BIOLOGY LIBRARY G THE AMERICAN NATURAL HISTORY FIRESIDE EDITION VOLUME IV— REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS AND FISHES FLORIDA CROCODILE. THE AMERICAN NATURAL HISTORY A FOUNDATION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE OF THE HIGHER ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA BY WILLIAM T. HORN AD AY, Sc.D., DIRECTOR OF THE NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK AUTHOR OF "TWO YEARS IN THE JUNGLE," "OUR VANISHING WILD LIFE," ETC. ILLUSTRATED BY 225 ORIGINAL DRAWINGS BY BEARD, RUNGIUS, SAWYER, AND OTHERS, 151 PHOTOGRAPHS, CHIEFLY BY SANBORN, KELLER, AND UNDERWOOD, AND WITH NUMEROUS CHARTS AND MAPS WITH SIXTEEN PLATES IN COLOR FIRESIDE EDITION VOLUME IV — REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS AND FISHES NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1914 >*•••• •t BIOLOGY LJBftARY G Copyright. 1904, by WILLIAM T. HORNADAY First Publication, April, 1904 Copyright, 1914, by WILLIAM T. HORNADAY Fireside Edition published September, 1914 SPECIAL NOTICE The publishers hereby give warning that the unauthorized use of illustrations, charts, or maps from this book is expressly forbidden. CONTENTS VOLUME IV-REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS, AND FISHES CHAPTER XXXIX INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES .... ORDERS OF LIVING REPTILES CHAPTER XL ORDER OF CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS CROCODILIA 10 SYNOPSIS OP THE CROCOD"ILIANS 10 CROCODILE FAMILY 11 AMERICAN SPECIES OF CROCODILIANS 18 CHAPTER XLI ORDER OF TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES CHELONIA 25 SYNOPSIS OF THE ORDER OF TORTOISES AND TURTLES ... 27 TORTOISE FAMILY 23 !> H- (a I BIOLOGY UBRARY Copyright. 1904, by WILLIAM T. HORNADAY First Publication, April, 1904 Copyright, 1914, by WILLIAM T. HORNADAY Fireside Edition published September, 1914 SPECIAL NOTICE The publishers hereby give warning that the unauthorized use of illustrations, charts, or maps from this book is expressly forbidden. CONTENTS VOLUME IV-REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS, AND FISHES CHAPTER XXXIX PAGE INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES . 3 ORDERS OF LIVING REPTILES CHAPTER XL ORDER OF CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS CROCODILIA 10 SYNOPSIS OF THE CROCOD"ILIANS 10 CROCODILE FAMILY 11 AMERICAN SPECIES OF CROCODILIANS 18 CHAPTER XLI ORDER OF TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES CHELONIA 25 SYNOPSIS OF THE ORDER OF TORTOISES AND TURTLES ... 27 TORTOISE FAMILY 28 vi CONTENTS PAGE MUD-TERRAPIN FAMILY 32 SMOOTH-SHELLED TERRAPINS 34 SNAPPING TERRAPINS 39 SIDE-NECKED TERRAPINS 41 SOFT-SHELLED "TURTLES" 42 SEA TURTLES 44 HARD-SHELLED SEA TURTLES 45 LEATHERY-SHELLED SEA TURTLES . 51 CHAPTER XLII ORDER OF LIZARDS LACERTILIA 52 CHAPTER XLIII ORDER OF SERPENTS OPHIDIA 67 GENERAL CHARACTERS 67 FOOD OF SERPENTS 70 POPULAR QUESTIONS AND MISAPPREHENSIONS 72 LARGEST SPECIES OF SERPENTS 74 HARMLESS SNAKES OF THE UNITED STATES -83 POISONOUS SNAKES OF NORTH AMERICA 94 SPECIES OF RATTLESNAKES 100 SNAKE POISONS AND THEIR TREATMENT 116 CONTENTS vii AMPHIBIANS CHAPTER XLIV PAGE INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF AMPHIBIANS . . 125 BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE CLASS AMPHIBIA 124 GENERAL CHARACTERS 127 CHAPTER XLV ORDER OF FROGS AND TOADS .... ECAUDATA 129 FAMILY OF WATER FROGS 134 TREE FROG FAMILY 136 TOAD FAMILY 138 BURROWING TOADS 140 TONGUELESS FROGS 140 CHAPTER XLVI ORDER OF TAILED AMPHIBIANS .... URODELA 142 FAMILY OF SALAMANDERS 143 NEWTS, OR TRITONS . . . . 148 FAMILY OF AMPHIUMAS 149 FREE-GlLLED SALAMANDERS 153 TWO-LEGGED SALAMANDERS 155 ORDER OF WORM-LIKE AMPHIBIANS 156 viii CONTENTS FISHES CHAPTER XLVII PAGE INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF FISHES 159 FISHERY INDUSTRIES AND FISH PROPAGATION 164 DISTRIBUTION OF EGGS AND LIVE FISH 166 THE ORDERS OF LIVING FISHES . 172 CHAPTER XLVIII ORDER OF THE CONNECTING-LINK FISHES SIRENOIDEI 174 CHAPTER XLIX ORDER OF THE SPINY-FINNED FISHES: ACANTHOPTERI 177 BASSES AND SUNFISHES 177 SEA BASS FAMILY 186 PERCH AND PIKE-PERCH FAMILY 190 MISCELLANEOUS SPINY-FINNED FISHES 193 SNAPPER FAMILY 206 ODD FISHES OF THE SPINY-FINNED ORDER 208 CHAPTER L ORDER OF PIKES . HAPLOMI 214 CONTENTS ix CHAPTER LI PAGE ORDER OF TROUT AND SALMON . . ISOSPONDYLI 218 SALMON FAMILY . 218 SUBDIVISION OF NORTH AMERICAN TROUT AND CHARRS . . . 220 THE SALMON GROUP 228 AMERICAN SALMON 229 CHAPTER LII ORDER OF FLYING FISHES . . . SYNENTOGNATHI 252 CHAPTER LIII ORDER OF SOLID-JAW FISHES . . . PLECTOGNATHI 254 CHAPTER LIV ORDER OF SUCKERS, CARP, AND MINNOWS PLECTOSPONDYLI 257 CHAPTER LV ORDER OF HALF-GILLED FISHES . . HEMIBRANCHII 265 CHAPTER LVI ORDER OF CATFISHES NEMATOGNATHI 268 CHAPTER LVII ORDER OF FLATFISHES HETEROSOMATA 273 CONTENTS CHAPTER LVIII PAGE ORDER OF FOOT-FISHES PEDICULATI 277 CHAPTER LIX ORDER OF EELS APODES 281 CHAPTER LX ORDER OF PIPEFISHES AND SEA-HORSES LOPHOBRANCHI 286 CHAPTER LXI ORDER OF THE DOGFISH .... HALECOMORPHI 290 CHAPTER LXII ORDER OF GAR FISHES, OR GANOIDS . GINGLYMODI 293 CHAPTER LXIII ORDER OF STURGEONS GLANIOSTOMI 297 PASSING OF THE STURGEON '. 300 CHAPTER LXIV ORDER OF THE PADDLE-FISH . . . SELACHOSTOMI 303 CHAPTER LXV ORDER OF THE CHIMERAS .... CHIMAEROIDEI 306 CHAPTER LXVI ORDER OF SHARKS . SQUALI 308 CONTENTS xl CHAPTER LXVII PAGE ORDER OF RAYS AND SKATES ... . RAIAE 314 CHAPTER LXVIII LOWEST CLASSES OF VERTEBRATES 321 LAMPREYS 321 LANCELETS 324 INDEX - 327 ILLUSTRATIONS COLOR PLATES Florida Crocodile Frontispiece FACING PAGE Reticulated Python . 80 Remarkable Members of the Order of Solid- Jaw Fishes .... 164 Trigger Fish. Porcupine Fish, inflated. Box Fish. Puffer, with air-sac inflated. The Blue-and- Yellow Angel-Fish "... 192 FULL-PAGE PLATES PAGE The Harp Turtle, or Lyre Turtle 49 Marine Iguanas on Narborough Island, Galapagos Archipelago . . 55 Rhinoceros Iguana 59 Yellow Anaconda i 77 The Bushmaster 107 Water Moccasin and Young *. . .111 From Tadpole to Frog 131 The Two Lives of the Axolotl . / 145 The Names of the Fins of a Typical Fish 161 Small-Mouthed Black Bass 181 Calico Bass 181 xiii xiv ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Common Sunfish 181 Yellow Perch 181 The Tuna 199 The Angler 279 Great Pipe-Fish 287 The Sea-Horse 287 Mackerel Shark, with Remora Attached 309 Hammer-Head Shark 309 TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Gavial 13 Orinoco Crocodile 13 Florida Crocodile 13 Indian Crocodile . 13 Mississippi Alligator 13 Mississippi Alligator, "Old Mose" 23 Skeleton of a False Geographic Turtle 26 Galapagos Giant Tortoise 29 Box Tortoises 31 Musk "Turtle" 33 Painted "Turtle" 35 Wood "Turtle" 37 Alligator Terrapin 40 Matamata Terrapin 41 ILLUSTRATIONS xv PAGE Soft-Shelled "Turtle" 43 The Hawksbill Turtle, Furnishing Tortoise Shell 47 Common Iguana 53 Blue-Tailed Lizard 58 Gila Monster . 62 Horned Lizard : Desert Horned Toad 64 Glass "Snake" ..." 65 Boa Constrictor 75 King Snake 84 Pine Snake 87 Western Coach- Whip Snake, or Red Racer 89 Common Garter Snake 91 Red-Bellied Water Snake 92 Hog-Nosed Snake 93 Hooded Cobra 97 Diamond Rattlesnake 102 Prairie Rattlesnake . 103 Banded Rattlesnake (Yellow Phase) 104 Banded Rattlesnake (Dark Phase) 104 Horned Rattlesnake: "Sidewinder" 105 Massasauga 109 Copperhead 110 Fer-de-Lance : Lance-Head Snake . .115 Leopard Frog ... 133 xvi ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Northern Tree Frog 137 Common Toad 139 Menopoma, or Hellbender . 151 The Congo "Snake," or Eel-like Salamander 152 The Menobranchus, or Mud-Puppy 154 Siren Salamander, or Mud "Eel" 155 The Australian Lung-Fish 175 Black Sea Bass 187 Striped Bass, or Rock Fish 189 Yellow Pike-Perch . . 191 Chain Pickerel 191 The Bluefish 194 The Spanish Mackerel 196 The Silver Mullet 205 The Red Snapper 207 TheSwordfish 210 The Muskallunge . . . 216 Rainbow Trout 222 The Eastern Brook Trout 227 The Quinnat Salmon 236 The Sebago Salmon 244 The Tarpon 246 The Common Shad 249 The Common Flying Fish . 253 ILLUSTRATIONS xvii The Common Sucker . . ' ™* German Sealed Carp. Two-Spined Stickleback . Common Bullhead The Common Halibut ... The Electric Eel .... The Dogfish The Long-Nosed Gar Pike Lake Sturgeon The Paddle-Fish .... Under View of the Paddle-Fish Spotted Chimera Shark-Ray The Sawfish 9 olo The Sting Ray 317 The Devil-Fish 319 REPTILES CHAPTER XXXIX INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES POINT OF VIEW. — In studying or not studying the A world of reptiles, everything depends upon the point of view. With persons in middle life, who hold up their hands and shudder at the mention of the word "reptile," there is nothing to be done. They are victims of an unreasoning prejudice that often is deliberately taught to young people, both by precept and example, until at last it becomes bone of their bone and flesh of their flesh. Human children are not born with the inherited fear of reptiles which is so char- acteristic of the apes and monkeys of the jungles; and it is not fair to terrorize their innocent souls with awful "snake stories," any more than with the "ghost stories" which most careful parents forbid. With young people whose minds have not been artificially warped by older persons who abhor all reptilian life, much may be done. Now, come! Let us reason together. Despite electricity and steam, this world is yet a fairly large place. That it has existed through countless ages, and that its animal life has gone through many marvellous trans- formations, no one can deny, without being put to shame by l:NTRODl?CtlON TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES the silent ami im&mtable testimony of the rocks. This world, the animals now living upon it and those lying within it, entombed by Nature's hand, have been millions of years in forming. If you doubt it, go into an Arizona canyon, half a mile in depth, and at the bottom of a mountain-wall of rock, dig out the remains of a fossil ; then ask yourself this question : "How long has it taken Nature to pile half a mile of solid rock upon the grave of this creature, and then cut down to it again?" In the evolution of the birds of to-day, the reptiles of the past have played an important part; and the study of the Class Reptilia is very much worth while, if for no other reason than to learn the nearness of the relationships between its members and the birds. Remember, first of all, that the reptiles of to-day are actually insignificant in comparison with those which existed ages ago, the bones of which are now fast coming to light. A 24-foot python or anaconda of to-day, lying beside a 60- foot dinosaur, with a hind leg 10 feet high, would be like a garter-snake beside a kangaroo. In this day of liberal thought and broad reasoning, any person whose knowledge of the world of reptiles is limited to the false notion that all these creatures are either "slimy" or dangerous, is to be pitied. A persistence in that all-too- common estimate is a distinct loss to all those who entertain it. It means the shutting out, with the black curtain of Ignorance, of a whole world of interesting forms and useful facts, and also a lifetime of cringing fear, largely without cause. INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES 5 Young Americans, I exhort you to take a broad and sen- sible view of the reptilian world — as of every other great subject. Many of these creatures are worth knowing, some because they are wonderfully interesting, some because they are useful and a very few because they are dangerous. None of them, however, are "slimy'''! A snake may be cold to the touch, but its skin is as clean and free from slime as a watch- chain. What is more, there is no living creature, not even a dolphin, dripping from the sea, which possesses a skin dis- playing the beautiful pattern of colors and the rainbow iri- descence of the reticulated python, of the East Indies. In reality there are a great number of reptiles that are undeni- ably beautiful. I wrould it were possible to touch upon all the Orders of Reptiles, extinct as well, as living, and introduce some of the gigantic and wonderful lizards that were like kangaroos, rhi- noceroses and sea-lions, and also like nothing else under the sun; but in this work it is impossible. There is space available only for the four Orders of living Reptiles; the seven that are extinct can be studied elsewhere by those who be- come specially interested in this subject.1 THE GRAND DIVISIONS OF LIVING REPTILES. — There are, all told, eleven Orders of the Class Reptilia; but seven of them are extinct, and for the present these will be left out of consideration. The four Orders of living reptiles are made up as shown in the following synopsis: 1 American readers are particularly referred to the two very excellent and val- uable books by Raymond L. Ditmars, Curator of Reptiles in the New York Zo- ological Park, entitled "The Reptile Book" (Doubleday, Page & Co., New York) and "Reptiles of the World" (Sturgis & Walton Co., New York). 6 INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES THE ORDERS OF LIVING REPTILES ORDER PRONUNCIATION CROCODILIA . . Croc-o-dil'i-a. CHELONIA Ke-lo'ni-a . . . \ LACERTILIA . . La-ser-til'i-a . OPHIDIA 0-fid'i-a GROUPS INCLUDED Gavials, Crocodiles, Alligators. Tortoises, Terrapins and Sea Turtles. Iguanas, Slow- Worms, Skinks. Colubrine Snakes, Rattlesnakes, Harle- quin Snakes. 1 Florida Crocodile, J Alligator. Box Tortoise, Paint- ed Terrapin, Hawksbill Turtle. 1 Marine Iguana,Glass "Snake," Blue- J Tailed Lizard. Anaconda, Timber Rattlesnake, Coral Snake. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES. — Chiefly through certain extinct species the reptiles lead so directly into the birds that the two Classes overlap each other. In the Berlin Museum are the well-preserved fossil re- mains of a bird called the Ar-chae-op'ter-yx, which had a long, lizard-like tail fully covered with feathers, and lizard- like teeth in its beak. In 1873 Professor Marsh discovered, in the chalk-beds of western Kansas, a low-formed, penguin- like bird, called the Hes-per-or'nis, also provided with teeth. All reptiles are cold-blooded animals, and breathe air by means of lungs. Because of the low temperature of their blood, and their slow heart-action, many of them are able to remain under water for quite lengthy periods — of minutes, not hours. Some turtles and terrapins become so thoroughly dormant at the approach of winter that the vital organs actually suspend their functions, for a period of from one to three months. It is then that these creatures bury them- selves in the mud at the bottom of ponds, and so pass the winter months. INTRODUCTION. TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES 7 The majority of reptiles are covered with scales, or armor of solid bone, and are provided either with teeth for conflict and offence, or with armor for defence. Their means of loco- motion show a wide range of variation, beginning with the clumsy-flippered harp turtle, passing the gila monster, the swift-footed monitor, the kangaroo-like collared lizard (of Arizona), the gliding serpents, and ending with the flying dragon. In their food habits the range of the world's reptiles is infinitely great, embracing fruit, vegetables, herbage and all forms of flesh, living and dead. Oddly enough, however, no modern reptile has been provided with molar teeth for the mastication of food. The saurians, lizards and serpents have teeth for seizing and holding their living prey. The turtles, however, are quite toothless, and in place of teeth their horny jaws have sharp, cutting edges for clipping up their food into pieces small enough to be swallowed without mastication. The teeth of serpents and crocodilians generally are per- petually renewed, as fast as old teeth are worn out and disappear. By reason of this the lives of these reptiles are indefinitely prolonged. The great majority of reptiles reproduce by laying eggs, which are hatched either by the heat of the sun or by the fermentation of muck-heaps. Many species of serpents hatch their eggs in their own bodies, and bring forth their young alive. Such species are called vivip'arous. Those which lay eggs are called o'viparous. Some reptiles, notably the crocodiles and tortoises, con- tinue to grow almost as long as they live. Doubtless this is 8 INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES also true of some large species of serpents, such as the great constrictors of India and South America. DISTRIBUTION. — Reptiles reach their maximum develop- ment in the tropics and the subtropics, between the isother- mals of 32° F. North and south of that zone, reptilian life still is abundantly represented, but chiefly by small species. The largest land serpents are found in the low-lying, moist and hot forests of the equatorial regions; but crocodilians of the largest size are found several hundred miles from the Equator, both north and south. The largest tortoises live close to the Equator. POISONOUS SPECIES. — Among our reptiles only one lizard and a few species of serpents are venomous — an exceedingly small proportion of the whole number. Indeed, so few in number are the dangerous species of North America, it is an easy matter for any intelligent person to learn to recognize all of them at sight. In a few hours of diligent and conscien- tious study, aided by a text-book that has been properly designed, any clear-headed person over fourteen years of age can learn to determine almost at a glance whether any fully grown serpent of North America is poisonous or harmless. This is possible from the fact that more than half of the ven- omous species possess rattles, and those which have not are few in number. USEFUL SPECIES. — Many reptiles are of decided value to mankind, by reason of the rats, mice and other destructive vermin which they destroy. Others diligently devour in- sects. Quite a number furnish useful food, and some yield skins and other commercial products of much value. INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES 9 LACK OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE REGARDING REPTILES.— While birds have been well taken care of in books, museums, zoological gardens and lectures, and mammals are now com- ing in for a small proportion of the attention they deserve, the reptiles have been greatly neglected. Very few zoological institutions contain collections of reptiles worthy of the name, and the books on this Class are mostly to be written. As a result of this well-nigh universal lack of opportunity for study, the great majority of persons possess very little precise and clear information regarding these creatures. The following chapters are offered merely as a foundation on which to build an acquaintance with a world of living creatures concerning which we are assured that a large number of persons sincerely desire information. CHAPTER XL ORDER OF CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS CROCODILIA THE warm regions of the world contain nineteen species of big, burly, bony-armored reptiles, with long tails, power- ful jaws, and tempers as ugly as their own rough backs. These creatures are known collectively as Croc-o-dil'i-ans, and two Families embrace all the gavials, crocodiles, alligators and caimans of both the Old World and the New. So pointed is the need for a clear bird's-eye view of this important group of large reptiles, it is necessary to set forth a synopsis of the entire Order. The species will be arranged in a regular series according to the width of their heads, be- ginning with the narrowest. A SYNOPSIS OF THE CROCODILIANS The measurements given are believed to represent the maximum size attained by each species. ORDER CROCODILIA GAVIAL FAMILY GENUS SPECIES COMMON NAME LOCALITY f Indian Gavial, 20 1 XT ., T ,. Gav-i-alis gan-geti-cus < » } Northern India. I feet J m . r. L7 / 7 • ( Bornean Gavial, 15 1 Borneo and Su- To-misto-ma .... schle gel-i < » [ feet J matra. 10 SYNOPSIS OF THE CROCODILIANS 11 CROCODILE FAMILY 8PECIE8 COMMON NAME LOCALITY f Sharp-Nosed Afri- Croc-o-di'lus. . cat-a-phrac'tus . . . \ can Crocodile, 12 [ feet f Orinoco Crocodile, in-ter-me'di-us . . 12 feet. . W. Africa. Venezuela. Australian Croco- . ,. 3°hns ton-1 dile, 8 feet Australla' ^<™'K-& ^ 10 feet a-cu'tus a. flor-i-danfus . nil-ot'i-cus . . American Croco- dile, 14 feet .... Florida Crocodile, 14 feet 6 inches. . Central and South Amer- ica. Florida. Nile Crocodile, 16 • „ > Africa generally. , / Salt-Water Croco- 1 Ayf , po+o'iu,.. dile,16feet....)Malayana' Os-te-o-lae'mus. . .te-tras'pis pa-lus'tris Mugger, 12 feet India. Broad-Nosed Afri- | —, • i -nr ,., „ Equatorial W. can Crocodile, o \ \M^,~ feet. Africa. Cai'man . f-Rough-BackedCai- 1 TT tn-go-naftus < Q . } Upper Amazon. man, 6 feet J pal-pe-bro'sus . sde'rops ni'ger lat-i-ros'tris . . Banded Caiman, 8 South America. Al'li-ga-tor si-nen sis , feet / f Spectacled Cai- 1 Central and \ man, 8 feet J South America. Black Caiman, 20 1 ^ . T» M „ . /T3 Guianas; Brazil, feet (Bates) . . . . J Broad-Nosed Cai- 1 Amazon to Rio man, 8 feet J de la Plata. Chinese Alligator, 6 feet.. miss-is-sip-pi-en - sis. . Common Alligator, 16 feet. China. United States. 12 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS GENERAL CHARACTERS OF CROCODILIANS. — A crocodilian is a lizard-like reptile, of very large size, with short, thick legs, a long tail and the most highly developed vascular system to be found among reptiles. Its back and neck are pro- tected by powerful armor consisting of rough, lozenge-shaped plates of solid bone set in a very thick and tough skin, and arranged in rows, both lengthwise and crosswise. Both the tail, the abdomen and throat are covered by a regular arrangement of tough scales. The whole animal is covered by a thin, translucent epidermis which is impervious to water. The tail is long, flattened vertically and fringed along the top with a row of lofty, saw-toothed scales of great use in swimming. The head is a mass of well-nigh solid bone, overlaid by the same thin layer of scaly epidermis which covers the body, of the thinness of writing-paper. The nostrils are placed far forward, near the end of the snout. The jaws pos- sess great strength, and are armed with rows of sharp-pointed, conical teeth, which are shed when worn out, and renewed. The tongue is not free, but is firmly attached to the bot- tom of the mouth. Its color never is red, but usually is yel- lowish-white, and sometimes pinkish. The iris of the eye is dark green, and the pupil is very narrow, and vertical. The eyelids are movable, and the ear-opening closes tightly by a flap of skin controlled by voluntary muscles. Most saurians are voiceless or nearly so; but the alligator emits a very deep bellow, or roar, which in animals over 10 feet in length is much lower on the scale than any fog-horn. "The difference between a crocodile and an alligator" (a GENERAL CHARACTERS 13 question that has been asked a countless number of times) consists chiefly in the shape of the head, and the manner in which the teeth are placed in the lower jaw. The typical crocodile has a narrow, triangular head, terminating in a rounded point. The head of an alligator is broad, with almost parallel sides, and at the end it is broadly rounded off. 1. GAVIAL. 2. ORINOCO 3. FLORIDA 4. INDIAN 5. MISSISSIPPI CROCODILE. CROCODILE. CROCODILE. ALLIGATOR. The canine tooth in the lower jaw of a crocodile fits on the outside of the upper jaw, in a notch close behind the nostrils; whereas in the alligator the same tooth fits into a pit in the upper jaw, just inside the line of the upper teeth. The heads of living crocodilians show wide but progressive variations in breadth, as the annexed series of figures reveals. The. gavial of the Ganges and Jumna, in northern India, has a snout like the handle of a saucepan, set with four rows of long and very sharp teeth. After the gavial of Borneo, its nearest relative is the Orinoco crocodile. At intervals come 14 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS in the Florida crocodile, the mugger of India, followed by the broad-headed West African crocodile, and ending with the alligator, widest of all. ERRONEOUS IMPRESSIONS CORRECTED. — Regarding these reptiles, a number of the erroneous impressions which are now prevailing should be corrected. Some of them are as follows: The true crocodiles are not confined to the Old World, four species being found in America. Alligators are not wholly confined to America; for a small species exists in China. The "movement" of a crocodile's jaws differs in no man- ner whatever from that of an alligator. Only a very few species of crocodilians are dangerous to man. So far as the author is aware, there is no authentic record of the loss of a human life by our common alligator. All crocodilians swim with their tails, not their feet. The skin of a large crocodilian is by no means impervi- ous to rifle bullets. A bullet sometimes strikes a bony plate and glances off; but a proper bullet, properly placed, will penetrate the skin or armor of the largest alligator or croco- dile at any point. The author believes that no crocodile or alligator of to-day exceeds 20 feet in length, by actual measurement; and one of that length is one out of ten thousand. FOOD. — Crocodilians are not epicures, and some species devour all kinds of vertebrate animals that they can capture, from man to mud-hens. But the supply of obtainable mam- GENERAL CHARACTERS 15 mals and birds is very limited, and fish constitutes by far the greater portion of their daily food. If all the scaly mon- sters of this Order were limited in food to the mammals and aquatic birds which can be seized when drinking at the water's edge, or swimming in mid-stream, they would indeed go hungry. It is a comparatively easy matter for a large crocodilian to seize a quadruped of medium size, draw it into deep water while struggling and drown it. On St. Vincent Island, Florida, I saw two mules whose hind quarters bore scars a foot long as the result of attacks by alligators in the small fresh-water ponds of the interior of the island. The alliga- tors who made those bold attacks must have been rendered desperate by hunger. In the Reptile House of the Zoological Park, during a fight between two large alligators in the pool, it was discov- ered how an alligator dismembers a bulky victim in order to devour it. An alligator seized a fighting enemy by one leg, and using his tail as a propeller, whirled himself round and round like a revolving shaft, until in about five seconds the leg was twisted off, close up to the body! That deadly rotary movement would have torn a leg from a small elephant. On another occasion a 12-foot alligator named "Moses" became angry at an 8-foot companion, seized it by the body, lifted it clear of the water, and shook it until the tough skin of the back was completely torn in two at the joint immedi- ately in front of the hind legs. In the course of work among the crocodiles of Ceylon I found that some crocodiles will eat the flesh of their own kind, 16 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS and do so with genuine relish. Crocodiles which I skinned and left beside a pool were promptly eaten by their relatives, who in their turn w^ere also killed, dissected and eaten. MAN-EATING CROCODILES. — Out of the nineteen species of crocodiles and alligators (eight of which I have observed in their haunts), so far as I can leasn only three are dangerous to man. The most dangerous man-eater is the salt-water crocodile of the Malay Peninsula, Borneo and surrounding re- gions. This reptile attains a size of 16 feet, and in the ter- ritory of Sarawak, Borneo, it devours so many people that the Government has for years paid a cash reward for its destruc- tion. Its method is to take advantage of the murky waters of the rivers, swim up to a village bathing-place, seize any man or woman found bathing in the shallow water, or filling a water- jar, and back off into deep water. The West African crocodiles,1 of Angola and other por- tions of West Africa, are the boldest of all crocodilians, some- times attacking people who are in canoes, and dragging a vic- tim from a boat. (William Harvey Brown.) The gavial and mugger of India are harmless to man, and so are the American crocodiles, and the alligator. I have' gone swimming in the home waters of both the gavial and alli- gator— the two extremes in jaw development — and therefore feel sure that both are harmless. NESTING HABITS. — All the crocodilians reproduce by lay- ing from thirty to sixty oblong, perfectly white eggs, in layers, in a low mound of muck, or vegetable mould, or sand. The female lies in wait to defend her eggs while they hatch through 1This is the Nile crocodile, which is widely distributed throughout Africa. GROWTH AND SIZE 17 the heat of the sun, or by regular fermentation. From the nest of the salt-water crocodile I have taken fifty-five eggs, from the gavial forty-one and forty-four, from the Florida crocodile twenty-six, and from the alligator thirty-eight. The nest of the alligator is about 2 feet high and 4 feet in diameter. At birth young alligators are about 8 inches long. As soon as they are out of the shell, they are wide-eyed and alert, and ready to take to the water. At this period the muzzle is short, abnormally broad, and the arch of the forehead very high. GROWTH AND SIZE. — In the Reptile House of the New York Zoological Park we have recorded the following facts regarding the rate of growth of our alligators: Length when hatched 8 1% oz. Length when one year old 18 9^£ oz. Length when 22 months old 23 3 Ibs. Length when 29 months old 45 14 Ibs. An alligator when received measured 6 ft. 11 in. During the first year it grew 1 ft. 3 in. and measured 8 ft. 2 in. During the second year it grew 1 ft. 1^ in. and measured. ... 9 ft. 3^ in. During the third year it grew 1 ft. 7 in. and measured 10 ft. 10^ in. Length of "Old Mose," July, 1899, 12 feet. Length of "Old Mose," July, 1903, 12 ft. 5 in. Judging by the rate of growth of specimens of all sizes under constant observation in the Zoological Park, where they probably are growing as rapidly as they could in a wild state, I have reached the conclusion that, under ordinary circum- stances, a wild crocodile or alligator, is about ten years in 18 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS attaining a length of 12 feet. The average rate of growth up to 12 feet appears to be about 1.4 inches per month. After 12 feet has been attained, the rate is much slower, being (in case of our largest specimen) about 2 inches per year. The secret in securing rapid growth in captive crocodilians lies in giving them a pool, four feet deep, of water warmed to a temperature of between 80° and 90° F. If kept in cold water, and but little of it, they are uncomfortable, they feed sparingly and grow either very slowly or not at all. AMERICAN SPECIES OF CROCODILIANS THE FLORIDA CROCODILE1 is the type which represents the midway average between the two extremes of the crocodilian series — narrow-beaked gavial and broad-snouted alligator. It is. a subspecies of the so-called "American" crocodile (Crocodilus acutus), of Central and South America, and is not found elsewhere than in southern Florida. It is the only crocodile which inhabits a country that is visited by killing frosts. The presence of a true crocodile in Florida was not dis- covered until 1875, when a pair of specimens of large size were collected in Arch Creek, at the head of Biscayne Bay, by Mr. C. E. Jackson and the writer. The male measured 14 feet 2 inches (with 4 inches of his tail missing), and the female 10 feet 8 inches. Since that date, at least seventy specimens have been taken between Lake Worth and Cape Sable. Lake Worth is the northern limit of the species, but it is most abundant in the watery labyrinth of low land and 1 Cro-co-di'lus a-cu'tus flor-i-darius. AMERICAN SPECIES 19 shallow water where the mainland of Florida reluctantly sinks into the Gulf. The alleged "big 'gator" of Arch Creek was very wary, and permitted no boat to approach within rifle shot. Even a boat completely masked by green branches, and innocently floating with the current, was enough to send the old fellow quickly sliding from his basking-place on the bank into deep water. At last, however, we shot him from an ambush in the mangroves opposite his midday lair, and secured him. His mounted skin is now to be seen in the United States National Museum. The adult male Florida Crocodile is very rough, exter- nally, and usually its natural colors have been so far obliter- ated by age and exposure that on its upper surfaces its color is a dull, weatherbeaten gray. The females, and males under 11 feet, are of a clean, grayish-olive color — or dull yellow- ish-green— very different indeed from the funereal black of the alligator. This difference in color between our croco- diles and alligators is so marked it is quite noticeable at a distance of two hundred feet or more. The Florida Crocodile digs burrows in the sandy banks of the Miami River, and other deep streams where the ground is suitable. These lairs are used as hiding-places, resting- places and doubtless also as warm retreats in which to es- cape the cold waves from the north, which about once every five years produce killing frosts as far south as Miami. The entrances to these burrows are either under water, or half-submerged, and they extend into the bank from ten to thirty feet. At their extremity they are widened out suf- 20 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS ficiently to permit the owner to turn around. Usually the banks are so low that the top of a burrow is only about two feet below the surface. This burrowing habit of the Florida Crocodile has led to a very droll and uncommon industry. A man named "Alli- gator Joe," of Palm Beach and Miami, knows his game so thoroughly that he has become very expert in making cap- tures. For fifty dollars he will at any time take out a party of "tourists," go to a crocodile's burrow, and with a noose capture the reptile alive and unhurt. In each case he guar- antees that the crocodile shall exceed 9 feet in length. He locates the burrows in advance, by probing for them in the sand with a sharp-pointed iron rod. With this iron rod the reptile is driven out of its lair, and rarely does Joe fail to make a capture "as advertised." Many other persons in Florida have captured crocodiles and alligators in their burrows, by means of. a long pole of tough wood with a strong and very sharp iron hook lashed on one end. When this pole is thrust into a burrow the rep- tile bites it . viciously, and holds on stubbornly. But even if inclined to let go the sharp hook engages the tongue or other portions of the mouth, and thus the creature is dragged by sheer force into the hands of his captors, and bound with ropes. THE CUBAN CROCODILE* has a narrower head than the preceding, and two more rows (six in all) of bony plates along its back. For a long time this has been regarded as one of the smallest species of crocodiles, but now it is reported 1 Croc-o-di'lus rhom'bi-fer. THE CAIMANS 21 from Cuba that it attains a maximum length of about 10 feet. It is olive-green in color, slender in form, quick as lightning in some of its movements and much given to roaming over- land, or following up tiny watercourses, in search of new hunting-grounds. I once shot a full-grown specimen in a very small brook, near the geographical centre of the Isle of Pines, Cuba, and saw others in a salt-water lagoon on the north shore of that island. So far as known, it is not found elsewhere than in Cuba. THE AMERICAN CROCODILE inhabits the northern coast of South America, and the Gulf coast of Central America, up to Mexico. In the lagoons along the coast of Colombia, a short distance eastward from the mouth of the Magdalena River, there are small bays so thickly infested with reptiles of this species, and of such great size, that very courageous men of my acquaintance have not dared to enter in a small boat. THE ORINOCO CROCODILE1 is marked by a very narrow snout, by which character it is but two places removed from the slender-beaked ga vials of India and Borneo. In 1876 I found this species abundant in the Orinoco River, seven miles below Ciudad Bolivar, and killed a 12-foot male speci- men which was undoubtedly very old. Of the CAI'MANS, there are five species, all of which strongly resemble our alligator, and inhabit Central and South America, and portions of the West Indies. The Eyebrowed Caiman has the widest distribution, and is found from south- ern Mexico to the Argentine Republic. The Black