
often elegant plants, commonly seen
on tree trunks, old walls, &c. The
mosses can be gathered all the year
round, although they vary in their
period of oa ering; for example,
the Funaria is always in good con-
dition for examination; on the other
hand, the Phascum blossoms in early
summer, and is ripe in the autumn,
but the /Zypzam, in many instances,
takes twelve months to form the ma-
ture capsule, or theca.
The specimen selected for exami-
nation is the /uzarza hygrometrica
L. First make a section of the stem
(fig. 10), and compare with any vas-
cular cryptogam, such as the fern;
it will be seen to differ widely, in the
absence of vascular bundles. In most
mosses we find an outer layer of thick
walled cells which passes into a mass
of tissue in the centre. ‘These are not
sharply defined, and are said to per-
form the function of a vascular bun-
* Reprinted from Sczence Gossip.
4
4
i
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
87
dle, in the conduction of sap. Now
note the leaves of /uxarza (fig. 11),
by plucking off any of the upper ones,
and place beneath a cover slip in a
drop of water. They are of a sim-
FIG. 10.
ple structure, with the exception of
the midrib, and consist of a single
layer of parenchyma, containing
granules of chlorophyll; it origi-
nates from the bulging of a stem
cell, afterwards separated by a lon-
Fic. 11.
gitudinal partition. Then carefully
look out a stem bearing in the apex
a quantity of differentiated leaves in
a circular tuft; this is the perigo-
nium, amongst which we shall find
the reproductive organs. Pluck off
a few of the leaves with a fine pair of
forceps, near the centre, and search
for the antheridia (fig. 11, @), or a
longitudinal section may be made;
but I have found it far easier to
point out the male organs as di-
rected above. The student must be
careful not to mistake the paraphy-
ses for the antheridia; the former
are filiform structures, or abortive
leaves, the antheridia are on short
stems. Place the antheridium
beneath a higher
power (fig. 12). It
is seen to be a stalked
sac, composed of a
layer of chlorophyll,
bearing cells when
young, but they as-
sume a red dish tint
before bursting.
They are filled with
very minute anthero-
zoids. On another
stem, but taller than
the last, will be found
the archegonia (fig.
13). Makea section
by holding the stem
betwixt the thumb
and finger, and gent-
ly pushing the razor
from you, then float out the sections in
in a bowl of water, select a few,
FIG. 12.
88
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[May,
carefully spreading them out with a
needle on the slide, then search for
the archegonia. It consists of two
portions, the lower ovate (fig. 13,
a), and the upper. or neck, of arche-
gonium (fig. 13, 6). The archego-
nium is ruptured by the fertilized
oosphere, often in such a way that,
while the lower part remains as a
sheath, the neck is elevated as a cap
now known as the calyptra on the
top of the theca or capsule. On
the top of the theca is a small lid,
or operculum. When this is re-
moved, the mouth or stoma is seen
surrounded by a beautiful series of
teeth called the peristome (fig. 14) ;
Fic. 14.
the stalk supporting the theca is the
seta. Now prepare a section of
the theca. Fig;
15 @ is the colu-
h mella, and fig. 15
\\ 6 the operculum,
| beneath which is
gthe peristome.
y | || When the spores
germinate its ends
out a filiform
body, known as
the protenema, or
proembryo, on
which the young
plantis developed.
The root hairs,
which will be
found at the base
of the stem and
which take the
place of true roots,
i
Ih)
FIG, 15.
are called rhizoids, play an important
part in the economy of these plants.
Detached leaves of the Funaria placed
on moist soil will produce the pro-
tenema. gi
FoR
~-— ( )
The New Objectives and Oculars.
Since our last issue, in which a
notice of the new objective and ocu-
lars by Mr. Zeiss was published, we
have received the advance sheets of
the Journ. Royal Micr. Soc., with
an article giving more detailed in-
formation concerning the subject,
from which we quote the following
paragraphs :—
‘ For some months past it has been
known that we were on the eve of
an important advance in objectives,
depending mainly on the elimination
of the secondary spectrum, leaving
only a small tertiary spectrum....
‘ Two objectives have now been re-
ceived in this country, and their ex-
amination has fully borne out the ex-
pectation formed of them, and has
shown that however trifling the im-
provement might at first sight be
thought to be on theoretical grounds,
it is very distinctly appreciable, so
that the high power work of the fu-
ture will almost necessarily be done
with these glasses.
‘ The objectives in question are both
4 inch. The special point in their
construction is that they are made of
new kinds of optical glass, which
Prof.. Abbe and Dr. Schott haye
been working for the last five years
to perfect. The objectives are com-
posed of ten single lenses, combined
to five separate lenses, with a single
front lens. Their working distance
is 0.25 mm., and in order to secure
this the aperture is limited to 1.40
N.A. With the length of tube en-
graved on the setting (taken from
the nose-piece to the eye-lens), the
objectives have their best correction
for a cover-glass of 0.16-0.18 mm.
Much thinner covers require a length-
ening of the tube by 10-25 mm. fur-
ther. They are very sensitive in re-
inte GTER
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 89
gard to length of tube, and the
change in this length is the simplest,
and in fact the best, means for slight
corrections for different covers—the
reason being that a change of that
kind does not alter the proper balance
of the various corrections (spherical,
chromatic, and_ sphero-chromatic),
whilst an alteration in the distance of
the lenses of the objective from one
another, as is done by a screw-collar,
does disturb that balance to the in-
jury of the performance of the ob-
jective. It may be possible to finda
formula which will be less sensitive
in regard to this question of correc-
tion, but until it is found, Dr. Zeiss,
by whom the objectives are made,
will not supply any with correction-
collars, so as to convert a good ob-
jective into a medium one for the
sake of a non-essential convenience
only.
‘ A novel point in connection with
the objective is that its performance
is improved by the use of special
eye-pieces, of which two are sup-
plied, of 25 mm. and 15 mm. focal
length. Their function is to com-
pensate for certain aberrations outside
the axis, which cannot be compen-
sated for in the objective. With
these eye-pieces, particularly with
that of 25 mm. focal length, the field
of view is surprisingly anifoven
‘Of the ten lenses of which the
objective is composed, two only are
of siliceous glass, the other eight be-
ing made On Wee and phosphates.
The crown and flint glass now used
by opticians does not contain (as es-
sential components) more than six
chemical elements, O, Ca, K, Na,
Pb, and Si, whilst the new objective
contains not less than fourteen ele-
ments.
‘The optical principle on which
the objectives have been constructed
is indicated in a paper by _ Prof.
Abbe,* ‘‘ On new methods for im-
roving spherical correction,” &c.
In fact, all the work of Prof. Abbe
* Journ. R, Micr. Soc, ii, (1879) 42.
and Dr. Schott during the five years
has been solely directed to finding
the proper means for the realization
of the desideratum there mentioned,
viz., doing away with the secondary
chromatic aberration, and with the
chromatic difference of spherical ab-
erration. The proper means was
found in special kinds of glass,
which allowed of proportional dis-
persions in different parts of the
spectrum, and which at the same
time exhibit different relations be-
tween the refractive indices and dis-
persive powers. By these means a
more perfect concentration of all the
rays emanating from the object is
obtained. With the old kinds of
crown and flint glass two different
colors only could whe collected to one
focus, a secondary spectrum remain-
ing uncorrected, whilst the new ob-
jectives collect three rays of differ-
ent colors to one focus, leaving a
small tertiary spectrum only. More-
over, spherical correction has hith-
erto been confined to rays of one
color, being made for the central
part of the spectrum, the objective
remaining under-corrected spher-
ically for “the red rays and over-cor-
rected for the blue rays. In the new
objectives, however, the correction
of the spherical aberration is ob-
tained for ¢wo different rays of the
spectrum, that igi practically for all
colors at the same time, and the ob-
jective shows the same degree of chro-
matic correction for the Benen al as for
the marginal part of the aperture. All
this requires greater complication in
the construction, hence the use of
five lenses instead of the four hith-
erto employed. In addition, uni-
formity of amplification by the va-
rious zones of the clear aperture has
been obtained in a higher degree
than could hitherto be done.
‘The objectives will be specially
useful in photo-micrography where
the correction of the secondary spec-
trum will be found of considerable
practical advantage. Not only is
there no difference in the optical
90 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[May,
and chemical foci, but the image
formed by the chemical rays is in
itself much more perfect. This ad-
vantage is very clearly verified by
_ experimental trials which have been
made. For photo- nueHOeaDyy a
third eye-piece magnifying 24 times
is supplied, the lenses of Sons or can
be slightly separated for exact ad-
justment of the i image.
‘Two series of objectiv es will be
constructed, one adapted for the
short Continental body-tube and the
other for the long English body-tube,
and there will Tee a corresponding
‘¢ compensating” series of eye-pieces.
The homogeneous-immersion lenses
will have apertures of 1.40 N.A. and
1.30 N.A., and focal lengths of 3.0mm.
and 2.0mm., the latter with much in-
creased working distance. The water-
immersion lenses will have an aperture
of 1.25 N.A. and a focal length of
2.5 mm., and the dry leneee 0.95
N.A., 0.60 N.A., and 0.30: N.A.,
with focal lengths of 4 mm., 8 mm.,
and 16 mm.
‘We append what will we think
be of interest to many of the Fellows,
a brief account of what we under-
stand to be the history of the con-
struction of the new glass, though, as
we have not been able to submit it
to Prof. Abbe, he must not be under-
stood to endorse it in any way.
‘The origin of the matter was
Prof. Abbe’s Report on the Micro-
scopes of the South Kensington Ex-
hibition published in 1878.* This
contained at the end some general
considerations as to the unfulfilled
requirements of practical optics in
regard to the properties of optical
glass, and complaints of the unfavor-
able conditions then existing. Dr.
O. Schott (of Witten, in Westphalia),
a chemist, but long versed in practi-
cal glass-making, and who had made
some remarkable researches on the
physical properties of glass, read the
report, and in the beginning of 1881,
having morpmnenaee se ath IP ots
*Journ. R. Micr. Soc., iv, (1884) 291.
Abbe, they commenced a preliminary
study of the optical properties of
the various chemical elements as far
as they admit of ‘* vitrificable ” com-
binations. This was conducted at
first on a very small scale, Dr. Schott
working alone at Witten, and the op-
tical part of the research being car-
ried out at Jena. After a year it
was decided to continue the experi-
ments on a larger scale, with the
object not only to determine the op-
tical effects of various elements, but
to try the production of practically
useful combinations. In January,
1882, Dr. Schott settled at Jena, and
he and Prof. Abbe established a com-
plete melting-laboratory with large
gas-furnaces, a gas engine for driving
blowers, X&c., dad wi the aid of
two assistants for the chemical and the
optical part of the work, and of sevy-
eral workmen, the experimental re-
search was continued there for two
years.
* The general direction of the work
was based on the principles indicated
in the Report of 1878, and in the
paper in this Journal before men-
tioned. According to these princi-
ples, there were “two distinct ob-
jects :— To obtain a greater vari-
ject (1) To obtain a greater var
ety of the optical properties of the
glass in regard to the relation of the
refractive to the dispersive power.
The existing kinds of optical glass
constituted nearly a line, z. e., the
dispersion increasing always aah
the refraction, with very slight devia-
tions only. The object was to com-
bine glasses which, if arranged ac-
cording to z and /(\ x, would not be
confined to a linear series, but would
embrace an area of a certain breadth,
one value of z admitting various
values of /\ ~, and vice versd, as far
as possible.
(2) The second problem was :-—
To procure kinds of glass of differ-
ent relative dispersions, in which
the dispersions should be propor-
tional, as near as possible, in differ-
ent parts of the spectrum (the prob-
lem of ‘‘ secondary chromatism”’).
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 91
‘Tn regard to the general research,
Prof. Abbe and Dr. Schott had
predecessor in the late Rev. W.
Harcourt, who worked at the subject
in conjunction with Prof. G. G.
Stokes. They could not, however,
use his results, as all that was pub-
lished about them is very fragment-
ary and very indefinite, and they
were obliged to begin quite anew.
Nevertheless, one important fact was
brought to a practical result, viz:
the very peculiar property of boracic
acid in regard to the second problem,
the new observations being only
confirmation of Prof. Stokes’s ac-
count of the glass-samples produced
by the Rev. W. Harcourt (though in
other essential points the results do
not confirm the statements of Prof.
Stokes).
‘Dr. Schott had succeeded, after
the first months of his melting at
Witten, in obtaining fusions of very
small quantities—down to 100
grammes—with a remarkable degree
of homogenity, admitting of an ex-
act measurement of the refraction and
dispersion by means of spectrometric
observation. This was the very
basis of advance, because it allowed of
a continuous and strict co-operation
of the chemical and optical research.
Every change of chemical composi-
tion could be immediately controlled,
in regard to the optical effect, by
measurement.
‘The fusions were obtained by
means of gas-furnaces, and with cru-
cibles of very different kinds—a great
number with platinum penainled and
tools—in quantities of from 50
grammes to 12 kilos, according to the
particular object, nearly all chemical
elements being submitted to trial ;
there is even glass containing 10 or
20 per cent. of mercury.
‘A large number of analyses had
been executed by the assistants up to
the end of 1883, and more than 600
prisms were ground and measured
by the spectrometer. Since then this
figure has reached 1000. As it would
haye been detrimental to the progress |
of the work to depend on the weather,
the spectrometer measurements were
always made by means of the five
bright lines, Ka, Ha, Na, H/, Hy,
after the methods described in Prof.
Abbe’s paper, ‘‘ Neue Apparate,”
Sc.
‘ There were innumerable difficul-
ties to be overcome in order to obtain
compositions which should not only
show the optical properties desired,
but at. the same time fulfil so many
other requirements for optical glass ;
and many repeated trials were neces-
sary for one and the same subject
before a satisfactory result could be
obtained. It is due to the ingenuity
and energy of Dr. Schott that these
obstacles were overcome.
‘Towards the end of 1883, Prof.
Abbe and Dr. Schott had exhausted
the programme, as far as appeared
possible in a laboratory-research, and
were about to close the aflair and
publish the results, as showing the
possibilities of a series of new kinds
of optical glass, and thereby giving
an impulse, as was hoped, to its man-
ufacture. At this period, however,
several distinguished astronomers
and physicists, who had taken notice
of these researches, encouraged them
to go one step further, and to under-
take the practical utilization of the
results in the way of manufacture.
Through the aid of these eentlemen
a subsidy was obtained fron the Prus-
sian Government (though Jena is not
in Prussia) to continue the experi-
ments, so as to establish a manufac-
ture of optical glass, which did not
exist in Germany. Messrs. Zeiss,
who had already furthered the work
since the beginning in the most lib-
eral manner, “by putting all the per-
sonal and technical resources of their
establishment at Prof. Abbe and Dr.
Schott’s disposal, united with them,
and in the beginning of 1854 glass-
works were set up, with a large fur-
nance and machinery. The Prussian
Government’s subsidy was 3000/., and
given under conditions as liberal as
any government has ever granted
92 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[May,
when putting public money into the
hands of private persons.
‘The new furnace was lighted i in
September, 1884, and since that time
Dr. Schott has been actively engaged,
almost day and night, in over coming
the difficulties ae the operations.
The experiences of other manufactur-
ers being inaccessible to a new com-
petitor, everything had to be learned
anew. A year later the first part of
the matter was brought to an end—
the production of the ordinary sili-
ceous glass, and this, since last
autumn, is used by nearly all German
opticians. In a few months, it is
hoped that the borates and the phos-
phates will also admit of regular pro-
duction, and then the Jena | manufac-
tory will be opened for the supply of
optical glass on a strictly scientific
basis.
‘This extension of the work has
had the effect of delaying the intro-
duction of better glass Ghee micro-
scopical optics by more than two
years. In the summer of 1883, suf-
ficient materials had been obtained
for the construction of microscope-
lenses, and, in fact, the first objectives
were made by Messrs. Zeiss at that
period, but after it had been decided
to establish a manufactory with the
aid of public money, Messrs. Zeiss
were obliged to abstain from using
the new glass, and to wait until the
latter should be accessible to other
opticians also.
‘ At present the objectives are not
on sale, but it is expected that very
shortly both objectiv es and glass can
be purchased in the usual way.
O
Photo-Micrography.
BY THE EDITOR.
[Continued from fp. 7o. |
VI.
4. Developing.
In continuation of this part of the
subject we proceed to describe the
process of developing an exposed
plate, with the ferrous oxalate devel-
oper, after which the pyrogallic acid
or so called pyrodeveloper will be
considered.
a. Ferrous oxalate develop-
ment.
This developer has always been a
favorite one with us, because it
works so clean, and gives negatives
free from color. Many writers af-
firm that it is not equal to pyro in
bringing out details on a plate, par-
ticularly if the exposure has been
insufficient for the subject. We can
only say in reply to such statements
that if a plate has been exposed long
enough to give a picture of any
value, it can be developed perfectly
well with ferrous oxalate, and when
the ferrous oxalate will not develop
the details, an attempt to bring them
out with pyro will result in a fogged
plate. Such a proceeding is never
to be advised, for a plate not suffi-
ciently exposed cannot yield a good
picture by developing with a strong
developer. In passing, however, it
may be remarked that this is pre-
cisely the course recommended by
many writers in the photographic
magazines—a course fatal to success
in every case.
That the beginner may know when
the exposure has been about right it
may be said that in a properly ex-
posed plate the picture develops
slowly, and gradually increases in
strength while the contrasts between
light and dark parts are decided, and
as clear as in the subject. If the
white parts become covered and the
plate looks as though it was devel-
oping all over at once, it is an indica-
tion of over-exposure, and the begin-
ner would do well to discard it and
repeat the exposure. Sometimes
beginners try plate after plate and
ail to get good pictures, and cannot
vedere, the reason for such fail-
ures. Usually the fault is in expos-
ing too long. A good way to get
me proper ‘time is to draw the dark
slide say one-third out and expose
about one second, then draw it a
little further out and expose another
second, then draw it entirely out and
ee ee
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 93
expose as quick as possible. This
is for landscape work. For photo-
micrography do the same but: give
longer exposures. On developing it
will be seen what part of the plate
is properly exposed.
The composition of the develop-
ing solutions is given in formula 1
below.
Place the plate to be developed, film
side up, in the developing pan in the
dark room lighted with ruby or orange
light, and pour over it sufficient solu-
tion to cover it. Then keep up a
rocking motion, causing the devel-
oper to flow constantly over the plate.
Ina few seconds the image will ap-
pear, and gradually grow in strength.
Continue the operation until all the
details of the subject are visible on
the film side. This may require five
minutes or half an hour, according
to the exposure given. The beginner
will find it difficult to tell when the
development is carried far enough.
In an ordinary landscape, watch the
shadows, which are the light parts on
the developing plate, and if there
are any details in the deep shadows
of the subject, continue the develop-
ment until they appear. Ifthey do not
appear'the plate requires a longer ex-
posure in the camera. If they do
appear, remember in the subsequent
operations they will apparently lose
some of their strength, so do not
cease developing until they are dis-
tinctly brought out. The shadows
in deep-shaded foliage will sometimes
remain quite clear while the remain-
der of the picture is fully developed.
In such cases do not spoil the princi-
pal part of the picture for the sake
of the detail in the shadows. Judg-
ment must be used in this work, and
it will soon be discovered that when
a subject has strong contrasts of light
and shade, the light parts must be a
trifle over exposed to get detail in the
shadows. Such a subject requires
special work in the developing, which
will be subsequently considered. If,
instead of a landscape, the picture be
taken to portray a special object, a
house, or a group of persons out of
doors, then the development must be
conducted with special reference to
the part of the picture desired, and
when the details of that part are
strong enough, the remainder of the
picture is worthy of only secondary
consideration.
The detail in the shadows being
out, it then becomes necessary to
judge of the strength of the picture.
This is done by looking through the
plate toward the ruby light. The
operator soon learns to judge of the
density in this way, but here the
thickness of the film must be taken
into account. When the film is thin
the picture may be developed until it
can be distinctly seen from the back
of the plate by reflected light. When
the film is quite thick it is more diffi-
cult to judge concerning the density
of the image. It is not likely to de-
velop through the film so as to be
visible at the back, and the only in-
dication we can have is by looking
through it. The beginner is almost
sure to stop development of sucha
plate too soon. A good rule with
thick films is to develop until one is
sure they are done, and then continue
the operation for sometime longer.
When fully developed, remove the
plate from the tray, and place it under
the tap of running water for a few
moments. or in a tray of water to
wash off the developer. Then trans-
fer it to a tray containing a solution
of alum prepared according to form-
ula8. Thealum solution prevents the
irregular swelling up and loosening
of the film from the glass, which is
sometimes troublesome in warm
weather. It hardens the film and
makes it less subject to injury. In
five or ten minutes remove the plate
from the alum tray and wash it quite
thoroughly.
Then place it in the hyposulphite
of soda fixing solution formula 9.
This solution dissolves all the silver
compounds in the film that have not
been changed by, and are still sensi-
tive to, light. All the white portions
94 . THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[May,
of the negative will disappear in this
solution, and when no more white is
visible when the plate is examined
from the back, it may be removed
from the solution, washed thoroughly
in water, and set on the rack to dry.
When dry the negative is ready for
use. It may be protected by a coat
of negative varnish, which is ‘applied
by pouring it on the slightly warmed
plate held horizontal in the hand,
flowing it over every part and pour-
ing the excess off one corner back
te the bottle. Varnishing is not
necessary if the plates are need with
reasonable care, but it is strongly
advised for valuable negatives.
Pyro development must be deferred
until next month, as well as instruc-
tions for treating plates not properly
exposed.
FORMULAS.
We have selected a few of the best
formulas, every one of which we can
recommend with the fullest confi-
dence. Get the chemicals from deal-
ers in photographic goods, for they
know what is required.
The largest firms in New York are
The Scovill Manufacturing Com-
pany, 423 Broome st., and E. & H.
id Be Wuthony & Co., 591 Broadway.
They have many agents throughout
the country. Messrs. Walmsley &
@ou,.m Philadelphia, have every thing
of the kind, and in Boston the Blair
Tourograph Company, Tremont
street, do a large business in this line.
Send for their price-lists, and order
from them, as we have known several
instances when beginners have failed
in their work by using the wrong
chemicals, which were purchased at
drug stores.
Formula 1.
veloper.
A. Neutral Oxalate of Potash, Satu-
rated Solution. When dissolved, add
concentrated solution of oxalic acid
until a piece of blue litmus paper in
the solution turns red. Let sediment
settle, and pour off the clear liquid.
B. Ferrous Sulphate (Copperas),
Saturated Solution.
Ferrous Oxalate De-
To each ounce of the solution add
about one drop of ordinary sulphuric
acid. Keep ina well corked bottle.
For use, pour 1 part of B slowly
into 16 parts of A. The mixed de-
veloper is of a fine red color, and
should be perfectly clear. The pro-
portions given are for fine, soft nega-
tives. Most writers advise 1 to 8,
some go as faras1 to3. Those who
use such strong developers condemn
the ferrous oxalate, and say it gives
no control over the development.
Possibly, the fault is not in the de-
veloper. With such proportions we
should think not! Any developer
will give good pictures if properly
used.
Formula 2. Restrainer.
Potassium Bromide, saturated so-
lution in water.
This restrainer can be used with
all developers. It is well to keep it
in a small-necked bottle with a drop-
ping tube, ready for immediate use.
Formula 3. ‘Dr. Eder’s Normal
Developer.
A. Neutral sulphite of
soda, 25 grammes.
Sulphuric acid, S drops.
Pyrogallic acid, 12 grammes.
Water, IO G.c.
B. Neutral sulphite of
soda, 25 grammes.
Carbonate of pot-
ash, go a:
Water, ZOOICEES
A gramme is equal to about 15.4
grains. 34 cubic centimetres make
a fluid drachm, 28.4 c.c. an ounce.
For use add 1 part of a to 20 of water,
and 1 part of B to 20 of water, and
mix the solutions in equal parts.
Formula 4. Allen & Rowell’s De-
veloper.
A. Water, 5 ounces.
Sulphuric acid, 30 drops.
Ammonium bromide, 60 grains.
Pyrogallic acid, 4 ounce.
B. Water,
Crystallized sul-
phite of soda,
Potassium bromide,
4 ounces.
360 grains.
180¢)s¢
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
95
Strong liquor am-
monia, 5 drachms.
For use add 1 part of a to 20 of
water, and 1 part of B to 20 of wa-
ter, and mix the solutions in equal
parts.
Formula 5. Carbutt’s Developer.
A. Water, IO ounces.
Citric acid,
Crystalized sulphite of
soda,
Pyrogallic acid,
Water to oie up to
Water,
Crystalized sulphite of
soda,
60 grains.
2 ounces.
I ounce.
16 ounces.
IO ounces.
2 ounces.
Carbonate of potash, 4 ounces.
Water to make up to 16 ounces.
Use 4 to 4 drachm of a and B to
each ounce of water to make the de-
veloper.
Formula 6. Newton’s Developer.
A. Washing soda, 500 grains.
Water, IO ounces.
B. Ovxalic acid, 30 grains.
Pyrogallic acid! 20 grains.
Ammonium Bromide. 10 grains.
Water, IO ounces.
Use equal parts of A and B.
This formula was given before the
addition of sulphite of soda to the
developer became as universal as it is
now. The sulphite can be added to
the above without changing the other
proportions.
Formula 7. Carbutt’s Transpa-
rency Developer.
A. Neutral oxalate potash § ounces.
Water, aa) EES
Citric acid, 60 grains.
Potassium bromide, 180 se
B. Ferrous sulphate, 2 ounces.
Water, 42 ae
Sulphuric acid, 8 drops.
For use mix equal parts, pouring
B into A.
This developer is intended to give
clear whites, and is probably as
good as any for transparencies.
The Eastmann Dry Plate Company
have a pyrodeveloper consisting of
a single solution, which they sell.
It Wie only to ye mixed with the
proper proportion of water, when it
is ready for use. This is a very
convenient developer, especially if
one is travelling; the only objection
we can see to it is that one can
scarcely have as perfect control over
the progress of development as when
the pyro and alkali are in separate
bottles, to be used as required. Still,
by changing the strength of the
solution one can exercise some con-
trol, and probably enough for most
cases. This developer also possesses
the advantage that it can be used
several times, so there is economy of
pyro. The developer probably does
not materially differ from others
except in the large quantity of sul-
phite it contains.
Formula 8. Alum Solution.
Alum, I ounce.
Water, IO ounces.
This solution is used for hardening
the gelatin film after development.
With ferrous oxalate development it
is only required in warm weather.
When dev eloping with pyro, about
one drachm of oxalic acid should be
added to the above, the effect of
which is to remove the yellow color,
which is often very objectionable.
Formula 9. Fixing Solution.
Hyposulphite of Soda, 4 ounces.
W ater, 20 ounces.
It is just as well to make a satu-
rated solution of the hyposulphite,
and to use it full strength or diluted
with a fourth its volume of water.
The strength of the solution is not of
much consequence, unless, as some
persons suppose, a strong solution
tends to cause frilling.
[ To be continued. |
aap}
Provisional Key to Classification of
Algw of Fresh Water.— VIII.
BY THE EDITOR.
| Continued from p. 53-|
The reader will observe that a mis-
take in numbering the families was
made on page 51 ; Conjugate should
be XI and Bacillariaceze should be
XII. We have now completed the
classification of the green alge, and
96 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[May,
will proceed to consider the genera
known under the general name of
nostocs.
V. ORDER SCHIZOSPORE#:.
Unicellular or multicellular alge,
in the latter case forming simple
or branched series of cells or fila-
ments, which increase only by di-
vision. Cell wall soft, not silic-
eous, usually gelatinous ; cell - con-
tents bluish green, blue, red, violet,
orange - yellow, usually without a
nucleus.
No sexual organs or zoospores.
The two families Nostochaceze and
Chroococcacee are only distinguished
by the filamentous character of the
former and the separated cells of the
latter.
FAMILIES.
Unicellular.
CHrRoococcacEz XIII.
Filamentous.
NostTocHacEz XIV.
Family XII.
Unicellular in the strictest sense ;
after division the two daughter cells
separate from each other. Cells sol-
itary or united by gelatin.
Division in one, two, or three di-
rections. Resting cells (spores) ob-
served in a few instances.
It will be of interest to compare
the plants belonging to this family
with some of the Palmellacez, which
closely correspond in structure, dif-
fering mainly in the color of the en-
dochrome. This may be regarded
as a very trivial distinction to sep-
arate so widely in the scheme of
classification plants otherwise so
closely related; but the great visible
distinction between algze and fungi is
in the color of the cell-contents. |
Synopsis of Genera.
a. Division IN THREE DIREc-
TIONS.
Cells spherical or angular, single,
or in small families. Envelopes not
confluent. Chroococcus, 92.
Cells spherical, envelopes conflu-
ent. Aphanocapsa, 93.
CHROOCOCCACE2.
Cells in families, the mother cell
forming a common envelope enclos-
ing the daughter cells.
Gleocapsa, 94.
Families united in grape-like
masses. Polycystis, 95+
Cells closely aggregated in solid,
spherical families. AZ¢crocyst¢s, 96.
Cells in spherical, solid families,
the peripheral cells wedge-shape.
Gomphospherta, 97.
6. DIVISION AT FIRST IN THREE
DIRECTIONS, LATER ONLY
IN THE TWO RADIAL TO THE
SURFACE OF THE SPHERE.
Cells in an irregularly lobed or
latticed gelatinous matrix.
Clathrocystts, 98.
Cells spherical, on the periphery
of a structurless sphere.
Celosphertum, 99.
c. DIVISION ONLY IN TWO DI-
RECTIONS AT RIGHT AN-
GLES.
Cells in rectangular, tabular fam-
ilies of 8, 16, 32, etc.
Mertsmopedia, 100.
d. DIVISION ONLY IN ONE DI-
RECTION.
Cells cylindric, single or in series
of 2-4. Synechococcus, 101.
Cells elliptic, in families enclosed
by diffuent membrane of parent cell.
Glaucocystis, 102.
Cells elongate, in structurless gela-
tin. Aphanothece, 103.
Cells elongate, in lamellose mem-
branes, enclosed in a common gel-
atinous vesicle. Glaothece, 104.
[It will be observed that we have
genera named Aphanocapsa with
spherical cells, Aphanothece with
cylindric cells, Glewocapsa with
spherical cells, G/aothece with cyl-
indric cells. These distinctions are
easily remembered. |
a. DIVISION IN THREE DIREC-
TIONS.
92. Genus Chroococcus Nagel.
Cells spherical or angular from
mutual pressure, single or in small
families, in gelatinous thallus, irreg-
ularly distributed, not enclosed in the
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. OG
membrane of the mother cell ; mem-
branes not confluent. Mucous en-
velopes clear or lamellose.
93. Genus Aphanocapsa Nageli.
Cells spherical, with thick, conflu-
ent envelopes which form a structur-
less gelatin.
[ Compare
103. |
94. Genus Gleocapsa Nagel.
Cells spherical, sometimes before
division elongated, with thick vesicu-
lar membranes, single or in families,
the membrane of the mother cell en-
closing the daughter cells. Cell con-
tents bluish-green, or red.
Resting cells of the form and size
of the vegetative cells, with thick,
rough epispore observed in some spe-
cies.
[See Gleocystis, genus 8. ]
95. Genus Polycystis Kiitzing.
Cells spherical, united in spherical
families which remain united in
grape-like masses.
96. Genus Afcrocystis Kiitzing
(extended).
Cells spherical, very many united
in solid, spherical families, cells
closely aggregated, enclosed in a thin,
common envelope.
97. Genus Gomphospheria Kiitz-
ing
Cells united by gelatin in spherical,
solid families, the inner cells spher-
cal, the outer ones wedge-shaped with
the points directed toward the centre
of the sphere.
6. DIVISION AT FIRST IN THREE
DISTINCTIONS, LATER’ IN
TWO.
98. Genus Clathrocystis Henfrey.
Cells spherical, arranged on the
outer surface of hollow balls or sacs,
which are afterwards ruptured in
places and form latticed or irregularly
lobed gelatinous expansions. The
cells multiply by division in the gelat-
inous matrix, and the latter increases
in extent.
99. Genus Celospherium Nageli.
Cells spherical, arranged in single
layer at the periphery of a structur-
less, gelatinous sphere. Occasionally
Aphanothece, genus
the cells appear to be associated in
families, but usually the membranes
are confluent, and the traces of divis-
ion entirely lost.
c. DIVISION ONLY IN TWO DI-
RECTIONS.
100. Genus MWerismopedia Meyen.
Cells spherical or oblong, connected
in a single layer in flat, rectangular
families of 4-S—16, etc., by their con-
fluent membranes, in which the cells
are arranged in straight, longitudinal
and cross lines.
d. DIVISION ONLY IN ONE DI-
RECTION. ;
ro1. Genus Syvechococcus Nageli.
Cells elongate or cylindric, with
thin membranes, single or in series
of 2-4.
toz. Genus Glaucocystis Itzig-
sohn. '
Cells oblong or elliptic, with thin,
not gelatinous membranes, in small
families enclosed by the expanded and
diffluent membrane of the mother cell.
103. Genus Aphanothece Nageli.
Cells elongate, with thick, confluent
membranes, forming a_structurless
gelatin.
[Compare Aphanocapsa, genus
93].
104. Genus Glewothece Nageli.
Cells elongate or cylindric, with
thick, vesicular membranes, single or
in spherical or elongated microscopic
colonies enclosed in a single vesicle,
with smaller vesicles within sur-
rounding the individual cells. Vesi-
cles lamellose.
[Compare G/ewocapsa, genus 94,
from which this genus differs mainly
in the mode of growth due to division
in only one direction ].
————_( )
Staining Tissues in Microscopy.—
she
BY PROF. HANS GIERKE.
| Continued from p. 54. |
229. Gibbes. On the double and
treble staining of animal tis-
sues. Journ. Royal Micr.
Soc., ili, 390-393.
After staining with picrocarmine,
98 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[May,
the sections are put in acidulated
water, (acetic or picric acid), then in
hematoxylin solution. This method
is very successful for cell division and
the development of epithelium and
spermatozoa.
Carmine indigo-carmine is also
recommended. Take of carmine 2
pts., borax 8, water 30. Soak in this
for a few minutes, then in acid alco-
hol (1-20). If they become a rose
red, wash in methyl-alcohol, and
treat with indigo-carmine till blue.
A saturated solution of indigo-car-
mine is poured into methyl-alcohol
till a deep blue results, and is then
filtered. Picrocarmine is also com-
bined with other anilin colors, by
treating first with picrocarmine, then
with fhe anilin.
230. Stirling. On double and treble
staining of microscopic speci-
mens. Journ. Anat. a Phys.,
> 349-354-
Picrocarmine is recommended for
blood corpuscles and epithelium after
treatment with osmic acid.
Picric acid may be used for harden-
ing, and afterwards picrocarmine for
staining. This method succeeds well
with blood corpuscles, elastic tissue,
and cartilage which color yellow,
while the connective tissue becomes
red. Fetal bones decalcified in pic-
ric acid, and bone corpuscles, color
red, but the harder parts yellow. In
the large arteries, connective tissue
becomes red, elastic tissue yellow,
unstriped muscle fibres yellow
brown. The combination of hama-
toxylin and picrocarmine is recom-
mended for skin, unstriped muscles,
and the development of bone, and
finally picrocarmine gives excellent
results in combination with anilins,
as iodine green.
231. Weigert. Zur Technik der
mikroskopischen Bacterienun-
tersuchung. Arch. path. Anat.
a Phys., Ixxxiv, 275-315.
Four grams ammonia are poured
on two grams carmine and protected
from dust 24 hours, then 200 g. conc.
sol. picric acid is added, and after 2
hours more a little acetic acid tilla
precipitate appears. At intervals of
24 hours, ammonia is added by dr ops
till the solution is clear. ‘ If the stain
is too red, add a little ammonia, if
too yellow, a little acetic acid.
232. Richardson. Multiple staining
of animal tissues with picro-
carmine, iodine, and malachite
green dyes, and of vegetable
tissues with atlas scarlet, solu-
ble blue, etc. Journ. R. Micr.
Soc., i, 868— 872.
(See No. 228 for an earlier mix-
ture). Three solutions are described
for animal tissues :—(a), picrocar-
mine with a thin transparent solution
of equal parts of iodine and mala-
chite greens; (b), the same with
malachite green in excess; (Cc), pi-
crocarmine and malachite green alone.
233. Hoyer. Thecarmine described
in No. 30 is dissolved in a
neutral concentrated solution
of ammonium picrate.
Bonnet. Zur mikroskopischen
Technik. Dtsch Zeitsch f.
Thiermed, vil, 301-303.
234.
H ZMATOXYLIN AND METALLIC
SALTS, ETC.
235. Gerlach. Structur der gefiss-
baute Sitzber. d. plays. med.
Soc. Erlangen, 1872.
Transverse sections of dried ves-
sels are laid in a weak solution of
hematoxylin to which a little alum
has been added, and when they are
blue enough they are transferred for
a few minutes to pure acetic acid,
and then for the same time to dilute
picric acid. They are then washed
and mounted in balsam or glycerin.
Unstriped fibres and nuclei become
violet, connective tissue reddish
brown, and elastic fibres straw yel-
low.
236. Eberth. Experimentelle Unter-
suchungen uber der Entziin-
dung der Hornhaut. Unters
d. pathol. Inst. Zurich, 1,
(1874), 158.
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. oo
The normal or inflamed cornea is
to be treated by a combination of
silver and hematoxylin. First a
4-1% sol. silver nitrate, then wash
and expose 1-3 hours to the action of |
hematoxylin.
237. Toole. A double staining with
Hematoxylin and Anilin.
Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., 1875,
p. 3i5-
Brain sections are placed for 24
hours in hematoxylin washed in alco-
hol and water, then for 4—-? minute
in anilin blue. After a second wash-
ing in alcohol, mount in balsam and
the nuclei and cell substance will be
differentiated.
238. Bevan Lewis. See No. 94.
Brain sections are put first in
hematoxylin, then in anilin
black. (Sankey’s anilin blue
black, No. 93.)
[Zo be continued. |
NOTES.
— Dr. George A. Piersol has favored
us with a photograph of Bacillus tuber-
culosis magnified 1,000 diameters, in
which the bacillus is shown as clear
and distinct as when viewed with the
microscope. It is far superior to any-
thing of the kind we have hitherto seen,
but it is a result we have been anticipa-
ting for some time. In the present state
of photography it may be confidently
asserted that whatever can be seen can
also be photographed, although it may
sometimes require rather more knowl-
edge and skill than is possessed by the
ordinary operator. Dr. Piersol will in
due time describe his method of working
in these columns, and the article may be
expected at an early day. It will cer-
tainly prove of interest to many workers
in this field.
— Mr. Richard Jackson, of Leeds, Eng-
land, announces the proposed publication
of amonograph on The Desmidez, by W.
Barwell Turner, F.R.S., F.R.M.S., etc.,
to be published in about twelve quarterly
parts, of 60-80 pages, with 15-20 plates
each, at tos. 6d. per part. The publica-
tion is made conditional upon receiving
a sufficient amount of subscribers before
October next.
— Dr. A. C. Stokes has prepared for
his own use a key to Mr. Wolle’s Des-
mids of the United States, which he has
found so useful that he has decided to
send it to us for publication in the Jour-
NAL. Weshall probably have the manu-
script in time for our next issue, and it
will be published as soon as possible.
We doubt not it will be of great assist-
ance to the finders of desmids.
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES.
WASHINGTON, D. C.
Forty-second Regular Meeting.
Mr. F. A. Chapman exhibited a light-
interruptor, a mechanism devised to pro-
duce an intermittent light for viewing rap-
idly vibrating cilia. The intermission of
the light is produced by the rapid rotation
of a diaphragm- plate just beneath the
stage, by means of a small dynamo-elec-
tric motor. The construction of this de-
sign was suggested by a paper by Dr.
Geo. Hopkins in the Sczentefic American.
Mr. Chapman also exhibited a 2-inch
objective of 20° angular aperture, by
Bausch & Lomb, which was remark-
able for the flatness of its field. Dr.
Howland spoke of an Oberhauser lens
some forty years old, which he had
found to be of the highest excellence
for photographic work.
Prof. Seaman, for the purpose of show-
ing the permanency of such mounts, ex-
hibited specimens of uric acid which had
been mounted in benzole balsam for sev-
eral years without change. He also spoke
highly of such mounts in copavia balsam.
Forty-third Regular Meeting.
Mr. R. Hitchcock laid before the So-
ciety a letter which he had received from
Mr. Kruttschnitt, of New Orleans, trans-
mitting two slides of a vegetable substance
brought up from an artesian wellat a depth
of from nine hundred to one thousand feet.
The specimens were mounted in chloro-
form camphor water. Mr. Knowlton took
the slides for examination and report.
Mr. Hitchcock also showed the following
specimens gathered from a pond near the
Great Falls of the Potomac: SAcrogyra
calospora in fruit; Clostertum acerosum
with zygospores ; Zygnema insignis in
fruit, and SAérogyra guinina in fruit.
He then described the different meth-
ods of conjugation and spore formation
of the conjugate, and gave an outline
of Wittrock’s classification.
100
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[May,
Prof. Edward Burgess showed several
water fleas having upon their carapaces
masses of Oscz//aria, and also colonies
of rotifers upon their upper and under
surfaces.
E. A. BALLOcH, Rec. Secr.
O
SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.
Meeting held April 14th.
Dr. Henry Ferrer showed several slides
containing the living, actively moving
germs of typhoid fever. He prefaced the
exhibition by giving a shore résumé of
what is known regarding these interest-
ing organisms. Many attempts have been
made for a number of years past to detect,
in the tissues of typhoid fever patients,
some micro-organisms to whose presence
could be ascribed the cause of the disease,
but it was not until 1880 that Eberth of
Halle succeeded in attaining a measura-
ble degree of success in this direction.
He found in the spleen, and infiltrated
lymphatic glands of typhoid fever patients,
a short thick bacillus with rounded ends.
Koch had previously found the same or-
ganism 27 sz¢w in the tissues, and had ob-
tained photographs thereof, but had not
published his discovery. Eberth at first
supposed that the bacillus of typhoid could
not be stained, or only with great difficul-
ty, but Koch, while corroborating many
of Eberth’s researches, pointed out various
methods by which the staining could be
effected, notably with Bismarck brown
and with vesuvin. The Koch- Eberth
bacillus, as it is now commonly called,
forms endogenous spores at a temperature
of 30° to 40° centigrade, and these spores
do not take the stain in which the bacil-
lus may be. immersed. A _ noteworthy
fact in connection with these bacilli is
the formation of long threads, which
were erroneously considered to be distinct
organisms by some of the earlier ob-
servers, until Koch showed them to be
secondary forms of the typhoid bacillus.
Treatment with acetic acid distinctly re-
veals segments in the threads, and at these
points the living organisms eventually
break up into individual bacilli. Proba-
bly the most distinctive characteristic of
the typhoid bacilli is the method of
growth in gelatin and other similar
media. When a tube containing steril-
ized peptone gelatin is inoculated with a
pure culture of the organism in question,
the latter does not liquefy the culture
medium, neither do its growing colonies
form around the puncture made by the
inoculating needle, but they grow entirely
at the surface of the gelatin, forming a
dense grayish white layer there. }
Dr. Ferrer’s remarks were illustrated
by blackboard diagrams, and in conclu-
sion he showed the living bacilli, in va-
rious stages of growth under, two fine
‘Zeiss’ microscopes, using that maker’s
‘F’ objectives.
Mr. Wickson exhibited a slide of 77ich-
ina spiralis, sent him by Dr. W. S. Tay-
lor, of Livermore, from a fatal case of
trichinosis which occurred in that town
last week.
The paper of the evening was read by
H. G. Hanks. his subject being ‘ The So-
called Inyo Marble, and California Build-
ing Stones in General.’