Caiman, 1 Croc-o-di'lus in-ter-me'di-us. 22 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS of the Guianas and Brazil, is the largest, and is said to at- tain a length of 20 feet. (Bates.) The Rough-Backed Cai- man, of the upper Amazon, is said to be quite small — only 6 feet in length. (H. Gadow.) THE ALLIGATOR1 is so well known it needs no particular description. In individuals over eight years of age, and 10 feet in length, the eight yellow bands around the tail prac- tically though not wholly disappear, and from that time on the animal is of a uniform dull black color above, and dirty yellow or white below. I never saw a living specimen larger than "Old Mose" (12 ft. 5 in.), and only one mounted skin which exceeded 14 feet. That one measured 16 feet 3 inches, and is believed to be in a museum in Louisiana. The Alligator finds its northern limit in southeastern North Carolina. From thence its range extends southward along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts to Cape Sable, the south- ern point of Florida, and westward through the Gulf states to the Rio Grande in southern Texas. Thirty -five years ago this reptile existed in certain portions of its range, especially Florida, in great abundance; but about that time Alligator leather became fashionable, and the demand thus created has reduced the visible supply of Alligators by about 98 per cent. To-day you may travel from Jacksonville to Miami without once seeing the black line upon the water which be- tokens the existence of an Alligator; and an experienced Flor- ida hunter has declared his belief that there is not now living in that state a specimen 12 feet in length. The habits of this reptile are quite similar to those of 1 Al-li-ga'tor miss -13 -sip-pi-en' sis. THE ALLIGATORS 23 crocodilians generally. In Florida it burrows in sand-banks precisely like the Florida crocodile, and builds a mound of E. F. Keller, Photo. N. Y. Zoological Park. MISSISSIPPI ALLIGATOR, "OLD MOSE." Captured in Indian River, Florida. Length, 12 feet 5 inches. earth, moss and grass about two feet high, in which it lays from twenty to forty eggs. The Alligator is the only crocodilian I ever heard utter a vocal sound of any kind. The bellow of this animal, how- ever, is well known. Every day, regularly when the whistles 24 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS blow, the five Alligators in our Reptile House lift their heads out of the water at an angle of 45°, and bellow, or roar, in concert four or five times, making a truly unearthly noise. "Old Mose" was an excellent living understudy of "Pfafner," the bellowing dragon of Wagner's "Siegfried." THE CHINESE ALLIGATOR was discovered in 1870 by Swinhoe, and described by Fauvel in 1879. It is quite strange that the nearest living relative of our alligator should live in the Yang-tse-Kiang River, in China; but it appears to be true. It is a small species, only about 6 feet in length, of a greenish-black color, dotted with yellow. A specimen in the author's possession so closely resembles our American species that specific differences are difficult to point out. CHAPTER XLI ORDER OF TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES CHELONIA OURELY there are few intelligent persons to whom a live ^ turtle does not appeal. From the impregnable box tor- toise to the grim alligator terrapin, the giant tortoise of Galapagos, and the marine monsters of the Gulf Stream, the diversity in form and habit is very, great. Fortunately, however, a fixed knowledge of twelve species will give a very good foundation on which to build up this Order. GENERAL CHARACTERS. — A member of the Order of Tur- tles is a reptile which has its skeleton on the outside of its body, and its vital organs completely incased in a box of bone, called a shell. The top half of the shell is called the car'apace, and it is formed by the widening of the ribs until they grow together and firmly unite wherever their edges meet. The lower portion of the shell is called the plas'tron. The carapace of a male tortoise is hollowed out underneath, but that of the female is flat. The shell has an opening at the front end to receive the head, neck and fore legs, and the rear is open to afford space for the hind legs and tail. The shell of a turtle is a citadel of refuge, into which its owner withdraws its head and feet whenever threatened by ene- 25 26 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES mies. In some species the shell is a remarkably perfect means of defence. These reptiles have no teeth, but the edges of their strong, horny jawrs are sufficiently sharp and chisel-like to enable them to cut up vegetable food. The head and neck move SKELETON OF A FALSE GEOGRAPHIC TURTLE. (Graptemys pseudogeographicus.) P, plastron, C, carapace, Ra, radius, UI, ulna, Hu, humerus, Tib, tibia, Fib, fibula, Fe, femur, Sc, scapula. freely, in and out. The skin is very tough and leathery. Like other reptiles, the members of this Order reproduce by laying eggs and burying them, to be hatched by the sun. Some of the large tortoises live to the greatest age attained by any living creatures now on the earth. In the original classification of the land-going tortoises, and the water-loving turtles and terrapins, it was an unfor- SYNOPSIS OF TORTOISES AND TURTLES 27 tunate mistake that the name "tortoise" was not limited to the dry-land species, "terrapin" to the hard-shelled spe- cies inhabiting fresh water and "turtle" to the species with flippers which inhabit the sea. To-day the names "tortoise" and "turtle" are applied so indiscriminately through all three of the groups mentioned that they are useless as distinctive titles, and the mixture is mischievously confusing. In the interest of common sense I therefore propose the following revised system of these common names: 1. All Chelonians of the land only shall be called Tortoises. %. All Chelonians of fresh water shaft be called Terrapins. 3. All Chelonians of the sea shall be called Turtles. To this at least one person will henceforth try to adhere. The following is a common-sense grouping of the members of the Order Chelonia, as found in North America and the seas adjacent: SYNOPSIS OF THE ORDER OF TORTOISES AND TURTLES CHELONIA SUBORDER OF LAND TORTOISES COMMON TORTOISES, \ -, -,. ,. , _ ™__ > Tes-tu-din'i-dae . . BOX TORTOISES1.. Giant Tortoise. Gopher Tortoise. Common Box Tortoise. 1 By some authorities on the classification of reptiles, the Box Tortoises are placed in the Family Kinosternidae, one of the divisions of the Fresh-Water Terra- pins. If this arrangement should be followed, it would take the Box Tortoises out of the group of Land Tortoises, where they really belong. With this explanation the author elects to preserve the very useful arrangement into land, fresh-water and marine groups, as set forth above, and leave the Box Tortoises in the Family Testudinidae. 28 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES SUBORDER OF FRESH-WATER TERRAPINS EXAMPLES SMOOTH-SHELLED TERRAPINS. . Kin-o-ster'ni-dae Musk Terrapin. E-myd'i-dae . Painted Terrapin. Wood Terrapin. Diamond-Back. SNAPPING TERRAPINS . . Che-ly'dri-dae .. . ( Alligator Terrapin. ( Snapping Terrapin. SOFT-SHELLED TER- 1 ^ . 7/. , c . c, ,. , ^ > Tn-o-nychi-dae Soft-Shelled Terrapin. RAPINS J SUBORDER OF SEA TURTLES Hawksbill. HARD-SHELLED Che-lon'i-dae } n rp [ (jrreen lurtle. LEATHERY-SHELLED. . . . Der-mo-che-lyd'i-dae. . . Harp Turtle. THE TORTOISE FAMILY Testudinidae The group of tortoises contains many species that are either beautiful, or curious, or remarkable for their size and age. Quite a number of species are handsomely colored, but the majority are perfectly plain. Two distinct types have been developed. The ordinary, thick-shelled, uncolored tortoises, some of them of great size, constitute the majority of the species. The smaller section is made up of small tortoises, some of which have a prac- tical hinge in the centre of the lower shell. These are strictly land-going animals, and some of them even burrow in the earth, in sandy situations where digging is easy. THE GIANT TORTOISE1 is a good species to lead this entire Order. If there be aught in the theory of "the survival of the fittest," then this creature is clearly entitled to the lead- 1 Tes-tu'do vi-ci'na. GIANT TORTOISE 29 ing position. A specimen at the New York Zoological Park, which weighed 310 pounds, and whose shell measured on its curves 4 feet 7^ inches by 4 feet 3 inches, with a height of shell of 20 inches, was probably one hundred years old. By GALAPAGOS GIANT TORTOISE. some authorities the age of Giant Tortoises similar to the one described has been estimated at four hundred years! This wonderful creature lived all save the last two years of its life on the Galapagos Islands, a group of burnt-out volcanoes, and mountains of rock covered with brush, cacti and lava, directly on the Equator, five hundred miles west of Ecuador. Six species of Giant Tortoises inhabit that archipelago, living chiefly upon cacti and coarse grass, but all of them are now being exterminated at a very rapid rate, 30 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES either for the paltry amount of oil they contain or a few pounds of meat from each. An ignorant cattle-herder thinks nothing of killing a tortoise one hundred years old for three pounds of meat, nothing more! In the interests of science and her own reputation, Ecuador should prohibit henceforth the wanton and wasteful killing of those remarkable crea- tures. With the exception of the crocodilians, the Giant Tor- toises inhabiting the Galapagos Islands, and two islands in the Indian Ocean, are the only survivors of the famous rep- tilian age 'when a warm atmosphere heavily charged with moisture called forth luxuriant vegetation, which nourished a marvellous series of gigantic reptilian forms. Beside some of these extinct creatures our largest reptiles are mere pyg- mies, and to-day they are equalled in bulk only by the rhi- noceros, hippopotamus, elephant and whale. The great Brontosaurus, whose fossil remains were found in the bad lands of Wyoming, was 60 feet long, and some of the great Dinosaurs, or kangaroo-like lizards, stood over 30 feet in height! Beside the Giant Tortoises, our GOPHER TORTOISE, l the largest allied species of tortoise we possess, seems insignifi- cantly small. The largest specimens weigh only 15 pounds. This ^ species is found from South Carolina to Florida, and westward to Texas. It has a very thick and strong shell, and burrows in the earth of the sandy pine forests in which it lives. Its shell is smooth and unmarked by bright colors, and its flesh is palatable food. 1 Tes-tu'do pol-y-phe'mus. THE BOX TORTOISE 31 THE Box TORTOISE1 is, to my mind, one of the small wonders of Nature, the special purpose of which is to point out how far "specialization" can go in fitting an animal to survive. After all, the most interesting things about animals BOX TORTOISES. are the lessons they teach bearing upon the development of the world and its inhabitants. , Excepting these and similar forms, the small Chelonians find refuge from danger in the watery depths of the ponds and streams they inhabit. The Box Tortoise, however, formed for life on land, is so small it has required a special invention for its protection. Its shell is high, and contains sufficient room to permit the head, legs and tail to be fully withdrawn within it. Across the centre of the lower shell, or plastron, a practical double hinge has been provided. Thus, in time of danger, the ani- 1 Cis-tu'do Carolina. 32 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES mal completely withdraws its head, legs and tail; at both ends it draws the lower shell tightly against the upper, and all the soft parts are entirely out of reach, behind strong walls of bone. The box of bone is as tightly closed at all points as a strongly made cigar-box with the cover nailed down. The Box Tortoise is an illustration of the fact that sev- eral species of tortoises are quite handsomely colored, in geo- metric patterns of black or red lines, on lighter ground-colors. A representative specimen of this species is covered with an open fretwork of black bands laid in a mechanical pattern on a lemon-yellow ground-color. North of the range of the gopher tortoise, the Box Tortoise is our only genuine tor- toise— living only upon land, and never inhabiting water. It is common all around New York City, and is found even in the large northern parks, where it inhabits the well-shaded forests in situations as remote as possible from the paths of men. The moist valleys of the Zoological Park have yielded many fine specimens to the Reptile House collections, where they live contentedly. The Carolina Box Tortoise is found throughout the eastern United States from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River, and in the South is called the Pine- Barren "Terrapin." THE MUD-TERRAPIN FAMILY Kinosternidae The Family Kinosternidae was invented for the special accommodation of the box tortoises, with plastrons hinged across the middle; but in an unguarded moment the Mud THE MUSK TURTLE 33 "Turtle," Musk "Turtle" and similar terrapins with fixed plastrons were included. To-day, oddly enough, there is a decided inclination to leave the Box Tortoise in the Tortoise Family — where they belong — and leave the Musk Turtle and his nearest relatives in possession of the abandoned Order. But to the general reader, all this is of but momentary interest. THE MUSK " TUR- TLE," l or STINK-POT, has been loaded down with names in two languages which pro- claim a smelly charac- ter. It is a common - ... . MUSK "TURTLE." place little terrapin about 6 inches long, inhabiting quiet ponds or sluggish streams, basking in the sun when it is safe to linger above high- water mark. Occasionally it so far forgets itself as to swallow a worm-baited hook and bring on trouble of two or three kinds. Its regular food is aquatic insects, minnows, fish- eggs, worms and, in fact, any fleshy creature slow enough to be caught and small enough to be eaten. The Musk "Turtle," or Terrapin, is possessed of a very noticeable musky odor, w^hich serves better as a distinguish- ing character in the living specimen than its very dull color and general commonplacedness of external appearance. Some- times it shows a few spots; and the neck bears two stripes, 1 Ar-o-mo-chel'ys o-dor-a'tus. 34 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES one starting above the eye, the other below it. The plastron shows a slight tendency toward a practicable hinge, but it is only a suggestion, for the shell is practically rigid, and in- capable of closing. This species, like all the terrapins of the North, burrows into the mud of pond-bottoms at the ap- proach of winter weather, and lies dormant, with the func- tions of Nature suspended, until spring. It is found abun- dantly in the eastern United States, and ranges westward into Illinois. SMOOTH-SHELLED TERRAPINS Emydidae Numerous indeed is the company composing the group of pond and river Chelonians, which live half in and half out of the water. They vary in size from the little musk terrapin, no larger than the palm of your hand, to the big alligator terrapin, of Louisiana, with a shell 23 inches long, and a gross weight of 115 pounds, or more. There are many species that are valuable as food, and one which is now ac- cepted as the symbol of epicurean luxury. As usual, only the types of greatest importance and widest distribution will be mentioned here. If it were necessary to choose a single species to repre- sent the many species of North American Terrapins, that choice might well fall upon the RED-BELLIED TERRAPIN,1 or SLIDER. This is a species above the average size. The lar- gest specimen in our collection weighs 10 pounds, and its shell is 13 inches long by 9 inches wide, axial measurement. It 1 Pseu'de-mys ru-bri-ven'tris. SMOOTH-SHELLED TERRAPINS is handsomely and plainly marked by its back of umber brown, and reddish-white under surface. It is alert and active, its distribution is wide and its flesh is excellent. When you go to a restaurant and order diamond-backed terrapin, at a dollar a plate, you may know to a certainty what you are eating and paying for. Nine times out of ten it is Slider, no more, no less; and a very good dish it makes, too. Of the genus to which this animal be- longs, there are in North America at least six other species, all of them habitants of the southern half of our country. The Slider ranges northward only as far as Delaware, and the Susque- hanna River in Pennsylvania, but is frequently seen in the New York markets. Of the terrapins that are in the habit of sunning themselves on logs within diving distance of rivers, creeks or ponds, this species is, I think, the largest we are accustomed to see. Even at quite a distance it can be rec- ognized by the height and narrowness of its shell, as com- pared with species of other genera. THE PAINTED TERRAPIN/ hitherto called at random the PAINTED "TURTLE" and POND "TORTOISE," is perhaps the most widely distributed species, and the one available to the 1 Chrys-wriys pic'ta. PAINTED "TURTLE." A good example of the Smooth-Shelled Terrapins. 36 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES greatest number of schoolrooms, in the United States. It inhabits the whole region east of the Mississippi River except the extreme southeastern states, or about one-half of the entire country. Its shell is from 6 to 8 inches in length, and its contour is rather flat. The plates of the carapace are greenish black, edged with yellow, and those around the margin are marked with bright red. The under shell (plas- tron) is yellow with brown markings; and the legs and tail are dark brown, marked with bright-red lines. The upper jaw is notched in front. This small boy's favorite is a very common species, and nine times out of ten when a nice, well-behaved little Ter- rapin is seen sunning itself on the hurricane-deck of a dere- lict log, ready to drop into the water with a gentle plash when Small Boy approaches dangerously near, that is It. It is called the Pond Terrapin because it dislikes the nerve- wrecking hilarity of a river which rushes past at two or three miles per hour, but prefers a nice, quiet little 4x5 pond, where it can vegetate quite unmolested. In captivity its food consists of chopped fish and meat and angle- worms. THE ELLACHiCK,1 of the Pacific slope, from the Sierra Nevadas to the coast, and from southern California to Van- couver, is the most important species in that region. It is good for food, and is frequently seen in the markets of the large cities on or near the coast. It is about the size of the painted terrapin. THE DIAMOND-BACKED TERRAPIN2 of the salt marshes is, most unfortunately, famous for the flavor of its flesh, and 1 Chel'o-pus mar-mo-ra'tus. z Mal-a-co-clem'mys pa-lus'tris. DIAMOND-BACKED TERRAPIN 37 its association with champagne. From the unlucky day when the epicures of Maryland pronounced terrapin stew a partic- ularly delicious dish, the doom of this species has been sealed. Its price has risen from the original twenty-five WOOD "TURTLE" (Chelopus insculptus). Back rugose. An exception to the rule of Smooth- Shelled Terrapins. cents each for large ones to seventy dollars per dozen for small ones, and the supply is rapidly dwindling to nothing. It is now a difficult matter for a zoologist to procure for exhibi- tion a specimen that is more than half grown. In appearance the Diamond-Back is neither beautiful nor striking, and in flavor I think it has been greatly over- 38 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES praised. At the same time, as reptiles go (for human food), its flesh is really very good; but, with all the good things that go into a . terrapin stew, and champagne for sauce at four-fifty a bottle, almost any animal would taste good. The Diamond-Back Terrapin is a habitant of salt water, and at one time was found in the shallow bays and salt marshes along our Atlantic and Gulf coast from Massachusetts to Texas. Chesapeake Bay has always been a sort of centre of abundance of this species, and when 'it flourished the markets were supplied chiefly from the region lying between New York >and Pamlico Sound. This Terrapin is small, rather flat, rounded in outline, and its scales are marked by independent black patterns com- posed of many geometric figures, placed one within another. A specimen with a plastron 7 inches long, and weighing a pound is a large one. Formerly the great majority meas- ured between 4 and 5 inches; but now it is difficult to find one large enough to make a "count" by the old standard. A "count" Terrapin must measure 5 inches (in some markets it is 6 inches) in the length of the lower shell. Beyond reasonable doubt, the continual destruction of the largest specimens will ere long render the species unpro- ductive, and it will cease to exist. The persistent destruc- tion of fathers and mothers will soon wipe out 'the strongest species in existence. It is reported, however, that in the South there are several terrapin "farms" on which this spe- cies is being bred and reared for the markets in large numbers. ALLIGATOR TERRAPIN 39 THE SNAPPING TERRAPINS Chelydridae THE ALLIGATOR TERRAPIN,1 of Louisiana, and other states bordering on the Gulf between Florida and Texas, is, when adult, a huge, rough-backed, big-headed creature, weighing from 100 to 125 pounds, and even attaining on rare occasions to 150 pounds. This is the largest terrapin in North America, and also the ugliest. The broad and rather flat table of its upper surface rises in a series of brown hillocks, earthy- looking, and often actually covered with moss. The head is of huge proportions, and the strength of the jaws is very great. The tail is very long and fleshy — which is rather unusual in Chelonians. Notwithstanding the rough exterior of this creature, its flesh is eaten by many persons who share its habitat. This remarkable rep tilers found only in the semi-tropical fresh-water bayous and streams of the South. A specimen that recently lived in the Reptile House at New York meas- ured as follows: Length of head arid neck 12 in. Length of shell* 23 in. Length of tail 19 in. Total length 54 in. Width of shell 18 in. Weight 113^ Ibs. It is a shy animal, and if not permitted to live under the crocodile's raft which floats in the pool, it will not eat its usual daily ration of raw meat or fish. It never attempts 1 Mac-ro-chcl'ys tem-minck'i. 40 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES to leave the water, and can remain submerged, without breath- ing, for periods which are so long we can only describe them as "indefinite." In its home this burly reptile feeds upon fish, frogs and other water animals. THE SNAPPING TERRAPIN, or SNAPPING "TURTLE,"* which is found in the northern states as well as In the South, is a ALLIGATOR TERRAPIN. very cross-tempered and savage understudy of the preceding species, and it is ugly in more senses than one. It has a humpy, moss-covered back, a mean eye, a dangerously sharp and hooked beak like a horned owl and a tail that reminds one of the terminal half of a bloated water moccasin. This reptile seldom leaves the waters of the ponds in which it lives. It believes most thoroughly in the survival of the fittest, and to it the Fittest is "Number One." It is 1 Che-ly'dra ser-pen-ti'nd. SIDE-NECKED TERRAPINS 41 a chronic fighter, and inasmuch as its jaws are very strong,— and, like some men, never know when to let go, — it is a rep- tile to be either mastered or avoided. It is wholly carnivo- rous in its habits, and is very destructive to fish and young water-fowl. Never place one in any pond or stream that is intended to contain fish or young ducks. MATAMATA TERRAPIN. Strange to say, the Snapping Turtle is regularly consumed as food, and is often sold in the Centre Market at Washington. THE SIDE-NECKED TERRAPINS Chelyidae THE MATAMATA TERRAPIN,1 of the fresh-water streams of Venezuela, the Guianas and Brazil, is quite as odd-look- ing as our snapping terrapin. It has a flat shell studded 1 Chel'ys fim-bri-ca'ta. 42 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES with lofty hills of bone, and its extremely broad and flat neck looks as if a roller had gone over it and flattened it out. Each side of the neck is ornamented with rows of ragged filaments of skin that look quite as if they were made to be bitten off by the voracious and deadly saw- bellied salmon. This very odd reptile is brownish gray and it is destitute of colors, but when you are vexed by a gnaw- ing South American hunger it makes a very palatable stew. This is not a large terrapin. The shell of a full-grown specimen is only about 14 inches in length, and its neck measures about 3 by 5 inches. THE SOFT-SHELLED "TURTLES" Trionychidae This Family is of ancient lineage, and wide distribution, its members being found in the rivers of Asia, Africa and North America. Wherever found they may be recognized by very flat and nearly circular shells that are imperfectly ossified, both above and below, and which terminate at the edges in thin plates of leathery skin. The nose is prolonged into a decided proboscis, and the neck is long and flexible. In some species (found in Australia) the neck is so very long it cannot be withdrawn into the shell, but in times of danger- it is laid away snugly under the upper edge of the shell, passing over one fore leg. The members of this Family present many anatomical exceptions to the regular order of form among tortoises and terrapins, and by some authors they are placed at the foot of the Order Chelonia. The shell is really very imperfect, SOFT-SHELLED "TURTLE" 43 the bones being literally few and far between, and the upper and lower shells are quite unconnected by bony structure. The feet are large and strongly webbed, but only the three inner toes are provided with claws. In habit these creatures are persistently aquatic, rarely going upon dry land, and they SOFT-SHELLED "TURTLE." Aspidonectes ferox, from Florida. are both voracious and carnivorous. They live upon fish, fish-eggs, frogs, angle-worms and small mollusks generally. THE SOFT-SHELLED " TURTLE ?>1 is perhaps the most com- mon representative of this Family in the United States. It is found from South Carolina westward through the Gulf states to Texas; up the Mississippi to Indiana, Illinois and the Great Lakes, north and westward up the Missouri to the Rocky Mountains. 1 As-pi-do-nec'tes fe'rox. 44 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES I never shall forget those I encountered in central In- diana, when fishing with hook and line. The provoking Soft- Shells would persist in swallowing hooks that were not baited for them, and the difficulties we had in cutting off their leathery heads and dissecting out our hooks tried our patience very sorely. It was not until many years later that we squared accounts with this species. At Miami, Florida, fine large specimens were fried in batter, and eaten with great relish. When properly cooked, the shell of this reptile is tender and desirable. A large specimen has a shell 16 inches long by 14 inches wide, and weighs from 20 to 30 pounds. The upper surface is olive-brown mottled with black, and underneath is clear white. On account of its widely palmated feet, these "tur- tles" are the most active swimmers of all the fresh-water terrapins and turtles. In North America this Family is rep- resented by five species. THE SEA TURTLES The sea is so vast, it is but natural that we should look to it for the largest species of Chelonians. There is one character by which any one can recognize a sea turtle, any- where. The front limbs are developed as long, flat, triangu- lar flippers, without separate toes and claws, like the flippers of a sea-lion. Nearly all the sea-going Turtles are large, and one species is the largest of all living Chelonians. Without exception, all are habitants of tropical waters; but occasionally an indi- vidual is lulled into fancied security, and borne northward in SEA TURTLES 45 the warm waters of the Gulf Stream until it wanders out of the track, and suddenly finds itself in the chilly arctic cur- rent. Then, benumbed with cold, it falls an easy prey to the first predatory fisherman who sails near it, and promptly lands in Fulton Market. HARD-SHELLED SEA TURTLES Chelonidae THE GREEN TURTLE* is the most important and valuable of the sea turtles, and in the Atlantic it is the species that is most widely distributed. It is of large size, its flesh is excel- lent food, and wherever found it is regarded as a prize. It is said that sometimes it attains a weight of about 600 pounds; but those which now find their way to market in our large cities are steadily diminishing in size, and rarely exceed 50 pounds. This turtle is found from Long Island down the Atlantic to Cuba, throughout the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, the West Indies, and on southward to Brazil. It is also found in the Indian Ocean, and is common on the coast of Ceylon. I should say that on our coast Key West is its cen- tre of greatest abundance and maximum size. The favorite haunts of this creature are in the shallow channels that lie between the keys, where they find quiet waters and plenty of food, but no security from the sharp eyes of the turtle- catchers. It feeds upon aquatic plants that grow on the bottom of shallow seas. A large proportion of the Green Turtles captured on the 1 Che-lo'ne my'das. 46 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES Florida coast are sent north, by steamer and rail, to supply the ever-greedy and high-priced city markets from Baltimore northward. And really, it is not surprising that the flesh of this ani- mal is considered most excellent food, and much sought after, both for soups and steaks. It is tender, fine-grained, dark- colored, not too fat and very agreeable in flavor. Moreover, this is a clean-looking animal, its shell is smooth, its head is small and neatly formed, and the front flippers are scaled quite down to their extremities. The shell is of no com- mercial value. THE HAWKSBILL TURTLE, or TORTOISE-SHELL TURTLE/ furnishes the valuable tortoise-shell of commerce, and it is •the most beautiful of all the Chelonians. Its name is de- rived from the strongly hooked beak which terminates its upper jaw. Its back is covered with a roof of very beautiful curved plates of tortoise-shell, overlapping like shingles, each scale terminating in a saw-tooth point. The scales are clear yellowish horn, beautifully mottled with black and brown. This species is yet found occasionally around the Ba- hama Islands, where the sea is very clear, and the white- sand bottom is liberally garnished with sea-fans, corals, and other beautiful invertebrate forms. Its range as a whole is from the coast of southern Florida, the Bahamas and the Gulf of Mexico, southward through the West Indies to the Amazon. It also inhabits the tropical waters of the Old World. Formerly it often grew to a weight of between 20 and 30 1 Che-lo'ne im-bri-ca'ta. SEA TURTLES 47 pounds, but it has been so persistently sought after, on ac- count of the commercial value of its shell, that all those now seen in the markets are very small. The largest shell on rec- ord is 34 inches long. Another species is found on the Pacific coast, and it bears so strong a resemblance to its eastern THE HAWKSBILL TURTLE, FURNISHING TORTOISE-SHELL. relative that for a considerable period the two species were believed to be identical. THE LOGGERHEAD TURTLE1 looks like a coarse and large- headed understudy of the green turtle. It is readily dis- tinguished, however, by its massive head, and thick, heavy shell. It is a turtle of coarser quality every way than the green turtle, and sells at a lower price. Like its handsomer 1 Thal-las-so-chel'ys car-et'ta. 48 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES relative, it is widely distributed, but does not inhabit the Indian Ocean. The flesh of this animal bears so close a resemblance to beefsteak that even a butcher cannot always detect the dif- ference. One Christmas morning, at Key West, I dissected a large Loggerhead. The flesh was fresh, and very tempting, and when a choice lot of steaks were offered to the landlady of a certain small hotel, they were gratefully accepted. It happened that the butcher who supplied the hotel with beef and mutton was a boarder thereat; and, as became his calling, he sat at the head of the long table, and served the meat. Although he was an able butcher, he had one weak- ness; and it 'lay in the fact he "could not eat turtle-meat." It was "too oily," too "musky," and too far removed from beefsteak. With no unnecessary announcements, the turtle-steaks were fried, a la beefsteak, and set before the butcher. He served them as beefsteak, ate his own portion with evident relish, and all the other guests ate theirs. The butcher had nearly finished his second instalment, without having dis- covered the substitution, when he was asked how he liked turtle-steaks, for a change. The sandy beach on the east coast of Florida, along the Indian River Peninsula, is a favorite spot for both Logger- head and green turtles to lay their eggs. Mrs. C. F. Latham, of Oak Lodge, ninety miles above Palm Beach, has made careful observations on the habits of these turtles. In the months of May and June, when the summer heat is becom- ing severe, on moonlight nights the turtles crawl up out of >/ g. SEA TURTLES 51 the water, dig holes in the sand high above tide-mark, from 15 to 18 inches deep, and in them lay their eggs, to the num- ber of from 80 to 220. The period required for incubation is about sixty days. When first hatched the young are only %% inches long, but the moment they emerge from the nest they start for the ocean. LEATHERY-SHELLED SEA TURTLES Dermochelydidae THE HARP TURTLE, or LYRE TURTLE/ is the giant of the Chelonians of the present day. Sometimes it is called the LEATHER-BACKED TURTLE. I once dissected and preserved a specimen which weighed 740 pounds, and the oil and the toil of it are yet vividly remembered. This remarkable creature has a very feeble bony shell, which is buried under a one-inch layer of fatty material which looks quite like the blubber of a whale. It is easily cut with a knife, and contains about a pint of oil for every square foot. The back of this strange creature is marked by five sharp ridges that run lengthwise, and are separated by con- cave, wave-like depressions. The front flippers are very long, and it seems quite certain that even in its native element this great animal is slow and clumsy. Its flesh is quite unfit for food. This turtle is found very sparingly along the Atlantic coast from Long Island southward, but is abundant nowhere. One may travel all around Florida, and all through the West Indies without seeing even one specimen. 