A. H. BRECKENFELD, ec. Secr.
NOTICES OF BOOKS.
Biological Teaching in Colleges.
By William G. Farlow, Professor of
Cryptogamic Botany, Harvard Uni-
versity. (8vo pamphlet, pp. 10).
An interesting article, particularly to
those who are giving attention to the
methods of education and their results ;
reprinted from Yhe Popular Science
Monthly.
Flow to Photograph Microscopic Objects.
A Manual for the Practical Microscop-
ist. By J. H. Jennings. New York:
E. & H. T. Anthony & Co., publish-
ers. (8vo., pp. 32.)
This is a concisely-written brochure,
eminently practical, and a reliable guide
for the amateur in this work. The pub-
lishers, however, need not have gone to
England for a competent author of such
a work, and a book especially written for
American microscopists would undoubt-
edly have more reference to American
apparatus than this one has; indeed we
have not met with a single reference to’
an American microscope or accessory in
it. However, this is the only small work
we can now Call to mind treating particu-
larly of this subject, and as the informa-
tion and instruction it gives are good and
practical, we are glad to commend it to
beginners in photo-micrography.
On Koch's Methods of Studying the Bac-
terta, with Special Reference to the
Bacteria causing Asiatic Cholera. By
T. Mitchell Prudden, M. D. (Pam-
phlet, pp. 18).
From the Report of the Connecticut
State Board of Health for. 1885.
THE AMERICAN
MONTHLY
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
Vou. VII.
Wasuineton, D. C., Junz, 1886.
No. 6.
A Resume of the Algo-Lichen
Hypothesis.*
BY F. H. KNOWLTON, B.S.
In the light of modern science it is
hardly necessary to say that one of the
most interesting biological problems
of the day, in so far at least as relates
to vegetable morphology and physi-
ology, is connected with the theory
usually known under this name, or,
as it might more correctly be called,
the Algo-Fungal-Lichen Hypothesis.
To prove this we have but to turn to
the now extensive literature of the
subject or glance for a moment at
the extended discussions to which
it has given rise.
The object of the present paper is
to bring before the Society the re-
sults of some recent European in-
vestigations, particularly those of
Rev. James M. Crombie (Jour.
Linn. Soc., xXxxX., pp. 259-283),
and to sum up briefly the princi-
pal arguments used in defence of
the autonomy of the plants called
lichens.
I will first give, very briefly, the
history of this hypothesis, and the
causes which lead to its adoption
by so many of the Continental in-
vestigators.
If we cut a thin, transverse section
through the thallus of a lichen, and
examine it under a moderately high
power of the microscope, we shall
find it to be readily distinguishable
into several parts or layers; an up-
per and under cortical layer of
long, slender, and closely interlac-
*Read before the Washington Microscopical Society
May ir1th, 1886, -
ing cells, the Zyphe, and a central
layer, or irregular chain, of larger
green cells, the goxzdia. Now, the
problem to be solved is, What is the
origin of the gonidia, and in what
relation do they stand to the thallus?
If it can be shown that they have
their origin outside of the organism,
and are subsequently entrapped, then
parasitism has proved its case ; but if,
on the other hand, it can be proved
| that-they have their origin in the hy-
phal layer, and are self-developed
organs of the thallus, then, of course,
this hypothesis must go to the wall.
As might be supposed, in pre-
microscopical days nothing was either
known or written on the subject, for,
as a matter of fact, the gonidia were
not discovered until 1825, when they
were made out by Wallroth. In
Koerber’s dissertation, De Gonidiis
Lichenum, published four years later
(1839), they were treated more fully
than in any previous work, but noth-
ing authentic was adduced as to their
genesis. Bayerhoffer seems to have
been the first to give any explanation
of the matter, and in 1851 he stated
that the ‘ threads of the fibrous stratum
swell up at the top, which swellings
afterward become the male gonidia.’
This was confirmed, with slight
modification, by Speerschneider in
1853, by Schwendener in 1859, as
also by De Bary in 1865.
This view of the genesis of the
gonidia from the hyphz was _ for
some time the accepted explanation,
but in 1868 Prof. Schwendener, re-
viewing the original notion on this
subject, towards the end of a paper
entitled Unterschungen iiber den
102
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[June,
Flechten-thallus, and more particu-
larly in a subsequent article, Die
Algen-typen der Flechten Gonidia,
rightly affirms that the actual devel-
opment of a gonidium from the termi-
nal cell of a hypha had not, with cer-
tainty, been observed, but only as-
sumed by authors. Accordingly,
he proposed an entirely new theory
on the subject, which ‘has since at-
tained a wide notoriety as the Schwen-
denerian hypothesis. This, stated in
his own words, is as follows: ‘As the
result of my researches, all these
growths are not simple plants, not
individuals in the usual sense of the
term ; they are rather colonies, which
consist of hundreds and thousands of
individuals, of which, however, only
one acts as master, while the others,
in perpetual captivity, provide nour-
ishment for themselves and_ their
master. This master is a fungus of
the order Ascomycetes, a_ parasite
which is accustomed to live on the
work of others. Its slaves are green
algals, which it has sought out, or,
indeed, caught hold of, and forced
into its service. It surrounds them,
as a spider does its prey, with a
fibrous net of narrow meshes, which
is gradually converted into an im-
penetrable covering, while, however,
the spider sucks fe prey, and leaves
it lying dead the fungus incites the
algz taken in its web to more rapid
activity, nay, to more vigorous
growth.’
The gonidia then are unicellular or
filamentose algz, and the thallus is
a parasitic fungus. Following out
this idea Shiiccnnenes divided the
various algal types, which he re-
garded as constituting the gonidia,
nate two groups, viz:—the Phyco-
chromaceze and the Chlorophy llacez
according to the color of their re-
spective cell-contents. To the for-
mer group, that with bluish-green
here he assigned five algal types :—
_ Sirosiphonez ; 2 Pee lane a
oe tonemez; 4. Mineochecen: ie
Chroococcaceez ; and to the latter
group three algal types: 6. Confer-
.
vacee ; 7. Chroolepidee; 8. Pal-
mellaceez.
As might be expected, such a rad-
ical change as this from preconceived
notions, gave immediate rise to ex-
tensive discussion and criticism, and
Schwendener was called upon to de-
fend his theory. This he did in dis-
sertations published in 1872 and 1873,
without, however, adducing any abso-
lutely new arguments.
Among the many supporters which
this hypothesis secured, perhaps the
ablest was Dr. E. Bornet, of France.
Adopting the two algal types of
Schwendener, he passed in review
an extensive series of lichens and
traced out in them the resemblance
between their gonidia and many
well-known species of alge. Of
these alge he concluded that a com-
paratively small number of species
furnish the gonidia for a great many
different species, and even genera of
lichens. The union between the
hyphz and these alge he admitted
to be difficult of demonstration, yet
he was able to detect it in several in-
stances in some of the higher lichens.
As the result of this investigation
he considered himself safe in laying
ove the following propositions :—
Every gonidium of a lichen may
be yeferred to a species of algw. 2.
The connection of the hyphz with
the gonidia is of such a nature as to
exclude all possibility of the one or-
gan being produced by the other, and
the theory of parasitism alone can
explain it satisfactorily.’
Without dwelling further upon
these theoretical views, we may turn
to a phase of the question which
would seemingly present itself to
every one, that of experimental dem-
onstration. If a lichen is a dual
organism, then, by sowing certain
lichen spores in the vicinity of cer-
tain algals, and imitating as nearly as
possible the conditions of nature, we
ought to be able to observe the pro-
cess.of union. We ought to see this
ascomycetous fungus grasp in its re-
lentless web some unfortunate algal
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
108
compelling it to pay tribute. Indeed
Schwendener himself was frank
enough to admit that we could not
settle this question by isolated, one-
sided observations, but only by care-
fully conducted experiments in the
culture of lichen-spores, lichen-goni-
dia, and unicellular alge. Accord-
ingly many experiments in lichen
‘culture have been conducted since
the promulgation of the Schwenden-
erian hypothesis, but in no instance
have they been satisfactory. In the
first place it was found exceedingly
difficult to imitate the conditions “Sh
nature closely enough to allow more
than the first stages of growth to
progress. While the spores germi-
nated freely, they could not be car-
ried beyond a certain loosely cellular
stage which never exhibited the
slightest traces of gonidia nor pro-
duced perfect lichens.
Another method of culture called
Synthesis has been attempted ; that is,
the manufacture of lichens by sowing
their spores upon certain algz. Thus,
Rees sowed spores of Collema glau-
cescens upon LVostoclicenotdes. Bor-
net sowed the spores of Physcza par-
zetina upon Protococcus viridis, and
Treub sowed spores of Ramalina
and Lanacora upon Cystococcus
humicola. These experiments, how-
ever, met with a very limited amount
of success, even where the spores
germinated and produced hyphe en-
veloping the alge. The process of
union was easily accomplished, but
instead of stimulating the alge to
greater activity, or producing new
Pehen plants, the contact resulted in
the death of the algz, so that instead
of there being any Shon of sympathy
between dpone there exists a mortal
antagonism.
‘ But,’ says Mr. Crombie, ‘ apart
altogether from such considerations
relating to lichen-culture, there are
two fatal objections to the hypothesis,
either of which is quite sufficient
for its subversion. The first of these
has reference to the very peculiar
nature of the parasitism involved in
the theory that the fungal hyphz are
nourished by the captive algals.’ Par-
asitism of itself is of very common
occurrence in the vegetable kingdom,
but instead of stimulating the host to
greater activity, the contact is always
dete mental. and, if the parasite be in
sufficient force, is ultimately fatal.
But in the present case we have a
parasite exceeding by many hundred
times the size of the host, and yet,
instead of exhausting, it only stimu-
lates it to greater activity, a phenom-
enon which certainly occurs nowhere
else in nature.
But, granting that this hypothesis
be true, ‘ Upon what,’ Dr. Bentham
pertinently asks, ¢‘ do the gonidia
themselves feed?’ This is a very im-
portant point in the physiology of
lichens, which Schwendenerism does
not satisfactorily explain. Shut up
in a dark and narrow prison, and de-
prived of the free life they formerly
led by the tyrant who has enclosed
them in his meshes, they are cut off
from all communication with the
outer world, from which they could
receive such nourishment as_ they
themselves require and the much
larger quantity their master extracts
from them. ‘ Whence, then, and
how is this nourishment obtained ?’
Now, it is a well-established fact,
and one that no person attempts to
deny, that lichens obtain their whole
nourishment from water. It was
formerly supposed that they obtained
a portion of their nourishment
through the rhizoides, from the sub-
Boon upon w hich they grow, but
this idea is now not accepted, the
rootlets merely serv ing to retain them
in position.
Water. then, is the chief source of
their nourishment. This is poured
upon their surface and penetrates the
cortical layer to the vicinity of the
gonidia, which are the seat of special
vegetative activity. But the gonidia
are principally stimulating in their
effect, the real organs of nutrition
being the cortical layers. From this
it seems that neither the captive alge
104
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[J une,
nor the tyrant masters play anything
like the part assigned them by the
adherents of this theory.
The second objection pointed out
by Mr. Crombie is to the effect that
there ‘ are neither fungal-mycelia nor
algal-colonies in the structure of
lichens,’ for if there were, as he very
clearly shows, we should expect to
find them in similar localities ; but, as
every one very well knows, quite the
reverse is true.
No one, for instance, would think
of searching for algee upon the bare
and exposed surface of a mountain-
top, where lichens are in abundance ;
nor, vzce versa, would we expect to
find lichens where alge are in pro-
fusion.
But, notwithstanding a certain su-
perficial resemblance between the
hyphe of lichens and of fungi, their
structure and character are entirely
different.
‘The hyphe of lichens are peren-
nial, firm, with thick walls, pene-
trated by lichenin, imputrible, and
not dissolved by hydrate of potash.
On the other hand, the hyphoid-
mycelia of fungi are caducous, very
soft, with thin walls, not at all
amylaceous, readily putrifying on
maceration, and, on the application
of hydrate of potash, immediately
becoming dissolved.’ It is shown
by this that there are irreconcil-
able physiological differences which
should seem to preclude the dual
nature of these organisms. But,
beyond these, there is another very
important point made by the oppo-
nents ot the Schwendenerian hy-
pothesis, viz., that if the gonidia are
algee, we should expect to find them
all in the free state ; but this is by no
means true, the gonidia, for instance,
of NMetrocymbe, * Phylliscum, Matla-
nornés, and others, have not yet been
found elsewhere than in the lichen-
thallus. But all this array of facts,
important as it is in its bearing on
the case, leaves us still in doubt as
to the real nature of these organisms.
one horn of the dilemma to the other,
for, as was stated in the beginning of
this paper, unless we can demonstrate
that the gonidia have their origin in
the lichen-thallus, we might as well
accept one theory as notes The
proof, however, of their thalline ori-
gin, Mr. Crombie seems to have ad-
duced.
As was before stated, the artificial
cultivation of lichen-spores can rarely
be carried beyond a certain loosely
cellular state, when, the exact con-
ditions of nature failing to be repre-
sented, the cultures are destroyed.
But, fortunately, by carefully exam-
ining the plants in a state of nature,
we are able to find them in all con-
ditions from the freshly germinating
spore to the mature plant. This is
particularly the case with those
species growing upon dry rocks,
where ieren is no substratum to min-
gle with and obscure them.
Mr. Crombie uses the following
language in description of the evolu-
tion of the gonidia: ‘On germina-
tion, as may ‘easily be seen in spore
culture, the spore sends forth from
the endosperm a germinating filament
or filaments called the prothallus.
This speedily passes into the hypo-
thallus. The hyphe thus produced
contain lichenin from the very first,
and in other respects present ihe
distinctive characters already men-
tioned.’ Now is the time, according
to Schwendenerism, when we might
expect to find the hyphe going out
in quest of alge, which they might
lay hold of and imprison in their
meshes. As a matter of fact, how-
ever, we never do, for the hyphz
grow straight forward, never turning
to the right or left in quest of the
alge, nor would they find them if
they did, for not a vestage of an alga
can be discovered in such a habitat.
Yet in a slightly more advanced stage
the gonidia are found in the thallus
in abundance. Whence and how
came they? Says Mr. Crombie:
‘On a further inspection of the speci-
The question is merely shifted from | mens you will readily perceive upon
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
105
the surface of the hypothalline stra-
tum the presence of a number of
small, variously colored glomerules,
with which it is more or less sprin-
kled. These are formed at an early
stage of the evolution of the hypo-
thallus, at or towards its centre, and
in immediate proximity to where the
spore first germinated. On anatom-
ical dissection, it is found that these
glomerules consist of minute cellu-
lose granules, in the cellules of which
are to be seen the gonidia in various
stages of evolution. From the fact
of their thus occurring in the growing
condition, and the impossibility of
their entering from without through
the closed walls of the cellules, it
is evident that the gonidia originate
in the glomerules themselves, and are
thus, consequently, self-developed or-
gans of the lichen.
‘The glomerules gradually become
more numerous and contiguous as
the process of development goes on,
until at length a continuous cortical
stratum is formed upon the hypo-
thallus.’ This element is the third
added to the structure of the thallus,
yet it has been either ignored or mis-
interpreted by the paige cca of the
algo-fungal hypothesis. The inter-
cellular origin of the gonidia is thus
made plain, but it will be inquired
how does it happen that in the ma-
ture plant the gonidia occupy the
centre of the thallus in a seemingly
free state? It, however, admits of a
ready explanation. ‘The cortical
stratum,’ as observed by Nylander,
‘sradually increasing and expanding,
is at the same time, in like propor-
tion, dissolved (or resorbed, as it is
termed in physiology), beneath, and
the gonidia consequently become
free.’ The gonidia are thus seen to
occupy a position between the two
cortical strata, and to have been
formed after or contemporaneously
with them.
Another and important point
claimed by Schwendener and _ his
adherents must be explained, viz :—
The contact said to have been ob-
served between the gonidia and the
hyphe. This contact, says Crombie,
isin no way genetic or parasitic, nor
does it argue any kind of ‘ copula-
tion,’ as has been claimed. The
gonidia are neither adnate to nor pen-
etrated by the hyphe, but only ad-
herent to them by the lichenin, with
which all parts of the thallus are
penetrated. In all such cases the
apparent union is simply an amyla-
ceous adherence, and the fancied
penetration the result of erroneous
observation.
From these considerations, and
others of minor importance might
readily be added, it seems that we
shall still have our lichens left, for in
spite of the many and labored argu-
ments which have been advanced to
deprive them of their autonomy, they
still remain a distinct class, recognized
by botanists, between the algae on one
hand and the fungi on the other. The
line of demarcation which separates
them from these orders is no doubt in-
distinct, but it is not less so than that
separating many other orders of plants
or animals, and moreover nature’s
lines are never rigid. Many debat-
able organisms, for instance, on the
border Siac between the animal and
vegetable kingdoms have been alter-
nately captured and recaptured by
botanists and zoologists, but with in-
creasing knowledge they have now
been relegated to one or the other to
the satisfaction of all. So with in-
crease of understanding we may hope
sometime to be able to explain, in the
vegetable kingdom, phenomena
which now require an element of
mystery for their interpretation.
oO
On the Collection and Method of
Studying KForaminifera.*
BY J. M. FLINT, SURG. U. S. N.
I have taken occasion to bring be-
fore the society for the inspection of
those who may be interested either bi-
olgereally: ee eca yy, or zstheti-
* Read before the Biological Society of Woke
Dec. 12, 1885.
106
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ June,
cally,some specimens of the foramin-
ifera collected by the Fish Commis-
sion steamer ‘ Albatross’ during the
last 18 months, and selected, pre-
pared, and mounted on board during
the cruise.
The specimens before you are the
beginning of what is intended to be
a type series of this interesting group
of animals. It already mclees rep-
resentatives of all the orders except
Gromide, which are principally
fresh-water forms, and about half the
genera mentioned by Brady in his
Challenger Report, and numbers 125
species. The collections were all
made on our Atlantic coast, and
with the exception of a very few—
not more than half-a-dozen species—
were taken off the coast between
Cape Hatteras and Martha’s Vine-
vard.
~ Great quantities of this material are
obtained by the Albatross, and its
separation and preservation have
been greatly facilitated by the devices
of Mr. Benedict, the resident nat-
uralist of the ship. The material is
brought up from the bottom by
means of what is known in the ver-
nacular as the *‘ mud-bag,’ a canvas
bag about 24 feet long by 18 inches
maida the mouth held open by an
iron frame. This bag is attached to
the free end of the AS: of the beam-
trawl, and it rarely fails to scoop its
full of mud as it is dragged over the
bottom. Being brought to the sur-
face the mud is dumped into the ta-
ble-sieve, the hose turned upon it,
breaking up the lumps and carrying
all but the coarsest particles through
the sieve, where it falls into a tub
below. This tub has several holes
at different heights at the side; these
holes are stopped with spouts and
over the spouts are fastened strainers
made of fine linen ‘scrim.’ The
heavier foraminifera fall at once to
the bottom of the tub, the impalpa-
ble mud and the lighter foraminifera
flow out through the openings of the
tub, where the latter are stopped by
the strainers. The material thus ob-
tained is a comparatively clean mix-
ture of sand and foraminifera, the
proportions of each depending upon
the nature of the bottom. Before
being ready for examination this ma-
terial requires a further thorough
washing by decantation. It must
then be washed with fresh water to
prevent the formation of crystals of
salt, and thoroughly dried.
The individual shells are picked
out under a dissecting microscope
by means of a fine camel’s-hair pen-
cil, moistened between the lips.
I may be excused for calling your
attention to the method of mounting,
since it is the only thing connected
with the subject for which I can
claim any originality. It was soon
found that fae the purpose of thor-
ough study for identification of speci-
mens the usual method of permanent
mounting was extremely unsatisfac-
tory. Bor the examination of objects
of this character under the microscope
nothing can equal what is known as
Beck’s disks and holder. By means
of this accessory an object may read-
ily be rotated in the field of view of
the microscope so that all sides of it
may be examined except that actually
adherent to the disk. These disks are
made of brass, with a short stem for
insertion in the arm of the holder. By
means of a fine chain concealed within
the arm and passing around the axle
of the milled head, rotation around a
perpendicular axis is obtained; and
the whole arm being permitted to re-
volve in its support, rotation around
a horizontal axis is also secured. By
a combination of these movements the
object may be placed in any desired
position without losing it from the
field of view. The great advantages
attending the use of this appliance led
to the mounting of the whole series
upon disks, any one of which may be
placed in the holder and thoroughly
examined. The specimen being se-
cured to the disk. the latter is inserted
into a wooden slide of the usual di-
mensions, and may be arranged ina
cabinet in the or dinary way. Fos the -
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
107
= =
protection of these frail shells from
dust and accident a cover is neces-
sary, and it must be removable in
order to get access to the specimen
when it is desired to transfer it. This
cover is supplied by curtain-rings, ce-
mented one upon the other and capped
with thin glass, and it is secured by
small tacks driven just far enough
apart and just deep enough so that
the heads will catch in the groove
between the rings. The cover is thus
easily removed and replaced. For ex-
hibition purposes, and for permanent
preservation and reference as well,
cardboard disks have been prepared.
The specimens are planted in succes-
sion, as near the circumference as pos-
sible, and the covers
single slides.* This cardboard disk
is designed to rotate on a pivot sup-
ported by the upper stage plate of the
microscope, and by means of this ro-
tation each object in the series may
be brought, in succession, into the
field. The dropping of a light spring
into a notch on the edge of the disk
indicates to the observer when the
object is in proper position. The
mechanical stage movements give
control of the object as if it were
on an ordinary slide. In the collec-
tion before you. one disk has been
devoted to each family. From each
of these have been selected the speci-
mens on the disk under the micro-
scope, to which your attention is
specially directed. Whenever neces-
sary to identification or to elucidation
of structure, sections of the shells have
been made, and the sections mounted
on the same slide with the entire speci-
mens. Some few very thin or delicate
specimens have been mounted in bal-
sam, as it brings out more distinctly
the peculiarities of structure. These
are placed on the disks for examina-
tion by reflected light; they may be
removed and placed ona glass slip
and viewed by A eaniteds light, if
desired.
It may not be altogether amiss,
even in a society of biologists, to re-
* Rotary Object Carrier, vol. vi, P. 204.
fitted as on the’
call a few facts regarding this group
of animals, apologizing to those who
have made the subject a study for the
trite remarks.
The foraminifera comprise a group
of animals belonging to the sub-king-
dom Protozoa, Class Rhizopoda.
They stand nearly at the foot of the
list in the classification of animal or-
ganisms by reason of the extreme
simplicity of their structure, which
consists of a minute bit of protoplas-
mic substance without differentiation
of endosare and ectosarc, without
contractile vesicles, and until recently
believed to be without even a nucleus.
Like the other rhizopods they possess
the power of thrusting out portions
of the body substance or pseudopodia.,
which, when retracted, lose them-
selves again in the body mass. The
character of these pseudopodia has
led Prof. Carpenter to divide the
rhizopoda into three classes: 1. Lo-
bosa, of which Ameéa is the type,
the pseudopodia of which are blunt
or irregularly club-shaped, and show
no disposition to unite with one an-
other when they come into contact ;
Reticulosa, to which class belong
the foraminifera, whose pseudopodia,
projected in fine threads, unite when-
ever they come into contact, for ming
a network; and, 3. Radiolaria, of
which Actznophrys is the type. The
pseudopodia in this instance are pro-
jected radially and do not unite.
But little is known of the life his-
tory of these minute and simple ani-
mals. Their ordinary mode of mul-
tiplication is undoubtedly by sub-
division or fission. But there seems
to be some definite limit to the possi-
bilities of that process, and it is
probable that some form of conjuga-
tion and encysting process will ulti-
mately be discov ered Their mode
of nourishment is supposed to be by
the absorption of the organic matter
in solution in the sea-water, since
the pores of the shell are, in most
pene too small (the largest being
about -, of an inch in diameter)
Dd at 00
to allow the introduction of any solid
108
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
| June,
—— — ,
particles of food likely to be within
their reach. All species of this
group surround themselves with some
form of shell or test, and the fact to
which they owe their chief importance
is their ability to separate carbonate of
lime from its solution in the sea-water.
Of their distribution it may be said
that with the exception of polar seas
it is as wide as that of the waters of
the ocean. The sounding-cup never
fails to bring them from the bottom,
and in some parts of the Atlantic
the mud dredged consists of as much
as 85 per cent. of foraminifera.
Wherever the ocean has rolled in
past geological ages since any living
thing has existed, they have been.
The. chalk beds all over the world
are composed almost exclusively of
their remains. These chalk beds, in
this country, cover thousands of
square miles, and in some places are
g,o0oo feet in thickness. They are
probably not less extensive in other
parts of the globe.
The Aeanaalttie limestones extend-
ing in a vast bed on both sides of the
Mediterranean, through Northern
India and Central Asia, are principally
shells of foraminifera and get their
name from a genus of lar ge size, V ery
numerous and conspicuous through-
out the stratum. The Pyramids of
Egypt are built of this stone and rest
upon rock of the same structure, in
which the fossil foraminifera are easily
visible to the naked eye. Itis probable
that the subcarboniferous limestones
have the same origin. In short, the
weight of evidence is that the forami-
nifera have had more to do in forming
geological strata than all other animals
taken collectively. Moreover, if the
conclusions of Profs. Carpenter and
Dawson in regard to the Hozoonx
Canadense are accepted, the forami-
nifera are the oldest in geological
time of known fossils. So. these
minute shells, the product of the
simplest of animal organisms, are not
so insignificant in the economy of
nature as they might at first appear.
Aside from their geological im-
portance and biological interest, they
attract attention by the beauty and
infinite variety of their forms, and
they illustrate better than any other
series of animals the endless varieties
that may be produced by the slight
but persistent modifications of the
mode of growth.
In all attempts at classification of
such objects as these, external form
must necessarily be the governing
principle. There are, however, a few
prominent distinctions based on phys-
iological differences which should be
considered. For instance, a large
group of these animals form their
tests of grains of sand, spicules of
sponge, or the shells of other forami-
nifera. They repeat in a rude way
nearly all the forms taken by the more
delicate calcareous shells, but the
physiological distinction is of more
importance than the external resem-
blance and_ properly causes the testa-
ceous foraminifera to be classified
apart from the calcareous forami-
nifera. Another broad distinction is
based upon the arrangements for the
protrusion of the pseudopodia. Ina
portion of the group the shell is ‘ im-
perforate, * by which is meant that there
is only one mouth-opening through
which the pseudopodia can be thrust
out. In the others the shell is por-
ous, or ‘ perforate,’ studded all over
with minute opening s, the largest not
more than ;,!,5 of an inch in diame-
ter, through which portions of the
body substance are extended for the
absorption of nutriment. These lat-
ter generally have a conspicuous
mouth-opening also, but this opening
is believed to serve simply as an exit
for the sarcodic substance in the pro-
cess of growth. These then consti-_
tute the principal divisions based upon
physiological differences which can
be sustained, viz : into arenaceous and
calcareous, and into perforate and im-
perforate. Other distinctions are
based upon external form alone, and
it is interesting to consider by what
simple modifications the most aston-
ishing results are brought about.
1886. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 109
Key to the Desmidiezx.
IBS DIR A.) Cams ORES.
The following artificial key refers almost exclusively to the forms described
in the Rev. Francis Wolle’s ‘ Desmids of the United States.’ In the table
of genera the figures appended to each name direct to that genus in this list ;
those after the specific names to the pages of Mr. Wolle’s work, where the
descriptions and references to the illustrations will be found.
GENERA.
Cells united into filaments (a).
Cells not united into filaments (7).
In a transparent, jelly-like sheath (4).
Not in a jelly-like sheath (@).
Cells with 2 teeth on each narrow end. . . Desmidium, 6.
Cells deeply constricted, almost into two parts (c).
Cells not deeply constricted, and without teeth . . . yalotheca, 3.
With ‘ claspers’ across the sutures . . . . Onychonema, 9.
Without ‘ claspers ;’ cells united by a narrow neshinnee Spherozosma, 8.
Band not twisted; cells with ‘ claspers ’ across the sutures,
: Onychonema, 9.
SMAR APA Sewage awenm
o be cells without ‘ claspers’ (e).
. Band twisted; cells triangular or quadrangular . . . Desmédium, 6.
Cells barrel or hub-shaped, with.1 or 2 median bands Bamébusina, 4.
Cr pt ue without bands, the sutures projecting,
Leptozosma, 5.
e. Cells cylindrical, sometimes swollen at base (/).
e. Cells quadrangular, deeply constricted, often.slightly twisted,
Phymatodocts, 7.
ee ven to 30 tunes longer than broad "— .°... . . “Gonatozygon, Tr:
en vureceto'6 times longer than broad “¥ . ... . . ~ Genicularda, 2.
g. Cell more or less crescentic ‘ae . 1) Closteraung, 13%
g. Cell cylindrical, fusiform, dumb- bell’é or hour glass shaped (7).
g. Cell flattened; orbicular, oblong, or elliptical (h).
h. Mostly orbicular or broadly elliptical ; centre deeply constricted, the semi-
cells 3-5 lobed, the lobes entire or variously incised, I/¢crasterzas, 22.
h. Mostly oblong or elliptical ; margins wavy, the depressions rounded ; ends
. usually morened Of luncrsea i. 2 pa Se” Least oh.
Cell constricted in the middle ; no arms nor spines (/).
ee i Re with arms or spines (2).
Cell not constricted ; no arms nor spines (7). Buin
. Cell cylindrical, ends simply notched . . . Letmemorus, 18.
Ce Be ends rounded, truncate or divided (2).
. Cell more or less dumb- bell—or hour-glass shaped (f).
; Cell 6 to 30 times longer than broad<¥: . ...:. . Docidium, 14.
. Cell 2-5 times longer than broad; endsrounded . Calocylindrus, 16.
Arms 2, 3 or more, radiating . . . ...: Staurastrum. 23
Arms none; semi-cells with a central rounded: truncate or denticulate
tubercle ; spines usually numerous and marginal, Nazthidium, IQ.
7. Arms none; no central tubercle ; spines 4 or 8. two on each end, l
il
BODY am QL BEDE SS
he 66 - spines 16, four on each end, j
Arthrodesmus, 20.
m. Chlorophyll in one or more spiral bands... . SAtvotenta, 11.
mM. Ke not in spiral bands (72).
m. Surface rough with tooth-like or rounded elevations . ZyéAloceras, 15.
110 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June,
mz. Surface without tooth-like elevations ; erids rounded (0).
o. Cells in mucus, short, cylindrical or oval . . . . Mesotentum, io.
g. Cells notior rarely in mucus. 2M. 2 a) 3 Oe se eure
p. End view 3-6 or more angular (7).
p. End view not angular (s).
vr. Angles obtuse, acute, or with horn-like prolongations, Staurastrum, 23.
s. Margins smooth, dentate or crenate; no spines. . . Cosmarium, aye
SPECIES.
GONATOZYGON.
1. Cells swollen at base, with 6 longitudinal lines of short sete,
sex-spiniferum.*
2. Cells not swollen at base (a). .
a. With hair-like spines clothing the surface. . . ptlosum, 22.
a. Without hair-like spines; surface minutely roughened . asperum, 22.
2. GENICULARIA.*
1. Cells 34 to 6 times longer than broad; granules in spirals. Amertcana.*
1. Cells 10-12 times longer than broad; granules scattered. spzrotenia.*
HYALOTHECA.
1. Cells slightly constricted, length 4 the width . .\. . @éesselzens.eeee
2. Cells slightly concave, length | twice the width .. |. . undulataye
3. Cells not constricted, margins straight; sheath wide. . . mucosa, 23.
ae Ke «ik 3 aie sheath absent . . .dubza, 24.
BAMBUSINA.
1. Cells hub-shaped, somewhat longer than broad . . Brebtssonit, 24.
2. Cells subcylindrical, 4 times longer than broad... delécatisstma, 25.
LEPTOZOSMA.
An immature form of a 6.
6. DrEsmiIpIUM.
i. Mucous:sheath present . . .%.°. .-. «. = = seylem@pgeaeeem
1. Mucous sheath absent (a).
a. Cells united by their entire end margins (6).
a. Cells united by the outer portions ae the ends (d).
6. Cells nearly twice as long as broad ... . . + .. .\ Jomeumegpeeae
6. Cells less than twice as long as broad (c).
c. Cells in side view quadrate. : ager atum, 26; guadrangulatum, 27.
c. Cells in side view triangular’. . . ., Smentecoueas
d. Borders crenate or undulate. . . aptogontum. ans diagonum, 159-
d. Borders straight, filament twisted . . . » « Bagleygameme
Puvipeovocrs,
IBUt One SPeciess.) iy Ble Csuh tal he dmEeN. (2 polapheRhae Nordstedtianum, 28.
8. SPHROZOSMA.
Cells twice ér0ader than long, lobes not constricted (@).
rs ne rae de lobes constricted near the end,
constrictum.*
2. Cells twice Zongery than broad, in sheath or not . . . excavatum, 29.
2. Cells less than twice longer than broad (6)
a. Cells closely approximate, ends rounded . . . . . fpulchrum, 29.
a. ae re +3 ends truncate, concave . vrectangulare, 31.
a. Cells more or less remote, ends rounded . . . . vertebratum, 30.
6. Ends pointed; semi-cells remote; sinus deep, wide . monzl¢éforme.t
b. Hinds rounded, spinous; cells slightly constricted . sfzzulosum, 31.
* Journ. R. Micr. Soc., Dec., 1885. + Bulletin Torrev Botanical Club, Dee ; 1885.
1886.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 111
I.
I.
c
Gs
d.
S
S
I.
I.
I.
2.
2.
Ends rounded, not spinous; cells deeply constricted . fléforme, 29.
mcatnincate, Concave fas). Meee i RN Wellachkss, 21.
ONYCHONEMA *
Cells with spine-like projecting ends! - . . .-. . = serratum, 30.
Melis; wathout spine-like ends.9. . 24... . .WNordstedtzanum
10. MESOTANIUM.
Cells cylindrical (a)
Cells oval or elliptical, about twice longer than wide, in mucus on wet
WOO E356 . shit . MULCKOCOCEITIE A 2.
Mucous masses floating ; : ‘cells 2 2-24 times longer than wide, Brauzzz, 31.
Mucous masses pee with-filamentous alg ; ; cells 3-4 times longer than
7G ( 3) Sane eee eee adlioner tania. 22.
Mucous masses on wet rocks and mosses ; cells 2-3 times longer than
wide Re price Sree). MM oc fio fae cs (CLEP SVC Daan
SPIROTANIA.
Spiral band single (a).
Spiral bands more than one . . oe ibe = ys catch tun; COSC2L7 OF mae
Cell 8 to 10 times longer than broadi Me ey) al ys, | eg ey Condemsatan Bar
Cell 4 times longer en broaday. @iie. (5/0 <2 waste, Onpopeeameaae
PENIUM
Chlorophyll interrupted by 1 central transverse band (a).
G6 ps by 3 transverse bands . . <énxterruptum, 35.
Chlorophyll concentrated into 2 or more nuclei; in mucus, crassa, 37.
he diffused (6).
Ends truncate, square . . Shee madi id LU CeIeGAL AMEE ea
Ends not truncate ; cells slightly constr icted Su leit pha less) AIGA 7TECAR Uae Ste
be oe cell not constricted, 3-5 times longer than wide,
adigitus, 34.
ee oe cell not constricted, 5—6 times longer than wide,
clostertotdes, 35.
Cytiaderm smooth (c).
‘¢ . with pearly granules in longitudinal rows,
margaritaceum, 34.
‘Cells in mucus, diameter =4; to 71, in. (63-837) . . oblongum, 34.
i *¢ diameter Paes ; to ie 7 in. (20-25) ” _ mapesines 30°
eg *¢ diameter 7757 to z345q in- OPr 172). |. Brebsssonee, 26.
Cells oblong, often slightly constricted . . ‘ lamellosum, 34.
Cells subcylindrical, in families of various sizes inter mingled,
polymorphum, 36.
Cells subcylindrical, not in families . . aa, Fenneret, 30
Cells broadly fusiform, 4-5 times longer than wide . . navicula, 36.
IZ. CLosTERIUM.
Ends not or but slightly produced (1).
Ends produced into long, often setiform, beaks (2).
Cells straight or slightly curved ; ends slightly tapering (@).
i fe bh dorsum convex, ventrum nearly
straight (2°).
Cells conspicuously curved; ventrum concave, with a central infla-
tion (2).
Cells conspicuously curved; ventrum without an inflation (/).
Body margins equally convex ; beaks longer than the body, cetaceum, 47.
Body margins not equally convex (vy).
* Mr. Wolle joins this to Spheerozosnra. + Fourn, R. Micr, Soc., Dec. , 1885,
2 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY _ [June,
Length 5-12 times the width (4).
Length more than 12, less than 20 times the width (e).
Length 20 times or more than the width (/).
Ends suddenly contracted ; cell fusiform, 5 times longer than wide, smooth,
wasutum, 41.
Ends not contracted, but a acute; chlorophyl bands several,
granules in I row . . - . +. » ». | lamecolatimaa es
Ends not contracted, rounded (Oe
ae 36 truncate (@).
Cell slightly curved, small, 6-12 times longer than wide, smooth,
acutum, 44.
66 oi Me 5-10 times longer than wide, smooth odfasum, 38.
Cell nearly straight, 7-12 times longer than wide, decussately striate,
decussatum, 39.
Cell slightly curved, 6-12 times Boe than wide, striate; vacuole
Gustincty sae . . . didymotocum, 39.
Cytioderm with 4-5 ‘longitudinal eric. oon with 2 or three transverse
bands and decussating ce . 2 amie angustatum, 40.
Cytioderm striate ; ends shghtly incurv edie globules about 20 in each
Semit-cellsvaxilaty ) : . . Unedtamiyare
Long (19-24 times longer than wide) ‘ends thin, finely rounded,
strigosum, 42.
Long (20-40 times longer than wide) : pete curved, smooth, or with
1-4 transverse striz ; diameter saan tO saea in. (5-13) sunctdum, 38 ;
mactlentum, 38; gracile, 39.
Long (20-40 times longer than vase) slightly curved, smooth, or with
I+4 transverse striz ; ‘diameter to soy in. (3-4) cell acicular,
subtile, 158.
Ends inclined upward at a dorsal Cara ventrum slightly concave ;
striz fine, numerous . . . . . . tanga ee
6 a. 00
Ends suddenly contracted to a narrow point : cell shghtly curved,
attenuatum, 41.
Ends not suddenly contracted (2). ;
Cytioderm deeply striate, distinctly granulate or areolate areolatum, 43.
Be indistinctly striate; cell linear fusiform, 15-24 times longer
thanwade~ 20. \¥ - . @cerosum, 41.
Cytioderm indistinctly striate; cell semi- -lunar, 5-6 times longer than
SS SANE UA Sa 14 EE Lunula, 40.
Diameter 200 1, in. (75 to110 Be : ‘cytioderr m smooth, /*Arenbergiz, 45.
Diameter 74, ‘ i in. (40-60 /1) ; glol ules a single row,
moniliferum, A5 5 ' Letblemnee 46.
Oe a oS cell curved, rapidly tapering into
narrow, somewhat ra ardly- -curved ends; cell 6—8 times longer than
WWAIGeN be) oe oy Te Pe Rha 8 Ralfsit, 46.
Cytioderm with many Sheba striz ; feneeh 5s 16 times the width;
vacuole large 9.0... 3. SR 5 2 ee
Cytioderm with fine striz ; length 12-16 times the width; vacuole small,
decorum, 43.
Cytioderm with a distinct strie; length 6-8 times the width ; vacuole
ARETE SS A . . + costatum, Az.
Cytioderm oman: sell Grcecenta shaped, Ratton Subsenienenlian (zk).
ee oe cell not conspicuously Sheen shapees (Cais
Ends separated 7-10 times the diameter ; width ;5')5 to qggg in. (16-207),
Diane, 44.
1886. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 113
k.
a
k.
k.
Z. Cell stout, ends broadly rounded ; width se)
mM.
Mm.
SOR RH
Se ee
h.
Ss,
bs
Ends separated 7-10 times the diameter; width ,4, to ;jp in. (25-28 1),
OME: 44.
Cell 6 to 8 times longer than wide, ends obtuse; width ;+,, in. (14 1),
enmert, 44.
: ANG
width 5,47 in. (12 +),
parvulum, 45.
Cell 8 to t2 times longer than wide, nearly semicircular, ends sharp ;
width 535, to 374, in. (8-10) . : - . . . Venus, 44.
to tooo In (25-30 4) |
cucumes, 40.
Beaks slender, nearly as long as the body, ends obtuse, curved,
Kuetzingtt, 47.
Beaks thin, $ as long as the fusiform body. . . . . rostratum, 46.
66 66 oe oe
800
14. Docrpium.
Suture a projecting or conspicuous rim (@).
Suture not projecting (@).
Cytioderm hirsute ; semi-cell with 3 or 4 undulations . sfpzxosum, 51.
Cytioderm not hirsute (6).
End dentate or crenate ; semi-cell with 1 basal inflation (@).
ES BG ue semi-cell with 4 regular inflations,
constrictum, 50.
End truncate or rounded; semi-cell with 1 or 2 basal inflations,
Trabecula, 48; truncatum, 48.
ue me ae semi-cell undulate to the contracted end,
crenulatum, 47.
idnuithienstoothonjeach angle: . Wet. os tn) Plowtowzz, 49.
End crenulate with tubercles .. coronatum, 49.
Cytioderm hirsute ; base of semi- -cell slightly infl: ted . hirsutum, 51.
Cytioderm not hirsute (e).
End dentate or crenate (/).'
End not dentate nor crenate (7).
Semi-cell with 4 or more inflations (2).
of with whorls of quadrangular prominences . verrucosum, 52.
oe With 2OVor more comstrictionsy. 2). » Sea) costadama53..
as with 1 inflation (2).
End with numerous Peatlystecth orfgeads. 1) yy: coronulatum, 49.
End with prominent teeth, about 2 imeview J. .: . . tredentalum, 52:
End with 3-5 minute tubercles ; semi-cell with 4 or more undulations,
Floridense, 159.
End with toothed angles (7). ;
Semi-cell with 4 prominent nodes; 8 to ro times longer than wide,
nodosum, 50.-
oe *¢ 4 constrictions ; 10-12 times longer than wide, 4reve, 51.
8 constrictions ; 20-24 times longer than wide,
StnmuUOSUM, 51.
Semi-cell with 1 basal inflation (4)
ce undulate to near the end (7).
not or shghtly undulate ; ees granulate . . dreve, 158.
Cytioderm densely, irregularly punctate . =. . . . clavatum, 48.
Ke smooth ; ends truncately rounded . .: . . Baculum, 49.
oe nc ends round; cell minute . . . . mednutume, 52.
Diameter 5,55 in. (25 ») ; about 20 times longer than wide,
repandum, 50.
6s
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[June,
114
Z. Diameter 7357 to zppp i: (13-16 4) 5
Z. Diameter 345, to gjpq in. (10-12 p) ;
15-20 times longer than wide,
dilatatum, 50.
18-20 times longer than wide,
andulatum, 51.
15. [RIPLOCERAS.
(Mr. Wolle unites this with Docrdium, 14 )
1. Tooth-like prominences oblong .
< a ACUILE ss - marende [ae Monee. > ere
iS)
vertictllatum, 53.
ees nb ate Si eiaaaneeere
16. CALOCYLINDRUS.
Chlorophyll homogeneous (1).
>
oe 6 we oe
te we oe ad
Length 24
‘© 4 to 6 times the width ;
NH HF AH Hmm
9 se se
Semi-cell subquadrate
a. ee cylindrical, rounded ;
a “ee oe
constriction slight . .
constriction wide,
Cell somewhat fusiform, ends subconically rounded . . .
Cell subcylindrical, ends broadly rounded . . . .
Cell subcy lindrical, ends rounded ; nuclei lar ge, single or double, C7evez, 56.
‘; " divided or scattered in each semi-cell (2).
Length twice the width or less; cytioderm punctate or granulate (@).
cytioderm smooth (6)
cytioderm with 5-7 coste, costatus, 56.
or 3 times the width; cytioderm punctate (c).
cytioderm smooth . .
Cell twice or more longer than wide; cytioderm punctate,
minutus, 54.
pseudoconnatus, 55.
cytioderm smooth, 7hwaztszz, 56.
fralfstt, 54.
cucurbita, 54.
connatus, 55-
curtus, 54.
diplospora, 56.
. . . . . . . .
shallows sae
[Zo be continued. |
EDITORIAL.
Publisher’s Notices.—All communications, re-
mittances, exchanges, etc., should be addressed to the
Editor, P. O. Box 630, Washington, D. C.
Subscr iption price $1.00 PER YEAR strictly tm ad-
vance. All subscriptions begin with the January
number.
A pink wrapper indicates that the subscripiion has
expired.
Remittances should be made by postal notes, money
orders, or by money sent in registered letters. Drafis
should be made payable in W ashington, New York,
Boston, or Philadelphia.
The regular receipt of the JouRNAL, which is issued
on the rs5th of each month, will be an acknowledgment
of payment.
The first volume, 1880, is entirely out of print. The
succeeding volumes will be sent by the publisher for
the prices given below, which are net.
Vol. II (1881) complete, $1.50.
Vol. III out of print.
Vol. IV (1883) complete, $1.50.
Vol. V (1884) complete, $1.50.
Vol. V (1884). Nos. 2-12, $1.00.
Vol. VI (£885), $t.00.
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MIcRo-
scopists.—The ninth annual meet-
ing, to be held at Chautaugua, N.
Y., begins August roth, one week
before the meeting of the American
Association at Buftalo, and will con-
tinue four days. The President, Prof.
|
Burrill, has issued a circular calling
for a good attendance and for com-
munications of interest, and express-
ing sanguine expectations of a large
meeting. All necessary information
concerning the meeting can be ob-
tained from the Secretary, Prof. D.
5S. Kellicott, 119 Fourteenth street,
Buffalo.
Mr. E. H. Griffith, who has man-
aged the ‘ working session’ so suc-
cessfully in the past, is again in
charge ‘of it, and has also issued
circular of information. Great prep-
arations are under way to make this
an important meeting; the Hon. J.
D. Cox will have charge of the pho-
tomicrographic work: Prof. D. 8.
Kellicott and Prof. T. B. Stowell,
of Cortland, N. Y., will conduct a
dredging expedition on the lake, and
Pines. Ale co-laborers are named.
Circulars pertaining to the working
session can be obtained from Mr.
Grifhtth, whose address is Fairport,
INDY;
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
115
RicHMOND D1atom DeEpositrs.—
In a review of W. B. Rogers’s Ge-
ology of the Virginias published in
the Amer. Journ. Science, we find
the following paragraph relating to
the discovery of the infusorial de-
posit :—
* A second point relates to the his-
tory of the first discovery of the
famous zzfasorzal bed, which crops
out conspicuously along the slopes
of the hills on which the city of
Richmond stands. and at several
other places in Virginia, as well as
on the Maryland ice of the Potomac.
Although this inter esting feature of
our geology has for years commanded
the attention and admiration of the
scientific world, and the beautiful
picture of its diatoms developed by
Ehrenberg’s microscope, become
familiar to the eye of every geologist.
we doubt whether many of our
younger co-workers know much
about the history of its first discovery.
We deem it proper, therefore, to say
that, after giving a general account
of his first discovery and microscopic
examination of the contents of this
wonderful deposit of what was then
regarded as *‘ infusorial animals,”
Rogers says, ** In view of these in-
teresting facts, the discov ery of the
infusory Stratum, as one of the
members of our series of Tertiary
deposits, cannot fail to be regarded
as an important edition to our ieaone ]-
edge of the Tertiary of this country,
brid has the greater interest at present,
as being ae first example yet ob-
served in the Uxzted States of the
occurrence of infusorial remains in
any byt the most recent geological
formations.” His latest view of the
geological position of this formation
is, that it is near the base but still
within the Miocene group. We are
ready, from personal observations, to
accept this conclusion.’
O
Microscopic Writinc.—At a
recent meeting of the Microscopic
Section of Hie Literary and Philo-
sophic Society of Manchester, Mr.
Alfred Brothers, F. R. A. S., read
a note on microscopic writing, in
which he said :—‘ The Lord’s Prayer
has always been a favorite subject for
testing the powers of minute calig-
taphy. \do write thel227"letters
within the space covered by the
smallest coin is a feat of some difh-
culty, but that the same number of
letters can be engraved on glass with-
in a space so minute as to be almost
invisible with the lowest power of
the microscope, and the individual
letters not defined clearly with an
eighth object-glass. may seem incred-
ible. There is, however, in the pos-
session of this Section a slide which
contains the Lord’s Prayer, written
by W. Webb in 1863, within the
space of the 405,o0ooth part of an
inch. ‘To find this minute speck re-
quires the exercise of much patience,
as it is not only necessary to have
just the right kind of illumination,
but the Oe of the lens must be on
the true surface of the glass on which
the object is written. When once
seen with a low power it is not diffi-
cult to find with the same power ;
but with the half-inch and highér
powers it is alw aysa trial of patience
even when the position of the object
has been carefully registered with a
lower power, and you are sure that
the object is central in the field.
Perhaps with the achromatic con-
denser some of the difficulty may be
removed. It will be remembered
that about twenty years ago the late
Mr. Rideout presented to fie Section
a machine for producing minute
writing. The instrument was lent
by Mr. Rideout to Mr. Dancer, by
whom it was recently sent to the So-
ciety. It seemed to me that as this
instrument was purchased by Mr.
Rideout at the Great Exhibition in
1862, it might be the same with which
the wonderful piece of writing, or
perhaps it should be called engrav-
ing, referred to, was Beccntcd: I
ieretore wrote to Mr. Dancer for
information on this point. In reply
he says: ** The microscopic. writing
116
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[June,
on glass of the Lord’s Prayer referred
to in your letter was at one time in
my possession, and was, I believe,
presented by me to the Microscopical
Section. It was obtained from Mr.
Webb, and he was the same person
w ho exhibited the microscopic writ-
ing machine at the Great Exhibition
of 1862. Mr. Webb died about ten
or fifteen years ago, but I cannot give
th e exact date. T have a very strong
impression that Mr. Rideout Bieined
the machine from him, which was
sent by me to the Society. If able
to find Mr. Rideout’s letter it may
confirm this.” I have not received
the letter, but as what Mr. Dancer
says confirms the impression I have
of what passed at the time, there can
be little doubt that the instrument is
the one used to produce the writing
referred to. Under the microscope
I have arranged two other slides of
minute writing which have been lent
to me by Mr. Armstrong. These
are not very minute when compared
with the one first referred to, and
which I have placed under the third
microscope where you will see the
object with an eighth object-glass.
Even with this great amplification
the words can scarcely be read, but
it can be seen that only greater power
is required to make the whole legible.
It happens that the covering glass is
very thick, so that powers higher
than the e eighth cannot be used. It
will be noticed that the name, ‘* W.
Webb, 1863,” is distinctly legible and
very beautifully written. Mr. Arm-
strong has given me some particulars
of Webb’s minute writing, from
which it appears that he was ac-
customed to write the Lord’s Prayer
in spaces of the 5ooth to the ro,-
oooth of an inch, and, as we have
seen, to the 405,oo0oth, and the prices
of these slides varied from 2s. 6d.
to 70s.’
ae O)
BoTANICAL LABORATORIES.— Lhe
‘ Laboratory Number’ of the Botan-
tical Gazette, issued last December,
contains many good and interesting
articles. It is devoted to a descrip-
tion, with illustrations, of the botan-
ical laboratories of this country and
abroad. Prof. J. C. Arthur de-
scribes the laboratories in the United
States, illustrating his article with
artistic representations of laboratories
of Harvard, Cornell, the University
of Pennsylvania, and Michigan Ag-
ricultural College. In this interest-
ing article nee reader will find a
good account of the equipment and
arrangement of these and other lab-
oratories, which certainly afford am-
ple facilities for thorough work in
vegetable histology. The author’s
allusion to some remarks in these
columns does not quite touch the
point at issue, for we did not refer to
the facilities for work but to the work
actually done, and surely in this can-
not be considered the routine work of
undergraduates in college. We trust
the opportunities presented by our
laboratories will not be neglected by
botanists.
Inthe same journal Mr. J. M. Coul-
ter describes some laboratory appli-
ances, and in another article gives
an account of courses of instruction.
The laboratory of Strassburg is de-
scribed. Under General Notes are
given some useful suggestions, from
which we have selected a few items
of interest to microscopists.
Prof. Burrill says good sections of
potato showing the Sanee grains in
the cells can be made by cutting out
a prism about a quarter or half an
inch in diameter and an inch long
and drying it slightly on the outside
before cutting. u
Prof. Trelease describes the usual
method of cultivating the common
Mucor on stale bread under an in-
verted tumbler.
Mr. Coulter alludes to the cultiva-
tion of pollen-spores, recommending
those of Zradescantiéa, in which the
pollen-tube. begins to develop in a
few minutes. "The culture fluid ad-
vised is a saturated solution of cane
sugar. Spores should be collected
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
gi
from flowers that have been open for
some time.
Prof. Burrill states that the stream-
ing-of protoplasm can be shown in
the thin membrane (upper epider-
mis of leaf-scale) found between the
scales of the bulb of the common
onion. Cut off a piece of the fresh
membrane with scissors, place in a
drop of water and examine with a
power of four hundred diameters.
This observation can be conducted in
winter.
oO
MicroscopicAL EXHIBITIONS. —
Some time ago a plan of systematiz-
ing the exhibits at the annual exhibi-
tions of microscopical societies was
advocated in these columns. The
plan seemed to commend itself to
some of the members of the Wash-
ington Society, who presented the
subject at a general meeting, when it
was briefly Jigen eset It was finally
decided to give an exhibition of mi-
croscopic objects pertaining to marine
life, and a committee was appointed
to arrange the programme. The ex-
hibition was held on the 13th
April, at the city high school build-
ing, and was well “attended. The
committee found, however, that
while the great majority of the mem-
bers of antes Society gave their hearty
co-operation to the enor of the com-
mittee to make the display in every
way satisfactory and _ instructive,
there were some who failed, for vari-
ous reasons, to exhibit the objects
assigned to them; and while the
display of objects was a good one,
there were a few breaks in the series.
It is, undoubtedly, true that the
efforts of any committee to please all
the members of a society are fruitless,
for there will always be some disaf-
fected ones. It is impossible to know
just what everybody wants, until
somebody is assigned to a part that
he does not wank Then, when too
late to make any changes, the com-
mittee learns that such a person will
not be present. This is one of the
difficulties in arranging a systematic
of
display of this kind. Some persons
will not sacrifice personal interests
to the wishes of a majority. They
seem to think they should be per-
mitted to show what will probably
give them most notoriety, or attract
fost general attention to their work.
Not being allowed to do that, they
stay away entirely. One or two such
instances came to the notice of the
committee this year. Had one of the
absent members been allowed to
make a display of a certain kind,
there is not the slightest doubt he
would have been there with more
than one microscope.
Such a display of objects as the
committee arranged, involved much
labor and care. Most of the prepa-
rations were supplied by the commit-
tee, and assigned to the exhibitors ;
for it would ae required more time
than any member could spare to ap-
ply to every individual in the Society
for specimens, which might not even
then be of the best quality for the
purpose.
We point out these difficulties be-
cause whoever attempts to arrange
such a display should be prepared to
meet them.
Taken as a whole, we are sure the
exhibition was a good one this year,
and we believe the Society and the
visitors were well satisfied with the
result. The plan still commends it-
self to our mind, if hearty co-opera-
tion among the members ‘of a society
can be secured. The list of objects
was printed with short descriptions of
each one, according to the plan first
adopted by the New York society.
O
Postat Crus Boxres.—Box P?
came to hand March 3d.
1. Caterpillar of Brinella beauty
moth. FE. F. Stanley.
2. Double-stained section of Lap-
pa. W.G. Corthell.
. Transverse section of P/la//us.
G. H. Meskel.
Jute fibres. S. P. Sharples.
5. Eye-piece micrometer. W.A.
Rogers. Mounted on a slide to show
118
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
| June,
the ruling and the method of mount-
ing.
-6. Developing tooth of embryo of
apig. R. R. Andrews.
Box Cu reached this circuit March
12th with two very interesting
slides :—
A transverse section of a mush-
room, Agaricus campestris.
Prothallus of a fern, belonging
to the series of Mr. A. C. Cole.
Box B was received March rath,
ee
@intaties P.M Hamlin:
A Se neat mount showing various
modifications of orbitolite structure
from Bermuda.
(Goss5 2) i teasers ae pyramidatum, 69.
2. Ends truncate ; semi- cells pyramidal, ‘sides : convex; diameter ;,/5, to g4>
(2543) alien Pn . . pseudopyramidatum, 69.
Z. Ends truncate ; semi- cele pyramidal ; cides straight or slightly concave,
granatum, 60.
Cell conspicuously évoader than long; semi-cells subsemicircular ; side
view circular, end view elliptical. . . . . . scenedesmus, 59.
. Cell $ to 4 Zonger than broad (7).
. Ends Cooidede semi-cell subcircular, sinus a mere notch, globosum, 60.
n. 30 semi-cell subsemicircular (0).
2. ee semi-cell oval (7).
2. a6 semi-cell elliptical, or hexagonal-elliptical ; cell 4 1 longer
than wide : sexangulare, 63.
. Ends truncate ; semi- -cell hexagonal ; ‘diameter tay in- (21) or less,
P polygonum, 65.
* Journ, R. Micr, Soc,, Dec., 1885. + Journ, R. Micr. Soc., Feb , 1886.
1886.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 127
i.
x
Ww.
Ends truncate ; semi-cell triangular ; diameter ;4, in. (50/) or less,
galeritum, 70.
Gs semi-cell subsemicircular, smooth; sinus deep, narrow,
nitidulum, 62; pseudonitidulum, 62.
Sinus deep, narrow (/).
Sinus deep, wide, almost linear; cytioderm smooth . . sezunctum, 62.
ae rounded or oval; semi-cells lunately curved; cytioderm
pamctates ¢) 1). ‘ Beh, GE COS Aw lcgen ay deena teem. (Gs.
Cell elliptical ; Bacal angles mete 5 ae ove sa: wb edleye.O4e
Cell Bee ciicnlais: basal angles obtuse ; dinnacten zt, to zh, in. (60-1001),
A 69.
ve cs fe diameter <4, to <4, in. (30-381),
Bye Zctum, 58.
Cytioderm centrally somewhat granular; nucleus 1 in each semi-cell,
tumidum, Ol.
Et smooth or punctate ; cells small, d¢oculatum, 60; tinctum, 61.
Ends rounded ; semi-cells semi-orbicular ; crenz usually 9,
undulatum, 67.
Ends truncate ; semi-cells pyramidal; cells small . . xotadzle, 66.
Oe sides almost parallel; diameter ;4, to 4, in. (30-38),
crenatum, 67.
‘i sides converging ; diameter ;3';5 in. (20),
Negelianum, 67.
Semi-cell quadrate, smooth, angles rounded ; end retuse or convex,
wadratum, 59.
Be pyramidal or subquadrate ; end badulate . Hlolmiense, 68.
es oe end truncate; diameter ~1, to 1, in. (32-36),
integrum, O08.
6s es °
: diameter >p/55 tO za'5p in. (20-24/1) ,
Hlammerz, 79.
Semi-cell pyramidal, punctate, base flat, angles rounded,
ansatum, 68; Nymannianum, 79.
- 1 1 ]
Diameter sho {Oi gle ll\(ZO=ZOZ) Mee. UO Guia he iis “punctulatum, 74.
Diameter ;355 to qagp in. (14-167) «wt. ‘ so et Cen O2).
Cell twice as long as wide, rectangular; sinus Pione cea widened,
sinuosum, 05.
Cell less than twice as long as wide ; semi-cell pyramidal, vexzstum, 68.
aie OG at at semi-cell subquadrate, small,
Meneghintt, 05.
Sinus narrow, not widened outwardly ; cell elliptical, end convex,
vartolatum, 63; extiguum, 60.
Sinus widened and rounded wane narrowing outwardly, cell wider
than. lone"... . . . obsoletum, 64.
Sinus widened outwardly ; semi- cell peal hace and end convex,
contractum, 63.
Be ak a ae base and end flattened,
depressum, 64.
Sinus widened outwardly ; semi-cell quadrate . . . Meneghiniz, 65.
es se semi-cell subsemicircular; diameter 54, to
ghz in. (75-100). ie eee. POCRVAEriUyZ,),'70,
Margins crenate or granulate ( y).
Margins not crenate nor granulate (4d).
Central verruce none or scattered on each semi-cell (z).
of more or less clustered on each semi-cell (aa).
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July,
bb.
dd.
dd.
ee.
JI.
oa
Js
Rk.
Verruce none central, ae I or 2 rows; cell about twice longer
Ehenewade - Ree. ce 100025
Verruce none central, marginal I or 2 rows; aPecil le: than twice longer
than wide . . oh . . triplicatum, 73,
Verruce centrally seattered: mar rginal in series of 3, each ; semi-cell quad-
rate, angles rounded* 25% ~ 6 UL da pie amen
Central verruce 3, inasinglerow . . . . > Donneliaygae
es 6, ina triangle, apex toward the isthmus,
polymazum, 70.
a 6 or 9, in 2 or 3 transverse rows; marginal rows 1 or
2; semi-cell semicircular . . . A’dtchellit, 72; suborbiculare, 78.
Central verruce 10; semi-cell semicircular, end truncate, |
antsochondrum, 72.
a circularly clustered ; semi-cell twice longer than wide,
sides emarginate, €nd truncate .-. . . . . = | Seely@manmeges
Centre granularly rough and punctate ; margin smooth; semi-cells oval,
tumidum, Ol.
Centre with 3 verruce ina row ; semi-cells semicircular, Doznelliz, 71.
Central verruce 1 at the isthmus, 8 or 9 marginal in 1 or 2 curves,
taxtchondrum, 71.
fs 4 near the isthmus ; semi-cells semicircular ; end some-
what truncate ; basal angles often pointed, Pseudotaxtchondrum, 71.
Chlorophyll diffused (dd).
es sina into 1 or 2 nuclei (ee).
Marginal verruce or granules rounded (422)
ce oF conical or pointed (72).
Cells twice or more longer than wide (//).
Cells less than twice longer than wide (22°)
Cells cylindrical, sides parallel (sometimes rounded) ; verruce obtuse,
amenum, 78.
D ue verruce emarginate, in lines,
elegantissimum, 78.
Semi-cells oval or elliptical . . . tumdtdum, 61; orthosticum, 78.
es semi-orbicular . fetraophthalmum, 75; tntermedium, 75.
Semi-cells pyramidal, end truncate; basal angles rounded,
octhodes, 76; Botrytts, 74.
hi oval or elliptical, approximate,
margaritiferum, 74; punctulatum, 74.
S oh sf remote, granulate . . portianum, 77.
Semi-cells quadrangular . . . cowspersum, 75; pseudobroomet, 86.
ve subreniform, sinus widened and rounded inwardly,
latum, 76; reniforme, 76.
sie subspherical, approximate . . . . . orbtculatum, 77.
Re hemispherical, remote; base flattened . . excavatum, "77.
Ends and sides with teeth; sinus narrow, widened outwardly ; basal
anoles TOUNGdeG:’. Vos elt ae . « © » | Brebegsagazmaa
Ends without teeth, sides with 1o to 20; sinus gaping, dextatum, 76.
Margins crenate ; semi-cell semicircular, nuclei 2, end truncate,
cructatum, 81.
a6 undulate ; sinus widening outwardly . homalodermum, SI.
i ne sinus not widening outw ardly (kz).
Cell longer than wide ; diameter ;1, to 4, in. (38-442),
sb lobateee So.
.
1886.] MICROSOCOPICAL JOURNAL. 129
kk. Cell longer than wide, diameter ;j4, to ;s'55 in. (22-251),
kk.
Ue.
H
mm.
mm.
mm.
nn.
nn.
OO.
OO.
PP.
PP:
PP.
rr.
Toes
LA
SS
SS:
SS:
AG
tt.
be
wi.
wu.
“UU.
margaritum, SO.
Cell not longer than wide, end truncate. . . . . . vretusum,8o.
Diameter ese in. (12%), end truncate; sides convex, often obtusely
angled centrally . - . . . . . Schliephanckeanum, 82.
Diameter greater than (127) yj), in. (mm)
Sinus acute inwardly ; . . . thithophorum, 8o.
‘* rounded, but not widened, inwardly : ere anatum, 158.
‘* rounded and widened inwardly . . . . » phaseolus, 81.
Margins crenate or dentate (00).
mo smooth; centre with 1 verruca; semi-cell elliptical ; diameter
zap in. (137) ; ; : - =) treme 82.
Ends cats’ ; diameter TH0 in. es.) or larger (Pp).
es diameter 54, in. (28) or peace ak
About rf times longer than wide; diameter ~1, to - siz in. (33-50, m)
triplicatum 43 ; Spectosum, 87.
About 4 longer than wide; diameter ;1, to 4, in. (65— 70/1),
supraspeciosum, 88.
About £ longer than wide; diameter 51, in. (50),
pychnochondrum, 89.
Diameter 54,5 to 345, (20-26) ; ends 4 crenate, sides 4-6 crenate,
subcrenatum, 84.
ee iv00 5 oe y (20-25) ; sides nearly straight, A7el/manzz, 87.
sy (14-15) ; granules not radiate ; end 4 crenate,
Blyttiz, 87.
Marginal teeth numerous, long, pointed or aculeate. ZV/odseanum, 85.
ie 17, emarginate- ANAM NCO» 5 Moy 5 MS guadrifare zum, 87.
Margins crenate (Z¢).
Basal inflation granulate in vertical lines (zz).
a with scattered granules . . . pseudopectinoides, 8o.
ue without granules, the marginal in 8 radiating lines,
nasutum, SQ.
Sinus widening outwardly ; granules geminate in rows,
pectinotdes, 88.
‘+ not widening outwardly ; cell oblong, diameter ~4, (331),
pulcherrimum, gO.
cE Se ni cell orbicular, diameter ,1, (Soy),
radiosum, 9O-
End truncate (ww).
End not truncate (zz).
Diameter =+, in. (507) or larger ):
Diameter smaller than (507), 345 in. (yy).
Sides granulate, concave near the ae, semi-cell twice longer than wide,
pr otractum, 83.
Sides crenate-undulate, converging ; cytioderm verrucose, Qwaszllus, 84.
‘* rounded, acutely toothed, ends usually nude ; cell as long as wide,
Everettense, S5.
‘* straight, diverging, verrucose; anglesrounded . . dzrefum, 86.
Cytioderm granulate ; cell widest at base, sides converging, sportella, 83.
ge Zr cell narrowed ai base, sides straight, diverging,
protubecrans, 84.
Cytioderm verrucose ; end more or less protr uding and scolloped (4-cre
Rie pee. An ul’) |) ly NCRLOLUMHE. SO:
130
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY July,
w/e
Jes
Cara
Rae
aa
WHQ QMM
Cytioderm verrucose ; end more or less protruding, not scolloped,
ornatum, 82; protractum, 82.
end not protruding ; semi-cell twice as long as
wide, oblong-quadrangular. angles rounded . . . Broome, 86.
Cytioderm finely granulate or punctate; semi-cells triangular, angles
rounded, margins smooth Rae fe J. Cll 8a Zigap page
Cytioderm verrucose ; semi-cell subreniform, 3, times as wide as long,
commisurale, 83.
semi-cell pyramidal, angles rounded,
tumidum, 75.
be ee
Ge os
18. TETMEMORUS.
Cytioderm smooth or very indistinctly punctate (c).
Cytioderm punctate (@).
Cell 3 times as long as wide, irregularly granular; base slightly plicate,
giganteus, 92.
Cell more than 3 times as long as wide (6).
Front and lateral views fusiform ; end with colorless, lip-like projection,
gr anulatus, gl.
Front view cylindrical, not tapering ; side view fusiform, tapering ; end
FOUMGeH 0) y-ueerr en: ; ae Bret gl.
Three times longer than wide, smooth ; : diameter q2s0 [0 qa200 (18- 20)
minutus, Ql.
Four times longer than wide, smooth; diameter ;4, (48); linear
elliptical,no lip . . . ; oe pentotdes.*
Four to six times longer fai mie: smooth or indistinetly punctate ;
front view tapering, later ‘al fusiform, ;5!55 to zzs_ (20-227),
levis, QI.
19. NANTHIDIUM.
Spines divided at theends. . . 6 lel) ety 6 10 NRL G Ca icT
Spines subulate, ends not divided oe
spines more or less scattered .... » . . . «. « @emlegommaarice
Spines marginal (4).
Basal angles with 2 spines (¢@).
vs te I spine be) e
Other spines geminate in 4 pairs - . = \ CHESEDLZ0ME Ore
y we in 2 pairs on the end, single on the sides,
asteptum, 93.
Other spines 6 to 10 pairs on semi-cell ; protuberance beaded,
bisenarium, 93.
Other spines 2 to 4 pairs (e).
oS MONE are oe ose 2 Ll . | 1 Cela Cer OLTEE aan
. Other spines, 4 pairs, terminal den! 2s al) tle ofasememia manatee
ee
2 pairs, basal, vertical . . . . vrectocornutum, 94.
a 2 pairs, terminal ; a row of granules above the central pro-
jection, aspine above the granules, . . . . J&@nneapoltense, 94.
Other spines, 2 pairs, ter minal ; a row of granules above the central pro-
jection, no a above the granules... 0...) polymememae ye
Other s ines airs, terminal. no granules above the projection
e)
Diameter ; by (55§=05/2) #00 moreme. | Sesan fasciculatum, 93-
oe i r
sty in. Heoaor less ; semi-cell tr qesee triangular, asteptum, 93.
ce ae ge semi-cell not truncate-triangular,
antilopeum, 94.
* Journ. R. Micr. Soc., Feb., 1886.
1886. ]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
131
ARTHRODESMUS:
Cytioderm smooth (a).
Semi-cell with two spines (c).
WR RMD
Cytioderm with deciduous spines
. Nuclei,
Bue eke
sh
se semi-cell elliptical ;
End truncate : ; spines widely diver
End convex ; spines moderately divergent
2 in each oblong-oval semi-cell
Nuclei none; semi-cell oval, diameter ;,!,, in. (201)
BS semi-cell orbicular, diameter ;3'5; (12).
spines often
cent
Cytioderm verrucose or spinous (6).
Semi-cell with more than 2 spines (@).
Sen LRA 27m O ys
guadridens, 96.
. . . .
oe verrucose in rows, margins aerte gin eas
Spines on the same side diverging 25 ;
oe oC parallel (/).
2 ne converging ; f convergens, 95.
Margin of semi-cell angular, ea angle wie I or 2 spines, octocornzs, 97.
: Lncus, 97:
Ee 96 ; ovalzs, 96
Sragilts,
ovals,
orbicularts,
very short,
convergens Var., 95.
| To be continued. |
Photo
BY THE EDITOR.
[Continued from page 95.\
4. Developing (continued).
6. Pyro or Alkaline develop-
ment.
Prepare the developer according to
any of the formulas given last fost
or follow the recon given by the
maker of the plates that are used.
Doubtless, however, many will pre-
fer to buy a developer already mixed,
such as that of the Eastman Dry
Plate Co., of Rochester, or, one that
we can most highly recommend,
which was forgotten as we wrote last
month, Walmsley’ s developer, which
can be obtained from Messrs. Walms-
ley & Co. in Philadelphia. There
are several others on the market,
which from the way they are adver-
tised might lead one to suppose they
are everlasting—one, indeed, is said
to work constantly without any addi-
tion. Well, réex d’émpossible, but
it is just as well for the beginner to
use well-tried, even though fess eco-
nomical, preparations.
Having mixed the solutions, pour
them over the plate, and constantly
tip the tray to make the developer
flow back and forth. In a few sec-
onds the picture will appear, and de-
velopment must be continued until
| detailsareout. Then wash thoroughly
|
and put the plate in the alum solution
(fomula 8), which should have the
oxalic acid added to it for the purpose
mentioned. In ten minutes wash the
plate again, and place it in the fixing
solution.
When fixed wash very thoroughly
and dry.
Treatment of plates not properly
exposed.
When a picture develops all over,
without sufficient contrast between
the lights and shadows, itappears flat,
and the plate has been exposed in the
camera too long. If, on the other
hand, the lights and shadows are ex-
aggerated, and details in the shadows
cannot be brought out, the plate
has not received sufficient exposure.
The former error can be remedied to
a considerable extent in develop-
ment. For the latter, not much can
be done.
In attempting to modify the course
of development it should be consid-
ered that :—
1. ‘A weak developer acting slowly
gives a soft, even development with
good density.
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
132 [July,
An alkaline developer, strong in
ammonia or alkali, tends to bring’out
details in the shadows.
A developer, strong in pyro or
iron, and containing sufficient re-
strainer (2) to prevent general fog
gives strong contrasts and density.
From ie it may be readily under-
stood that :—
For an under-exposed plate a
slow development is required. In
using oxalate do not add more than
1 part of iron to 16 of the oxalate
(even 1 to 20 might be better to be-
gin with), and allow development to
proceed slowly until as much detail
is out as can possibly be obtained.
Then add more iron, making the
proportion 1 -8, if necessary, to ob-
tain density. In using pyro, begin
with less than the fecal quantity ioe
pyro, but use more alkali, and let
the detail come out slowly. Then
if density is required, more pyro
should be added. Another plan is
to dilute the usual developer with
half its bulk of water, or more; but
the addition of ammonia tends to
bring out detail without giving
density , and this is what is required
in an under- -exposed plate. For the
tendency in such a plate is toward
density in the well lighted parts and
transpi wency in ee shadows By
using a Ww eak dev eloper, however , and
giving time enough—it may require an
non or saa hours—the feeble
effect of the light in the shadows
may be made to show, while the
better lighted parts do not become
dense, as they would with a normal
developer. The reduction of the sil-
ver, once started by the weak devel-
oper, may then be ‘continued by the
stronger one, while, had we begun
with the strong developer, the well
lighted parts would probably be fully
developed and perhaps quite opaque
before the details in the shadows be-
gan to show.
We have thus conscientiously de-
scribed the proper method of treating
under-exposed plates; but lest we
should be numbered among the many
amateurs who, by their great skill,
have made wonderful works of art out
of under-exposed plates, we may add
that the method described is not the
one we are accustomed to adopt in
practice. Our plan is, wherever we
have a plate evidently under exposed,
to immediately throw it away. This
plan saves much time and labor. It
is true, sometimes a good picture can
be made from a slightly under-timed
plate; but it is impossible to make a
good picture unless the light has acted
long enough to impr ess ie details on
the plate so that the developer can
pring them out.
For an over-exposed plate Al
strong and well restrained developer
is required, for in this case the ten-
dency is toward flatness and want of
contrast. This is due to the fact that,
when the light acts too long upon a
plate, development gives a thin image.
Up to a certain point of exposure fae
development gives increasing density,
but beyond that point the reverse ac-
tion takes place. For this reason the
sky over a landscape, the brightest
part, is frequently quite thin, owing to
over exposure, while the remainder
of the picture is strong. In fact, by
giving an excessively ‘Jong and cor-
rectly. timed exposure a positive pic-
ture may be taken in the camera.
A good formula for dev eloping an
over -exposed plate is 1 part of iron to
6 or 8 of oxalate, with about 5 drops
of bromide to each ounce of de-
veloper. The quantity of bromide
must be regulated by the require-
ments of eaie case—it must be sufh-
cient to control the development.
When pyro is used, put in twice the
usual quantity of pyro, rather less
alkali than usual, and a good excess
of bromide. Some operators advise
that plates known to be over exposed
be placed in a plain bromide solution
for a few moments before develop-
ment. We have not tried this plan
because we have not yet discovered a
means of knowing that a plate is over
exposed ; however, there may be an
advantage in the proceeding, for the
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
138
development can thus be kept well
under control, and if it be found that
the exposure is about right, the bro-
mide can be washed out and develop-
ment begun anew.
The novice will be puzzled at times |
to know whether a finished negative
is over or under timed, although it
may be evident that something is the
matter. Usually, the question can be
definitely settled by examining the
shadows. Ifthe detail isal]l visible and
the negative is thin, the margins of the
plate where it was protected by the
holder remaining clear, the exposure
was too long. If the margins are not
clear it is an indication of a foggy
plate. The fog may be due to the
emulsion, or to accidental exposure
to light. Fog may also be readily
produced by using too much alkali
in the developer. A foggy or light
struck plate will give a weak and flat
negative, just as an over-exposed
plate. An under-timed plate will
not show the details in the shadows,
while in a landscape the sky will
probably develop dense, black, and
perfectly opaque.
We have still to consider a few
methods of reducing and intensify-
ing negatives, but these must be de-
ferred until next month.
{ To be continued. |
O
Provisional Key to Classification of
Alge of Fresh Water.—IX.
BY THE EDITOR.
| Continued from page 97. |
Family XIV. Nostocacr.
Filamentous, simple or branched
trichomes. Resting spores observed
in many genera, also peculiar hetero-
cysts—colorless cells apparently with-
out contents—interspersed in the
series of vegetative cells, the function
of which is unknown.
Groups.
Filaments usually branched, rarely
simple, provided with a sheath, taper-
ing to a hair-like end; with hetero-
cysts. i (RIVULARIE*. )
Filaments not tapering to a hair- '
like end, sheathed, branched, cell
division only at right angles to the
length of the filament, branches
formed by lateral outgrowths of the
filaments breaking through the
sheath. Usually with heterocysts.
(ScYTONEME#.)
Filaments not tapering to a point,
sheathed, branched, cell division also
parallel to the length of the filament,
whereby branching results and the
filament itself includes series of cells
lying side by side. (STIGONEME.)
Simple, unbranched filaments,with
or without sheaths, never tapering to
a point; heterocysts always present,
and resting cells (spores) usually
observed.
Propagation in two ways: I. by
development of resting cells after a
period of repose, giving rise to new
filaments by repeated idigicone 2
by multicellular, germinating _fila-
ments (hor mogonia), separated por-
tions of the trichome. which grow
into new plants. (NostTocE#.)
Simple, unbranched filaments,with
or without sheaths, single or forming
extended layers, w nears heterocy sts
and resting cells, never tapering toa
hair point.
Propagation: 1. by the breaking
up (disarticulation) of filaments (hor-
mogonia) the single pieces growing
into new filaments (Oscéllaria,
Lyngbya, Symploca); 2. by uni-
cellular gonidia, which may be
either the separated, terminal cells
of filaments (Chamestphon, Lepto-
thrix?) or special cells developed in
the course of vegetative division
( Crenothrix).
A number of the genera manifest,
either always or under certain con-
ditions, a turning around the longi-
tudinal axis of the filaments, anda
forward, creeping movement ( Os-
cillaria, Beggiatoa, Spirulina,
Spirocheta) . (OSCILLARIE. )
a. RIVULARIE.
Synopsis of Genera.
Growing in tufts. Heterocysts at
base of Pe nphes. Calothrix, 105.
Group 1.
134
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[J uly,
Filaments free, unbranched, hetero-
cysts at base. Mastigonema, 106.
Filaments radial, in gelatin, with
basal heterocysts, branched; with
resting cells. Gleotrichta, 107.
Filaments radial, in gelatin, basal
heterocysts, no resting eels.
Ri vularta, 108.
Frond flat, otherwise as above
Lsactis, 109.
105. Genus Calothrix (Agardh)
Thuret.
Filaments branched, straight, not
in gelatinous masses, growing in tufts.
Heterocysts at the ee of rane tiee:
106. Genus Aastigonema Fischer
(enlarged).
Filaments free, unbranched, not in
gelatin, growing single, orin bunches.
Heterocy sts at Ghe ee of filaments.
Resting ‘cells unknown.
107. Genus Gleotrichia Agardh.
Filaments radially disposed, em-
bedded in solid gelatin in spherical
masses; branching by lateral out-
growth from the bid filament beneath
the heterocyst. The latter basal ;
resting cells single, over the hetero-
cysts.
[ Wide, gelatinous, transversely phi-
cate sheaths enclose the trichomes,
especially about the lower part. The
resting cells or spores are elongated
cells, which otherwise usually resem-
ble the other cells. The next genus
only differs in the absence of spores,
a feature that cannot be regarded as
constant. |
108. Genus /?ezvularza Roth.
The same characters as ¢/eotri-
chia, but resting cells (spores) not
known.
109. Genus /sactés Thuret.
Filaments parallel and erect in gel-
atin, often encrusted with me.
frond flat, otherwise like Azvalaria.
ScyTONEME.
Group 2
Synopsis of Genera.
Filaments sheathed; branching
double, at right-angles ; branches par-
allel. Scytonema, 110.
Filaments united in bands by a
common sheath.
Symphyostphon, 111.
Filaments sheathed, branching be-
low one or more heterocysts.
TLolypothrix, 112.
Branching irregular, no_hetero-
cysts. Plectonema, 113.
110. Genus Scytonxema Agardh.
Each filament with its special
sheath; branching usually double as
the filament bends and ruptures out-
side the sheath, and two _ parallel
branches are thus produced, which
run off at right-angles to the original
filament. Heterocysts distributed
without relation to the branching.
111. Genus Symphyosiphon Kiitz-
ing.
Filaments as in Scytozema, but
united in bands by the lateral expan-
sion of the sheaths.
112. Genus 7olypothrex Kiitzing.
Each filament with a sheath;
branching usually single, by lateral
outgrow th of the filaraente through
the sheath below the one or more
heterocysts. ‘The latter, therefore,
are always found at the place of
branching.
113. Plectonema Thuret.
Filaments irregularly branched,
with single or geminate branchiney
each in its special sheath. No heter-
ocysts. Color blue-green.
c. STIGONEME. Group 3
Synopsis of Genera
Several series of cells in a single
filament. Stigonema, 114.
Cells in single series, very wide
sheath. flaplosiphon, 115.
114. Genus S¢tigonema Agardh
Cells of the filaments often in
series of two, three, or more, side
by side, owing to division in various
directions ; folie thick, very distinct
in old filaments; sheath very wide ;
heterocysts distributed without order.
115. Genus Hapalosiphon Nigeli
(extended).
Cells in a single series, sheaths
thick or delicate, with heterocysts.
Plants resembling Zolypothrix.
[ To be continued. |
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
135
EDITORIAL.
Publisher’s Notices.—All communications ex.
changes, etc., should be addressed to the Editor, P.O
Box 630, Washington, D. C.
Subscriptions, and all matters of business, should be
addressed to the Business Manager, P. O. Box 630,
Washington, D. C.
Subscription price $1.00 PER YEAR strictly in ad-
vance. All subscriptions begin with the Fanuary
number.
A pink wrapper indicates that the subscription has
expired.
Remittances should be made by postal notes, money
orders, or by money sent in registered letters. Drafts
should be made payable in Washington, New York,
Boston, or Philadelphia.
The regular receipt of the JouRNAL, which is issued
on the 15th of each month, will be an acknowledgment
of payment.
The first volume, 1880, is entirely out of print. The
succeeding volumes will be sent by the publisher for
the prices given below, which are net.
Vol. II (1881) complete, $1.50.
Vol. III out of print.
Vol. IV (1883) complete, $1.50.
Vol. V (1884) complete, $1.50.
Vol. V (1884), Nos. 2-12, $1.00.
Vol. VI (1885), $1.00.
BusINEss CHANGE IN THE JOUR-
NAL.—Most of our readers will be
surprised to learn that the Editor will
soon leave the country for a residence
of some time in Japan. This change
has been in contemplation for several
weeks, but it has been deemed best
not to make it public until proper
arrangements were made for the
JournaL. For the present no
change will be made in the editorial
management, but it is not unlikely
that a resident Editor will soon be
appointed, and that we shall be tem-
porarily relegated to the position of
special foreign correspondent. At
all events, our readers may be as-
sured that no means will be spared
to ensure the satisfactory conduct and
continued prosperity of the JOURNAL.
As will be seen from the cover,
Mr. Rufus W. Deering has assumed
the business management, which has,
in fact, already been in his charge
for some time. Mr. Deering is an
experienced business man, and in
future will have entire control of the
business of the JouRNAL. It is ex-
pected that this arrangement will re-
sult in great benefit to the JouRNAL
in several ways, but particularly in
the increase of its subscription list,
through a systematic attention to
|
)
details of the business, which it has
been practically impossible for us to
give, even had we been at any time
so disposed.
It is the intention of Mr. Deering
to establish, in connection with his
work on the JOURNAL, an agency for
the sale of periodicals, including
those pertaining to microscopy. He
will receive subscriptions to any peri-
odical at publisher’s prices, and will
furnish books of all kinds. This will
be a great convenience to many of
our readers, and we commend the
enterprise to their patronage.
The Editor’s foreign address will
be, after this month, Osaka, Japan,
where private letters may be sent at
all times; but communications on
matters pertaining to the JoURNAL
had best be sent to Washington, as
hitherto. Up to August roth letters
may be sent to the Palace Hotel, San
Francisco, Cal.
O-
DETECTION OF FATS IN BUTTER.
—The processes discovered by Dr
Thomas Taylor, and already pub-
lished in these columns, for detecting
adulterations in butter have attracted
great attention throughout the coun-
try, and are deserving of thorough
investigation. The subject’ was re-
ferred to a special committee of the
American Society of Microscopists
at its last meeting, and it is expected
that the committee will report at its
next meeting. We learn, from pri-
vate sources, that the results of the
observations of the committee have
sustained Dr. Taylor’s assertions, and,
without wishing to forestall the report
of the committee by extending these
remarks into particulars, we may ex-
press the belief that the accuracy of
Dr. Taylor’s work will be acknowl-
edged. In some apparently mysteri-
ous manner, however, the report of
the committee seems to have disap-
peared, and at least some mem-
bers of the committee are unable to
understand the cause. It has been
intimated to us that one gentleman in
Chicago prepared a report which was
136
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[July,
so much the report of an individual
that no other member would sign it;
hence, no committee report has yet
appeared. We trust this is not so,
but that the free testimony of all the
members will be given next month,
properly signed. A committee of the
Society can scarcely permit one per-
son to be a self-appointed spokesman,
and any attempt in this direction de-
serves to be severely censured.
Some criticisms of Professor Tay-
lor’s method have been made from
time to time, and these have cast
some doubts upon the reliability of it
among a large number of persons.
We leave it to Dr. Taylor to answer
his critics, as he seems abundantly
able to do; but we cannot refrain
from expressing the regret we have
felt at the attempts that have been
made, apparently from unworthy
motives, to belittle the merit which
certainly belongs to Dr. Taylor, as
the discoverer GE the process, until the
accuracy of his statements have been
disproved. And we may assert, with-
out hesitation, that, so far as we have
been able to understand the subject,
and the published articles relating to
it, the accuracy of it has not been dis-
proved, and we fully sympathize with
the tone of Dr. Taylor’ s response to
the at least very uncalled-for commu-
nication of an eminent entomologist,
who claimed no special knowledge
of the subject, which recently ap-
peared in the newspapers.
We claim no special acquaintance
with the processes ourselves, but in the
light of all that has been published
Dr. Taylor surely has the best of the
argument; and in behalf of pure jus-
tice we are led to make these remarks.
We do not ask that his statements be
blindly accepted, but we do say that
those who deny them should give
experimental proofs to sustain their
position, and not allow personal ani-
mosities or jealousy to bias their
judgment, or influence public opin-
ion.