1 Sphar'gis co-ri-a'ce-a. CHAPTER XLII ORDER OF LIZARDS LACERTILIA OF all the world's reptiles, the lizards are the most elu- sive, and the most difficult to know personally. With the exception of the large iguanas, monitors and a very few others, the vast majority of the species are tiny creatures, lightning-quick in movement, and very much opposed to being caught. And the little sprites are difficult to keep in captivity, beyond all other reptiles. Being children of the sun and sands, they demand quarters that are of desert dryness, roasting heat, and flooded with sunshine. Without these conditions they refuse to eat, and quickly die. If every student of lizards had a private desert which he could keep heated up to 100 degrees, a sun all his own to shine upon it sixteen hours a day, and meal-worms without limit, it would be quite possible to keep small lizards long enough to become well acquainted with them. Without such an equipment, the path of the student is beset with difficulties. Because of these conditions, we will introduce here only a very few of what we may call the practicable lizards, — those which it is possible to know, and worth while to note. 52 IGUANAS 53 GENERAL CHARACTER. — Most of the lizards are four- footed creatures, many have long, whip-like tails, and nearly all are covered with scales, mostly very fine. Sometimes the scales are large and horny. Quite a number of species are either partly or wholly covered with spines. The majority of lizards live upon the ground, or near the earth, but quite a number of species live in trees. Those called flying dragons COMMON IGUANA. possess parachute wings, and can fly as a flying squirrel does. Some of the legless lizards live in the earth. Most lizards have teeth, but usually of a very simple character, setting in each jaw in a long and rather even row, like the teeth of a saw. There are eighteen Families of lizards, provided with eighteen formidable names, and it is not possible to consider each one. For the present we will omit all references to the Families, and merely present a few examples which will il- lustrate the Order as a whole. THE IGUANAS are among the largest and most interesting of the Lizards, being surpassed in size only by the Monitors. In their food habits they are omnivorous. Although feeding chiefly upon vegetable food, many species devour birds and 54 LIZARDS eggs with great avidity. In their habits they are partly tree-climbing and partly terrestrial. By reason of their saw- toothed backs they are so odd and showy they always attract attention. Were it necessary to select but one species to represent all the species of Lizards, that one should be the COMMON IGUANA* of the West Indies, Central and South America. It is from 4 to 5 feet in length, in color it is an irregular mixture of green, black and yellow, and it may be recognized at a glance by the row of long, slender, fringe- like scales which rise along the centre of its back. One good look at its extremely long and slender toes is enough to sug- gest the idea that it is a climbing animal. It makes its home in thick tree-tops, and feeds chiefly upon fruit and soft vege- tation. I can testify that its flesh is palatable food, for in the hungry Orinoco country we ate it more than once. Iguanas generally possess one good trait wrhich is suffi- cient to forever endear them to zoological garden people. They are good-tempered animals, and never fight, no matter how many are placed in one cage, nor how many species of Iguanas are represented. Owing to the ease with which these creatures are captured, their price in New York is about $2 each. THE MARINE IGUANA,2 or SEA-LIZARD, of the Galapagos Islands, is a creature of gregarious habits, which means the habit of flocking or assembling together in companies of noteworthy size. So far as we know, this is the only lizard which elects to assemble in companies of several hundred individuals. When Mr. R. J. Beck visited Narborough Is- 1 1-guan'a tu-ber-cu-la'ta. 2 Am-bly-rhyn'chus cris-ta'tus. IGUANAS 57 land of the Galapagos group, in 1902, in quest of giant tor- toises, he found on the clean lava-bed which formed the shore, a truly wonderful assemblage of Marine Iguanas. An area of at least three acres, destitute both of soil and vege- tation, was literally covered by these reptiles, all wide-awake and fully interested in life, but serenely waiting for something to turn up. Owing to their lymphatic temperament, and previous im- munity from persecution by man, these strange creatures were quite tame, and willingly permitted Mr. Beck to make the photograph that is reproduced herewith. It represents one of the most wonderful views of reptilian life to be found anywhere on the earth to-day. The Marine Iguana is a stockily built, dull-colored animal, about 4J^ feet in length, frugivorous in its habits, and very much at home in the water. It subsists almost wholly upon sea-weed. THE RHINOCEROS IGUANA/ of the same form as the pre- ceding, but much lighter in color, and marked by half a dozen horny tubercles on the upper surface of its head and snout, is found in Hayti and San Domingo. Leaving the large lizards, of which be it remembered there are many interesting species in the Old World — called Moni- tors— impossible to mention here, we reach the small lizards, of which there are a legion of species. The warm and dry countries of the world literally swarm with these tiny crea- tures, which dart over rocks and fences like streaks of green or brown light. If you try to catch one by its long tail, and 1 Met-o-poc'e-ros cor-nu'tus. 58 LIZARDS close upon it, the lizard leaves its tail between your thumb and finger, as a souvenir, and gayly streaks away to grow another, without loss of time! The power possessed by liz- ards to reproduce a missing tail is one of the strangest things in animal growth; but it is to be observed that the second edition of a lizard's tail is far from being the shapely and perfect member that is seen in the first. Many lizards, like much study, are a weari- ness to the flesh; and we •11 v •, will limit our exhibit to a very few prominent and interesting types which are well fitted to repre- BLUE-TAILED LIZARD. ^ ^ ^j^ grQup THE BLUE-TAILED LiZARD1 is not only a common species •* throughout a wide area of the United States, but it is also representative of a large number of species which resemble it. It is found throughout the eastern half of the United States, from Nova Scotia and Canada to Florida and the Gulf, westward in the South to Arizona, and in the North to Wyoming. It is often called the SKINK, and "BLUE-TAIL," and BLUE-TAILED SKINK, and in summer it is available for study purposes to a larger number of school pupils than any other lizard known to the author. The colors of this creature vary with age to an extent that is apt to be very confusing. Observe the programme: 1 Eu-me'ces quin-que-lin-e-at'us. KANGAROO LIZARD 61 During the first year the body is black, with bright yel- low stripes, and the tail is brilliant blue. In the second the tail is slaty gray, and the black of the body is less intense. In the third the body becomes brownish, and the stripes are indistinct. In the fourth, and thereafter, the body is brown, the head vermilion and the stripes have disappeared. The length of a large specimen is about 8 inches. All the small lizards and skinks are insect-eaters, and in captivity thrive best upon meal-worms and insects generally. Their quickness of movement is almost beyond belief, and even with a long-handled net it is very difficult to capture one alive and unhurt. THE RING NECKED LIZARD/ which should be called the KANGAROO LIZARD, represents a group quite different from the skinks, and also nearer to the iguanas. It is a creature of the canyons, deserts and dry mountains of the Southwest, from Texas to southeastern California, and northward into Utah and Nevada. It is often found on mountains up to 5,000 and even 6,000 feet. (Merriam.) This is a plump-bodied creature, and its colors vary to an extent that is apt to create confusion. It is either dark green or bluish above, and the sides, back and thighs are covered with light spots. The under surface is yellowish white, sometimes tinged with pale green. This lizard derives its name from two bands of black which stretch across the shoulders between the fore legs. The most interesting feature about it appears never to have been observed and recorded until Mr. Barnum Brown 1 Cro-ta-phy'tus col-lar'is. 62 LIZARDS sent several specimens to the Zoological Park. When one was liberated in a large sanded cage, it rose on its hind legs, in the position of an erect kangaroo, and in that strange posture ran rapidly. It held its head well erect, carried its fore legs a la kangaroo, and ran, not by hopping, but by taking long steps. In experimenting with the different indi- GILA MONSTER. viduals received from Mr. Brown, it was found that under similar provocation, all of them ran in the remarkable atti- tude described — highly suggestive of a pygmy dinosaur. THE GILA MONSTER1 is perhaps the most famous lizard of North America, and its first name is pronounced He'la. It is big, odd-looking and very showy, and therefore is dear to the heart of nearly every collector of reptiles. A large specimen has a total length of 20 inches, girth around the middle, 9J^ inches, and weighs 43 ounces. When in 1 Hel-o-der'ma sus-pec'tum. GILA MONSTER 63 robust health, the body and tail seem stuffed to the point of discomfort. Externally the whole of the creature appears to be covered with round glass beads, jet black and orange- yellow in color, and laid on in a Navajo pattern. This remarkable lizard inhabits the desert regions of Arizona and the adjoining state of Sonora, Mexico. It is more sluggish in its movements than a box tortoise, and the very slow and clumsy manner in which it partakes of its daily meal of raw eggs and chopped meat leads the observer to pity its helplessness. How it manages to secure a suffi- cient quantity of acceptable food on the deserts where it lives is a puzzle. Whether the bite of this creature is poisonous or not is yet a debated question among naturalists. Several authori- ties cite the deaths of various small animals bitten by it, but others point to other victims which were bitten, but did not die. At the United States National Museum, Mr. A. Z. Schindler was bitten by a Gila Monster, but aside from a very natural degree of irritation and soreness of the wound during two or three days, he experienced no permanent ill effects from it. It is quite certain that the bite of this crea- ture is seldom fatal to man, even if it ever is; but it can cause the death of small and weak creatures, like frogs and guinea- pigs. This reptile lives well in captivity, and half a dozen of them in a, desert cage make a very showy exhibit. THE HORNED "ToAD,"1 so dear to the heart of every eastern traveller on his first visit to the great Southwest, 1 Phry-no-so'ma cor-nu'tum. 64 LIZARDS where deserts are plentiful and cheap, is not a "toad" at alL Observe its long tail, such as real toads never have, then call it forever after by its real name — HORNED LIZARD. There is mu^h excuse, however, for the universal name; for, HORNED LIZARD: DESERT HORNED "TOAD." saving the presence of the tail, the little living cactus is quite toad-like in its form. Professor Cope recognized eleven species of Horned Liz- ards, any one of which, wherever found, will serve as well as another to represent this genus. They are all habitants of the deserts and arid regions, where cacti, cat's claw, and other thorny things possess the land. They are frequently seen in the roads and trails of the Southwest, and are easily captured. If meal-worms are abundant, they are easily kept in captivity, on dry sand, in warm sunshine. The length of a large specimen is only 5J/£ to 6 inches; and, strange GLASS SNAKE 65 as it may seem, these odd creatures are related to the iguanas. No! THE GLASS " SNAKE )?1 does not join itself together again after it has once been broken in two. And it is not GLASS "SNAKE." by any means a snake! It is a smooth-bodied, legless lizard, but so scaly and so snakelike in general appearance that any stranger is quite excusable for calling it a snake. As a matter of fact, the tail of this creature is so feebly attached to the body that a very moderate blow with a stick breaks the connection, and the reptile lies in two pieces. If left until doomsday, the severed parts will not reunite, but the body does its utmost to repair the injury by growing another tail. As a matter of fact, the new growth of tail is but a short and very imperfect substitute. 1 0-phi-o-sau'rus vcn-tral'is. 66 LIZARDS This creature inhabits the southern states from the Caro- linas westward to Texas, and northward up the Mississippi Valley to Kansas and Wisconsin. It feeds chiefly upon in- sects, and being quite without legs, it forms an excellent con- necting link between the lizards and serpents. There are quite a number of species of legless lizards. CHAPTER XLIII ORDER OF SERPENTS GENERAL CHARACTERS. — A serpent, commonly called a "snake," is a very slender, long-bodied, legless reptile, cold blooded, covered with scales, and breathing air. It moves by a sinuous motion, in which the scales under the body grip the earth, while the extension of the body muscles push the body forward. To afford a good hold upon the earth, the abdominal scales are very broad, set crosswise with the body and the rear edge of each scale is free and sharp like a blade. THE BACKBONE contains a great number of vertebrae, sometimes nearly 300, and there is one for each crosswise scale under the body. There are also a great number of ribs, but the tail vertebrae are of course without them. The ribs are quite loosely attached to the vertebrae, in order that they may have the very free play that is absolutely necessary to the life of a serpent. THE HEAD is usually flat and broad, and entirely covered with scales. The jaws are long, and well armed with long, sharp-pointed teeth, which point backward, in the direction of the throat. There are no molars for masticating food, and therefore all food is swallowed whole. Excepting in the injection of poison, the only function of the teeth is to seize 67 68 SERPENTS and hold fast the serpent's prey while it is being swallowed. Poisonous serpents have special teeth, called fangs, for mak- ing deep wounds and filling them with poison. These are set in the roof of the mouth, well forward, and while not in use they lie up against the roof of the mouth. The tongue of a serpent is very extensible, and capable of being thrust out fully half the length of the head. Its greatest use is in examining food, or possible food. From the fact that when travelling the tongue is so frequently thrust out, even when there is no excitement,* it seems highly probable that it is used to detect vibrations in the air. (R. L. Ditmars.) The tongue is forked, and being entirely harmless, its sole use in defence is to threaten and intimidate its enemies. THE LOWER JAWS are loosely attached to the skull, and to each other at their front end, by ligaments so elastic that when prey is being swallowed, the gape expands to enormous proportions. Mammals, birds and fishes to be swallowed are always seized head first, in order that the limbs, and also the feathers or scales, if there be any, will lie snugly against the body. Frogs and toads are usually taken hind feet first. The lower jaw is forced forward and over the animal, always one side at a time, as far as it will go; and when the teeth are inserted, that side is drawn back. The upper part of the head slides forward as far as possible, one side at a time, to match the lower jaw. Sometimes it seems as if the lower jaw will be torn loose from the head. Often after an animal has vanished, the jaws are a bad misfit, and do not come back into shape for half an hour. The skin stretches like India-rubber, and over a heavy GENERAL CHARACTERS 69 meal the scales are widely separated. The manner in which serpents feed in a wild state is certainly one of the most cruel processes of Nature. THE EYES of a serpent have no lids, and the eyes never close; but they are protected by a thin and perfectly trans- parent section of the outer skin, or epidermis, which is shed and renewed periodically. THE EPIDERMIS, or outer skin, is completely renewed about three times per year. To free itself from the old skin, the serpent usually crawls through a small aperture, the edges of which catch the old skin at the head and hold it fast while the owner crawls out of it. The first intimation of an im- pending change of epidermis is found in the dull appearance of the eye, over which a glassy film seems to be forming. Strange to say, even the eye sheds its outer surface, and emerges clear and brilliant. Most snakes shed their skins about three times a year. A serpent is always most beautiful immediately after it has shed its epidermis, for then its colors are brightest and most iridescent. In captivity it often happens that the at- mosphere in which a snake lives is not sufficiently moist to enable the old skin to loosen and be cast off. In such cases, if the serpents are non-venomous species, the owner must moisten the old skin, and peel it off by hand, or with forceps. REPRODUCTION. — Some snakes lay eggs, with soft, tough shells, that are hatched by the sun. A serpent which de- velops in an egg of this sort is provided with a special, tem- porary tooth, set on the tip end of its jaw, with which it easily punctures the shell sufficiently to escape. Others do 70 SERPENTS not develop eggs with shells, but instead retain their eggs in their own bodies until the young are fully developed. Fi- nally, they are brought forth, each fully enclosed in a thin, membranous sac, which the little serpent quickly bursts. Snakes that lay eggs are called o-vipfa-rous, and those that bring forth their young alive are called vi-vip'a-rous. Although serpents ' are cold-blooded animals, they reach their highest development in warm latitudes, and in regions of arctic cold they do not survive. In the temperate zone and the tropics, Nature has fitted them for life upon the ground, in the water and in the tree-tops; and they inhabit swamps, uplands and deserts. They live under stones and logs, in hollow trees and stumps, and in holes in the earth ; they seldom attack man wilfully, and without provocation. FOOD OF SERPENTS. — In a wild state snakes feed chiefly upon frogs and toads, fish, other snakes, small birds and mammals. Large serpents feed upon mammals of all sizes, up to small deer and goats. Water snakes feed chiefly upon fish and frogs. Land species find frogs, toads and small lizards their cheapest prey, but the extent to which snakes feed upon each other is quite surprising. For example, the king cobra,1 a large, athletic, and very deadly land serpent of the Malay Peninsula, feeds exclusively upon other snakes and lizards, and while a greedy feeder upon what it prefers, it persistently refuses all other food. During the three years that one of these serpents has been kept in the Zoological Park, it has persistently refused to eat any of the moccasins or rattlesnakes which have been offered to it. 1 Na'ja bun-gar' us. FOOD OF SERPENTS 71 This fine specimen, which is nearly 11 feet long, became, toward the end of its first winter, so difficult to provide for, when the special supply of food-snakes had become well- nigh exhausted, that Curator Ditmars and Keeper Snyder tried a novel experiment. They killed a 6-foot snake, stuffed it with frogs to the number of half a dozen, then offered it to the cobra. It was immediately accepted, and devoured in good faith; and since that time the experiment has often been repeated. A large collection of captive reptiles requires many dif- ferent kinds of food, and plenty of it. It is not necessary that food should be given alive. Very naturally, a serpent cannot swallow a bird or a mammal which is stiff in death, and unyielding. Swallowing is not possible unless the legs or wings are folded very closely against the body. All that a serpent requires is that the animal be offered while yet warm, and before rigor mortis has set in. The practice is to kill the food in the Reptile House, and offer it immediately afterward, while it is yet warm. During the year 1914 the Reptile House contained 42 Crocodilians, 217 Lizards, 247 Chelonians,' 339 Serpents and 241 Amphibians, making a total of 177 species and 1,086 specimens. The animal food consumed by our reptiles dur- ing the year 1902 was as follows: 3,550 Rats and Mice, 512 Guinea-Pigs, 1,456 English Sparrows, About 18,000 Meal-Worms, 624 Small Chickens, About 25,500 Live Fish, 208 Large Chickens, About 2,000 Toads, 210 Pigeons, About 2,000 Frogs, 1,300 Eggs, About 2,500 Ibs. Vegetables 272 Rabbits, and Fruit. 72 SERPENTS CLASSIFICATION OF SERPENTS. — Unfortunately, it is im- possible to offer the general student a diagram of the Fami- lies of living serpents, based on the highest scientific authori- ties, which would be either simple or understandable. The' species are many, and their teeth, scales, bones and other features are diversified. Thus far no scientific authority has succeeded in dividing the world's serpents into logical groups without basing the divisions upon anatomical features, and describing them in technical terms which only the special student of reptiles can understand. By way of example, take Professor Gadow's simple state- ment of the ' distinguishing characters of the Family Colu- bridae: " ectopterygoids are present: the squamosals are loosely attached to the skull, and carry the quadrates, which are not reached by the pterygoids: the prefrontals are not in contact with the nasals; the maxillaries are horizontal, and form the greater portion of the upper jaws: the mandibles lack the coronoid process or element: both jaws are toothed." Under the circumstances, our wisest course will be to select and set forth a series of small groups of serpents which will introduce the species most worth knowing, and at the ! same time convey a fair amount of general information re- garding serpents as a whole. POPULAR QUESTIONS AND MISAPPREHENSIONS. — Regard- ing the habits of serpents there are many unsettled ques- tions and many disputes. The perennial "Hoop-Snake" de- lusion, for example, will not down, and probably it never will lack exponents and defenders. The question "Do snakes swallow their young?" is also MISAPPREHENSIONS 73 a perpetual storm-centre; and there is plenty of reliable evidence on all sides of it. Snake disputes between truthful persons are due either to deceptions of the eye (an organ easily deceived!), a misinter- pretation of things seen, or imperfect observations. For example, men of the highest truthfulness have been deceived into the fixed belief that they have ."seen horse- hairs turn into worms." Without attempting to settle out of hand any of the snake disputes that are "rock-ribbed, and ancient as the sun," I will at least state what experienced men, who have observed and studied reptiles all their lives, and gathered facts regarding them, believe to be true. The "Hoop Snake," which is said to travel by taking the end of its tail in its mouth, and rolling along like a hoop, is believed to be an absolute myth. It is believed that snake mothers do not swallow their young in order to protect them, and emit them all as good as new when the danger is over. Many snakes do hiss, some of them as loudly as a red- hot poker thrust into cold water. . The tongue of a snake is not capable of inflicting a wound, nor of conveying poison into the blood of another creature. Snakes never are "slimy." Removing the fangs of a poisonous serpent does not nec- essarily render it harmless; for new fangs promptly grow out to take the place of those removed. The rattle of the rattlesnake contains more than one joint for each year of life — usually two or three. 74 SERPENTS THE LARGEST SPECIES OF SERPENTS Family Boidae The Family Bo'i-dae, containing the boas, anacondas and pythons, embraces between sixty and seventy species. It is as natural for human interest in animals to be great- est toward those that are the largest of their kind, as it is for sparks to fly upward. It is well to see what Nature can do when she puts forth her best efforts. No one need apolo- gize for a keen interest in pythons, boas and anacondas, pro- vided that interest is kept down to bed-rock truth, and all exaggerations and overestimates are rigidly eliminated. Un- fortunately, however, the makers of sensations about wild animals regard all large serpents as their lawful prey, and often stretch them unmercifully. THE BOA CONSTRICTOR. — The serpents which seize their prey, and crush it into compact shape before swallowing it, are constrictors, because of their method ; but all big serpents are not necessarily Boa constrictors. That title applies to but a single species, found in South America; and, curiously enough, its Latin name is also its popular name. In seizing its prey, this serpent instantly reveals its name by its method. The jaws open widely, fly forward with elec- tric quickness, close on the animal, and hold fast. Instantly thereafter, a coil of the body near the head is flung com- pletely around the victim and drawn tight, to suppress strug- gling, and prevent possible escape from the jaws. From the oldest and largest to the youngest and smallest Boa Con- strictors, all seize their prey with precisely the same action, THE BOA CONSTRICTOR 75 and the flinging of the first coil follows so quickly after the strike of the jaws that the two acts seem almost simultaneous. The Boa Constrictor is much smaller than its neighbor, the anaconda, and not more than one-half the size of the gi- gantic reticulated python of the East Indies. Its maximum length is about 12 feet. It inhabits South America, from BOA CONSTRICTOR. the Caribbean Sea to Paraguay, but only in forested regions, where animal food is plentiful, and cover for concealment is abundant. This species is readily recognized by its bright, reddish-brown tail, which is much more highly colored than the head and body. It is also marked by the prevalence of reddish, iron-rust brown in its color scheme, and the very large oval patches of light color, divided by black bands, that are laid along its back with regularity and precision. The sides are beautifully marked by light-colored diamonds and bars. When at home, this serpent feeds upon pacas, agoutis, 76 SERPENTS capybaras, tamanduas, young peccaries and tapirs, and any bird that is large enough to justify attention. Considering the excellent climbing powers of the Boa Constrictor, and the dulness of certain South American monkeys, it is highly probable that monkeys furnish many a meal for this serpent. The sloth is protected in two ways. It prefers the small and weak outer branches of a tree, and it moves so slowly and unostentatiously a Boa would be long in finding one. If a 12-foot Boa once wrapped itself around an unarmed man, it undoubtedly could suffocate him or crush him to death, but it would be impossible for it to swallow him. There is at hand no authentic record of a Boa Constrictor ever having killed a man or a horse. In South America I was assured by native hunters that Boas and anacondas swallow antlered deer, but when direct proof of this was called for, it never came. THE ANACONDA1 is the great water-constrictor of South America, and it so loves the aqueous element that some cap- tive specimens never leave their bathing-tanks unless forced to do so. This serpent is strongly marked for identification by the very large black spots, round or nearly so, which cover its back from head to tail, laid on a dark olive ground. Some- times these are arranged in pairs, and suggest dumb-bells. This species attains very great size, and being fully equal to the reticulated python of the East Indies, it is one of the largest of living serpents. Of course it can hardly happen that specimens of the largest size would find their way into zoological gardens. The largest thus far exhibited in the 1 Eu-nec'tes mu-ri'nus. THE ANACONDA 79 Zoological Park measured 18 feet 6 inches, and came from the Berbice River, British Guiana. It is reported that in the British Museum there is a stuffed specimen which is 29 feet long. In British Guiana I was assured by local hunters that the "Camudie," as this serpent is commonly called, often attains a length of 35 feet. There is, however, no proof that it exceeds 30 feet; and any traveller or observer who has the good fortune to meet with a specimen exceeding that length will do well to back up his tape measure with either the preserved skin or skeleton. One snake-skin is more con- vincing than a hundred snake-stories. I believe the delta of the Orinoco is the northern limit of the Anaconda, where it is called the "Culebra de Agua," and regarded with profound respect. It inhabits the Gui- anas and Brazil, and probably extends to the headwaters of the Amazon, in eastern Peru. Of its regular food, the capybara (a water-loving rodent, as large as a good-sized hog) undoubtedly stands first, followed by the tapir, otter, deer and large water-birds generally. THE RETICULATED PYTHON,1 of the Malay Peninsula, Su- matra and Borneo, is the largest serpent of the Old World, and the only rival of the anaconda for first place. A sur- prisingly large number of specimens of this species are cap- tured alive each year, and sold to dealers in wild animals. As a result, the largest serpent with which the animal-loving public becomes familiar in the zoological gardens and parks is this handsome Python. Specimens exceeding 20 feet in 1 Py'thon re-tic-u-la'tus. 80 SERPENTS length, and running up to 25 feet, occasionally come into the possession of the animal dealers of Singapore, but about three-fourths of them die from lack of proper care before they are finally disposed of in Europe or America, and placed on exhibition. The largest specimen which thus far has died in the Zoo- logical Park measured 22 feet 10 inches, and weighed 170 pounds. Mr. R. L. Ditmars ("Reptiles of the World," p. 219) regards the Reticulated Python as the largest of all living serpents, actually attaining a length of 30 feet. He states that a friend of his once measured a dead specimen that was only a few inches under 30 feet. This splendid Python is at home in the hot and moist jungle which from Burmah to Java covers the land with a dense mantle of trees, thorny palms, rattans and tangled underbrush. Its colors consist of a network of yellows and yellowish browns and black laid over a ground of light brown, all beautifully harmonized. Immediately after the shedding of an old epidermis the scales have an iridescent metallic sheen that is very beautiful. The temperature is practically stationary all the year round, and varies little save between 82° and 98° F. The frequent rains, and the moist, hot-house air of that region, with abundant animal food and ample cover, constitute ideal conditions for the rapid growth of reptiles, and the triennial shedding of their epidermis. It is no wonder that Pythons and king cobras grow large there, or that they are so numer- ous that many of the former are caught alive by the Malays. But the term "numerous" is capable of several interpre- PYTHONS 81 tations, and in this case we enjoin a strict limitation. Al- though between forty and fifty Pythons of two large species1 leave Singapore every year, let it not for one moment be supposed that anywhere in the East Indies are these serpents so numerous that they constitute a danger to human life, or that it is even possible to find them by hunting for them. Quite the contrary. I spent several months in the Far East, roaming through jungles of all kinds, some of them so dense and so full of deadly bogs and miasma that now I recall them with a shudder. I never once found a wild Python, great or small; nor a cobra, even in cobra-ridden Hindustan; nor did any of my own native followers ever find a specimen of either for me. The only wild Python I ever saw or handled in its home jungle was one that was brought to me in the Malay Peninsula. It was hiding in a hollow tree, and when it looked out at a Malay who was passing, he whipped out his parong, cut off its head at one blow, and came to me calmly dragging behind him twelve feet of dead snake. So far as I could learn, even the largest Pythons are harmless to man. They sometimes visit native villages, crawl through the frail fences which very feebly protect the domestic animals, and swallow — chickens and ducks! It is in these humble raids that some Pythons come to grief by being caught alive. But jungle people have no fear that a Python would make such a blunder as to attempt to make a conquest of a man. To be sure, in the Far East, people do 1 The Black-Tailed Python (Py'thonmo-lu'rus), although smaller than the Retic- ulated, attains a length of 20 feet. 82 SERPENTS not often go poking around in the jungles at night in thick darkness. It is not considered the proper thing to do so. The food of the Pythons of the East Indies must consist chiefly of the muntjac, hog-deer and other deer of small size; young wild pigs, pheasants and jungle-fowl. Our captive Pythons prefer pigs, and pigs of from 5 to 25 pounds' weight have now become their standard food. These are accepted with relish when no other food will be considered. A 25- pound pig is quite right for a 20-foot snake. A Python should voluntarily eat a full meal every two weeks. Until quite recently it was generally believed that if a large serpent would not feed voluntarily there was nothing to be done for it save to watch it commit suicide by starva- tion. Twelve years ago Mr. Raymond L. Ditmars, Curator of Reptiles in the Zoological Park, determined upon a very bold experiment. He decided that a starving 20-foot Python should be fed artificially. Accordingly, a smooth bamboo pole was procured, and a string of four rabbits was tied up so that the pole would thrust the first one far into the ser- pent's interior, and drag the others after it. The next ques- tion was, how could the snake be controlled? Summoning Keepers Snyder and Dahl, and five other men, the cage-door was opened. As the reptile raised its head to strike the intruders, a stream of cold water from a hose struck it full in the face. When it recoiled in confusion, the plucky keepers seized it by the neck, and quickly dragged it from its cage. As its form emerged, the waiting men seized it at proper intervals, and held it nearly straight. The Curator presented the pole-strung rabbits, the first HARMLESS SNAKES 83 of which was angrily seized in the Python's jaws. With this auspicious beginning, it was the work of only a few moments to gradually push the string of wet rabbits down the serpent's throat, to a distance of seven feet, and withdraw the pole. Finally, the tail and body of the snake were thrust into the cage, and with a careful toss from the hands of Mr. Snyder, the head landed on the coils, sufficiently distant that the door could be closed without accident. Since that time the substitution of freshly killed pigs for rabbits, chickens and ducks has rendered forcible feeding unnecessary. HARMLESS SNAKES OF THE UNITED STATES Of the grand army of harmless snakes inhabiting North America, the KING SNAKE1 is unquestionably the king. It is also called the CHAIN SNAKE and THUNDER SNAKE. It is the most courageous of all snakes, and in proportion to its size it is also the strongest. Toward man it is by no means especially vicious; but, on the contrary, its manner is quite tolerant. Toward all other serpents, however, it manifests as great aversion as any snake-hating woman, and it is pugnacious and aggressive to an astonishing degree. The King Snake is, for its size, the most powerful of all the constrictors, and does not hesitate to attack a snake of another species several times larger than itself. It is cannibalistic in its tastes, and not only attacks and kills other snakes, but devours them. In our Reptile House, a snake of this species once attacked 1 0-phi-bo'lus ge-tu'lus. 84 SERPENTS a Cuban boa, fully three times its own size, and tried to swallow it! Had not the boa been rescued, it would un- doubtedly have been quickly suffocated by the coils which its antagonist had wrapped tightly around its body. On an- other occasion a King Snake that was placed for a very short time in the cage of the water moccasins, attacked one of the KING SNAKE. latter, wrapped around it and killed it. Several times the moccasin bit its assailant, but the King Snake is immune to the venom of serpents, and paid no attention to the counter- attack. In some portions of the South, the King Snake is believed to be a special enemy of rattlesnakes and moccasins, and on this account it is preserved from general slaughter. It is well attested that it does sometimes kill and devour snakes t of both those species. This bold serpent is found from Maryland to southern THE CORN SNAKE 85 Florida, thence westward through the Gulf states to Oklahoma, Texas and Matamoras, Mexico. Its average length is about 3J/2 feet, and it rarely exceeds 4 feet. From Maryland to Georgia it is a black snake with thirty white bands or rings around it, and is called the Chain Snake. Farther south its body -color is greenish, with white rings, and is called the Thunder Snake. Its favorite food is rats, mice, lizards, birds, and other snakes; but no frogs are eaten. It reproduces by laying eggs. In Texas, New Mexico, and Sonora, Mexico, the Splendid King Snake is found. In Arizona, California and Nevada occurs Boyle's King Snake, a conspicuous black serpent, marked by thirty broad, cream- colored bands. The latter sometimes predominate so effect- ively as to give the snake a general cream-colored appearance witlT black rings. An entirely black variety, without rings, is found in Indiana and Illinois. THE CORN SNAKE/ sometimes called the RED RACER, is one of the handsomest serpents in North America. Its gen- eral color tone is mottled yellowish-red, or reddish-yellow. In detail its color-pattern consists of about forty squarish blocks along the back, each of which is dull brick-red, with a deep margin of black, outside of which is a lighter ground- color. Its length is a little over 3 feet, and its form is slender and graceful. Like the king snake, this serpent is a powerful constrictor, a good climber, and seldom is seen on the ground. In the fields and forests, it is usually found in or upon low bushes. It frequents the habitations of man, and the roofs of old out- • 1 Co-lu'ber gut-ta'tus. 86 SERPENTS buildings are its favorite hunting-grounds for rats and mice. It is fond of rats, and because of this is considered a useful ally of the southern farmer, by whom it is often called the RAT SNAKE. (Raymond L. Ditmars.) This serpent is courageous, but not particularly aggressive. Its food consists of rats, birds, eggs, small rodents and warm- blooded creatures generally. In South Carolina, Mr. Dit- mars captured a specimen which but a few minutes pre- viously had finished swallowing a bob-white. The home of this interesting and beautiful serpent is practically the same as that of the king snake — along the Atlantic coast from Maryland to Florida, and westward through the Gulf states to Arkansas. This snake is an egg- layer. THE GOPHER SNAKE1 is our representative of the rat- snakes of South America and India, that make a business of catching rats in and around dwellings and out-buildings. In the South, it is often called the "BLACK SNAKE" — be- cause it is black; but when it is particularly well polished, it takes on a gun-barrel blue appearance, when it is also called the INDIGO SNAKE. This is a large and showy serpent, often attaining 8 feet in length, very docile and good-natured, and easily tamed. At Oak Lodge, Florida, we once saw a very large wild Gopher Snake emerge from the saw-palmetto jungle, and crawl directly toward the house. When Mrs. Latham was informed, she cried out reassuringly, "Oh, that is my pet snake! It keeps the place clear of rats." Forthwith she 1 Spi-lo'tcs co'ra-is cou'per-ii. THE GOPHER SNAKE 87 laid hold of it and picked it up, which the serpent did not resent in the least, even when it was passed from hand to hand for close examination. When finally released, it leisurely crawled under the house, quite as if nothing had happened. This is one of the best of all serpents to keep in captivity. It is next in hardiness to the water moccasin. It is an om- nivorous feeder, and, named in the order of choice, its food con-^ sists of rats, mice, birds, snakes, eggs, frogs, fish, lizards and even raw meat ! (R. L. Ditmars.) The Gopher Snake is not a constrictor, it does not climb fre- quently, and does not care for water except to drink. It is strictly a warm-country species, and inhabits our Gulf states, from Florida to Mat- amoras, Mexico. The typical PINE SNAKE1 inhabits the sandy pine woods along the Atlantic coast from New Jersey to Florida; but other species of this genus are found throughout nearly every other portion of the United States except New England. This species is quite harmless, even to other snakes, but, for all that, it is a powerful constrictor. It lays eggs, and feeds upon birds, small rodents and eggs. In devouring eggs 1 Pit-y-o'phw me-lan-o-leu'cus. PINE SNAKE. 88 SERPENTS it has a very odd but intelligent trick. It swallows an egg whole, and after it has passed a few inches down the throat, where it forms a large swelling, the serpent lifts its head, elevates its back, and exerts downward pressure directly upon the egg until the shell breaks! A striking peculiarity of the Pine Snake is found in the structure of its epiglottis, first observed and described by Dr. C, A. White, by means of which the hiss of this creature is so loud and so well sustained that it is like the hiss of red- hot iron in water. The maximum length of this snake is about 7^2 feet. Its ground-color is whitish, the head is spotted with black, and along the back there is a series of about twenty-four very large brown patches, margined with black. Sometimes these blotches of color take shape as bands. The abdomen is dull yellow, with blackish-brown patches. THE BLACK SNAKE of the East is a serpent of narrow form, but wide distribution. Westward it changes color, and is known at first as the BLUE RACER, and then as the GREEN RACER. Although its Latin name is Za-me'nis con-stric'tor, it is not a constrictor, it is badly misnamed, it is perfectly harmless to man and its bite is never more than a mere scratch. It is very cowardly, and will leap wildly from the edge of a rock or a steep bank in order to escape. If cornered, it makes a fierce but often absurd fight, sometimes becoming so frantic that it bites its own body. (R. L. Ditmars.) This snake is a good climber, swims well, and is active and quick in movement, but it has no real power to speak of. It is not an enemy of the rattlesnake, as many persons suppose, but it devours snakes that are smaller and weaker THE BLACK SNAKE 89 than itself. Its favorite food consists of small rodents, young birds, eggs and frogs, but it does not eat fish. It is a great destroyer of mice and moles, and deserves well of the farmer on that account. The young differ in color from adult specimens, being slaty gray, with chestnut-brown saddles on the back. In the WESTERN COACH-WHIP SNAKE, OR RED RACER. third year these colors fade, and the snake assumes its adult color. Speaking generally, the black form of this species occurs nearly everywhere throughout the United States east of the Mississippi into New England. What is called the intermediate color is too widely scattered to be defined, while the green-and-yellow form is found from Nebraska and Louisi- ana westward to the Pacific coast, and from Puget Sound to San Diego. 90 SERPENTS The length of this snake, when adult, varies from 40 to 58 inches. THE COACH-WHIP SNAKE1 is closely related to the pre- ceding species (both being members of the same genus), and has similar habits. It is even more slender than the black snake. Its standard color is, toward the head, black or light yellowish-brown, fading out rapidly backward, until the tail becomes nearly white. But these colors vary exceedingly in widely separated localities. This is a southern snake, and extends from Florida quite across the continent to California. In the far Southwest, its colors are so much suffused with pinkish it becomes the RED RACER (Zamenis flagellum jre-na'tum) . THE GARTER SNAKED our oldest and most familiar friend among the snakes, is as harmless as a house-fly, and any one who exerts himself to crush one simply makes a pitiful exhibition of ignorance and folly. This is the most prolific and generally abundant snake in North America, and no amount of persecution seems to diminish its numbers to any noticeable degree. During the month of March, 1903, about 450 specimens were collected in and around the Zoological Park. This serpent is viviparous, and sometimes forty-five are born in one brood. Out of a brood of thirty-eight born in our Reptile House, there was one double-headed specimen and three albinos. The standard length of this snake is from 24 to 30 inches, and one 36 inches long is a large speci- men. Of the genus to which the Garter Snake belongs, 1 Za-me'nis fla-gel'lum. 2 Eu-tae'ni-a sir-tal'is. WATER SNAKES 91 twenty-four species have been described, covering the whole of the United States, and much contiguous territory. From the species named above, twelve tiresome subspecies have been evolved, which are of no interest whatever to the gen- eral student. THE RED-BELLIED WATER SNAKE1 is a highly colored va- riety of the common Water Snake that merits special atten- tion. It is the most showy and handsome representative of an interesting group of water snakes, compris- ing about ten species, all of which are harm- less, but very much in evidence in small streams and other bodies of water. They bring forth their young alive. They love to lie upon low bushes that overhang water, and bask in the sun. They are very suspicious, however, and when disturbed drop head first into the water, like a stream of oil running down. The way to catch them is with a wire noose on the end of a light pole about ten feet long. The species named above is widely known amongst the negroes of the Carolinas and other portions of the South as the COPPER-BELLIED " MOCCASIN," and it is feared accord- ingly. To the negroes of South Carolina, all water snakes 1 Na'trix fas-ci-a'ta er-yth'ro-gas-ter. COMMON GARTER SNAKE. 92 SERPENTS are "Moccasins." The Red-Bellied is held to be very deadly, and its bite is said to be "fatal" unless counteracted with large doses of good whiskey! (R. L. Ditmars.) Water snakes feed chiefly upon small fishes and frogs. From the stomach of one Red-Bellied Water Snake collected in South Carolina, Mr. Ditmars took three sunfish, one cat- N. Y. Zoological Park. RED-BELLIED WATER SNAKE. fish, about a dozen tiny suckers and a crawfish. This inter- esting fish collection had filled the serpent so full it could hold no more. The species referred to is prominently marked by its shiny red belly, and rusty -brown upper surface. It is from 3^ to 4 feet long, and, like all Water Snakes, emits a dis- agreeable odor when handled. It inhabits the southern states generally, and extends northward into Illinois and Michigan. THE COMMON WATER SNAKE1 inhabits all of the Gulf states and the Mississippi Valley up to Iowa. In the New 1 Na'trix fas-ci-a'ta. HOG-NOSED SNAKE 93 England states as far up as Connecticut, and also in the southeastern states and the Mississippi Valley is found a sub- species called Natrix fasciata sipedon. THE HOG-NOSED SNAKE1 is a serpent of many names and remarkable habits. It is often called the BLOWING " VIPER," SPREADING "ADDER," and other combinations of " Viper" and "Adder," all erroneous. This is the snake that is such a bold bluffer, and often saves its life by pretending to be very fierce and dangerous. Instead of fleeing from an intruder, this crea- ture comes straight forward, with savage determination, hissing and darting out its tongue, and pretend- ing to be a serious proposition. It looks as ugly and deadly as any real viper. It inflates the skin of its neck with air, and hisses until it can be heard 25 feet. In spite of all this bluffing, however, the Hog-Nosed Snake is really a harmless creature. It strikes viciously, but always with its mouth closed! Mr. Ditmars says it is almost im- possible to induce one of these snakes to bite. When greatly annoyed, or tickled on the back, it will turn over on its back, open its mouth, allow its tongue to hang out, and permit the experimenter to hang it over a stick, as if dead. If thrown 1 He-ter 'o-don plat-y-rhi'nus* m HOG-NOSED SNAKE. 94 SERPENTS upon the ground on its back, it will slowly turn back again, take in its tongue, and crawl away. When a small boy I once had a thrilling encounter on a bare prairie with one of these snakes, which sought to take refuge in its hole while I fought it off with my hat. At last the snake fled, and I blocked up the mouth of the hole. While I was ploughing the next round, the snake returned, and with its nose dug a new opening running diagonally down into the old one, and entered. This snake is flat-headed and thick-bodied, and varies in length from 30 to 37 inches. Its colors are a mixture of brown, yellow and black, with no definite pattern, and are almost impossible to describe successfully. This species lays eggs, which are about lJ/£ inches in length, covered with a thick, tough, flexible shell. When hatched, the young are from 7 to 8 inches long, and they hiss very soon after they emerge. The embryo serpent possesses an "egg-tooth," for cutting the shell of the egg, but it loosens and drops out within a day or two after the serpent is hatched. THE POISONOUS SNAKES OF NORTH AMERICA Fortunately for us, all save one of our species of poison- ous serpents are so peculiarly marked it is possible for any intelligent person to know them all, and recognize their dan- gerous character in a moment. This knowledge once ac- quired, all the other snakes of North America cease to be objects of dread or terror, and become merely so many in- teresting specimens of natural history. POISONOUS SNAKES 95 A bird's-eye view of our venomous serpents reveals the following assemblage: Rattlesnakes, 11 species, Massasaugas, 3 species, Water Moccasin, VENOMOUS SERPENTS or NORTH AMERICA. . { „ , , Copperhead, Harlequin Snake, Sonoran Coral Snake. Out of the 95,000,000 people in the United States, prob- ably not more than two die each year as the result of snake- bites. The~ number of timid people who are frightened by harmless snakes, each year, must be about 1,000,000. Now, if all the latter could be so fully informed as to be free for all time from groundless fear, what a relief to suffering nerves it would be. And why should any one remain in ignorance? In reality, there are only five types to learn, all the rattlesnakes and massasaugas being referable to one group by reason of the rattles and "buttons" on their tails. Come, then! Let us address ourselves to the very simple task of learning from a book how to recognize the venomous serpents of North America, as readily as one recognizes the dogs and horses of our next-door neighbor. Excepting the water moccasin, they are all so plainly marked that all per- sons except those who are blind may know them; and there is no excuse for forgetting them. Instead of going into their anatomy at length, our efforts for this occasion will be con- centrated upon their external characters, habits and homes. Fortunately, we have not in North America any house- haunting serpents of great cunning and unfailing deadliness 96 SERPENTS like the HOODED COBRA, or CoBRA-DE-CAPELLO,1 of India. The bite of this species is very deadly, and whether wholly guilty or not, in India it is debited annually with the deaths of between 18,000 and 22,000 persons. It is said, however, that many persons are murdered on the sly, and their deaths are charged up to the account of the Cobra-de-Capello. The reasons why so many persons are bitten by Cobras are: (1) that in the rainy season the serpents take refuge in and about the huts; (2) that practically all the natives go bare-footed and bare-legged; (3) that many of them are compelled to go about at night, without lights of any kind, and (4) the warning of the Cobra — spreading the hood and hissing — is more frequently given after the bite than before it! Moreover, the Cobra is naturally much more irritable and vicious than the rattlesnake or any other American serpent. Of all the serpents that have entered the Reptile House, the Hooded Cobras are the most vicious and eager to do mis- chief. At the slightest excuse they spring to an erect pos- ture, spread their hoods, and try their utmost to bite. One of them struck the glass of its cage front so frequently that it brought on a disease of the jawbone, which finally rendered it necessary to remove one entire side of the lower jaw. To keep the three Cobras from seriously injuring their heads by striking against the glass, it is necessary to keep the lower portion of the plate painted white. The Hooded Cobra is a slender-bodied, nervous and active serpent, with a maximum length of about 48 inches. When 1 Na'ja tri-pu'di-ans. COBRAS 97 HOODED COBRA. the rainy season is on in India, it seeks refuge in and about human dwellings, especially under floors, and is also partial to thatched roofs. For its bite there is no sure antidote. 98 SERPENTS THE KING COBRA, or SNAKE-EATING COBRA/ of the Malay Peninsula is the largest of all venomous serpents, easily attaining a length of 10 feet. It is a very athletic serpent, slender-bodied and strong-muscled, able to erect its head 3 feet, perpendicularly, and strike nearly a yard. It is a very expert and vigorous climber, swims nearly as well as a water snake, and is a thorough believer in the sur- vival of the fittest. It feeds only upon other serpents and lizards, but it would be better if harmless serpents fed upon it. No matter where you find him, the RATTLESNAKE is a fair fighter, and entitled to far more respect than he is likely to receive in this snake-terrified world. He strikes only in self-defence, when he thinks he is about to be trodden upon. Instead of lying in ambush, and striking in deadly silence, like the cobra and the moccasin, he rattles loudly when man or beast approaches, and gives fair warning to "keep off!" He rattles to save himself from injury, and his persistent whir has saved thousands of persons, and tens of thousands of domestic animals, from being bitten. A western cow- pony, a government mule, or a range steer will spring side- wise from a warning whir in the sage-brush quite as quickly as a man himself, and almost as far. If Rattlesnakes generally (of which there are fifteen spe- cies) were disposed to be mean, and treat man as many human beings treat all serpents, the annual death list from Rattlesnake bites would be a long one. Despite the few ex- ceptional cases, however, it is a ruling fact that Rattlesnakes do not go pestering around camps, or frequently crawl under 1 Na'ja bun-gar' us. RATTLESNAKES 99 the blankets of men sleeping upon the ground. Every year thousands of cow-boys sleep on the ground, literally among these reptiles, without a single Rattlesnake accident. Thanks to a long-standing acquaintance with this ser- pent, I have myself on numberless occasions "bedded down in the open" in Montana, Wyoming, Florida and elsewhere, with not a moment's fear of snakes. Depend upon it, a Rat- tlesnake does not go about looking for trouble. His best efforts are devoted to the promotion of peace and longevity- Bey ond question, the Rattler is a serpent of timid and re- tiring disposition. It has not one-half the courage of the hog-nosed snake, nor a quarter of the cobra's vicious aggres- siveness. If you encounter one at a fair distance, say 10 feet, it will either crawl away, slowly and defensively, or coil and warn you to keep off. In its feeding habits, in captiv- ity, it is one of the most timid and nervous of all reptiles, and seldom eats save when safe from observation and interrup- tion. When darkness falls, and the Reptile House is entirely quiet, the Rattler bashfully swallows his freshly killed rat or guinea-pig. My first experiment with a captive Rattlesnake, a huge Diamond Rattler from Florida, was to catch and place in its cage a live rat. The rat ran over the snake several times, and greatly annoyed it. The snake endeavored to get away from its disreputable associate, but in vain. At last the rat flew at the Rattler, and bit him severely on the lips! This was too much to be endured. In a great rage the snake drew back, seized the body of the rat in its wide jaws, and held on while it drove its fangs through the 100 SKRPENTS tough skin of the rodent, and far into its body. After one could have counted ten, the rat was released; and thirteen minutes later it was dead. SPECIES OF RATTLESNAKES Fourteen valid species of Rattlesnakes are found in North America, one in South America, and there are none else- where. Our most prominent species are as follows: ENGLISH NAME LOCALITY LATIN NAME DOG-FACED RATTLESNAKE . . New Mexico Crotalus molossus. TIMBER RATTLESNAKE Eastern half of United States Crotalus horridus. DIAMOND RATTLESNAKE .... Florida and Gulf States . Crotalus adamanteus. TEXAS RATTLESNAKE The Southwest Crotalus atrox. PRAIRIE RATTLESNAKE The Plains Region Crotalus confluentus. PACIFIC RATTLESNAKE The Pacific States Crotalus lucifer. TIGER RATTLESNAKE Extreme Southwest .... Crotalus tigris. HORNED RATTLESNAKE Extreme Southwest .... Crotalus cerastes. GREEN RATTLESNAKE Mexican Boundary Crotalus lepidus. WHITE RATTLESNAKE Southern and Lower California Crotalus mitchelli. MASSASAUGA Nebraska to New York . Sistrurus catenatus. EDWARDS' MASSASAUGA .... The Southwest Sistrurus edwardsi. GROUND RATTLESNAKE Atlantic States South. ..Sistrurus miliarius. Among the Rattlesnake species are several striking ex- amples of color-development to suit their surroundings, or what is known in well-worn phrase as "protective coloration." The Banded or Timber Rattlesnake is a good imitation of the color of dead leaves and damp earth. The color pattern of the Diamond Rattler is made up of rich though quiet tones of brown and yellow, dark and light, like the shadows of saw- palmetto leaves falling upon yellow sand. The Texas Rat- tler and the Horned Rattlesnake of the Southwest are so RATTLESNAKES ^ j . ;.\ \ pale and bleached one instantly associates them with naked deserts shimmering in fierce sunshine. In their habits, so far as known, the various species are very much alike. They bring forth their young alive, the normal number being between nine and fourteen. As soon as an infant Rattler bursts the thin transparent sac in which it is born, it is ready to coil and strike. Even at birth it is fully equipped with poison and fangs. Wild or captive, the favorite food of a full-grown Rattler is small mammals; but what they feed upon in a wild state, when very young, remains to be ascertained. From our six species of captives, we have learned that Rattlers climb bushes with almost as much ease as professional tree-climbers, but in a wild state it seems fairly certain that they rarely do so. The tail of the Rattlesnake is ornamented at the end with a- rattle consisting of a number of joints of horny material developed out of the skin, one section dovetailed into an- other. The exact age of a Rattler is not indicated by the number of joints in the rattle at the rate of one for each year. On the contrary, under favorable circumstances about three joints will be developed each year, until the snake reaches maturity. We have now, in the Reptile House, Rattlesnakes three years old which already have in their rattles from seven to nine joints. The rattles are not shed when an old skin is cast off, nor are they ever shed; but they are frequently broken off, usually about three joints each year after more than nine or ten joints have been acquired. It is very seldom that more than ten joints are found on a living snake. SERPENTS It is possible to lengthen a snake's rattles, after they have been cut off, by joining on other joints of the same size, up to the number desired, The slow vibration of a large set of rattles gives a sort of clicking sound, but when the wearer is thoroughly alarmed and angry, the spiteful "whir" sounds N. Y. Zoological Park. DIAMOND RATTLESNAKE. like meat frying. The motion then is so rapid the eye cannot follow it. Rattlers are not fond of bathing, but when swimming is necessary they swim well. The species which live in the North pass the cold months in burrows below the frost line, either in the earth or among rocks. If the situation chosen proves to be a cold one, the serpent becomes so torpid that it seems lifeless. I once found a Prairie Rattlesnake abroad in northern Montana on October 10, two weeks after the first fall of snow. When brought to a realizing sense of its weakness and unworthiness, it crawled into a hole like a shallow post RATTLESNAKES 103 hole, and lay on the bottom completely exposed. This spe- cies is very wise in sheltering in the burrows of the prairie- "dog," but where none of those are to be found, the wash- out holes in cut banks can always be relied upon to furnish warm shelter for Rattler, bob-cat or wolf. THE DIAMOND RATTLESNAKE1 is a royal serpent, the lar- gest of the rattlers, and the handsomest snake in North Amer- ica. A specimen 6 feet long, in good condi- tion, will be accepted anywhere as a large one, but the largest specimens far exceed that size. At Oak Lodge, Florida, in the possession of Mrs. C. F. Latham, I saw the skin of the largest individual ever known to me. The wearer measured, before it was skinned, 8 feet 5 inches, and its girth at the thickest part of its body was 1 foot 3 inches. This brown-and-gold species is most at home in Florida, on clean sand, among the cabbage-palmettos, saw-palmettos, and long-leafed pines. Although it rarely takes to water, it is sometimes called the WATER RATTLER. It ranges north- ward into the Carolinas, westward through the Gulf states to the Mississippi River, and probably beyond. In Texas begins the home of the big TEXAS RATTLESNAKE,2 of the same size and appearance as the Diamond, color pattern and 1 Cro'ta-lus ad-a-man'te-us. 2 Cro'ta-lus a'trox. PRAIRIE RATTLESNAKE. 104 SERPENTS BANDED RATTLESNAKE. (YELLOW PHASE.) all, but of a very light color, as becomes a serpent of the arid regions. In captivity the Diamond Rattler is, like all members of its genus, a timid and erratic feeder. Unless all conditions are entirely to its liking— perfect quietness, choice food and no one looking, it will not swallow a morsel. When its views on the subject of food and service have been fully met, it will partake of a young rabbit, a rat or a guinea-pig. THE TIMBER, or BANDED, RATTLESNAKE1 of the eastern United States shows a wide range in color, varying from a handsome sulphur yellow to brown, and finally to almost black. Young specimens are always lighter in color than old ones. One of the popular names of this creature is derived from the broad bands of brown color which encircle the light- colored specimens. Often the hinder half of an adult or old specimen has a black- velvet appearance. The length of a large specimen is 4J^ feet. 1 Cro'ta-lus hor'ri-du3. BANDED RATTLESNAKE. (DARK PHASE.) RATTLESNAKES 105 This Rattlesnake has suffered more from civilization than any other species. Throughout many vast areas of rich and HORNED RATTLESNAKE: "SIDEWINDER." closely cultivated agricultural regions, it is now totally ex- tinct. Although it is believed to exist within fifty miles of New York City, a living specimen would be about as diffi- cult to find as a mastodon. 106 SERPENTS Originally the home of this species embraced the entire territory from the Atlantic coast to western Iowa, Kansas, and into Texas. In many portions of this region it still exists in small numbers, and is said to be "fairly common in the Allegheny Mountains," from Pennsylvania southward. THE HORNED RATTLESNAKE, or SiDE-WiNDER,1 of the Far Southwest is a creature of the deserts, and the oddest member of this group. It has a small horn over each eye, and in crawling it moves sidewise, in very deep curves, totally dif- ferent from the straightforward course of most rattlesnakes when on the war-path. This is the smallest of our rattlers. Its general color is yellowish gray, marked by small round spots, and its home is in southern Arizona, California, Ne- vada and probably Sonora, Mexico. THE BusHMASTER,2 a viper which is also known as the MAPEPIRE and SIROCUCU, is the reptilian terror of the land that it inhabits — tropical South America, extending north- ward into Central America. It is the largest, the most showy, and apparently the most deadly of the poisonous serpents of the western hemisphere. Its maximum length is said to be 12 feet, but it is rather slender, and lacks the gross thickness of the cotton-mouth moccasin and the diamond rattler of our Gulf coast. Its colors are so striking as to render this ser- pent easily recognizable. Its pinkish-yellow ground-color is ornamented on the upper surface with large, open diamonds of black or dark brown that form a continuous chain from neck to tail. The tail is really black, marked by narrow bands of the light ground-color. The scales of this snake 1 Cro'ta-lus ce-ras'tes. 2 La-che'sis mu'tus. RATTLESNAKES 109 rise from the body in such a manner that its surface is quite rough. In Demerara the native hunters told me of this serpent with bated breath; and no wonder. Its bite is so deadly that a man bitten in the thigh died in 8 minutes ! (R. L. Ditmars.) About eight or ten specimens of this fearsome serpent have reached the Zoological Park, usually from the island of Trini- dad, not one of which ever consented to take food. A captive Bushmaster simply refuses food until it dies, which usually occurs in three or four months. From this serpent the poison is extracted arid used in the preparation of a homeopathic remedy in the ratio of about one in one million. THE MASSASAUGA1 is the type of a genus of rattlesnakes containing only three species, distinguished by various an- atomical characters, but from neck to tail well marked, for the general student, by a succession of very dark-brown sad- dle-bag patches of color laid upon lighter brown. The joints of the rattles never exceed ten in number. This species is found at long intervals from the swamps of western New York to Nebraska, but it is so rare that living specimens are diffi- cult to obtain. 1 Sis-tru'rus cat-e-na'tus. MASSASAUGA. 110 SERPENTS COPPERHEAD. THE COPPERHEAD1 is a rather short and small serpent, seldom exceeding three feet in length. Its colors look like two shades of copper — broad bands of old copper laid on a background of new copper. When the skin is new and fresh, or when a specimen has been reared in the shadows of cap- tivity, this serpent is beautiful. Strangely enough, it is in some respects the di- rect opposite of its nearest relative, the water moccasin. The Copperhead is a serpent of the woods and rocks, and is not found in open grass lands. It is found from Indiana eastward (but not northward) to the Atlantic coast, and well up into New England. It ranges southwest- ward to Texas, and in different portions of its home it is known as the Pilot-Snake, Upland "Moccasin" and Deaf "Adder" It is decidedly poisonous, and its venom is second in virulence only to that of the rattlesnake, In captivity, the food of this species consists of small mammals, young birds and frogs. It brings forth its young alive, and the usual number is between 7 and 9. THE WATER MOCCASIN, or CoTTON-Mouxn,2 is the ugliest snake in North America. Its body is about as lithe and graceful as a Bologna sausage, and its skin resembles the sur- face of sun-cracked mud. It is so ugly that stuffing it with 1 An-cis'tro-don con-tor'trix. 2 An-cis'tro-don pis-ci-vo'ras. THE MOCCASIN 113 tow does not make it look any worse. It has a piggish ap- petite for fish, but if no fish or frogs are handy, it eats other snakes. It is quite as ready to bite a friend as an enemy, and when Mr. Percy Selous was bitten by his "pet" Moc- casin, he died in fifty hours, despite medical treatment. The Moccasin is a southern snake, and it is a pity the species is not confined to Tierra del Fuego. It lives along the grassy margins of bayous and , swamps, and is most fre- quently found lying at the shore line, with its head and a small portion of its body out of the water. It is also much in the habit of lying upon logs, on bushes overhanging water, or in the vicinity of dried-up pools. When disturbed, it starts up, opens its mouth very wide, holds it open, moves its tail in slow vibrations, and stares wickedly at the intruder. It is the whiteness of the interior of the mouth that has given rise to the name of "Cotton-Mouth Moccasin." This serpent does not coil itself in a round, tight coil, like a rattlesnake. As a rule, it holds its ground tenaciously, and does not retreat unless deep water is near. The fangs are shorter in proportion than in the rattlesnake, and the action of the poison is not so quick and violent as that of the rattler. But the bite must be taken seriously, and treated with the utmost vigor, if a fatal result is to be avoided. This serpent attains an extreme length of about 5 feet, and a diameter of 3 inches. Usually, however, specimens are about 3 J^2 feet by 2 inches. When adult, it is a snake abso- lutely devoid of bright colors, its scales being the color of dried mud, and very rough. The head is flat, the body thick and puffed out, and the tail is very blunt. 114 SERPENTS The young of the Moccasins are born alive, each one being enclosed in a thin, transparent sac, which bursts immediately upon reaching the outer air. The young are usually from 7 to 8 in number, but the last family born in the Reptile House con- tained 14. The young are strongly marked by light and dark bands, on account of which they are easily mistaken for young copperheads. They also resemble young hog-nosed snakes. About the only redeeming feature in this serpent is the fact that in captivity it is very hardy. During four years we maintained a large collection in our Reptile House without the loss of even the poorest specimen. It is a serpent of the Gulf states, coming as far north as North Carolina and south- ern Illinois, and extending westward to Texas. THE HARLEQUIN SNAKE1 is a small, shiny, delicately formed serpent, of rather quiet habits and retiring disposi- tion. It belongs to the same Family (Elapidae) as the deadly king-cobra of India! As far as it can be seen, it is instantly recognizable by the alternation of brilliant coral-red, yellow, and jet-black rings which encircle its body from head to tail- tip. Unlike the broad-headed pit vipers,2 the head of this serpent is no wider than its neck, and as a special feature its head is quite insignificant in size, but is always crossed by a broad yellow band. It is well to remember from this species that not all venomous serpents have lance-shaped heads. The range of this beautiful but rather stupid little serpent begins in South Carolina, and includes all the Gulf States 1 E'laps ful'vi-us. 2 So called because of the existence of a round and deep pit on the side of the head, about half-way between the eye and the end of the nose. In the rattle- snakes this character is very noticeable. THE HARLEQUIN SNAKE 115 southward and westward to the Pecos River in Texas. It ascends the Mississippi states to southern Indiana. It is a very persistent ground-dweller, and in captivity it spends three-fourths of its time buried in the sand of its cage, quite out of sight. It eats garter snakes and black snakes vora- ciously. Although its bite is undoubtedly poisonous, I have FER-DE-LANCE: LANCE-HEAD SNAKE. never known of any one having been bitten. In fact, it is difficult to see how any one can be bitten by this serpent without having it done by special appointment. THE SONORAN CORAL SNAKE/ of southern Arizona and northern Mexico, is in appearance much like the harlequin snake, and it is mentioned only because it is so little known, and to remark that it is a good subject for observation. THE FER-DE-LANCE, or LANCE-HEAD SNAKED is the ser- pent terror of the West Indies. It is a small snake, only 1 E'laps eu-ryx-an'thus. 2 Bo'throps lan-ce-o-la'tus. 116 SERPENTS about 6 feet in length when fully grown, and 2 inches in diam- eter. Its head is very wide, and it has very long fangs in proportion to its size. Its color pattern strongly suggests the light phase of the timber rattlesnake — brown, with black markings. On two occasions that we know of, travellers re- turning from the West Indies have brought with them in pasteboard boxes, as indifferently as if they were frogs, living and healthy specimens of this venomous creature ! One speci- men was brought to us by a lady and her child, for identi- fication; and the keepers of reptiles shudder even yet when they think what might easily have occurred. Fortunately, this serpent is not particularly aggressive, or hostile toward those about it. When it seizes its prey, how- ever, it buries its fangs, and holds on determinedly. A female specimen in our collection gave birth to twenty-four young, but they one and all refused to eat, and failed to survive. SNAKE POISONS AND THEIR TREATMENT The Rattlesnake's defensive equipment of fangs and poison has been perfected by Nature with as much care as the horns of hoofed animals, or the defensive armor of an ar- madillo. The ordinary jaw teeth have nothing to do with the poisoning process, and wounds from them would prove fatal only under exceptional conditions. The venom of a serpent is a rather thick fluid, secreted in two glands that are situated on the side of the upper jaw, under the skin, behind the eye. In the stomach of an animal it is supposed to be harmless, and we know that in many cases it is so. To produce death, it must be injected into SNAKE POISONS— TREATMENT 117 the blood, by a method that is practically instantaneous, and very effective. First there must be a puncture, then the in- jection of the poison. To pierce the skin and flesh, the rattlesnake has two .special teeth, called fangs, which are very long, slender, slightly curved, and exceedingly sharp at the point. A slender tube traverses the axis of the fang, from the root almost to the point, for the passage of the venom. Around each fang is a flexible sheath of tough, white skin, evidently for its protection. The fang of a diamond-backed rattlesnake — the largest species — is about an inch in length. The small bone in which it is set at the root (maxillary) is so hinged by tough ligaments attaching to the roof of the mouth that it has some freedom of motion. When the jaws are closed, the fangs lie against the roof of the mouth. When the serpent strikes an enemy with the intention of poisoning it, the mouth is opened widely, the pterygoid bone pushes hard against the maxillary, and the sheathed fangs are thrown forward until they look like great hooks of white skin. A serpent cannot be rendered permanently harmless by the removal of its fangs, because the fangs are constantly re- newed. Each operating fang is backed up by a series of smaller ones, of different sizes, growing and awaiting their turn to do duty, and drop away. An adult fang is shed every six or eight weeks. The old tooth does not drop out until the new one is close beside it, duly connected with the poison gland, and ready for duty. Then the old fang either drops out, or is left sticking in the next animal bitten. 