We cannot overlook the statements
attributed to Professor Weber, of
Columbus, Ohio, who, it appears,
questions the reliability of the method
of Dr. Taylor, since the results of his
experiments do not fully accord with
those of Dr. Taylor. It is but just to
the latter gentleman, however, to state
that he says the Professor does not fol-
low his method, and therefore does
not reach the same results. This,
from the published accounts we have
seen, appears to be strictly true. If
it were not that the gentlemen en-
gaged in this work are presumed to
be scientific gentlemen, seeking for
the truth alone, we would be in-
clined to say a deliberate effort has
been made to disprove facts for an
unworthy purpose. It is certainly
not easy to understand how a compe-
tent scientific observer can be led to
criticise a method without following
the processes described, which are,
presumably at least, an essential part
of it. Such criticism is trivial, inex-
cusable, and very unjust.
The steps of Dr. Taylor’s process
are simple and rational. The prin-
ciple upon which he works is essen-
tially sound. It involves no new
discoveries concer ning crystalline
forms, since the cry stals of butter and
other fats have long been known. He
has studied some of them more critic-
ally than has been done before. and
has probably incidentally acquired a
better knowledge of their peculiari-
ties than has any other person. But
the merit of his discoveries lies in the
application of well-known facts, and
the perfection of a method whereby
he asserts that the presence and iden-
tity of foreign fats in butter can be
detected with certainty. The mat-
ter of butter crystals, which seems to
be a stumbling-block to many, may
be disregarded at present, and the St.
Andrew’s cross is nothing very won-
derful or significant, although it has
figured pretty largely in this matter.
In practice it is not required to detect
butter in the presence of other fats,
but to detect other fats in butter, and
since oleo and lard are crystalline
fats (except under very unusual con-
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
137
ditions) ,* and fresh butter fat is not
crystalline, the detection of the adul-
teration by the microscope seems not
to be an impossibility. It is because
of those well-known facts, as well as
of the clear understanding of them
manifested in Dr. Taylor’s articles,
that we are inclined to put faith in
his statements. Going a step further,
it appears that butter also can be
recognized by its crystalline form
when mixed with other fats. The
admirable manner in which Dr.
Taylor seems to have succeeded in
detecting adulterations in butter, en-
titles him to the credit of a discoverer
of a new process of analysis.
O-
CutTinc Sections OF MINUTE
OrGAnismMs.—Dr. G. W. M. Giles
has recently contributed an interest-
ing article on Marine Collecting
with Surface Net to Sczence Gos-
stp. The special part of the article
to which we wish to direct at-
tention is a method of preparing
sections of minute animals, such as
the smaller entomostraca for exam-
ple, which at first sight seems rather
impracticable, but which the writer
assures us has been successful in
practice. The hard shells and chiti-
nous coats of these animals offer
some difficulties in cutting when em-
bedded in paraffin, but occasionally
good sections can be cut in the man-
ner described, when the animals are
very minute. The method is as fol-
lows: Take the animal from absolute
alcohol, pass it through oil of cloves,
place it in a watch-glass with a few
drops of balsam, and heat until the
oil of cloves is entirely displaced by
the balsam. A single drop of balsam
is then heated on a slide until it is
hard when cooled. ‘ Now take up
the animal, together with a bead of
balsam on the point of a needle, and
place it on the balsam on the slide,
previously warmed, and prop it up in
such a position that the plane of the
sections desired may be parallel to
- that of the slide, holding it thus until
*See Amer. Quar. Micr. Journ., i, 295.
the balsam has cooled sufficiently to
keep it so.’
Sections are then cut with a razor
and dropped upon the slide and
mounted under a large cover-glass.
The difficulty is to get the balsam
hardened just right. It must be just
right to be cut with a razor, and not
brittle. Sections of coralline algz
can also be made in this way.
NOTES.
— Several serious typographical errors
occurred in the communication on ‘ Fine
Measurements,’ from M. D. Ewell, in the
June number, which our readers will do
well to note.
Page 120:—16th line, for film read filar ;
2oth line, for Huygheinan read Huyghe-
nian; 27thline, for solid read ruled; 28th
line, for sold read ruled.
— Mr. Zentmayer has issued the ninth
edition of his Illustrated Price List of Micro-
scopes, and other optical instruments.
His present list now embodies the results
of more than forty-one years of experience
in the manufacture of optical instruments.
No instruments made anywhere in the
world more justly deserve their reputation
for excellence of workmanship and dura-
bility than do those of Mr. Zentmayer.
Among the microscopes recently intro-
duced by him, the‘ portable histological’
stand is already well known and popular.
We also notice a new illustration of a
cobweb micrometer in this edition.
— Mr. J. Grunow has issued a new
price list of objectives, dated Dec., 1885,
in which he makes the announcement
that he has ceased to make water-im-
mersion lenses, and all his immersion
lenses are made for a fluid, having the
refractive index of crown glass, which
he prepares of an oily nature so that it
will not run like oil of cedar. It is less
fluid than any of the oils. He makes
js an ;,-inch objectives of balsam angle
I15° N. A. 1.24.
— The Palmer Slide Company has
issued a new circular concerning the
excellent and cheap slides they are
making upon their improved grinding
and polishing machines. They also
furnish cover-glasses, mounting media,
staining fluids, and other articles, They
offer Prof. Smith’s new mounting media,
prepared under his personal supervision,
138
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[July,
one with refractive index of 1.7, the other
of 2.0. The popular Pillsbury cabinets
can also be obtained from them.
— Messrs. H. R. Spencer & Co. have
issued a new price list of objectives,
which can be obtained by addressing
them at Geneva, N. Y. They ‘make
now a variety of lenses, all of them
good, but their highest quality lenses
are to be especially commended. They
offer a ;j,-inch, B. A. 116°, N. A. 1.29, for
$60.00, and speak in high praise of it, for
its long working distance and resolving
power. Another 4, in the same series,
having a B. A. of 125°, N. A. 1.35, costs
$80.00. The higher angle objectives are
‘guaranteed to equal in performance any
that can be made.’
— The Gundlach Optical Company has
been very busy of late filling orders and
preparing an extensive exhibit of photo-
graphic goods for the Photographic Con-
vention at St. Louis. We may say, in
passing, that they are doing some good
work in objectives for field photography,
a line of business they have recently
established, although Mr. Gundlach has
long been identified with the manufacture
of such lenses. We are pleased to see
evidences of their prosperty.
— Dr. Piersol, of Philadelphia, has gone
to Germany, where he intends to pursue
his studies in histology. He will also
continue his work in photography, in
which he has been so successful. Our
readers are already indebted to him for
some valuable contributions to these col-
umns, and may expect others during
his sojourn in Leipzig, where we trust his
experiences will be always pleasant and
profitable.
— Dr. Henri Van Heurck has had re-
markable success in photographing the
Amphipleura and the 18th and 19th bands
of Nobert. We are in daily expectation
of receiving prints from some of his recent
negatives, which he has promised to send
us, but in anticipation of their arrival it is
of interest to have the opinion of such an
experienced microscopist as Dr. Royston
Pigott, who has thus expressed his ap-
preciation in a private letter. He writes :—
You will not be astonished when I declare
they have in my opinion no equals. The
total disappearance of false lights along
the margins, which people have almost
doted in declaring to be quite unavoid-
able, because they were diffractions,
utterly explodes that gratuitous presump-
tion.
CORRESPONDENCE.
An Old Record of Spencer.
To THE EpIToR :—I have somewhere
heard it said that in one of the editions
of Quekett’s Treatise on the use of the
Microscope there appeared an account~
of the performance of the objectives of
the late Chas. A. Spencer, which were
then just beginning to be known in
Europe, and also an engraving of what
was then the test object, Harvicula Hip-
Pocampus, as shown by a Spencer ob-
jective. Also that the fact of such no-
tice aroused such a feeling in England
that the objectionable matter, together
with the cut, was omitted in subsequent
editions. I would like to know if such
was the fact, and, if so, in what edition
of Quekett the notice appeared.
W.
)
Measuring Blood Corpuscles.
To THE EDITOR :—I desire to present
the following reply to Dr. Ewell’s commu-
nication, in the June number of the Journal,
on fine measurement.
My stage micrometer has no appreciable
error when compared with the U.S. Coast:
Survey standard. The micrometer screw
was made especially for micrometer use.
A leading firm of fine tool makers refused
to fill an order for a screw which they
would guarantee to be accurate, conse-
quently Mr. Fasoldt assumed the task.
After many trials and corrections, occupy-
ing several months of time, a screw of
1oo threads per inch was produced, which
accorded in every revolution with the
standard stage plate. The error, if any,
of this screw is extremely small.
The use of a micrometer requires care
and frequent testing, since the ordinary
wear, when in service, tends continually
to change the rate of the screw, and this
is especially the case if a certain 7; inch
or ;4 inch of its length is used when
making a large number of blood meas-
urements.
The measurement and comparison of
lines and screws requires much technical
experience, and this matter is quite inde-
pendent of mathematical ability. In
measuring with a screw the milled head
sbould be invariably turned in one direc-
tion, to the limit of the division or to the
end of the scale to be measured. If a
division or line be inadvertently overrun,
the screw should be reversed one or two
revolutions and the line again approached
carefully in the proper direction. The
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
139
screw may push or pull the web, but it
cannot do both accurately. When meas-
uring, the web should always be moved in
the same direction: when set for the next
measurement it should be returned past
the starting point, and then brought
carefully to that point again, so the traverse
of the web shall be continuously in one
direction from point to point. This
applies to all screw measurements, and
there are mechanical reasons for a strict
observance of this rule:—A _ properly
constructed micrometer head should be
always divided and numbered, and the
revolution, when measuring, should follow
the run of the numbers.
To-day I again tested a newly ruled
plate with the screw. When the milled
head was revolved in the proper direction
every space of tooth, and also of 1oooth
of an inch, registered exactly on the
micrometer head. A reversal of the
operation produced an error of zg 595 inch
in the whole length of the scales. Several
repetitions of this exercise with other parts
of the screw produced the same result.
A well-cut line on glass shows a narrow
black central line between two more or
less irregular edges. This black line
represents the extreme bottom of the cut.
This alone determines the exact position
of the line, and not the irregular or
illy-defined edges at the surface of the
glass.
The periscopic is the only style of eye-
piece I have used for micrometry. The
field is wide and flat, and the focus, being
below the field lens, allows an easy change
of eye-piece magnification without dis-
turbing the micrometer adjustments. I
have used the periscopic 1, 3, and
¥%-inch. The 1-inch is probably the most
perfect of these eye-pieces; the %-inch,
with the vertical illuminator, presented
a rather dim field, and sharp definition of
the edge of the corpuscle could not be
obtained.
The number of corpuscles in my list was
not large, but each one was very carefully
and deliberately measured. I did not
have the time to make a larger number of
measurements.
S. G. SHANKS.
ALBANY, June 2d, 1886.
“MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES.
RO DG:
Forty-fifth regular meeting, May 25th,
1886.
Dr. Theobald Smith, of the Bureau of
Animal Industry, Department of Agri-
culture, addressed the Society, by invita-
tion, upon ‘A Few Simple “Methods of
Obtaining Pure Cultures of Bacteria.’ An
abstract of his remarks is published on
another page.
Dr. Schaeffer said that in his opinion the
bacterial origin of disease was not yet
proved. His position was one of healthy
scepticism. He thought there was a
fashion in science as well as in dress, and
just now it was the fashion to go to Ger-
many for our theories about bacteria. He
did not advocate a slavish adherence to
or belief in everything written by the
authorities. He thought that just now we
were at the crest of the wave of bacteriol-
ogy, and that we should soon begin the
decline. In his opinion the true cause of
disease was of a chemical nature.
Mr. Skinner asked whether Dr. Freire’s
researches on the bacteria said to be the
cause of yellow fever were generally
accepted as sound, and also alluded to the
theory that bacteria themselves do not
cause disease but the ptomaines generated
by their presence, or, in other words, that
the active cause of disease is not vegetable
but chemical.
Mr. Hitchcock said :—Nowhere is better
work in this line being done than in the
Bureauof Animal Industry of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Laborious and
patient investigations have been carried
on quietly for years and the results are
just now beginning to appear. Alluding
to Dr. Schaeffer's remarks, he said :—Ifa
germ is isolated, cultivated, and a pure
culture obtained which will invariably
produce a certain disease in the animal
inoculated ; then, if the germ is not the
cause of the disease, what is the cause?
Dr. Taylor said :—If, after inoculation
with the B. tuberculosis, we find tuberculo-
sis in any large number of the animals in-
oculated, then it is reasonable to sup-
pose that the bacillus is the cause of the
disease.
Dr. Seaman stated that the discoveries
leading to the development of the germ
theory had their origin in researches upon
much larger objects than bacteria, viz.,
mycoderms.
Dr. Smith closed the discussion by
saying that no original work in this line
is accepted unless full and detailed ac-
counts of all experiments are given, so
that the investigator's methods can be
exactly followed. So far he had seen no
such accounts from Dr. Freire. Much of
the scepticism as to the bacterial origin of
disease is due to the fact that most of the
140
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY.
latest work of the foremost investigators
is as yet generally inaccessible, not hav-
ing been published in English. Any one
who will read Koch’s latest publications
must be convinced of the truth of his
reasoning. If I can inoculate mice and
predict death in a given time, and there
is nothing in the inoculation fluid but
germs, then it is logical to assume that the
germs are the cause of the disease. The
speaker said that when he began his work
in this line he was in a state of doubt as to
the truth of the theory, but his own work
during the past few years, and his knowl-
edge of the work of others, had convinced
him of its truth, and he was confident that
this would be the case with any one else
who would take pains to carefully look
into the matter.
Prof. Seaman said that the alga shown
by him at the last meeting, had been
pronounced, by the Rev. Mr. Wolle, to
be Palmella Bruni.
Dr. Caldwell alluded to some specimens
of urinary crystals shown by him at the
thirty-fifth meeting in December last, and
concerning which he was in doubt at the
time. He said that he had recently had
occasion to examine a specimen of urine
containing phosphates in excess. He
had acidulated the specimen by nitric
acid, and added excess of ammonia, and
produced crystals identical with those
shown in December. The use of acetic
acid and potassic hydrate produced the
same result. He therefore concluded that
the specimens exhibited in December
were crystalline forms of phosphates.
E. A. BALLocH, Secr.
Oo——
SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.
The regular semi-monthly meeting was
held Wednesday evening, May 26th, Dr.
S. M. Mouser presiding.
Dr. Stallard exhibited some fine slides
illustrative of arvterztis, or inflammation
of the arterial blood vessels. He also
explained at some length his method of
preparing the specimens.
A letter was received from J. C. Rinn-
bock, of Vienna, a well-known preparer
of diatom mounts, inclosing two exquisite
specimens of his work. The first slide
was composed of selections from various
American diatomaceous deposits, and
the other contained over two hundred
selected and _ systematically-arranged
diatoms, each of a different species, from
the fossil deposit at Brunn, Moravia.
Included therein were specimens of one
genus and of several species which are
comparatively new to science, they hav-
[July.
ing been described only very recently by
Cleve, and almost without exception the
forms on the slide were those of rare
and little-known diatoms. The mount
was, therefore, not only a fine specimen
of manipulative skill, but was also of
high scientific value.
Prof. Hanks offered the following pre-
amble and resolution :—
WHEREAS, It is desirable to call the
attention of scientific men to the new
field of California and to make the re-
sources of our State known to the world;
and
WHEREAS, The American Association
for the Advancement of Science and the
American Institute of Mining Engineers
will meet in Buffalo on the 3d of August
next, at which meeting it will be decided
where the following one shall be held;
and
WHEREAS, It has been intimated that
the members of the associations men-
tioned would be pleased to hold a meet-
ing on the Pacific Coast; therefore be it
_ Resolved, That the San Francisco Mi-
croscopical Society appoint a committee
of three, and extend an invitation to all
scientific societies in the State to appoint
similar committees to meet in conference
and consider the propriety of extending
an invitation to the above-mentioned
associations to hold their annual meet-
ing of 1887 in the city of San Francisco.
The resolutions were unanimously
adopted, and a committee was appointed
to take the matter in charge.
A long discussion ensued regarding the
advisability of giving a soirée, to be de-
voted exclusively to the demonstration
of pathological subjects. The matter was
finally laid over for future consideration.
A. H. BRECKENFELD, fec. Secr.
NOTICES OF BOOKS.
Notes on Histological Methods, including
a brief consideration of the methods of
Pathological and Vegetable Histology,
and the application of the microscope
to Jurisprudence. By Simon H. Gage,
Assistant Professor of Physiology and
Lecturer on Microscopical Technology.
Ithaca, N. ¥.. Andrus & Church.
1885-6. (Pamphlet, 8vo, pp. 56.) —
An instructive pamphlet, comprising in
a small space information that every stu-
dent requires. It was prepared for the use
of students in the anatomical department
of Cornell University. The title fully ex-
presses its scope.
THE AMERICAN
MONTHLY
MICROSCOPIGAL JOURNAL.
Wo. VII.
Wasuineton, D. C., Auaust, 1886.
No. 8.
Photo-Micrography.— VIII.
BY THE EDITOR.
| Continued from page 133. |
The treatment of negatives after de-
velopment is sometimes necessary in
order to give good printing strength
to such as are thin, and to reduce the
density of such as are too dense. The
methods of operating are many, but
it will generally be found that the
simplest are the best.
Intenstification.—Prepare a satu-
rated solution of corrosive sublimate
in water, pour it into a tray and im-
merse the developed and fixed plate
in the solution. This may be done
immediately after the hypo-sulphite
is washed out of the film, or at any
subsequent time after the plate is
dry, in which case the film should
first be thoroughly soaked in water
to ensure uniformity of action. The
operation is finished when the film is
whitened through, so that it appears
white when footed at through the
glass. It must then be thoroughly
washed in water, and blackened by
flowing with weak ammonia, or w rith
a not very strong solution of soda sul-
phite, the latter being preferable to
the ammonia. Then wash and dry.
Sometimes it is possible to increase
the brilliancy of a flat, over-exposed |
negative in this way, especially if it |
is first subjected to the action of the
cyanide reducing solution mentioned
further on, but there is then liability
to destroy the details, and such pre-
liminary treatment must be applied
with great judgment, or it will do
harm. As a rule, it is better not to
intensify negatives, for they are sure
to lose something in softness and
beauty.
A different form of the mercury in-
tensifier is prepared as follows :—
Corrosive sublimate 2 parts.
Potassium bromide Dred homer
Water LOOM Mes
Put the negative ; in ine solution, as
before decenbed: and after thorough
washing darken ‘the deposit with the
sulphite. Those who prefer to use
definite weights in preparing the sul-
phite solution may dissolve one part
of the sulphite in six parts of water.
Reducing density.—This is an
oper ation sometimes necessitated by
over-development. It is not to be
applied to under-exposed plates to
diminish contrasts, except in such
cases as permit of the local appli-
cation of the reducer, for to apply
it over the whole plate would only
make the contrasts greater by re-
moving the detail in the shadows.
The method we prefer is a very old
one, but, if we may judge from the
current photographic literature, it is
not in great favor among operators
generally. It is useless to give ex-
act proportions, for they will neces-
sarily be varied to suit each case.
Take a piece of potassium cyanide
about the size of two peas and dis-
solve it in about four ounces of
water. Make a solution of potas-
sium iodide in an ounce of water,
and dissolve in that sufficient iodine
to make a strong solution. Then
moisten the plate in water, take it
in the hand by one corner and flow
over it the cyanide solution with a few
drops of the iodine solution added to
it. If no reduction in strength is ob-
142
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
| August,
served add more iodine solution, and
continue to do this until reduction be-
gins. Then the strength is right, and
ine operation may be Woonemce until
the desired effect is obtained, pouring
the solution over the plate, held level
so as to flow evenly, and catching it
in the glass as it flows off, so as to use
the same mixture repeatedly. The
operation can be done in a tray also,
but there the progress of the reduction
cannot be so critically watched.
Occasionally local reduction can be
applied to advantage. A method that
has been highly fae ane ned is to
moisten a piece of soft cloth with
alcohol and rub it gently over the
dense parts of the negative. The
deposit is thus ratte down. and
the cloth becomes blackened. We
have not experimented with this
process, but it is well spoken of
by reputable authorities. A method
we have used with some success is
the careful local application of the
cyanide and_ iodine solution men-
tioned above. The plate was thor-
oughly coaleedt? in a tray of water and
he reducing agent applied with a flat
brush just w here it was required to
act, frequently plunging the plate into
clean water to prevent the action from
spreading. By working slowly very
good results were obtained.
(To be continued.)
O
Provisional Key to Classification of
Algzwe of Fresh Water.—X.
BY THE EDITOR.
[ Continued from page 134. |
Family NosrocacE&— Continued.
d. NostocEE#&. Group. 4.
Synopsis of Genera.
Curved chains, in gelatin with a
common external envelope.
JNVostoc, 116.
Like /Vosfoc, but in indefinite gelat-
inous layers. Vip Aan 117s
Cylindrical, sheathless cells in fila-
ments, spores cylindrical.
Aphanizomenon, 118.
Spores on both sides of a_hetero-
cyst. Spherozyga, 119.
Heterocysts terminal, spores sin-
gle. Cylindrospermum, 120.
Filaments curved, in distinct
sheaths, spores separated from heter-
ocysts. Aulosira, 121.
Filaments sheathed; spores fus-
cous, golden yellow.
Nodularia, 122.
Cells orbicular, in sheaths, spores
unknown. Chrysostigma, 123.
Cells cylindrical, sheathed, hetero-
cysts terminal. Coleospermum, 124.
Filaments curved, several in a
sheath. fiilsia, 125.
116. Genus /Vostoc Vaucher.
Trichomes composed of spherical
cells, more or less curved and inter-
laced, with or without special gelat-
inous sheaths in a gelatinous ma-
trix of definite form, enclosed in
a common more or less firm mem-
brane or pirederm. Heterocysts
terminal or intercalate between the
vegetative cells. Resting spores with
Hreik envelopes, about the same size
as the heterocysts, with granular
contents, green, bluish, or yellowish-
brown, formed from vegetative cells.
[In the course of vegetative in-
crease, portions of the common
gelatinous matrix soften, and some
of the vegetative series of cells are
set free, which for some time possess
an oscillaria-like movement. These
come to rest, and are not then to be
distinguished from filaments of axa-
bena. New plants arise by the divi-
sion of these cells parallel to the axis
of the filaments, finally separating,
and then grow into new filaments. ]
117. Genus Avabena Bory.
Filaments resembling /Vostoc, but
in single or in indefinite slimy masses.
Heterocysts terminal or intercalate.
Spores not contiguous to the hetero-
cysts.
118. Genus Aphanizomenon Mor-
ren.
Filaments composed of cylindrical,
vegetative cells without sheaths, unit-
ed in free floating floes. blue or olive
color. Heterocysts intercalate. Rest-
ing cells cylindric, not contiguous to
the heterocysts.
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
143
11g. Genus Spherozyga Agardh.
Filaments not (or rarely) vaginate,
in an amorphous, very diffuent muci-
lage, of indefinite form. Heterocysts
intercalate. Resting spores on both
sides of the one or two heterocysts.
120. Genus
Kiitzing.
Plant like Spherozyga. Hetero-
cysts terminal, single. Spores sin-
gle, just below the heterocysts.
121. Genus Awlostra Kirchner:
Filaments single, curved, enclosed
in evident sheaths. Heterocysts in-
tercalate. Resting spores cylindric,
not contiguous to the heterocysts.
122. Genus Vodularza Mesteus.
Filaments distinctly vaginate, in a
Cylindrospermum
gelatinous, irregular stratum. Heter-
ocysts regularly intercalated. Spores
fuscous, or golden yellow, globose,
slightly compressed.
123. Genus Chrysostigma Nobis.
Filaments single, consisting of or-
bicular, vegetative cells, enclosed in
distinct Bren ahes Heterocysts inter-
calate. Spores unknown.
124. Genus Coleospermum Kirch-
ner.
Filaments composed of cylindrical
cells, enclosed in a distinct sheath.
Heterocysts terminal. Spores irreg-
ularly placed in the filaments.
125. Genus /7/7/s¢a Nobis.
Filaments curved, several enclosed
in a sheath (or in the largest sheaths).
Heterocysts single, intercalate.
Spores unknown.
e. OSCILLARIEH. Group 5.
Synopsis of Genera.
Filaments distinctly articulated col-
orless ; macro and micro-gonidia.
Crenothrix, 126.
Filaments short, bright green, at-
tached. Chamesiphon, 127.
Filaments free, single or in indefi-
nite layers. Lyngbya, 128
Like Lynxgbya, but erect, in fas-
cicles. Symploca, 129.
Like Zyxgéya, but united in bun-
dles in a common sheath
Like A%crocoleus, but erect, and
united in fascicles. Lnactis, 131.
1. laments tn distinct sheaths,
mostly without movement.
126. Genus Crenothrix Cohn.
Filaments distinctly articulated,
colorless, in sheaths closed at the ends.
Propagation by two kinds of goni-
dia, of which the larger (macrogoni-
dia) are produced by. the breaking up
of the ends of the filaments into the
single cells, the smaller (microgoni-
dia) by the division parallel and at
right angles to the axis of the fila-
ments. Both kinds of gonidia accu-
mulate in the swollen end of the
sheath and germinate after breaking
through the latter.
127. Genus Chamestphon A.
Braun and Grunow.
Filaments short, attached, light
blue-green, with thin, but distinct
colorless sheaths. Propagation by
unicellular gonidia.
128. Genus Lyngéya Agardh em
Thuret.
Filaments not attached, single or
often forming a membranous, con-
sistent shapeless layer, variously col-
ored; sheaths distinct, each contain-
ing only one filament. Propagation
by g cer minating filaments which creep
out ae the sheaths and develop new
plants.
129. Genus Symploca Kiitzing.
Filaments in sheaths like Lyngbya,
but several united in small, upright
bundles, which generally form larger
fascicles.
130. Genus Jfcrocoleus Desma-
zieres em Thuret.
Filaments as in Lyngbya, but
several or many united in a bunch
and enclosed in a common sheath,
which is either open or closed at the
end, and which usually separates in
fine branches. Bunches single or
united in formless membranous layers.
131. Genus /zactiés Kiitzing em
Thuret.
Filaments as in preceding genus,
several in a common sheath (at least
Microcolens, 130. | in the larger sheaths), but upright,
144
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ August,
and united in bunches or small fasci-
cles, like Symploca (129).
2. Filaments naked, or without
distinct sheaths, mostly with active,
creeping movement.
a. Filaments
corkscrew.
Synopsis of Genera.
Sheath very delicate or absent, cell
contents blue-green, movement ac-
tive. Oscillaria, 132.
Like Osczllarza, but colorless.
Beggtatoa, 133.
Like Osczl/arza, filaments usually
very fine, motionless.
Leptothrix, 134.
Flexible, blue-green, moving.
Sprrulina, 135.
Like SAzralzéna, but colorless.
Spirochete, 136.
132. Genus Osczllaria Bosc.
Filaments straight or curved,
naked, or with a very thin, scarcely
not curved like a
discernable sheath ; cell contents (usu-
ally blue-green) colored. All mani-
fest a more or less active creeping
movement.
133. Genus Leggiatoa Trevis.
Filaments as in Osczllar¢a, with
active movement; cell contents col-
orless, with single, refracting granules
of reguline sulphur.
134. Genus Leptothrix Kiitzing.
Filaments as in Osczl/arza, usually
very fine, always motionless. |
6. Filaments curved like a cork-
screw.
135. Genus SAzralina Link.
Filaments flexible, with blue-green
contents, and active Osczl/arza-like
movement.
136. Genus SAzrochete Ehren-
berg.
Filaments like those of SAzraudina,
with active movement, very fine, with
colorless contents.
[ Zo be continued. |
Key to the Desmidiex.
BY DR. A. C. STOKES.
[Continued from page 131. |
21. EKUASTRUM.
End lobe evidently distinct (a).
End lobe deeply notched (c).
. End deeply notched (e).
WHR QRMM
teeth
Margins smooth (¢@).
Margins dentate (2).
lobule obtuse :
Basal lobe undulate (7).
Margins smooth (4).
ee
Basal lobe undulate (ww).
Margins smooth (zy.
66
End lobes horizontal
HS upright, diverging
SSS TS RR Roan
End lobe not evidently distinct (4).
End lobe more or less concave (¢).
End more or less convex ; sides without teeth
6 - - -
; rounded or angular (/).
sf rounded or angular (x).
. End more or less convex semi-cell; with 7 or 8 lateral, short, conical
Donnellit, 103.
. pingue, 105.
Margins more or less spinous or beaded (/).
Basal lobe deeply notched; basal /odu/e broadly marginate; central
multilobatum, 98.
cuspidate, spinulose or beaded (Z).
cuspidate, spinulose or beaded (7).
Nordstedtianum, 105; spinosum, 106.
. formosum, 103.
1886.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 145
Ss S S S SNR ss,
Ss
ervacaenats
. Basal lobes deeply notched (yy).
as undulate (z).
. Cytioderm rough with conic granules; semi-cells with 1 large central
inflation, a smaller one on each side, 2 on end lobe, verracosum, 100.
. Basal lobes undulate (cc).
hy rounded or angular (ee).
. A short spine on the angles of end and basal lobes . dévarécatum, 104.
A small projection on each side near the apex . . compactum, 107.
Cytioderm more or less tuberculate (7).
3S punctate (0).
a smooth (7).
Siponelies basal, mostly, 5. ws Babs) ye s\n 4 CORCULATER ROR:
ie 5 central, 4 marginal . . . . elegans, 106.
cE scattered ; end lobe with a Pooch on ean side.
ornithocephalum.*
Semi-cell 5-lobed, basal lobe emarginate, the lateral small, entire,
pinnatum, 98.
ee not 5-lobed (P).
Basal lobe with 1 lateral, subcentral tubercle, not emarginate,
ampullaceum, 100.
Basal lobe without lateral tubercle, slightly emarginate, . affixe, 100.
oe ae Be o- not emarginate,
ornatum, 97; didelta, 99.
yr. Semi-cell subrectangular, basal lobe very broad, end lobe partly included
between the lateral. . . . crassum, 97; ventricosum, 160.
vr. Semi-cell Bree or less pyramidal (s).
s. Diameter 3}, in. or cite (50-55) iiusen wu tatn.4 | att veredzensey 102).
S. Vg less than 31, in.,
Porkornyanum, 1043 erosum, 1043; elegans, 100.
¢. End lobe on a long slender neck; basal lobe with 6 protuberances,
mammellosum, 102.
é. pe Me CC OC basal lobe without protuberances,
zusigme, 102.
t. End lobe not on a long neck (z).
wz. Basal lobe much wider than the end lobe (v).
a. ¥é scarcely wider ; diameter less than ;4, in. (421), simplex, 106.
v. Basal sinus narrow, basal lobes approximate . . . ansatum, 99.
v. ot wide, basal lobes widely separated . . cutermedium, 102.
w. End lobe beaded ; angles of basal lobes beaded . . ventricosum, 160.
W. *¢ dentate ; angles of basal lobes dentate . . . stmplex, 106.
Ww. ‘¢ smooth, its angles spinous or cuspidate. . vrostratum, 100.
x. Angles of end lobe and margins of basal each with 3 diverging spines,
cuspidatum, 105.
a ae fe with short ving a of basal dentate or granu-
late. sufish b-iuutt) LORE DLLME EOTe
x. Angles of end lobe with one cusp or spine Ma site BPO SLMALTIE SL 1OOs
y. Basal and central lobules both slightly emarginate . . odlongum, 98.
y. Basal lobes slightly emarginate, centralobtuse . . maltilobatum, 98.
z. End lobe columnar, margins nearly parallel, end truncate
R
attenuatum, 103.
. End lobe not columnar, partly included between the lateral lobes,
oblongum, 9s.
on 6 not included (aa).
* Journ. R. Micr. Soc,, Feb., 1886.
146 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY | August,
aa. Cell 2-3 times longer than broad; diameter 4, in. (75),
humerosum, 99.
aa. Cell twice longer than broad; diameter 7,5, in. (144), Lundellit.
aa. Cell $ or less longer than broad ee):
66. Semi-cells urn-shaped; diameter ;4, in. (507) . . wurnaforme, 100.
bb. 3 more or less quadrate; basal lobes horizontal, emarginate ;
protuberances minutely granulate eae » «| LCMMALUIE, AON
66. Semi-cells more or less pyramidal, basal lobes emarginate, znsulare, 104.
cc. Angles of endlobe acute . . - .»-\s epmas aes
CG; uf he rounded or obtuse (dd).
dd. Diameter ;4, to aah ine (B2=28p)- - io MEER 2200/22, 10.
dd. Ble zeoy in (141) 5 length 54, in. (28) - s ) €F@SSZCOMeRmGre
dd. ae zis; tozegz In. (20-2 2); length ,1, (281), compactum, 107.
ee. Angles of end lobe acute (Ga)
ee. ce ‘* obtuse or rounded (g2). :
Jf. End notch broad, gaping, the apices upright . . . . 6znzale, 107.
VEE e narrow, Close, the apices horizontal . . . SS 106.
NN eH HH FM mm
AABBRKTICnn
aa
& ©
HP Hd
End broadly rounded, continuous with the sides; diameter ;~57 (14).
obtusum, 107.
End elevated above the pace. a small projection near the apex on each
Side ve awn." as : PM RR 22//(5/2)046)/22° 502 02" -
End elevated, no aceval projections rn. 27220725 105.
22. MICRASTERIAS.
Cell more or less circular (1).
Cell oblong (2).
End lobe narrow, lengthened into divergent arms (a).
a ss not lengthened into arms, semi-cells 5-lobed (6).
End lobe broad, not lengthened into arms (c).
Semi-cell 5-lobed, lobes horizontal ; end lobe with 4 arms (d@).
ee 6 lobes not horizontal, approximate; no arms,
Fennert, 115.
Semi-cell 3-lobed, lobes horizontal ; end lobe with 4 arms (¢@).
os a ee es end lobe without arms (/).
Semi-cell 5-lobed (4).
wu 3-lobed, lobes radiate (7).
End lobe not or slightly exserted ().
ot ** conspicuously exserted (7)
Semi-cells 5-lobed (7).
Semi-cells 3 or obscurely 5-lobed; lateral sinus shallow, obtuse; lateral
anelesmmireronatel, Sei -% . . » decemdentata ines
Basal lobes with 3 linear processes on ve side, <7: muricata, 118.
ae without linear processes, but (e).
Forked once only, margins finely serrate . J/ahabuleshwarensis, 112.
ey *¢ ‘margins smooth’. |... Wordstedizamazaivare
Forked twice (lobules forked) ; cytioderm spinous . . . spznosa.*
ci cytioderm smooth; margins serrate . //ermanniana, 112.
30 si a margins not serrate, Americana, 112.
End lobe nearly as wide as the basal, apices deeply notched (4).
ee a bi be apices not deeply notched (7).
|
* Journ, R. Micr. Soc., Dec., 1885.
1886.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 147
f. End lobe much narrower than the basal, end convex. oscttans, 116.
Pe ae ue a ae end deeply emarginate,
foltacea, 118.
g. Basal lobes furcate (with lobules), (Z).
ie ge not furcate (7).
hk. End lobe convex, without prominences . . . . . . ¢éaticeps, 115.
h. - fruncate, with 2 small promumences.. . 9. +. vecta, 112.
h. a Fetuse, basal lobestmncate gate fh sc: asa tin Deeleyay TES.
Bi oe with 2 slender, transverse, bidentate projections,
guadrata, 117.
Bs ct without projections, convex; sinuses broadly rounded,
Kitchelliz, 116.
z. End lobe without projections, concave; neck short; sinuses acutish,
Rabenhorstiz, 118.
Zs oe se 2 Ob neck long; basal lobes curved
upward. . ; LES ae ee ae Ho Same ple
j» Basal lobes Pe aeell: not ined! 4 Sa Cate eee pinnatifida, EO
op: Be curved upward, narrow,
expansa, 117; arcuata, 117; s¢mplex.*
&. Basal and lateral lobes deeply furcate (with lobules) . farcata, 111.
es Be Ch Ot shallowly furcate,
Craux-Melitensis, t11; superflua.t
k. ee ca ae notturcate Mi 12 hs psendofurcata, 111.
7. Lobules deeply furcate; borders not serrate . . . . déchotoma, 111.
te ve not furcate, borders not serrate SES TIME ILN? F peer samiEnon
be 2: Ce borders serrate Be ee) WEE Soe sear ata ae
m. End lobe remote from the lateral (7).
m. End lobe not remote from the lateral (0).
feemdsowe triangular’... \.). «see. 1 |. trvangular7s, 105:
nN. Be not triangular my f BIOL RSP hemaea iil
o. Lobes closely approximate, radiating (Pp).
0. at ot GC not radiating, end lobe truncate,
truncata, 114:
p- End lobe triangular . . PE | AMAL URL ale Se Er aca are
jee ot ete end concave . . J9) PAM ee CO72 remnants
p: 2h very broad, end truncate or convex. . . . . crenata, 113.
vr. Cytioderm papillose Peaches) + Mmm tL! EON Date ee Cae A hos
(a Be not papillose (s).
s. Basal lobes with 4 subdivisions, lateral with 8 ; apices of end lobe furcate,
rotata, fimbriata, 109.
iis Be we ag oe ee opis of end lobe not
fueeate |): as : TNE ee ComeeeLan.
s. Basal lobes with 2 , subdivisions, lateral ‘with 4 (u).
s. Basal and lateral lobes with the same number of subdivisions (v).
#. End lobe with 1 row of pearly granules . . . . Miénnesotensis.t
t ae without pearly granules (y)
Peeandulone exserted on a long neck .9f =)92.%:-/. brachyptera, 110.
a. cee’ wathoumoncmeck., 1ts apicessurcater Wi ."))).)\)5 7) szmplex,/i 10.
v. Margins spinous cece) os. ie aie MMA rec MyDler gallon
v. ae MOte SUNOS hia) Me MEI ice bispinata.t
y. Sinuses deep, inwardly monencd ane Pentel Bnbeavisions of semi-cell
aA MEN ARL A. MONE Re ES)) I Viewaiasa. V1 Oo:
* Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club, Dec., 1885. + Journ. R. Micr. Soc., Dec., 1885,
148 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [ August,
y. Sinuses inwardly more or less acute (z).
z. Base of semi-cell with a row of circular inflations verrucosa.*
ee He ei without inflations (aa).
aa. Lobules long, the lobes being deeply incised Torrey, 108.
aa. *¢ short, the lobes not deeply incised (66).
66. Margins with spinous teeth fimbriata, 109; papellifera, 109.
Bore yas
CC.
CC. 6 approximate (dd).
dd. Its apices not dentate nor divided, end convex
dd. ce 66 a4
dd.
Its apices with denticulate appendages
without spinous teeth (cc).
End lobe somewhat remote from the lateral. . .
jimbriata, 109.
Pseudotorreyt, 108.
end concave or emarginate,
dentuemiaeen 109.
Nove Scotie.*
* Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club, Dec.
, 1885.
+ Journ. R. Micr. Soc., Dec., 1885.
[ To be continued. |
On Mounting Certain Diatoms.
A collection of diatoms recently
received from Mr.
California, specimens of which he
offers for exchange, calls to mind
some methods of mounting such di-
atoms. The collection was a re-
markably pure gathering of /sthmza
Mer voOsa atiaehed to seaw Feet. These
beautiful diatoms are very attractive
objects however they may be mounted,
but by the exercise of some skill and
patience their natural beauty may be
brought out far better than it is often
seen.
There a fine art in mounting
microscopic objects, that many of the
more stolid investigators affect to de-
spise ; but so longasthe specimens are
not distorted, misshapen, or crushed
outof their natural condition, they lose
nothing for purposes of study, by be-
ing skilfully prepared for exhibition,
si there is no doubt the more per-
fectly the minute perfections of mi-
croscopic shell carapaces, and other
organic structures are revealed by our
art, the more attractive does our sci-
ence become. One may be very wise
and familiar with details of micro-
scopic structure through long studies
from the strictly scientific side, and
yet oblivious to the beauty and won-
der which would inspire another not
less learned. The difference is surely
in favor of those who most keenly
is
L. M. King, of
appreciate the esthetic in their work,
for from that arises an inspiration
which elevates and broadens our
thought, and is an incentive to fur-
ther study and search for the sources
and relations, not only of the organ-
isms themselves, but also of their
microscopic carvings and elaborate
ornamentation. Have we any reason
to suppose that the markings on a
shell of a diatom are merely for
beauty—to please the eye and arouse
the wonder of the microscopistr Be
assured there is a deeper reason for
them, perhaps purely utilitarian, if
only to combine strength with light-
ness ; perhaps they are manifestation
of that tendency observed through-
out organic nature which some one
has characterized as ‘a kind of or-
ganic crystallization’ an expres-
sion that implies sy mmetry and
beauty of form, while it does not
conceal the want of knowledge that
underlies it.
The usual method of mounting
Isthmta is by drying the frustules,
either on the seaweed or, freed by
shaking, on an opaque ground. In
this way, exercising some care in
selecting the most showy groups, very
attractive specimens can be obtained.
A dry mount of the free frustules can
be greatly improved by previously
clearing them, or rather removing the
dried endochrome. The best way to
¢
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
149
do this is to place them for a few
minutes in a bleaching solution which
may be chlorine water Labarraque
solution, or any such active agent.
No acid is required. In the course
of fifteen minutes the frustules will
probably be quite white and, owing
to the air contained in them, they will
form a perfectly pure layer floating at
the top of the fluid. It is then only
necessary to remove the solution be-
low by means of a pipette or syphon,
_wash several times with water, draw-
ing it off in the same way, and finally
collecting the diatoms in a bottle with
some alcohol for preservation. They
are now perfectly clean, and white as
snow.
To prepare a dry mount select a
clean cover-glass and place a suffi-
cient number of the cleaned diatoms
with water upon it to form a perfectly
even layer of the diatoms over the
central part of the cover. As the
water evaporates the frustules will
gather close together and form a com-
pact mass in a single, uniform layer,
perfectly adapted for a display slide.
An exceedingly thin and clear solu-
tion of gum may be used in this
operation to attach the frustules more
securely. When thoroughly dry ce-
ment the cover-glass over a ring just
deep enough to protect the diatoms,
preferably with a dead black bottom.
This particular diatom, however,
is a far more brilliant object when
mounted in balsam and viewed with
a dark field. It is likewise one of the
most difficult to mount in balsam,
owing to the persistence with which
the air is retained within the frustules.
A mount in balsam of the diatoms
attached to the seaweed as they grow
can be made by the method devised
by the late Charles Stodder. Select-
ing a perfectly dry specimen, place it
in chloroform for a short time, and, if
necessary in order to remove all the
air, heat the latter gently. In this
way the frustules become filled with
the liquid. Then place some drops
of chloroform on a slide, transfer
the specimen selected for mounting
to this, and keep it covered with the
liquid. It is well to put on a cover-
glass to prevent rapid evaporation of
the liquid. Then add chloroform
balsam and let it run under the cover
and follow the chloroform as it evap-
orates from the frustules, aiding the
operation with gentle heat. In this
way the hollow frustules can be com-
pletely filled with balsam without
difficulty, and the mounts thus ob-
tained are very fine.
In mounting the free frustules in
balsam we have adopted a plan some-
what different in detail, in order to
obtain a perfectly flat and even layer
of frustules against the cover-glass.
The cleaned specimens in considera-
ble abundance were first placed in
chloroform in a small vial, and raw,
hard balsam added until a not very
thick solution was obtained, which
thoroughly permeated the shells.
The solution was poured upon a
cover-glass resting ona mounting table
witha spirit-lamp beneath. Ina short
time the frustules settled down upon
the cover-glass and formed an even
layer. The closer they are the more ef-
fective the result. Heating now, very
gently indeed, the balsam becomes
slowly hardened without disturbing
the diatoms. If necessary, more bal-
sam can be added, but if possible a
sufficient quantity should be put on at
first, as the addition of more is likely
to disarrange the specimens. The
balsam must be thoroughly hardened,
without heating enough to discolor
it. We now have the frustules nicely
mounted in the balsam on the cover-
glass, and the latter may now be
turned over and attached to a ring on
a slide, and the mount thus finished.