118 SERPENTS Even if fangs were pulled out, the poison sac would re- main, and a scratch from the jaw teeth, duly poisoned, would endanger the life of the patient. In striking to do mischief, the function of the lower jaw is to get under the part to be bitten, and press it up firmly against the attack of the fangs. The mechanism by which the fangs are thrown forward consists of a series of levers, and the special student will be greatly interested in the pub- lished drawings which illustrate its details. It is admirably shown in "Amphibia and Reptilia," by Dr. H. Gadow. EFFECT OF THE POISON. — It is obviously impossible in a work of this nature to enter into this subject at length. In lieu of this, we will offer a very brief digest of what we believe to be absolute facts. These have been gleaned with care from several sources, but I make special acknowledgment to Dr. Leonhard Stejneger's presentation of the subject in his admirable monograph on "The Poisonous Snakes of North America."1 There are two ways for the introduction of snake-poison into the system of a warm-blooded animal: (1) through the bloody by direct connection with a vein or artery, and (2) through the skin and muscles, one or both. Although some of the great investigators differ somewhat on this point, it now seems reasonably certain that the man- ner in which snake poison acts is by paralyzing the circula- tion of the blood, the breathing organs, the nerves, and even the digestive organs. The effect on the blood is a decrease 1 Government Publication. For sale by the Bureau of Public Documents, Washington, D. C. SNAKE POISONS— TREATMENT 119 in the strength and rapidity of the flow. In the nerve.s (after the first period of excitement), drowsiness ensues, which in fatal cases often lasts until death. The breathing is gradu- ally diminished in strength and volume. The brain is usu- ally the last organ to succumb. Dr. Stejneger's conclusion is that "the death which follows the introduction of the venom into the circulation must be attributed to gastro-intestinal apoplexy, and the stupefying action exercised directly upon the nervous system." Venom introduced directly into the blood acts with great rapidity. When introduced hypodermically, through the skin and muscles, its action is much slower, and if the case is treated with great vigor from the very start, the patient has a fair chance to recover. Except from cobra bites, very many do recover. The most dangerous snake bites are those inflicted upon the neck or face. The least dangerous are those upon the feet, the legs below the knees, and the hands and forearms. TREATMENT. — There is small need to apologize for re- cording here the fundamental principles that should be car- ried out in case of accident. In the first place, any one who expects to campaign in a country infested with poisonous snakes should expend $5.00 in the purchase of a small pocket- case containing a hypodermic syringe, a bottle of chromic acid 1 to 100, and another of liquid strychnine. Only the boldest and most enterprising travellers ever get beyond the sphere of influence of whiskey and brandy. During the last ten years, medical men have been con- ducting investigations and making experiments to produce a 120 SERPENTS universal antidote for snake poisons. These efforts have pro- duced the now celebrated antivenomous serum, discovered by Dr. Calmette, of the Pasteur Institute of Lille, France. It is obtained by very gradually injecting cobra venom into the flesh of a living domestic animal, and giving Nature time to counteract the poison by her own methods. Eventually the subject becomes immune to these injections, and pro- duces within itself a product which when injected into other animals renders them immune. This material, .now popularly known as antivenine, is prepared in large quantities, and sent all over the civilized world for use against animal poisons generally. Aside from the use of the antitoxin referred to, the key- notes of the treatment of a snake-bitten patient are, bleeding the wound, isolation of the bitten part if it be possible, the application of an antidote, and stimulation. In case of an accident, the regular medical treatment appears to be about as follows: 1. Cut across the wound, or stab it, and compel it to bleed freely. 2. Tie a ligature, of cloth, rope, or string, around the bitten member, above the wound, to keep back, as long as possible, the poisoned blood from the veins of the body. 3. If antivenomous serum is at hand, inject it according to the directions which accompany it. 4. Give any alcoholic stimulant that may be available, in small doses, at frequent intervals; but remember that a quantity of any strong stimulant will do more harm than good, and may actually hasten complete paralysis and death. SNAKE POISONS— TREATMENT 121 Ammonia is of very little use, if any; and its use depends so much upon conditions that it should be employed only by a physician. 5. If the serum is not available, inject directly into the wound, as quickly as possible after the accident, a solution of chromic acid or permanganate of potash, 1 to 100, and see to it that the hypodermic needle penetrates to the bottom of each wound. In the absence of a syringe, bathe the wound with the solution. 6. Having done all possible at the wound itself, then give hypodermic injections, on leg or arm, of "15 to 20 minims of liquid strychnine, every 20 minutes, until slight tetanic spasms appear." (Stejneger.) 7. The ligature must be loosened from time to time, to permit a limited circulation of fresh blood, or mortification will ensue. 8. If medical aid is within reach, it should be procured as speedily as possible, but in most cases, the life of the patient depends upon what is done for him during the first hour fol- lowing the accident. MR. GRUBER'S TREATMENT. — A practical method by which to escape death from the bite of a rattlesnake can be learned of Mr. Peter Gruber, of Rochester, New York, who has been bitten about twenty times. His method of treating himself was described to the writer as follows : "I no longer suck the venom from a wound. Unless a man's mouth is in very perfect condition it is dangerous. My first act is to take my knife and cut a slit an inch and a half long straight from my body into the wound, and continue SERPENTS it the same distance beyond; and I make these two cuts bleed freely. This is to make the poisoned blood flow out of my veins, instead of farther into them, to poison my whole sys- tem. After the wound has bled as much as I think it should, I inject the permanganate above and around the wound. The proper proportion is one five-grain tablet of permanga- nate of potash dissolved in two ounces of water, and I inject about thirty minims — the capacity of a hypodermic syringe — about three times around and above the wound. I always have it ready, and I bathe the wound with this solution, using absorbent cotton to cover the wound so that it is not exposed to the air. "During this time I take two or three small doses of whis- key—but not much. After the permanganate has had a chance to take effect, I bathe the wound freely with a solu- tion of two ounces of laudanum and two ounces of Goulard's extract in two quarts of water, and keep it moist with this until all unnatural colors leave it. And I drink quantities of milk — all I can swallow. After a time my stomach ejects it, and at first it comes up the color of snake venom. But I continue to take milk, again and again, until I am sure my stomach has been washed free from the poison. If the ac- tion of my heart grows weak, I inject strychnine into my arms with a hypodermic syringe." Mr. Gruber bears on his forearms and hands a number of scars, as ocular proof of the success of his method in the treatment of rattlesnake bites. AMPHIBIANS A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE CLASS AMPHIBIA ORDER ECAUDATA: THE TAILLESS AMPHIBIANS'. FROGS AND TOADS FAMILIES TYPICAL SPECIES WATER FROGS . . . Ra'ni-dae Rana clamata. TREE FROGS. TOADS. . COMMON FROG ...... BULL FROG ..... Rana catesbiana. WOOD FROG. . . . Rana sylvatica. Hy'li-dae ......... TREE FROG .... Hyla versicolor. Bu-fon'i-dae. . . . Bufo lentiginosus. BURROWING TOADS. . r> l -L *f J SPADE-FOOT . 1 0 ,. T 77 7 • Pel-o-bati-dae. . . < ™ > Scaphiopus holbrooki. ORDER URODELA: TAILED AMPHIBIANS AXOLOTL. . SALAMANDERS Sal-a-man'dri- dae. . AMPHIUMAS Am-phi-u'midae MUD-PUPPIES SIRENS. . . Pro-te'i-dae . . Amblystoma mavor- tium. SPOTTED SAL- 1 Amblystoma puncta- AMANDER. . J tum. NEWT Triton viridescens. [ Cryptobranchus (Me- HELLBENDER ^ nopoma) alleghani- ( ensis. CONGO 1 A ,. <> SHAD 247 and low forms. WHITEFISH 250 FLYING FISHES . Syn-en-tog'na-thi 1 Pectoral fins greatly enlarged; some spe- } FLYING FISH 252 cies able to fly. , , J7 . TRIGGER-FISH 254 SOLID-JAW FISHES Plec-tog'na-thi. . . BOX.FISH 255 With solidified teeth and strong jaws, p 256 Mostly with rough, file-like skins. PORCUPINE FISH.'. '. '. 256 ,, ,. f COMMON SUCKER. .. 258 SUCKERS AND MINNOWS. .Plec-to-spon'dy-h RTTFFAT^ F_H 260 T-V« i' i t_ i_ j i_ 11 J BUFFALO r iSH ZOU Differential characters based wholly upon < ^ OR1 - v^ARP .ZOI [MINNOWS 263 HALF-GILLED FISHES Hem-i-bran'chii . ] STICKLEBACK 265 With imperfect or incomplete gills. CATFISHES Nem-a-tog'na-thi Scaleless; head broad and flattened; bar- MISSISSIPPI CATFISH 270 bels around mouth; defensive spines in BULLHEAD 271 dorsal and pectoral fins. INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF FISHES 173 THE ORDERS OF LIVING FISHES ORDERS OMITTED. TYPES CHIEFLY NORTH AMERICAN SUBCLASSES BONY FISHES: Continued. GANOIDS: Armored Fishes and their allies ORDERS AND CHARACTERS FLAT-FISHES Het-e-ro-so'ma-ta Without bilateral symmetry. Both eyes TYPES AND EXAMPLES COMMON HALIBUT . . 274 on one side. Flat, oval. Swim in hori- zontal plane. FOOT-FISHES Pe-dic-u-la'ti Mouth enormous; body broad, flattened, } ANGLER 277 bag-like. Pectoral fins long at base. EELS Ap'o-des Body long, slender, snake-like. No ven- } ELECTRIC EEL 283 tral fins, no scales. PlPE-FlSHES AND SfiA-HoRSES, 1 Lo-pho-bran'chi „ T, ^ .„ . ,, , .1.1.1 u j i I PlPE-FlSH AND OEA- (jills tufted; mouth tubular; body covered ) „ with scale armor. Very unlike true | fishes. J THE DOGFISH Hal-e-co-mor1 'phi } Air bladder cellular, acting as rudimentary \ DOGFISH OR BOWFIN 290 lung. Helmet-headed. J GAR-FISHES Ging-ly-mo'di. . . . Ancient forms, covered with formidable GAR PIKE... . 294 bony armor. j ALLIGATOR GAR. ... 295 STURGEONS Glan-i-os'to-mi.. . } Body with rows of large, bony plates. ^LAKE STURGEON... 298 Mouth with barbels. j PADDLE-FISH Sel-a-chos'to-mi . . 1 Scaleless, shark-like. Broad, bony pad- \ PADDLE-FISH 303 die projecting from nose. CHIMERAS: ! CHIMERAS Chi-mae-rm'de-i. | Odd, shark-like forms. SHARKS Squa'li Scales minute; skeleton cartilaginous. CARTILAGI- Many species bring forth their young NOUS FISHES: alive. > CHIMERA COLLEI — 306 With soft skeletons. ) Lowest Fishes. RAYS AND SKATES Ra'i-ae Excessively flattened, but otherwise shark-like. Many species with long whip-like tails. MACKEREL SHARK.. 313 HAMMER-HEAD.. . 313 SHARK-RAT 314 STING RAY 317 DEVIL-FISH.. . 318 CHAPTER XLVIII ORDER OF THE CONNECTING-LINK FISHES, WITH LUNGS AND LEGS SIRENOIDEI AS in the preceding sections of this work, we will begin * ^- our studies of the Class of Fishes with the highest forms, and run down in regular course to the lowest. Of the 144 Families composing this class, as it occurs in North America, it is impossible to mention separately more than a very few of those which are of greatest importance. THE LUNG-FISHES are introduced because they are the highest of all the fishes, and form the connecting link between that class and the amphibians. Of the three genera that are known, one is found in Australia, two in Africa, one in South America, and in North America none. To some ichthyologists, the great AUSTRALIAN LUNG- FiSH1 is the most interesting of all fishes. It is not only an intermediate form between the amphibians and fishes of to-day, but it is a creature that has far outlived its natural fate. Its congeners lie embedded in Jurassic rocks 500,000 years old; and how this poor orphan of the Past escaped with its life down to the Present many have wondered, but nobody knows. As you stand before the glass tank in the end of 1 Ce-rat'o-dus fors'ter-i. 174 THE LUNG-FISH 175 the Reptile House of the London Zoo, and behold a mag- nificent living Ceratodus four feet long, with an ancestry run- ning back half a million years without a break, it makes one's brain whirl to reel in the idea. This creature's ancestors lived in the days when many fishes were struggling to develop legs and lungs, with which to go on land, and become salamanders THE AUSTRALIAN LUNG-FISH. first, then lizards. It is said that this fish sometimes leaves the water and goes about on adjacent mud flats, like the jump- ing fish of the Malay Peninsula; but the statement needs confirmation. The Australian Lung-Fish is from 4 to 5 feet long, and it is said that its maximum weight is about 20 pounds. It breathes air over its palate like a reptile, and its swimming- bladder is so developed that it does duty as low-class lungs. Its gills are very small and imperfect, and of little use. The top of its skull is quite unlike those of other fishes, and its 176 CONNECTING-LINK FISHES scales are very large. Its pectoral and ventral fins are very long and leg-like, and are covered with scales everywhere save on the edges, where the fin-rays are situated. One of the most extraordinary features of this strange fish is the possession of large and very remarkable molar teeth, those above being set in the palate (vomer), and evidently designed for the cutting up of vegetable food. Leaving bony anatomy out of consideration, it is quite clear that the living fish which stands nearest to Ceratodus is the jumping fish or mud-skipper, of the Malay Peninsula, which hops about on land with surprising independence and agility. Its long pec- toral fins are really foot-like in usefulness. Both in the Burnett and Mary Rivers of Queensland, where it lives, and also in captivity, this Lung-Fish frequently rises to the surface of the water to take breath, like a porpoise. The allied Mud-Fish (Lepidosi'reri) of the Amazon, and the African Mud-Fish (Protop'terus) of the River Gambia, have legs that are mere wisps of skin and flesh, and strongly re- semble our Amphiuma, of the Class Amphibia. They are rarely seen alive in captivity. CHAPTER XLIX ORDER OF THE SPINY-FINNED FISHES ACANTHOPTERI EVEN of forms classed as North American, this gigantic and rather unwieldy Order contains 45 Families and 483 species. Fortunately the groups which are of general interest are sufficiently limited in number that it is possible to place representatives of them before the reader. THE BASSES AND SUN FISHES Cen-trar'chi-dae The Bass and Sunfish Family enjoys, on the whole, the widest popularity of all the finny Families of North America. With due respect to the justly distinguished Trout Family, I believe its members are known personally to a much smaller number of people than those of the Bass Family. The reason is that the latter are abundant in the most densely populated portions of the United States, while the human neighbors of the trout are comparatively few. This Family (of thirty species) leads from the narrow- bodied and athletic black bass, by regular gradations in breadth through the rock bass, calico bass, and their allies down to the little gem-like sunfish, with the extreme width of body and the limit of smallness and timidity. The black 177 178 SPINY-FINNED FISHES bass fights like a wild-cat, the sunfish can be taken on a bent pin at the end of a cotton string; but observe this proportion: The Sunfish is to the Small Boy as the Black Bass is to the Man. It is good to find in Nature a Family whose members run from top to bottom in a stair-like series; for if so studied, the natural sequence is a great aid to the memory. We there- fore begin with the narrowest fish, and descend to the broadest. Surely, the BLACK BASS, be his mouth large or small, is a fish fit to head a Family. You can catch an eight-pound yellow pike-perch, and think you have hooked a bunch of weeds; but if you hook a two-pound Black Bass you know at once that you have engaged a Fish. For its size, this is the bravest and the gamiest fish that swims in our waters. In size and in silver the tarpon is truly the silver king of game fishes ; but if he had Black-Bass energy and courage in proportion to his size, no hook-and-line angler in a small boat would bring him alive up to the end of a twelve-ounce rod. The Black Bass has the narrowest body and the darkest color found in the Bass Family. It is built for speed and strength, and colored for concealment. There are two species, so very much alike that there is practically but one point of difference— the size of the mouth; and naturally their habits are quite identical. It is important to remember, however, that in color and markings, individuals vary most strangely and unaccountably. Some are uniform dark and light; others are mottled, much and little. BLACK BASS 179 THE SMALL-MOUTHED BLACK BAss1 is the fish of the East and North, from western New Hampshire to Manitoba, and southward to South Carolina and the northern Gulf states to Arkansas. It is a pity that so fine a fish should not be handsomely colored, but it is really very plain and unattractive. Its back is usually a uniform dull olive-green, the sides being some- what lighter. A Bass of 3 pounds' weight may fairly be counted a large one, but this species has been known to at- tain a length of 18% inches, and a weight of 5 pounds. This is strictly a clear-water fish, and for this reason its capture is a source of pleasure beyond anything that can be drawn from muddy waters. It takes live minnows, or worms, or a neat trolling spoon, but resists the hook and the dip- net to the last extremity. Its flesh is excellent, and its prop- agation a matter of both state and national importance. It has been planted successfully in so many bodies of water outside its original range that the limits of the latter are likely to be lost to view. "Black Bass are increasing all over the country, too much so in some places, as they are cleaning out the trout and other fishes from waters in which the Black Bass never should have been placed." (Hugh M. Smith.) In 1912 the number of Black Bass distributed by the Fish- eries Bureau was 1,065,692. The Small-Mouthed Black Bass has the corner of its mouth directly under the front angle of the eye, while the mouth of the LARGE-MouTHED2 species terminates under the rear corner of the eye. The range of the latter is from Man- 1 Mi-crop fter-us dol'o-mieu. 2 M. sal-moi'des. 180 SPINY-FINNED FISHES itoba, southward to the Gulf states, and spreads through the latter to Texas and Florida. The latest figures representing the annual catch of "Black Basses" are as follows: Middle Atlantic states (1904), 168,170 pounds, worth $14,657 South Atlantic states (1902), 648,235 " 70,524 Gulf states (1902), 84,730 5,835 Pacific states (1904), 93,500 2,910 994,635 " " $93,926 THE ROCK BASS, or RED-EYE,1 stands next in width of body to the black bass, and intermediate between it and the next species. Sometimes the resemblance between the Rock and calico bass is so close as to be at first sight a little confusing. But spread the dorsal fin to its full extent, and it will tell the story. In the Rock Bass it is long, rather low, and its front half contains eleven stout spines, of nearly equal length. The calico bass has a short and high dorsal fin, with only seven large spines, and the body of the fish is of greater depth. The Rock Bass is a fish of the Great Lakes region and Mississippi Valley — a clear- water fish, of habits quite similar to the black bass. Every way considered, it is a very perfect connecting link between the black bass and the next species. Its weight seldom exceeds 1J/2 pounds. THE WARMOUTH BASS2 is a fish of the South, and in form is an intermediate between the rock bass and calico bass. THE CALICO BASS, or STRAWBERRY BASS,3 is a handsome and substantial fish. Its bright, silvery coat is beautifully 1 Am-blop'li-tes ru-pes'tris. 2 Chae-no-bryt'tus gu-lo'sus. 8 Po-mox'is spa-roi'des. CALICO BASS 183 mottled with olive-green blotches, so regularly splashed on as to suggest the pattern of a piece of calico. Take, if you please, a beautiful bay on the southern shore of Lake Ontario, a sunny day in May, no hotels or cottages in sight, with red-winged blackbirds singing "0-ka-lee'" in the cat-tails, and the Calico Bass becomes one of the prettiest fish you can pull out of the water. Each time it gives a firm and vigorous bite, and leaves the water with a swish that once heard under proper conditions lives long in the memory. I like the Calico Bass because it is so handsome, so well set-up, so substantial on the string and so satisfactory on the table. A large specimen measures only about 10* inches in length, but by reason of its great depth of body, and its thickness, too, it is a fish well worth having. Its weight never exceeds 2 pounds, and usually is about 1 pound. Besides the names given above, it is called the Grass Bass, Barfish, and "Crappie"; but the latter name belongs to another species. The Calico Bass is at home throughout the whole region of the Great Lakes, the valley of the Mississippi to Louisiana and Texas, and along the Atlantic side down to the Carolinas and Georgia. In the beautiful lakes and ponds of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota it is abundant and highly valued. It can be taken still-fishing with worms, miijnows, and grass- hoppers, and also with a small trolling spoon. It dislikes warm and muddy waters, it is a clean feeder, not quarrelsome or destructive to weaker species, and is said to increase rapidly. In 1900 only 7,544 were distributed by the United States Bureau of Fisheries, but by 1902 the 184 SPTNY-FINNED FISTTKS number of Calico Bass and crappic had risen to 7'5S,(>71. The latest figures thai make any showing of an annual catch of Strawberry Bass and crappie are as follows: Mississippi River and tributaries (1903) 1,118,770 pounds, worth $53,224 Minor interior waters (1900-19Q3) . . 25,O.SO 810 1,143,800 $54,0:54 It seems to me that for stocking northern lakes and ponds this is one of the most desirable of all the smaller fishes; and I wish long life and prosperity to the Calico Bass! THE CiiAPPiE1 is a muddy-water understudy of the pre- ceding species. In some portions of the North, the two species overlap each other, but in the main the Crappie is a southern fish. THE SUNFISHES are dividtnl into fifteen species, arid as a group their range covers the whole of the United States east- ward of the Great Plains. Poor indeed in fish life is the pond or stream between Maine and Texas, Dakota and Florida which contains no sunfish, bream, or blue-gills, pump- kin-seed, or dollaree. In about nine cases out of ten, the first fish that dangles from the first hook-and-line of I he very small American angler is a sunfish. Small though it be, and feeble, it is yet a Fish; and it is large enough to open to Child- hood the door to a great wonderworld of fish and fishing. Where is the veteran fresh-water angler who does not recall the electric thrills of his first "bite," and his first living, wriggling, scintillating sunfish! Blessings be upon their 1 Po-mox'is an-nu-lar'is. THE SUNFISIT 185 rainbow-tinted sides for the joys they have been, are and yet will be to Childhood! Out of so many species it is difficult to select representa- tives, but it seems that first choice should fall upon the following: THE COMMON SUNFISH, or PUMPKIN-SEED. ] — This is the brilliant olive-green, blue and orange-yellow fish which, when taken dripping from the water, has all the colors of a green opal, and several more. It is distinguishable by the touch of bright scarlet on the lower portion of its gill-covers. It is found in clear ponds, large brooks, and other streams from Florida, northward and eastward of the Appalachian chain to Maine, thence westward through the Great Lakes region to Iowa and Manitoba. It is subject to considerable varia- tions in color markings. In the Great Lakes, this fish attains a weight of iy2 pounds, but elsewhere a specimen (> inches in length and weighing 8 ounces is considered a large one. THE BLUE-GILL or BLACK-GiLL2 is the largest of the sun- fishes. Its opercle, or gill-cover, terminates on the side in an ear-like flap which is of a deep black color; and this conspicu- ous character at once proclaims the species. This fish is found throughout the Great Lakes region and Mississippi Valley. It sometimes attains a length of 12 inches, and a weight of \y^ feet in length. They inhabit the Missis- sippi and its tributaries, and in the spawning season push their way even into the larger 'lakes and flooded marshes of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota. I have seen specimens weighing between 30 and 40 pounds caught in the Mississippi, at Burlington, Iowa, by hand-line fishing between lumber rafts, with about as much interest and enthusiasm on the part of the fisherman as usually attends the capture of a good strawberry bass. One fat and fearless "angler" sat on a chair and baited his hook with cheese. But let no one underrate the economic importance of the Buffalo Fish. The catch of 1899, chiefly in Illinois, Arkansas, Mississippi and Missouri, in the order named, amounted to 14,221,988 pounds, worth $350,026. Since 1899 the Buffalo-Fish has held its own remarkably well. The Mississippi River and tributaries yielded (1903) 11,491,633 pounds, worth $312,303 The Great Lakes (1903) yielded. . . . 2,002 45 The interior waters (1900-03) yielded 33,866 1,493 11,527,501 $313,841 1 Mox-os-to'ma au-re-o'lum. 2 The common Buffalo Fish is Ic-ti'o-bus cyp-ri-nel'la. THE GERMAN CARP 261 THE GERMAN CARP1 was introduced into the United States by Mr. R. Poppe in 1872, and in 1877 by the United States Bureau of Fisheries, because of the fact that in Ger- many it is considered a good food fish, and can live and GERMAN SEALED CARP. thrive in muddy ponds and streams. By thousands of prairie dwellers it was received gladly, especially throughout the Great Plains, where any fish with scales is welcomed. The free distribution of young Carp led a great many per- sons to apply for them, and plant them in ponds, from which they afterward found their way into streams that contained fishes infinitely their superior. 1 Cy-pri'nus car'pi-o. £62 SUCKERS, CARP, AND MINNOWS Between the years 1877 and 1885 the streams of very nearly the whole Pacific coast of the United States were stocked with Carp. At first they were placed in ponds, but through "moving accident, by flood and field," they reached the rivers, and impregnated them and all their tributaries. At first they were highly esteemed, and sometimes greatly overpraised. It was claimed that they were hardy, prolific, harmless to other fishes, rapid in growth, persistent under adverse conditions and acceptable , on the table. Beyond question, under certain conditions nearly all these claims are justified by the facts! But when the novelty wore off the Carp, the cold-blooded critic began to say things. By him it was pointed out that Carp stir up the mud in all mud-bottomed ponds inhabited by them, and keep the water murky. This is quite true; and to keep the mud-loving Carp from perpetually soiling and disfiguring the once clear and beautiful waters of the Merced Lakes, in California, first sea-lions, and then muskallunge, were introduced to exterminate the Carp. In California the Carp is now ranked with the intro- duced catfish, as an unwelcome guest. It is claimed that Carp consume to a serious extent the wild celery and grasses on which wild ducks feed, and the duck supply is diminished .thereby; but this charge remains to be proven. The chances are as ninety-nine to one that the choke-bore shotgun is the real and the only cause of the decrease in wild ducks. It is also claimed that Carp eat the eggs of other fishes; which is extremely probable, for very many fishes do that. Whatever may be said for or against the desirability of MINNOWS 263 the Carp in America, one important fact remains unassailed. That fish is now thoroughly established in our waters, and is here to stay. It is now in demand as a market fish. The annual catch about ten years ago was as follows: POUNDS WORTH The Mississippi River and tributaries (1903) 12,270,346 $278,565 The Great Lakes (1903) 4,237,643 71,285 Interior waters (1900-03) 1,016,129 12,029 17,524,118 $361,879 To-day the testimony of the United States Fish Com- missioner is as follows (1914) : " While fly fishermen still have no words of praise for the Carp, the fish consumer has a different attitude, in view of the fact that the Carp imported from Germany has become the most widely distributed and most important fish in the interior waters of the United States. The catch at this time probably exceeds 50,000,000 pounds annually. A great deal more has been expected of the Carp than was ever claimed for it by Professor Baird, and, as you know, the fish was planted in waters to which it was entirely unadapted. For the warm, sluggish, turbid waters of the great central sec- tion of the country, where the Carp has taken firmest hold and become most abundant, this fish has few superiors." (Hugh M. Smith.) MINNOWS. — No common fishes of our country, it is safe to say, are so little understood, or so generally misunderstood, as those classed under the above name. To most persons, a "Minnow" is a tiny young fish, from 1 to 3 inches in length, useful only as bait for bass and other fishes. 264 SUCKERS, CARP, AND MINNOWS The Minnow Family contains (says "American Food and Game Fishes") 200 genera, and more than 1,000 species, of which about 225 are found in our waters. Many a Minnow only 2 inches in length is a fully grown fish; but some species of Minnows attain a length of from 1 to 2 feet. One of the Pacific coast species (the Squaw-Fish) sometimes reaches a length of 4 feet. For obvious reasons, it is impracticable to attempt to set forth even the leading species of this extensive Family, but it is proper to mention that to it belong the Hornyhead, of the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys, the Fallfish of the northern Atlantic states, the Common Chub of the northeastern states, the Columbia Chub of the far northwestern states, and the Utah Lake Chub of Utah and northwestern Wyoming. CHAPTER LV ORDER OF HALF-GILLED FISHES HEMIBRANCHII BECAUSE of the fact that a few very small fishes have less than their rightful number of gill-arches, and shoulder-girdles with one bone only instead of two, the Order of Half-Gilled Fishes has been created. THE STICKLEBACKS are very small fishes, only a few inches in length, and derive their name from the formidable dorsal spines that stand upon the back in front of the dorsal fin. We have Two-Spined, Four-Spined, and Ten-Spined Sticklebacks, all three being found in brackish water along the Atlantic coast from Cape Ann to New Jersey. All the Sticklebacks are celebrated for their nest-building habits. The abdomen of the male fish has been provided with a large gland which is "filled with a clear secretion which coagulates into threads" when it conies in contact with water. At first the fluid is colorless, but after contact with water it becomes whitish, and its many fibres hang together like strings of spaghetti. (Ryder.) The entire work of nest-building is performed by the male Stickleback. It begins by selecting a bottom situation, in a gentle current, wherein the nest can be attached to two 265 266 HALF-GILLED FISHES or more stems of growing vegetation, and anchored fast. Some observers say that the fish first brings a few stems and bits of vegetation, and by means of his gelatinous secretion practically ties them fast to the upright stalks* to use as a foundation. The fish then proceeds to exude its secretion -and dispose it in commingling rings, vertically, around a space sufficiently TWO-SPINED STICKLEBACK. large for the female Stickleback to pass through. In a man- ner nothing short of marvellous, a hood-like nest is spun, of the fish's own secretion, which well retains its shape for some weeks. In this the female deposits her eggs, all the time jealously watched by the male, to prevent her from eating them! The male guards the eggs until they are hatched, and it is said that if the current flowing through the nest does not meet his views as to strength, the fish in- creases the volume of it by moving its pectoral fins to and fro. Sticklebacks are sometimes kept in aquaria in order that they may show their wonderful intelligence in nest- building. THE STICKLEBACK 267 THE TWO-SPINED STICKLEBACK* will serve as a type for the whole Order. It is only about 7 inches long, and has no commercial value. It is said to occur in quiet brackish waters along our coast, but is seldom brought into notice outside of aquaria. 1 Gas-ter-os'te-us a-cu-le-a'tus. CHAPTER LVI ORDER OF CATFISHES NEMATOGNATHI ACQUAINTANCE with this numerous Family usually >L\ begins with the bullhead, which is merely a pygmy catfish. Even when a lad in prairie-land, thirsting for open water and aquatics, and looking upon every mile of running water as an enchanted realm, the bullhead did not appeal to me as a genuine fish. Even when most eager to "quit, and go a-fishing, and call it half a day," we drew the line at that ill-shaped, skinny body, ugly head and wide-gaping mouth with barbels that suggest dripping saliva. To me it was, and still is, a repulsive creature, and its only feature worthy of respect is the outfit of sharp and dangerous spines with which its dorsal and pectoral fins are furnished. Excepting the big Mississippi catfish, it is the most unat- tractive fish inhabiting our fresh waters, and as an angler's proposition, it is worse than an eel. It is easily taken on a trot-line; and the "trot-line," set for all night across a stream, and hung with about twenty short lines and hooks, represents the lowest depths of depravity in fishing with hook and line. It is even lower than fishing with four poles. With a tenacity of purpose worthy of a better species, the bullhead ramifies throughout the muddiest rivers and 268 THE BULLHEAD 269 creeks of the United States, and in the heat of midsummer holds on whence all but him have fled. He was built for mud bottoms and murky waters, and so long as the mud is thin enough to swim in, and deep enough to float him, he remains. Drawn by J. Carter Heard. COMMON BULLHEAD. When removed from his native element, the tenacity of life of this creature is astonishing. A bullhead will lie on the bank in midsummer sunshine and breathe hot air for an hour without giving up. The species of catfishes found in the United States num- ber about thirty, but it is recorded that elsewhere there are about 970 more, representing in all about 100 genera. Of 270 CATFISHES our series, all save four are confined to the eastern half of the United States. THE MISSISSIPPI CATFISH/ or BLUE CAT, of the Mis- sippi River and Gulf states is the giant of its genus. Even when alive and in good health, it is a very ugly fish — heavy - paunched and mud-colored. It looks like a fish modelled out of river mud. I saw a specimen taken at Burlington, Iowa, which weighed 93 pounds, and have heard of others exceed- ing 100 pounds. Jordan and Evermann say the "record specimen weighed 150 pounds," and was caught at St. Louis; but the mischievous evenness of the figure casts doubt upon the reliability of the record. Very naturally, the tons of edible flesh annually contrib- uted by this fish to our national food supply are not wasted. Thousands of persons like the flesh of Catfish and bullheads, and in twelve months of 1899-1901, twenty-six states and six great lakes yielded twelve and a half million pounds, worth $503,562. Illinois headed the list with 1,569,615 pounds, worth $68,535. THE CHANNEL CATFISH2 is the large Catfish of the North, and also the Mississippi Valley, which so closely resembles the preceding species that it is at best very difficult — and sometimes impossible — to distinguish them. It is, however, much smaller than the blue cat, and instead of frequenting sluggish waters, it displays a decided preference for river channels and clear water when it can be found. Naturally enough, its flesh is said to be of better flavor than the more sluggish, mud-inhabiting blue cat. 1 Ic-tu-lu'rus fur-ca'tus. * Ic-tu-lu'rus punc-ta'tus. THE CATFISH PRODUCT 271 The latest complete record of an annual catch of the Catfishes throughout the United States is as follows: Northeastern states (1905) .... 104,265 pounds, worth $1,459 Middle Atlantic states '(1904). 1,422,886 62,676 South Atlantic states (1902) . . 1,310,392 30,976 Gulf states (1902) 2,415,315 7^,991 Pacific coast (1904) 923,144 " " 27,292 6,176,002 $195,394 THE COMMON BULLHEAD/ or HORNED POUT, is merely a small, cheap catfish, whose room is better than his com- pany. It ranges from the Atlantic well into the eastern edge of the Great Plains, and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf. Much to the displeasure of many persons in California, three species of catfish have been introduced into many streams on the Pacific coast. Concerning them, the San Francisco Evening Bulletin has thus recorded the facts, and its views thereon: 'Then the fish commissioners made another unfortunate experiment, against the strongest protests that could be put forth. They introduced the hated and almost worth- less Catfish to the waters of California. These fish, like the carp, have multiplied rapidly. It was reported, in answer to protests made at the time, that only a superior kind of Catfish would be introduced, against which there could be no objection. But they turned out to be the same old toughs that have occupied western rivers and bayous to the exclu- sion of better fish. These Catfish are voracious feeders on 1 A-mei'u-rus neb-u-lo'sus. 272 CATFISHES young trout and salmon. Their value is so low that very few seek them. The Chinese sell them occasionally, as they do carp, if they can find a customer. But most consumers turn away from these fish in disgust." CHAPTER LVI1 ORDER OF FLATFISHES HETEROSOMATA THE flounders, halibuts, soles, plaice and turbots make up the very desirable and important Order of Flat- fishes. When in doubt about an English or continental breakfast, order a fried sole and you are safe; for so trust- worthy is this fish that only the most bungling cook can spoil it. In England the sole is almost a national institution, but on our side its counterpart, the small flounder, is not so plentiful that it attains equal importance on the daily bill of fare. The Order of Flatfishes, all the world over, is very large, "containing about fifty-five genera and nearly five hundred species." Among its members some of the halibuts attain great size. Almost any member of this Order is recognizable at one glance, by its broad, oval form, almost completely encircled by the fringe-like dorsal and anal fins, and the pres- ence of both eyes on the upper side of the body. The body is so thin that "flat as a flounder" is a standard comparison wherever the English language is spoken. The Flatfishes are good examples of protective coloring. All these fishes swim and rest with their bodies in a hori- zontal position. The upper surface, or back, is always dark- est, and in many instances it is so skilfully colored and 273 274 FLATFISHES mottled in imitation of the sandy bottom on which it lives, that when at rest on the floor of the ocean or aquarium the fish is almost invisible. On the other hand, the under side of the fish is white, or cream color, in order that to enemies below it, looking upward, it will match the light of the upper world. As food fishes, the majority of the Flatfishes are very desirable. Their flesh is excellent, and their bones are few and far between. The flesh of the halibut is very white and firm, and, whether fresh or smoked, it is highly palatable. The common flounders are so well known they require no special notice. The species most common on our coast is the WINTER FLOUNDER,1 which is caught in great numbers, and of all our Flatfishes is next in value to the great halibut. It is a small species, with an average weight of about 3 pounds, and a maximum of 5 pounds, or thereabouts. It has been extensively propagated by the United States Bureau of Fisheries. THE COMMON HALIBUT2 is a cold-water fish of com- manding importance. It is widely dispersed throughout both the North Atlantic, North Pacific and circumpolar waters, not only in shallow waters and the offshore banks, but also on the sides of the sea-bottom slopes down to 1,500 feet. In the Atlantic, fishermen say, the species stops at the latitude of the Delaware River. The fisheries along the west coast of Greenland are so important that regularly every year a number of schooners from Connecticut and Massa- chusetts go north, sometimes beyond the Arctic Circle, and 1 Pseu'do-pleu'ro-nec'tes americanus. 2 Hip-po-glos'sus hip-po-glos'sus. HALIBUT 275 return loaded with Halibut to within three feet of their deck-beams. On the Pacific coast, according to Dr. T. H. Bean, the Common Halibut ranges from the Farallone Islands, oppo- site San Francisco, to Bering Strait, its centre of abundance THE COMMON HALIBUT. being found in the Gulf of Alaska, near Kadiak. In 1913 the catch of Alaskan Halibut amounted to 13,687,784 pounds, valued at $671,314. In point of size this fish is surpassed in our waters by no other good food fish, the 500-pound jewfishes being out of that class. A large Halibut is one which weighs 250 pounds or more. The largest of reliable record (at least from our waters) was observed by Captain Atwood, at Provincetown, Massachusetts. It weighed 401 pounds gross (we are thank- ful for that odd one pound!) and 322 pounds dressed. Dr. G. Brown Goode states that a Halibut weighing 350 pounds is from 7 to 8 feet long, by nearly 4 feet wide. 276 FLATFISHES The roe of a fish weighing nearly 200 pounds, which was caught at a depth of 200 fathoms, in water only 4° above freezing-point, weighed 17 pounds, 2 ounces. A careful cal- culation made at the laboratory of the United States Bureau of Fisheries showed that the number of eggs in the mass was about 2,182,773. In. the year 1912 the catch of North Atlantic Halibut landed at Boston and Gloucester; Massachusetts, amounted to 3,541,539 pounds, valued at $347,250. CHAPTER LVIII ORDER OF FOOT-FISHES PEDICULATI THE strange creatures which form the group of so-called Foot-Fishes are introduced here, not in the expectation of close acquaintance with many of them, but rather that they may not remain absolute strangers to us. They live on the bottom of the sea, are not edible and, being devoid of all value to mankind, they are safe from extermination. The most of them are also safe from close observation. Struc- turally, they stand next to the foot of the Subclass of Bony Fishes. THE ANGLER, or GoosEFisn,1 is the typical representa- tive of this Order. Among fishermen it is so well known that it has received twenty-one English names, and in the languages of continental Europe about fifty more. (G. Brown Goode.) It is the glutton of the sea, and its body is merely a purse- like attachment to a mouth that is fearful and wonderful to behold. It has a mouth and an appetite like an old-fashioned carpet-bag, and to it no living thing comes amiss. At pres- ent the body of this creature is painfully small for a mouth so ambitious and all-absorbing, but evolution is doing its 1 Loph'i-us pis-ca-to'ri-us. 277 278 FOOT-FISHES perfect work, and eventually the maw of the Angler will be developed on the same scale as its mouth. By taste and habit the Angler is in the same class as the human fish-hog who fishes with three poles at once. He lies on the bottom of the sea, where the muddy mottlings of his skin give him the appearance of mud and sand, opens his head widely, and props it open, for the free admission of any fish, crustacean, reptile or aquatic bird that chooses to enter. Dr. Goode observes that the Goosefish derived that name from the swallowing of live geese, and that there is an authentic record of the capture of one which contained seven wild ducks. A fully -grown Angler is about 4 feet long, and its mouth is a little more than a fopt wide. From snout to tail its lower jaw and the median line of the body are fringed with tiny barbels most cunningly calculated to lure unsuspecting fishes within seizing distance. The weight of a large specimen is from 35 to 40 pounds. In our. longitudes it is used only for bait, but Dr. Goode says that "in Italy it is much esteemed as an article of food." No doubt of it. In Naples they eat stewed octopus; which I can testify is as tender and palatable as rubber hose stewed in brine, but not any more so. CHAPTER LIX ORDER OF EELS APODES WHENEVER a fish-like creature looks so much like a snake that it becomes necessary to inform people "it is not a snake, but a fish," then it is time to place it and all such creatures at the foot of the class of Bony Fishes. But for the good, hard bones in its skeleton, its descent to a position below the Order of Rays would be swift and sure. As a real fish, an eel is little more than a caricature, and he who eats it must first skin it, just as the Dyaks of Borneo do their water snakes before they roast them. It is the vul- ture of the waters, and prefers to feed upon things dead. But again are we reminded that there is no accounting for differences in taste. Both in Europe and America they have been eaten ever since the days of the Cave-Dweller and Mound-Builder. And even to-day they are devoured, not with toleration, but with a degree of avidity worthy of better meat. A German writer who catalogued the good points of the eel set forth prominently the fact that it is an excellent scavenger, and devours dead fish, crabs and any fleshy prey, living or dead, that it can secure. Those who wish to pursue the subject of the food habits of the eel to its logical conclu- 281 282 EELS sion can find it in a notable epic by Canon Ingoldsby, entitled "The Knight and the Lady." Nevertheless, in times past the eel has contributed a great store of edible flesh to the people of New England— where some of the finest of fishes have always been abundant! There eels are eaten — stewed, fried, pickled and salted. The flavor of an eel is not half bad, but its choice of food is decidedly objectionable. If eels are to be eaten by civilized people, then why draw the line at sharks, whose flesh is far superior to that of eels? The United States Bureau of Fisheries has taken the eel quite seriously, and been at considerable pains to introduce it in the upper Mississippi Valley, the Great Lakes above Niagara Falls, and on the Pacific coast. And yet, Professor Baird recorded this very pertinent statement: "It [the eel] is, however, a very undesirable inmate of rivers in which fish are taken by means of gill-nets, the destruc- tion of shad and herring in the waters of the Susquehanna and others farther south being enormous. It is not unfre- quent that, when a gill-net is hauled up, the greater part of the catch consists simply of heads and backbones, the remainder being devoured by myriads of eels in the short time the net is left out." Is such a rapacious scavenger as this a species worthy of introduction in any new waters save those of an avowed enemy? The maximum length of the COMMON EEL* is about 4 feet, but the average length is less than 3 feet. The female 1 An-gu-il'la vul-gar'is. THE ELECTRIC EEL 283 lays an enormous number of eggs — estimated at ten millions —preferably in salt water; but the young enter fresh water to develop and ascend as far as they can go. THE ELECTRIC EEL1 of South America is an Eel worth knowing. Having had with it some thrilling experiences, I can speak of it feelingly. Once while canoeing for zoological specimens in the delta of the Orinoco, we entered a large creek flowing into the THE ELECTRIC EEL. main stream from the south, and ascended it to the head of canoe navigation. It was a clear and beautiful stream, full of zoological wonders, and its Venezuelan name was Canyo del Toro, or Bull Creek. On the way up, our bow boatman checked the speed' of the canoe, pointed to a straight, round stick of wood floating in the water about a foot below the sur- face, and said in an awestruck tone, " Tremblador! Grande!" The stick of wood was smooth, barkless and of a bluish- gray color; and in reality it was a large specimen of the renowned and dreaded Electric Eel. Acting on the collector's principle that the first specimen 1 Gym-no'tus e-lec'tri-cus. 284 EELS seen must be the first one taken, my companion poised his capybara spear and drove it into the creature's body. The detachable head promptly came off, and the spearman held fast to the handle. Instantly the big Eel became a storm centre of the first magnitude; and it writhed and struggled and thrashed about until it struck against the handle of the spear. Mr. Jackson received such a shock that he cried out from the pain of it, and dropped the spear-handle, which floated on thetwater. But not for long. My friend recovered his spear-handle and drew the fiercely struggling Eel within striking distance of the canoe. Whenever it struck the side of the boat, either with head or tail, we were thrilled by a shock. At last, two or three severe blows on the head, with the club used for killing capybaras, seemed to settle matters and, against the protests of Antonio, the creature was dragged aboard. To all appearances the Eel was dead; but a few moments later when Antonio chanced to touch it with his bare foot, at once he broke out in a torrent of anathemas upon all "trembladors." As an experiment, I touched its head with the tip of my finger, and instantly received a shock so severe that my nerves tingled for an hour. A more vigorous appli- cation of the capybara club finally killed the creature, and its electric power died with it. This specimen measured 6 feet 4 inches in length, and I believe that when delivered to advantage its electric power was sufficient to administer a severe shock to the largest elephant. Woe to the crocodile or shark which attempts to dine or sup at the expense of Gymno'tus elec'tricus! While LAMPER "EEL" 285 on the Canyo del Toro we saw about ten specimens, always of the same floating-stick appearance, and captured four. THE LAMPER "EEL," as the Lamprey is very frequently called, is not a true eel of any sort, and it will be found in its proper place, immediately following the fishes. It is so low in the zoological scale that for it and kindred forms a separate Class has been provided. CHAPTER LX ORDER OF PIPEFISHES AND SEA-HORSES LOPHOBRANCHI AT the foot of the Subclass of Bony Fishes stand certain -I ^- small creatures, each of which is so fantastic in form that it requires to be introduced with the solemn assurance, ' This is a fish ! " At first glance, any one wholly unacquainted with them might from their hard external shells be inclined to regard them as particularly odd crustaceans; but the pres- ence of tiny fins without and skeletons more or less bony within, place them fairly within the confines of the Bony Fishes. THE GREAT PiPEFisn1 is a long, slender stalk of jointed bone, with queer little fins very far apart, and a head that terminates in a long, hollow tube. But for this very tough and persistent bony armor, other small fishes would devour the Pipefishes, bit by bit, as children bite off sticks of candy. Its armor is so stiff, however, that the wearer moves slowly and with difficulty, and the prey usually sought by this. fish is found very small and weak, hiding in the branches of sea- weed, coral clusters, sponges, and the sea-grasses generally. It was for insertion into such hunting-grounds as these that the long, tubular snout of this fish has been developed. 1 Syng-na'thus a'cus. 286 THE SEA-HORSE 289 The Pipefishes swim in a half-vertical position, as if lit- erally leading up to the introduction of the next species, which swims bolt upright in the water, and fairly caps the climax in fishes. All the Pipefishes are small creatures. Our largest species is found on the Pacific coast, and "reaches a length of 18" inches." (Jordan and Evermann.) There exist in North American waters about thirty species. THE SEA-HoRSE1 bears not the faintest resemblance to a typical fish, and is the strangest-looking creature of the whole fish world. It looks like a Chinese dragon reduced about a thousand diameters. Its minute pectoral fins are so inconspicuous they are at first quite unnoticed, and the fan-shaped dorsal fin seems when in action like a stationary fan with which the outlandish creature frequently tries to fan itself. At all times the Sea-Horse swims in a perpendicular atti- tude, and with its prehensile tail it holds itself stationary by grasping any inanimate object that either grows upon the bottom or floats in the water. Like the pipefish, it is com- pletely encased in a strong suit of bony plate-armor. The average aquarium Sea-Horse is seldom more than 4 inches in length, but the Gigantic species (H. ingens) of the Pacific coast "reaches a length of nearly a foot." (J. & E.) The smallest species, found abundantly about Pensacola, is only 2 inches long. 1 Hip-po-cam-pus hep-tag 'o-nus. CHAPTER LXI ORDER OF THE DOGFISH HALECOMORPHI TO naturalists, the DoGFisn1 is a creature of much inter- est. Like the prong-horned antelope, it is so unique and peculiar that it has been necessary to create for it a grand division of classification which it occupies all alone. The antelope is only a Family, but this fish is a whole Order. Its other English names are Mudfish, Bowfin, Grindle and Lawyer; and since Linnaeus christened it Amia calva, in 1766, eleven other naturalists have given it eleven other names in Latin. The Dogfish has an air-bladder that is divided into cells, and is a half-developed lung. At intervals it ascends to the surface of the water, gulps down a mouthful of air, just as a turtle does, and descends again. If hindered from rising when the time comes to take in a supply of fresh air, the fish struggles violently, like a mammal about to be drowned; but it can expel air while below the surface. This character indicates that lungs were first developed in fishes from modi- fications of their air-bladders. Other characters establish a distinct relationship with the gar fishes, and place it in the Subclass Ganoidea. The dorsal fin is low, of uniform height throughout, and is about one-half as long as the entire fish. 1 Am-i'a cal'va. 290 THE DOGFISH 291 By its general anatomy, this fish appears to stand midway between the true lung-fishes and the gar pikes. It is of sci- entific interest only, for, save to the negroes of the South, its flesh is quite unpalatable and valueless as food. It is an inhabitant of sluggish fresh waters, attains a length of 2 feet, and 12 pounds weight. It is found in the Great Lakes, the Mississippi Valley generally, and in a few fresh-water streams on the southern Atlantic coast. THE DOGFISH. The individuality of the Dogfish is very positive and interesting. Among the small fry of other fishes its voracious appetite renders it very destructive to species of more value than itself. Mr. Charles Hallock, who knows it well, has thus set forth the salient ( points of its moral character: 'They take frogs, minnows and sometimes the spoon. Their habitat is deep water, where they drive everything before them. They are very voracious and savage. Their teeth are so sharp and their jaws, so strong they have been known to bite a two-pound fish clean in two the very first snap. They are as tenacious of life as an eel. The young, when about six inches long, make a famous bait for pickerel 292 THE DOGFISH and pike. To use it, run the hook into the mouth right up through the centre of the head, through the brains, cast a hundred times, catch several fish, and at the end of three to six hours he will kick like a mule. "Put a hundred in a rain-barrel, and you can keep them all summer without change of water. For the aquarium, the young have no equal, and on account of the spot in the tail they are quite attractive; but nothing else than snails can live in the tank. He will kill a lizard or any other living thing the instant it touches the water." CHAPTER LXII ORDER OF GAR FISHES, OR GANOIDS GINGLYMODI TO the scientific student, the GAR PIKE of the middle eastern states and the big ALLIGATOR GAR of the Gulf states are two of the most interesting fishes of our whole finny fauna. They are the living representatives of a wonder- ful lot of dead-and-gone species which many thousand years ago laid the foundations of the fish world. By means of the impregnable bony armor with which Nature wisely provided them, they have been able to withstand the attacks of the enemies that otherwise would have exterminated them. The simplest, and therefore the earliest forms of fishes are some of the Gan'oids — as the armored fishes are called — whose remains now exist only in the rocks of the Devonian age, far down toward the strata which were formed before life was. The first of these fishes — and they were well-nigh the first of all fishes — had their heads completely encased in solid bone, their eyes were placed in the tops of their heads, and they must have lived upon the bottom of the sea. And who shall say how many years have passed since the days when their dead bodies sank in the mud along the shores they frequented? To-day they are found high up in the rocky cliffs of Devonshire, England. It must be remembered, however, that the armored fishes 293 £94 GAR FISHES, OR GANOIDS were not the only ones which existed in those early days. The same rocks have yielded to science the remains of lung- fishes, sharks and sturgeons; but the so-called "bony fishes" of to-day were undoubtedly of later development than the foregoing. Our two Gar fishes are therefore to be regarded as living relics of the Devonian age, or "Age of Fishes." There are others; but for an introduction to them, as well as the fossil forms, the reader is referred to Le Conte's "Geology." THE LONG-NOSED GAR PiKE1 is the species which is near- est at hand, and most accessible to teachers and students. It is found in the Great Lakes, and in large streams generally from New Jersey to Mexico, and northward in the Mississippi Valley to Minnesota. It is frequently called the Billfish and the Gar. It is said to be destructive to the young of other fishes, but Doctor Goode declares that fish remains are "rarely found in its stomach." Its flesh is unfit for food, and, except to educators, the fish is valueless. It is said to attain a maximum length of from 5 to 6 feet, but specimens exceeding 3 feet are very rare, and the majority are certainly under that length. The armor of this fish is more perfect than any plate armor that man could make for it. It consists of diagonal whorls of solid and highly polished plates of bone, each divided into scale-like sections, and so hinged together that while fully protected the fish has abundant freedom of move- ment. The dried skin of a Gar Pike is as hard and unyielding as a cylinder of sheet iron. 1 Lep-i-dos'te-us os'se-us. ALLIGATOR GAR 295 In about the same waters as the preceding species, and very much like it, lives the SHORT-NOSED GAR PIKE (Lepidos'- teus platys'tomus). THE ALLIGATOR GAR1 is a giant in comparison with both the above species, sometimes attaining 6 feet in length. It THE LONG-NOSED GAR PIKE. is essentially a fish of the South, and inhabits the large streams —and also many small ones — of several Gulf states, Mexico and Cuba. It is readily recognized by its short and broad snout, which is strongly suggestive of the head of an alligator. As an instance of the manner in which fishes sometimes perish through natural causes, and become fossil, Mr. Frederic 1 Lep-i-dos'tc-us spat'u-la. 296 GAR FISHES, OR GANOIDS S. Webster tells the story of a death pool near the Rio Grande. While collecting birds near Brownsville, Texas, he discovered a large pool which had been filled by the overflow of the river, but afterward entirely cut off by the receding of the flood waters. A muddy pool 75 feet long by 25 feet wide was crowded full of Alligator Gars, living, dying and dead, vary- ing in size from 2 feet to 6. Mr. Webster estimated that that tiny area of water and mud, no larger than a fair-sized ballroom, contained between 700 and 800 fishes, all doomed to speedy annihilation by the evaporation of the remaining water. When he discharged his shotgun into the mass, pan- demonium ensued. The pool became a seething mass of frantic life, and the wild rushing to and fro of the large fishes actually threw smaller ones into the air. A million years from now the few men of science who have not yet perished from cold may discover on the summit of a lofty, rock-ribbed mesa at the edge of a great desert, a marvellous deposit of fossil Alligator Gars, and wonder how so many fishes chose to die in the same spot. But only the rocks will then be able to tell the story of Mr. Webster's pool, and the world will be too cold to care for it. CHAPTER LXIII ORDER OF STURGEONS GLANIOSTOMI A STURGEON is a big, shark-like, wedge-headed fish, which looks as if Nature had once decided to cover it with a bullet-proof suit of bony armor, but, after setting three or four rows of plates on each side, had grown weary of the task and abandoned it. Had the plan been wrought out to a finish, it would now be necessary to skjn every stur- geon with an axe. The mouth of a sturgeon is situated underneath the head, and is provided with long, sucker-like lips, for taking food off the bottom. The principal food of sturgeons is small, thin-shelled mollusks, and other fishes are not eaten save on occasions so rare they are not worthy of note. From the coast of California to the Caspian Sea, wherever they are found, sturgeons are fishes of desirability, and of commercial value in direct proportion to their size. Their smoked flesh is by many considered equal in flavor to hali- but, and "caviare" is only the society name of air-tight stur- geon eggs. The 20 living species of sturgeons are distributed at intervals throughout the northern portion of the north temperate zone, across America, Europe and Asia. The American species are but 4 in number. 297 298 STURGEONS THE LAKE STURGEON 1 is from 5 to 6 feet in average length, weighs from 30 to 40 pounds, and inhabits the Great Lakes and adjacent connecting waters of good depth. THE SHORT-NOSED STURGEON2 is a salt-water species, found along our Atlantic and Gulf coasts, from Cape Cod to Texas. This is a small species, only about 2 feet in length, and is of no importance. THE COMMON STURGEON3 of our Atlantic coast is the largest and most valuable member of this Order in Ameri- can waters. It attains a length of 10 feet, and 500 pounds in weight, and to-day at Wilmington, Delaware, its centre of abundance, a large specimen represents about $75 worth of commercial value. The most valuable part is the roe, a cask of which, weighing 130 pounds, is worth $110. THE WHITE STURGEON4 inhabits the waters of the Pacific from southern California to Alaska, and the records show it to be a giant among food fishes. Jordan and Evermann quote it up to 13 feet in length, and weighing 1,000 pounds; but the weight of any animal, dead or alive, which ends with two ciphers is certain to be a weight of Estimate, and not of Fairbanks. Strangely enough, numerous specimens of this Sturgeon have been taken- in Idaho, in the Snake River, weighing from 100 to 650 pounds. "An example 11 feet 2 inches long measured 2 feet across the head." (Jordan and Evermann.) Ten years ago (1904) the latest reports on the Sturgeon industry generally were for 12 months during 1897 and 1 Ac-i-pen'ser ru-bi-cun'dus. 2 A. bre-vi-ros'tris. 3 A. stu'ri-o. * A. trans-mon-tan'us. DECLINE OF STURGEON INDUSTRY 299 1898. During that period, 17 states participated in a catch which amounted to 5,726,830 pounds, which sold for $321,036. The catch in Oregon was nearly two million pounds, that of New Jersey 868,326, and Virginia next. THE IMPENDING EXTINCTION OF THE STURGEON INDUSTRY. — When the first edition of this Natural History was pub- LAKB STURGEON. lished, in 1904, the Sturgeon fishing industry of the United States was at the zenith of prosperity. Since that time a great change has taken place, and the Sturgeon is now well down the toboggan-slide to oblivion. For the sake of the lesson that the fate of this industry could teach to our commercial fishermen, if they would pause to consider it, I deem it well worth while to reproduce a page from the annual report of United States Fish Commissioner Hugh M. Smith, for the year ended June 30, 1913, page 66. It is entitled "The Passing of the Sturgeon." 300 STURGEONS PASSING OF THE STURGEON "The story of the Sturgeons is one of the most distressing in the whole history of the American fisheries. These large, inoffensive fishes of our seaboards, coast rivers and interior waters were for years considered to be not only valueless but nuisances, and whenever they became entangled in the fishermen's nets they were knocked in the head or otherwise mortally wounded and thrown back into the water. Even in the present generation we have seen the shores of the Potomac River in the vicinity of Mount Vernon lined with the decomposing carcasses of these magnificent fishes, wit- nesses to the cruelty, stupidity and profligacy of man, and the same thing has been observed everywhere in our country. "The next chapter in the story was the awakening of the fishermen to the fact that the eggs of the Sturgeons had value as caviare and that the flesh had value as food. Then followed the most reckless, senseless fishing imaginable, with the result that in a comparatively few years the best and most produc- tive waters were depleted, and what should have been made a permanent fishery of great profit was destroyed. Even after the great value of the Sturgeon began to be appreciated by every one, the immature and unmarketable fish inciden- tally caught in seines, gill-nets and pound-nets received no protection whatever in most waters and were ruthlessly destroyed as nuisances, the decline being thus doubly ac- celerated. "On the Atlantic coast the catch of the Sturgeon fell from 7,000,000 pounds to less than 1,000,000 in fifteen years; DESTRUCTION OF STURGEONS 301 on the Pacific coast the same meteoric history was enacted, a catch of over 3,000,000 pounds annually in the early nineties being followed by a few hundred thousand pounds in later years of the same decade, with no improvement since that time, while on the Great Lakes the yield declined more than 90 per cent in 18 years. In the American waters of the Lake of the Woods, one of the most recent grounds for the exploi- tation of the Sturgeon, the catch decreased over 96 per cent in ten years, nowithstanding a more active prosecution of the fishing. "The Sturgeon fishery as a whole reached its climax about 1890. For two or three years the annual catch was 12,000,000 to 15,000,000 pounds. At the present time the total yield does not exceed 1,000,000 pounds, and everywhere there is a steady downward trend in the catch. Some rivers that formerly supported a flourishing fishery are now absolutely depleted. The scarcity of the Sturgeon and the demand for their flesh and eggs have run up the price to an extraor- dinary figure, never attained by any other fish, either in America or elsewhere. A mature female Sturgeon often brings the fisherman more than $150 and it is a poor fish that cannot be sold for $20 to $30 on the rivers of the east coast. 'The most serious aspect of the Sturgeon fishery is that, owing to the decimation of the schools of breeding fish and to peculiarities in spawning habits, it has been impossible as yet to inaugurate Sturgeon culture anywhere in America. Attempts at artificial propagation have proved utter failures on the Great Lakes, Lake of the Woods, Lake Champlain, 302 STURGEONS Delaware River, and other waters, and the expenditure of con- siderable sums of money by the Bureau has sometimes failed to yield a single batch of eggs suitable for incubation. "Everywhere in America, under existing conditions, the Sturgeons are doomed to commercial extinction, and it re- quires no prophet to foretell that in a comparatively few years the Sturgeon will be practically extinct. "What is demanded in every State in which these fishes exist or have existed is absolute prohibition of capture or sale for a long term of years, certainly not less than ten. To advocate any less radical treatment would be only trifling with the situation." The annihilation of the Sturgeon industry in the United States through the stupid folly of our own fishermen is but a fair sample of what Americans habitually do when they are not restrained by the hand of the law. An American individual can, and often does, act sensibly and conservatively even in the absence of law; but in every community there seems to be a large percentage of reckless individuals who ignore the dictates of reason and common sense, and ruth- lessly destroy the products of nature, even to their own hurt! In Europe the Sturgeons of the Danube, the Caspian Sea and other waters are successfully conserved, and we will be paying the Russians and Roumanians for caviare long after our once-abundant Sturgeon supply has been exter- minated and forgotten. CHAPTER LXIV ORDER OF THE PADDLE-FISH SELACHOSTOMI TO some persons, the big PADDLE-FISH,* or SHOVEL- NOSED "STURGEON," as it is more commonly called, is one of the wonders of fresh water. Here we find a case of what naturalists call "specialization," which has gone to an astonishing extreme. This is a scaleless fish, with a body very much like a shark, and a half -cartilaginous, shark-like skeleton. It has a low-browed, armor-plated head that runs forward into a broad, thin paddle of bone, one-third the length of the entire fish. Beyond doubt, this remarkable implement is used in turn- ing up the mud and gravel of the bottoms of the streams in which the owner lives, in searching for food. It is unfortunate that we never can see it in action, and still more so that this fish has not yet been kept successfully in aquaria. Mr. Charles H. Townsend says that in captivity they always injure their paddles against the sides of their tanks, and do not live longer than two or three weeks. In "American Food and Game Fishes," Drs. Jordan and Evermann give a number of size records of this fish which will be a surprise to many persons who, like the writer, have 1 Po-ly'o-don spath'u-la. 303 PADDLE-FISH THE PADDLE-FISH. seen and handled only medium-sized specimens. The figures given show length in inches and weight in pounds. Lake Manitou, Ind., heaviest on record This fish and the one next noted were 4 feet in girth. Lake Tippecanoe, Ind. (W. C. Harris) 74 Chautauqua Lake, N. Y 74 St. Louis (Dr. Engelman) 70 White River, S. Dakota (J. and E.) 53 POUNDS 163 150 79 18 The last record is interesting as showing the light weight of what was a long but very slender specimen. Judging from all available evidence and personal observations, I should place the average length of the Paddle-Fish at 45 inches, and weight 25 to 30 pounds. The United States Bureau of Fisheries' records show that this fish is now coming into use as food, and is finding a ready sale in the markets of the region it inhabits. In some UNDER VIEW OF THE PADDLE-FISH. PADDLE-FISH 305 places its flesh is smoked and sold as sturgeon. Its eggs, which are very numerous, and greenish black in color, make excellent caviare, and are being so utilized at Louisville, Ken- tucky, and along the Mississippi, in Mississippi and Tennessee. In 1899, sixteen states participated in the catching of Paddle-Fish, Mississippi leading with 981,080 pounds, and followed by Arkansas, Tennessee, Illinois and Missouri, in the order named. The total catch was 2,543,950 pounds, valued at $82,343. The records of four years later (1903, the latest obtainable) show a great decline. The catch in 1903 was only 1,421,086 pounds, valued at $45,906. The caviare product for that year amounted to 11,171 pounds, worth $7,659. In a limited sense the Paddle-Fish inhabits the Missis- sippi Valley, from Louisiana to Minnesota, the Ohio and the Missouri to South Dakota, which is a wide range for a fish so peculiarly formed. CHAPTER LXV ORDER OF THE CHIMERAS CHIMAEROIDEI THE Chimeras are introduced for the purpose of making our series of fish Orders reasonably complete, and not because of anticipated personal acquaintance with them. For fifteen or twenty years one may live on the Atlantic coast, frequent its fish-markets, and fish occasionally at first hand, without once seeing either a live Chimera or one freshly caught. They inhabit blue water only, have no com- mercial value save as scientific specimens, and in our Atlantic waters are rarely caught elsewhere than on the offshore fish- ing-banks of New England. As a natural result of these conditions, the shark-like chimaeroids are the least known of all the fishes that inhabit our shore waters. Indeed, there are several species of deep- sea fishes that are much more common in fish collections than they appear to be elsewhere. One species, however, of the Pacific coast, has been studied by Dr. Bashford Dean, and it will be set forth on the strength of his description.1 THE SPOTTED CHIMERA,2 figured herewith, is said to be extremely abundant just off the borders of the submerged plateau that extends all along the northwest coast of the 1 "Fishes, Living and Fossil," Columbia University Biological Series, page 100. 