It will be greatly improved, however,
by the well-known process of backing
with black varnish. First put on a
layer of shellac over the balsam to
protect it from the action of turpen-
tine, and then apply an opaque layer
of black varnish. When this is
thoroughly dry, mount the cover-
glass on a ring and it will make one
of the finest objects in any cabinet,
150
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[Angust,
Staining Tissues in Microscopy.—
BY PROF. HANS GIERKE.
| Continued from page 99. |
239. Busch. Die Doppelfarbung des
Ossificationsrandes mit Eosin
and hematoxylin. Verhandl.
d. Berl: Phys: Ges., 1877, No:
ily
Sections of decalcified bones are
placed forsome days in a 4% chromic
acid or 1% potassium bichromate,
carefully washed and put into eosin
solution. When sufficiently stained
they are put in hematoxylin. Funda-
mental cartilage appears light blue on
the ‘edges of ossification, the nuclei of
the neighboring cartilage cells are
red, the contents of the medullary
cavity light red, while the formed
bone is a mixedtint between blue and
red.
240. Renaut. Sur l’éosine-hématoxy-
lique et sur son emploi en
histologie. Compt. rend.,
IXxxvill, 1039-1042.
Equal parts of neutral glycerin and
a saturated solution of eosin in alco-
hol or water are mixed, to which is
added by drops Béhmer’s hematoxy-
lin (see No. 37) till the green fluor-
escence can scarcely be perceived.
These stainings are mounted in salted
glycerin (1-100) or in balsam. If
the latter, they should be treated with
alcoholic eosin (absolute) or clove
oil. Good results are obtained from
material hardened in alcohol, chromic
or osmic acid. Nuclei stain violet,
connective tissue gray, elastic fibers
and blood corpuscles dark red, cell
protoplasm and nerve axes rose color.
The secretory cells of the salivary
glands stain blue, their nuclei violet,
and the crescent of Gianuzzi deep
red.
241. Brandt. Farbung lebender ein-
zelliger Organismen Biol.
Centralbl., 1881, p. 202.
In staining unicellular organisms
hematoxylin and Bismarck brown
may be combined with success.
242. Renaut. Sur le mode dé prép-
aration et l’emploi de l’éosine
et de la glycérine héma-
toxylique en histologie. Arch.
le Phys., 1881, p. 640.
Another method similar to No. 240.
Make a saturated solution of eosin
in salted glycerin and mix with a
glycerin saturated with potash alum.
Filter and add alcoholic hematoxylin.
Mount with treatment as in 240 or in
the staining fluid itself.
243. Stirling. See 230. Hematoxy-
lin and iodine green or eosin.
ANILIN COLORS WITH METALLIC
SALTS.
244. Lawdowsky. See No. 88.
To ammoniacal eosin in open air
add picric acid to neutralization, the
resulting compound is an excellent
stain.
245, Calberia. See No. 96.
Dissolve 60 pts. methyl green and
I pt. eosin in 30% warm alcohol and
stain. The cuticle becomes grass-
green, lymph cells blue, striped mus-
cle red, nuclei green, unstriped mus-
cle green, and the intercellular sub-
stance red.
The efferent ducts of the salivary
glands stain blue, the follicles red,
cells of connective tissue green or
greenish blue. In the sinews the
perichondrium becomes light green, -
nuclei deep green, Ranvier’s cells
medium green, and the stroma rose
red.
246. See No. gg.
The tails of young rats and mice
are treated with silver as usual, then
tinged with eosin.
247. Schiefferdecker. Kleinere his-
tologische Mittheilungen
Arch. Mikr. Anat., xv., 30-
40.
Various anilins as dahlia, methyl-
violet, and green—not the methyl-
green of Calberla—were combined
with a red like eosin since 1876. The
smaragd green was found worthless.
Sections are placed first in alcohol,
then in a little alcoholic eosin so long
as required for the depth of color de-
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 51
sired. Wash quickly in water which
extracts some color, then drop in 1%
aqueous solution of either of the
other dyes. When stained almost
black, wash in water and put in al-
cohol, which extracts both dyes, and
the exact moment should be seized
to remove the section when of the
precise shade. No directions as to
time can be given. Oil of cloves
does not extract eosin but acts slight-
ly on the other dyes, and should be
carefully removed before mounting
in balsam. Minute descriptions of
the peculiar effects of this method on
different organs are given.
248. Tafani. Nouveau procédé de
coloration des préparations
microscopiques avec une so-
lution picro-anilique. Journ.
de Microgr. 1878, p. 127-130.
A mixture of picric acid and anilin
blue gives a fine stain for nuclei.
Add 3-4 parts of aqueous blue to
too parts of picric acid in water,
both saturated solutions.
at Ehrlich. See 1to2z. Several ani-
lins are combined for staining
the granulations of leucocytes.
.250. Barrett. Staining fluids for
vegetable tissues. Journ. R.
SOc,, ii, 942.
Plant tissues are first put in a solu-
tion of * Crawshaw’s anilin blue,’ then
in strong acetic acid, then in a weak
magenta (Judson’s), again in acetic
acid, and then mounted in glycerin-
gelatin.
251. Gibbes. See No. 229. Gilds the
preparations first, then stains
in anilin.
Stirling. Recommends 251 with
Arilin blue, iodine green, and
rosein.
253. Richardson. On a blue and
scarlet double stain, etc. Jour.
R. Micr. Soc., i, 573-574 and
868-872
See No. 232. Sections of the
spinal marrow are soaked in atlas
scarlet, first dissolved in alcohol and
glycerin, then diluted with water,
and then in soluble anilin blue pre-
pared with glycerin first, and diluted
252.
with water. When of the proper
shade, lay a few minutes in water,
and add some glacial acetic acid, then
mount in balsam. No proportions
are given, and the process is there-
fore uncertain.
254. Johne. Zur mikroskopischen
Technik. Dtsch. Zeitschr. f
Thiermed. u. vergl. Path., 11,
401-403,
Double staining with Gentian violet
and eosin or hematoxylin and picric
acid. The last may be mixed with
oil of cloves.
255. Moore. Double staining of nu-
cleated blood corpuscles.
Micr., 1882, ii, 73-76, and
256. Stowell. Coloration différen-
tielles des globules nucléés du
sang. The Microscope and
its relations to Med. and
Pharmacy, 1882.
The blood is dried on the object-
glass, then eosin (1 to 50 water and
50 alcohol) and methylgreen 1-100
water are poured on it. The first
must be allowed to dry before the
second is applied. Mount in balsam.
257. Ranvier. See No- 151.
258. Hansen. Weiner
1871
Both the above advise to combine
the treatment with silver and gold.
259. Lawdowsky, see No. 184, in-
dependent of the two pre-
vious writers, appears to have
thought of the same combina-
tion. The silver treatment
comes first, and experiment is
required to determine the
strength of the reagents.
260. Hoggan. Journ. de |’Anat. et
Phys., 1879, pp. 54, 588.
Same as 259
261. Jullien. Sur
méthode de
éléments histologiques.
méd, 1872, No.'17.
A mixture of indigo carmine and
concentrated picric acid is recom-
mended as a beautiful green stain,
coloring connective tissues blue, epi-
thelium yellow. Mount in glycerin,
med.
Jahrb.,
une nouvelle
coloration des
Lyon
152
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
(August,
Wedl.
Tinctious mittel fiir Gewebe.
Archiv. f. pathol. Anat.,
Ixxiv, 143.
Recommends the dyestuff of Ro-
cella tinctoria and other lichens.
262.
———_ () ———_
Making Cells.
I observe your notice of the Postal
Club in the March Journal. I have
had some experience in the use of
wax circles, and brass rings for cells.
I cut the wax rings from sheet wax
with Beck’s improved brass punch,
moistening same with starch pre-
pared as for laundry use. To secure
them, clean the glass slip thoroughly,
being careful not to touch the central
face with the fingers. King’s amber
cement, as recommended by Hervey
in ‘ Behren’s Guide,’ is an excellent
cement. Lay ona ring of cement,
centre the wax cell in it, and as soon
as it will so remain, cover the wax
cell entirely with a layer of cement.
Now gently warm the whole, until
the wax cell settles close to slide,
when all air will escape. Then lay
aside to harden. Some experience
will soon make this an easy manipu-
lation. The edges of the wax cell
will be rounded, and the entire cell,
sides, bottom and top, will be coated
with the cement. I then lay them
aside to cure. Thisresults in two or
three weeks. The longer the better.
I keep mine three months. The wax
should be dried between sheets of
paper before the cells are cut.
In using brass cells, cleanliness of
the slide is simply imperative. Lay
on a ring of the amber cement, then
centre the brass ring in it. Allow it
to dry, or firmly set. Then run a
heavy ring upon and against the out-
side of brass ring, and neatly round
it, or pile it, with a knife blade.
When thoroughly dry, the ring is se-
cure.) )eKneys
Finish’ may be used in place of the
amber, or as a finish. Nothing can
be finer.
EUGENE PINCKNEY.
Ueber Orseille fed
‘Lacquer cell and |;
Photo-Micrography Without a
Camera.
I have read your articles on photo-
micrography with a good deal of
pleasure, but there is one point on
which I wish to present a few words.
You say, in speaking of the method
without a camera, that ‘it involves
considerable expense.’ It seems to
me that we cannot increase the ex-
pense by dispensing with the camera
bellows, which is always one of the
most expensive parts of the outfit
Again, by working in a dark room
we can also dispense with a light-
tight plate-holder, the simplest form
of holder being perfectly satisfactory.
The only extra expenses possible are
to provide some means for darkening
the room in the day-time. which may
be done with very cheap curtains, and
to provide. cloth hood to extend from
the body of the microscope to the
stage, and a cap or diaphragm for the
lamp or lantern. I have tried both
methods, with and without a camera,
and I think the latter has some advan-
tages. The apparatus that I have
been using was constructed almost
entirely by myself, at an expense of
but a few dollars less than the camera
alone for the other method would
cost. Although my apparatus is
somewhat rough, it is quite satis-
factory.
Some of the advantages of this
method are, that I am not limited by
the length of the bellows but I can
place the plate-holder at any distance
from the microscope up to five feet.
The apparatus might be made much
longer if it is thought desirable. Ican
use the coarse adjustment with greater
ease by this method. I can stand by
the microscope and focus on the
ground glass, or on a card, quite ac-
curately. Replacing the ground glass
or the card by plain glass, I can make
the more accurate adjustment by the
method adopted by Mr. W. H.
Walmsley and others.
As I have said, the plate-holder is
very simple, and one can be fitted to
use very large plates at a very small
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
153
expense. This can not be said of the
camera method.
The method without the camera
has other advantages; in short, in
every respect it is equal or superior
to the method with the camera, with
the possible exception of photography
of opaque objects, and I think that it
might be adapted to this work by
slight modifications.
I think it would be an advantage to
dispense with the microscope stand,
and I havea plan for a complete pho-
to-micrographic apparatus to be used
in a dark room.
C. E. Norron, M. D.
EDITORIAL.
Publisher’s Notices.—All communications ex.
changes, etc., should be addressed to the Editor, P. O
Box 630, Washington, D. C.
Subscriptions, and all matters of business, should be
addressed to the Pusiness Manager, P. O. Box 630,
Washington, D. C.
Subscription price $1.00 PER YEAR strictly in ad-
vance. All subscriptions begin with the Fanuary
number.
A pink wrapper indicates that the subscription has
expired.
Remittances should be made by postal notes, money
orders, or by money sent in registered letters. Drafts
should be made payable in Washington, New York,
Boston, or Philadelphia.
The regular receipt of the JouRNAL, which is issued
on the 15th of each month, will be an acknowledgment
of payment.
The first volume, 1880, is entirely out of print. The
succeeding volumes will be sent by the publisher for
the prices given below, which are net.
Vol. II (1881) complete, $1.50.
Vol. III out of print.
Vol. IV (1883) complete, $1.50.
Vol. V (1884) complete, $1.50.
Vol. V (1884), Nos. 2-12, $1.00.
Vol. VI (1885), $1.00.
REPORT OF THE BUREAU OF ANI-
MAL INDUSTRY.—The Second An-
nual Report of the Bureau of Animal
Industry, Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C., has recently
been issued, giving a record of the
work during the year 1885. While
there is Pamich in the volume that is
more of practical than of strictly
Scientific interest, there is also a great
deal that deserves full notice in this
place. Naturally the interest of mi-
croscopists and physicians centres
mainly upon the researches into the
bacterial origin of disease, which
have been so ably conducted in the
laboratory during the past few years
by the Chief of the Bureau, D. E.
Salmon, D. V. M., and more recently
by Dr. Theobald Smith, to whose
knowledge and skill as an investigator
some of the most important results in
this field are due.
The importance of the work of
the Bureau may be indicated by the
single fact, stated by Dr. Salmon,
that pleuro-pneumonia which broke
out among the cattle in Ohio, in 1883,
has already, during the twenty
months required to control it, cost
the country millions of dollars, while
with proper laws, such as could be
formulated by the officers of the
Bureau, the plague could have been
effectually extirpated for a sum not
greater than $100,000. But we must
fen to the laboratory work.
The report begins with an extended
review of experiments made in differ-
ent countries to prevent pleuro-
pneumonia by inoculation. This is
a very useful ‘compilation of results,
and tends to show that while in some
instances inoculation seems to confer
a degree of immunity, it is quite as
likely to introduce the disease among
healthy animals, and is therefore a
dangerous, and in practice a very
useless operation. The only course
of prevention advised is the killing
of infected animals, and thorough
disinfection of the premises.
The results of investigations of the
Swine-plague possess especial interest
at this time, not only from the conclu-
sions as to the cause of the disease, but
also because of the general and com-
prehensive review presented, which
shows the unusual difficulties of the
work, and the explanation of pre-
vious results which have demanded
reconsideration. It is well known
to the readers of these columns that
several distinct organisms have been
described by different observers as the
cause of this disease, but several cir-
cumstances have conspired to make
the investigation one of extreme diffi-
culty, and ‘only those who have had
experience in such work can fully ap-
154
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ August,
preciate the various possible sources
of error. Some confusion has arisen
in the assumption that the disease
known as rowget in France is the
same as the swine- plague of this
country. Some specimens of Pas-
teur’s cultures of the Baczl/us of
rouget, which is the same disease
as the rothlauf studied by Loffler
in Germany, were tested in the lab-
oratory, and it was found that the
diseases are quite distinct, and that
Pasteur’s vaccine does not confer im-
munity against the swine- porte of
the United States. Pasteur’s vaccine
contained a very minute Laczllus,
which appears to be the same as
that already described by the Ger-
man investigators.
Having thus disposed of the Ba-
cillus of rouget, by experiments in
cultivation and inoculation, it re-
mained still to discover the specific
microbe of the disease in question.
It will be remembered that some
time ago Dr. Salmon announced the
discovery of a Micrococcus, which
he then regarded as the cause of
swine-plague. Some successful in-
oculations were made with it, but
further opportunity for thoroughly
testing the matter did not present
itself. Last year some well-defined
cases of the malady offered the long-
desired opportunity to renew the in-
vestigations, and the results have
shown, in a most conclusive man-
ner, that the active agent in this
disease is not the previously de-
scribed J/¢crococcus, but a species
of Bacterium. It is motile, of an
elongated oval form, usually seen in
pairs 1. 2v.—1. 5. in length by Oo. 6p.
in diameter. Its ther malt death- -point
is 58° Ge
The reason for the previous fail-
ures to discover this organism is
principally the fact that it is very
difficult to isolate the specific mi-
crobe from the many others that are
found with it in the lesions of chronic
cases, such as had previously been
studied. In acute cases, which were
afterwards studied, the cultures were
readily obtained pure. The best
source of the material for cultures is
the spleen.
In the Annual Report of the De-
partment of Agriculture, 1881-82,
Dr. Salmon set forth a theory of im-
munity against contagious diseases
which Bae recently received consid-
erable attention. “Some experiments
with the swine-plague bacterium have
lent confirmation to these views. The
theory is essentially as follows:
The microbes of a disease are only
able to multiply within the animal
organism by virtue of a poisonous
principle produced by their growth,
which acts upon the animal bioplasm
and modifies its activity , thus render-
ing it incapable of resisting the attack
of the germs. After a time, how-
ever, the tissues recover from con-
tinued action of the poison, and,
being no longer aftected by it, do not
permit the microbes again to gain a
foothold. Thus a single attack con-
fers immunity against a second.
It is well ine that the opinion
prevails at the present time that all
germ diseases are caused by peculiar
poisonous compounds produced by the
growth of the microbes, supposed to
be chemically related to the alkaloids,
and known by the rather inexpressive
name of ptomaines. Experiments
have clearly shown that the culture-
fluid of the swine-plague Bacterzum,
after exposure to a temperature of
58° C. until completely sterilized,
when injected into pigeons renders
those animals proof against subse-
quent inoculation with the living
bacteria. Herein is one of the strong-
est experimental confirmations of the
theory of Dr. Salmon, and it may
lead to results of the utmost impor-
tance in the prevention and treat-
ment of disease.
Among the various other microbes
found in swine-plague a peculiar chro-
mogene species has been studied and
is fully described in this report under
the name of Baczllus luteus (suts).
It is a species possessing a most re-
markable tinctorial power, but for a
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
155
satisfactory description of it the reader
must refer to the original, where its
peculiar methods of growth are beau-
tifully illustrated by colored plates.
It may not be generally known that
in the Me eeemindtion of specific dis-
tinctions among bacteria the mode of
growth is often quite as characteris-
tic of the different forms as the ap-
pearance, size, and other features
revealed by the microscope. The
microscopic appearance of a colony
growing upon a slice of potato, on
a gelatin plate-culture, or in a tube of
gelatin, is often quite characteristic,
and enables the experimenter to iso-
late the particular species desired for
pure cultures when there are colonies
of different forms upon one gelatin
surface. The bacterium of swine-
plague, for example, does not liquify
the gelatin as it grows, a fact which
at once distinguishes it from acfe-
rium termo.
O—_-—
LirE AND DEatu.—The mystery
of life is no greater than that of the
necessity of death. Go back to the
origin of life—as near to it as we
‘can—and we find it manifested in
minute particles of matter, which
move and grow. They have no visi-
ble erie they only differ from
the inert matter around them in the
arrangement of their ultimate. atoms
and molecules. This arrangement,
through which vitality becomes pos-
sible—which perhaps constitutes life,
or all we shall ever know concerning
it—when once established under fa-
vorable conditions may continue in-
definitely. This is true of the sim-
plest organisms. A single individual
may give rise to an innumerable pro-
geny, by indefinitely repeated fis-
sion, and though the individual be
lost, merged into its unnumbered off-
spring, yet its vitality continues.
Strictly speaking, among these low
forms of life there is no mother or
daughter. There is only an original
cellthat we recognize as an individual,
which, by its peculiar power, trans-
forms inert matter into bioplasm, and
the living bioplasm continues this
transformation and grows, dividing
as it reaches a certain limit of size,
and the progeny continue the same
operations.
There is an increase of vital action
with growth and the birth of each
new cell. An interesting problem
for speculation is suggested by this
fact. Whence does this increment of
vital force come? Obviously there
must be a transformation of the latent
energy of the inert matter that is:
taken up and formed into the bio-
plasm. The tearing apart of the
atoms of dead matter to form complex
organic compounds involves the ex-
penditure of enormous energy by the
microscopic cell. If we could meas-
ure the amount of such work, we
could determine the mechanical equiv-
alent of the life force. It is not in-
credible that this may yet be done.
So far as its physical manifestations
are concerned, life is essentially a
succession of chemical phenomena,
in which the atomic forces of inert
matter are transformed into their
equivalents in the molecules of bio-
plasm, Here, as throughout the
range of physical phenomena, the
ian of conservation of energy holds
true. The amount of energy in the
universe remains constant, but a large
proportion of it is constantly ade
going change from dead to living,
from life to death. As Dr. Minot
has inquired, ‘ May not life be coeval
with energy? May it not have always
existed ?’
o)
Dr. PiERSOL’s PHOTO-MICROGRA-
puy.—The article on photo-microg-
raphy by Dr. Piersol, which has
already appeared in. these columns,
deserves to be carefully read. The
use of colored screens in the manner
described is not absolutely new, and
it has been already mentioned and
advised in this JourRN AL, but to Dr.
Piersol is due the credit of having
made a careful study of the sub: ‘ect
as applied to the w ork upon which
he has been engaged, and of perfect-
156
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[August,
ing the method. So far as we are | such as Cramer, Stanley, Inglis, and
aware, no person has carried experi-
ments in this direction quite so far
as he; and those who have seen his
photographs of that very difficult
subject, the Baczllus tuberculosts,
cannot fail to recognize the advan-
tages of the method.
The same principle is now applied
quite extensively to the copying of
paintings, in order to represent the
colors in their proper relative strength
in the photographs. The so-called
ortho-chromatic or iso-chromatic sen-
sitive plates, now to be obtained from
dealers in photographic goods, are
intended to accomplish the same
purpose, but they also require the use
of colored screens, to prevent the
undue action of the more refrangible
rays. Such plates may be found
useful in photo-micrography, but it
is well to consider that they differ
from other plates mainly in their
greater sensitiveness to the less
refrangible rays, while they are
scarcely less sensitive to the blue
which still preponderates. For this
reason, in order to obtain strictly
uniform results for all colors, colored
screens must be used, particularly
when working with sunlight. The
great advantage of such plates rests
in the fact that they are sensitive to the
red and less refrangible rays which
do not or only slightly affect the
ordinary plates.
In this connection we may add
the results of an observation quite
recently made which clearly shows
the great difference in emulsions of
different makers. In developing
some negatives on Eastman’s paper
it was found that they rapidly fogged,
and it was at first thought the plates
were not good. But the fogging took
place in such a way that it was soon
suspected to be due to the light in
the dark room. On shutting off a
great part of the ruby light the nega-
tives developed clear. The same
light, without screening in any way,
has been used for months with the
most rapid glass plates in the market,
Seed plates, and not a trace of fog
could be seen on them. This may
explain why some persons assert that
they cannot use paper plates. The
ruby light should be very carefully
tested.
O
DETECTION OF FaT IN BUTTER.—
A few more words on this subject ex-
tracted from a private letter of Mr.
C. M. Vorce, which we take the
liberty of printing, will not be amiss
at this time, since they indicate very
well just what the writer considers to
be the character of Dr. Taylor’s im-
provements upon other processes.
Mr. Vorce writes :—
‘In the butter matter I think Dr.
Taylor’s method of influencing the
crystallization by removing part of
the olein by draining the melted fat
is anew modification of the old pro-
cesses. Hassall summarizes all that
had been done in Taylor’s line before
Hassall’s last edition, viz., to melt
the fat and allow it to cool—some-
times with repeated melting and cool-
ing. Butthe process appears to have
always been done in impervious ves-
sels, at all events no mention is made
of cooling the fat in a porous or per-
vious vessel, nor of any method of
removing any part of the least readily
crystallizable elements. The result
was that, as all fats contained the ele-
ments olein and stearin, the crystalli-
zation was more or less similar. and
the melting point being in each case
different, time enough was always al-
lowed to enable a thorough cooling.
Hence the fat would come back to
about the same state it was in at first,
and it is no wonder they could tell
little or nothing about it. I long ago
discovered that by dissolving butter
and other fats in ether or carbon
disulphide, and allowing crystals to
form by partial evaporation, different
crystals would form from each fat.
This I presume was not new. I do
not know whether it was or not, but
' at all events it did not touch Taylor’s
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
157
method, as I did not separate any part
of the fat before solution.
‘Then came Taylor and improved
the old process by pouring the melted
fat into a porous receptacle, whereby
some of the free olein was taken up,
and his next step of cooling it slowly
before draining was another advance,
inasmuch as it allowed the readily
crystallizable stearic part to separate
first and to hold the slower acting
element in mixture, which in the
porous receptacle was quickly de-
prived of its free uncrystalized olein.
‘By this means every fat, if so
treated, will yield a result correspond-
ing to the proportion of its olein to
its stearin and to the presence of other
fatty acids which affect the combina-
tion of the olein and stearin.
‘ My last modification is to combine
my old process of solution with Tay-
lor’s process of draining. I first boil,
cool, and drain, then dissolve the
drained fat (now strongly crystal-
line) in a given proportion by weight
of the solvent, then allow crytalliza-
tion to préceed for a given time at a
specific temperature, and note the
resulting crystals. This combina-
tion of methods I do not know to be
new, but suppose it tobe. It has been
called Vorce’s method. I think it is
of value in connection with Taylor’s
methods.’
O
JOTTINGS By THE Way. —Perhaps
it is for nothing else than the sentiment
of it, that we pen a few words to our
readers from off the bold eastern coast
of the green island of Cuba. It is
_ writing a aaaer difficulties, leaning on
the quarter rail just after dinner on the
steamer ‘ Colon,’ about the time of
sunset, within plain sight of the white
spray fheown up ene and there along
the shore, indeed almost w Sneed
sound of the breakers, and the ship
rolling and tossing about in the heavy y
swell. The islanta is like a huge,
broad, spreading mountain, with Rola
cliffs fice terraces, trending away to
the southwest, shrouded in a heavy
blue mist that destroys the detail, only
showing the contour where it joins
the overhanging, torn and jagged,
slaty clouds. The sun is setting be-
hind the hills, but a thickly overcast
sky shuts out the radiance and color
so often seen from the deck of an ocean
steamer over a quiet sea in southern
latitudes.
Two evenings since there was a sun-
set scene that would inspire an artist
with a desire for the strongest colors
of Nature’s laboratory, that he might
put them on his canyas in all their
brightness and transparency and gra-
dation of tint, with all the truth and
beauty of a Ruskin and Turner.
The sun went down behind a low,
level bank of cloud, above which a
perfect flood of glorious, golden light
shone from the misty sky, and ie
ated from the invisible source in great
broad bands to right and left, fading
away into the purple and blue above.
Sinking down lower and lower we
then saw the great red ball dip be-
neath the cloud just raised above the
horizon, and sink into the sea. Sud-
denly the last faint line of light dis-
appeared. Every eye watched it as
it passed away, and for many minutes
more was turned to the brilliant col-
ors in the sky above.
All this is not microscopical in the
strictest sense, but the Editor is away
from home and he may be allowed
some liberties in writing. Moreover,
our readers may find some interest in
a few jottings by the way in the course
of our travels to and in distant lands.
We had almost completed arrange-
ments for a journey across the coun-
try by rail, and anticipated much
pleasure in meeting a number of mi-
croscopists on the way from New
York to San Francisco, as we pro-
posed to stop over at various points.
A sudden change in plans, however,
resulted in engaging passage by way
of the Isthmus of Panama.
The change in our programme was
made so suddenly, and final prepara-
tions were so hurried, that no time
remained to write letters to those
whom we had promised to visit, in-
158
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ August,
deed, we engaged passage by tele-
graph and sailed without due prepar-
ation, but not without regret for the
anticipated pleasures of the railroad
journey, and the friends we should
meet on the way.
These notes will be posted at As-
pinwall. The incidents of the voyage
have not been numerous or of partic-
ular interest. The broken, lumpy
water of the Caribbean Sea made a
slight change in the ordinary course
of events, but as a whole the passage
has been a good one.
The temperature in the tropics at
sea is not so high as might be antici-
pated. There has been no great dis-
comfort from the heat on the steamer,
for a good breeze has been blowing
almost constantly. One evening, as
we were watching the progress "of a
rain storm to the eastward, a squall
of remarkably cool air came on quite
suddenly, and carried aw ay a sail with
a great deal of flapping, that made
some excitement for the lady passen-
gers. Such cool and refreshing cur-
rents we have noticed quite frequently
within the tropics at sea, apparently
coming from a local shower not far
away.
As we write now, about 300 miles
from Aspinwall, the sun is shining,
casting its shadows southward—for
its declination 4 is well to the north of
us. Within five minutes the rain may
come down in torrents, and as quickly
the sky clear again. It is the rainy
season in this region, and if we suc-
ceed in crossing the Isthmus without
floating off in a deluge, and escape
the attack of Dr. Freire’s germs, to
say nothing of those as yet Fal ew n
microbes on Chagres fever, our read-
ers will hear from us again next
month.
oO
Eves or InseEctrs.—In the 7razs-
actions of the Linnean Society Mr. B.
Thompson Lowne, F. L. Sieudlaas) ann
article entitled, ‘On the Compound
Vision and the Morphology of the Eye
in Insects.’ in which the structure of
the eyes of insects is described as
made out by the author. His results
differ in important details from the
conclusions of all previous observers,
but there is strong evidence in sup-
port of them throughout the paper.
One reason for these differences is
unquestionably to be found in the
improved methods of preparation.
For example, it was found that in the
ordinary process of preparing § sec-
tions of eyes, a certain structure,
which the author has found to be an
inner lens situated behind each cor-
neal facet, is entirely lost, and the
shrivelled stroma of the lens consti-
tutes what has long been known
as the ‘ nucleiof Semper.’ Further,
the true structure of the cornea or
basilar membrane has only been made
out by the study of extremely thin sec-
tions, such as have not hitherto been
made.
According to these observations the
compound eye consists of two lenses,
the first forming an inverted image
which is magnified and erected by
the second, the image being thrown
upon a retinal surface composed of
structures resembling the rods and
cones of the vertebrate eye.
O
PostaL Cius Boxres.—Box $?
came to this circuit June roth with
seven slides.
. Palate of garden snail.
Garth.
2. Spicules of sea-fan, Gorgonza.
E. S. Coutant. A good sketch of
the sea-fan or ‘flexible coral’ is
given. with a description of the
method of obtaining the spicules.
3. Section of cork oak. J. M.
Barrow.
4. Medulla oblongata in myelitis.
G. W. Hubbard.
5. Amphipleura pellucida. Chas.
Mitchell. Picked specimen in bal-
sam. The same preparer sends an-
other slide showing sarcoma. The
method of mounting is described in
full.
6. Diatoms from Puget’s Sound.
Geo. W. Woraster (?).
Box A came to hand June roth.
Thomas
1886.]
t. Anthers of willow changing to
ovaries. R.H. Ward. The descrip-
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 159
ging lobes containing pollen-grains. In
the absence of ovules, however, it
cannot be considered a fully her-
tion is as follows :—
‘In the absence of the lowest powers
mentioned above, use a good pocket
lens. The slide is covered with paper,
in hope of preventing its shaking to
pieces, an accident that seems nearly
unavoidable in dry mounted speci-
mens circulated by mail.
‘ The object is circulated as an in-
teresting study in teratology. It was
taken from a willow tree “sai. being
the male plant of a diccious species,
bore only catkins of exclusively stami-
nate flowers. Mixed with the normal
stamens, however. were a few which,
like those on the slide, were deformed
into a resemblance to pistils.
‘ Pistillody of the stamens, of
which this is a typical example, is
a metamorphosis of the whole or a
part of the stamen into the form and
character of a pistil. It occurs oc-
casionally in the willows, heaths,
poppies, and some other families.
This change to a form belonging
nearer the centre of the flower is
somewhat less familiar than the
more common anomaly of revert-
ing to the foliar type which is nearer
in character as well as position to the
foliage-leaves. Only a portion of the
stamen may be modified, or. the sta-
men as a whole may be changed into
a pistil bearing ovules.
‘In the present instance, the fila-
ments are unaltered, and each anther
is changed to an ovary, more or less
bifid, the division being so complete
in some cases that ean anther-cell
appears as a single stalked ovary
looking like an ented carpel. The
Barna anther cells have mostly dis-
appeared, or been reduced to ovule-
like nodules inclosed within the car-
pels. The short specimen, at the
bottom, is a doubly interesting trans-
itional form, having become pistil-
late in shape, and having a well-
characterized stigma, but still re-
maining open like the carpels of
the conifer, and ,still retaining on
its surface a pair of normal papier
maphrodite organ.’
2. Section of swelling of spinal
cord of cat. D. Lomax. Well
explained in the letter-packet.
3. Section of human lung in con-
sumption. C. E. Hanaman. Also
well described.
4. Temporary tooth of puppy.
A. M. Wright.
Se (Amtheridia of moss. Joseph
McKay. in. (36) or smaller, arcuatum, 139; swubarcuatum, 140.
cc. - gi, to gl, in. (60-80) ; arms diverging, . axatinum, 139.
dd. End view, sides straight, angles 3-4 spinous, . polymorphum, 126.
dd. ue sides concave; arms long, straight, in front view diverging,
paradoxum, 129.
dd. End view, sides concave ; arms short, H/aabaliense, 131 ; nanum, 138.
dd. ve sides convex; arms short, tumid at base, //eleanum, 133.
ee. Apices of arms inconspicuously bifid or trifid,
Hlaabeeliense, 131; paradoxum, 129.
Apices of arms prominently and deeply trifid, . . . . Osceolense.*
Apices of arms obtuse ; the arms mere lobes, very short, s¢/atatum,128.
BG ee Re arms long, narrow, . .. . a@rachne, 120,
Apices of arms bifid; front view end with a crown of papille,
floridense, 135.
.. Apices of arms bifid; front view end without papille,
pentacladum, 136.
. End view 4, 5, 6, or 7-angular or radiate (2%).
End view triangular (zz).
* Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club, Dec., 1885.
1886. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 167
hh.
hh.
hh.
hh.
Ee.
Rk.
Zl.
mm.
mm.
mm.
WM.
WM.
WN.
WN.
00.
OO.
00.
PP.
PP.
TaTixe
(igo
SS.
SS.
SS.
Bh
Cytioderm rough with pearly granules; rays 4—7, short, obtuse,
margaritaceum, 125.
Ef granulate ; end view 4-6 angled, sides straight,
Mertanz, 132.
be ce end view 4— angled, angles with 2 spines,
Nove Cesaree, 145.
a ie end view 4—5 angled, sides concave, angles with-
out spines Bi? Uiprelies his Raa IL 128.
Angles in front view aotched or ‘otherwise divided (77).
Angles entire (££).
Surface granules emarginate or divided ; semi-cells broadly elliptic,
asperum, 127.
ae not emarginate ; semi-cells elliptic . f¢razcata, 128.
6c not page semi-cells subsemiorbicular, angles
PGUMEATE. 1... SM 2 peur tearm ey.
Surface scabrous, semi- -cells elliptic. 2 BENGE SA seabaae sion
Surface tberculate ; ; sides at base convex, en ; acentral, spherical,
spinous projection conspicuous . . : ~) Be Se ballo same
Surface tuberculate ; sides at base concave; no central protuberance,
tuberculatum.*
End view sides concave (//).
ee sides nearly straight, very slightly convex (77).
ue sides convex ; semi-cells subsemiorbicular, ma ecatum, 127.
Semi-cells twisted ; 2—3 times longer than wide, elliptic or oblong,
alter ih es 128.
Semi-cells not twisted (wz).
Front view ends concave ; end view angles rounded . strzo/atum, 126.
66 ei end view angles acute. . Pringle?, 132.
Front view ends convex ; end view angles crenate, sides smooth,
crenatum, 126.
6 a end view angles not crenate, somewhat trun-
EAL Cuero tars enti tie Ve aS 5k A Mela tala ON
Diameter jy 10- (25) orless . . . . pygmeum, 128.
Ke greater than pour in. (25) ; jend broadly truncate, sides
slightly convex or nearly straight, converging . dotrophilum, 131.
Diameter greater than a 7 in. (251) ; end rounded, sides convex ;
semi-cells elliptic . . . . rugulosum, 127; punctulatum, 127.
End view 3-radiate or angular, sides nearly vy (pp).
OG be os sides concave (77).
End view 4-radiate or angular (xx).
Cells spinulose on the whole surface . . . . . . aculeatum, 140.
Be ae onthe marginsonly . ... . . setigerum, 141.
Cells spinulose, a short, irregular process on each side,
controversum, 143.
Cells spinulose on the margins of the long, colorless, diverging arms,
aspinosum, 143.
End view triangular or 3-radiate (ZZ).
ot 4 or 5-angular or radiate (zz).
End view circular, with usually 9 short, marginal, notched processes,
Felotseanum, 149.
End view margins smooth; spines short; semi-cells in front view twice
Clef ASMLOMey Aiea) i.) :)' | ieMialee MIs! 96) ol meeedda, 122,
* Journ. R. Micr. Soc., Feb., 1886.
168
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [September,
ile
(Sie
tt.
Sie
uu.
UU.
UU.
UU.
UU.
UU.
UU.
WW.
Ww.
ww.
Biden
Siege
Jee
J5e
RR
YNXAN
RNXNX
ass
a 9 BSSS RES
.
Shes SSeS
End view margins smooth; spines oat semi-cells in front view 3 or
4 times as wide Aswlonceues, aie . . . Commutatune, ee
End view margins smooth ; ; Spines very ‘long . . longispinum, 145.
End view margins verrucose, the verruce emarginate or not,
forficulatum, 144.
os af dentate, angles usually 3. . monticulosum, 144.
End view margins smooth, concave; angles notched
guadrangulare, 145.
66 ; ce
crenate ; spines long, divergent, Vove Cesaree, 145.
56 86 spinous ; angles produced, furcate, forficulatum, 144.
End view triangular; aculei short, Lflystrix, 142; tridentiferum, 142.
of 2 spines long, colorless . . ¢récornutum, 145.
End view 4-angled, angles ores rounded, spines scattered ; sides
concave weil: Jo Wike | oi aen ier aera Seat G0 Male Hystrix, 142.
End view 5- -angled, aisles Concave i. 7. sey Brasilvense, 146.
Angles with numerous sete as long as the lobes: cells in ‘front view
cruciform ae oe vasa 2. dae «i 0 ba 16) + MCMUELOL Eee
Angles with 4 ieeity 2 projecting upward, 2 downward, cer orci, 142.
at 2 spines; margins concave, spinous . gwaternium, 144.
Sides unequally produced, spinulose or spinous . coztroversum, 143.
Sides equally ats spineless; angles spinous . aczleatwm, 140.
Diameter ;}, in. (38) or less seo
Diameter greater than (38) ;4, inch (A).
Cytioderm aculeated, aculei eee and denser at the angles,
teliferum, 140.
Cytioderm aculeated except at the centre, echinatum, 141; pecten, 141.
Oe spinous ; 5 margins dentates. > 5 42h Gan seaaeee convexum.*
ng Bt mareums cremate) cy) es ee Ravenelliz, 143.
Cytioderm aculeated ele geminate, . . . . + « SOCI@~um yee
’ b]
66 oe
aculei nie geminate, densest at the angles,
Brebtissonntt, 141.
aculei evenly covering the surface,
Saxonicum, 1413; hirsutum, 141.
Chie es spinous, spines not'notched, . . . = \e¢htmatamaae
ae spines or short processes notched, spongvosum, 148.
End view 3-angled ; processes within the margin, 6 in number (C).
ue at a xs eh oe 3 in number (J).
or BK ce processes both on and within the margins (/7).
Ke be Ee processes at the angles only (/).
End view 3 or age emarginate or bifid; cell very irregular or
quadrate, MEN TR . (it eROr tie eae
Front view lateral margins Ceanetee : eal margins 5’ crenanen
eustephanum, 14".
ee lateral margins smooth, . . . pseudofurcigerum, 147.
_ lateral margins with 3-6 sharp teeth: basal margin smooth,
cuneatum, 148.
Cytioderm granular, . . . ‘ ‘ furcigerum, 146.
Cytioderm epacoth: ; end view angles produced into 2 processes, a third
above and between them, . . ¢ - |) WPodésec. agi
Cytioderm smooth or finely punctate ; ead view angles notched,
Kitchelliz, 150.
Processes 9, nearly as long as semi-cell diameter, ends furcate,
Tohopekaligense.t
* Journ. R. Micr. Soc., Feb., 1886, + Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club, Dec., 1885.
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
169
£. Processes shorter than semi-cell diameter, ends furcate, farcatum, 150.
fF. Processes 6, short, notched ; semi-cell rectangular, twice wider than long,
duplex, 149.
F. End view central radiating processes 6; marginal, including angles, 9,
Fa. 66
senarium, 1447.
central and marginal spines short, numerous, notched,
spongiosum, 148.
Butter and Fats and Oleomarga-
rine.
DR. THOMAS TAYLOR’S Rb Pye er: ©O
PROF. WEBER.
Dr. Thomas Taylor, microscopist
of the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture at Washington, was appointed
the first speaker at the meeting of
the American Society of Microscop-
ists held at Chautauqua, August 1oth
to 14th, to make answer to the paper
of Prof. Weber on ‘ Butter and
Fats.’ Dr. Taylor commenced by
alluding to the first three experi-
ments made by Prof. Weber in rela-
tion to the crystals of butter, lard,
and oleo fat. Here Dr: Taylor
called attention to the fact that Prof.
Weber acknowledged that thus far
Dr. Taylor’s statements in relation
to the forms of the three respective
fats named were verified. The next
following three experiments of Prof.
Weber were reviewed by Dr. Taylor.
They related to three different com-
pounds of butter and lard. The first
composition consisted of ninety parts
butter and ten parts lard; 2d com-
position, seventy-five parts butter,
twenty-five parts lard;
sition, fifty parts butter, fifty of lard.
Each of these compositions was
boiled, cooled, and examined by
Prof. Weber. He says all exhibited
the butter crystal. To these three
experiments Dr. Taylor objected be-
cause they did not represent his
method of testing for oleomargarine.
Dr. Taylor in his annual report to
the Commissioner of Agriculture
sets forth that it is absolutely neces- |
sary to examine all butter substitutes
as purchased. By this means the
crystals of lard, if present, are at
3d compo- |
once detected by means of the micro-
scope. The object being to distin-
guish foreign fats, such as lard and
beck Eehhich. are never found in pure
butter. Dr. Taylor explained that it
was a great error on the part of Prof.
Weber to boil a suspected butter
substitute on receiving it, because
_ were butter present in quantity in
combination with lard and beef fat
the foreign crystals would be ab-
sorbed by the large butter crystals
formed by the process of boiling.
It should be observed that lard al
beef fats have passed through the
process of boiling, while ee butter
combined with it has simply been
melted at a low temperature. In
normal oleomargarine their crystals
are already formed while the butter
shows none unless boiled. To a
superficial observer boiled oleomar-
garine, if it contain much butter,
would appear true butter instead of
oleomargarine. Whereas, by first
making microscopical examination,
the lard crystal may be at once de-
tected and save further labor.
Dr. Taylor further stated that it
should be borne in mind that the
object sought was not the presence
| of butter, but the presence of foreign
fats, and that the moment they were
detected by the microscope, the par-
ties may be prosecuted under the
butter laws of the District of Colum-
bia.
Dr. Taylor here stated that already
seven convictions had been made
under his testimony, and in no case
had he sanctioned a_ prosecution,
unless he found an abundance of
lard or beef fat crystals, or other
foreign fats in the substance. Dr.
Taylor further said that the parties
170
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[September,
subjected to the prosecution, rich and
poor, men and women, publicly ac-
knowledged, on conviction, that they
knew that the substance they were
prosecuted for selling was oleomar-
garine. Following this Dr. Taylor
discussed the experiments of Prof.
Weber in relation to the production
of the so-called butter crystal by
artificial means. Dr. Taylor said
that Prof. Weber believes he has, by
the use of salt and water, in the man-
ner described by him, formed or
caused to be formed, butter-like crys-
tals by using either oleo oil or lard.
In relation to these experiments Dr.
Taylor stated that he had lately
found that while the kidney and
cellular tissue fats gave purely ‘stellar
crystals without a cross, that a sam-
ple of leaf lard, lately tested by him-
self, yielded stellar crystals with a
cross; but these crystals could not
be mistaken for butter crystals by
an experienced observer, since they
show distinctly the spinous character
of lard crystals. That the same
result is obtained without the use
of salt and water is shown also in
this connection. Dr. Taylor stated
that in point of fact the introduction
of salt and water was not necessary
to produce the cross. Dr. Taylor
cited the number of fats that he had
examined showing in their first
stages of crystallization a globose
crystal with a cross, all without the
addition of salt and water. Dr. Tay-
lor stated that in his annual report
he had clearly stated that any micro-
scopic body which was globose,
comparatively smooth, translucent
and polarizing would show a cross.
Dr. Faylor gave four illustrations
upon the blackboard of four different
fats whose forms could be seen with
plain transmitted light. Following
this Dr. Taylor threw the form of a
cross on each of the illustrations,
pointing out the fact that notwith-
standing that each was invested with
the shadow or illusive marking of
the Cross, each form could sell be
reason of their peculiarities, thus
showing that the presence of the
cross would not alter the identifica-
tion of lard, beef fat, or other crystals.
Dr. Taylor further stated that when
Prof. Weber melted a fat and cooled
it quickly and found that no crystals
had formed under these conditions,
he but verified what he, Dr. Taylor,
had published some ten years ago in
the New York quarterly Journal of
Microscopy, to wit, that butter sub-
stitutes composed of solid fats when
newly made and suddenly chilled, did
not show any crystals of ‘fat when ex-
amined in the fresh condition, but
that when laid aside a short time in
a moderate temperature the crystals
began to form and are readily de-
tected. Dr. Taylor further observed
that in no case had he found in the
oleomargarines, or butterines sold in
the Washington markets, butter crys-
tals on boiling ; he invariably found
foliated cry es of beef fat.
Dr. Taylor strongly objected to
Prof. Weber’s. constant use of the
term ‘ Characteristic of the Butter
Crystal’ within quotation marks,
stating that nowhere in his writings
or in public speech has he Seated
that the cross was characteristic of
the butter crystal, meaning thereby
that the St. Andrew cross, so called,
was to be found nowhere except in
the globose butter crystal. Dr. Tay-
lor has shown that the cross is only
a factor, and does not contend that
it is exclusively characteristic of the
butter crystal. The butter crystal,
he stated, had several peculiar char-
acteristics which he has not yet found
in connection with any other crystals
of fat, animal or vegetable.
O
Provisional Key to Classification of
Alge of Fresh Water.—X1I.
BY THE EDITOR.
| Concluded from page 144. |
VI. ORDER FLORIDEA:
Sexual propagation by fruiting of
a female cell (carpogonium) which
bears on its end a more or less drawn
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
iia
out neck or projection of varying form
(trichogynium). Fructification by
duced in the ends of 1-2
branchlets, or in special parts of the
surface of the thallus, single or in |
groups (antheridia), one in each
mother cell These float in the water
and adhere to the trichogyne and
fertilize it. The neighboring cells
beneath the trichogyne, the so-called
trichophore apparatus, give rise to
a bunch of short branches, the term-
inal cells of which produce the re-
productive cells, the carpospores.
A sexual propagation by gonidia
which, like the carpospores, are pro-
duced atthe points of special branch-
lets, or between cells of the surface |
of the thallus, usually 4 in a mother |
cell (tetraspores), not motile.
ing matter, phycoerythrin, or a blue,
phycocyanin, in addition to chloro-
phyll, and therefore usually are vio-
let, purplish red, blueish green, brown
or black.
XV. Family LEMANEACE.
Simple or somewhat branched,
setaceous, conferva-like, hollow fila-
ments. Spores produced on the sur-
face in special zones. Carpospores
formed within the tubular filaments.
No tetraspores.
137. Genus Lemanea Bory.
Rather large, robust, bristle-like
filaments, of a dark, bluish green,
brownish or black color. The single
filaments simple or branched, usually
nodular. They are attached to a fil-
amentous mass, scarcely visible to the
naked eye (thallus) , which is attached
by hair roots, and from which arise
the thick, hollow, fruiting threads.
XVI. Family BATRACHOSPERMA-
CE.
Branching filaments, consisting of
a principal axis and a more or less
developed system of branching.
Spermatozoids and carpogonia
formed at the ends of branchlets.
Tetraspores at the ends of branchlets.
el ©
138. Genus Batrachospermum
| Roth.
spherical spores or male ‘elements |
(spermatozoides, antherozoides) pro- |
celled |
Branched filaments, slippery, soft,
consisting of a branched principal
axis, made up of a simple series of
colorless, cylindrical cells. At the
upper end of each of these cells orig-
inates a series of cortical cells, and
clustered fascicles of moniliform
branches of cells.
139. Genus Chantransia Fries.
Small, steel-blue, brownish or red
tufts. Filaments consisting of a sin-
gle series of cells, straight, branch-
ing, naked, fasciculately branched
above, joints cylindrical.
Carpospores formed in small tufts
at the ends of small branchlets, as in
Batrachospermum.
Asexual propagation by tetraspores,
formed at the ends of cells like the
| carpospores, not often observed.
The floridee contain a red color- |
XVII. Famzly HiLtpDENBRANDTIA-
CEE.
Thallus membranaceous. Tetra-
spores sunk in receptacles in the
thallus. Propagation unknown.
140. Genus (7z7/denbrandtia
Nardo.
Membranous, spread out flat, on
the matrix upon which it grows, con-
sisting of several layers of small,
spherical cells, with red contents.
> )
‘— King’s amber cement, prepared by the
Rev. J. D. King, and, we believe, sold by
dealers generally, is prepared as follows:
Dissolve 453 grammes of best bleached
shellac in half a litre of 95 per cent. alco-
hol. Dissolve 1 part of gum mastic in 2
parts of alcohol, and let stand until clear.
To the shellac solution add 38 grammes
of the mastic solution, color with dragon's
blood dissolved in alcohol, and _ filter.
Place it on a water bath and stir fre-
quently until it comes to boil. Filter
through flannel. Thin with alcohol if
necessary.
— King’s lacquer finish, which was also
recommended in a recent article in these
columns, is made as follows :—Dissolve
1 part of bleached shellac in 2 parts of 95
per cent. alcohol. To every 38 grammes
of 1 add 5 grammes of 2 and 5 grammes
of Brown’srubber cement. This is highly
commended as a color finish for mounts.
172
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[September,
EDITORIAL.
Publisher’s Notices.—All communications, ex-
changes, etc., should be addressed to Henry Leslie
Osborn, Lafay ette, Indiana, Purdue University.
Subsgriptions, and all matters of business, should be
addressed to the Pusiness Manager, P. O. Box 630,
Washington, D. C.
Subscription price $1.00 PER YEAR strictly in ‘ad-
vance. All subscriptions begin with the Fanuary
number.
A pink wrapper indicates that the subscription has
expired.
Remittances should be made by postal notes, money
orders, or by money sent in registered letters. Drafts
should be made payable in Washington, New York,
Boston, or Philadelphia.
The regular receipt of the JouRNAL, which is issued
on the r5th of each month, will be an acknowledgment
of payment.
The first volume, 1880, is entirely out of print. The
succeeding volumes will be sent by the publisher for
the prices given below, which are net.
Vol. II (1881) complete, $1.50.
Vol. III out of print.
Vol. IV (1883) complete, $1.50.
Vol. V (1884) complete, $1.50.
Vol. V (1884), Nos. 2-12, $1.00.
Vol. VI (1885), $£.00.
EprroriaL CHANGE.—In the July
number it was suggested that on ac-
count of the protracted residence of
the Editor in Japan a change would
be made in the editorial mz inagement
of the JourNaL. Prof. Hitchcock
was compelled to leave the country
for his work in Japan before the
publication of the August number,
and before arrangements had been
completed for the future conduct of
In this condition of
the magazine.
affairs we have undertaken to act
temporarily as editor until we can
further communicate with the Editor.
We promise the readers of the Jour-
NAL that so long as our connection
with the magazine shall continue we
shall spare no pains to keep up the
interest of the pages of the JOURNAL.
As heretofore, we trust there will
always continue the greatest good-
feeling between the friends of the
paper and the acting editor, and shall
always welcome letters of inquiry or
information, and solicit the kind treat-
ment of the readers. Fully under-
standing the difficulties of the situa-
tion, but with hopes of success, we at-
tempt this temporary position until an
arrangement shall be made for the en-
tire fen m of Prof. Hitchcock’s absence.
Whatever that arrangement shall be
Prof. H. will always continue to
watch over the magazine as he ever
has, and retain all his interest in it,
and send it frequent letters from his
residence in Japan. He will also
retain the relation of publisher to the
JourNAL. Letters to him should be
addressed to the Dai-gaku Bunko,
Osaka, Japan.
Henry LESLIE Osporn, |
Acting Editor.
a
THe BENEFITS OF IMPROVEMENTS
IN OpyEcTIVES.— The presidential ad-
dress of Dr. Dallinger, delivered at the
last annual meeting of the Royal Mi-
croscopical Society shows very clearly
that the recent improvements in the
construction of lenses for the micro-
scope have revealed many important
facts which are utterly beyond the
possibility of demonstration by even
slightly inferior optical appliances.
The work upon which Dr. Dallin-
ger has been for many years engaged
ane study of the life history of mi-
nute flagellate monads—has demand-
ed the highest qualities of critical ob-
servation with the best objectives. Go-
ing back less than ten years, to 1878,
Ccnnte and positive results of obser-
vation with the best lenses then pro-
duced were recorded. In the author’s
own words: ‘ The lenses were the best
that the science and art of the time
could produce ; and the organisms on
which the researches were made were
thoroughly known, and were exam-
ined through consecutive years under
every var iety of condition, optical and
other ; while the limits otf disclosure
were clearly known, and can be read-
ily shown with the same lenses on the
same objects to-day.’ But there was
more to be done; details that were only
suggested by the work of that time and
faintly indicated in the drawings pub-
lished, were relegated to Aer exami-
nation when anes improvements
should be made in objectives. The
expected progress was rapidly accom-
plished. First came Powell & Lea-
land’s fine water-immersion lenses,
then the homogene immersions of
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
173
Zeiss, of gradually increasing numeri-
calaperture, until,during Hoe last year,
ee Dallinger received a+,a 54, anda
sa) cach having a numerical aperture
of 1.5, made by Mr. Powell. With
these fine lenses much has been dis-
covered that has hitherto been hidden.
The most important results are the
elucidation of the process of develop-
ment and growth of the nucleus in the
organisms studied. These are so low
in the scale of existence that they can-
not be classed as either animal or vege-
tal, and may be assumed to represent
fie nucleus in a very elementary con-
dition. Previous researches had al-
ready shown that after repeated fission
of the monads, always characterized
by division of the nucleus, two individ-
uals coalesce, and become quite still un-
til the investing sac bursts and sets free
a cloud of innumerable germs, so mi-
nute as to be almost invisible. These
were observed to grow up to a certain
size, when the growth was tempora-
rily arrested. By the use of the finest
lenses the arrest of growth has been ex-
plained. It is the nucleus that grows
from the minute germs, and the arrest
of growth is due to internal changes
which result in the development of the
nuclear structure. Up to this point no
internal structure is to be seen; buta
granular structure can then be ob-
served to develop, when the full aper-
ture of the new lenses isemployed, and
after this condition is fully attained, the
growth of the body substance around
the nucleus begins. One other impor-
tant observation was made at the same
time, when the development of the
flagella from the nucleus itself was
distinctly followed.
It has also been discovered by the
aid of the new lenses, that fission be-
gins in the nucleus, and not in the
body substance as hitherto observed.
’ We will not attempt a description of
the appearances presented by the nu-
cleus previous to division, but they are
remarkable, and show the importance
of critical examination in this field.
In the case of coalescence of two
nucleated monads the changes of the
nuclei have been followed, and the
results seem destined to throw much
light upon the phenomena of conjuga-
tion among simple organisms. The
nuclei fuse together, but finally the
nuclear contents seem to become dif-
fused throughout the sarcode body
and lost. Then the organism gives
rise to the germs of a new generation.
This brief and inadequate notice
affords but a faint idea of the great
and painstaking work of Dr. Dallin-
ger, which is surely leading to a
knowledge of the operations of life,
deeper and clearer than would be
possible without the optical means
at his disposal. We cannot but think,
in this connection, of the work upon
the growth and functions of nuclei
so long in progress in Germany, and
it seems not improbable that Dr.
Dallinger has advanced further in
some respects than any other investi-
gator, because he has been so anxious
to avail himself of optical appliances
superior to any hitherto used. It
is also noticeable, and this may bea
very significant fact, that although
he speaks of a plexus-like structure,
he does not figure or describe any
network structure in nucleus or sar-
code such as we are taught to believe
characterizes living matter. The
granules of the nucleus are not de-
scribed as connected by threads, the
sarcode is structureless. We have
often thought the network structure
might be due to imperfections in the
optical apparatus, or to a delusion
of imperfect vision. Surely Dr.
Dallinger would not overlook, with
his iil lenses, a structure easily seen
with inferior ones.
No one can read Dr. Dallinger’s
contributions without a feeling of
respect and admiration for those
qualities of mind and industry that
have enabled him to carry on such
difficult observations so long and
successfully.
o-———
JOTTINGsS BY THE Way.—It is the
29th of July, and high time that our
wandering thoughts should be direc-
174
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[September,
ted upon the next issue of the Jour-
NAL. Weare off the coast of Lower
California, just above the Tropic of
Cancer, which was crosseda few hours
since. Our last contribution was writ-
ten in the Caribbean Sea, and posted
at Aspinwall,or Colon. The principal
feature of that place, during the one
night we remained there, was mosqui-
toes. Suchan intolerable nuisance and
pest never before came into our expe-
rience, although we have found it bad
enough in passing through Jersey
swamps. But it is Peadeabie that
the Colon species is essentially and
conspicuously a nocturnal insect.
Just as the sun sets he comes, with
all his sisters and cousins and aunts
and generations of other relatives, in
a perfect swarm, and torments peo-
ple until broad daylight.
A trip across the Isthmus of Pan-
ama at any season is well worth all
the discomfort it involves. We can-
not enlarge upon it here. Colon, since
the fire, fies changed very much. It is
more attractive Geog the outside than
when we saw it first, about eight years
ago, but just as muddy and unhealth-
an as ever.. M. de Lesseps has a fine
residence at the terminus of the pro-
jected canal, and an attempt has been
made to protect the lives of laborers
engaged upon the canal by providing
good dwelling-houses for them. ‘he
first attempt ‘to improve the sanitary
condition of the Isthmus has been
made by M. de Lesseps.
The railroad runs through a coun-
try teeming with the rank life of the
Tropics. Danae) is about 8° 30’
north latitude, near enough to the
equator to give one a sufficient ex-
perience of purely tropical life and
heat. Yet we were fortunate in havy-
ing a cool day for our asa and
Inefore sunset the steamer ‘San Juan,’
which had been waiting for us all day,
steamed out of the beanitieal harbor of
Panama, and bore us still nearer the
equator, down to about 7° 10’ N. lat.,
and then we began to follow the coast
line towards the north ez route for
San Francisco.
Our steamer made four ports on the
way, two of which we visited, but the
most interesting of all was the old
Mexican town, Acapulco. Leaving
the ship early in the morning, armed
with a large camera, we spent several
hours of the greatest interest among
the people, heading a motley com-
pany of natives, who were much at-
tracted by our operations. Our own
party consisted of four persons, the
writer, his wife, a fellow-passenger,
and a fat, good-natured native boy,
who was engaged to carry the cam-
era box.
The sun was intensely hot, but in
the shade the heat was not oppres-
sive. The town was full of interest
and novelty. First, we came upon
the market- place, where a motley
gathering of picturesque if not over-
clothed natives—men, women, and
children — squatted on the ground
with ridiculously small stores of
merchandise—perhaps two chickens
or a dozen eggs, or a few bananas or
oranges or cocoanuts—which they
desired to sell, but seemed quite as
contented if no purchaser came.
Mounting camera and ourselves on
the same coping near by, we carried
away an impression of ‘the scene on
a paper plate. Then there was a
ruin of an abbey, once dedicated to
a saint to us unknown, but no doubt
famous in his day. That also we
photographed, with some lazy buz-
zards perched on its crumbling stone
tower. On the hillside above were
some stone wells, overshadowed with
tall cocoanut palms, which carry one
back through the centuries to an ear-
lier age, and women bearing water-
jugs on their heads.
But we must leave the scene so
full of interest, for we cannot spare
the space to tell more of what was
there. Our next stop was Manza-
nillo. There is little there except
alligators, scorpions, lizards, and
creatures that squirm and bite. The
most picturesque subjects there are
the miners who come in with a cu-
rious kind of sac which they carry
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
EGS
on the back of the head, secured by
a band passing around the forehead.
San Blas was the next stopping
place, but no one was permitted to
go ashore. At Mazatlan we lay for
several hours, and thence sailed for
San Francisco.
The sail along the coast is not de-
void of interest, although there is not
much to be seen. Here and there the
land is near enough for clear view ;
then it sweeps away until lost in ‘Hie
mist that seems to enshroud it all the
time. When the sea is quiet, as it is
now, save for the heaving swell that
makes our vessel pitch considerably,
the beautiful pearly nautilus spreads
its sail, as it is figuratively expressed
by writers usually, and floats about
in full enjoyment of life. How many
there must be of them! All day we
have been passing them by scores,
half a dozen of their delicate, trans-
parent sails in sight at one time,
miniature ships of pearl dotting the
surface of a boundless ocean. As
we sit outside by the captain’s cabin-
door, penning these lines, the white
foam from the bows engulphs many
of them with every lurch of the
ship.
The pleasure of this voyage has
been greatly enhanced by the genial
and social character of Captain
Pitts, the commander of the ship,
whose kind attentions we shall al-
ways remember.
At night the phosphorescence of
the water has been a remarkable
sight. The luminous foam spreads
out over the dark water as the ship
cleaves her way through it, and here
and there bright points of light shine
out with onde rn “Literacies
The cause of the brilliant phospho-
rescence we were unable to determine.
It seems quite impracticable to secure
specimens for close examination while
the steamer is under way. We endea-
vored to collect some specimens, but
were not successful, with the appli-
ances at hand. The abundance of
phosphorescent creatures is astonish-
ing. Looking over the side of the
vessel, a broad line of lambent light
marks out the water-line from stem
to stern, the foam from the bows is
intensely white on a dark cloudy
night, and every wavelet that breaks
Pca iS capped with light.
The last two days and “nights were
foggy, and we entered the Golden
Gate on Tuesday morning, August
3d, with a heavy mist haneine: over
the harbor, hiding the distant pros-
pect from view.
O
A CONVENIENT AND INEXPENSIVE
Microrome for wood sections is de-
scribed in the June number of the
Journal of the Royal Micr oscoptcal
Soczety. It is made of a block of
wood two inches square in end sec-
tion and four inches long. Across
one side of this two cuts are made
directed downward toward each other
and meeting so as to remove from
the block a triangular prism. The
space thus left is the ‘ well’ of the
microtome ; the piece to be cut is laid
in the well with the end projecting,
and the razor moves across it held in
place by the side of the block. To
protect the side of the block and sup-
port the razor a glass slide is cemented
on each side of he well in the shape
of a letter V.
For softening wood tissue be-
fore cutting, the wood may be im-
mersed for several hours in a mixture
of equal parts of alcohol and glycer-
in kept slightly warm (60° Centi-
grade) for several hours. This, with-
out injuring the structure, will render
it soft and easily cut, and should be
especially resorted to when the tissue
has be allowed to dry for some time.
a
NOTES.
— We have received some very fine
collections of diatoms from Mr. L. M.
King, who is offering similar specimens
for exchange. This reminds us that we
should say, in order to correct any er-
roneous impressions that may arise from
the occasional absence of our exchange
column, the omission is not purposely
176
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[September,
=—
==
made, but from necessity. We always
endeavor to publish the list of exchanges,
but occasionally it will happen that the
Notes and Correspondence just fill the
last page. The most attractive material
under the microscope is that containing
Isthmia on seaweed. This is the richest
and cleanest collection of that diatom we
have seen, although it may be very abun-
dant on the Pacific coast. We will else-
where give some hints on mounting such
diatoms in the most effective manner.
— Mr. L. M. King announces the dis-
covery of a new deposit of diatoms near
Santa Rosa, Cal. In sending us a speci-
men he writes concerning it as follows :-—
The material that I send is in its natural
state, and crops out in ledges in the hills
in various parts of the surrounding coun-
try. It varies in richness according to the
locality, but in some places it is almost
pure diatoms and as white as snow, and
can be mounted without any previous
cleaning. The earth contains many gen-
era which also vary with the locality, but
in some places the following are particu-
larly well represented, viz:—Cocconema,
Pinnularia, Navicula, Surirella, and
many others.
— We are indebted to Dr. James kK.
Stockwell for an excellently - prepared
section across the tail of a mouse, pass-
ing through the bone, in which the dif-
ferent tissues are beautifully distinguished
by staining.
—Dr. Van Heurck has prepared an
extended report on the microscopical ex-
hibits at the Antwerp exposition, which
is published in pamphletform. Only six
makers were represented, Hartnack, Na-
chet, Prazmowski, Reichert, Ross, and
Zeiss. The apparatus exhibited was
freely offered for examination, and the
tests of objectives were made by Dr.
Van Heurck in his own work-room, un-
der precisely identical conditions. We
cannot undertake to notice in detail a re-
port of this kind, which must be read entire
to be of value. It can doubtless easily
be obtained by ‘addressing the author at
Antwerp. It is printed in French.
— A new mounting medium having an
index of refraction of 2-4 has been pre-
pared by Mr.S.Meate. Ten grains of bro-
mine and 30 grains of sulphur are heated
in a test tube, and when the sulphur is
dissolved 13 grains of metallic arsenic in
powder are added, and the heating con-
tinued until thisis dissolved. The medium
is easily used, as it melts on the slide
when gently heated, and runs like balsam.
— The Moniteur du Praticten, edited
by M. Aug. Zune, at Brusselles, is a valued
exchange, containing articles of a practi-
cal and instructive character. The last
number contains an article on the medico- |
legal examination of blood, which is a
brief review of progress in this kind of
work since the year 1832. Anotherarticle,
by the editor, treats of the examination
of drinking-water, chemically, microscop-
ically, and for hygienic purposes. The
subject of the action of the more impor-
tant chemical reagents in quantitative
analysis is continued. The list of reac-
tions given in these articles is valuable for
reference.
—‘Ex-President Porter on Evolution’
is the title of the opening article in the
September number of Zhe Fopular
Sczence Monthly. Itis by Mr. W. D. Le
Sueur, already well known as an able
writer on the relations of theology and
evolution, and is an outspoken review, as
entertaining as it is effective, of Dr. Por-
ter’s recent address before the Nineteenth
Century Club.
— A correspondent sends the following
quotation from E. Hackel:—
‘According to the same law of divergent
adaptation, both eyes also frequently de-
velop differently. If, for example a nat-
uralist accustoms himself always to use
one eye for the microscope (it is better to
use the left) then that eye will acquire a
power different from that of the other, and
this division of labour is of great advan-
tage. The one eye will become more
short-sighted, and better suited for seeing
things near at hand, the other eye becomes,
on the contrary, more long-sighted, more
acute for looking at an object in the dis-
tance. If, on the other hand, the natural-
ist alternately uses both eyes for the mi-
croscope, he will not acquire the short-
. sightedness of the one eye and the com-
pensatory degree of long-sight in the other,
which is attained by a wise distribution of
these different functions of sight between
the twoeyes. Here, then, again the func-
tion, that is the activity, of originally
equally-formed organs can become diver-
gent by habit; the function reacts again
upon the form of the organ, and thus we
‘find, after a long duration of such an in-
fluence, a change in the more delicate
parts and the relative growth of the dif-
ferent organs, which in the end becomes
apparent even in the coarser outlines.’
— Dr. L. Heydenreich has recently dis-
cussed the subject of cements for mounting
in the Zectschr. fiir Wiss. Mikr., and gives
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
LTT
!
a formula for what he regards as the best
cement. Mr. E. A. Schultze has translated
the article for the Journ. NV. VY. Micr. Soc.
After discussing the merits of various resins
used in varnishes, he gives the following
instructions for preparing his cement :—
‘Taking equal parts of the best, clearest,
and hardest amber-varnish and copal-var-
nish, mix them and heat until all the tur-
pentine has disappeared. This will require
a temperature of 100°to 150° R. As soon
as all the turpentine has evaporated, re-
move the dish from the flame, allow it to
cool somewhat, and then add oil of laven-
der to the liquid in proportion of % to 1;
mix well, and allow the entire mass to cool
thoroughly. The process is terminated by
adding from 20 per cent. to 4o per cent. of
artificial cinnabar (eosin with cinnabar),
which should be very carefully and thor-
oughly rubbed in. The best method for
rubbing in the cinnabar is that employed
in the preparation of fine oil-paints. Should
the cement when finished be too thick for
use, as much oil of lavender as will give
the required fluidity may be added. The
component parts and their proportions
would then be as follows :—
Pete Ans at. 3s 125 Parts.
‘COfsaill, Ne ye os
Linseed-oil varnis 50 iy
Oil of lavender . 50-60 “
Artificial cinnabar . 4o=60) Sr’
Weare quite at a loss to understand the
parenthetical expression ‘eosin with cin-
nabar ’ as applied above, but in the form-
ula itself the expression is ‘eosin or cin-
nabar,’ which is probably what the author
intended to write, the eosin being added
to impart color, although in this case the
proportion given would be excessive. The
addition of oil of lavender is to be highly
commended. For a cement that depends
upon the drying of the resins and oil, rather
than the evaporation of a volatile solvent,
we have no doubt this one of Dr. Heyden-
reich is the best.
— This matter of cements recalls to mind
an expression in the Zeztschrzf/t, above
mentioned, applied by Dr. Griesbach to
ourselves. In describing the method
given by us sometime since for prepar-
ing shellac cement, he referred to us as
‘ein eifriger Anhanger des Schellackce-
mentes.’ We are quite satisfied with the
appellation, for with nearly ten years ex-
perience with shellac, using it for the great
variety of preparations that naturally come
to a general observer in microscopy, we
May say it is the only cement that has
come into our hands (and we have tried
many) that never fails. But apart from
this, there is another reason why we have
so persistently urged its use in these col-
umns, until we doubt not many of our
readers are tired of it, and are inclined to
regard us asacrank on the subject. The
reason is that so many of the best observ-
ers and students do not mount specimens
for preservation because they have not the
time to spare. There is just reason for
this if the ordinary methods of mounting
in fluids are followed, while Canada bal-
sam is not the proper medium. But by
using shellac, a permanent mount dry in
water or in glycerin can be made on a
perfectly plain slide in five minutes, and
it will keep perfect for years.
— Weare also reminded that in several
of the photographic journals the method
of clearing shellac solution with ‘petro-
leum spirit’ or ‘gasoline’ recommended
by us* has been condemned, and the
assertion made that for various excellent
reasons the plan will not answer the pur-
pose. Inthis case, however, the results of
experience are not in strict accord with the
theories of the critics. The plain fact is
that the plan does work; otherwise we
would not have published it. But toshow
to what extent the principle of it has been
misunderstood, and also the coolness with
whichimprovements upon well-tried meth-
ods are sometimes suggested by persons
who do not understand the subject, we
may refer to a leading article in one of
our contemporaries. After explaining why
our plan will not work, the writer suggests
that it might be better to first treat the dry
shellac with the petroleum derivative, for
the purpose of dissolving out that portion
not soluble in alcohol, after which a clear
solution in alcohol might be obtained. We
need only say that the naphtha in our
experiments did not dissolve the matter
insoluble in alcohol, but effected a mechan-
ical separation of it.
CORRESPONDENCE.
To THE EpiIror:—I notice, in June
number of MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL, a
complaint concerning oxide of zinc ce-
ment. I think Mr. Claypole’s annoyance
has been caused by impurity of the zinc
oxide used. Very little of the oxide, as
purchased, is pure, as it contains a portion
of the carbonate, due to exposure to air,
from which it takes up carbon dioxide.
If the oxide is exposed to a gentle heat
*Vol. v., p. 131.
178
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[September,
before use, to drive off the carbon dioxide,
and thus destroy the zinc carbonate, the
trouble will be likely to disappear. I have
noticed that oil of cedar (used as immer-
sion fluid) is apt to soften or destroy the
zinc cement rings, if they are at all recent,
and mention it, because I have not seen
it noticed.
T. Bx. VANeALUEN,
ALBANY, N. Y., July 12th, 1886.
O
To THE EpITor :—I note a letter in the
Aug. number of your JOURNAL from Mr.
Thompson, in reply to query from W. in
July number.
He quotes ‘ Tuckett’s Treatise.’ Froma
pretty fair acquaintance with treatises
on the microscope published in English,
from ‘Hook's Micrographia,’ say, 1665,
down, I think I can safely assert that
there is no such treatise as Zzcke@t's.
Could you have mistaken Mr. T’s manu-
script, and thus read it instead of Quekett?
I have the 3d ed. of Quekett, 1855, and it
is as Mr. T. states. Some years since, in
N. Y., in conversation with Mr. John
Phin, editor of the Am. Jour. of Micro-
scopy, in regard to older works on micro-
scopy, he stated that he had a copy of
Quekett, 2d edztzon ; that it gave a plate of
the diatom in question, and remarks on
its resolution by Spencer's objectives,
which had been impossible till then with
the best glasses then made in Britain or
on the Continent, and that it had so galled
the English opticians, and raised such an
outcry, that Quekett dropped the matter
in his 3d edition. There should be no
great difficulty in finding this 2d edition
in some public library, or in the collection
of some microscopist. Practical optics is
a very old science dating back to the days
of Babylon, quite old in Europe, quite
young inthe U.S. Through Spencer, the
child gave the mother the /s¢ lesson on
increased angular aperture. His glasses,
in this respect, far exceeded any thing
then knownin Europe. Further advance
in this direction had been proclaimed use-
less and impossible by the first English
authorities. Still, there were the facts and
the glasses, both stubborn things. The
second lesson, and in the samé direction,
was given by the late Mr. Tolles, a pupil
of Spencer, in the + 180° war which lasted
some years, the truth of his deductions
and productions being triumphantly es-
tablished to the satisfaction of the world,
and again, despite of the dictum of the
highest British authorities. Still, this set-
ting limits to the advance of science still
goes on, and every ten or twenty years
we have to set them further back. Within
a few years a president of the Royal Micr.
Soc., in his annual address, fixed the
limits of resolution of fine lines at 100,000
to the inch. This did not fit existing facts
then, and far less since, as there is the
strongest possible evidence to attest that
it reaches to 130 or 150,000 at least. This
fixing of limits is an old business. In an-
cient times they fixed the limits of the
world, the ‘ultima thule,’ at the pillars of
Hercules, as the ‘ne plus ultra’ (nothing
beyond.) My namesake did not accept
the proposition, hence our being. Spain,
after this, with very pardonable vanity,
stamped on her coin the pillars (of Her-
cules) encircled with a streamer, and the
motto, ‘plus ultra’ (further yet,) and this,
by the way, is the origin and ‘true in-
wardness’ of our dollar mark, $, despite
several other accounts of the same. The
two straight lines represent the pillars
of Hercules, ard the curved one the
streamer. The motto ‘plus ultra,’ so de-
cidedly American, in its origin, I think a
good one for our scienusts while engaged
from time to time in setting back the vari-
ous ‘limits’ by which they are sought to
be confined. In scientific matters it would
not seem to be safe to accept the ‘ dictum ’
of any manor body of men. The ‘limit’
they place is usually that which includes
their own knowledge, with very little room
for expansion.
Cur. C. Brooks, Ph.D.
393 E. Eager St., Baltimore, Md.
oO
A 1-25 Inch Objective.
To THE Epiror :—I received of H. R.
Spencer & Co. last October a 34 inch
objective ; it has a B.A. angle of 125°. I
consider this 34 to be one of the best high
power objectives I have ever looked
through; it resolves the most difficult
slides of Amphipleura in balsam with
plain mirror, illuminated mirror being
placed central and no stops in the con-
denser. :
All things being in good order and the
light in the proper direction for the work
in hand, it resolves the most difficult tests
at once. I consider this + of the Spen-
cers to be the best, or one of the best,
high powers that he has ever made for
resolution and definition, and I cannot
see how it can be excelled or ever equalled.
Its definition with glycerin and central
light is unrivalled. It has agood working
distance and works easily through a thin
No. 1 cover, and it works well with water,
glycerin, and homogeneous fluid, and
works well and gives good definition when
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
iT)
used dry. I have tested it on all kinds of
work that could be done with such a high
power, and, as far as my experience goes,
I believe it to be superior in definition and
resolution to any high power that I have
ever examined. The picture given of
bacteria and micro-organisms is all that
could be desired.
PIERCE TYRRELL.
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES.
CLEVELAND, OHIO.
At the annual meeting of the Cleveland
Microscopical Society, all the officers were
re-elected for another year, viz: President,
C. M. Vorce, F. R. M.S.; Vice-President,
Montague Rogers; Secretary, J. A. Wil-
son; Treasurer, John Hoehn, Ph. G.
O
SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.
The regular semi-monthly meeting was
held Wednesday evening, June 9th; Mr.
E. J. Wickson, presiding.
A well-mounted slide of the beautiful
brine shrimp, Arvtemza Salina, was shown
under dark field illumination. This inter-
esting little crustacean is now found in
large numbers in the brine-pits of the salt-
works near Alameda. It is about one-
fourth of an inch in length, and each
segment of the thorax is provided with a
pair of branchial feet, the rhythmical
motion of which impart a very graceful
appearance to the animal when swim-
ming in the brine.
The Secretary called attention to an
unusually fine mount of the head of the
male wasp obtained from Fred Enoch,
the well-known English preparer of ento-
mological objects. The slide was accom-
panied by a camera lucida sketch, show-
ing the upper and under sides, and desig-
nating the various organs.
The remainder of the evening was
devoted to the examination of several
_varieties of fruit pests, mainly insects be-
longing to the aphis and coccus families,
and their natural insect foes. The collec-
tion had been brought by Dr. Bates, who
narrated some interesting facts regarding
the same, and then called upon Mr.
Wickson for a further elucidation of the
subject. The latter stated that some ex-
periments were now being carried on at
the State University orchard with refer-
ence to keeping the destructive insects on
fruit trees in check, by fostering the prop-
agation of other insects which are the
natural foes of the former class. He cited
an instance of a plum tree which was
apparently hopelessly overrun with the
plum aphis, but several varieties of the
well-known lady-bug, Coccinella, soon
appeared in such numbers that the tree
became fairly red with them. As a con-
sequence, the aphides were losing the
ascendency, and the tree would no doubt
ultimately be rid of them. The larval
form of Coccznella is even more useful
than the perfect insect, as a factor in the
destruction of aphides. Specimens of the
lace-winged fly (Chrysopa ferla) and of a
fly belonging to the genus Syrfhus, to-
gether with their larval forms, were shown
under the microscope, and their peculiar-
ities of structure pointed out. The larva
of Syrphus is footless and blind, but
nevertheless creates great havoc among
the multitudes of destructive insects in-
festing fruit trees.
A. H. BRECKENFELD, Rec. Secr.
)
SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.
The regular semi-monthly meeting was
held on Wednesday evening, July 28th,
Dr. S. M. Mouser presiding.
Pursuant to announcement, Mr. A. H.
Breckenfeld read a paper on ‘Hydra, the
Fresh-water’ Polype.’ After referring to
the original discovery of this remarkable
little creature by that pioneer micro-
scopist, Antony van Leeuwenhoek, in
1703, allusion was made to the investiga-
tions of Trembley—by whom the animal
was practically re-discovered nearly forty
years later—and the great interest excited
thereby among the naturalists of Europe.
flydra consists essentially of an elon-
gated, nodular sac of protoplasmic sub-
stance, imbedded in which are found
large numbers of colored granules. At
the upper end of this sac is a simple
opening, the mouth, and just below this
is a circle of tentacles, usually from six
to ten innumber. At the lower extremity
the body is furnished with a flattened,
suctorial disk, by means of which the
animal attaches itself to filaments of alge,
rootlets of duckweed, and similar objects,
while its slender, tendril-like tentacles
are slowly and gracefully waving about
in search of prey. The body and tenta-
cles, when fully extended, seldom meas-
ure over one-fourth or one-half of an
inch in length, except in the case of the
rare species //. fusca, which sometimes
attains a length of several inches, owing
to the extraordinary development of the
tentacles, which in that species are many
times the length of the body. The ten-
tacles of Hydra are hollow, each being
traversed by a canal communicating
180
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY.
[September.
directly with the body cavity. It subsists
entirely upon animal food, consisting
mainly of minute worms and the smaller
entomostraca.
With regard to the histology of Hydra,
many very diverse views have been held.
It is now universally conceded that
flydra is composed exclusively of cells
and cell derivatives. The most valuable
researches on the subject were those of
Kleinenberg, whose admirable mono-
graph appeared in 1872. The body and
tentacles of A/ydra, Mr. Breckenfeld
stated, were resolvable into two distinct
layers, an inner—the endoderm—and an
outer—the ectoderm.
After alluding to the structure of the
curious nematocysts or stinging organs,
and of the reproductive bodies of Hydra,
the paper next described the gemmation
of the animal, a process strikingly analo-
gous to that of budding in plants. A little
swelling on its body surface gradually
elongates, at the free end a mouth is
formed, below which is developed the
crown of tentacles, andthusa young Hydra
makes its appearance, the entire process
being usually completed in a few days.
Some remarkable instances of abnor-
mal development in //ydra were alluded
to, and a description given of two curious
parasitic infusoria by which it was often
infested.
During the reading of the paper, en-
larged images, illustrative of the subject,
were thrown upon the screen by E. W.
Runyon with his oxy-hydrogen lantern,
thus adding greatly to the interest of the
occasion. By means of the microscopical
attachment devised by him, very success-
ful images of the living animal were also
thus shown.
A. H. BRECKENFELD, “ec. Secr.
Oo———
NEw YORK.
Organized Dec. 11th, 1877; incorpo-
rated 1878. Regular meetings at No. 64
Madison avenue, on the first and third
Friday evenings of each month, from Oc-
tober to June, inclusive of both. Active
members, 62. Average attendance of
members and guests at the regular meet-
ings, 36. Attendance at the annual re-
ception, Feb. 6th, 1885, 500; and number
of microscopic objects exhibited, 48.
The addresses, lectures, papers, discus-
sions, communications, and the names
and descriptions of objects exhibited at
all the meetings, have been published in
course in the Jowrna/ of the Society.
The names of the officers for the year
1886, are the following :—
President, the Rev. J. L. Zabriskie;
Vice-President, P. H. Dudley ; Recording
Secretary, M. M. Le Brun; Correspond-
ing Secretary, Benj. Braman; Treasurer,
Charles S. Shultz; Librarian, William G.
De Witt.
NOTICES OF BOOKS.
The Kindergarten and the School, by
Four Active Workers. Milton Bradley
Co., Springfield, Mass. (pp. 136).
This littlke work is made up of five
essays by four ladies, apparently
teachers, who speak from personal ex-
perience. The essays cover the following
subjects :—1. Froebel and his work. 2.
The theory. 3. The methods of kinder-
garten teaching. 4. Kindergarten in the
public schools. 5. Kindergarten,and the
school.
The work is an admirable exposition
of the kindergarten method, well illus-
trated with figures of the blocks, and with
colored plates to show models for the
mats, etc., the children learn to make.
The work does not claim to be a defence
of the system or comparison of its bene-
fits with those of any other system of
education. Possibly it assumes this as
too certain. We can, however, not hesi-
tate in the verdict that one who wants to
find out what the kindergarten system is
will find ample instruction and enter-
tainment in the work.
The New York Medical Monthly is a
new publication, the first number of which
was issued in May. It is edited by J.
Leonard Corning, M. D., and publishes a
list of eminent contributors. It proposes
to be an ‘entirely practical’ journal, and
the first number promises well. Theadver-
tisements of injurious mechanical appli-
ances and patent nostrums of questionable
harmlessness, which are usually conspic-
uous features on the advertising pages of
medical journals, are absent. We trust
they will be rigidly excluded from future
numbers also.
Exchanges.
[Exchanges are inserted in this column without
charge. They will be strictly limited to mounted ob-
jects, and material for mounting. ]
Labels for slides, also slides and material to ex-
change for same. EUGENE PINCKNEY.
Dixon, Ill.
For Exchange : Seeds ot Orthocarpus purpurascens
and Orthocarpus attenuatus, and slides ofsame, in ex-
change for good objects, foraminifera preferred.
EDWARD GRAY, M. D., Benicia, Cal.
THE AMERICAN
MONTHLY
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
Won, VL.
Wasuineron, D. C., Ocroprr, 1886.
No. 10.
On the So-called New Element of
the Blood and its Relation to
Coagulation.
BVEGHO. Th. KEMP, PH. D., UNIVER-
SITY OF PA.*
Hayem, in 1878, called attention
to bodies in the blood which were |
not previously noticed. He called
them Aematoblasts, and endeav-
ored to prove that they were early
stages in the development of red cor-
puscles. In 1881 Bizzozero claimed
independent discovery of the same
elements, and affirmed that they
were connected with the coagula-
tion. Much conflicting research
followed, and finally Dr. Kemp, of
Johns Hopkins University, present-
ed a paper, of which this is an
abridgment.
The element is called by the term
plaque, used by the French observ-
ers.
If a drop of 1 per cent. osmic acid
be placed on the finger, and the fin-
ger pricked with a needle through
the drop, the elements of the blood
will all be hardened and preserved
in their natural appearance.
If a thin film of this blood be ex-
amined with a good lens magnify-
ing 600 to 800 diameters, the plaques
may be seen floating in the plasma
among the red corpuscles and leu-
cocytes.
_ They are pale, homogeneous, vari-
able in size, about one-third to one-
fourth the diameter of a red corpuscle.
Seen on surface, they are circular or
elliptical, and seem at first sight flat,
* Abridged for this Journal from the original article
in the Studies from the Biological Laboratory of Johns
Hopkins University.
_ diately upon a cover-slip.
but are very slightly biconcave, as
shown when seen edgewise.
The form of the plaque when thus
studied never undergoes change. This
| is not the case in blood drawn and al-
| lowed to clot.
To study this the fol-
lowing method is adopted :—The fin-
ger is pricked and a good-sized drop of
blood squeezed out and taken imme-
Then, as
quickly as possible, most of it is
washed off by a jet of .75 per cent.
Na Cl solution from a wash- bottle.
| The slip is now examined under the
microscope. The plaques have the
| property of sticking to the slip while
the other elements are washed away
by the jet, so that, on examination,
the whole field is found filled with
plaques mostly grouped in masses of
2-12 or more.
They are no longer pale and homo-
geneous with symmetrical outline, but
appear glistening and granular, and
their contour has become jagged.
These changes are more marked the
longer the time which has elapsed
before the preparation is observed,
and they may be seen to take place
step by step while a preparation is
being watched. This change pro-
gresses until only a granular mass
remains, the individual plaques be-
ing no longer distinguishable. Parz
passu with these changes processes
may be seen to run out from the
granular masses, and when coagu-
lation sets in these are usually found
continuous with the threads of fibrin.
The threads of fibrin are sometimes
deposited as long needle-shaped crys-
talloids, which are often seen lying
in the field free from any granular
182
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ October,
4
masses, but the greater number are
formed most thickly around those
masses from which they often ra-
diate.
If too much blood has been washed
away in preparation no formation of
fibrin will take place; if in any part
of the field the blood remains thick
its edges will furnish the best area
for observation.
For hardening and preserving
the Alagues various other methods
were tried :—
. Hayem’s solution.
200, Na Cl 1, Na, So, hws
In using, dilate: with ;4, volume .75
NaCl. It does not act quite as quickly
as he osmic acid.
Bizzozero’s fluid. Na Cl .75, to
iceh methyl violet has “Rees idiled
in ratio of 1 methyl violet to 5,000
Na Cl.