2 Chi-me'ra col'k-i. 306 CHIMERAS 307 United States. It was frequently taken in the dredge hauls made by the steamship Albatross, the majority of the speci- mens being under 2 feet in length. Like all the members of this Order — the total number of which is very small — this species resembles a big-eyed shark with a cutlass-fish tail. SPOTTED CHIMERA. The head is blunt and very thick, and from it the body gradually tapers down to the whip-like tail. The skin is smooth, and the paired fins are shark-like. The front dorsal fin is provided with anterior spine-folds, like a fan, and may be depressed into a sheath in the body wall. The sense organs are similar to those of sharks, and the visceral parts also are shark-like. The skeleton is cartilag- inous, and the vertebral axis is notochordal. Of the embry- ology and life history of the Chimeras generally, practically nothing is known. CHAPTER LXVI ORDER OF SHARKS SQUALI WE have now reached the Subclass of Cartilaginous Fishes. And what is a " car-ti-lag'i-nous fish?" Cartilage is a bloodless tissue, commonly called gristle, flexible but not elastic, quite colorless, of the consistency of cheese-rind, and of use in the anatomy of animals for sustain- ing or connecting softer parts. The external ear of man con- sists chiefly of a convoluted wing of cartilage covered with skin. The so-called "breast-bone" of man is a tree-like development of cartilage designed to bridge together the outer ends of the principal ribs, protect with some firmness the vital organs within and yet permit the rise and fall of the chest in breathing. The Cartilaginous Fishes, embracing the sharks, rays, skates and intermediate forms, are those whose skeletons are largely composed of plates and stems of cartilage, or gristle, and but little bone. Instead of bony rays, the fins of these creatures are supported by cartilaginous rays so closely joined together that they form plate-like structures. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF SHARKS. — With few exceptions, sharks have externally the same general form as the typical fishes. Instead of broad, flat scales that overlap each other like shingles, their scales are very minute, horny, sharp-pointed 308 1. MACKEREL SHARK, WITH REMORA ATTACHED. 2. HAMMER-HEAD SHARK. SHARKS 311 and closely packed together. When the skin of a shark is stroked from head to tail, it feels like a hair-cloth sofa, but when stroked the other way, it is like the sharpest sand-paper. For centuries shark-skin has been used for smoothing and polishing wood and other substances; and when prepared for that use it is called "shagreen." Instead of one very large gill-opening, as in typical fishes, a shark has usually five small slits in the skin behind the gills, which are capable of being tightly closed. In nearly all species the mouth is situated underneath the head, and often it is of enormous proportions. The jaws are composed of cartilage, the teeth are usually triangular and set along the edge of the jaw, in rows, crosswise with the edge of the mouth. Behind each active and visible tooth there is a line of reserves, from three to five in number, always growing outward and crowding to the front, so that as soon as a tooth in the line of battle becomes much worn, or in any way weakened or broken, it is crowded off the jaw, and a new tooth is thrust forward into its place. Many sharks bring forth their young alive; but others (the majority, perhaps) lay eggs. Some of the egg cases are of remarkable form. Some of them are rectangular, flat- tened and provided at each corner with a long, threadlike tendril with which to attach to any fixed object. Sharks very rarely exhibit color patterns, or bright colors of any kind. As befits pirates and freebooters, they are mostly ashy gray, or drab — the most inconspicuous colors at sea, both for sharks and men-of-war. The small Tiger Shark, of Ceylon (Stegastoma tigrinum), is one of the few sharks of 312 SHARKS variegated colors, and its handsome pattern of yellow and black is a welcome variation. Only a few of the whole 150 species of sharks can rightly be classed as "man-eaters." A typical " man-eating shark" is one which is very large, exceedingly voracious, practically devoid of fear of mankind, and so aggressive that it will at- tack a swimmer at the surface of the water, and devour him regardless of his resistance. The standard prey for sharks consists of small fishes, squid, jelly-fishes, crabs, lobsters and other non-combatants. Occasionally, however, the big Tiger Shark1 of the Atlantic chooses a victim in his own class as a fighter. Dr. Goode notes the capture, by Captain Atwood, at Provincetown, Massachusetts, of a specimen which contained "nearly a whole full-grown sword-fish"; and "ten or twelve wounds in the skin of the shark gave evidence of the contest that must have occurred." The "man-eater shark" is not a myth, for that name is applied to the great white shark, a species which ranges from our Atlantic coast to Australia, and on to California. In the tropics it attains a length of 30 feet. With us this creature is rated as "exceedingly rare," and, judging from Dr. Goode's notes, not more than a dozen specimens are caught and identified in a century. The only loss of life from it on our coast, so far as recorded, occurred in 1830. It is indeed fortunate, and merciful to mankind, that sharks generally are harmless to man. Were they otherwise, the terrors of the sea would be greatly increased. 1 Gal-e-oc'er-do ti-gri'nus. LENGTH OF SHARKS 313 THE MACKEREL SHARK1 is a fair type of the sharks of the world. It is common along both coasts of the United States, and the length of fully grown specimens is between 9 and 10 feet. THE HAMMER-HEAD SHARK2 is a genuine curiosity. With no intermediate forms leading up to this strange departure, the head of this creature suddenly thrusts out on each side a great shelf of cartilage and skin, in the outermost edge of which the eye is situated! It is like a flat-headed shark with a 7-inch board 20 inches long placed squarely across its forehead. This species is found in the seas of the tropics and subtropics, practically around the world. Once when the writer was approaching the coast of Barbados, on a sailing vessel, a large Hammer-Head swam for fifteen minutes close to the bow of the ship, and quite near the surface. In the Havana market I once obtained a specimen nearly 10 feet long. This species brings forth its young alive, and occasionally specimens are taken as far north as New Jersey. SIZES OF SHARKS. — The majority of the species of sharks are under 8 feet in length, and a few are as small as 2 feet, when adult. The largest species are the following: The BASKING SHARK (Rhinodon typicus) 45 feet. The BONE SHARK (Cetorhinus maximum) 36 The MAN-EATER, or WHITE SHARK (Carcharodon carcharias) . . . . 30 The GREAT TIGER SHARK (Galeocerdo tigrinus) 30 The HAMMER-HEAD (Sphyrna zygaena) 15 The BLUE SHARK (Carcharias caeruleus) 15 The THRESHER SHARK (Alopias vulpes) 15 The MACKEREL SHARK (Lamna cornubica) 10 1 Lam'na cor-nu'bi-ca. 2 Sphyr'na zy-gae'na. CHAPTER LXVII ORDER OF RAYS AND SKATES RAIAE THE rays and skates are merely flat-bottomed, side-wheel sharks, built to navigate very shallow waters. From the typical shark down to the broadest and flattest ray, the change of form is shown by a beautifully complete series of living links, several of which it has been my privilege to handle and dissect fresh from their home waters. Of these connecting links, the most interesting is the rare and wonderful SHARK-RAY,1 of the Indian Ocean, a fine specimen of which was caught for me in the shallow waters between Ceylon and India. It is as nearly as possible half shark and half Ray, and is shown in the accompanying illustration. Between this and the typical ray stands the BEAKED RAY,2 much flatter than the preceding, and with the pectoral fins taking on ray-like spread and thinness. But the long, fleshy body and triangular head still proclaim very unmis- takably the line of relationship with the sharks. Several species representing this intermediate type are found in our 1 Rham-pho-ba'tis an-cy-los'to-mus. 2 Of the genus Rhi-no-ba'tis. The species sometimes seen on the coast of Florida is R. len-tig-i-no'sus. 314 THE SAWFISH 315 waters, but they are not common, and the real home of the genus is in the tropics and subtropics. THE SAWFISH/ of the Florida coast, and many portions of the tropics farther south, is celebrated among fishes because of the very long, flat beak of bone which projects forward from its snout, armed on both sides with formidable teeth. The length of this saw is more than one-third the length of SHARK-RAY. the head, body and tail. It is, we may safely assert, strictly a weapon of defence, not offence; for unless it is used as a shovel in searching for mollusks and other food on the bottom of the sea, it is useless in the search for food. When the Sawfish is threatened with attack, however, it defends itself by quickly curving sidewise, thereby giving a sweeping sidewise stroke with its saw, and swiftly repeating it in the opposite direction. On a Sawfish 14 feet in length, the saw is about 4J/2 feet long, and the teeth project about \1A inches from the bone. This creature is an intermediate form between the sharks 1 Pris'tis pec-ti-na'tus. 316 RAYS AND SKATES and the typical rays, and in reality it is a shark-ray. Its eyes are atop of its head, its mouth is underneath, its body in front of the dorsal fin is quite well flattened, and its pectoral fins have "ray" written all over them. The maximum THE SAWFISH. length attained by it is said to be 15 feet. Because of the long, flat beak of this creature, it has become associated in many minds with the swordfish, but structurally the two are as far apart as a deer and a bear. Notwithstanding the fact that there exists a group called the Order of Flatfishes (halibuts, flounders and soles), the rays are by far the flattest of all fishes. For example, the Spotted Ray of Ceylon is about 5 feet across, 5 inches thick at the centre of the body and at the edges its great wings THE STING. RAY . 317 flatten out 'into thin air. From the body, which really is quite small, and centrally located, a thin sheet of cartilage, consisting of a great number of very long, jointed rays firmly joined together, extends outward to. the very tips of the wing-like fins. Upon this is laid a thin layer of flesh, and over THE STING RAY. all is spread the rough and tough skin. The tail is like a long, stiff whip, with a many-barbed bone stiletto midway — a very dangerous weapon to be so carelessly exposed. To a taxidermist, the mounting of a large ray is about the most calamitous task he can possibly encounter. The trouble lies in the perpetual shrinking after mounting. THE STING RAY,1 or, by corruption, "STINGAREE," is one of the greatest pests of the eastern coast of the American 1 Try'gon sa-bi'na. 318 RAYS AND SKATES continent. From Cape Cod to the Orinoco, and I know not how much farther beyond, this vindictive and cruel fish lies, assassin-like, half buried in the sand alongshore, ready and anxious to drive its spine into any naked foot that comes within striking distance. The upper surface of the animal closely resembles the loose sand in which it hides, and the spine makes a ragged and ugly wound. The spine is long, dagger-like, and barbed like an arrow all along both edges, so that the withdrawal of it from a wound is very painful. On the lower Orinoco I saw a strong man who was then in the seventh week of disability from the stroke of a Sting Ray in his foot; and in the Malay Peninsula I treated a Malay fisherman whose hand had been completely transfixed by the spine of a huge ray. Fortunately, this abominable creature is averse to cold or even moderately cool waters, and is rarely encountered even as far north as Florida. On our coast one may bathe for a lifetime without seeing even one; and in all waters they carefully avoid crowds of bathers. The gigantic creature known as the DEViL-Fisn1 is the largest of all rays, and to many persons even the most truth- ful accounts of some of its doings will seem beyond belief. To begin with, its maximum size of 20 feet across its "wings" is almost incredible. The towing of a good-sized fishing- smack by a harpooned Devil-Fish, going for miles at race- horse speed, is another wonder of the deep. Many years ago the planters on the coast of South Car- olina found royal sport in harpooning this monster, and con- 1 Man'ta bi-ros'tris. THE DEVIL-FISH 319 quering it. In a volume entitled "Carolina Sports," the Hon. William Elliott has drawn this picture: "Imagine a monster many feet across the back, having powerful flaps or wings with which he drives himself furiously through the THE DEVIL-FISH. water, or vaults high in the air, his horns projecting several feet beyond his mouth!" A Devil-Fish leaping out of water — as we know a Devil- Fish can do — would look as Mr. J. Carter Beard has repre- sented it in his illustration. Dr. C. S. Olds, of Marco, Florida, once was almost over- whelmed by a Devil-Fish 7 feet in width that leaped out of the water ahead of his motor-boat and crashed full upon the awning of his craft, with smashing force. 320 RAYS AND SKATES So far as can be learned, large examples of this creature are now rarely observed, and still more rarely captured. Its centre of abundance now appears to be off the Gulf coast of Florida; but it is also found on the coast of southern California. CHAPTER LXVIII LOWEST CLASSES OF VERTEBRATES THERE are a few creatures which, by reason of their internal skeletons and jointed back-bones, are justly entitled to stand with the vertebrates, but yet are lower in the scale than the lowest fishes. For these it has been neces- sary to create two grand divisions of the first rank; and they stand as two small and very low Classes. It is because of their very low position in the zoological scale of vertebrates that it becomes important to know them. THE LAMPREYS Class Marsipobranchii A LAMPREY is an aquatic creature which bears so strong a resemblance to an eel that for a long period all Lampreys were regarded as true eels. Even to-day the most important of our species is, by unscientific persons, almost universally called the "LAMPER EEL." In view of the general external resemblance of these creatures to eels of similar size, it is not strange that their true character remained for a long period quite unknown. As a matter of fact, these creatures forcibly illustrate the unwisdom in animal classification of attaching too much importance to external characters. The lampreys are the lowest and last creatures that have the spinal cord expanded at its upper end into a brain and encased 321 LOWEST CLASSES OF VERTEBRATES in a skull. But the skull is imperfectly developed and with- out jaws; there is no shoulder girdle, no pelvis, no limbs, no ribs and no paired fins. There is a single median nostril, the gills are purse-shaped, the skin is naked like that of an eel and the skeleton is cartilaginous. The gills are in the form of a fixed sac, the gill openings consist of a row of tiny round holes along the side of the body, and the mouth is specially formed for suction. It is evident from the foregoing characters that the lam- preys are creatures of very simple form, lacking almost all the evidences of special development which characterize the higher fishes. Externally, their very modest median fins are the only visible signs that they are not marine worms. THE SEA LAMPREY1 is the best and most available example of the Class Mar-si-po-branch'ii. 'The mouth is completely circular, and forms a great and powerful sucker, surrounded by fleshy lips that are supported on a framework of cartilage and studded with tentacles. This mouth is covered over its entire interior surface with strong teeth arranged in concen- tric circles. A large double tooth, situated above the aperture of the mouth, indicates the situation of the upper jaw, and seven or eight great teeth represent the lower jaw. Even the tongue carries three large teeth, deeply serrated on their edge."2 With a mouth specially formed and savagely equipped for suction, it is no surprise to find that this creature is a blood-sucking parasite, preying upon other forms of marine 1 Pet-ro-my'zon ma-ri'nus. 2 "Fishery Industries of the United States," Part I, p. 677. THE LAMPREYS 323 life. It is often found attached to shad, sturgeon, sharks, cod, halibut and mackerel. It fastens to its victim beneath the pectoral fins, tears at its flesh with its rasping circles of teeth and sucks its blood "until the flesh becomes as white as paper." Beyond doubt, these creatures destroy a very con- siderable number of valuable food fishes. Fishermen charge to the account of the Lamprey the raw spots and sores fre- quently found upon the bodies of sturgeons. Formerly the Lamprey was greatly esteemed by the peo- ple of Massachusetts as a food "fish." In the Merrimac River it was captured in great numbers, and salted down for winter use. While this industry, and its object, have both greatly decreased, in some portions of Connecticut the Lam- prey is yet taken, as often as it can be found, and thankfully consumed. The species specially mentioned varies in length from 2 to 3 feet, but the Brook Lamprey, and all the fresh- water species are much smaller. Fortunately, none of the fresh-water species are so injurious to fishes as the Sea Lamprey. According to Jordan and Evermann's "Fishes of North and Middle America," there are in American waters ten species of lampreys, and two of their very near, but still lower, relatives, the Hag-Fishes. They are scattered at intervals from Alaska to New England, in brooks, rivers, lakes, estu- aries and various other bodies of shallow water. They are most accessible in fresh water, on a stony or gravelly bottom; and whenever in such a situation you find an eel-like creature holding fast to a stone by the suction of a big flat mouth on the end of its head, know of a surety that it is a Lamprey. 324 LOWEST CLASSES OF VERTEBRATES THE LANCELETS Class Leptocardii The long and interesting chain of Vertebrates ends in a very weak and insignificant link. The great work entitled "Fishery Industries of the United States" dismisses this creature with only two and a half lines, and leaves three- fourths of the page blank. And truly, the LANCELET, or AMPHioxus,1 is not a creature calculated to arouse enthusiasm. Its skeleton is composed of membranes and cartilages. It has no brain, nor even .a skull in which to develop one. It is neither eel-like nor worm-like, but as its name implies, it is shaped like the head of a lance. The middle line of the body is provided with weak and indifferent fins. There is no proboscis, and the mouth is slit-like, and fringed with hair-like filaments. All the above characters, and many others of a purely technical nature, are set forth in "The Fishes of North and Middle America," where eight species are recognized. These small, naked, colorless and translucent creatures are found "embedded in the sand in the shallow waters of warm coasts throughout the world." They are of special interest only because they are the lowest of the Vertebrates, and on the whole they constitute a very ignominious ending for the highest grand division of Nature. And thus ends our bird's-eye view of the Vertebrates, setting forth the prominent types and examples which every 1 The West Indian Lancelet (Brach-i-os'to-ma car-i-bae'um) is found from Beau- fort, North Carolina, to the mouth of the La Plata. SPECIALIZATION 325 intelligent American should know. It is here, and here only, that "specialization" may properly begin! Behind lie the Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Fishes; beyond lie the mighty hosts of the Invertebrates — Crustaceans, Insects, Mollusks and others. In any one of these grand divisions of life the special student may wander for a lifetime in a wonderland of his own, and to the last find each day filled with new light and new joys in the unending revelations of Nature. INDEX INDEX Aard-Varks, II, 180, 184. Accipiter atricapillus, III, 70. cooperii, III, 68. velox, III, 67. Acipenser brevirostris, IV, 298. " rubicundus, IV, 298. " sturio, IV, 298. " transmontanus, IV, 298. Actodromas minutilla, III, 134. "Adder," Blowing or Spreading, IV, 93. Agelaius phoenicius, II, 313. Agouti, I, 258. Family, I, 181. Agriculture, Department of (see Biological Survey), III, 23. Aigrettes, III, 303. Aix sponsa, III, 180. Ajaia ajaia, III, 161. Alaska, big game of, II, 202, 228. Commercial Company, I, 127. Alaudidae, Family, II, 330. Albacore, Great, IV, 197. Albatross, Black-Footed, III, 235, 237, 238. Short-Tailed, III, 238. Slaughter on Laysan Island, III, 241. Albatross, Wandering, III, 234. Alca torda, III, 271. Alcedinidae, Family, III, 26. Alces americanus, II, 4, 108, 120. " gigas, II, 230. Alligator, Chinese, IV, 24. Mississippi, IV, 13, 17, 22. Alopias vulpes, IV, 313. Alosa sapidissima, IV, 247. Alouatta, I, 11. Ambergris, II, 145. Ambloplites rupestris, IV, 180. Amblyrhynchus cristatus, IV, 54. Amblystoma mavortium, IV, 143. opacum, IV, 147. punctatum, IV, 147. Ameiurus nebulosus, IV, 271. Amia calva, IV, 290. Ammospermophilus leucurus, I, 194. Ampelis cedrorum, II, 292. garrulus, II, 290. "Amphibia and Reptiles," Gadow's book on, IV, 143. Amphibians, Bird's-eye view of, IV, 124, 125. Order of Tailed, IV, 124, 142. Order of Worm-Like, IV, 124, 156. Amphioxus, IV, 324. Amphiuma means, IV, 152. Anaconda, IV, 76. Anas boschas, III, 174. " obscura, III, 172. Ancistrodon contortrix, IV, 110. piscivorus, IV, 110. Angel Fish, IV, 193. Angler, IV, 277. Anguilla vulgaris, IV, 282. Anhinga anhinga, III, 225. Anser albifrons gambeli, III, 206. Anseres, Order, II, 255. Ant-" Bear," II, 171. Ant-Eater, Great, II, 171. Tamandua, II, 175. Antelope, Prong-Horned, II, 4, 49, 206. Squirrel, I, 194. Antilocapra americana, II, 49. Antlers, II, 57. Caribou, II, 104, 105. Moose, II, 112, 115, 118. Mule-Deer, II, 73, 74. " Record Elk, II, 71. Antrostomus vociferus, III, 5. Antrozous pallidus, I, 159. Apes and Monkeys, Order of, I, 9. " Anthropoid, I, 10. Aplodontia rufa, I, 212. Apoda, Order, IV, 156. Aptenodytes fosteri, III, 273. 329 330 INDEX Apteryx australis, III, 279. Aquila chrysaetos, III, 63. Ara ararauna, III, 32. Archaeopteryx, IV, 6. Arctic Province," "Our, I, 127. Arctonetta fischeri, III, 195, 201. Ardea caerulea, III, 152. " herodias, III, 150. Ardetta exilis, III, 159. Armadillo, Giant, II, 165. Nine-Banded, II, 165, 170. Six-Banded, II, 165. Three-Banded, II, 165, 170. Army of destruction, III, 291. Aromochelys odoratus, IV, 33. Artiodactyla, I, 4. Arvicola, I, 222. Asio accipitrinus, III, 40. " wilsonianus, III, 39. Aspidonectes ferox, IV, 43. Astragalinus tristris, II, 300. Atalapha cinerea, I, 173. Ateles ater, I, 11, 32. Auk Family, III, 264. " Great, III, 271, 283. " Razor-Billed, III, 271. Auklet, Cassin's, III, 271. " Least, III, 271. Rhinoceros, III, 271. Axolotl, IV, 143. Aye- Aye, I, 11. Aythya americana, III, 185. ." collaris, III, 173. " marila, III, 172. " vallisneria, III, 187. Austin, Mrs. Mary, Poem by, III, 143. Baboons, I, 10, 29. " Gelada, I, 10, 28. Badger, I, 82. Bailey, Mrs. Florence Merriam, II, 326; III, 76. Bailey, Vernon, I, 247, 269, 270. Baird, Prof. Spencer F., IV, 165. Baker, Arthur B., I, 204. " Dr. Frank, II, 13. Balaena glacialis, II, 144. mysticetus, II, 142. sieboldii, II, 144. Balaenoptera physalus, II, 144. sulfureus, II, 140. Balistes capriscus, IV, 254. Barren Grounds of Northern Canada," "The, II, 103. Barrett, Mrs. A. W., IV, 187. Bass and Sun-Fish Family, IV, 177. " Calico or Strawberry, IV, 180. " Large-Mouthed Black, IV, 179. " Rock, IV, 180. " Small-Mouthed Black, IV, 179. " Striped, IV, 188. " Warmduth, IV, 180. Bassariscus astutus, I, 110. Bassarisk, I, 110. Bat, Big-Eared, I, 173. " Blainville's Flower-Nosed, I, 164. " Bonneted, I, 167, 169. " California Leaf-Nosed, I, 164. " False Vampire, I, 162, 174. " Fruit, I, 162, 177. " Gray, I, 173. " Great Vampire, I, 168. " Hammer-Headed, I, 178. " Horseshoe, I, 174. " Javelin, I, 166. " Leaf-Nosed, I, 163. " Long-Eared, I, 173. " Naked, I, 169. " Pale, I, 159. " Red, I, 171. " True Vampire, I, 162, 166. Bates, H. W., I, 168. Batrachia. See Amphibia. Bats, Order of, I, 156, 163. Bayne Law, II, 244. Beal, F. E. L., II, 319; III, 13. Bean, Dr. T. H., IV, 275. Bear, Big Brown, I, 87, 91; II, 234. Admiralty Island, I, 87. Kadiak.I, 87, 91; II, 233. Merriam's, I, 87. Peninsula, I, 87. Sitka, I, 87. Yakutat, I, 87. " Black, I, 85, 87, 101; II, 235. " Cinnamon, I, 101. " Everglade, I, 87. " Glacier, I, 87, 102. " Labrador, I, 87. " Louisiana, I, 87. " Queen Charlotte, I, 87. " Family, I, 82. INDEX 331 Bear, Grizzly, I, 87, 93; II, 232. Alaskan, I, 87. " Barren-Ground, I, 87. " Silver-Tip, I, 87. Sonora, I, 87. " Inland White, I, 87, 105, 107. " Polar, I, 88. " Spectacled, I, 105. Beard, J. Carter, IV, 319. Beaver, American, I, 180, 212. " Mountain, I, 212. Beck, R. J., IV, 54. Bee-Bird, II, 331. Beluga, II, 146. Bent, A. C., Ill, 162. Bering, Capt. Vitus, II, 164. Big-Horn or Rocky Mt. Sheep, II, 25, 28. Biological Survey, II, 259. Bird Destruction, II, 239. " Frigate, III, 231. " Skeleton of, II, 259. " Snake, III, 225. Bird Life, Decrease in, II, 240. Bird World, An Introduction to the, II, 239. Bird-collecting condemned, II, 245. Birds and Mammals, The Destruction of, II, 239. Birds, Chart of, II, 253. " Fully Palmated, III, 213. " Man-o'-War, III, 231. " Orders of, II, 255. " Protection of, II, 244. " Study of, II, 246, 249. " Swimming, III, 167. " Weak- Winged Diving, III, 259. " Web-Footed, III, 167. Bison, American, II, 5-14. Bittern, American, III, 157. " Least, III, 159. Blackbird, Crow, II, 318. Red- Winged, II, 313. Yellow-Headed, II, 314. Blackfish, II, 147. Black-Gill Sunfish, IV, 185. Blarina brevicauda, I, 155. Bluebird, II, 265. Bluefish, IV, 193. Boa Constrictor, IV, 74. Bob-Cat, I, 50, 52. Bobolink, II, 310. Bob- White, II, 241; III, 98. Boidae, IV, 74. Bonasa umbellus, III, 106. Booby Gannets, III, 231. Bos americanus, II, 3-14. Botaurus lentiginosus, III, 157. Bothrops lanceolatus, IV, 115. Bovidae, II, 4. Brachiostoma caribaeum, IV, 324. Brady podidae, II, 175. Bradypus tridactylus, II, 177. Brant, Black, III, 205. Branta bernicla, III, 205, " canadensis, III, 200, 205. " nigricans, III, 205. Breeding Deer, II, 221. Foxes, I, 62. " Laws in, II, 221. " Mink, I, 70. Bronson, E. B., I, 109. Brown, William Harvey, IV, 16. Bryan, W. A., Ill, 245. Bubo virginianus, III, 46. Buffalo, American, II, 3-14. Fishes, IV, 260. Bufo lentiginosus, IV, 138. Bullhead, Common, IV, 271. Bunting, Indigo, II, 310. " Snow, II, 301. Burroughs, John, III, 267. Bushmaster, IV, 106. Butcher-Bird, II, 288. Buteo borealis, III, 64. " lineatus, III, 66. Butorides virescens, III, 150. Cacomistle, I, 110. Caecilians, Family of, IV, 156. Caenolestes, II, 185. Caiman, Banded, IV, 11. Black, IV, 11, 21. Broad-Nosed, IV, 11. Eye-Browed, IV, 21. Rough-Backed, IV, 11, 22. sclerops, IV, 11. Callithrix jacchus, I, 36. Callospermophilus lateralis, I, 194. Callotaria ursina, I, 123. Calmette, Dr., treatment of snake wounds by, IV, 120. Camp-Fire Club of America, I, 132. "Camudie" (boa constrictor), IV, 79. 332 INDEX Canachites canadensis canace, III, 110. Canidae, I, 40, 53. Canis latrans, I, 56. occidentalis, I, 54. Caprimulgidae, Family, III, 4. Capromys pilorides, I, 250. Capuchin, I, 11, 30. Capybara, I, 259. Carcajou, I, 74. Carcharias caeruleus, IV, 313. Carcharodon carcharias, IV, 313. Cardinal, II, 307. Cardinalis cardinalis, II, 307. Caribou, II, 87, 224. " Barren-Ground, II, 97, 225. Black-Faced, II, 94. Grant's, II, 99. Greenland, II, 99. Kenai, II, 95. Mountain, II, 94. Newfoundland, II, 94, 224. Osborn's, II, 94. Peary's, II, 99. Woodland, II, 90, 94, 225. Carnivora, I, 4. Carp, IV, 261. " Minnows, and Suckers, Order of, IV, 257. Cassowary, Ceram, III, 279. Castor canadensis, I, 180, 212. Casuarius galeata, III, 278. Catbird, II, 274. Catfish, Channel, IV, 270. " Mississippi, IV, 270. Catfishes, Order of, IV, 268. Catharista urubu, III, 75. Cathartes aura, III, 74. Catostomus commersoni, IV, 258. Cattle and Sheep Family, II, 3. Cavy, Spotted, I, 259. " Patagonian, I, 261. Cebidae, I, 11, 30. Cebus hypoleucus, I, 11, 30. Cedar Bird, II, 292. Centrocercus urophasianus, III, 117. Ceratodus forsteri, IV, 174. Cercopithecus diana, I, 10, 27. Cerorhinca monocerata, III, 271. Certhia familiaris americanus, II, 272. Cervus canadensis, II, 4, 66, 70, 218. Ceryle alcyon, III, 26. Cetaceans, II, 139. Cete, I, 4. Cetorhinus maximus, IV, 313. Chaenobryttus gulosus, IV, 180. Chaetura pelagica, III, 6. Chaparral Cock, III, 24. Charadrius dominicus, III, 131. Charitonetta albeola, III, 189. Chart of Birds, II, 253. Mammals, I, 7. Chat, Yellow-Breasted, II, 284. Chaulelasmus strepera, III, 172. Cheiromeles torquatus, I, 169. Chelone imbricata, IV, 46. mydas, IV, 45. Chelonia, Order, IV, 25, 27. Chelopus insculptus, IV, 37. marmoratus, IV, 36. Chelydra serpentina, IV, 40. Chelydridae, Family, IV, 39. Chelys fimbricata, IV, 41. Chen hyperborea, III, 206. Chickadee, II, 269. Chicken, Eastern Prairie, III, 115. Prairie, III, 111. Chigwiri, I, 259. Chilomycterus geometricus, IV, 256. Chimera collei, IV, 306. Chimeras, Order of, IV, 306. Chimpanzee, I, 5, 10, 15. Chinchilla, I, 254. lanigera, I, 254. Chipmunk, California, I, 193. Eastern, I, 191. Western, I, 194. Chiroptera, I, 4. Choloepus^hoffmani, II, 178. Chordeiles virginianus, III, 4. Chrysemys picta, IV, 35. Chubs, IV, 264. Chuck- Will's- Widow, III, 6. Ciconiidae, III, 159. Cinclus mexicanus, II, 278. Circus hudsonius, III, 70. Cistudo Carolina, IV, 31. Citellus franklini, I, 198. " richardsoni, I, 200. tridecemlineatus, I, 197. Civet Cat, I, 110. Clangula islandica, III, 173. Cobra-de-Capello, IV, 96. Cobra, Hooded, IV, 96. INDEX 333 Cobra, King, or Snake-Eating, IV, 98. Coccyges, Order, III, 22. Coccyzus americanus, III, 22. Cockatoo, III, 32. Coelogenys paca, I, 259. Colaptes auratus luteus, III, 14. Colinus virginianus, III, 98. Collins, Capt. J. W., Ill, 230. Coluber guttatus, IV, 85. Columba fasciata, III, 89. Columbae, Order, III, 84. Condor, III, 81. California, III, 76. Conepatus, I, 81. Coney, II, 126. Congo "Snake," IV, 152. Congress, II, 220. Conurus carolinensis, III, 29. Coot, III, 146. Copperhead, IV, 110. Coregonus clupeiformis, IV, 250. Cormorant, III, 222. Double-Crested, III, 225. Pallas's, III, 225, 284. Corvus americanus, II, 328. corax sinuatus, II, 329. Corynorhinus macrotis, I, 173. Coryphaena hippurus, IV, 208. Cotton-Mouth Moccasin, IV, 110. Cotton-Tail Rabbit, I, 267. Cougar, I, 44. Cow-" Fish," II, 147. Coyote, I, 56. Coypu Rat, I, 244. Crane, Sandhill, III, 142. Whooping, III, 139. Crappie, IV, 184. Creeper, Brown, II, 272. Cristivomer namaycush, IV, 224. Crocodile, American, IV, 21. Australian, IV, 11. Broad-Nosed African, IV, 11. Cuban, IV, 20. Florida, IV, 13, 18. Nile, IV, 11. " Orinoco, IV, 13, 21. Salt-Water, IV, 11. Sharp-Nosed African, IV, 11. Crocodiles and Alligators, Man-Eating, IV, 16. Crocodiles and Alligators, Nesting Habits of, IV. 16. Crocodiles and Alligators, Order of, IV, 10. Crocodilia, Order, IV, 10. Crocodilus acutus, IV, 18. cataphractus, IV, 11. acutus floridanus, IV, 18. intermedius, IV, 13, 21. johnstoni, IV, 11. niloticus, IV, 11. palustris, IV, 13. porosus, IV, 11. rhombifer, IV, 20. Crossbill, American, II, 300. Crotalus adamanteus, IV, 103. atrox, IV, 103. cerastes, IV, 106. confluentus, IV, 100. horridus, IV, 104. lepidus, IV, 100. lucifer, IV, 100. mitchelli, IV, 100. molossus, IV, 100. tigris, IV, 100. Crotaphytus collaris, IV, 61. Crow, Clarke's, II, 327. Common, II, 328. Crowley, J. B., I, 129. Cryptobranchus alleghaniensis, IV, 150. maximus, IV, 151. Cuckoo, Black-Billed, III, 23. Yellow-Billed, III, 22. "Culebra de Agua" (anaconda), IV, 79. Curlew, Eskimo, III, 284. " Long-Billed, III, 136. Cyanocephalus cyanocephalus, II, 325. Cyanocitta cristata, II, 323. stelleri, II, 324. Cyanospiza cyanea, II, 310. Cynomys ludovicianus, I, 201. Cyprinus carpio, IV, 261. Cyrtonyx montezumae mearnsi, III, 105. Cystophora cristata, I, 138. "Dabchick" (grebe), III, 261. Dactylopterus volitans, IV, 253. Dafila acuta, III, 179. Darter, III, 225. Dasyprocta agouti, I, 258. Dasypus tricinctus, II, 170. Dasyures, II, 185. Deer, Arizona White-Tailed, II, 80. " breeding, II, 222. 334 INDEX Deer, Columbian Black-Tailed, II, 77, 224. " damages by, II, 86. " dangerous, II, 61, 65. " Family, II, 4, 55. " Florida White-Tailed, II, 80. "Jumping," II, 76. " Mule or "Black-Tailed," II, 72, 223. " Sitka, II, 78. " White-Tailed, or Virginia, II, 78. Delphinapterus leucas, II, 146. Delphinus delphis, II, 154. Dendragapus obscurus, III, 109. Dendrocygna fulva, III, 172. Dendroica aestiva, II, 283. Desmognathus fusca, IV, 147. Devil-Fish, IV, 318. De Weese, Dall, II, 120. Diana Monkey, I, 10, 27. Dickerson, Mrs. E. N., IV, 199. Dicrostonyx hudsonius, I, 221. Didelphis virginiana, II, 190. Diedipper (grebe), III, 261. Diemyctylus viridescens, IV, 148. Diggers, Order of the, II, 180. Dill, Homer R., Ill, 246. Dimock, A. W. and J. A., IV, 247. Diomedea albatrus, III, 238. chinensis, III, 238. ' exulans, III, 234. nigripes, III, 237. Dipodomys merriami, I, 222. Dipper, II, 278. Ditmars, Raymond L., IV, 5, 80, 82, 86, 131. Diver, Great Northern, III, 262. Divers, Order of Flightless, III, 273. " Order of Weak- Winged, III, 259. Dixon, Senator J. M., I, 135. Dog Family, I, 40, 53. Dogfish, IV, 290. Dolichonyx oryzivorus, II, 310. Dolichotis patachonica, I, 261. "Dolphin," IV, 208. Dolphin, Common, II, 154. Dolphin and Porpoise Family, II, 152. Doroucoulis, I, 33. Dove, Mourning, III, 91. Dromaeus novaehollandae, III, 278. Dryobates villosus, III, 19. Duck, American Scoter, III, 173. " American Widgeon, III, 172. " Barrow's Golden-Eye, III, 173. Duck, Black, III, 172. " Blue- Winged Teal, III, 176. " Buffle-Head or Butter-Ball, III, 189. Canvasback, III, 187. " Cinnamon Teal, III, 177. " Eider, III, 193. " Fulvus Tree, III, 172. " Gray, III, 172. " Green-Winged Teal, III, 177. " Harlequin, III, 173. " Hooded Merganser, III, 199, 201. " Labrador, III, 283. " Mallard, III, 169, 174. " Merganser, III, 201. " Old Squaw, III, 173. " Pintail or Sprigtail, III, 181. " Red-Breasted Merganser, III, 196. " Red-Head, III, 185. " Ring-Necked, III, 173. " Ruddy, III, 201. " Scaup, III, 172. " Shoveller or Spoonbill, III, 177. " Spectacled Eider, III, 195. " Steller's, III, 201. " Surf Scoter, III, 173. " White- Winged Scoter, III, 195. " Wood, III, 180. Duck-Bill, II, 196. Ducks, Geese, and Swans, Order of, III, 167. Dugong, II, 159, 163. Dutcher, William, II, 261; III, 254. Dyche, Prof. L. L., I, 56, 117, 118, 146, 267; II, 69; IV, 167. Eagle, Bald, III, 35, 60. " Golden, III, 63. Ecaudata, Order, IV, 129. Echidnas, II, 196. Ectopistes migratorius, III, 84. Edentata, Order, I, 4; II, 165. Education, Bureau of, II, 107. Eel, Common, IV, 282. " Electric, IV, 283. " Lamper, IV, 285. Effodientia, Order, I, 4; II, 180. Egg-collecting, II, 245. Egret, American, III, 157, 303. " Snowy, III, 154, 303. Egretta candidissima, III, 154. Eider, American, III, 193. " King, III, 201. INDEX 335 Eider, Spectacled, III, 195, 201. Eigenmann, Dr. C. H., I, 161. Elanoides forficatus, III, 72. Elaps euryxanthus, IV, 115. " fulvius, IV, 114. Elephants, Order of, II, 129. African, II, 134. Indian, II, 137. Pygmy, II, 137. Elephas columbi, II, 132. imperator, II, 132. indicus, II, 137. " oxyotis, II, 134. primigenius, II, 129. " pumilio, II, 137. Elk, or Wapiti, II, 4, 66, 218. Elk's Calendar, II, 60. Ellachick, IV, 36. Elliot, D. G., I, 180; III, 211. Elliott, Henry W., I, 88, 124, 127, 136. William, IV, 319. Emu, III, 278. Eniconetta stelleri, III, 201. Epomophorus, I, 178. Erethizon dorsatus, I, 252. " epixanthus, I, 253. Ereunetes pusillus, III, 134. Erignathus barbatus, I, 137. Erismatura jamaicensis, III, 201. Eschricht, D. F., II, 151. Esox lucius, IV, 215. ' masquinongy, IV, 215. : ohiensis, IV, 216. " reticulatus, IV, 216. Eumeces quinquelineatus, IV, 58. Eumetopias stelleri, I, 120. Eunectes murinus, IV, 76. " notaeus, IV, 77. Eupotomis gibbosus, IV, 185. Eutaenia sirtalis, IV, 90. Eutamias quadrivittatus, I, 194. speciosus, I, 193. Evermann, Dr. Barton W., IV, 159, 225, 231. Evotomys gapperi, I, 228. " rutilus, I, 228. Exocaetus volitans, IV, 252. Extermination defined, III, 281. methods of, III, 290. of Antelope, II, 206. of Bear, II, 232. of Birds, II, 240; III, 283-289. Extermination of Elk, II, 218. of Grouse, II, 242. of Mammals, II, 199. of Mtn. Sheep, II, 209. of Musk-Ox, II, 231. Falco columbarius, III, 59. peregrinus anatum, III, 59. sparverius, III, 58. Felis concolor, I, 44. " onca, I, 40. : pardalis, I, 48. Ferae, Order, I, 4, 40. Fer-de-Lance, or Lance-Head Snake, IV, 115. Ferret, Black-Footed, I, 71. Fiber zibethicus, I, 220, 245. Fighting Deer, II, 65. Finches, II, 299. Fish, Angel, IV, 193. " Angler, or Goose, IV, 277. " Bellows, or Rabbit, IV, 256. " Blue Cat-, IV, 270. " Box, or Trunk, IV, 255. " Buffalo, IV, 260. " Channel Cat-, IV, 270. " Devil, IV, 318. " Eggs, IV, 166. " File, IV, 254. " Flying, IV, 252. " Gar, or Bill, IV, 294. " Grunt, IV, 161. " Hag, IV, 323. " Hatcheries, IV, 167. " Lung, IV, 174. " Mud-, IV, 176. " Paddle, IV, 303. " Porcupine, IV, 256. " Sucking, IV, 212. " Trigger, or File, IV, 254. " White, IV, 250. Fish Commission, U. S. (see Fisheries Bu- reau), IV, 165. Fisher, Dr. A. K., Ill, 38. " I, 74. Fisheries, U. S. Bureau of, IV, 165. Fishery Industries of the United States, IV. 164. Fishes, Class of, IV, 159, 172, 173. Game, of North America, IV. 208. " Order of Flat-, IV, 173, 273. Order of Foot-, IV, 173, 277. 