3. Preservation by drying both
spontaneously, and carefully over al-
cohol flame. Not satisfactory :
Mounting media used were :—
1. Balsam and damar. Used di-
rectly with dried specimens or after
turpentine or xylol; used also after
alcoholic staining, but not desirable,
as the alcohol causes shrinkage of
even osmic specimens.
2. Glycerin. Not best for un-
stained plaques or osmic specimens.
Works well with stained specimens.
3. Glucose. Very satisfactory for
temporary mountings. Used in con-
centrated aqueous solutions becomes
hard and requires no cement.
4. Acetate of potash best medium
efhployed. - In it both plaques and
fibrin threads stand out clearly and
sharply defined.
5. Hayem’s fluid preserves the
plaques several weeks; but in speci-
mens several months old a granular
precipitate is seen, and sometimes
crystals are deposited.
Staining readily effected by me-
thyl violet, gentian violet, and fuch-
sin, used in dilure solutions.
Iodine irrigated under cover-slip
stains well, but the stain will wash
out in water after long treatment.
Bd water
2a, Clo
Bismarck brown, magenta and Klein-
enberg’s hematoxylin and aqueous
hematoxylin best for permanent
stains; acts slower. Anilin blue-
black, borax carmine, Frey’s car-
mine and picro-carmine do not act:
even in 24 hours.
The plaques may be chilled at once
on drawing to — r° to + 2-5° C, and
coagulation will not take place. The
plaque will retain its natural structure
for study, and may be observed to
change very slowly.
Various opinions prevail as to the
origin of the plaque, summed as fol-
lows :—1. That they are young red
corpuscles ; 2, that they are derived
from red corpuscles ; 3, derived from
white corpuscles; 4, nuclei floating
free in the blood; 5, fibrin; 6, glob-
ulin depositions from blood; 7, that
they are independent elements.
Dr. Kemp, after a summary of
opinion regarding these views, and
critical examination of the positions
of their adherents, concludes in favor
of the last, because—1, the plaques
are found with the other elements of
the blood on drawing fresh into os-
mic acid; 2, they have been seen
with the others circulating in the
vessels; 3, there is no sufficient evi-
dence to prove that they are derived
from the red or white corpuscles and
are other than az ¢xdependent mor-
phological element.
The results of the work all go to
show that the breaking down of the
plaques is intimately Cone eee with
the formation of fibrin.
The granular masses formed by the
plaques become centres from which
the threads of fibrin radiate. The
threads are also deposited freely in
the field, and often as long, needle-
shaped bodies, but there is generally
a thicker deposit of fibrin in the im-
mediate vicinity of the granular
masses, especially the large ones,
than is noticeable elsewhere.
The plaques, either before or after
breaking down, are not morphologi-
cally identical with fibrin, so that
they do not contribute as such to the
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
183
formation of the fibrinous network e
_ would be most liable to conduct itself
the remnants which are seen enclosed
by the threads of fibrin are held there
mechanically, and are not an essen-
tial part of the reticulum.
Some writers teach that it is the
white corpuscles which give rise to
the fibrin of coagulation. Kemp
finds no evidence to support this.
The fact that the fibrin is formed |
in the fluid where plaques are ab-
sent suggests that the plaques may
not be the cause of coagulation. The
fact that fibrin is nearly always de- |
posited more thickly around the
granular masses, and even radiating
from them, is interesting and sugges-
tive, but not conclusive proof that
the plaques give rise to them. The
same Saiedive property of the
plaques which makes them adhere |
to each other may cause the threads
of fibrin to adhere to them as fast as
they separate from the medium around |
The fact that fibrin is depos- |
them.
ited most thickly in the vicinity of
the plaques may be due to something |
given up by the plaques which pro-
duces or hastens coagulation, and that
in dilute solutions this substance is
more plentiful in the neighborhood
of the granular masses ‘than else-
where. “Kemp thinks that it is plain
that, though there is no histological |
connection between the plaques and
fibrin, there is a chemical one, the
plaques, as they break down, giving
up something to the plasma, since
conditions which retard the breaking
down of the plaques also retard the
formation of fibrin to Areczsely the
same extent, while reagents, which
preserve the plaques, prevent the
formation of fibrin altogether.
The fact that well-preserved
plaques are found inclosed in fibrin
taken from the heart some time after
death cannot be regarded as conclu-
sive proof that the plaques are not
connected with the formation of clot,
unless we could know positively what
they yielded to the clot, and that all
were well preserved.
From all at present known on the
| when
subject it would seem that a ferment
so as to produce these effects.
Dr. Kemp’s conclusions, briefly
stated then, are :—
1. The blood contains a third his-
tological element, the A/agues.
2. No evidence that this is gevetz-
cally related to either the white or the
red corpuscle.
3, Plaques break down at once
the blood is drawn; other
elements do not.
4. Their breaking down intimately
connected in time at least with clot-
ting of the blood.
5. The connection between the
plaque and the clot not a_histo-
logical but a chemical one.
@: The active agent is most prob-
ably fibrin-ferment.
7. Fibrin is deposited histologi-
cally independent of any cellular
elements of the blood.
8. When the clot is scant, fibrin
is deposited as thin needle-shaped
crystals.
oO
Life on a Coral Island.*
BY PROF. W. K. BROOKS.
After the discovery of the Bahama
Islands Columbus writes to Queen
Isabella that ‘this country as far
surpasses all other lands in beauty as
the day exceeds the night in bril-
liancy,’ and as the scientific expedi-
tion of the Johns Hopkins University
approached these islands, and the
beauties of the land and sea and sky
of the tropics began to unfold them-
selves before our eyes, all the mem-
bers of our party echoed, in words
of their own, the impression of the
great explorer.
* * * * * *
This island, Abaco, which lies nearly
north and south, is about a hundred
miles long, and its eastern edge is bor-
dered by a narrow sound from three to
| five miles wide, the outer shore of
which is formed by a rim made up of
* Extracts from the letter ae IOs Beaahee in the Bal-
timore Sun, Aug. 16, ’86.
184
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[October,
thousands of small islets or ‘ keys,’
separated from.each other by narrow,
winding channels. Some of the keys
are ten or twelve miles around, while
others are no larger than a small
house. They are high and well
wooded, with bold headlands and
cliffs, and long, winding bays and
inlets.
We had read many glowing de-
scriptions of the gorgeous beauty of
the tropics, but these were all forgot-
ten, and we felt that we were entering
a land where everything was new.
Our reason refused to put any limit to
the wonderful discoveries which filled
our imagination, and as we sailed
slowly past cliffs bathed in spray from
the breakers which rolled in from the
ocean, past the mouths of caves which
the sea had hollowed out in the lime-
stone rock, past deep bays and long,
winding sounds which penetrated
deep into the islands, our fancy peo-
pled every cave and tide-pool with
strange animals new to science, and
we felt all the glow of enthusiasm
which we experienced when we first
entered a scientific laboratory and
prepared to solve all the problems of
the unknown universe.
Navigation among the sunken reefs
and submerged islands, which are
much more numerous than those
above water, is very dangerous. A
few miles away the ocean is more
than three miles deep, with no land
nearer than Africa, and the heavy sea
which is always pounding upon the
outer reefs soon puts an end to any
vessel which deviates from the narrow
winding channels between the ledges
of growing coral: but our pilot
steered us safely through the crooked
inlet between Whale Key and No-
Name Key into the inner sound.
Here we saw for the first time that
intensely green sea which has been so
frequently mentioned by voyagers
among coral islands. This vivid
color soon became more familiar, but
never lost its novelty, and it still
holds its place as the most brilliant
and characteristic feature of this
highly-colored landscape, and it ‘is
totally unlike anything which is to be
seen anywhere except in a coral sea.
The water is so perfectly pure and
clear that small objects like shells and
star-fish are visible on the pure white
coral sand at a depth of 50 or 60 feet,
and the sunlight, which is reflected
from the white bottom, gives to the
water a vivid green lustre, which is
totally unlike anything in our familiar
conception of water. The whole sur-
face of the sound seemed to be illum-
inated by an intense-green phosphor-
escent light, and it looked more like the
surface of a gigantic polished crystal
of beryl than water. The sky was
perfectly clear and cloudless, and
overhead it was of a deep-blue color,
but near the horizon the blue was so
completely eclipsed by the vivid green
of the water that the complementary
color was brought out, and the blue’
was changed to a lurid pink as in-
tense as that of a November sunset.
The white foam which drifted by the
vessel on the green water appeared
as red as carmine, and I afterwards
found in a voyage through the sounds
in a white schooner that the sides of
the vessel seemed to have a thin coat
of rose-colored paint when seen over
the rail against the brilliant green.
Wecame to anchor in the mouth of
a beautiful winding bay, in water
about thirty feet deep, but so clear
that the vessel seemed to float in air,
and the motions of the gigantic star-
fishes and sea urchins could be studied
on the white bottom as well as if they
were in anaquarium. The shores of
| the bay are high and rocky and well
wooded down to the water’s edge,
where the vegetation ends in a fringe
of mangrove bushes perched above
the pure salt water on their long,
stilt-like roots, which arch up from
the bottom like the ribs of a great
umbrella, to meet several feet above
the water at the point from which the
main stem arises. Behind us, several
miles away, is the ‘ main-land’ of
Abaco, separated from us by the green
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
185
water of the sound, which stretches
in both directionsas far as the horizon.
In front of us, on the shore of the
bay, lies the town of Green Turtle, a
- much more prosperous and civilized
place than we had been led to expect,
with freshly-painted two-story stone
and frame houses, set side by side
close to the straight, narrow main
street, which is used only as a foot-
path, as there are no horses or cattle
nearer than Nassau. The main street,
which is called Broadway, is hardly
more than ten feet wide, while the
cross streets are just wide enough for
two persons to pass. They are bor-
dered by stone walls or high fences,
and are perfectly level, as clean as
the deck of a vessel, pure white, with
a bed of solid coral limestone, the
inequalities of which are filled with
cement.
This description applies to only the
better portions of the town where the
white natives and a very few of the
negroes live. On one side of the har-
bor a long, low sand spit separates
this portion from the much more pic-
turesque portion inhabited by the
poorer people, most of whom are
negroes. Here the little palm-
thatched huts, without doors or win-
dows or chimneys, most of them in
the most attractive stages of pictur-
esque decay and dilapidation, with-
out any regular arrangement nestle in
a thicket of aloe and cactus and ba-
nanas and castor-oil plant, which
runs parallel to the white sand beach,
and is penetrated here and there by
the narrow white foot-paths which
lead to the huts.
Beyond the town the island ends
in a bold, overhanging cliff, separ-
ated by a narrow inlet from a small,
low island, Pelican Key, which is
covered by a growth of cocoanut
trees. From our anchorage we can
look out through this inlet, framed
between the two islands, and can see
the vivid green gradually fading as
the water deepens towards the edge
of the reef, which is marked by a
tossing as the swell rolls in from the |
deep blue water which stretches be-
yond until it merges with the lighter
blue of the cloudless sky.
Every outline is so sharply defined
in the pure atmosphere, and so many
elements are crowded into the bril-
liantly-colored picture, that it is more
like a landscape traced by fancy in
the clouds at sunset than a substan-
tial reality, and the whole is so much
like fairy-land that we feel that if we
should shut our eyes for a few min-
utes we should expect on opening
them to find the picture dissolving
into clouds.
Curbing our fancy, however, and
returning to the solid facts about us,
science tells us that the history of
the country is far stranger than any
fairy story, and that, as the geologist
measures time, this whole group of
islands, stretching for six hundred
miles across the map, and furnishing
a home where thousands of people
are born and pass their lives, and
grow old and die, is actually as tran-
sient and unstable as a summer
cloud. Only a few years ago, as
years go with the geologist, every
particle of the land before us was
diffused through the ocean in invisi-
ble calcareous molecules, which have
been gathered from the waves and
deposited by microscopic animals,
and everywhere about us we find
abundant proofs that if these animals
should cease their constructive la-
bors the whole would soon be dif-
fused through the ocean like the
lump of sugar which is dissolved by
our coffee.
After we had familiarized our-
selves with this distant view, the
custom -house officer came aboard
and welcomed us to the islands in
the name of the British government,
and told us that, although we could
not be permitted to settle on shore
until the next day, we were at liberty
to land and explore.
All the members of our party will
long remember the kind face of this
line of white breakers, heaving and ! gentleman, Mr. Bethel, with whom
186
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ October,
we soon became well acquainted.
He is not only the custom-house col-
lector, but also resident magistrate,
postmaster, health officer, superin-
tendent of schools, and the general
representative of the government.
As soon as we received his per-
mission to land, a party started off in
the yawl, which we had brought
from Baltimore on the deck of our
little schooner, to visit an abandoned
house which was pointed out to us
upon a hill-side at a distance from
the town.
The boat soon reached the man-
groves, and, pushing in as far as pos-
sible, we found ourselves surrounded
by the life of the tropics. Ass the tide
was out we could reach up from the
boat and gather over our heads the
oysters which were growing in great
clusters on the roots and branches of
the trees. The clear water was filled
with fishes of strange forms and bril-
liant colors, and they were perfectly
fearless, so that they could be exam-
ined without difficulty as they chased
and captured their food among the
submerged roots. The Benton was
thickly covered with beautiful sea-
anemones, and everywhere, on the
bottom, and on the roots and branches
of the trees, and on the rocks at the
water’s edge, we found a wealth of
molluscs and crustacea, which soon
taught us to regard the mangrove
thickets as rich collecting grounds.
We were, however, unable to pene-
trate through it to the land until we
discovered a little cove where the
bushes had been cut down. | Pushing
the boat into this, we reached an
open, grassy landing-place, shaded by
two or three cocoanut trees and sur-
rounded by a dense forest, except at
one point where a narrow path led up
the hill to the house.
The front was at first a stronger
attraction than the house, and one of
the first objects to catch the eye was
a great mass of epiphitic orchids on a
dead branch close to our landing-
place. The species is not one that is
prized by orchid cultivators, but the
plant, which was much more luxuri-
ant than those which are seen in
green-houses, and in full bloom with
flowers which diffused a delightful
fragrance through the woods, was
gathered just before our return to
Baltimore, and was safely carried
home, and is now here in full vigor
and beauty, a living memento of our
first landing ona Gonal island.
The hone proved to be a one-story
frame building without windows or
floor, but out of doors the surround-
ings were all that a naturalist could
wish. The exposed side commanded
a view of the island and harbor, while
the other three sides were surrounded
by a dense growth of shade and fruit
trees W Hiei had been planted by the
absent owner. Wealso founda large
stone cistern, shaded by palms eal
tamarind trees and orange bushes, and
filled with good water.
We had been informed that there
were no vacant houses in the town,
and although this one was very small
and not at all suitable for work with
the microscope, a residence in this
cool and elevated place in the heart
of the forest seemed so attractive that
the discovery that it swarmed with
mosquitoes did not dampen our en-
thusiasm, and even after the fine
general view of the island, which we
obtained from the hill behind it, had
shown us that we were separated
from the town and from the nearest
house by a long winding sound, and
should be compelled to go three or
four miles for our supplies, we still
felt that the attractions of this retired
spot would overbalance all the dis-
advantages in case no better house
could be found in the town.
When the excursionists returned to
the schooner, however, they found
that another member of the party,
who had also been house-hunting,
had found one in the town which
was much better fitted for our use.
The owner and occupant was willing
to vacate and rent to us, but he could
not talk business on Sunday. The
next morning a satisfactory bargain
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
187
was made, and after our business at
the custom-house had been dispatched,
we took possession and prepared to
land our apparatus and furniture.
The house is small, but by using
all the rooms as work-rooms and
putting our beds in corners which
are of no other use, we have found
room tor, all hands. It is a two-
story house, with the walls of stone
as far as the second floor, and of
wood above, nicely painted and pa-
pered, in good repair, with plenty
of doors and windows, a large stone
‘cistern of good, cool water, and, on
the second floor, a large veranda
overhanging the street in front; for,
like all the large houses, it is close
to the street, which, as a sign on
the corner infcrms us, is Union
street. It is a narrow pathway
about five feet wide, of smooth
white limestone.
We are near the corner of Broad-
way, and on one side of us all the
houses are large, well built, and in
good repair, with well-kept gardens.
On the other side the street gradually
narrows down to an unfenced foot-
path, which leads to the brush
through a jungle of rank vegeta-
tion, through which little thatched
huts are irregularly scattered. We
therefore have all the advantages
and comforts of the better portion
of the town, but, being on the bor-
der-line, we are sufficiently near the
more primitive and interesting por-
tion to establish a familiar acquaint-
ance with the people and to get an
inside view of their life. This we
accomplish the better, as one of the
members of our party, who is a
physician, finding that there is no
other doctor within a hundred miles,
kindly allows the people to call upon
him for gratuitous service in his pro-
fession. In a few days, as his desire
to help those who need him has _be-
come known, we are besieged at all
hours by patients, who stand in the
street and call out, ‘Is the pill-doc-
tor at home?’ He is now so fully
employed that his own studies are
seriously obstructed, and he has been
forced to establish office hours.
I am surprised to learn from Dr.
Mills that in this delightful climate,
where the temperature is almost uni-
form throughout the year, and the
thermometer seldom rises above 85
degrees or falls below 80 degrees,
there are many cases of consumption.
A death from this disease took place
in one of the little huts near our
house a few hours after our arrival.
Our first day on the island ended
in a beautiful cloudless evening, with
a gentle breeze and a full moon, and
as we sat on our veranda and rested
after our hard day’s work the sun
set and in a few minutes the moon
and stars were in full splendor, for
we are so far south that the sun
drops straight down, and we have
no twilight. As we sat and listened
to the mocking-birds, which were
singing on all sides, and watched the
long, graceful, fern-like plumes of the
tall cocoanut trees swaying against the
clear sky in the breeze and reflecting
the moonlight from their glossy sur-
faces, a feeling of perfect rest after
our long voyage stole over us, and
while everything reminded us of the
long miles of water between us and
our friends in Baltimore, we felt al-
most at home in our new home.
We watched the half-naked negro
children at play in our street, and lis-
tened with great interest to wild mu-
sic which came from one of the huts,
and was, as we learned next day, the
song of friends gathered at the bed-
side of our dying neighbor; and, at
last, we ate our first meal of pine-
apples and bananas and sapodillos
and fresh cocoanuts, and then turned
in, happy in the thought that we
could sleep without holding on, and
delighted with our first experience of
a coral island.
O
The Recent Meeting of the Amer-
ican Association.
BY PROF. JNO. H. PILLSBURY, SMITH
COLLEGE.
The Buffalo meeting of the Amer-
188
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ October,
ican Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, although not show-
ing as large an attendance as some
other meetings, was one of the most
profitable which the writer has ever
attended. The people of Buffalo
were very earnest in their effort to do
all in their power toward the success
of the meeting.
Several very pleasant receptions
and excursions were given the mem-
bers, including an excursion to Niag-
ara and dinner at the International
Hotel.
The section of biology in which
the readers of the Journal will be
more particularly interested listened
to a good number of able papers.
The following, among those read be-
fore the section, were based upon mi-
croscopical research to a greater or
less degree :—
Erof., Wa, J. Beal; of Michigan
Agricultural College, gave the re-
sults of investigation regarding the
arrangement of the bulliform or hy-
groscopic cells in the leaves of
grasses and sedges, showing the rel-
ative position of these cells in a con-
siderable number of species and the
relation of their position to the roll-
ing or falling of the leaf to prevent
excessive evaporation.
Prat. ~J\:' WM. Colter,, of “Wabash
College, Indiana, showed that a
much more satisfactory classification
of the pines of North America can
be given if it be based upon certain
anatomical characters of leaves. Dr.
W. G. Farlow, of Harvard College,
presented some important facts relat-
ing to the life-history of several of
our United States gymnosporangia,
with special reference to the identity
of certain forms heretofore described
as species of other groups, with early
stages of gymnosporangia.
Prot. DY Be salmon’, of ‘the Ui..S:
Agricultural Department, gave the
results of a somewhat elaborate se-
ries of experiments to determine the
cause of immunity from contagious
diseases resulting from inoculation
with attenuated virus. Subsequently
Prof. Salmon presented a paper upon
the ‘Theory of Immunity fom
Contagious Disease,’ based upon the
results of these experiments. Prof.
S. Kingsley, of Salem, Mass.,
described in one paper an ingenious
method of orientation of small ob-
jects, and gave an outline of the re-
sults of his observation upon the em-
bryology of Cromgon.
Dr. C. S. Minot, of the™ Haran
Medical School, presented the results
of his researches on the development
of the human chorion. In a subse-
quent paper he discussed certain im-
portant homologies in the segmenta-
tion of the orum in vertebrates, show-
ing that some of the supposed dis-
crepancies are disproved by the most
recent investigations. Prof. C. R.
Barnes, of Purdue University, pre-
sented a valuable contribution upon
the revision of the North American
species of the genus Fissidens. Pro-
fessors Salmon and Theobald Smith
contributed interesting facts in regard
to nature and variability of the Bac-
terium of swine-plague, and Prof.
S. A. Forbes, of Champaign, IIl.,
on ‘Some Contagious Diseases of
Insects,’ particularly referring to a
contagious disease of the ‘ cabbage-
worm,’ and experiments to ascertain
if the disease can be caused to prop-
agate itself to such a degree as to be
a benefit to the gardener in ridding
him of the troublesome pest.
Miss Fanny R. Hitchcock pre-
sented some valuable observations in
regard to the nature of the crystalline
style in J/ya arenaria.
The papers read before the section,
which were not directly based upon
microscopic investigations, were as
follows :—
‘Atavism the Result of Cross-
Breeding Lettner,’ by E. Lewis
Sturtevant, of Geneva, N. Y.
‘Plan for Laboratory W ork in
Chemical Botany,’ by Lillie J. Mar-
tin.
‘ A Study in Agricultural Botany,’
by E. Lewis Sturtevant.
‘Biology of Timber Trees, with
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
189
Special Reference to the Require-
ments of Forestry,’ by B. E. Fernow,
of Washington, D. C.
‘Human Cerebral Fissures, their
Relations and Names,’ by Prof. B.
G. Wilder, of Ithaca, N. Y.
‘ The Lampreys of Cayuga Lake
by Professors S. H. Gage and L. E.
Meek, of Ithaca, N. Y.
‘ The Facial Nerve in the Domes-
tic Cat,’ by T. B. Stowell, of Cort-
fancies 7 Y .
‘Vaso-motor Nerves of the
Limbs,’ by Prof. H. P. Bowdich, of
Harvard Medical School.
‘ Areas of Form and Color Per-
ception in the Human Retina,’ by
Prof. J. H. Pillsbury, of Smith Col-
lege.
‘ Demonstration of an Easy Method
of Measuring Reaction Times,’ by
Joseph Jastrow, of Philadelphia.
‘ Relative Stability of Organs as
Dependent on Phylogeny,’ by Dr.
Frank Baker, of Washington, D.C.
‘ Physiological Notes on Ants,’
and ‘ The Dreams of the Blind and
the Centres of Sight,’ by Joseph
Jastrow.
‘Work of the U.S. Dept. of Ag-
riculture on Economic Ornithology
and Mammalogy,’ and ‘ Do Any of
Our North American Bats Migrate ?’
3
]
by C. Hart Merriam, of Washing- .
ton, D.C.
‘ Travelling of the Larva of a Spe-
cies of Sarcophaga,’ by W. L. Cof-
finberry.
‘ Homologies of the Ear-bones of
the Lower Vertebrata,’ by Prof. E.
Cope. MES
S10)
A New ‘Synthesis’ of Pelagic
Organisms.
BY DR. ASPER AND J- HEUSCHER, IN
ZURICH.
(Translated from the Zoologischer Anzeiger, ix, p.
448. 19 July, ’86.]
Since Weismann, in 1870, showed
that it was possible in Lake Constance
to capture at night numbers of small
crustaceans, the same fact has been
demonstrated by Forel, Paresi, and
Asper for a large number of the
Swiss and Italian lakes. The ‘ pe-
lagic’ fauna of these fresh-water
lakes consists of Cladocera and
Copepoda for the most part, with
also gnat larve and mites.
Dr. Imhof added considerably to
this fauna, viz :—The flagellate gen-
era Dinobryon, Ceratium, Pert-
dintum, and Salpingeca; also ro-
tifers. Asplanchna, Conochilus, and
Anurea.
Appointed by the Natural History
Society of St. Galler to investigate
the fauna of the alpine seas of the
Swiss Canton, we have, from the
beginning of this work, tested the
performance of an apparatus used
in the lake at Ziirich. This ‘ pe-
lagic-net’ was made of fine silk
bolting cloth, its meshes not meas-
uring more than 15 micro-millime-
ters. In the Ztirich lake we found
as a gathering in this net a turbid
yellow-brown fluid, which re-
minded one of freshly-pressed cider.
Its microscopic study revealed an as-
tonishing picture. Every drop con-
tained countless swarms of two spe-
cies of Dzxobryor, similar numbers
of Astertonella formosa Hass.,
fewer specimens of Ceratium hi-
rundinella Miiller, and Anurea
foliacea Ehrenb., A. longispina
Kellic., and Asplanchna helvetica
Imhof, 7rzarthra longiseta Ehr.,
Polyarthra Trigla Ehr., some He-
liozoa, and representatives of the Di-
atom genera, Fragilaria, Synedra,
Nitzschia, Surirella, etc.
We have taken pains to deter-
mine the approximate number of
rarer forms contained in the net.
After the net had been drawn
through 200 meters the contents
were collected in 200 c. c. of water,
and from it a dropping tube was
filled, a previous experiment hav-
ing determined that 15 drops were
equal to 1 c.c. One drop was found
to contain :—
10 Anurea foliosa Ehr.
8 Anurea longispina Kellic.
60 Ceratium hirundinella Miiller.
The Dénobryon and Asterionella
190
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[October,
forms numbered among the millions,
and an enumeration seemed impossi-
ble. Weconcluded then that the net
contained 3,000 Ax. folzacea, 2.400
An. longispina, and 18,000 Cera-
tium hirundinella. Besides these
armies there were the Cladocera and
Copepada. To capture these alone
we have employed a wider meshed
net. We have drawn the net in the
open water and near shore, in rough
and smooth water, in cloudy days and
in sunshine, at various times of day
and night, and always reached about
the same results.
The same net was used in the river
Limmat, which was found also to con-
tain an infinite multitude of the Dino-
bryon forms washed down out of
the Zurich lake. But the Sihl, on
the other hand, contained no trace
(‘keine spur’) of these organisms.
In a pond connected with the lake
by the Wehren-bach they were found,
but in much smaller numbers.
The Dinobryon forms and their al-
lies then appear to be in particular the
dwellers of the great still waters.
We present this preliminary notice
with all reserve. Whether this con-
dition is permanent and similar to that
of other waters will be shown as the
result of future investigations.
ZuRicH, May 20, 1886.
Oo
Recent Improvements in Micro-
scope Objectives.
BY ROMYN HITCHCOCK, F. R. M.S.
Scarcely ten years have passed since
Professor E. Abbe, of Jena, presented
to the scientific world his theory of
vision with the microscope, which
resulted from a long series of inves-
tigations conducted mainly by Helm-
holtz and himself. It is not my in-
tention to enter upon a general dis-
cussion of this theory, but rather to
present, as briefly as possible, an ac-
count of the practical results to which
it has led. It may be well, however,
to briefly allude to some of the funda-
mental facts underlying the theory,
since the subject is not very generally
understood by persons not especially
conversant with microscopical litera-
ture.
So rapidly, indeed, have advances
been made in the construction of mi-
croscope objectives that even inves-
tigators in histology and in other
branches of microscopic research
are, in many instances, unacquaint-
ed with the highest results of the
optician’s skill, and are firmly con-
vinced that their favorite lenses of
twenty years ago are still the best
that can be made. Such _ persons
are still ready to fight over again
the battle of the glasses which raged
long ago between one set of observ-
ers who believed in the wide angu-
lar aperture lenses, and another set
who upheld narrow angle lenses,
utterly unconscious of the fact that at
the present time the qualities of any
microscope objective can be mathe-
matically calculated and numerically
stated.
Did time permit, I would be
pleased to review the progress that
has been made during the last
twenty or thirty years, but I must
refrain. The microscope is capable
of separately defining lines or mark-
ings as close together as the 1-115000
of aninch. This is about the limit
of resolution with white light, the
theoretical limit being somewhat
higher. The length of a vibration
of red light is about 1-39000 of an
inch. How is it possible to resolve
a band composed of lines ruled so
much closer than a wave-length of
light? Obviously, such minute
spaces cannot be imaged by the
dioptric method illustrated in the
text-books in explanation of the ac-
tion of the microscope. The effect
of such a band is to break up the
rays by diffraction, and Professor
Abbe has shown that, in order to
resolve a band of lines as close or
closer than 1-39000 of an inch, it
is necessary that the several diffrac-
tion spectra produced by the illu-
minating pencils be taken up by
the object-glass. These spectra are
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
EOL
=.
imaged back of the objective, in
its upper focal plane, and may be
seen by removing the ocular and
looking down the tube of the mi-
croscope.
By the combination of the spectral
images,which are images of the source
of light, or of the diaphragm, opening,
in the conjugate focal plane of the ob-
ject, the image of the refracting ele-
ments is produced, by interference.
The closer the lines the greater will
be the number of diffraction spectra.
When we observe a lighted candle
through a diffraction plate the closer
the lines the more images will be
seen. It will be obvious, therefore,
that since the portrayal of the struc-
ture depends upon the gathering in
of the diffraction spectra by the ob-
ject-glass, it is important that all the
diffraction spectra should be so taken
up, for each series of spectra will pro-
duce a definite number of lines in the
image, and no more, independently of
the structure of the object. The num-
ber of spectra that an objective will
collect, the successive spectra being
formed further and further from the
optic axis, will depend entirely upon
the angular aperture of the lens. We
are thus able to understand the value
of angular aperture, and we see at
once why it is that resolving power
increases with angular aperture.
The spectral images portray only
the minute structure of an object. In
addition to this we have the images of
grosser parts formed by the ordinary
dioptric action of the lenses. The
skill of the maker is severely tested
to bring the dioptric and diffraction
images into the same plane. In the
resolution of a diatom frustule, such
as you will see this evening, we have
the dioptric image of the outline and
the central longitudinal line and the
diffraction images of the cross mark-
ings. In the case of Nobert’s bands
of lines ruled on glass there is no di-
optric image.
It results from the facts stated above
that the images of minute structures
seen in the microscope are interfer-
ence images, and are, to a certain ex-
tent, independent of the details of the
structures under examination. In
other words, whatever elements will
give identical diffraction spectra will
be portrayed as identical structures.
Moreover, in the case of bands of
lines, by excluding certain spectral im-
ages and admitting others, the num-
ber of lines in the image, supposing
the object to be a band of ruled lines,
may be doubled. Various other modi-
fications may be made in the image
which time does not permit me to
mention.
Having thus reviewed the present
theory of microscopic vision ina very
superficial manner, it remains to con-
sider the improvement in the con-
struction of microscope objectives
which the theory has led to. The
greatest improvement of late years
has been the adoption of a system
known as homogeneous immersion,
in which the front lens of the objec-
tive is brought into optical contact
with the object or the cover-glass by
means of an immersion fluid having
an index of refraction the same as
glass. It is assumed that rays from
the object pass without refraction from
the object to the objective. With
such lenses the angular cone of rays
entering the front lens is much smaller
than that entering a lens without an
immersion medium, nevertheless, a
greater number of diffraction spectra
will be taken in by such a lens.
Owing to the effect of the immer-
sion media, it is evident that while
increase of angular aperture in any
medium gives greater power of reso-
lution, the same _ result may be at-
ained by reducing the angular aper-
ture and the use of an immersion
medium of higher refractive power.
Therefore, the term angular aper-
ture is not sufficiently definite for
practical purposes, and Prof. Abbe
has introduced the term numerical
aperture, which is the product of the
index of refraction of the medium
multiplied by the sine of half the
angular aperture in that medium, 7
192
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[October,
sin. wz. It expresses the resolving
power of an objective, of whatever
kind it may be, dry or immersion.
A table of numerical apertures, with
the theoretical power of resolution
corresponding to them, is published
in the microscopical journals. From
such a table I have selected some
figures to illustrate the subject.
Resolving
Air Water Oil Power.
Ne A: Angle. Angle. Angle. (Line e.)
1.52 180° 146,528
1.33 180° 122°. 6/ 128,212
1.00 180° 97° 31’ 82° 17’ 96,400
-94 140° 6/ 89° 56’ 76° 24’ 90,616
It will be seen that a numerical
aperture of 0.94 gives a resolving
power equivalent to a dry objective
of 140° 6’, angular aperture, a water
immersion of 89° 56’, and a homoge-
neous immersion of 76° 24. The
highest possible nepnerical aperture
in air is I, in water 1.33, but ina
homogeneous medium 1.52.
The resolving power of an objec-
tive is calculated by the formula
§ = * in which i= the wave-length
2a
of the light, and a aperture. Ac-
cording to this formula, the number
of lines that can be resolved by an
objective of the highest possible nu-
merical aperture is with white light
© 0.5269) 146, 543 in an inch,
with blue light (A = o. 486) 158.845,
and with fie actinic rays which may
be used in photography (04 o. 4000 1")
193,037. Practically the limit is con-
siderably lower. The homogeneous
immersion lenses made by Mr. Zeiss
do not generally have a numerical
aperture above 1.30.
The greatest resolution yet made,
so far as 1 am aware, with any lens
is the 19th band of Nobert’s ‘plate,
having about 112,000 lines to an inch.
It is probable, indeed, almost certain,
that this limit can be exceeded with
the fine objectives now made, but
authentic records that it has been
done are as yet wanting. Ambitious
amateurs have reported resolutions
of 120,000 and more, but the results
cannot be accepted without question,
particularly when they are in excess
of the theoretical limit. Asan indi-
cation of how easily observers are
sometimes deceived in such work, I
have a photograph of A. pelluctda
showing spurious lines which were
supposed to be an indication of lon-
gitudinal markings.
It may be incidentally remarked
that the resolving power is a function
of angular aperture, independent of
magnification. Sufficient magnifica-
tion is required to cause the mark-
ings resolved to subtend an angle
such as will enable the eye to distin-
guish them. Beyond this point no
possible increase of magnification
can disclose additional structural de-
tails.
The question of resolution of close
lines or particles is entirely distinct
from that of the visibility of isolated
lines or particles. A line one mil-
lionth of an inch in diameter may be
seen, but a space of I- -1'75000 of an
inch between such lines will probably
never be seen.
A subject closely connected with
the discussion of the aperture of mi-
croscope objectives is the considera-
tion of mounting media. The op-
tical character of the substance in
which an object is examined is of
great importance as regards the visi-
bility of the object. The visibility
of an object is proportional to the
difference between the index of re-
fraction of the object and that of the
medium in which it is mounted.
Canada balsam has been universally
used, and is certainly a very useful
and convenient medium, but more
highly refracting media are now de-
c=)
manded, and quite recently Prof. H.
L. Smith, of Hobart College, has
published * several formulas for pre-
paring compounds with refractive
indices of 1.7 to 2.4. The best of
these is probably a solution of anti-
mony bromide in boro-glyceride dis-
solved in glycerin. This medium
was first described in January of this
year, and is but little known. The
very highly refractive medium men-
* Amer. Micr. ¥ourn., vi, 161, and vii, 3.
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
193
tioned above is realgar, arsenic sul-
phide, which may be used alone or
dissolved in arsenic bromide.
Dr. Morris, of New South Wales,
has used sulphur for mounting and
also selenium, the latter having an in-
dex of refraction of 2.6. Prot. W.
H. Seaman has prepared an excellent
medium by dissolving sulphur in an-
ilin.
So great are the advantages of
these media that a few persons have
been led to believe they in some way
increase the resolving power of an
objective, and enable one to do as
much with a lens of low angular ap-
erture as can be done when balsam
is used with another of greater angle.
Obviously this is not true. The dis-
tinction between visibility and _ reso-
lution should be clearly drawn.
EDITORIAL.
Publisher’s N otices.—All communications, ex-
changes, etc., should be addressed to Henry Leslie
Osborn, Lafayette, Indiana, Purdue University.
Subscriptions, and all matters of business, should be
addressed to the Business Manager, P. O. Box 630,
Washington, D.C.
Subscription Price $1.00 PER YEAR strictly in ad-
vance. All subscriptions begin with the January
number.
A pink wrapper indicates that the subscription has
expired.
Remittances should be made by postal notes, money
orders, or by money sent in registered letters. Drafts
should be made payable in Washington, New York,
Boston, or Philadelphia.
The regular receipt of the JouRNAL, which is issued
on the 15th of each month, will be an acknowledgment
of payment.
The first volume, 1880, is entirely out of print. The
succeeding volumes will be sent by the publisher for
the prices given below, which are net.
ol. II (1881) complete, $1.50.
Vol. III out of print.
Vol. IV (1883) complete, $1.50.
Vol. V (1884) complete, $1.50.
Vol. V (1884), Nos. 2-12, $1.00.
Vol. VI (1885), $1.00.
JOTTINGS BY THE Way.—Our
sojourn in San Francisco was made
very enjoyable by the cordial hospi-
tality for which the Western Coast
is famous. We first called upon a
gentleman well known to our read-
ers, Mr. A. H. Breckenfeld, the effi-
cient Secretary of the San Francisco
Microscopical Society. It was a great
pleasure to find such an enthusiastic |
and active microscopist, but it was no
|
| day to our interest and profit.
surprise to us, for we were already ac-
quainted with some of his work, and
were prepared to meet an energetic
and well-informed student. Through
Mr. Breckenfeld we made the ac-
quaintance of other members of the
Society, and of the Academy of
Sciences, to whom we are indebted
for many courtesies. The officers
formally tendered us the ‘freedom
of the rooms’ of the Society, which
afforded an opportunity to refer to
the books in the library, a privilege
we made good use of. The Society
has a good library of books and pe-
riodicals relating to microscopy. It
is, indeed, one of the best libraries
of the kind we have seen, and as it
is always available to members, it
affords unusual opportunities for
study. Several microscopes are on
the tables, and apparatus for mount-
ing is at hand. The cabinet is an
exceedingly good one, and includes,
in addition to a good general collec-
tion of objects, the whole of the late
Dr. Edwards’ collection of diatoms,
mounted specimens, and material.
This alone is an exceedingly valu-
able collection, which was _ pur-
chased for the Society some time
ago. Unfortunately, we were un-
able to attend a meeting of the So-
ciety, as we hoped to do. A meet-
ing was held on the evening of our
departure, of which our readers-will
doubtless have a report before these
lines can possibly be printed.
The Society is certainly one of the
most activeand flourishing in the coun-
try. The President, Dr. S. M. Mouser,
is engaged, in conjunction with Dr.
Ferrer, j in studying the microbes of
disease, having a fine lot of appa-
ratus for the purpose recently im-
ported from Germany by Dr. Ferrer.
The Vice-President, Prof. E. G.
Wickson, has charge of the experi-
mental grounds of the University of
California, where we had the pleasure
of spending some time with him one
Mr.
C. W. Banks, Corresponding Secre-
lt tary, we were unable to meet, greatly
194 :
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[October,
to our regret, but we saw various evi-
dences of his interest in the Society
in the form of valuable donations.
Mr. Breckenfeld has been studying
the fresh-water /Zydra, and we are
able to promise an illustrated article
from him on the subject before long.
At the Academy of Sciences we
found Dr. Harkness hard at work
over his Fungi, of which he has a
large and growing collection. Ata
later day, or rather evening, we joined
a gathering around the festive board.
over Ww hich the Doctor presided w ith
the genial qualities of the best of hosts,
and revelled in the exuberance of
good and congenial spirits there pres-
ent.
At last our voyage is nearly at an
end, and the coast of Japan will loom
above the horizon ere three more
hours pass. Even now some passen-
gers have their glasses out, eagerly
seeking for the first glimpse of the
‘isolated peak of Fusi Yamo. But a
mist over the horizon obscures every-
thing yet, and though there is still
nothing around us but the rippled sur-
face On the heaving water, we must
bring this to a close, and get ready
atin camera and plates to make a
faithful record of all we may see of in-
terest in the strange land we are
approaching. Ale
fo)
Tue Britisu AssociaATION for the
Advancement of Science held _ its
56th annual meeting this summer at
Birmingham.
Sir Ti William Dawson, F. R.
S., /. G. S., principal ef McGall
University, } Montreal. in his presi-
dential address calls attention to the
occasion, in 1884, when the Associa-
tion met in Montreal, and when
many of its members attended the
meeting of the American Associa-
tion in Philadelphia, and refers to
the project of an international scien-
tific convention, in which the great
English republic of America shall
take part.
He refers to the wonderful strides
of progress which make such inter-
national affairs possible ; and we may
well stop a moment to contemplate
with pleasure the stride of progress
in the feeling of brotherhood which
is fast uniting the scattered mem-
bers of the human family. That
America can furnish a president for
the British Association is a matter,
too, for pride.
Dr. Dawson’s presidential address
is an able réswmé of present opinion
upon the Physiography of the Atlan-
tic Ocean. It treats of the condition
of the earth before an ocean could
be; the dividing of the water from the
land; formation and growth; con-
tinents and seas: the history of the
Atlantic, its climate, and the relation
of its climate to the glacial period ;
the transmission of life across the
ocean.
In closing the address on the
‘Geological Development of the
Ocean,’ Dr. Dawson says:—‘ We
cannot, I think, consider the topics
to which I have referred without
perceiving that the history of ocean
and continent is an example of pro-
gressive design quite as much as that
of livi ing beings.’
Ponen vastness and might of the
ocean. and the manner in which it
cherishes the feeblest and most frag-
ile beings, alike speak to us of Him
who holds it in the hollow of His
hand, and gave to it of old its bound-
aries and its laws.’
O
Mr. Joun H. Lone has published
an article in the Azlletin of the
Illinois State Microscopical Society
on the microscopic examination of
butter, in which he very squarely
contradicts Dr. Taylor’s statements.
The facts brought forward by Mr.
Long, however, may not be so im-
portant in practice as they seem to
be; for although it is true that butter
fat does sometimes appear crystalline
in parts of commercial packages, the
fact is perfectly familiar to all ob-
servers (and has not been overlooked
by Dr. Taylor), and need not, there-
fore, give rise to any difficulty.
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
195
Mr. Long seems to doubt if the
crystals of butter are characteristic,
but if he relies upon ‘ A few experi-
ments’ to ‘ convince any one that he
[Dr. Taylor] is wrong on nearly
every point’ we must confess that it
seems scarcely fair that conclusions,
apparently so well established, should
be so easily overthrown. We are
inclined to believe that Dr. Taylor
can and does do all he claims, and,
so far as we know, no person who
has visited his laboratory has as yet
detected an error in his observations,
and he has made many. It may be,
indeed, that Dr. Taylor has gone
rather too far in attempting to dis-
tinguish between different races of
cows by the form of the butter crys-
tal, but we are aware of instances in
which his inferences have been borne
out by the facts, however accidental
or incredible it may seem. 1
oO .
MEASURING THE RATE oF CILI-
ARY Morion.—An article recently
published inthe Zeztschr. fur Mrkr.
by M. Flesch, contains some refer-
ence to the application of strobo-
scopic observation in microscopy.
The author believes that it will find
many applications in the future.
Thus far, however, we are not aware
that it has led to any important dis-
coveries. Some time ago Mr. George
Hopkins constructed an instrument,
which was described in the Sczextific
American, and more recently Mr.
Chapman exhibited a similar appa-
ratus, devised by himself, at a meet-
ing of the W ashington Microscopical
Society. We were not able to be
present at that meeting, and have not
since had an opportunity to see the
apparatus in operation, so it is with
_ regret that we have to refer to the
subject without practical knowledge.
The essential feature of the device
is a moving diaphragm, which, by
rapidly admitting and shutting out
the light, produces an_ intermittent
illumination, the speed being un-
der control of the observer. The
most convenient position for the
diaphragm is probably beneath the
stage of the microscope. It is im-
portant that the speed should be per-
fectly under control. To use the
instrument, suppose it is desired to
know the speed of vibration of the
cilia of an infusorian, it 1s only
necessary to cause the diaphragm to
move at such a speed that the moving
cilia will appear to be motionless. If
the speed is slower the cilia will seem
to move forward; if faster the direc-
tion of the ciliary motion will seem
to be reversed. Having once found
the speed at which the motion seems
to cease, by increasing the speed
another rate will be found, just double
the former, at which the cilia will
also appear stationary.
Contrary to what might be antici-
pated, it is stated that no inconven-
ience is felt in observing with the
intermittent light, the interruptions
being so rapid that the eye fails to ob-
serve them. No doubt it will be pos-
sible to make this a valuable accessory
for research, and we would be glad to
hear of the experience of our readers
who may have the opportunity to test
it in practice.
O
Some Turincs Bacteria Do Nor
Do.—There is a very strong disposi-
tion to attribute much more to the
action of microbes than the facts of
observation justify. | Unfortunately
we cannot appeal to common sense
to regulate such matters, for that
would not be a strictly scientific
method, but the most absurd and un-
reasonable statements will gain cir-
culation and credence, and ia it be-
comes worth while to controvert
them at all it must be done at the
cost of much labor and time in lab-
oratory work. Not long ago some
person—very likely a person who
ought to have been more discreet
alae putting forth such a notion, for
we believe it did come from a person
of note, although we cannot recollect
the name—suggested or stated that
seeds would not germinate without
the presence of bacteria. As though
196
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[October,
nature required to produce a crop
of microbes to induce the growth of
every plant under the sun. The idea
has received the coup de grace
through some recent experiments of
Laurent, to determine whether dias-
tase is a product of bacterial growth.
Seeds were caused to germinate in
Koch’s gelatin and plum-juice, and
no trace of bacteria was found. Dias-
tase is a product of the growth of
plants; and although bacteria are
very important agents, take the
world through, there remain a few
phenomena which take place with-
out their intervention. We throw
out this suggestion as a hint to those
who need it, and their number seems
to be increasing. We are not sure
but a prev ailing desire for notoriety
has something te do with the starting
of many crazy notions that find their
way into print.
NOTES. _
— Dr. A. F6ttinger has found chloral
hydrate to be a good medium for preserv-
ing polyzoa and the lower animals. In
the case of polypa, when fully expanded,
crystals of chloral hydrate are dropped
into the water, and in the course of a_
short time the colony becomes insensible,
when the specimen may be placed in alco-
hol without any contraction or change of
form. Star fishes may also be treated in
the same manner to advantage. The
chloral seems to act as a narcotic from the
effects of which the animals may recover.
Bnei
— Dr. W. Morris has also devised a new
mounting medium which is very easily
prepared. Mix equal pals of sulphur and
arsenic disulphide and 35 part of mercury
biniodide. ‘This mixture is melted on a
piece of mica and the fumes condensed on
a cover-glass, and the object mounted by
remelting the medium on the cover-glass.
As we understand the process, the object
being thus enclosed in the new medium ts
then protected by mounting in Canada
balsam in the usual way.—H.
— Verily, there is no end of the strange
things that can be done. We often read
of them, but cannot give our readers the
benefit of them all. Here is one they
may try, but we prefer not to waste any
plates on it ourselves. Dr. H. Vaillanes
has devised a photo-micrographic appa-
ratus, and when he finds that all parts of
an object are not in focus at one time, he
overcomes the difficulty by making two
or three exposures on the same plate,
focussing the different parts independ-
ently so as to get them all sharp in the
picture. The first question that occurs to
us:'is: Has he ever tried it? If so, there
must be a great difference of opinion as
to what is a good photo-micrograph.—H.
— The well-known microscopist and
physicist, Dr. G. Royston-Pigott, has de-
clared his belief in the animal nature of
diatoms. This is a rather surprising view
at this age of the world, but particularly
‘so when we consider the basis upon which
it rests, viz.: ‘Their peculiar power
of movement and * * conjugation, as
well as their unaccountable strength of
movement.’ These seem very uncertain
characteristics to distinguish between the
animal and vegetable kingdoms. If only
biologists could be satisfied with such off-
| hand distinctions it would be an easy
matter to mark out the dividing line be-
tween protophytes and protozoa.—H.
— Mr. E. Debes has published an in-
teresting article treating on the collection
of living diatoms in the Zeztschr. f. Mikr.
He says that most fresh-water species are
found in greatest number in the spring
and early summer, and again in the
autumn. In the early spring, at the time
of melting snow, as the ice disappears
from the ponds, the attached stipitate
forms such as Gomphonema, Meridion,
Melosira, Synedra, and Fragilaria are
found; later, as the water becomes warm,
these all disappear and give place to un-
attached, free species, which are those
almost exclusively found in the fall.—H.
— The function of the pulsating vacu-
oles of infusoria has long been a subject
of speculation. As regards their struc-
ture, it is maintained by some that they
have definite membranous envelopes, but
this is denied by others, and it is now
generally conceded that they are mere
cavities in the protoplasm. M. Z. Fiszer
| believes, with O. Schmidt, that they com-
municate with the exterior of the body
through a special exit, which allows of the
escape of the fluid in the vacuoles. Ac-
cording to this view they constitute a part
of a circulatory system to supply oxygen
from the water, and perhaps also to carry
off excretory products. The water taken
in at the mouth parts with its oxygen to
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
197
the particles of protoplasm with which it
comes in contact, and then accumulates
in canals which radiate from the vacuoles.
These canals have been observed in Pa7-
amecium aurea and other infusoria.
From the canals it flows into the vacuoles,
and is expelled by the contraction of the
surrounding protoplasm.—H.
—A new hardening fluid has been
proposed by Dr. Joseph Heinrich List,
who has found it superior to any other
for hardening the exceedingly soft parts
of Coccidze, while leaving the other parts
in a good condition for examination. It
consists of a half-saturated solution of
corrosive sublimate with a drop of picro-
sulphuric acid added to each cubic cen-
timetre. From what the author says of
it we are inclined to think the solution
worthy of a trial for very soft tissues
intended for dissection.—H.
— Some interesting observations on the
origin of the ferment fungus of the grape
have recently been made by G. Cuboni.
He finds that in the sap of the vine, in
March and April, oval cells which seem to
be identical with Saccharomyces ellipsot-
deus. ‘These are derived from the fungus,
Cladosporium herbarum, which is always
found on the vine. The conclusion is
that the Saccharomyces is the torula con-
dition of Cladosporium.—H.
— The German Gesellschaft fir An-
thropologie has appointed a ‘ Hair Com-
mission’ for the study of hair in its
anthropological relations. The examina-
tion of hair for this purpose involves
considerable labor, but it is important
work which may be carried on by any
microscopist who will take the trouble to
collect the hair of different races of men.
The particular features to be considered,
macroscopic and microscopic, are given
in the Societies’ publication.—H.
CORRESPONDENCE,
To THE Epiror:—I have a copy of
Quekett’s ‘ Zreatise on Use of Microscope,’*
2d edition, 1852. I find in it no allusion
to Spencer’s objectives nor to the Vavic-
ula Spencerit.
JOSEPH LECONTE.
BERKELEY, Cal., Aug. 27, 1886.
fo)
To THE EpiTor :—As the originator of
the discussion concerning certain matters
supposed to be contained in some edition
of Quekett’s treatise on the microscope,
* Referred to in your August number.
I may, perhaps, be allowed space in which
to say that Mr. Brooks need spend no
time in searching for such a work as
Tuckett’s, for so far as I know there is no
such book, and the use of the word arose
from a misreading on the part of the com-
positor. My copy of Quekett is the second
edition, and the name of Mr. Charles
Spencer is not mentioned in the book so
far as I have been able to find. The only
Spencer referred to is a gentleman who
had invented a lamp which is described.
A. L. WOODWARD.
53 Lansing st., Utica, N. Y.
O
To THE EpITor:—On further exami-
nation I find that the facts stated by me in
the September number are substantially
correct, but I find my memory at fault in
regard to the edition of Quekett. This
should have been the /rs¢, not the second.
As covering the whole ground, and at the
same time pertinent to the tenor of my
article, I annex the following editorial by
Mr. Phin, taken from ‘7e Young Scien-
fist, vol. iv, No. 11, Nov., 1881, on the
death of Charles A. Spencer:
‘Thirty years ago the scientific world
was thrown into a ferment by the an-
nouncement that ‘‘ az odject-glass, con-
structed by a young artist of the name of
Spencer, living in the back-woods, had
shown three sets of lines on a very delicate
diatom, when other glasses of equal power,
made by the first English opticians, had
entirely failed to define them.’ ‘This pas-
sage, which marks an era in the history
of the microscope, occurs in the first edi-
tion of Quekett’s work on the microscope,
but has been expunged from subsequent
editions. At that time Ross had declared
that an angle of aperture of 135° was as
great as could be given to the object-
glass of a microscope. Spencer, with a
true American unbelief in the impossible,
went to work, and in a short time suc-
ceeded in making glasses having an angle
of aperture of 172°, and since that time
the angle has gone on increasing; its in-
crease being an accurate indication of the
advancement of microscopy. Spencer
was an entirely self-taught optician, and
his talents and success made American
microscopes known all over the world.
He died at Geneva, N. Y., on the 28th day
of September, 1881, at the age of 68 years.
A fine portrait of Mr. Spencer, together
with a lengthy biography, will appear in
the forthcoming number of the “Amerz-
can Journal of Microscopy.’
Cure. C. Brooks, Ph.D.
393 E. Eager St., Baltimore, Md.
198
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[October,
To THE EpiTor :—My copy of the sec-
ond edition of Quekett was destroyed when
my library was burned, but I ‘Azz thatit
was in the second edition that Quekett ex-
cluded all notice of Spencer and his lenses.
In the frst edition he describes the Va-
vicula Spencerii and gives a plate of it,
now before me. On page 440 of this edi-
tion he devotes half a page to the sub-
ject. The plate is No. 9.
Very truly yours, JOHN PHIN.
INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHING Co.,
15 Dey St., New York City.
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES.
SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.
The regular semi-monthly meeting of
the Microscopical Society was held on
June 23d, Dr. Mouser presiding.
Mr. King, of Santa Rosa, who was
present as a visitor, donated an unusually
rich gathering of /sthmia nervosa, and
also a fine slab of fossil diatomaceous
earth from an extensive deposit found
near Santa Rosa. It contains only fresh-
water forms, and as they are practically
identical with those in a deposit pre-
viously found some twenty miles away
there is good reason to believe that the
two deposits are continuous.
Specimens of a scale insect found on
oak trees were shown under the micro-
scope by Mr. Wickson, who briefly out-
lined its interesting life history.
Much interest was excited by the exhi-
bition of some collections of animal and
vegetable life found in and around Mono
Lake by Dr. H. W. Harkness during his
recent trip to that locality. Notable
among the latter class were specimens of
the rare bacterium which has been pro-
visionally classed as Bacterium rubescens,
although Dr. Harkness believes there are
strong grounds for regarding it as speci-
fically new. It is found in immense
quantities in Mono Lake, and aggregated
masses of it are of a beautiful rose color.
It seems to have both a still and a motile
stage. No spore formation has been
discovered in the preliminary examina-
tions, but culture experiments are now
being carried on which will no doubt
disclose its complete life cycle. Numer-
ous very active infusoria were found as-
sociated with the bacteria, and Dr. Hark-
ness reports having found many species
of diatoms, some aquatic insect larve,
minute crustaceans, and also fresh-water
alge, in this remarkable lake, the water
of which is so intensely alkaline that it
was formerly thought incapable of sup-
porting either animal or vegetable life.
An official analysis of the water of the
‘Dead Sea of California,’ as it has been
called, shows the remarkable proportion
of nearly 52 parts of solid constituents
in 1,000.
Specimens were also shown of the™
evaporated alkaline sediment from Owens
Lake stained a bright red by the presence
of enormous numbers of the above-
mentioned bacterium. Some _ further
communications regarding the flora and
fauna of the Mono Lake region have
been promised by Dr. Harkness.
A slide of young oysters was shown by
JaGs Clark:
Dr. C. P. Bates donated a handsome
walnut cabinet to the society's rooms, and
a vote thanks was unanimously tendered
him for the gift. In a letter accompany-
ing the same, he stated that it was in-
tended as a receptacle for the very valu-
able collection of cleaned datomacee
recently presented to the society by
William Norris. This unique collection
consists of nearly seventy large vials of
carefully cleaned diatoms preserved in
distilled water. It contains specimens
of the more extensive deposits of Cali-
fornia diatoms, as well as of the principal
deposits from other parts of the world.
The large and interesting fossil deposit
of marine diatoms, discovered by Mr.
Norris several years ago at Jack’s ranch,
near Monterey, Cal., is well represented
in the collection and is particularly rich
in fine discoid forms. To the student
of the dzatomacee@ this collection will be
of the greatest assistance, and by its ac-
quisition the society's already fine stock
of diatomaceous material has been con-
siderably enhanced in scientific value.
A. H. BRECKENFELD, Rec. Seer.
ee
SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.
The announcement of an unusually at-
tractive programme drew together a large
attendance at the meeting of the San Fran-
cisco Microscopical Society, July 14, 1886.
In addition to the members of the society,
a number of prominent physicians were
present. Vice-President Wickson occu-
pied the chair.
The current numbers of the leading sci-
entific journals of the day were placed
upon the tables. :
The ‘Concentric’ form of microscope,
manufactured by the Bausch & Lomb
Optical Company, was exhibited by Mr.
Hirsch. Its distinguishing characteristic
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
199
is that the centre of gravity remains prac-
tically unchanged at ary inclination of the
body, from horizontal to perpendicular.
The arm of the microscope forms a seg-
ment of a circle, and by means of a slid-
ing adjustment of this arm, the insument
can be fixed at any inclination, with per-
fect stability in all positions.
After the exhibition of various interest-
ing objects under the microscope, the
lecturer of the evening, Dr. Arning, was
introduced. He stated that he was about
returning to Europe, after sojourning for
a number of years in the Hawaiian Islands
for the express purpose of studying that
mysterous disease, leprosy. After allud-
ing to the difficulties surrounding: re-
searches of this kind in a comparatively
uncivilized country, far from the great
scientific centres, he said that while his
investigations had revealed many impor-
tant and interesting facts, yet in some re-
spects his attempts had been baffled. A
long search for a possible source of dis-
semination of the germ of leprosy in food,
water, etc., was unsuccessful. The dis-
tinctive micro-organism of leprosy is a
minute ,red-like fungus—Baczl/us lepre.
Hansen, a Norwegian investigator, seems
to have been the first to discover this bacil-
lus. He found it abundantly in leprous tu-
bercles, and announced the fact in 1879.
Since that time Neisser, Koch, Unna, and
others have confirmed and extended
the observations of Hansen. These
bacilli are slender, non-motile rods, about
half as long as the diameter of a human
red corpuscle. In uncolored sections
they are nearly or quite invisible, even
under high amplifications, but where
appropriate staining processes are em-
ployed they can be rendered beautifully
distinct. In form and size they very
closely resemble the bacillus of consump-
tion (Bacillus tuberculosis)—so closely
indeed, that the distinction by mere in-
spection is by no means easily made.
The color reaction is also remarkably
similar. The last-named organism, how-
ever, can be successfully ‘cultivated,’
while all of Dr. Arning’s attempts to ob-
tain a ‘pure culture’ of Bacz//us lepre
met with failure, although in his experi-
ments he employed every known culture
medium, and tried some not hitherto
used, such as the favorite native dish’
‘poi. Not even on excised tubercle
would the bacilli flourish. Finally, al-
most by accident, he obtained a compar-
atively pure growth of the desired organ-
ism. A small piece of excised tubercle
from the chin of a leper had been
placed in a small glass vessel for macera-
tion. After an absence of nearly eight
months Dr. Arning examined the prepar-
ation (which had in the meantime been
kept supplied with water by his laboratory
assistant) and found a gray scum on the
surface of the water. The bottom of the
glass vessel was covered with a detritus,
consisting of micrococci, putrefactive bac-
teria and other fungi. The scum was
found to consist almost entirely of aggre-
gated masses (Zooglcea) of a bacillus,
which Dr. Arning feels justified in stating
was undoubtedly Baczll/us lepre, although
the rods were slightly shorter than usual.
Upon attempting to continue the culture
of a portion of this scum in water, an
attenuated growth, still comparatively
pure, was obtained. At this interesting
juncture Dr. Arning’s experiments were
interrupted by reason of his departure
for Europe, but he hopes to be able to
resume them before long.
It has been a disputed point as to
whether or not the bacilli of leprosy grow
inside of cells. That they do so has
been denied by Unna, but some beautiful
double-stained preparations made by Dr.
Arning seem to demonstrate beyond all
possible doubt that such is at least a fre-
quent, even if not the invariable, method
of growth. Dr. Arning further stated
that in the anzesthetic red patches pecu-
liar to this disease no bacilli had been
found. Neither did they appear in the
sores due to the killing of the nerves
leading to those points, while in the
tuberculous patches large numbers of free
bacilli were always found. From these
and other indications he inclines to the
opinion that the disease is propagated by
the accumulation of bacilli in the large
nerve trunks. In the blood of leprous
patients these organisms are not found.
In the internal organs of the victims of
this disease great changes are found.
Lepers are often booked as having died
of consumption. In many such cases
Dr. Arning is convinced that the break-
ing down of the lung structure is due to
the ravages zot of Baccillus tuberculosis,
but of B. lepgre. In tuberculous con-
sumption, the bacilli are originally found
in the ‘giant cells,’ but in leprosy there
are no such cells. Another point of dif-
ference is that there is seldom or never
any hemorrhage of the lungs in leprous
patients. After alluding to the presence
and describing the appearance of the
bacilli in the spleen, kidneys, and other
organs of lepers, Dr. Arning stated that
in the present state of knowledge on the
200
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY.
[ October.
subject it is impossible to explain how the
virus enters the system. Many inocula-
tion experiments have been made, but,
while it would perhaps be premature to
describe them as failures, yet they have
hitherto proven almost resultless. The
progress of the disease is extremely slow.
In fact there is a peculiar latency about
it which is exceedingly baffling to investi-
gation. Although leprosy is probably
the most ancient disease known (it having
been recognized at least as early as 1500
B. C.), yet there are few disorders about
which less is known.
The difficulty of pronouncing an accu-
rate prognosis in the early stages of the
disease was alluded to. Intimately con-
nected with this was the question of segre-
gation, with its accompanying horrors...
Should all cases showing the least pri-
mary lesion of tissue—which might or
might not develop into the dread disease
—be ruthlessly torn away from the closest
ties of family or friendship to a terrible iso-
lation with doomed and dying wretches ?
In view of all the known facts, the
speaker was of the strong opinion that
this course would never be justified. In
conclusion Dr. Arning said that years of
patient and accurate research would be
required for the solution of the many
difficult problems presented by this sub-
ject, and in view of its great importance
to the world in general and to the people
of this coast in particular, he commended
it to the especial attention of the mem-
bers of the medical fraternity.
He then exhibited a large number of
objects, illustrative of the subject, under
several fine instruments. Various stain-
ing processes had been employed in the
preparation of the specimens, and the
bacilli in every case were sharply and
beautifully differentiated from the sur-
rounding tissues.
The discourse was listened to with the
greatest interest, and at its close a cordial
vote of thanks was unanimously tendered
to the lecturer.
A. H. BRECKENFELD, ec. Secr.
NOTICES OF BOOKS.
General Biology. By William T. Sedg-
wick, Ph. D., and Edmund B. Wilson,
Ph. D. Part I. Introductory. New
York. Henry Holt & Co., 1886. (pp.
193.)
We have just received a copy of this
work and have looked through it with the
greatest satisfaction.
As chemistry is the study of chemical
phenomena, so biology is becoming more
and more the study of the phenomena of
life, and the old dry bones of the classifi-
catory studies are being more and more
cast aside for a study of vital processes
and mechanisms. This work takes a new ~
departure, and is the first book of its kind.
It takes for study one animal and one
plant and describes all its structure and
all its functions, telling the student at the
same time how to see and the meaning
of what he sees. Living matter or pro-
toplasm, then the cell, then the structure
of the fern, and then of the earth worm;
finally, the animal and the plant com-
pared are the subjects taken up.
For the general reader who wishes to
know where biologists stand at present,
as well as for the student, the work is an
admirable presentation. It is not de-
signed for primary students, but is the
book to put into the hands of college men
who know something of chemistry and
physics. We would call especial atten-
tion to the common sense displayed in
this note (p. 21):—‘The student should
understand once for all that the principal
points observed must be recorded by notes
and by sketches, good or bad, whether he
can draw: or not. * *-)*) =) 3 iihesamar
should be to represent the natural rela-
tions of parts rather than their. minute
details, and accidental displacements
should be disregarded.’ As for the pub-
lishers’ part the work is most successful.
It is uniform in style with the well known
American Science Series of Holt & Co.
The illustrations, which are copious, are
of the first quality, the authors themselves
being able artists and having been as-
sisted by Mr. J. H. Emerton.
Exchanges.
[Exchanges are inserted in this column without
charge. They will be strictly limited to mounted ob-
jects, and material for mounting. ]
Labels for slides, also slides and material to ex-
change for same. EUGENE PINCKNEY.
Dixon, Ill.
For Exchange: Seeds of Orthocarpus purpurascens
and Orthocarpus attenuatus , and slides of same, in ex-
change for good objects, foraminifera preferred.
EDWARD GRAY, M. D., Benicia, Cal.
Infusorial Earth from Saco, Me., in exchange for
slides of Volvox globator, or Spines of foreign sea-
urchins.
D. E. OWEN, Brunswick, Maine.
THE AMERICAN
MONTHLY
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
Wionr...V LI.
Nos fie.
Wasuineton,' D. C., Novemper, 1886.
On the Variability of Pathogenic
Organisms, as Illustrated by the
Bacterium of Swine-Plague.
= BY DR. THEOBALD SMITH*
From one of a number of spleens
taken from cases of swine-plague in
Nebraska, a bacterium was obtained
which resembled the bacterium of
swine-plague so closely, as regards its
morphological and pathogenic char-
acters, and still differed from it in cer-
tain minor biological features, that it
seemed justifiable to regard one as a
variety of the other, or both as varie-
ties of a third form.
The bacterium was obtained as fol-
lows :—the spleen, though sent in ster-
ilized bottles, contained several kinds
of putrefactive microbes. By intro-
ducing a bit under the skin of mice,
in the dorsal region, a disease was
caused which, in symptoms, duration,
and lesions, was identical with that
produced by the subcutaneous injec-
tion of pure cultures of the bacte-
rium of swine-plague. Pure cultures
were obtained from these animals and,
by inoculating with these cultures, the
disease was transmitted through a
number of mice. As a complete de-
scription of the bacterium of swine-
plague is already on record,+ I will
confine myself to a brief résumé of
some important resemblances and of
the minor difterences.
This bacterium resembles the bac-
terium of swine-plague in form, size,
and mode of staining. Like the latter,
it is motile in liquid media and fails to
* Read before A. A. A.S., Aug., 1886.
+ Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal In-
dustry, Department of Agriculture, 1885.
Department of Agriculture Report for 1885.
liquefy gelatin. | Both grow alike on
potato and agar-agar. Both fail to af-
fect the microscopical appearance of
milk, in which they multiply. In
neither has spore formation been ob-
served. Finally, both are killed bya
_ temperature of 58° C. in from 15 to
20 minutes. As regards the patho-
genic effect, both produce the same le-
sions in mice, rabbits, and pigeons.
In these animals the lesions are very
| characteristic and hardly to be con-
founded with those of other bacterial
diseases of the same animals hitherto
described.
The differences are few and, possi-
bly, unimportant, but they reappeared
so uniformly as to leave no doubt in
my mind as to their constancy. The
one first observed was the early forma-
tion of a complete membrane on the
surface of liquidcultures. Incultures
of the bacterium of swine-plague a
complete membrane is almost never
seen, excepting occasionally in ad-
vanced cultures which have stood
quiet for some time. Cultures left un-
disturbed for a week or longer merely
present a whitish ring, made up of
bacteria, on the sides of the culture-
tube at the surface of the liquid. This
membrane is formed within 24 to 48
hours, whether the culture liquid was
inoculated from mice, pigeons, or rab-
bits. Two potato cultures, one of the
bacterium of swine-plague, the other
of the bacterium under consideration,
grew side by side under the same bell-
glass, identical in color and mode of
growth. After several weeks a tube
of beef infusion peptone was inocu-
lated from each culture. On the fol-
lowing day one was covered by amem-
4
202
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ November,
brane, the other had none. This same
result was obtained in inoculating liq-
uids from gelatin cultures. This mi-
crobe also grows more vigorously in
nutrient liquids, forming, after one or
two weeks, an abundant deposit. Cul-
tures of the bacterium of swine-plague
contain buta very slight deposit at the
end of the same period.
Another difference was observed in
gelatin tube cultures. The bacterium
under consideration failed to grow at
first, both in tubes and on plates,
while the bacterium of swine-plague,
sown on the same plate in lines by its
side, was visible to the naked eye in
two days. When another prepara-
tion of gelatin was used, which had
become faintly turbid on boiling, both
bacteria grew equi ally well, sel the
baie esannat of swine- plag ue much bet-
ter than formerly. The tavorable
change was simply due to a greater
alkalinity of the culture een the
more sensitive of the two bacteria be-
ing the one under consideration. This
microbe also failed to induce the dis-
ease in two guinea-pigs, which are
very susceptible to the bacterium of
swine-plague.
In summing up we find that this
microbe differs from the bacterium of
swine-plague in forming a membrane
on liquids, in failing to grow in neu-
tral gelatin, and in mo being fatal to
guinea-pigs. Several pigs inoculated
with this new microbe failed to con-
tract the disease. We may safely as-
sume, however, that it was the cause
of swine-plague in Nebraska, since it
is quite difficult to produce swine-
plague by subcutaneous inoculation.
These two microbes may, at least
for the present, be regarded as varie-
ties of the same bacterium. We may
also assume that the apparently un-
important biological differences, a
greater demand for oxygen, and a
more alkaline medium, may have a
very important, though still unknown,
bearing upon the disease in the sus-
ceptible animals.
It is unnecessary to reopen here any
discussion as to the propriety of sep-
arating bacteria into well-defined spe-
cies. The view of Nageli, that it is
difficult or quite impossible to make >
any such distinctions, has been com-
pletely set aside by the facts which
new methods have established. The
possibility of making pure cultures of
bacteria, and of determining thereby
that certain definitely reappearing
forms are constantly allied to certain
well-marked, easily distinguished bi-
ological and pathogenic properties,
makes a distinction into species not
only proper but necessary for the time
being. The facts presented point to
a variation of bacteria, so well estab-
lished among higher forms of life,
but not yet Taoted among bacteria.
Whether the variation may ‘be ascribed
to both forms or only to one ; whether
one is better adapted to a parasitic ex-
istence than the other; whether the
differences are brought about by causes
external to the susceptible animal—in
other words, by a saprophytic life of
which the bacterium is capable to a
certain extent; these questions can
only be presented and not answered
in the present state of our knowledge.
It is not necessary, in order to pro-
duce the same pathological effect, that
two bacteria should be of the same
species from a phylogenetic stand-
point, z. e., that they should have de-
scended from the same ancestral form.
Morphological differences must be
subordinated to physiological ones.
If a microbe has acquired the power
of living in a limited supply of oxy-
gen and of producing certain sub-
stances which act as poisons to the
living cell, it matters very little as to
its form. Hence it is quite conceiv-
able that two microbes which are
morphologically different may have
acquired, in the course of long pe-
oe of time, the same physiological
r pathogenic powers. I say con-
ceivable, for no two have yet been
found which produce precisely the
same disease, if we except the va-
rious pus-producing organisms. The
two forms before us are, however,
morphologically identical. They can-
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
208
not be distinguished under the micro-
scope, either when taken directly from
the infected organism or from pure cul-
tures. We have, then, a close resem-
blance in morphological characters
and in the more important biological
properties, with a few slight but con-
stant differences already mentioned
There is another thought to be pre-
sented in this connection which may
be of value in the future. It is prob-
able that varieties of other germs may
arise, either through the effect of long
periods of time, in the same locality,
or through changes incident to places
far separated from one another. What
effect would the transportation of one
variety have upon the severity of an
epidemic thereby produced in another
locality? May not modification be pro-
duced within short periods of time, so
that the infection spreading from one
centre of disease, after being latent for
a time, becomes the cause of a mild or
avirulent epidemic? These questions
now need renewed observation with
the new light thrown upon them by
the biological study of the disease
germs themselves.
That this view is not new, and that
it is looked upon with favor, the fol-
lowing extracts from Virchow’s re-
marks at the Berlin Cholera Confer-
ence in the summer of 1885 may be
of interest :—
‘IT have always believed that we
should succeed at some time in de-
termining that the same bacteria, at
different times and under different cir-
cumstances, might possess different
grades of virulence..... As I am a
naturalist, I can only put the ques-
tion, Does not the changing viru-
lence of the causes of disease best
explain the difference in epidemics?
....-Are there not periods more fa-
vorable to the development of the
microbe, periods during which it
multiplies more vigorously and forms
within itself more active substances ?’
O
Water Bath for Use in Imbedding.
The October number of the Amer-
ican Naturalist (vol. xx, p. g1o)
contains a description of a water-bath
apparatus for paraffin imbedding, of
the pattern in use at the Museum
Comp. Zool. at Harvard. It is de-
scribed by the author, not with refer-
ence to urging its introduction, but
for the benefit of any who wish to fit
out a Jaboratory. The bath is a cop-
per box 18 cm. long, 9 cm. broad,
8 cm. high, with an oven near the
bottom for warming slides: the oven
is without a door. The oven is I cm.
high and 12 cm. long, and about 1 cm.
above the bottom of the box. The
top of the box is perforated with four
smalland two large holes,and these are
copper-lined wells, three of them 4.cm.
deep, one 7 cm. deep. The layer
wells are 6 cm. in diameter. They
each receive a copper bowl, which fits
them nicely, furnished with a bent
brass handle upon the side. One is
for soft, the other for hard, paraffin.
The box is completely closed to the
exterior except at two small openings,
one forthe introduction of a thermom-
eter, the other for the introduction of
water. The bath is of small size and
is designed to be attached to the work-
table of a single student. The ad-
vantage of this plan is that each
worker of a laboratory is able to con-
trol the heat to suit his particular
needs. There is greater expense in
this plan for more gas used and the
cost of the baths. The bath is sup-
ported upon the side of the table and
may be readily packed up and trans-
ported to the seashore, or other scene
of labor. The bath is made by the
Educational Supply Company, No. 6
Hamilton Place, Boston, Mass., and
sells for $6.50, or with thermometer
for $8.00. The writer, Dr. Whit-
man, mentions in his account a de-
vice for suspending the object being
imbedded in the paraffin ; itis a coiled
wire which is soldered to the margin
of the tank and extends down into
the cavity, and acts asa shelf on which
the object may rest, thus keeping it
outof the dirt which is sure to accumu-
late near the bottom of the tank.
The bath which we have had in
2.04
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
[ November,
use in the laboratory at Purdue Uni-
versity now three years is one which
was designed after the description, by
Mr. W. Bateson, of the bath in use
at Dr. Sedgwick’s laboratory, at
Cambridge, England. This bath was
constructed by a tinsmith in the city
of Lafayette; cost $4.00. It is an
oblong box 16 in. by 10 in. by 6 in. of
tin-lined copper, supported on four
legs, at a height of 11 in. from the
table. The portion beneath the box
is also enclosed so that the lamp flame
may burn undisturbed by current
through the door. The top of the box
is perforated with fifteen holes, some
of them two, others two and one-half,
inches in diameter. Copper disks
cover these holes tightly when not in
use. The vessels used in imbedding
are porcelain crucibles which fit the
holes closely and hang down into the
box, held only by the side of the cruci-
ble. An oven for drying slides is
placed on one side of the box; it is
four in. from the bottom, is four’ in.
deep, 8 in. long, and rf in. high ; it
is shut in by a lid hinged to the side
of the box above the oven. There is
in the top of the box a small hole
withacollar fora cork to hold the ther-
mometer, and a second for heat reg-
ulator if desired. The water is never
allowed to reach the bottom of the
oven, and thus the oven and the cru-
cibles are surrounded by steam whose
temperature is determined by a ther-
mometer which dips down so as to
have its bulb on the level of the bot-
toms of the crucibles. The depth of
the bath allows the presence of a con-
siderable amount of water, and the
temperature of the bath is thus kept
very even indeed without the aid of
a regulator. We do not consider the
closed wells desirable. but prefer to
have the steam immediately surround
the imbedding dish. Porcelain cru-
cibles are desirable to use because so
easily cleaned, and because the white
color makes the object appear to stand
out very prominently. Itis desirable
also to have the oven as near the level
of the crucibles as the construction of
the bath will permit, for the oven
should not be bathed in the water but,
only in steam, the temperature of
which is under control by help of the
thermometer.
O
The Bacterium of Swine-Plague.
BY D. E. SALMON AND THEOBALD
SMITH*
The bacterium of swine-plague, as
it was observed in several outbreaks
in the east, may be quite easily found
in the spleen of animals which have
succumbed to the disease. Cover-
glass preparations of the spleen pulp,
stained in a solution of methyl violet
and mounted in xylol balsam, reveal
the presence of elongated ovals or true
bacteria, usually in pairs, and then
appearing like figures of eight. When
not too deeply stained, a narrow, well-
stained periphery, of nearly uniform
width, surrounds a paler, sometimes
nearly colorless, centre. The stained
border may then be compared to the
line forming the figure of eight. The
bacterium is readily stained by other
anilin colors also. In such a prep-
aration the bacterium measures about
.ool2 mm. to .cor5 mm. in length,
and about .oo06 mm. in width. In
the various culture media the bacteria
vary slightly both in size and form
from those observed in cover-glass
preparations of the spleen, being
smaller when multiplication is very
rapid, larger when it is retarded.
It multiplies more readily in slightly
alkaline than in neutral media. It
grows readily in meat infusions, in
milk, on nutrient gelatin, agar-agar,
blood serum, and potato. When cul-
tivated in nutrient liquids it is mzo¢z/e,
its movements being very vigorous
during the first and second days of
cultivation. Latera whitish ring forms
around the glass at the surface of the
liquid, which, in advanced cultures,
sometimes becomes a more or less
complete membrane. In milk it mul-
tiplies without producing any change
distinguishable by the naked eye. In
* Read before A. A. A.S., Aug., 786.
Sane}
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
205
gelatin, spread out in thin layers on
class plates, colonies are formed which
become visible to the naked eye after
48 hours as spherical or sub-spheri-
cal, homogeneous masses, bound-
ed (optically) by a smooth, regular
outline. The gelatin is zo¢ liquefied.
In tubes of gelatin each bacterium
multiplies into a round colony about
4 the size of a pin’s head; when nu-
‘merous, a continuous whitish line or
band appears in the needle track
capped by avery slight surface growth.
On potato it forms a continuous patch
of a dirty straw color, from } to 1 mm.
thick. The acteriutm doc not pro-
duce spores, so far as we have been
able to learn. Cultures of all ages
are killed by an exposure for from 15
to 20 minutes to a temperature of
58° C. Micro-organisms containing
spores do not succumb thus easily.
This microbe may, therefore, be
readily distinguished from others if
we take into consideration its micro-
scopic appearance, its motz¢ty in
liquid media, and the absence of
liquefaction during its multiplication
in gelatin.
Besides these important distinctive
characters, its pathogenic effect on the
lower animals is not less characteristic.
In mice the disease is best marked
and the lesions most pronounced when
very small quantities of culture liquid
are introduced beneath the skin. Death
then occurs in from § to 14 days, and
quite suddenly. The bacteria are
easily demonstrated in all the internal
organs. The spleen is enormously
enlarged, and throughout the liver, in
most cases, patches of coagulation-
necrosis are found. If larger doses
are injected, the animals die within 4
r 5 days, and the above lesions are
not yet developed.
In rabbits the introduction beneath
the skin of small quantities of culture
liquid is invariably fatal in from 4 to
5 days. Locally, the musclesare slight-
ly necrosed chia the lymphatics en-
larged. The spleen is very much in-
creased in size. The bacteria are
found in all the internal organs. In
guinea-pigs the pathogenic effect is
similar to that of rabbits, although the
former seem somewhat more refrac-
tory.
In pigeons a large dose is required
to produce death. They may die in
24 hours, probably from the effects of
the particular ptomaine formed by the
growth of the bacterium in the body
generally, or they may live from 2 to
12 days. In such cases a large se-
questrum forms at the place of inoc-
ulation, and occasionally there are
microscopic changes in the internal
organs. Usually the bacterium is
present in the liver, sometimes in the
spleen. This bacterium has no effect
on fowls.
These meagre statements concern-
ing its pathogenic effects are sufficient
to distinguish it from all other known
pathogenic bacteria.
Klein recently described a microbe
obtained from swine-plague in Eng-
land which seems to resemble the
above bacterium in many ways. He
describes itas spore forming, hoe
which is not true of the microbe un-
der consideration. Moreover, its
growth in various media, by which it
might be recognized, has not been
worked out yet. He describes its
growth in liquids, its motility, but
lees es us in doubt whether it liquefies
gelatin or not; how it grows in milk,
on potato, etc. Heasserts that it has
no effect upon pigeons, but gives no
information as to the dose used. It
is therefore impossible to state at
present whether the two microbes are
the same, or whether two diseases
very much alike are caused by differ-
ent organisms.
O
Muscle and Nerve in Sponges.
BY DR. R. VON LENDENFELD. *
Australian species of Huspongza
show some unlikeness to common bath
sponge, £. officinalts. Massive, with
short, round, finger-like processes.
Each of these contains a wide cylin-
* From Amer. Mag. Nat. Hist., 5 ser., vol. 17, p.
372. Orig. article in Sitz. Konig Preuss Akad., Ber-
lin, 1885, pp. 1015-20.
206
THE AMERICAN MONTHLY
| November,
drical cavity running iene tie ice. like
a wide oscular fee aues open be-
low into a system of anastomosing la-
cune. Dermis is rich in pores. Inthe
mesoderm there is a band of mem-
branous tissue, which runs from the
outer surface toward the interior. It
is of uniform thickness throughout.
Cells run out at each end to extremely
fine points, .1 mm. .003 mm. These
have an oval nucleus about their mid-
dle and on one side of the axis. Near
the nucleus is a small quantity of or-
dinary protoplasm, while all the rest
of the cell consists of a substance
which differs essentially from the con-
tents of ordinary fusiform cells. Itcon-
tains small, distinct, strong, doubly
refractile granules anise een in a ho-
mogeneous transparent substance
which is slightly but simply refractile.
Granules are, in fact, regularly ar-
ranged, so thata sort of transverse stri-
ation of the fibres is produced. These
bands are strongly contractile, and
contract in a radial direction. The
author concludes from this observation
that the membranes are muscles, and.
further, that these muscle cells are to
be regarded as a form transitional be-
tween the smooth and striped muscle
cells.
In transverse sections through the
margins of the groove there is to be
seen a peculiar organ seated upon the
upper and outer margin of the mus-
cular membrane. The membrane is
suddenly increased to twice or three
times its diameter elsewhere. This
line of thickening is seen in sections
not to consist of fusiform cells, but of
large, globular, very distinct nuclei,
imbedded in a granular substance no
doubt belonging to the cells whose
boundaries are indistinct. From the
marginal thickenings threads issue
laterally and run tangentially in the ex-
terior dermis ofthe sponge, and may be
traced a considerable distance. Above
and on these destal thickenings there
stand fusiform sense-cells. Their ba-
sal ends, diffused over a broad zone,
are in direct connection with the thick-
enings ; no ramification of basal pro-
cesses was observed. The cell body
has the ordinary form, .o3 mm. X
.002 mm., broadest in the middle.
In the cell body, after treatment with
osmic acid, there are found dark gran-
ules like those characteristic of Hydra
( Jickeli).
The author’s interpretation of these
observations is as follows :—
The whole thickening is composed
of ganglion cells, whose contours are
not distinct, and the granular threads,
leading from them are nerve fibres.
They may be compared with the an-
nular nerve- ring of Cycloneural me-
duse (Eimer), and indicate that the
sponges, being capable of a develop-
ment similar to that of the Cuidaria,
were probably not so different from
them as we commonly suppose. We
must, however, bear in mind that the
muscle and nerve are not sub-epi-
thelial but mesodermal.
=
The Bacillus of Malaria.
[From the Lancet for Aug. 21, 1886; copied from
Journ. Am. Med. Assoc. Oct. 2, ’86.]
In 1879 Professor Tommasi-Crudeli
published in the Atti della Reale Ac-
cademia dei Lincei, at Rome, a me-
moir on the distribution of the subsoil
water of the Roman Campagna, and
on its influence in the production of
malaria. In this research, which
proved the starting-point of new
studies on the etiology of malaria, the
author traced the origin of this mor-
bigenous ferment, discarding many
errors and prejudices of old medicine
and maintaining that the causal agent
of the disease could only be a living
organism.
Towards the close of the same year
Tommasi-Crudeli and Klebs pub-
lished in the same AZfz a memoir
embodying the results of inquiries on
malaric airs and soils, and of experi-
ments on rabbits, proving that the
living organism is a schizomycete,
emed by them Baczllus malaria.
As the result of researches on the in-
dividuals affected with malaria, Mar-
chiafava and Celli announced that
within the red-blood globules are con-
1886.]
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.
207
j
stantly found plasmatic.bodies, cor pz
plasmaticz, endowed with lively
ameceboid movements, in which the
hemoglobine is transformed into
melanine (melanemia); and in a
further memoir which they have pub-
lished this year they suggest, as a
more probable hypothesis, the opinion
that those plasmatic bodies are the
living organisms which produce ma-
laria. Thus Marchiafava and Celli
confirm, in substance, Tommasi-
Crudeli’s opinion that a living or-
ganism is the cause of malaria, but
they regard its form as differing. from
a schizomycete.
These observations are embodied
in a note with which Todaro pref-
aces a communication by Tommasi-
Crudeli in the April Zazcet on ‘a
bacillus found in the malaric atmos-
phere around Pola (Istria).’ This
bacillus resembles the most typical
forms of the Baczllus malari@e which
Tommasi-Crudeli and Klebs found in
the air and subsoil of the Roman
Campagna, which is par excellence
the home of malaria. Since identity
of form does not necessarily imply
equality in infective power, T.-Cru-
deli reserves his definite opinion on
the bacilli discovered in the air of
Pola until they shall have been sub-
mitted to experimental research, a
plan of which he has sketched.
)
Histological Records.
We are reminded, by the appear-
ance of Mr. Alling’s A/croscopical
Records, of the Peer of keeping a
record of the history of every speci-
men which the microscopist pre-
serves. In the present age of careful
histological work a gr eat eal may de-
pend upon what is too insignificant a
detail to be remembered unless the
memory is helped by an exact record.
Two forms of record are used—one
the card catalogue, the other the book
catalogue. By one or the other of
these two a record should be always
kept of every histological operation.
As to which it shall be the choice of
the individual should decide. For
some reasons the book scheme is bet-
ter, and many will prefer it. What-
ever scheme is chosen, the record
should be kept very exactly.
Thus, to copy one of our own :—
No. 2c1.—Spinal cord—kitten. May, 1886.
Mo. Day. Heur.
*Corrosive sublimate and acetic
ACK ate erase com aavecnecuvarteeneraes 5 19
15) AS) oence nooneepee age OeO Rr 3-15
50 p c. alcohol 20 10.00A M,
FONpses. We 20 12.00
Boxax@eaniiin ese. se essueteeseseancses 27 11.00
Absolutevalcoh oltz-.--s:es-csse2