336 INDEX Fishes, Order of Gar or Ganoid, IV, 173. " Order of Half-Gilled, JV, 172. Order of Solid-Jaw, IV, 172. Order of Spiny-Firmed, IV, 172, 177. Pipe-, and Sea-Horses, IV, 173. Fishes," " Descriptive Catalogue of, IV, 159. "Fishes of North and Middle America," IV, 323. Fish-Hawk, III, 54. Flamingo, American, III, 164. Flicker, III, 15. Flounder, Winter, IV, 274. Flycatchers, II, 331. Flying Fish, IV, 252. Flying Gurnard, IV, 253. Food and Game Fishes," "American, IV, 303. Fool Hen, III, 110. Fox, Arctic, I, 63. " Black, I, 61. " Blue, I, 64. " Coast Gray, I, 59. " Cross, I, 60. " Florida Gray, I, 59. " Flying, I, 177. " Gray, I, 65. " Hall Island, I, 58. " Kadiak, I, 58. " Kit, I, 63. " Large-Eared, I, 58. " Newfoundland, I, 58. " Red, I, 59. " Scott's Gray, I, 59. " Silver, I, 61. " Swift, I, 63. ' " Texas Gray, I, 59. " Townsend's Gray, I, 59. Fratercula arctica, III, 270. Fregata aquila, III, 231. Frigate-Bird, III, 231. Fringillidae, II, 299. Frog, Bull, IV, 135. " Common, IV, 131, 134. " Leopard, IV, 133. " Northern Tree, IV, 138. " Smith, IV, 137. " Tongueless, IV, 140. " Tree, IV, 136. " Wood, IV, 136. Frogs and Toads, Order of, IV, 129. Fulica americana, III, 146. Fulmar Family, III, 239. Fur Seal, I, 123-136. Fur-Bearers, The Small, I, 66. Gadwall, III, 172. Galeocerdo tigrinus, IV, 312. Galeoscoptes carolinensis, II, 276. Gallinae, Order, III, 96. Gallinago delicata, III, 133. Gallinula galeata, III, 145. Gallinule, Florida, III, 145. Purple, III, 145. Game Birds, Order of Upland, III, 96. Game for revenue, II, 84. Game-hog, III, 291. Gannet, III, 228. Ganoids, Order of, IV, 293. Gar, Alligator, IV, 295. Gar Pike, Long-Nosed, IV, 294. Short-Nosed, IV, 295. Gardiner's Island, Ospreys on, III, 56. Garrupa nigrita, IV, 188. Gasterosteus aculeatus, IV, 267. Gavia imber, III, 262. Gavial, Indian, IV, 13. Gavialis gangeticus, IV, 10, 13. Geese, Ducks, and Swans, III, 167. Gelada Baboon, I, 10, 28. Geococcyx californianus, III, 24. Geomys bursarius, I, 180, 245. Gibbons, I, 10, 22, 25. Gila Monster, IV, 62. Gilfort, Robert, II, 136. Glass "Snake," IV, 65. Glires, I, 4, 180. Globicephala melas, II, 147. Glutton, I, 74. Glyptodon, II, 166. Glyptotherium texanum, II, 166. Gnawing Animals, Order of, I, 180. Goat, Rocky Mountain, or White, II, 41, 216. Goatsuckers, III, 4. Goldfinch, American, II, 300. "Gonies" (Albatross), III, 237. Goode, G. Brown, II, 146, 147; IV, 188, 197, 207, 221. Goose, American White-Fronted, III, 206. " Black Brant, III, 205. " Brant, III, 205. " Cackling, III, 205. " Canada, III, 200. " Hutchins's, III, 205. INDEX 337 Goose, Snow, III, 206. " White-Cheeked, III, 205. Goosefish, IV, 277. Gopher Family, Pocket, I, 180, 245, 269. " Red Pocket, I, 245. Gorilla, I, 10, 12, 13. Goshawk, American, III, 70. Crackle, Purple, II, 318. Grampus, II, 147. " griseus, II, 147. Grant, Madison, II, 105. Graptemys pseudogeographicus, IV, 26. Gray Duck, III, 172. Grebe, Pied-Billed, or Carolina, III, 260. Greely, Gen. A. W., II, 19. Grinnell, George B., IV, 233. Joseph, III, 78. Grosbeak, Cardinal, II, 307. Rose-Breasted, II, 308. Ground-" Hog," I, 208. Grouper, Black, IV, 188. Grouse, Blue, III, 109. " Canada Spruce, III, 110. " Canadian Ruffed, III, 109. " Dusky, III, 109. " Family, III, 97. " Franklin, III, 110. " Gray Ruffed, III, 109. " Oregon, or Sabine's, III, 109. " Pine, III, 109. " Pinnated, III, 111. " Prairie Sharp-Tailed, III, 117. " Ruffed, III, 106. " Sage, III, 117. " Sooty, III, 110. Gruber, Peter, IV, 121. Grunt, Black, IV, 161. Grus americana, III, 139. ' mexicana, III, 142. Guara alba, III, 160. " rubra, III, 160. Guillemots, III, 264. Gull, Herring, III, 249. Gulo luscus, I, 74. Gurnard, Flying, IV, 253. Gymnogyps californianus, III, 76. Gymnotus electricus, IV, 283. Haemulon plumieri, IV, 161. Hagenbeck's Sons, Carl, I, 90. Haliaeetus leucocephalus, III, 60. Halibut, Common, IV, 274. Hallock, Charles, IV, 291. Hamilton, Maj. J. Stevenson-, II, 233. Hang-Nest, II, 316. Hare and Rabbit Family, I, 181, 262. Hare, Jack, I, 267. " Little Chief, or Crying, I, 261. " Northern Varying, I, 263. " Polar, I, 266. " Prairie, I, 266. Harelda hyemalis, III, 173. Harlequin Snake, IV, 114. Harporhynchus rufus, II, 275. "Haven of Refuge," for Ducks, III, 191. Hawk and Eagle Family, III, 53. Hawk, Chicken, III, 64. " Cooper's, III, 68. " Duck, III, 59. " Fish, III, 54. " Forked-Tailed, III, 72. " Hen, III, 64. " Marsh, III, 70. " Pigeon, III, 59. " Red-Shouldered, III, 66. " Red-Tailed, III, 64 " Sharp-Shinned, III, 67. " Sparrow, III, 58. Heath Hen, III, 115. Hellbender, IV, 150. Hell-Diver (grebe), III, 260. Heloderma suspectum, IV, 62. Herodias egretta, III, 157. Herodiones, Order, III, 148. Black-Crowned Night, III, 152. Heron Family, III, 150. " Great Blue, III, 150. " Little Blue, III, 152. " Little Green, III, 150. " Snowy, III, 154. Herring Gull, III, 249. Hesperornis, IV, 6. Heterodon platyrhinus, IV, 93. Heteromyidae, Family, I, 222. Heterosomata, IV, 273. Hippocampus heptagonus, IV, 289. Hippoglossus hippoglossus, IV, 274. Hirundo erythrogastra, II, 297. Histrionicus histrionicus, III, 190, Histriophoca fasciata, I, 138. Holacanthus ciliaris, IV, 193. Holder, C. F., IV, 198. Holland, W. J., Ill, 277. Homo sapiens, I, 13. 338 INDEX Hoofed Animals, Order of, II, 3. Hornaday, W. T., II, 13, 240. Horned "Toad," IV, 63. Horns, Mountain Sheep, II, 38. " Prong-Horned Antelope, II, 49. Hoy, Dr. P. R., I, 198. Humming-birds, III, 7-10. Ruby-Throated, III, 8. Hunting-grounds for big game, II, 204. Hutias, I, 181, 249. Hydrodamalis, II, 159. Hyla faber, IV, 137. " versicolor, IV, 138. Hylobates leuciscus, I, 10, 22. Hylocichla mustelina, II, 264. Hyracoidea, I, 4. Hyrax, Cape, II, 126. Hyrax capensis, II, 126. Ibis Family, III, 160. " Glossy, III, 161. " Scarlet, III, 160. " White, III, 160. " Wood, III, 159. Icteria virens, II, 284. Icterus galbula, II, 316. Ictiobus cyprinella, IV, 26C . Ictulurus furcatus, IV, 270. punctatus, IV, 270. Iguana, Common, IV, 54. Marine, IV, 54. Rhinoceros, IV, 57. Impennes, Order, II, 255; III, 167, 273. In-breeding, II, 222. Insectivora, Order, I, 148. lonornis martinica, III, 145. Italians, II, 240. Jackson, Chester E., IV, 18. ' Jaeger, Parasitic, III, 257. Jaegers and Skuas, III, 257. Jaguar, I, 40. Japanese pelagic sealers, I, 131, 132. " Red-Faced Monkey, I, 26. Javelina Peccary, II, 122. Jay, Blue, II, 323. " Canada, II, 327. " Pinon, II, 325. " Steller's, II, 324. Jewfish, IV, 186. Jones, C. J., I, 55. Jones, J. Walter, I, 71. Jordan, Dr. David S., IV, 159, 219, 221, 231. Judd, Sylvester D., Ill, 102. Jumbo, II, 133, 135. Jumping Mouse Family, I, 243. Junco hyemalis, II, 302. " Slate-Colored, II, 302. Kangaroo, II, 187-189. Gray, II, 187. Old Man, II, 187. Rat, II, 187. Red, II, 187. Tree, II, 187. Kangaroo Rat, I, 241. Kea, III, 29. Kermode, Francis, I, 105. Killer Whale, II, 148. Kingbird, II, 331. Kingfisher, Belted, III, 26. Kinglets, II, 268. Kite, Swallow-Tailed, III, 72. Kiwi, III, 279. Kogia, II, 145. Lacertilia, Order, IV, 52. Lachesis mutus, IV, 106. Lagocephalus laevigatus, IV, 256. Lagopus lagopus, III, 123. leucurus, III, 123. Lamna cornubica, IV, 313. Lamper "Eel," IV, 285, 321. Lamprey, Brook, IV, 323. Sea, IV, 322. Lancelets, The, IV. 324. Lanius borealis, II, 288. " ludovicianus, II, 288. Laridae, III, 249. Lark, Horned, II, 330. " Meadow, II, 314, 316. " Shore, II, 330. Larus argentatus, III, 249. Lasiurus borealis, I, 171. Latax lutris, I, 68. Latham, Mrs. C. F., I, 231; IV, 48, 103. Laysan Island, III, 241. Leek, S. N., II, 67, 220. Lemming, I, 221. False, I, 226. Hudson Bay, I, 221. Mouse, Cooper's, I, 226. ** Mouse, or False Lemming, I, 226. INDEX 339 Lemur varius, I, 37. Lemurs, I, 11, 37. Ruffed, or Black and White, I, 37. Suborder of, I, 11, 37. Lepidosiren, IV, 176. Lepidosteus osseus, IV, 294. platystomus, IV, 295. spatula, IV, 295. Lepomis pallidus, IV, 185. Leporidae, I, 181, 262. Leptocardii, IV, 324. Lepus americanus, I, 265. . " arcticus, I, 266. campestris, I, 266. " sylvaticus, I, 267. " texianus, I, 267. Licenses, Hunting, III, 291. Light-House Board, III, 266. Limicolae, Order, III, 127. Lizard, Blue-Tailed, or Skink, IV, 58. Horned, IV, 63. " Ring-Necked, or Kangaroo, IV, 61. " Sea, IV, 54. Lizards, Order of, IV, 52. Lodge, Senator H. C., II, 220. Longipennes, Order, III, 167, 249. Loon, or Great Northern Diver, III, 262. "Lopez," I, 44. Lophius piscatorius, IV, 277. Lophodytes cucullatus, III, 199, 201. Lophortyx californicus, III, 104. Loring, J. Alden, I, 92; III, 66. Loxia curvirostra minor, II, 300. Lucas, Frederic A., I, 130; III, 229, 272. Lumpy-Jaw, II, 53. Lunda cirrata, III, 270. Lung-Fish, Australian, IV, 174. Lutianus aya, IV, 206. Lutra canadensis, I, 67. Lutreola vison, I, 70. Lynx, Bay, or Red, I, 50, 52. " Canada, I, 49. Lynxes, I, 48. Macacus speciosus, I, 10, 26. McAtee, W. L., Ill, 127. Macaw, Blue and Yellow, III, 32. Macaws exterminated, III, 287-288. MacDougall, Dr. D. T., II, 121. Mackerel, Horse, IV, 197. Spanish, IV, 195. Macrochelys temmincki, IV, 39. Macrochires, Order, III, 3. Macropus giganteus, II, 188. rufus, II, 187. Magpie, American, II, 320. Malacoclemmys palustris, IV, 36. Mammals, Chart of, I, 7. Order of Egg-Laying, II, 196. Order of Flesh-Eating, I, 40. Order of Pouched, II, 185. Order of Toothless, II, 165. Orders of, I, 4. Mammoth, Columbian, II, 132. Imperial, II, 132. Man, I, 12, 21. Manatee, or Sea-Cow, II, 159. Mandrill, I, 29. Manis pentadactyla, II, 181. Man-o'-War Birds, III, 231. "Hawk," III, 231. Manta birostris, IV, 318. Mareca americana, III, 172. Market-hunting, III, 294. Marmosa murina, II, 195. Marmoset, Common, I, 36. Pinche, I, 35. Silky, I, 36. Marmot, I, 200. Gray, or Whistler, I, 208. Olympic, I, 210. Yellow-Bellied, I, 209. Marmota flaviventer, I, 209. monax, I, 208. pruinosus, I, 208. Marsupialia, Order, I, 4; II, 185. Marten Family, I, 40, 66. Pennant's, I, 74. " Pine, I, 73. Martin, Bee, II, 331. " Purple, II, 293. Massasauga, IV, 109. Edward's, IV, 100. Mastodon, II, 130. americanus, II, 130. Matamata, IV, 41. Meadow-Lark, II, 314. Western, II, 316. Megaderma lyra, I, 162. Megaptera nodosa, II, 144. Megascops asio, III, 42. Megatherium, II, 179. 340 INDEX Melanerpes erythrocephalus, III, 15. formicivorus, III, 18. Meleagris gallopavo, III, 125. ocellata, III, 126. Melospiza fasciata, II, 303. Menobranchus, IV, 154. Menopoma alleghaniensis, IV, 150. Mephitis mephitica, I, 77. Merganser americanus, III, 201. Hooded, III, 199, 201. Red-Breasted, III, 196. serrator, III, 196. Merriam, Dr. C. Hart, I, 91, 203, 270 ; III, 20. Merula migratoria, II, 260. Metopoceros cornutus, IV, 57. Mexico, II, 216. Mice and Rats, Cheek-Pouched, I, 240. Family of, I, 180, 218. Typical North American, I, 222. Micropterus dolomieu, IV, 179. salmoides, IV, 179. Microtus (Arvicola) pennsylvanicus, I, 226. Midas aedipus, I, 35. rosalia, I, 36. Millinery, Bird-slaughter for, III, 302. Mimus polyglottos, II, 276. Mink, I, 67. Minnows, IV, 263. Missing Link, I, 21. Moccasin, Water, or Cotton-Mouth, IV, 110. Mockingbird, II, 276. Mole, Common, I, 150, 151. " Hairy-Tailed, I, 153. " Prairie, or Silver, I, 153. " Star-Nosed, I, 154. Monkey, Black Saki, I, 34. Black-Faced Spider, I, 32. Capuchin, I, 30. Diana, I, 10, 27. Golden Howler, I, 34. Japanese Red-Faced, I, 10, 26. Marmoset, I, 35. Mexican Spider, I, 32. Owl, I, 32. Saki, I, 33. Sapajou, I, 30. Spider, I, 30. Squirrel, I, 33. Teetee, I, 33. Uakari, I, 34. Yarkee, I, 34. Monkeys, New World, I, 11, 30. Old World, I, 10, 26. Short-Tailed, I, 28. Monodon monoceros, II, 157. Monotremata, I, 4. Order, II, 196. Montana Bison Range, II, 13. Moose, II, 108, 228. Alaskan, II, 118. Moose-Bird, II, 327. Morehouse, Col. C. P., IV, 201. Mormoops blainvillii, I, 164. Morris, Dr. Robt. T., IV, 241. "Mother Carey's Chickens," III, 239. Mountain "Beaver," I, 212. Lion, I, 44. Sheep, II, 3, 25. " Big-Horn, II, 28. Black, II, 34. California, or Nelson's, II, 32. Fannin's, II, 37. Marco Polo's, II, 38. " Mexican, II, 32, 38. " Pinacate, II, 31, 38. " Siar, II, 38. " White, or Dall's, II, 32, 38. Mouse, Cooper's Lemming, I, 226. " Field, I, 226. " Gapper's Field, I, 229. " Grasshopper, I, 238. Harvest, I, 232. Jumping, I, 243. Lemming, I, 225. " Little Harvest, I, 232. Meadow, I, 226. Missouri, or Mole, I, 239. " Pocket, I, 240, 244. " Red-Backed, I, 228. " Rice-Field, I, 233. " White-Footed, I, 234. Mouse and Rat Family, I, 218, 222. Cheek-Pouched, I, 222, 240. Moxostoma aureolum, IV, 260. Mud "Eel," IV, 155. " Hen, III, 146. " Puppy, IV, 153. Mugger Crocodile, IV, 11. Mugil brasiliensis, IV, 203. Mullet, White, or Silver, IV. 203. Muridae, I, 222. INDEX 341 Murre, Brunnich's, III, 266. " California, III, 266. " Common, III, 266. Mus rufescens, I, 245. Muskallunge, IV, 215. Musk-Ox, II, 14, 231. Muskrat, I, 220, 245. Mustek americana, I, 73. pennanti, I, 74. Mustelidae, I, 40, 67. Myocastor coy pus, I, 244. Myopotamus coypu, I, 250. Myrmecophaga jubata, II, 171. Naja bungarus, IV, 98. " tripudians, IV, 96. Nansen, F., Ill, 273. Narwhal, II, 157. Nathorst, Prof. A. G., II, 20. Natrix fasciata, IV, 92. Neanderthal Man, I, 22. Necturus maculatus, IV, 153. Nelson, E. W., II, 208. Neotoma floridana, I, 232. Nettion carolinensis, III, 177. Newts, IV, 148. Crimson-Spotted, IV, 148. Nice, Margaret M., Ill, 102. Nighthawk, III, 4. Night-Heron, Black-Crowned, III, 152. Niles, O. E., Ill, 46. Niobrara Bison Range, II, 13. North American Commercial Co., I, 128. Nucifrega columbiana, II, 325. Numenius longirostris, III, 136. Nut-Cracker, Clarke's, II, 325. Nuthatch, II, 270. Nyctala acadica, III, 42. Nyctea nyctea, III, 49. Nycticorax nycticorax naevius, III, 152. Ocelot, I, 48, 51. Ochotona princeps, I, 261. Odobenus obesus, I, 141. rosmarus, I, 146. Odocoileus columbianus, II, 77, 224. hemionus, II, 72, 223. sitkensis, II, 78. virginianus, II, 78. Odontoglossae, Order, III, 164. Oidemia americana, III, 173. Oidemia deglandi, III, 195. " perspicillata, III, 173. Olds, C. S., IV, 319. Olor buccinator, III, 207. " columbianus, III, 212. Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, IV, 238. keta, IV, 238. kisutch, IV, 237. nerka, IV, 236. tschawytscha, IV, 235. Onychomys leucogaster, I, 238. Ophibolus getulus, IV, 83. Ophidia, Order, IV, 6. Ophiosaurus ventralis, IV, 65. Opossum, Murine, II, 195. Virginia, II, 190. Orang-Utan, I, 10, 17. Orca, II, 148. Orcinus orca, II, 146. Oreamnos montanus, II, 41. Oreortyx pictus, III, 104. Oriole, Baltimore, II, 316. Ornithorhynchus anatinus, II, 196. Orycteropus afer, II, 184. Oryzomys palustris, I, 233. Osborn, Prof. Henry F., I, 4; II, 166. Osgood, W. H., I, 205. Osprey, American, III, 54. Osteolaemus tetraspis, IV, 11. Ostracion quadricornis, IV, 255. Ostrich, African, III, 276. " South American, III, 277. Otocoris alpestris, II, 330. Otopterus, californicus, I, 164. Otter, I, 67. " Sea, I, 68. Ouananiche, IV, 242. "Outdoor Life" (magazine), I, 45. Ouzel, Water, II, 278. Ovibos moschatus, II, 14. wardi, II, 18. Ovis ammon, II, 38. " canadensis, II, 28, 38. " dalli, II, 32, 36. " fannini, II, 37. *' mexicanus, II, 32, 38. " nelsoni, II, 32. poli, II, 38. " siarensis, II, 38. " stonei, II, 34, 38. Owl, Barn, III, 34, 37. 342 INDEX Owl, Barred, III, 40. " Burrowing, III, 50. Great Gray, III, 42. Great Horned, III, 46. Horned, Family, III, 39. Long-Eared, III, 39. Monkey-Faced, III, 34. Saw-Whet, III, 42. Screech, III, 42. Short-Eared, III, 40. " Snowy, III, 49. Owl Monkey, I, 32. Oxyechus vocifera, III, 130. Paca, I, 259. Paddle-Fish, IV, 303. Palmer, Dr. T. S., I, 269; II, 207. Paludicolae, Order, III, 138. Pan troglodytes, I, 10, 15. Pandion haliaeetus carolinensis, III, 54. Pangolin, Giant, II, 181. Indian, II, 181. Parrakeet, Carolina, III, 29. exterminated, III, 288. Parrots exterminated, III, 288. Parrots and Macaws, Order of, III, 28. "Partridge," Black, III, 110. Parus atricapillus, II, 269. Paschen, H., I, 14. Passer domesticus, II, 305. Passeres, Order, II, 255. Passerina nivalis, II, 301. Peary, Commander Robt. E., I, 146; II, 14. Peccary, Collared, II, 121. Family, II, 4, 121. White-Lipped, II, 123. Pedioecetes phasianellus campestris, III, 117. Pelagic sealing, I, 128, 131, 132. Pelecanus californicus, III, 218. " erythrorhynchos, III, 218. fuscus, III, 213. Pelican, Brown, III, 213. ". California Brown, III, 218. Great White, III, 218. " Island, III, 214. Penguin, Black-Footed, III, 274. Emperor, III, 273. Pack, III, 274. Perca flavescens, IV, 191. Perch, Pike-, IV, 192. " Yellow, IV, 191. Perisoreus canadensis, II, 327. Perissodactyla, I, 4. Perodipus richardsoni, I, 241. Perognathus fasciatus, I, 240. flavus, I, 245. Peromyscus leucopus, I, 234. Petrel, Stormy, III, 239. Petrochelidon lunifrons, II, 297. Petrogale penicillata, II, 188. Petromyzon marinus, IV, 322. Pewee, II, 332. Phalacrocorax carbo, III, 222. dilophus, III, 225. pelagicus, III, 225. Phalangers, II, 185. Phasianus torquatus, III, 124. Pheasant Family, III, 97. Golden, III, 125. Ring-Necked, III, 124. Silver, III, 125. Phenacomys orophilus, I, 230. Phillips, John M., II, 217. Philohela minor, III, 132. Phoca foetida, I, 137. groenlandica, I, 137. " vitulina, I, 137. Phocaena communis, II, 154. Phoebe Bird, II, 332. Phoenicopterus ruber, III, 166. Phrynosoma cornutum, IV, 63. Phyllostoma hastatum, I, 166. Physeter macrocephalus, II, 144. Pica pica hudsonica, II, 320. Pici, Order, III, 11. Pickerel, Chain, IV, 216. Picus pubescens medianus, III, 18. Pigeon, Banded-Tailed, III, 89. " Passenger, III, 84. Pigeons and Doves, Order of, III, 84. Pika Family, I, 181, 261. Pike, IV, 214. " Wail-Eyed, IV, 192. Pike, Mr. Warburton, II, 102. Pike-Perch, Yellow, IV, 192. Piltdown Skull, I, 21. Pine-Hen, III, 109. Pinnated Grouse, III, 111. Pinnipedia, Order, I, 4, 112, 114. Pipa americana, IV, 140. Pipefishes, Order of, IV, 286. Piranga erythromelas, II, 298. INDEX 343 Pithecia satanas, I, 34. Pityophis melanoleucus, IV, 87. Platypus, or Duck-Bill, II, 196. Plautus impennis, III, 283. Plegadis autumnalis, III, 161. Plethodon glutinosus, IV, 147. Plover, American Golden, III, 131. Green, III, 131. Kill-Deer, III, 130. Pocket Gopher Family, I, 245. Podilymbus podiceps, III, 260. Polyodon spathula, IV, 303. Pomatomus saltatrix, IV, 193. Pomoxis annularis, IV, 184. sparoides, IV, 180. Pompano, Common, IV, 203. Poor Will, III, 6. Porcupine, Canada, I, 252. Family, I, 181, 252. Prehensile-Tailed, I, 252. Yellow-Haired, I, 253. Porpoise, Common, II, 154. Sperm Whale, II, 145. Porpoises and Whales, Order of, II, 138. Porzana Carolina, III, 144. Prairie-Chicken, III, 112. Prairie-" Dog," I, 201. and Burrowing Owl, III, 51. Burrow, I, 205. Hunter, I, 71. pamphlet on the, I, 270. Prairie Wolf, I, 56. Pribilof Islands, I, 123. Primates, I, 4, 9. Pristis pectinatus, IV, 315. Proboscidea, I, 4. Procellaria glacialis, III, 273. pelagica, III, 239. Procyon lotor, I, 109. Procyonidae, I, 40, 109. Progne subis, II, 293. Promops californicus, I, 167, 169. Protean, subterranean, IV, 154. Protection of Birds, II, 244. of Mammals, II, 199. Proteus anguineus, IV, 153. Protopterus, IV, 176. Pseudemys rubriventris, IV, 34. Pseudopleuronectes americanus, IV, 274. Psittaci, Order, III, 28. Ptarmigan, III, 120. Ptarmigan, slaughter, III, 301. White-Tailed, III, 123. Willow, III, 123. Pteropus edwardsi, I, 177. Puffin, Common, or "Sea Parrot," III, 270. " Tufted, III, 270. Puma, I, 44. Putorius erminea, I, 73. nigripes, I, 71. rixosus, I, 72. Pygopodes, Order, III, 167, 259. Python molurus, IV, 81. " reticulatus, IV, 79. Quail, III, 97. Bob- White, III, 98. California Mountain, III, 104. " Common, III, 98. " Mearns, III, 105. " Valley, III, 104. Querquedula cyanoptera, III, 176. discors, III, 176. Quiscalus quiscula, II, 318. Rabbit, Gray, I, 267. " Jack, I, 267, 269. Rabbit and Hare Family, I, 262. Raccoon Family, I, 40, 109. Racer, Blue, IV, 88. " Green, IV, 88. " Red, IV, 90. Rachianectes glaucus, II, 144. Raiae, IV, 314. Rail Family, III, 143. " Sora, III, 144. " Virginia- III, 143. Rain-Crow, III, 22. Rainey, Paul J., II, 24. Rallus virginianus, III, 143. Rana catesbiana, IV, 135. " clamata, IV, 134. " sylvatica, IV, 136. " virescens, IV, 133. Rangifer arcticus, II, 97, 99. caribou, II, 90. granti. II, 99. groenlandicus, II, 96. osborni, II, 94. pearyi, II, 94. stonei, II, 95. 344 INDEX Raptores, Order, III, 34. Rat, Cotton, or Marsh, I, 233. " Coypu, I, 244, 250. " Domestic, I, 245. " Kangaroo, I, 180, 241, 245. " Pack, or TraoUng, I, 230, 245. " Tree, I, 249. " Wood, I, 222, 232. Rat and Mouse Family, I, 180. Ratitae, Order, III, 276. Rats and Rat-like Animals, I, 222, 244. Rattlesnake, IV, 100. Diamond, IV, 103. Dog-Faced, IV, 100. Edwards', IV, 100. Green, IV, 100. Ground, IV, 100. Horned, IV, 106. Massasauga, IV, 100. Pacific, IV, 100. Prairie, IV, 100, 102. Texas, IV, 103. Timber, or Banded, IV, 104. White, IV, 100. Raven, American, II, 329. Ray, Beaked, IV, 314. " Devil-Fish, IV, 318. " Shark-, IV, 314. " Sting, IV, 317. Red Horse, IV, 260. Redstart, American, II, 285. Reed Bird, II, 311. Regulus calendula, II, 268. Reindeer, in Alaska, II, 105. Reithrodontomys lecontii, I, 233. Remora, IV, 212. Reptile House, IV, 71. Reptiles, Food Consumed by, IV, 71. " Introduction to the Class of, IV, 3. " Orders of, IV, 6. " Poisonous Species of, IV, 8. "Reptiles of the World," IV, 80. Rhamphobatis ancylostomus, IV, 314. Rhea americana, III, 277. Rhinobatis lentiginosus, IV, 314. Rhinodon typicus, IV, 313. Rhytina gigas, II, 159, 164. Rice Bird, II, 311. Ring-Tail Monkey, I, 11, 30. Road-Runner, III, 24. Robin, II, 260. Roccus lineatus, IV, 188. Rockfish, IV, 188. Rodentia, I, 4, 180. Roosevelt, Theodore, I, 47; III, 248. Rule for calculating weight, II, 70. Rungius, Carl, II, 119. Rutter, Cloudsley, IV, 231. Rynchops nigra, III, 256. Sage-Grouse, III, 117. Saimiri sciurea, I, 33. Saki, Black, I, 34. Salamander, Free-Gilled, IV, 153. Giant, IV, 151. Siren, or Mud-" Eel," IV, 155. Salamanders, Eel-like, IV, 152. Family of, IV, 143. Spotted, IV, 144, 147. Two-Legged, IV, 155. Salmo clarkii, IV, 220. " gairdneri, IV, 223. " irideus, IV, 221. ouananiche, IV, 242. " salar, IV, 239. " sebago, IV, 243. Salmon, Atlantic, IV, 239. Blueback, or Sockeye, IV, 236. " destruction of, IV, 233. Dog, IV, 238. Family of the, IV, 228. Groups of American, IV, 229. Humpback, IV, 238. Ouananiche, IV, 242. Quinnat, IV, 235. Sebago, IV, 243. Silver, IV, 237. Salmon and Trout, Order of, IV, 218. Salvelinus fontinalis, IV, 226. Sand-Piper, Least, III, 134. Semi-Palmated, III, 134. Sapajou, White-Throated, I, 11, 30. Sapsucker, Yellow-Bellied, III, 20. Sarcorhampus gryphus, III, 83. Sawfish, IV, 315. Scalops aquaticus, I, 151. Scammon, Capt. C. M., II, 140, 148. Scaphiopus holbrooki, IV, 140. Sciuridae, I, 180. Sciuropterus volans, I, 210. Sciurus carolinensis, I, 184. " douglasi, I, 188. INDEX 345 Sciurus erythrogasler, I, 189. " fremonti, I, 189. " griseus, I, 186. hudsonicus, I, 187. " ludovicianus, I, 187. malabaricus, I, 189. " niger, I, 186. " prevosti, I, 190. Scomberomorus maculatus, IV, 195. Scoter, American, III, 173. Surf, III, 173. White- Winged, III, 195. Scotiaptex nebulosa, III, 42. Sea-Bass, Black, IV, 186. Family of the, IV, 186. Sea-Cow, Rhytina, or Arctic, II, 164. Sea-Cows, Order of, II, 158. Sea-Horse, IV, 289. Sea-Lions, California, I, 115. Steller, I, 120. "Sea-Parrot" (puffin), III, 270. "Sea-Swallow" (tern), III, 254. Seal, Bearded, I, 137. " Family, I, 137. " Fur, I, 123-136. " Greenland, I, 138. " Harbor, I, 137. " Harp, I, 137. Hooded, I, 138. Ribbon, or Harlequin, I, 138. " Ringed, I, 137. " Saddle-Back, I, 138. Seals and Sea-Lions, Order of, I, 112, 114. Seiurus motacilla, II, 286. noveboracensis, II, 286. Selous, Percy, killed by moccasin, IV, 113. Serpents, Order of, IV, 67. Serum, Anti-venomous, IV, 120. Seton, Ernest T., Ill, 106. Setophaga ruticilla, II, 285. Sewellel, I, 180, 212. Shad, Common, IV, 247. Shark, Basking, IV, 313. " Blue, IV, 313. " Bone, IV, 313. " Great Tiger, IV, 313. " Hammer-Head, IV, 313. " Mackerel, IV, 313. " Man-Eater, or White, IV, 313. " Thresher, IV, 313. " Tiger, IV, 311, 312. Shark-Ray, IV, 314. Sharks, Order of, IV, 308. Sharp-Tailed Grouse, III, 117. Shearwaters, III, 239. Sheep, Argali, II, 38. " Big-Horn, II, 25, 28, 209. Black, II, 34. " Fannin's, II, 37. " Karelin, II, 38. " Mexican, II, 32. " Nelson's or California. II, 32. " Polo's, II, 38. " Siar, II, 38. White, II, 32. Sheep and Cattle Family, II, 4. Shields, G. O.- I, 98; III, 291. Shore-Birds, Order of, III, 127. Showt'l, I, 212. Shrew, Common, I, 154. " Family, I, 154. " Short-Tailed, I, 155. Shrikes, II, 288. Sialia sialis, II, 265. Siamang, I, 25. Side-Winder Rattlesnake, IV, 106. Sigmodon hispidus, I, 233. Simia satyrus, I, 10, 17. Simorhynchus pusillus, III, 271. Siren lacertina, IV, 155. Sirenia, Order, I, 4; II, 158. Sirens, Family of, IV, 155. Sistrurus catenatus, IV, 109. edwardsi, IV, 100. miliarius, IV, 100. Sitta carolinensis, II, 270. Skeleton of American Bison, II, 6. " of Bald Eagle, III, 35. " of Gorilla, I, 12. Skimmer, Black, III, 256. Skink, IV, 58. Skuas and Jaegers, III, 257. Skunk, Badger, I, 81. Common, I, 77. " Farming, I, 78. " Little Spotted, I, 78. Slaughter for millinery, III, 302. of birds, III, 281. of wild life, III, 300-302. "Slider" Terrapin, IV, 34. Sloth, Three-Toed, II, 177. " Two-Toed, II, 178. 346 INDEX Smith, Hugh M., IV, 169, 299. Snake, Black, IV, 88. " Blue, or Green Racer, IV, 88. " Boyle's, IV, 85. " Coach, Whip or Red Racer, IV, 90. " Copperhead, IV, 110. Corn, Red Racer or Rat, IV, 85. " Fer-de- Lance, or Lance-Head, IV, 115. " Garter, IV, 90. " Gopher, Black, or Indigo, IV, 86. " Harlequin, IV, 114. " Hog-Nosed, IV, 93. " "Hoop," IV, 73. King, Chain or Thunder, IV, 83. " Massasauga, IV, 100, 109. " Pine, IV, 87. " Poisons, IV, 116. " Rat, IV, 86. " Rattle-, IV, 100. " Red-Bellied Water, IV, 91. " Sonoran Coral, IV, 115. " Water, IV, 92. " Water-Moccasin, IV, 110. "Snake," Glass, IV, 65. Snake-Bird, III, 225. Snake-bites, Treatment of, IV, 116. Snakes, captive, Food of, IV, 71. " Harmless, of the United States, IV, 83. Oviparous, IV, 70. " Poisonous, of North America, IV, 94. " Viviparous, IV, 70. Snapper, Red, IV, 206. Snipe, Wilson's, or Jack, III, 133. Snow Bird, II, 302. Snow Bunting, II, 301. Snyder, Keeper Chas. E., IV, 82, 131. Somateria dresseri, III, 193. spectabilis, III, 201. Sorex personatus, I, 154. Sparrow, English, II, 305. Song, II, 303. Tree, II, 303. White-Throated, II, 304. Spatula clypeata, III, 177. Speotito cunicularia hypogaea, III, 50. Spennophile, or Ground Squirrel, I, 195. Franklin's, I, 198. Richardson's, I. 200. Say's, I, 194. Spermophile, Thirteen-Lined, or Leopard, I, 197. Sphargis coriacea, IV, 51. Spheniscus demersus, III, 274. Sphyrapicus varius, III, 20. Sphyrna zygaena, IV, 313. Spilogale, I, 78. Spilotes corais couperii, IV, 86. Spizella monticola, II, 303. Spoonbill Family, III, 161. Roseate, III, 161. Squali, IV, 308. Squirrel, Antelope, I, 194. " California Gray, I, 186. Douglas, I, 188. Family, I, 180, 181. " Fremont's, I, 189. Gray, I, 184. Malabar, I, 189. Northern Fox, or Cat, I, 187. Prevost's, I, 190. Red, or Chickaree, I, 187. Southern Fox, I, 186. Squirrels, Flying, I, 210. Fox, I, 186. Ground, I, 195, 270. Rock, or Chipmunks, I, 190. Tree, I, 183. Stake-Driver (bittern), III, 158. Starling, II, 312. Steganopodes, Order, II, 255; III, 167, 213. Stegastoma tigrinum, IV, 311. Stejneger, Dr. Leonhard, IV, 118. Stercorarius parasiticus, III, 257. Stereolepis gigas, IV, 186. Sterna hirundo, III, 254. Stickleback, Two-Spined, IV, 265. Sting Ray, or "Stingaree," IV, 317. Stizostedion vitreum, IV, 192. Stork Family, III, 159. Strigidae, Family, III, 34. Strix pratincola, III, 37. Struthio camelus, III, 276. Sturgeon, Common, IV, 298. Industry, extinction of, IV, 299. Lake, IV, 298. Short-Nosed, IV, 298. Shovel-Nosed, IV, 303. White, IV, 298. Sturnella magna, II, 314. neglecta, II. 316. INDEX 347 Sturnus Vulgaris, II, 312. Sucker, Common Brook, or White, IV, 258. " Red-Horse, IV, 260. Suckers, Carp, and Minnows, Order of, IV, 257. Sucking-Fish, IV, 212. Sula bassana, III, 228. Sun-Fish, Black-Gill, or Blue-Gill, IV, 185. Common, IV, 185. Swallow Family, II, 293. Swallows, II, 297-298. Barn, II, 298. Chimney, III, 6. Cliff, II, 297. Eave, II, 297. Swan, Trumpeter, III, 207. " Whistling, III, 212. Swans, Ducks, and Geese, Order of, III, 167. Swift Family, III, 6. Swifts, Chimney, III, 6. Swimmers, Diving, III, 167. Flying, III, 167. Long- Winged, III, 167, 249. Order of Tube-Nosed, III, 167, 233. Swimming-Birds, Orders of, IV, 167. Swordfish, IV, 209. Sylvidae, Family, II, 266. Symphalangus syndactylus, I, 25. Synaptomys cooperi, I, 226. Syngnathus acus, IV, 286. Syrnium varium, III, 40. Tamandua tetradactyla, II, 175. Tamias striatus, I, 191. Tanager, Scarlet, II, 298. Tantalus loculator, III, 159. Tapir Family, II, 4, 124. Tapirus dowi, II, 124. terrestris, II, 124. Tarpon, IV, 244. atlanticus, IV, 244. Tarpon," "Book of the, IV, 247. Tarsier, I, 11. Tatu novemcinctum, II, 170. Tayassu albirostre, II, 123. tajacu, II, 121. Teal, Blue- Winged, III, 176. " Cinnamon, III, 176. " Green- Winged, III, 172. Teetee, I, 33. Tern, Common, III, 254. Terrapin, Alligator, IV, 39. Diamond-Back, IV, 36. Ellachick, IV, 36. Matamata, IV, 41. Painted, IV, 35. Pine-Barren, IV, 32. Pond, IV, 35. Red-Bellied, or "Slider," IV, 34. Snapping, IV, 40. Terrapins, Fresh- Water, IV, 28. Smooth-Shelled, IV, 28, 34. Testudo polyphemus, IV, 30. vicina, IV, 28. Tetraonidae, III, 98. Thalarctos maritimus, I, 87. Thallassochelys caretta, IV, 47. Theropithecus gelada, I, 10, 29. Thrasher, Brown, II, 275. Thrushes, Water, II, 286. Wood, II, 264. Thrushes, II, 260. Thunder-Pumper (bittern), III, 158. Thunnus thynnus, IV, 197. Tiger-Cat, I, 48, 51. Titmouse, Black-Capped, II, 269. Toad, Common, IV, 138. " Horned, IV, 63. " Spade-Foot, IV, 140. " Surinam, IV, 140. Toads and Frogs, Order of, IV, 129. Tolypeutes sexcinctus, II, 167. Tomistoma schlegeli, IV, 10. Tortoise, Box, IV, 31. Giant, IV, 28. Gopher, IV, 30. Pond, IV, 35. Tortoises and Turtles, Order of, IV, 25, 27. Townsend, Chas. C., Ill, 191. Chas. H., II, 104. 105. Trachinotus carolinus, IV, 203. goodei, IV, 203. Tree Frogs, Family of, IV, 136. Tree-Creepers, II, 272. Trichechus americanus, II, 159. latirostris, II, 159. senegalensis, II, 159. Trigger-Fish, IV, 254. Triton torosus, IV, 149. viridescens, IV, 149. 348 INDEX Trochilus colubris, III, 8. Troglodytes aedon, II, 274. Trout, Brook, or Speckled, IV, 226. " Lake, or Mackinaw, IV, 224. Mountain, or Black-Spotted, IV, 220. " Rainbow, IV, 221. " Steelhead, or Salmon, IV, 223. Trout and Salmon, Order of, IV, 218. Trygon sabina, IV, 317. Tubinares, Order, III, 167, 233. Tuna, or Tunny, IV, 197. " Club, IV, 201, 211. Turkey, Ocellated, III, 126. Wild, III, 125. Turtle, Green, IV, 45. Hard-Shelled Sea, IV, 45. " Harp, or Lyre, IV, 51. " Hawksbill or Tortoise-Shell, IV, 46. Leather-Backed, IV, 51. Leathery-Shelled Sea, IV, 51. " Loggerhead, IV, 47. Mud, IV, 32. " Musk, or Stink-Pot, IV, 33. " Snapping, IV, 40. " Soft-Shelled, IV, 42. " Wood, IV, 37. Tympanuchus americanus, III, 111. cupido, III, 115. Typhlomolge rathbuni, IV, 154. Typtilonectes compressicauda, IV, 124. Tyrannus tyrannus, II, 331. Tyrrell, J. B., II, 95, 101, 102. Uakaria calva, I, 34. Ungulata, Order, II, 3. Upland Game Birds, III, 96. Uria lomvia, III, 266. " troile, III, 266. " californica, III, 266. Urocyon californicus, I, 59. ' cinereoargenteus, I, 66. ' floridanus, I, 59. scottii, I, 59. * texensis, I, 59. townsendi, I, 59. Urodela, Order, IV, 124, 142. Ursidae, I, 40, 82. Ursus americanus, I, 85, 87, 101. sornborgeri, I, 87. " carlottae, I, 87. " dalli, I, 87. 93. Ursus dalli gyas, I, 87. emmonsi, I, 87, 102. " eulophus, I, 87. " horribilis, I, 87, 93. " alascensis, I, 87. horriaeus, I, 87. " kermodei, I, 87, 105, 107. luteolus, I, 87. merriami, I, 87. middendorffi, I, 87, 91. richardsoni, I, 87. " sitkensis, I, 87. Vampyrus spectrum, I, 168. Vanishing Wild Life," "Our (book), II, 87; III, 78, 303. Vertebrates, Lowest Classes of, IV, 321. Vespertilionidae, I, 163. "Viper," Blowing, IV, 93. Vireo olivaceus, II, 287. " noveboracensis, II, 287. Vireos, II, 287. Viscacha, I, 254, 256. Viscacia viscacia, I, 256. Vole, I, 229. " Northwestern, I, 230. Vulpes deletrix, I, 58. " fulvus, I, 59. argentatus, I, 58. " decussatus, I, 58. . " hallensis, I, 58. harrimani, I, 58. lagopus, I, 63. " macrotis, I, 58. " macrourus, I, 58. " velox, I, 63. Vulture, Black, III, 75. " California, III, 76. Common Turkey, III, 74. Vultures, Family of, III, 74. Wallabies, II, 187-189. Wallihan, A. G., II, 73. Walrus, I, 114, 141. Atlantic, I, 146. Pacific, I, 141. Wapiti, II, 3, 55, 66, 218. Warbler, Yellow, II, 283. Warblers, II, 280. Ward, Henry A., II, 166. Water-Frogs, Family of, IV, 134. INDEX 349 Waxwings, II, 290. Weasel, Common, I, 72. Least, I, 72. Webb, A. C., II, 285. Webster, Frederic S., IV, 296. Whale, Bowhead, Greenland or Polar, II, 142. California Gray, II, 144. Pygmy Sperm, II, 145. Sulphur-Bottom, II, 140. " White, II, 146. Whales, Family of Baleen, II, 140. Family of Sperm, II, 144. various species, II, 144. Whales and Porpoises, Order of, II, 138. Wharton, W. P., II, 13. Whippoorwill, III, 5. Whiskey-Jack, II, 327. Whitefish, Common, IV, 250. Wichita National Bison Range, II, 13. Widgeon, III, 172. Wilderness Areas in N. A., II, 201. Williams, A. Bryan, II, 234. Willson, Minnie Moore, III, 30. Wind Cave National Bison Range, II, 13. Wingless Land Birds, Order of, III, 276. Wolcott, F. C., I, 95. Wolf, Gray or Timber, I, 54. " Prairie, I, 56. Wolverine, I, 74. Woodchuck, I, 208. Woodcock, American, III, 132. Woodpecker, Ant-Eating, III, 18. Downy, III, 18. Golden- Winged, III, 14. Hairy, III, 19. Red-Headed, III, 15. Woodpeckers, Order of, III, 11. Wrens, II, 274. Wright, Mrs. Mabel Osgood, II, 284, 310. Wyoming, II, 220. Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus, II, 314. Xiphias gladius, IV, 209. Yellow-Bird, Summer, II, 283. Yellowstone Park Bison, II, 13. Zalophus calif ornianus, I, 115. Zamelodia ludoviciana, II, 308. Zamenis constrictor, IV, 88. flagellum, IV, 90. frenatum, IV, 90. Zapodidae, I, 222. Zapus hudsonius, I, 243. Zenaidura macroura, III, 91. Zonotrichia albicollis, II, 304. Zoological Park, New York, I, 15, 83, 89, 93, 145, 215, 216, 220; II, 8, 23, 24. Zoological Society, New York, I, 14; II, 8, 12. Tins BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. BIOLOGY LIBRARY APR 12 1971 LD 21-5m-7,'< 493910 BtOLOGY LIBRARY G UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY