> o.", oe ) b 4.5 » - od : c he SR ay’ Slee -- ar Fea i + ~~ “aS 4 R “* o . ‘. ° oe ‘ ya! 3 : zs Pcs Dae - hea: a" Se Oe Bae * amd a . ee > ee + Ch b f if ~~ ae * ep. ay gs Vy : } Pie ies ; af a f Fi ryt in + ae ‘ p +e ae ee nity aes + Rape . Ae * FM : ; Qata~ 2.98 “ vd Bi < : : Pe Vi, - ae % me | i Fy, Star Dh i ¥ Othd nt FE f ey BE . Soa ret - a as A a "5 ‘ oe Ae 3 a THY: tan: Me ly 2 ae”. & ve , bi os > ‘ Oe a Vie, » Se PS: ; » ie Pe cA y Rwy SR. We - en v ee ei ED ig YP a ; « >) > pv: bey A. Go; W s 3 4 a 3 ' . y .- “4 Q i. pe . eee . ° es "ee p / ay. NA . 30 22 a a. + Se . ° . ° *s . i Ged (* -* Nd Po “s ‘ v De : " . . * oe San : . ee iy) << . « * - / ee os ie eo 7 7 ; 4 } : Ee aa ee —_—=a- a ‘ i. aa! 5 na - * hie, ’ " me » es - AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. A NATURAL HISTORY ORBWEAVING SPIDERS OF THE UNITED STATES WITH SPECIAL REGARD TO THEIR INDUSTRY AND HABITS. -—— @— —— BY HENRY C. MeCOOK, D. D., VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA; VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY ; AvUTHOR OF “THE AGRICULTURAL ANTS OF TEXAS,” 77 “THE HONEY AND OccIDENT ANTS,” S ETC., ETC. ‘ VOL. iE. PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR, ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. A. D. 1890, AUTHOR'S EDITION. This Edition is limited to Two Hunprep anp Fuirry copies, of which this set is Supscriprion NO.......... : deme O ae AvutHor’s SIGNATURE, THE PRESS OF ALLEN, LANE & SCOTT, PHILADELPHIA. PREFACE. Wirn the completion of the second volume of ‘ American Spiders and their Spinningwork,” I feel that I have substantially ended the task which many years ago I proposed to myself. That task, as it lay in my pur- pose, was the description and illustration, in as large detail as possible, of the spinning industry and general habits of true spiders. Subsequently, as announced in the first volume of this work, my plan was so far modified as to make the spinningwork and habits of Orbweay- ers the principal theme, and to group around the same the industries of other spiders in such relations and proportions as seemed practicable. In the present volume I have adhered to this modified plan, but less closely than in the preceding one, having made large use of the natural history of other tribes than the Orbitelarie. It is probable that this volume will be more interesting than Volume I. both to the scientific and general public. It takes up the life history of spiders, and follows them literally from birth to death, from the cradle to the grave; more than that, it goes beyond the sphere of existing faunal life into the geologic periods, and touches upon the history and destiny of ancestral araneads who lived in the strange surroundings of prehistoric continents, the sites of which are embosomed in the rocks, or, like the amber forests, are now beneath the ocean. The courtship and mating of these solitary creatures; their maternal skill, devotion, and self sacrifice; their cocoon life and babyhood; their youth and old age; their means of communion with the world around them; their voyages through the air and dens in the ground; their allies and enemies; their fashion of death and its strange disguises—these and other facts I have tried to bring be- fore the reader in the following pages. Moreover, my studies have necessarily brought me face to face with many of the interesting problems, theories, and speculations of modern science. I have had no pet theory to approve or oppose, and have not (3) 4 : PREFACE. sought to marshal the facts in hand for or against this or that philoso- phy of life and its origin. Indeed, my aim has been to write a natural history, and not a philosophy thereof. Yet I have here and there alluded to matters with which current thinking has much to do. This fact may also tend to make this volume more generally interesting than the preced- ing or succeeding one. I have not found the difficulties of my task lessened, but rather in- creased in treating these features of the history. Spiders are solitary and secretive at the best, and these characteristics have reached their highest expression in those acts—cocooning, for example—with which a large part of Volume II. is concerned. It has thus been unusually difficult to secure a continuous authentic record of habits. Then, again, these studies have necessarily .been only the recreations of a busy professional life, whose en- gagements have rapidly multiplied, and been more onerous and exacting in the last six years than ever before. These off labors have, therefore, continually receded or been suspended before the pressing and more se- rious obligations of duty. Nevertheless, I am glad to have done so much, and haye great satisfaction in the hope that others, stimulated by my labors, may pass on through the vestibule where I must stop, and explore the vast temple of aranead lore that lies beyond. I have spoken of my task as substantially completed. I do not forget that the Third Volume yet remains to be finished, and that it is the most costly, and, in some respects, the most ‘difficult of all. But much of the work thereon is already done, and I feel justified in finishing it in a more leisurely way. That volume, with the exception of two chapters, will be devoted to species work, and will present, as far as it seems to me neces- sary for identification, descriptions of the Orbweaving fauna of the United States. These will be illustrated by a number of lithographic plates, drawn in the best style of art and colored by hand from Nature. Plate IV. of the five colored plates in the present volume will best illustrate the character of those which are to follow. To the above I will add some species of other tribes whose habits have had especial notice in this work. I have now said all that I expect to make public of my observations of spider manners, with the exception of one chapter on General Habits, which I have reserved for the opening pages of Volume III., and, per- haps, a second chapter, which may be necessary for the explanation and enlargement of matters to which attention may be called by those who have followed me in the preceding studies. PREFACE, a) In these opening chapters of Volume III. I shall consider the toilet habits, manner of drinking, methods of burrowing, moulting and its con- sequences, prognostication of the weather, some of the superstitions associ- ated with spiders, spider silk and its commercial value, and some other points in the natural history of. spiders not embraced in the preceding volumes, I again make my thankful acknowledgments of the assistance cordially given me by various friends and fellow laborers. Dr. George Marx, of Washington, has been especially helpful by generously placing at my dis- posal his entire collection of spider cocoons, and also by notes upon the habits of some of the species whose life history I have described. To Prof. Samuel H. Scudder I am indebted for various references and hints in pre- paring the chapter on Fossil Spiders, and for the use of his own publi- cations. Mrs. Mary Treat and Mrs. Rosa Smith Eigenmann have both _helped me with valuable material sent by the one from the Atlantic coast, by the other from the Pacific, e H. C. McC. Tue Mansr, PuHiLapetputa, July 3d, 1890. LS aT TTT 7 FL ee a eT a TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. PART I—COURTSHIP AND MATING OF SPIDERS. CHAPTER I, WOOING AND MATING OF ORBWEAVERS. The Mystery of Mating—The Male searching for his Mate—Males relatively Fewer— Males before Mating—Argiope cophinaria—Stages of Courtship—Aranead Lovers—A Lover’s Peril—Relative Sizes of Sexes—An unequally matched Couple—Nephila and Argiope—Sexes that live together—The Water Spider—Quarrels of Males—Fe- male Combativeness—Methods of Pairing among Orbweavers—A Love Bower. . 15-40 CHAPTER II, COURTSHIP AND PAIRING OF THE TRIBES, Love Dances of Saltigrades—Pairing of Linyphia marginata—The Period of Union—In- _ terruptions—Agalena neevia pairing—Love beneath the Waters— » of Laterigrades—Lycosids—Love Dances of the Saltigrades—Love Displays are to attract Females—A Saltigrade Harem—Color De Caressing—Pairing Dances of Birds— velopment. . . . 41-60 CHAPTER IIT. COMPARATIVE VIEWS OF VARIOUS MATING HABITS, Value of general Habits—Value of spinning Habit—Maternity inspires Insect Archi- tecture—Spider Industry influenced by Maternity—By sexual Feeling in Males— Disproportion of Size in Sexes—Sexes of equal Sizes—Numerical Proportion of Sexes—Relative Activity of Sexes—Spermatozoa—A gamic Reproduction... . , 61-74 PART II—MATERNAL INDUSTRY AND INSTINCTS. CHAPTER IV. MATERNAL INDUSTRY: COCOONS OF ORBWEAVERS. Cocooning Sites—Argiope’s Cocoons—Leafy Canopies—Contents of Cocoons—The Egg Mass—Argiope cophinaria—Epeira Cocoons—Cocooning Tents—Cocoons of Zilla— Cocoon of Nephila—Gasteracantha—Spiders with several Cocoons—Tetragnatha extensa—Cyrtarachne’s Cocoon—The Cocoon String of Labyrinthea—Cyclosa_bi- furca—Basilica Spider’s Cocoon—Plumefoot Spider’s Cocoon—Uloborus—Double Co- SPE TO ANODE 2:54 Fo Sin) peat Gt Rls hE ee 75-110 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. GENERAL COCOONING HABITS OF SPIDERS. PAGES Cocoons of Theridium—Argyrodes trigonum—Cocoons of Ero—Theridium frondeum or Theridiosoma radiosum ?—Cocoons in Nests—Carrying Cocoons in Jaws—Pholeus— Upholstered Cocoon of Agalena—Medicinal Spider—The Water Spider's Cocoon— The Parson Spider—Brooding Cocoons—Mud plastered Cocoons—Cocooning Nest of an English Drassid—Cocoons in Tubes—Segestria canities and her Cocoons—Dic- tyna philoteichous—Cocoons of the Territelarie—Trapdoor Spiders—Cocoon of the Tarantula—Lycosa carrying her Cocoon—The Leaf thatched Cocoon Nest of Dolo- medes—Pucetia aurora—Nesting Cocoons of Saltigrades—Cocoons of Laterigrades— The Huntsman Spider and her Egg Cradle—Cave Spiders—Origin of Cave Fauna— Effects of Cayetits: Oy sche an li. eas eee 111-158 CHAPTER VI. COMPARATIVE COCOONING INDUSTRY. How Argiope weaves her Cocoon—Use of the Legs in Spinning—Equalizing the Output of Thread—Epeira’s Method—Weaying a Cocoon—Theridium—Agalena nevia— Beating down the Thread—General Spinning Method—Composition of Cocoons— How Cocoons are disposed of—Protection of Cocoons—Cocoon Forms—Variety and Complexity-—-Number of Oocoohis .°. sk te 2 159-177 CHAPTER VII. MATERNAL INSTINCTS: MOTHERHOOD, Cocoon Sites—Feeding Limits—Secreting Cocoons—Night Cocooning—Ovipositing—Cali- fornia Trapdoor Spider’s Eggs—Shape of Cocoon—Maternity and Cocoon Strueture— Complexity and Maternal Care—Cocoon Vigils—Multifold Cocooning—Number of Eggs—Fertility and Exposure—The Mother Turret Spider—The Watch of Dolo- medes—British Spiders—Special Cases of Mother Care—Feeding the Young—Per- sonal Care of Young—The Spiderlings—Strength of Maternal Feeling—Mistakes of Mothers—Unintelligent Instinct—Intuitive Skill—Marks of Forethought—The Mud Cradle Maker—Man’s Method and the Spider's. . © . 0) 2) ee 178-205 PART IIIL—EARLY LIFE AND DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES. CHAPTER VIII. COCOON LIFE AND BABYHOOD. Adult and Young—Period of Hatching—First Moult—Cocoon Cannibalism—Escape from the Cocoon—Delivery by Birds—By Mother Aid—First Days of Outdoor Life—Gre- garious Habit—Movement Upward—A Tented Colony—Dispersions—The Children of the Spider Web—Mortality among Spiderlings—Assembly of Spiderlings—Bridge and Tent Making—A Cantonment and Tower—Argiope aurelia and her Young— Spider Communities—Spider Colonies—Darwin’s View Examined— ON eA PANN a LAT \ + ~ re ge ty SZ casey ey A Ya, a T—~\ Ce MF <7 er Fic. 2, Males of Argiope cophinaria courting the female. qT. The males of Argiope begin to mature about the middle of July, and they anticipate somewhat the maturity of the female. They may be found —— ‘hung to the upper part of his snare WOOING AND MATING. 19 at this period occasionally occupying separate webs, but more frequently domesticated upon the orb of the female, upon which several will be found congregated, For example, in a clump of grasses I found the . web of an apparently mature female, to whom three males were of Argi- paying attention. Two of the males were established upon the ope. outer margins of the female’s snare, upon small rudimentary webs. The third had built a separate snare immediately behind the female. There he hung in the usual position at the hub, which was covered with light straggling lines, a kind of imitation of the ordinary shield. Above and below were two faint, irregularly formed ribbons, mere suggestions of the beautiful ribbon spun by the female. This snare had about twenty-one radii and twelve or <4 thirteen spirals beaded apparently in the ordinary way. The web was about . four inches in length and about two inches wide. On the same day several males were found on separate webs. These webs are ordinarily quite ru- Trev Seg dimentary. In one the upper giope. part consisted principally of - a mass of straggling lines somewhat resembling a shield of the female when it is first spun. The lower part had ten radii concentrated upon the hub and all of them crossed by beaded interradials. The occupant ———_ EL SS Sr) LY} sa ra a <—- IN Vi bass se < PS and stretched his legs over the lower part. The snare in width was little greater than the spider’s length meas- ured from the tip of the hind legs to the feet of the fore legs. In other words, he spanned his entire web. Another and similar male snare was found spun into the protective wings of a mature female snare. A figure of this rudimentary web is given. (Fig. 3.) On the whole, my observations justify the conclusion that after the male spider matures, the character of his web is rudimentary, after the manner above described and sketched. Previous to that period he ap- pears to form the characteristic web of the species, quite like young females, In the immature state, the male Argiope differs from the mature individ- ual; it then resembles more closely the female in shape and the markings upon its back. Indeed, at first glance, it would be taken for a young female. Fic. 3. Male Argiope cophinaria upon his snare. 20 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. In other species the conditions of male spinningwork are different. For example, I found, in a grove of young oak trees, a number of males of Epeira insularis established in nests, and with perfect orbs spread Snareand}eneath them. ‘The nests were well sewed, and like those of Nest of the females, which were numerous in the vicinity. The orbs Male ; * n Insularis, Were also perfect, and of the typical sort. These males were mature; some had their nests built close to those of females, upon whom they were evidently in attendance, In several cases two and three males were seen in the same neighborhood, occupying nests or hang- ing about the margins of the same female’s snare. One male of Argiope cophinaria was found on the same day (August 28th), which had spun a tolerably perfect snare twelve inches behind the orb of a mature female. This snare had twenty-eight radii and nine spirals, and the flanks were protected by wings or fenders of the typical sort heretofore described.2 Thus, there appears to be a striking difference in the character of the web made by the male of this species and that woven by the male Insularis. In Cophinaria the orb is certainly not per- fect after the type of the species, but in Insularis it appears in every re- spect to conform to the type, as does also the leafy nest or tent. It may be added, as perhaps throwing some light upon such a difference, that the male Insularis is a larger and more formidable animal than the male Cophinaria, and relatively much more equal in size and strength to his mate. III. The first stages of courtship have already been indicated. Having found the snare of his partner, the male Orbweaver stations himself upon the outer border and awaits results. It is not difficult for him to has r communicate his presence. Indeed, he must take his place deftly ates "and keep it quietly upon the snare, or he will quickly bring ship. down upon him the voracious lady of the house. A touch of his claw upon a radius would telegraph to the female the fact of his presence; and I believe, from what I have seen of the operations of the male in this preliminary courtship, as well as from the recorded observations of others,* that he does thus intimate his presence, and that the first stages of the engagement are consummated by these telegraphic communications back and forth between male and female over the delicate filaments of the silken snare. If matters be favorable, the male draws nearer, usually by short ap- proaches, renewing the signals at the halting places. Sometimes this pre- liminary stay is brief; sometimes it is greatly prolonged. I have known it to be continued during several days, in which the male would patiently ? August 28th, Niantic, Connecticut. 2 Vol. I., chapter vi., page 105, Fig. 96. * See the statements of Walckenaer, Menge, and Emerton, further on. ty Semen ge a a WOOING AND MATING. 21 wait—sometimes, but not always, changing his position—until his advances were favorably received, or were so decidedly repulsed that he was com- pelled to retire. With Labyrinth spiders I have generally seen the male stationed upon the maze, or that part of the. snare which consists of crossed lines. Here he would make for himself, as he hung back down- ward, a little dome of spinningwork, which spread above him aia like a miniature umbrella. (Fig. 4.) The male of Argiope ‘ cophinaria feels the web with his feet for some time! before the final approach. The male of Linyphia marginata, as he cautiously - approaches, pulls upon the threads connecting his own with his lady’s bower.2. The male of Epei- ra diademata commences his courtship by touching with one leg a thread of his lady’s web.® Professor Peckham’s ob- servation upon the courtship : of Argiope coph- Argiope’s inaria is to the Bis da: same effect. When advancing towards the female, the male seems to pause and pull at the strands of the web, as though to no- tify her of his approach. When he comes toward her from the front she imparts a slight motion to the web with her legs, which seems to serve as a waming, as he Py 4, Thee male labyrinth eer either moves away or drops _ male is the upper figure, in the nest. out of the web. When he comes from behind, she pays no attention to him until he begins to creep up on her body, when she slowly raises one of her long legs and brushes him off. The same author watched the successive and unsuccessful approaches of three males who were paying their court to a female Argiope argyraspis. The warning vibration of the web as the males approached was noted in this species also, and Professor Peckham believed that the female recog- nized from the character of the vibration the advent of a male, distin- guishing the movement of the lines from that made by a struggling NG aw + Emerton, “Habits and Structure,” page 87. 2 See my description of the pairing, hereafter. ’ Termeyer: Proceedings Essex Institute, Vol. I., page 71, 22 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. insect entangled in the meshes of the snare.1 Of this there can be no doubt, the female appears to be always conscious of the presence of a male of her species, as distinguished from all other intruders. LN, The period of approach or courtship is generally terminated by a sud- den rush, which brings the partners into union. The advances, as far as I know, are made by the male; rarely by the female—directly, The Lov- at least. They are not always received with favor; and it is ‘cle iea undoubtedly true that the male is sometimes sorely put to it to make his escape from the premises of an unresponsive female, and occa- sionally prosecutes his amours at the cost of life. Menge, in the course of his experimental observations, lost many males, after feeding them un- til mature, by introducing them into a cylinder containing females.? Ter- meyer records, with a “surprise and indignation” which seems refreshing to modern observers, that a male Diadem spider, after the act of union with the female, was attacked by his spouse, and, happening to be in such close quarters that he could not escape, was deliberately enveloped in her threads and devoured.* I have watched this point with great interest in the experimental colo- nies upon my vines. Many males of Argiope cophinaria have been found trussed up and suspended on the snares of females upon whom I had seen them in attendance but a little while before. Two males’ were thus de- stroyed by the same female in one day. In some cases the males would be tolerated for several days, even though they hung quite near, and then, without any apparent reason, would be suddenly found killed and hung up in silken bonds close by my lady’s bed at the hub of her orb. In these cases there can be no doubt that the female knew the character of her visitor during all his stay. Any other creature thus intruding would at once have been attacked. The amatory feeling was evidently strong enough to tolerate her lover’s presence for several days, but not sufficiently warm to encourage the further advances which he made, and which cost him his life. One female was attended for a number. of days by a male who kept near and just above her, often feeling her gently with his fore legs. I supposed the female to be mature, but could not decide without capturing her. However, I one day found her moulting, apparently the last moult preceding complete maturity. A few hours after the moult I found my patient gallant trussed up and hanging close by his lady love, who had not deigned to eat him. (Fig. 5.) In spider world, at least, it would sometimes seem an ill advised action to “haste to the wedding.” I have, * Sexual Selection in Spiders, page 55. 2 Preussische Spinnen. * Proceedings Essex Institute. 23 MATING, WOOING AND . Fic. 5. Female Argiope with a fresh moult and slaughtered mate hanging to her web. 24 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. but less frequently, noted similar treatment of the male Insularis by his mate. He is better equipped for taking care of himself than the male Cophinaria, but, nevertheless, sometimes pays the penalty of his rashness and importunity. Notwithstanding the above facts, I have reason to know that matters are sometimes reversed, and the female is the victim of the cannibal ap- petite of the male. Among my own specimens, for example, I Bales have had a male of the Furrow spider, which was enclosed in a Destroy . ; ; : : Females. Jat along with two females, satisfy his hunger by devouring one of his partners. Baron Walckenaer saw a male of Epeira incli- nata take advantage of a female of his species, which was not able to stir without difficulty, being full of eggs, to attack, garrote, and eat her.! Mr. Campbell observed the male of Tegenaria guyonii destroying the female. Of one pair which he placed together, the male at once began to pay his addresses. Shortly afterward he rapidly applied one of his palps to the female, in the manner elsewhere described, and, apparently, with her consent. Five hours afterward he charged his partner, tore away two legs below the trochanter, and began to suck one, using the mandibles to hold the limb, just as a human being would a stick of asparagus. The female died an hour afterward. This female lacked one moult of being mature; but her killing cannot be explained by her supposed sexual incapability, for Mr. Campbell says he saw two males similarly dismember their spouses an hour after union. Hunger could not have been the cause of this feroc- ity, for they were well fed. In fact, males in confinement take their food much better than females, which may be due to their being accustomed to feed, during their sexual excursions, in places which are strange to them. Only twice did Mr. Campbell see a female of Tegenaria drive the male away. In both cases this occurred immediately after union. On the othér hand, as illustrating the difference which individual disposition or cireum- stances may produce, the same observer kept together an adult pair of this species from the 22d of August to the 28th of October, more than two months, and they lived in perfect unity. The male never ceased paying unrequited attentions, except to feed.? Excepting one spider, Argyroneta aquatica, whose male is larger than his mate, all those found in Great Britain have the female either equal ; in size to, or else larger than, the male. (See Figs. 9,10.) The P oecae difference, however, between the sexes in these northern. regions izeof . : pias f Sexes, 18 not carried to the extreme limits which are frequently reached in the tropics. For example, Nephila chrysogaster Walck., an almost universally distributed tropical Epeiroid, measures two inches in length of body, while that of the male scarcely exceeds: one-tenth of an inch, and is less than one thirteen-hundredth part of her weight. In other * Apteéres, I., page 143. ? Pairing of Tegenaria guyonii, page 168, WOOING AND MATING. Fic. 6. Female and male of Nephila nigra. Natural size. (After Vinson.) 25 26 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. words, the female is twenty times as long and thirteen hundred times as heavy as her partner.!’ Dr. Vinson? strikingly represents this disparity of size in the species Nephila nigra (Vinson), which is here presented, (Fig. 6), with both sexes natural size. A full grown female of our Basket Argiope bears about the relative proportion to the size of her male, of a horse to a large dog. The largest female Argiope measures in body length one inch, in spread of legs three inches. Her abdomen is thick in pro- portion. A male has a body length of one-fourth inch, the spread of legs being one inch and a quarter. Fig. 14 will show the relative body lengths and sizes of the sexes of Argiope cophinaria. This disproportion, however, in the size of the sexes is not universal. In some species, as will be found by a reference to the plates in Volume III., the difference is slight, and, indeed, is sometimes on the side of the male, even among Orbweavers, as in the case of Epeira strix. Moreover, the males have relatively longer and apparently more powerful legs than the female. The increased length must be serviceable in the preliminary courtship, when the males stand off and solicit or test the feeling of their mates by touches of the fore feet. These features are also beneficial in clasping their mates during amatory em- brace, and must add to their muscular vigor both in conflict and retreat. This difference in the legs, I have no doubt, fully compensates for difference in body size in the case of many species. Especially is this true in the case of the Wan- derers, with the exception, perhaps, of some of the Thom- isoids. Moreover, the legs of some Orbweavers are armed , with formidable weapons in rows of strong spines arranged Fic. 7. Tibial spines. along the inner surface of the tibia. (Fig. 7, Tibial spines (After Emerton.) of Epeira domiciliorum, a, and Epeira trivittata, b.) There is also a difference in size among the individuals of any one species. I have found females (Epeira vertebrata) quite mature, making } cocoons, who were scarcely more than half as large as others of Size Va- the same species, and to some extent a like difference prevails riation in . : : sa in the sizes of the other sex. It may readily occur, therefore, Species. that a large male and a small female will come together, and thus, in point of strength, be placed more nearly upon an equal- ity, or even give the preponderance to the male. In such a case his oppor-. tunity for feeding upon his partner is quite as good as hers. For these reasons I am disposed to think that the perils of courtship depend, first, upon the relative size of the individuals, and, second, upon the chances of arousing the voracious appetite of one or the other partner by unusual movements. In other and ordinary cases, Nature provides a sentiment * Cambridge, “Spiders of Dorset,’ introduction, page xxvii. ? Spiders of Réunion, Maurice, and Madagascar, Pl. V1. WOOING AND MATING. 27 strong enough to protect the origins of life. It may be added here that the only two species of Orbweavers which are said never to repel the ad- vances of the male are those belonging to the genera Tetragnatha and Pachagnatha—genera, by the way, which are marked by the most formidable developments of the mandibles, particularly in the male, the chief organs of attack and defense among spiders. This would seem to be an example of the theory that the best way to insure peace is to be thoroughly pre- pared for and formidable in war. V. While the above facts represent the relations between the sexes of spiders as they generally exist, there are some exceptions which present our araneads under a more domestic character. Among the Retitelarize and many families of the Theridioids, the males dwell a long time with the females on the same web. I have fre- More Do- quently observed the male of Theridium tepedari- mestic : : Habits. oFU™, the most ferocious and formidable of our common species, stationed with comparative secur- ity upon the cobweb of the female. The interesting little black Lineweaver, known as Steatoda borealis, I have very often found underneath stones, or in webs of crossed lines in other situations, where the two sexes dwelt together in ap- parent harmony. I believe that this is an habitual domestic characteristic of this species) The pretty Lineweaver, Liny- “wi, "gens i phia costata,' also belongs to the few American species known _ female of Stea- > toda borealis. to me of which the male and female occupy a cominon home. I have nearly always seen them together upon the same slight snare of lines stretched between the edges of a leaf, or in like situations. Dolomedes mirabilis of Europe is said to share with the female the care of their posterity. He will take up the cocoon which the female drops, place it under his breast, and defend it until the little ones are Sexes hatched.?- The males of Epeira apoclisa of Europe are said to dwell with the females in the same nest, without inflicting or re- ‘ceiving injury. According to De Geer the male and female of Epeira fusca dwell harmoniously near each other, at least in the spring- time. The male is a little apart from the female, and sometimes ventures to promenade the common web without receiving any injury from his partner.* Walckenaer confirms this observation.4 The little English spider, Ergatis benigna, has earned its pleasant specific name “benigna” by the fact that.she lives peaceably with her husband in the same nest. This is 1 The Linyphia phrygiana of Europe, according to Emerton. 2 Walckenaer. * L’Hist. Nat. des Insectes, Tom. 7, page 236, * Apt., Vol. IL, page 85, 28 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. constructed by the joint labors of the wedded couple, and is a loosely framed den, with quite open meshes, spun upon the blossoming top or be- tween the stalks of grasses.' Of the beautiful European Orbweaver, Epeira quadrata, Menge states that towards the end of July he observed five nests in which the two sexes lived together peacefully. These nests are similar to those made Tempo- by our Insular and Shamrock spiders, which are dens of folded Pred 4p) leaves, whose interiors are tapestried with silk. The female Quad- were petey occupied the upper part of the nest, having her fore legs doubled up so that the knees projected above the head. The male occu- pied the opposite part of the tent, and kept his legs folded as conyeniently as was possible under the circumstances without elevating the body. This, however, was not. a permanent arrangement, but only a preliminary stage of courtship, and doubtless terminated when the act of pairing occurred. ? Fie. 9. Fie. 10. Fic. 9, female, and Fig. 10, male Water spider, Argyroneta aquatica. (After Blackwall.) I have seen the male and female of our Epeira insularis and trifolium occu- pying the same tent, apparently under similar circumstances, and regarded the situation as exceptional. Certainly these species habitually live separate. The Abbé de Lignac, having placed a large number of Argyronetas in a bottle, found that they devoured each other. The male, says he, which was perhaps the only one, had been sacrificed to the jealousies of the females, who after him were mutually destroyed.* Baron Walckenaer records a fact which appears to be contrary to this. He put a number of Water spiders in a glass vase along with some gold fishes. Within the vase he placed a bunch of coral, and observed a female make her bell shaped nest and attach it to a branch of the coral, and a Domes- ticity. 1 Staveley, British Spiders, page 120. * Menge, Prussian Spiders. Under Epeira quadrata. * Memoire pour servir 4 commencer I’Histoire des Araignées Aquatiques, page 52. Paris, 1748. By Joseph Albert de Large de Lignac. I quote here and elsewhere from the original edition in the library Acad. Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia. : a (2) oe pga aE G2 Be, WOOING AND MATING. 29 large male construct his domicile at the side of this female. He was wit- ness of their caresses and their amours, but having been forced to be ab- sent he could find upon his return only the male and a few young spiders. All the females, to the number of seven or eight, had disappeared. He was not able to recover them, and supposed that they had been devoured by the male, who was in good condition and very lively. However, he never could find any of the débris of the legs and mandibles, and a spider is not able to devour these hard parts.! Clerck kept together one male and ten females of these spiders for many successive days, during which they were not provided with food, without having observed the least disagreement.? De Geer placed many males and females in the same vase, and they never attempted to injure each other. He observed that when they encountered one another in the water they mutually felt each other with their legs, embracing with some vigor, and whether male to male or female to female, they opened wide their formi- dable mandibles with such force that for the moment the observer expected to see them give the death stroke. But they did nothing. After having felt one another for a long time,.they separated and swam each to his own cell. De Geer placed water insects into the vessel. The same spiders, who had been so tolerant of one another, instantly seized and devoured these creatures, their natural prey. It seemed to Baron De Geer that the Argy- ronetas were less cruel than terrestrial spiders.* Cambridge states that the two sexes of Agalena labyrinthea may be found in great amity together in their tubular retreat; so also the sexes of "henlens Meta segmentata, Linyphia marginata, and other species inhabit * the same web when adult. This statement is made without’ any qualification, but I am inclined to think, judging from what I know of the American congeners of these species, that the inhabiting of the web by the two sexes is not in any proper sense a dwelling together, but is confined to the period of pairing, when the males seek the web in courtship and remain sometimes hanging about the snare for several days. Mr. Enoch® found on July 7th a male and female of Atypus piceus dwell- ing together in the same tube, which was a large one. He had no doubt that they had been thus living together since October of the pre- ried ceding year. If this be so, Atypus presents one of the most ' striking examples of conjugal domesticity and fidelity thus far observed among aranead tribes. The tubes of the males were generally ' 1 Walckenaer, Aptéres, Vol. IT., page 390. 2 Svenska Spindlar, etc., page 148. Aranei Svecici, Descriptionibus et Figuris, ete. Caroli Clerck, Reg. Soc. Scient. Upsal Memb. Stockholmise, MDCCLVII. In Swedish and Latin. I quote here and elsewhere from the Latin version. ®Memoire pour servir l’Histoire des Insectes, par M. le Baron Carles De Geer. Tome Septiéme, Ouvrage Posthume, page 308. A Stockholm, MDCCLXXVIII. 4 “Spiders of Dorset,” page xxxiii. ° Life History of Atypus piceus. Trans. Ento. Soc, London, 1885, page 402. 30 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. found near those of the females, and Mr. Enoch believes that they find their way into the female’s quarters the same night that they emerge from their own nests. VI. Darwin learned from Mr. Blackwall that he had not seen the males of any spider fighting together for the possession of the female. He further , expresses the opinion that, judging from analogy, it is not prob- Fights of Je that such a habit exists, for the males are generally much Males. ‘ : smaller than the females, sometimes to an extraordinary degree. Had the males been in the habit of fighting together, Mr. Darwin argues, they would, it is probable, have acquired greater size and strength.’ But later observers have been more fortunate than Blackwall, and their obser- vations reverse the judgment of Darwin. We now know that, as with many other animals, the mating period of spiders is marked by frequent and vigorous conflicts among the males, who are thus not only exposed to peril from the yoracity of their mates, but also from the jealousy of their rivals. It might indeed seem, in view of the fact-that a number of males may be found at one time quietly hanging about the lady’s bower, that they are not a very combative generation. Doubtless, the males of Sedentary species do have, occasionally, to secure their marital rights by battle. But such combats are probably far less frequent than among the Wanderers. In point of fact, the conditions are such that it is not so easy for them to come in personal contact with one another. When several Orbweavers attend one female they prefer different parts of the web, and even when I have seen them grouped tolerably near one another they showed no disposition to quarrel. With the Wandering tribes the conditions are different and such as to compel personal contact with rivals, and thus it may be that a more com- sahin: bative habit has grown up. This is well illustrated by the obser- eatin vations of Professor and Mrs. Peckham upon the Saltigrades. Quarrels, These naturalists have given a number of interesting and yalu- able notes upon the combats between males. The various atti- tudes were both photographed and figured from Nature, and as a result we have not only attractive descriptions but characteristic illustrations. Some of these I have copied. The males of our little Zebra spider, Epiblemum scenicum, which may be seen in the early spring 2 egg skipping about on walls, fences, and outhouses, were found fight- aay ing on a brick wall. They held up the first pair of legs and eum. moved rapidly in front of each other, now advancing and now retreating in a half circle, distant from each other about four and a half inches. There was little real earnestness in the affair, and it ’ Descent of Man, Vol. IL., chapter ix., page 329, Amer. Ed. WOOING AND MATING. 31 reminded one of the bluster of two boys each threatening and daring the other, and neither willing to be the aggressor. In a few minutes, however, they both wandered away.} Several males of a species of Icius when placed within boxes proved to be very quarrelsome, and had frequent fights, but were never found to be : injured. Indeed, after having watched hundreds of similar bat- pee tles between the males of this and other species, Professor Peck- Duels, am has reached the conclusion that they are sham affairs, gotten up for the purpose of displaying before the females, who com- monly stand by, interested spectators. This harmless nature of the conflicts of spider duelists is in accordance with my own observations, and also in accord with the few statements that have been made by other observers. The males of Dendryphantes capitatus are very quarrelsome—sparring whenever they meet, chasing each other about, and sometimes Dendry- clinching. The Peckhams put eight or ten males into a box phantes. 3 : if and they fought; and, although it seemed cruel sport, it was soon apparent that they were very prudent little fellows, and were fully conscious that— “He who fights and runs away Will live to fight another day.” In fact, after two weeks of hard fighting, the observers were unable to discover one wounded warrior. When approaching for combat the males hold the first legs up in a vertical direc- tion. Sometimes they drop the body upon one side, as they jump about each other. These movements are very quick, and they are always ready for a passage at arms.? Two males of Zygoballus bettini, while executing a dance before a female, engaged _ in a quarrel. They ran savage- ki ‘ ly upon each other and fought : ‘ Fic. 11. Position of two male Saltigrades, twenty-two minutes, during one Zygoballus bettini, when fighting. (After round remaining clinched for six minutes. eas When fighting, the abdomen is held nearly at a right angle with the cephalothorax. (Fig. 11.) The combatants appeared tired at the close of the battle, but after a short rest were perfectly well and fought a number of times subsequently. * Several males and females of Phileus militaris were placed together in a box. Among the males was a large fellow, who proved to be a universal bully. In the course of time another male, almost his size, was 1 Observations on Sexual Selection in Spiders of the Family Attidse. Occas. Papers Nat. Hist. Soc. Wis., Vol. I., 1889, page 39. 2 Peckham, id., page 45. 5 Idem, page 48. 32 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. introduced, and he also adopted the role of a bully. After driving his smaller companions about for a time, he was engaged in devouring a gnat, when the original bully emerged from some leaves, got sight of the newcomer, and at once approached, bristling with pride and ire. His first legs were raised high as if to strike, his palps vibrated with excitement, his abdomen dragged first on one side and then on the other. Number Two was evidently of good courage, for he held his ground and, not relinquishing the gnat, raised his legs and clinched with his antagonist. The battle raged for five minutes, and resulted in Number One robbing his antagonist of his dinner and chasing him igno- miniously away. For several days following, life in the mating box was robbed of its monotony by perpetual battles among the males. The females, in eluding them, jumped and,suspended themselves from threads. On one occasion, the big bully who had now lost his mate, invaded the home of the lesser bully while the owner was out seeking food. The first time this happened the rightful proprietor, upon his return, ejected the invader without ceremony. The second time the two had a prolonged struggle, clinching, and falling thus hooked together a distance of about twelve inches, the height of the box. (Fig. 12.) Some time afterward the two males wandered about, fighting whenever they met.! Philzus militaris. ba me 5 ee These notes give a brief picture of the PA SSS general character of the observa- We “V.Ae 5 irom Pug- tions made by Professor Peckham. sige tn eeaea (aa wakions ~ sorte ie They indicate, first, that the males after maturity, and during the mating season especially, are addicted to frequent quarrels. Second, their mode of combat consists in thrashing each other with their fore legs, clinching with the mandibles, tugging and dragging each other ~ about, and generally tumbling and scratching one another with their claws. Third, these conflicts, although they present the appearance of extreme ferocity and deadly purpose, rarely, if ever, result fatally. Fourth, the females are usually disinterested witnesses of the duels be- tween their attendants, although, in point of fact, the victorious rival re- ceives whatever favors she may have to bestow. Fifth, the combativeness, or, at least, the actual combats of male gpiders are much more frequent between the Wanderers, who, by reason of their errant mode of life, necessarily come into close contact with one another during their rival courtships. The habits of the Sedentary tribes, which keep them stationary at fixed points of the snare, tend to hold the males separate from one another, and thus conduce to peace. 1 Tdem, pages 52, 53. a we nap WOOING AND MATING. 33 Combativeness among spiders is not limited to males; the females also fight, and with great ferocity, not only with one another, but with the op- posite sex. Professor and Mrs. Peckham have contributed to our ee knowledge of this trait as displayed by females among the At- ombat- |. ; sas ; , , ‘ iveness, tide, to which brilliant family their studies have been chiefly directed. They found that the females are, with few exceptions, larger, stronger, and much more pugnacious than the males. They placed two females of Phidippus morsitans together in a glass jar. No sooner did they observe each other than both prepared for battle. Eyeing one another with a firm glance, they slowly approached, and in a moment were locked in deadly combat. Within a few seconds the cephalothorax of. one was pierced by the fang of the other, and with a convulsive tremor it re- laxed its hold and fell dead. In all, four females were placed together, and in each instance the fight was short, but to the death. Subsequently, the observers admitted a well developed male, which, though smaller, was compactly built and apparently strong enough to bring the virago, to terms; but, to their surprise, he seemed alarmed and retreated, trying to avoid her; she, however, followed him up, and finally killed him. They ob- served the same habits in Phidippus rufus. In Dendryphantes elegans the female is nearly a third larger than the male. A number of this species, males and females, were kept together in a large mating box, and their behavior demonstrated the greater aearrel- quarrelsomeness of the females; they would frequently go out of some ; Females. their way to chase one another, and they were much more cir- cumspect in approaching each other than were the males. In Icius mitratus neither sex was especially pugnacious, but the male was as little so as the female. In Synageles picata the females never came near each other without some display of hostility, though they did not actually fight. In several species of Xysticus, as ferox and gulosus, the females are savage and ready to attack anything that comes in their way, while the males are smaller and more peaceable.! VII. From these more general facts we may now pass to the detailed descrip- ticns of the act of conjugation in such species as have been studied. I have never been fortunate enough to observe the actual pairing of Orbweavers, my only opportunities of study having been with Linyphia marginata and Agalena nevia. I am therefore dependent upon the observations of others for the pairing habits of the Orbweavers. Termeyer, nearly a century ago, thus correctly noted some points in the 1 Observations on Sexual Selection in Spiders of the Family Attidee, by George W. and Elizabeth G. Peckham, pages 10, 11. 34 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. courtship of Epeira diademata: The male approaches little by little with much caution, doubtful of the reception which he is to meet in the web of the female, who occupies the centre, intent only on her prey. He Be commences by touching with one leg a thread of her web. The Soe ot female approaches him. He flies, allowing himself to hang by pain a dropline. Soon he reascends, being assured in some way that he will not be ill received. Then he approaches his mate, and with one of the palps touches her abdomen quickly many times,* The pairing of the Diadem spider is also described by Menge.?_ The male accomplishes his approach to the female by means of a strong thread fast- ened immediately above her, which thread is, in fact, the strongest Menge’s that he spins. This becomes his love bridge, over which he passes cea with trembling and uncertainty as to his reception, his feet ex- pressing both invitation and fear. If his reception is friendly, he passes under the body of the female, with his fore feet folded to allow her expanded feet to encircle his, while their faces and partly their breasts touch. He now quickly touches the vulva of the female with his palps, and instantly drops to the ground by a thread; however, he soon returns, and the deposition of the semen is continued until finished. During Sep- tember, one year, Menge observed a male thus approach a female about twenty times. Finally he caught the ovipositor or hook of the vulva, de- taining the same and turning so that the two abdomens and their adjoin- ing parts touched, and the posterior parts of the same were no longer sep- arated, but pressed closely together. The connection continued for over a minute, when the male dropped backwards to the ground, and remained there for some time as if dead. Menge also observed the pairing of Epeira marmorea on a warm August evening. The female left her web and advanced towards the male. The movements of the latter were very careful, and when sufficiently Bpeira lose he touched the vulva of the female in passing, and instantly mar- : ‘ : ; F morea. Withdrew. As the female remained quiet and did not attack him, the act was renewed the second and third time. The third time the female retired to her dwelling, and the male dropped down by a thread. The pairing of Tetragnatha extensa has been described by several writers. Lister, the pioneer of English arachnology, says that May 25th at sunset Woieaees he saw the pairing of many spiders of this species. The two thaex. %°xes were suspended by means of a thread placed upon their tensa, Webs. The male was below, having his body stretched upon a straight line. The body of the female, on the contrary, was doubled, and her abdomen touched the fore part of the abdomen of the male, He continually thrust a little horn, remarkable by its tubercle, upon Translation of Prof. Wilder. Proceedings Essex Institute, Vol. V., pages 71-3. ? See Prussian Spiders, under Epeira diademata. Ep ra NS AAO Dome 9-99" WOOING AND MATING. 35 the superior part of the abdomen of the female. The feet and mandibles of the one were interlocked with those of the other.! Walckenaer has given a complete and graphic description of the loves of Tetragnatha. His observation was made on the 26th of May, when the weather was serene and moderately warm. A male was stationed under a quite large orbweb spun in an inclined position. The female was below, suspended by the hindermost feet. Her body was bent double, her abdo- men in a sense horizontal, so that her cephalothorax was bent back upon the male in a vertical position. Her fore feet were entangled in the fore feet of the male, but gently and without stiffness. Her mandibles were opened, as were also those of the male, and the extremities were supported.one upon the other, and presented the form of a trapeze, like the four open blades of two pairs of scissors if joined at their points. The male had his body stretched upon the same line in a horizontal position, but reversed; that is to say, the sternum of the cephalothorax and the venter or lower part of the abdomen were turned towards the sky, and the dorsum or back towards the ground. It resulted , from this position that, from beneath, the male, although much aiaeetg smaller than the female, appeared to surpass her in length by half of his abdomen. Further it resulted that the vulva of the female fell exactly beneath the palps of the male. He was suspended from his snare by the fore feet, which were entangled in those of the female. His two hindermost feet were posed upon the abdomen of the female, and served to press her lightly against himself, while he applied the palps to the vulva. The valve of the palpal bulb during the act of pairing was swollen, brilliant, and the color of yellow amber. This pairing lasted more than a quarter of an hour, and although the observer came very near in order to see more distinctly, the mates did not separate. Once he touched a part of the web and caused it to vibrate. The partners recoiled, but still remained coupled. The female then made some efforts to disengage herself, but the male prevented her. The ob- server’s attention was diverted at this point, for the space of two minutes, to make another observation. When he turned his eyes again upon the pair, only the female remained ; she was at the centre of her snare in the accustomed position, that is to say, with the body and feet stretched out. The male had disappeared, and was searched for in vain; but during the search Walckenaer observed another female engaged in spinning her snare while another male waited upon an adjoining branch. Tt will be seen from the above account, which describes the entire pro- cess, that, making allowance for less skill in observation, the English ob- server had correctly seen what the French naturalist so correctly reports. Lister, however, represents the male as stretched below the female, while Walckenaer reverses the attitude. Position of Female 1 Lister, Historie Animalium Angliz (Araneorum Anglisze), 1678, page 31. 36 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Emerton, in his chapter on the growth of spiders,’ presents some inter- esting facts upon pairing. Two of these, the pairing of Linyphia and Ag- _. +_alena, I am able to confirm, from my own observations, as sub- viesagind of stantially accurate. According to this author, the male of Argi- Argiope. 4s ope, which is very small, stands on the upper edge of the web, while the female occupies her usual position in the centre. After feeling the web with his feet for some time, he runs down the centre so lightly as not to disturb the female, and climbs over her body for some minutes’ in an apparently aimless way. She takes no notice of him at first, but at length, especially if he approach the under side of her abdomen, she turns and snaps at him with her jaws. He is usually nimble enough to dodge and drop out of the web. Not discouraged, however, he climbs up to the top and begins over again. In these encounters the males are often injured. They frequently lose their legs, and one fellow was seen with only four left out of eight, but still maintaining his embrace. At length the male succeeds in getting under his , mate and inserts his palpi under her, into the epigynum. (Fig. } 13.) In the meanwhile the female hangs in the web, while the male holds by his legs to the under part of her abdomen. (See Fig. 14.?) Mr. Emerton thus describes the courtship of Epeira sclope- taria. The approaches of the male were always seen in the evening, just before dark, when the females usually Courtship make or repair their webs, and the males are wander- Y ete ing about visiting. The male would climb carefully taria. over the edge of the web, and, finding that the female took no notice of him, would run suddenly towards the middle of the snare, on the side opposite to that occupied - by the female. His head was towards her head, and, if she permitted him to approach near enough, he would slap one of his palps upon her epigynum. By this time the female would strike viciously at her lover, and he would drop suddenly out of the web by the usual dragline.* September 24th, on the banks of the river Arduson, Baron Walckenaer found a reed, the leaves of which were spun together into a nest by Epeira apoclisa. He saw the male of this species mounting towards the nest. Wishing to make observations at his leisure, he broke the reed a little be- low the place where the male stood, and carried the whole to his chamber. The male did not attempt to run away or quit the neighborhood of the nest. Walckenaer placed the reed in a large box. The following morning he saw a long thread stretched and the female issuing from her nest upon ? Structure and Habits of Spiders, page 87. 2 Drawn by Mr. Emerton for this work, * Letter to the author, October 17th, 1888. 37 WOOING AND MATING. Knell S SS I \ i | i‘ Ul] NN i life size. The male is seen in part just under the abdomen. Fic. 14. Argiope cophinaria embracing the female. Snare and figures about SSs 38 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. the border of the box and in the act of pairing. But the male, forthwith frightened, quitted his hold and ran rapidly away. The female, on the contrary, remained motionless. The observer captured the two and placed them in a covered glass bottle with the nest which the female had temporarily abandoned to meet her partner. He also introduced into the bottle living flies. During three days the mates ceased not to caress each other. The female did not return to her nest, but kept below in a reversed position. The male approached her from the side, with head elevated, stretched out his feet and spread them gently and slowly upon the back of the abdomen of the female, sometimes touching the fore feet with his own by a slight and very quick moyement. Then the female leaned to one side, in such a way as to expose her venter, against which the male stretched his palps, and the union took place by means of the palps. It was between 5 and 6 A. M. when this act occurred, and it was repeated many times. During the remainder of the day the couple remained separate. The female rested in the same place almost wholly motionless, without doing anything. The male, more lively, more wandering, more active, constructed a little web, placed himself in the mid- dle and caught some flies. Again, he sometimes promenaded the glass, stretching threads; but always after this momentary absence he returned to a position in front of his spouse, appearing to contemplate her, laid his feet against her own, his head vis-A-vis with her head, in a reversed po- sition. Finally the female constructed a tube of silk, within which she retired. The male penetrated this; the tube was large enough to contain the two; and they remained therein for ten days in perfect harmony, with- out attempting to issue from their love bower. During all this time the female continued to rest wholly tranquil, and did not attempt to escape. It was not so, however, with the male, who frequently wandered abroad into the bottle. The two did not attempt to make orbic- ular webs, but stretched irregular lines, upon which they caught flies, a fact which shows that spiders are able to adapt themselves and their industry to various circumstances. On the twelfth day, October 4th, the female Apo- clisa became invisible, and it was observed that she had returned to her original nest, first built at the top of the reed. The tube was abandoned by her and remained vacant. The male did not attempt to rejoin his com- panion, but wandered about the glass, occupied in seeking an opportunity to escape therefrom. At this point Baron Walckenaer was compelled to interrupt his observation. I make the following summary of the various stages as above described: First, the female comes out to meet the male; second, she hangs below a few stretched lines, with her back downward; third, the male touches her Pairing of Epeira apoclisa. A Love Bower. 1 Walckenaer, Aptéres, Vol. IL, pages 63, 64. WOOING AND MATING. 39 back and feet; fourth, the male palpal bulbs are applied many times to the epigynum ; fifth, the embrace ceases, the female remains stationary in the same place, the male wanders about, makes a straggling web and catches flies; sixth,.the male comes before the female, touches her ‘feet, and remains vis-d-vis; seventh, the female makes a tube and enters it; eighth, the male penetrates the tube; ninth, the pair remain for ten days domiciled within this bower, the female staying persistently within, the male making frequent excursions; tenth, on the twelfth day the female leaves the tubular bower and returns to her leafy nest; elev- enth, the male makes no attempt to follow her, but wanders around the bottle, seeking to escape. At this point observation ended, but there was probably nothing further to observe. Zilla callophylla is lacking in ferocity, and lives on good terms with Fig. 15. Fic. 16. Fie. 17. Argyroepeira hortorum. Fig. 15, male; Fig. 16, female; Fig. 17, the male palps, much enlarged. (After Emerton.) her mate. September 30th a male and female of this species were taken : by Walckenaer, and placed in a glass bottle. The male, after Zilla cal- : saa : é lophylia, the ordinary preliminary caresses, such as touching with the ex- tended feet, stretched some threads in the manner of those which served the female to descend from the top of the bottle to the bottom, where he was. Then, by the movement of her feet, she excited her spouse to approach her. Every part of the male’s body trembled in a sensible man- ner. He advanced towards his mate, not without appearance of fear, since she received him with open mandibles. Three times he essayed, always while advancing, to introduce the genital organ of one of his palps into the vulva of the female, and he succeeded at the fourth attempt with the digital bulb of his left palp. Then was manifest in the male, as in the female, a convulsive trembling of all the limbs and of all parts of the body, which evidently announced that the union was accomplished. Four 40 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. other movements of the same nature, separated only by very short inter- vals, followed the first. After these five acts of union the male retired to a short distance. About half a minute afterwards he approached as on the first occasion, introduced the bulb of his right palp into the epigynum of the female; then, after the fifth movement of convulsive trembling, he again retired. He continued in this manner during the space of twenty minutes. In these twenty minutes he made’thirteen embraces, or thirteen introductions of the digital bulb of one of his palps into the vulva of his partner. After these acts the male retired and went away. The female rested for about a half hour in the same position, as if she awaited the return of the male, who did not come back. Then she decided to remount to the top of the bottle. : ‘ ' Walckenaer, Apt., Vol. IL., pages 71, 72. ee aan a rae OH APTER 2; COURTSHIP AND PAIRING OF THE TRIBES: LOVE DANCES OF SALTIGRADES, Havine thus considered the methods of pairing which prevail among Orbweavers, we may note some of the modes which obtain among repre- sentatives of other aranead tribes. I. On the afternoon of June 14th! I witnessed the pairing of a male and -female of Linyphia marginata. The spiders were first observed at a quarter before four o’clock. They were hanging inverted in the Line- dome shaped nest of the species, in line with each other and fsb: about three-quarters of an inch apart. Each hung within a = eee smaller dome which was formed by the outspread feet drawing nata. down the inner surface of the snare. The nest was hung from the under surface of a plank that jutted over from a pile of lumber, and was about two and a half feet from the ground; so that, seated before the nest, my face was on a level with the spiders. The male cautiously extended one foot towards the female, and pulled upon the intervening threads. I turned a moment to adjust the block on which I sat, and, on looking again, the two were in embrace. The female was suspended as before, although turned at right angles to her first position. The male’s head was laid against the sternum of the female, his abdomen inclined a little upward, the fore legs interlocked with, or, rather, interlaid upon those of the female. Both spiders hung by threads, in the normal way. (Fig. 18.2) This was nine minutes be- fore 4 P. M. After a moment’s embrace the pair separated; the female made a cir- cuit of the lower part of the dome, moving in an excited, jerking manner, then returned to the summit. The male approached, the female stretching out her fore legs somewhat as he laid his fore legs within them, which po- sition was maintained, as was the relative position of the two, during the entire period of union. The female, during the act, remained perfectly motionless, except an occasional twitching of the apex of the abdomen. The two terminal bulbs upon the male palps were laid upon the epigy- num of the female, and pressed downward. From one of these issued the 1 The same species was again seen pairing in August, in Connecticut. 2 Drawn by Mr. J. H. Emerton for this work. (41) 42 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. palpal sac, a bean shaped organ, of a bright amber color, and translucent, which shone brilliantly in the sun that fell full upon it from the west. It remained thus projected for a brief space, held between the finger like tufted horn of the palpal bulb, and was then gradually contracted and withdrawn within the black corneous bulb, which was meanwhile pressed eagerly against the vulva. A small elbow or projection upon the upper ere e part of the bulb seemed to press within the spermatheca, The B = two bulbs were laid simultaneously upon the epigynum, but the inflated palpal sac appeared in but one bulb at a time, alter- nately. There was a prolonged squeezing motion of the bulbs, as though na a CR Ag eg wT at iil cae ti MU it Ht cai ne Me i oN a i ae a iS ‘iN # | a jn Wi Uh, on i aes i iin init Wy ee lk af ee x os i" dh t RIN ky ay | 1 : vi Uy Mes i | ae My, \ \ ae afl Mi! THIN HN ‘i V i iy is by a AS 3 iat ae Boe ae My) Dai in Ill a HNN hi Fic. 18. Pairing of Linyphia marginata. The figures much enlarged. The little dome caused by the pulling down of the feet is represented, and a part of the snare proper. pressing into the spermatheca, and at times a corresponding motion in the abdomen of the female, especially at the apex. With this exception ‘the female remained motionless during the whole period. After applica- Biting the tion as above the palpal bulb was slowly, for the most part, Bulbs, PU? sometimes rapidly raised by the male, bent upward, and ap- parently clasped upon the falces or lower margin of his face, which parts of course were upward. Three or four movements back and forth in this clinched position followed, when the series of motions above described "was repeated. A PAIRING OF SPIDERS. 43 In the meanwhile the second bulb remained upon the other tube until the first bulb began to descend, when it in turn was elevated and the same motion made. As the bulb descended, its sac began to inflate and issue. ‘This process was quite regularly repeated. Sometimes, however, both bulbs were clinched upon the falces at the same time; sometimes the movements of the bulb were more rapid than at others. The bulbs had the appearance of having been moistened by some secretion, presenting the peculiar gloss which a colorless liquid gives to a black surface, but I could see no secretion otherwise, although I was able at any time to use my pocket lens with the exercise of a little care.! At twenty minutes before six o’clock I was compelled to leave, at which time the pair had been in embrace one hour and forty-nine minutes. At six o'clock twenty-eight minutes I returned, and found the pair in precisely the same positions. I remained five minutes, and then left an intelligent young man at the post, with full instructions as to points of observation. He reported that at thirteen and a half minutes past seven, afternoon, the pair parted suddenly. The male ran down to the Period of Union. ‘lower margin of the dome, pursued by the female, who stopped suddenly just above, and turned back to the central point in the summit. Shortly after receiving this report I visited the web, and found the female sus- ° pended motionless in this position, and the male at the point to which he had fled, feeding upon a small fly. The next morning at seven o’clock the female was in the same position, and the male had disappeared. I attempted to capture the female, but she ran among the boards and escaped. The pair had thus been in union two hours and fifty-five and a half minutes. During this period they were separated a number of times. Nineteen of these interruptions were noted; one was caused by a small fly striking the snare, at which the male darted in a fierce manner, but Interrup- failed to seize, as the fly broke loose before he reached it. Others mee were caused by the observer touching the foundation threads or tions. other parts of the web. Toward the close of my observations I accidentally broke the suspending lines nearest me, and caused one side of the dome to fall in. This made only a momentary interrup- tion. Many of these separations were, however, apparently without any extraneous cause. Twice the male ran to one side of the domed snare, made a web at- tachment to a bit of leaf hanging therein, drew out a thread about two and a half inches long, which he overlaid a couple of times, and then made the following motion: First, the body was placed erect, that is, back upwards, and was moved back and forth along the line, rubbing the points or “nippers” of the palps at the same time; then the spider swung over 17 did not at the time suspect that the palpal bulb might have been applied to the ab- dominal organ of the male, and did not look for this act. But subsequently I have imagined that such might have been the case. 44 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. until the body made an angle of about forty-five degrees with the line, and while holding on thus the palps were rubbed back and forth alter- nately along the line as before. The process was repeated during another of the intermissions, as described above. It was conjectured that the pur- pose of this movement might have been the distribution of the seminal fluid into the palpal bulbs. It has been supposed that this is taken up by the sacs, by the inflation and contraction of whose membraneous coats it is forced into the spermathecee of the female. Mr. Emerton! observed the pairing of the male and female of Steatoda borealis in April, and again in May. The female was in a scant web under a fence cap. The pair stood head to head, as far apart as pos- sible. The left palpus was kept in an hour and a quarter after the couple were first seen. The male contracted his body sud- denly, and swelled up the base of the palpal organ once every two or three seconds. Two days afterwards Emerton saw the right palpus used by the same pair for an hour. The adult males and females of this species occur at all seasons, differing in this respect from many others. Steatoda borealis. II. ‘ Among the Tubeweavers I have observed the pairing of our common Speckled Agalena. The male cautiously approaches over the broad sheeted Fie. 19. Agalena nevia pairing. Fic. 20. Agalena nevia applying Fig. 21. Agalena applying the Front view. (After Emerton.) the right palp in pairing. left palp in pairing. web which forms a sort of front yard or plaza before the tube in which the female waits. He is usually larger than the female, and is, therefore, seals. better able to compel a respectful reception. In the act of union weavers: He takes his partner in his mandibles, turns her upon one side, Agalena, 2 Which position she lies perfectly motionless, and with her legs somewhat doubled together, as in the attitude of feigning death. (Fig. 19) The male rests upon the side of the female, in a posi- tion nearly at right angles with her prostrate body, and, while holding her still with his fore feet, applies the palps alternately to the vulva. (See Figs. 20, 21.) * New England Theridide, Trans. Acad. Conn., 1882, page 19. : i ‘ PAIRING OF SPIDERS. ’ 45 According to Walckenaer, the union of the male and female of the European Agalena labyrinthea takes place in the tube which serves as the dwelling place for the female. In France this act occurs about the middle of July. The female turns herself upon her side, al- rinthea, ™ost upon the broad of her back. The male places himself upon her in such a position as to hide from the observer his head and cephalothorax.'! It will thus be seen that the method entirely corresponds with that of our own Agalena nevia, which this familiar Eu- ropean spider so closely resembles. The male of Clubiona constructs a web for union with the female, and prepares, as one may say, the marriage couch, to which he admits the female when the propitious moment has come.? : The interesting habits of Argyroneta aquatica, the well known Water spider of Europe, were first fully made known by De Lignac, a priest of the Oratoire, Paris, A. D. 1748. He not only observed the man- ae ner of making the nest beneath the water (Fig. 22), which has Spider, been frequently confirmed since, but also the act of pairing. When the male wishes to pair, says De Lignac, he constructs near the nest of the female, and by the same means, a nest resembling that of his spouse; but the nest is somewhat smaller. When the male has completed the construction of his domicile, he makes a long canal, which joins his cell to that of his spouse. He then cuts through the wall of the latter, and introduces his body into the strange apartment. This vehicle of communication being made, he strengthens it on the roof and _ sides. He plasters this, as he does the rest of his nest, with silk, white and im- permeable, and thus extends this corridor until it may be as Sate large as the two apartments. Sometimes one sees, but only oc- Corridor, asionally, as many as three lodges, which communicate with each other. As these cells have been thus easily united, they also sometimes separate, as, for example, when they are too lightly united, or by the movements of the spiders when they engage in combats, for it ap- pears that during the time of amour they are somewhat irascible. Often- times one sees a strange spider making an effort to enter into one of these lodges; but the inmate, who keeps its feet outside, guards, as a watchful sentinel, the safety of its domicile, and drives the intruder from the door. Baron Walckenaer confirmed these observations of De Lignac and added some interesting details. On the 27th of July he placed together Walck- in glass vessels males and females of Argyroneta. On the fol- lowing day he saw in one of the silken bells woven by them a tions. ~ male caressing the female with his feet, and carrying his palps to her abdomen. The two spiders were then upon the same line, 1 Aptéres, Vol. II., page 22. 2 Walck., I. Apt., page 143. 3 T/Histoire des Araignées Aquatiques, page 43. De Geer in Holland as early as 1736 had observed the curious industry of the Water spiders. 46 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. and stood face to face. The male carried his head under the body of his mate in a reversed position. He stepped aside, and the female with her feet tickled the apex of his abdomen. ‘The next day at 6 A. M. he saw a little web constructed by one of his Argyronetas. He gradually filled the bottle with fresh water, whereupon the couple began to work with extraordinary activity, and in less than an hour’s time had formed a cell which looked like a bubble of air and had the form of a subterranean vault. The male and female kept together. As soon as the cell was finished, and on the same morning, the female made a web at the surface of the plant which had been in- troduced into the bell glass. Much to the baron’s sur- prise, she immediately de- posited her eggs and enyel- oped them in a silken co- _coon. The cocoon was placed near the surface of the water, and upon the very walls of the vessel. The eggs, which were of a beautiful orange yellow, could be seen through the fine, white tissue of the cocoon. July 29th, at six o’clock morning, Walckenaer saw the female near her eggs; then she ascended to the surface and dived. The male joined himself to his companion, The two spiders gently rub- Fic. 22. The subaqueous nest of the Water spider, Argyroneta bed the extremities of their aquatica, within which the cocoon is woven. anterior feet one against the other, having the air of ca- ressing. Soon this movement of the feet became more brusque and ap- peared menacing. The male, struck by the feet of the female, suddenly Fae Fen leaped aside, but the pair presently sought each other anew. eat They interlaced their legs, the one within another, and gradually approached nearer and nearer, head against head. The man- dibles were opened; they flung themselves one upon another; afterwards recoiled, separated instantly, and sprang aside as if they had suddenly been seized with fear. Thereupon the female returned to her position near her eggs. The Cocoon. PAIRING OF SPIDERS. 47 The next day Walckenaer renewed the water in the vessels, and saw the couple approach one another, lightly touch their feet, swim without stretch- ing out any thread and without touching the insects which had roe been placed in the water for them, but which were all dead. At : five o’clock in the evening again the observer saw the male and female upon the cocoon, drawn near together, the feet interlaced and mo- tionless. On opening the bottle they separated. He was then astonished to observe that the web that had surrounded the cocoon had disappeared, Had it been employed to strengthen the cocoon? The cocoon was a silken flask, attached to a plant by a short pedicle. It was in part immersed within the water. It was rounded, flat- tened, about three lines in diameter, was formed of a fine thread of a very compact tissue, thin as an onion peel, and difficult to tear. It contained forty eggs, not agglutinated, globular, of a pale yel- low color. On the first of April Walckenaer again observed in the jar where the spiders were confined a little bubble of air and a web larger than the former had been. After five days’ absence, April 6th he observed that the spiders had detached the cocoon, in order to sink it to the bottom of the bottle. The water was changed in the vessel and immediately they swam about with delight, refreshed themselves, reunited near the cocoon, and caressed each other with their feet. On the 7th of April he decanted the water of the jar into a cistern. The Argyronetas, troubled by the sudden moyement of the flood, swam with great rapidity, and the female having ‘recovered her cocoon in the midst of the water, seized it, embraced it with her feet and sought to buoy it up. One of the most interesting and satisfactory accounts of the act of pair- ing among Tubeweavers is given by Mr. Campbell from observations on . Tegenaria guyonii.1 The male was placed in a bottle contain- am. ing a female which had been mature for a fortnight. He was * left within the vessel in which he had been lodged, but the cover was removed therefrom. Notwithstanding the glass wall which sep- arated him from the female, he soon became conscious of her presence, and issuing from his own quarters approached her. The following morn- ing he was standing with the first pair of legs over the female, and his maxille resting on her abdomen, while she was crouching motion- less, with her head in an opposite direction. Both were in Move- the same position the next morning, August 7th, 7 A. M. At Male 10 A. M. the male became restless, and wandered about the bottle with spinnerets extended, returning every now and then to place his palps upon the female. After each action he jerked his abdomen The Cocoon. 10n the Pairing of Tegenaria guyonii Guer., with a Description of certain Organs in the Abdominal Sexual Region of the Male. By F. Maule Campbell, F. L. 8. Linn. Soc. Jour. Zool., Vol. XVI., page 163. 48 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. upwards and downwards, a movement which often may be observed in males, and which gives an idea of an expression of impatience. The next observation, after a few minutes’ absence, showed the male about two inches behind the female, standing as it were on tiptoe. His palps were placed alternately and nervously to his maxille. On their re- moval the whole body was raised still higher, and the abdomen brought nearly to a right angle with the cephalothorax, with con- siderable muscular effort in the basal portion, and with violent tremulations. The movements, which were repeated four times, had the effect of throwing the spider slightly forward, while the palps were shaken in that peculiar manner which denotes great muscular tension in some other part than that in visible motion. The palps were now gener- ally alternately placed under the sternum and moved backward and forward, upward and downward, with a scooping motion. In five minutes these moye- ments of the abdomen and palps were repeated ten times in regular succes- sion, only varied by an occasional transfer of the digital organs to the mouth, Mr. Campbell observed thirteen couples pairing in confinement from the middle of July to the end of August; and the following account may be .taken as typical of the species, with the exception that the union does not necessarily occur so quickly after the female has gained maturity. On the 13th of August he placed together a male and female. On the 17th‘ the latter cast her last skin. Up to that time, 6 A. M., they had taken no notice of one another. At 9.45 P. M, the two were so close together that the femora of the first pair of legs of each were almost in contact. After a few convulsive twitches of the legs the male pressed forward, moving his palps up and down, when, as they touched the palps of the female, the pair played with these organs like two friendly bees with their antenne. After a few minutes the female raised herself, leaning a little on her left side, and the male crept forward until his head was under the sternum of his mate, while his first pair of legs were rest- ing upon hers. He then advanced his right palp, leaning a little to the left, and using the left palp as part of his support. The male now rapidly raised his palps up and down for four or more seconds, and with such energy as to compel the female to assume a verti- cal position. He then retired, and again approached her, repeat- Useof . : : Palps, in the movements a greater or less number of times, occasion- ally pausing before he withdrew his palps with a slight twist inwards, At times he would leave the female for five minutes, and strut with straightened legs around the vase, wagging his abdomen. Now and then he would remain perfectly still with the palp withdrawn, or play with the palps of the female, who seemed in a comatose state. He would then re- new the union with undiminished vigor, appearing on each occasion less desirous of changing his position, Use of Palps. Ap- proaches, COLORS OF EPEIRA TRIFOLIUM. To@, VARIATIONS IN COLOR OF FEMALES. 10-11, THE MALE. . ‘PLATE | ~~ — > ip ieee a 1 al ie fe | ane fat apelin MEL TLL ee ete i tized ni yt Hig! i Hae ik 23 one lilt il fhiil i'l Hae Hi COLORS OF EPEIRA TRIFOLIUM. 1—9, VARIATIONS IN COLOR OF FEMALES, 10-11, THE MALE. PLATE a. = sr PAIRING OF SPIDERS. 49 The observer left them at 12.380 A. M. and returned at 7 A. M. The male was still using his right palp, He saw no application of the left palp, but had no doubt that it was employed during the night, as in other cases. He had never observed the pairing interrupted for a fresh collection of semen, although there is no reason to think that this may not occur. The duration of the pairing is long, but he was inclined to think it is more dependent on the difficulty in inserting the embolos than on sexual endurance, Impreg- nation. III. ‘The pairing of Xysticus trivittata Keyserling has been briefly described by Mr. Emerton, and figured.!_ The spiders were seen on the 5th of June among the short grass in an open pasture in New England. The female held herself ; head downward on a blade of Pairing of prass, with the abdomen turned soy away only enough for the male to reach under it with his palps. There did not appear to have been any web on the grass, though there may have been a few threads for the female to hold by. Among Lycosids we have the descrip- tion given by one of the earliest natural- ists, Clerck, the Swedish observer.2 He ry saw the pairing of Lycosa sac- panied) of cata ates the middle of June, ycosids. upon a rock exposed to the sun. The two sexes approached by jumps, which became fewer and slower as they drew near. The male ended these preliminary stages of courtship by suddenly leaping upon the female. He then passed one of his palps un- der her abdomen, and, holding and inclin- ing her body with the other, inserted first one and then the other palp. When the pairing was ended, the two sexes separated rich Sind Hsia Hey Reaper and promptly ran away from one another.* Emerton‘ says of the same family that the male leaps upon the back of the female, and is carried about by her. He reaches down at the side of her abdomen and inserts his palps into the epigynum underneath. The 1 Psyche, Vol. V., 1889, page 169. 2 Clerck, Aran, Svec., pages 91, 92, pl. 4, Tab. 5, Figs. 1, 2, male. % Walck., Apt., I., page 328. 4 Habits and Structure, page 95. 50 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK,. accuracy of the early observation made by Clerck is thus abundantly con- firmed, The attitude of Lycosa is represented in Fig. 24, which has been drawn from Nature for this work by Mr. Emerton. Among the Attide, De Geer has described the pairing of Epiblemum scenicum (Attus scenicus), which occurred upon a wall. The male mounted upon the body of the female, passing over her head towards her abdomen, under which he advanced one of his palps. He gently raised the abdomen by upward pressure of his legs, and then ap- plied the extremity of his palp to the vulva. An instant afterward the two spiders separated and removed a little distance from one another. The male did not wait long before again approaching, and he repeated many times the action above described. The female did not offer the slightest opposition, but, on the contrary, seemed to greatly enjoy the act.? Pairing of Attide. IV. The mating of the Attoids, as told in the delightful pages of Mr. and nite. Peckham’s Observations on Sexual Selection in Spiders, presents one of the most important chapters in the life history of araneads. It is a strange and interesting story, a romance of natural history as fascinating as any love story of modern fiction. These accom- plished arachnologists, who have Fic. 24. Male of Lycosa saccata embracing the female. carried on all their studies to- From Nature. (Drawn by Emerton.) Roe s gether, have given special atten- tion to the Saltigrades, and they were led into the study of the courtship - of these interesting creatures by a desire to solve some of the current problems in natural and sexual selection. Independent of this, the facts recorded are extremely valuable. The first group of observations uncovered the habit of the males to exhibit themselves before the females in a series of varied movements, which may be generally characterized as dancing. The purpose Love of this appears to be, beyond doubt, to attract the attention of Dances of ‘ the Males, ‘he female, and render her complaisant to the addresses of her lover. The courtship of Saitis pulex was thus conducted: The male, when placed in a box with a mature female, at once observed her, although she was twelve inches away. At the distance of four inches he stood still, and then began the most remarkable performances that an amorous male could offer to an admiring female. She eyed him eagerly, changing her position from time to time, so that he might always be in view. He, in the meantime, extended the fore legs upon one side of the 1 De Geer, L’Hist. des Insectes, page 90. LOVE DANCES OF SALTIGRADES. 51 body in such wise as to elevate that side and correspondingly to depress the other. The legs and palpus of the lower side were folded under, and upon these the spider sidled along, moving in a semicircle for about two inches. He then instantly reversed the position of the legs, and circled in the opposite direction, gradually approaching nearer and nearer to the female in the course of these oscillations. The female dashed toward him, while he, raising his first pair of legs, extended them upward and forward, as if to hold her off, but withal slowly retreated. Again he began his oscillating movements until one hundred and eleven circles had been counted. The female in the meanwhile gazed toward him, apparently in a softer mood, evidently admiring the grace of his antics. When he had approached almost within reach of her, he whirled madly around and around her, she joining and whirling with him in a giddy maze. He then fell back, and resumed his semicircular motions, with his body tilted over. She, all excitement, lowered her head and raised her body, so that it was almost vertical. The two then drew nearer. The female moved slowly under the male, he crawling over her head, and the mating was accomplished.! A male of Synagales picata executes his love dance with all his feet on the ground. He raises himself on the tips of the six hindermost legs, but slightly inclines his head downward by bending his front legs, their convex surface being always turned forward. His ab- es of domen is lifted vertically, so that it is at a right angle to the gales. plane of the cephalothorax. In this position he sways from side to side. After a moment he lowers the abdomen, runs a few steps nearer the female, and then tips his body and begins to sway again. Now he turns in one direction, now in another, pausing every few moments to rock from side to side, and to bend his brilliant legs so that she may look full at them. He could not have chosen a better position than the one he took to make a display, and the observers were impressed by the fact that the attitude taken by the males served perfectly to show off their fine points to the female.” Marptusa familiaris is an Attus of sombre gray and black colors, that may be frequently found on trees, fences, and like positions in the neigh- borhood of Philadelphia. It is apparently a widely distributed Wooing species, When the two sexes were placed together, the female of Marp- ..w the male as he entered at the opposite side of the box, thir- familiaris, teen inches away. Eyeing him attentively, she slowly changed her position to keep him in sight, and kept her palps moving rapidly, a characteristic action of the species. As the male neared her, Saitis pulex. Love 1 Observations on Sexual Selection in Spiders of the Family Attidee. By George W. and Elizabeth G. Peckham. Occasional Papers of the Natural History Society of Wisconsin, Vol. L., 1889. 2 Idem, page 43. 52 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. he stretched the first and second pairs of legs sidewise, but after a moment backed away. These mancuvres were repeated many times, the attitude assumed during them being as represented by Fig. 25. Occasionally he would bend the tip of the abdomen down, lifting the body up on the last joints of the two hindermost legs. The female always paid the greatest attention to his movements, lying on the ground with all the legs flattened Fig. 25. Positions in courtship of Marptusa familiaris. and the palpi slightly raised, the Male on the right hand. (After Peckham.) only movement visible being the vi- bration of the palps. There is a certain slowness and dignity about the wooing of this species, almost ludicrous.! The males of Dendryphantes capitatus approach the female rapidly, until within two to five inches, when they stop and extend the legs di- rectly forward close to the ground, the legs being slightly curved, with the _ tips turned up. This position serves admirably to Showing expose the whole of the bronze and white face oon i (Fig. 26) to the attentive female, who watches him closely from a little distance. As the wooer grows more excited, he lies down on one side, with his legs still extended. These antics are repeated for a very long time, even for hours, before the female accepts his addresses. peg dadenodtn) The male of Habrocestum splendens is a magnificent fel- tes. Male. (at low, having an abdomen of glowing pink, and bronze ceph- ‘* Pe*ha™) alothorax tinted with reddish brown. He began his addresses by advanc- ing a few inches towards the female and then backing off again. Fic. 26. Bronze ese This movement was repeated many times. After awhile he set- pecaterriie tled down under a little web in a corner. The female, troubled by this indifferent treatment, advanced toward him, whereupon he came out and she fell back. This play was kept up for some time, and at length the male began his courting in earnest. When within a few inches of her, he commenced a rapid dance from side to side, raising the whole bedy high on the tips of the legs, the first pair being directed forward, and = the palps clasped together, with the abdomen Fic. 27. Male Saltigrade, Habroces. turned to one side and lifted up. (Fig. 27.) airgap me teize: Ps ae After a short dance he stood motionless, ; striking an attitude as shown in the figure, re- maining quiet for half a minute. Then he turned his back on the female, moving irregularly about with his legs forward and his palps vibrating. 1 Idem, page 44. LOVE DANCES OF SALTIGRADES. 53 Again he danced sidewise before her, strutting and showing off like a peacock, whirling around and around. Professor Peckham at first supposed that this turning around was accidental, but it hap- pened so regularly at a certain stage of Color courtship, that he concluded that it was an Evolu- s f i 4 di if * Gaus: important part of his display, serving the better to show his brilliant abdomen.' In approaching the female the males of Phileus militaris were very eager and fairly quiv- ered with excitement. The first two legs ° were raised over the head and curved toward ube Poet aoe haan each other, so that the tips nearly met, and the palps egemre ey ne (Af were moved up and down. (Fig. 28.)? ‘ Astia vittata is peculiar in the fact that it has two well marked male forms, which shade into each other, but maintain at least one characteristic distinction, namely, three tufts of hair which mark the black form, niger. Mrs. Peckham was kind enough to send me a box in which were packed : a number of specimens of the female Ste a and both varieties of the male, in order Autin. that I might witness these remarkable courtship dances. This was prior to the receipt of the work from which I have been quot- ing, and I had but a hint of what I might expect, and how best to proceed. Moreover, my specimens unfortunately, arrived in a bad condition. All were dead except one female and two males, and Fic. 29. Male Astia vittata in danc. the latter were much dilapidated, one of them par- — female.(From ticularly being apparently in a dying condition. I succeeded, however, in resuscitating both males by doses of water and good nursing. One of them in a short time seemed quite well. I placed the three together in a box, and had the privilege of observing, in some degree, what the Peckhams have so fully described. The most lively male at once began animated movements, — which were evidently induced by the presence of the female, who, however, ran away and kept cir- ; cling around the box, running over the walls and yg, 30, The male of Astia vittata climbing upon the glass cover without showing rept vans tee a any disposition to respond to the advances made. The male threw himself into what may be described as a rampant position Philzeus militaris. - 1Tdem, page 49. 2 Idem, page 51. 54 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. (Fig. 29), that is, the body was thrown into a position at about an angle of forty-five degrees, the abdomen almost in the line with the cephalothorax, but a little bent under at the apex, which nearly or quite touched the ground. The two hind pairs of legs were thrown outward from the body, the fourth or hindermost pair being well curved, the third or next pair somewhat bent, but more extend- Earl ed. The second pair (next to the foremost) confirmed Was quite extended in a line without much curvature, except towards the last two joints. The front legs were extended in a line somewhat = > Sf > FiG. 31. Love dance of Astia vittata. Male with front curved, and well thrown upward above the head, and legs in poise. (After Peck- the palps, which are black, were stretched out in a ham.) fe o6 . 7” corresponding position, and continually rubbed one upon the other in an excited manner. In this attitude the male moved backward and forward with a lively sal- tigrade movement, whirling around a little as he leaped upward (Fig. 30) and brush- ing the tips of his palps together in the meanwhile. This was about all I was permitted to see, but it at least confirms in part what the Peckhams have so care- fully recorded. The first male form, which corresponds in appearance to the female, when he ap- proaches his mate, raises his first soy legs so that they point either ance of 2 : ‘Kntia. forward or upward, keeping his palps stiffly outstretched, while the tip of his’abdomen is bent to the No ground. This position he commonly takes fc. 32. Position of male Astia vittata when when three or four inches away. While (ppueouag [me female. Much cnissest he retains this attitude he keeps curving and waving his legs in a very curious manner. Frequently he raises only one of the legs of the first pair, running all the time from side to side. As he draws nearer to the female, he lowers his body to the ground and, dropping his legs also, places the two anterior pairs so that the tips touch in front (Fig. 32), Fic. 8% Male oF Ieas mitratus t2€ proximal joints being turned almost at an dancing before female. (After angle to the body. Now he glides in a semicir- Peckham. * ° aa ae cle before the female, sometimes advancing, some- times receding, until at last she accepts his addresses. The Niger form is much the more lively of the two, and whenever the LOVE DANCES OF SALTIGRADES, 55 two varieties were seen to compete for the female, the black male was suc- cessful. He is bolder in his manners, and was never seen to assume the prone position as did the red form when close to the female. He always held one or both of the first legs high in the air (Fig. 31), waving them wildly to and fro; or, when the female became excited, he stood perfectly motionless before her, sometimes for a whole minute, seeming to fascinate her by the power of his glance. The male of Icius mitratus is quite different from the female, especially in his slender tapering body and long first legs. The female is remark- able for her indifference, and takes less interest in the male’s display of his personal charms than any spider observed. In courting and fighting, the position of the male is the same; the body is somewhat raised; the first legs are held at a right -angle to the cephalothorax ; the abdomen is twisted to one side, and, as he dances before his lady love, is changed now to the right, now to the left. (Fig. 33.) It is interesting to find that these amorous displays on the part of males have recently been observed in other invertebrates. Mr. T. H. Mor- gan thus describes the performance of a male crab (Platyonychus Love ocellatus) in paying his courtship to the lady crab. The specimens Dance of F ; , ; the Male Werte confined together in an aquarium. While sketching some Grab. hermit crabs which had previously been placed in the same tank, the observer was attracted by the movements of the male Platy- onychus. Without apparent cause he was seen to rise upon the third and fourth pairs of legs; his large chele were thrown above his head, with the claws open and their points touching in the middle line; his fifth pair of feet were held horizontally behind, and his body perpendicular to the floor of the aquarium, or at right angles to the normal position. The posture was ludicrous, and when he began slowly to gyrate, his movements and attitude were the cause of much merriment upon the part of the spectators. At times he balanced on two legs of one side, again on two legs of opposite sides. Now he advanced slowly and majestically, and now he wheeled in circles in the sand on the floor of the aquarium, and now for a few moments he stood as if transfixed in this unnatural posi- tion. An electric light hung above and to one side of the water, which suggested the possibility that it might be the exciting cause. It was turned out, and still the dancing went on. At last, from sheer exhaustion, Mon- sieur Crab sank down to the sand in his usual attitude. But now the female, who had all this time remained tucked away in the sand, came forth and began to move about the aquarium; soon she came near to the male crab, who instantly rose to his feet and began to dance. Again and again the performance was repeated, and each time the approach of the female was the signal for the male to rear upon his hind feet, and reel about the aquarium as if intoxicated. 1 Tdem, page 50. 56 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. At times, when the female approached him as he danced, he was seen to make attempts to enclose her in his great chelate arms, not with any violence, for the claws never snapped or closed violently. She was coy, however, and refused to be won by his advances; for the dance may have been nothing new to the lady crab, nor half as interesting as it was to the two spectators outside the water. Later the male also buried himself in the sand, and the performance came to an end.! The love dances of Saltigrade spiders also suggest a similar habit record- ed of certain birds. Familiars of our American woods and fields will recall the well known partridge dances. Among the Chatterers the beau- Love tiful bird known as the Cock of the Rock (Rupicola rocia) is gi of ramous for its saltigrade performances at the mating time. In- 4 deed, the action of our domestic -pigeons and barnyard fowls, although not so decided as these, yet suggest a like tendency.? Mr. Wallace has given an account of similar actions by the beautiful Birds of Paradise in the Aru Islands. They moult about January or Feb- ruary; and in May, when in full plumage, the males assemble in the morn- ing to exhibit themselves in a most singular manner. These are what are called their “ sdcaleli,”’ or dancing parties, and they occur in certain trees in the forest, which are not fruit trees, but have an immense head of spread- ing branches and large but scattered leaves, giving a clear space for the birds to play and exhibit their plumes. On one of these trees a dozen or twenty full plumaged male birds assemble together, raise up their wings, stretch out their necks, and elevate their exquisite plumes, keeping them in a continual vibration. Between whiles they fly across from branch to branch in great excitement, so that the whole of the tree is filled with waving plumes in every variety of attitude and motion. The bird itself is nearly as large as a crow, and is of a rich coffee brown color. The head and neck are a pure straw yellow above, and rich ' metallic green beneath. The long, plumy tufts of golden orange Displays feathers spring from the sides beneath each wing, and when the a ue bird is in repose are partly concealed by them. At the time of Paradise. its excitement, however, the wings are raised vertically over the back, the head is bent down and stretched out, and the long plumes are raised up and expanded until they form two magnificent golden fans, striped with deep red at the base, and fading off into the pale brown tint of the finely divided and softly waving points. The whole bird is then over- © shadowed by them, the crouching body, yellow head, and emerald green throat forming but the foundation and setting to the golden glory which waves above. When seen in this attitude the Bird of Paradise really 1'T. H. Morgan, Popular Science Monthly, February, 1889, “The Dance of the Lady Crab.” ? For further material on the display of their charms by the males of birds see Darwin’s Descent of Man, Vol. II., chap. xiii, Am. Ed. LOVE DANCES OF SALTIGRADES. 57 deserves its name, and must be ranked as one of the most beautiful and wonderful of living things. This habit enables the natives to obtain specimens with comparative ease. As soon as they find that the birds have fixed upon a tree on which to assemble, they ambush themselves in the neighborhood. A boy waits at — the foot of the tree, and when the birds come at sunrise, and a sufficient number have assembled and have begun to dance, the hunter shoots the bird with a blunt arrow with sufficient force to stun it. It is then secured and killed by the boy without its plumage being injured by a drop of blood. The rest take no notice of the loss, but continue their amatory dance, and fall one after another until some of them take the alarm. Thus in these widely separated orders of animal life the excitement of the mating hour influences the males in substantially the same manner. That is, the sexual agitation finds vent in saltigrade movements, Displays }efore and around the female, of various forms and degrees of eke intensity. These movements appear to be directed towards the Females. female with a view to attract her attention, excite her affection, and win her favors. As far as I can judge, there is no reason why this apparent purpose should not be regarded as the real one, and that these devices, common to spiders, crabs, birds, and doubtless other animals, are really prompted by the wish to secure marital favors from the female, and that they do have a sensible influence upon her. V. Another interesting habit described by the Peckhams is the overspinning of the female by the male with a little tent or love bower, within which the two remain together, sometimes for several days. Three pairs of the Zebra spider (Epiblemum scenicum) were placed together in a box, and after two hours they had all come to an agree- ment and mated, the male in each case getting his partner in the corner of the box and spinning a cover over and around her. Sometimes, while the male was working, the female would wander off several inches, but when the bower was nearly completed he would seek her and half lead and half drive her home, when he would follow her into the nest. Here the mating would be accomplished after some slight preliminaries. The female seemed to have some difficulty in choosing from among the males, but after a decision had been reached and a mate accepted, there appeared to be complete agreement, and the male commenced to build his house. The habit of secluding and protecting the female has developed an even more striking trait in at least one species. The males of Phileus militaris were observed to select immature females, overspin them with a little sheeted tent, then spin a second sheet above this as a cover for A Love Bower. 1The Malay Archipelago, by Alfred Russel Wallace, pages 466, 467. 58 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK,. themselves, and remain quiet for a week in the little nest thus formed. During this time every spider that approached was driven away. The males went out occasionally for food, but were not seen to carry Tending jn any for their mates. At the end of a week one of the males en Fs was observed to be pairing with his female, which had moulted “and was now mature. Successive observations showed that this marital seclusion of young females was not an accidental result of artificial conditions, but is a fixed habit of the males. It must be acknowledged that it displays a remarkable degree of foresight and thoughtfulness—the immediate product, no doubt, of the emotional conditions of courtship. In all these various movements the position of the female of most species was simply one of watching. She followed the movements of her dancing partner, evidently with keen interest; sometimes took The Fe- herself out of the way, but ordinarily was quite attentive until male Qui- tne entire rejection of the suit or the acceptance of the suitor. escent. : hae . = Two species formed striking exceptions to this rule, as far as the attitude is concerned. In one, the female lay close to the ground with her first legs directed forward and upward, while her second legs were held on the ground and stretched forward in front of her face. In another species, Marptusa familiaris, a similar attitude was assumed by the female, who lay on the ground with all the legs flattened out and the palps slightly raised, the only movement visible being the vibration of the palps. (See Fig. 25.) The attitudes of the males were far more varied. A reference to the details of the notes as given will show that at least seven characteristic attitudes are assumed, namely :— Sum- First, the legs of one side are bent over, doubled under, mary: : ; ‘ ae Attitudes and so kept while the male engages in his semicircular dance. of Males, (Saitis pulex.) Second, the body is well elevated, the abdomen lifted verti- cally, all the legs praised and stretched out, and the entire eight legs touch the ground during the dance. (Synagales picata.) Third, the male, like the two females referred to above, lies flat on his venter, keeping the tips of the fore legs touch- ing (Icius); or the male lies flat, wriggling his abdomen and frequently turning from side to side, his legs held up over his head, slightly diverging, wae 7 eA : and often twisted, waved, or turned about. (Z IMU = Sa é , z ygo- sMeZZs NGS ===. ballus' bettini.) (See Fig. 34.) FiG. 84. Position of male Zygo- Fourth, the two front pairs of legs are stretched ballus bettini approaching fe- i i i seauar anmrcitont out in a straight line from the cephalothorax, while the remaining legs are raised and curved and used for moving the body forward in its whirling dance. (Marptusa familiaris.) LOVE DANCES OF SALTIGRADES. 59 Fifth, the first legs are extended directly forward, close to the ground, the legs being slightly curved, with the tips turned up (Dendryphantes capitans), or again he lies down on one side with the legs well extended. Sixth, the fore legs are elevated high above the head and curved towards each other, while the body is sustained upon the remaining feet during the saltigrade movement (Phileus militaris), or again the fore legs are extended and the abdomen turned up. (Habrocestum splendens.) Seventh, the spider maintains a rampant attitude, something like the position last mentioned, with the fore feet raised high and curved forward, instead of toward each other. (Astia vittata.) These are the most characteristic positions, and they are maintained during the courtship dance with more or less persistence, according to the vi various species. The position after the consummation of the Position wooing is much the same in all species. In mating, the male yaaa usually crawls over the female, or the female crawls under the Mating. Male, and the palps are applied to the vulva while in this atti- tude. An exception was observed in two species, where the male jumped upon his partner from a distance of one or two inches, the ap- proach being per saltem, instead of by the gradual crawling movement above indicated. For the most part the female appeared to be complaisant or, at the furthest, indifferent. She maintained herself in a position to watch the antics of her lover and to be influenced by them. Sometimes she ran away and avoided the advances of her suitor, but showed no disposition to attack or annoy him. At least one exception, however, to this general complaisance was ob- served in the case of Phidippus rufus, who is a ferocious creature, having a great advantage in size over her partner. It happened to one A Fero- assiduous male that in an unguarded moment he was pounced eat ale, Upon and eaten up by the lady whom he was wooing. Another ‘species of Phidippus showed the same ferocity. This is our large black Phidippus morsitans, a creature not in good repute in certain parts of the country, it being regarded as one of our poisonous species.’ The single female which the Peckhams caught during the summer was a savage monster. The two males provided for her had offered her only the merest civilities when she leaped upon them and killed them. The male of this species has the first pair of legs much longer than the corresponding legs of the female, and also it is thickly adorned _ Female Attitude. Vain with white hairs, some of which are long and others short and ais scale like. It was while one of the males was waving these handsome legs over his head that he was seized by his mate and deyoured. This love signal was evidently not sufficiently attractive to win 1 Vol. L, page 276. A letter just received from Prof. Peckham denies this accusation. 60 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. the consent of his unesthetic partner, and, no doubt, had he been less concerned to produce a fine effect upon his lady love, he could have used his legs to better purpose in running away. Nevertheless, the manner in which the snowy legs, as well as the white hairs upon the palps, were displayed - before the female’s eyes, indicated that he had natural confidence that the lady was to be won in this way, if won at all. The Peckhams appear to have no doubt that the purpose of this re- markable display on the part of the dancing males is to win the favor of their chosen partners. It seems to them beyond question that, during all these complicated movements, the portions of the body which are most highly decorated are exhibited to the watching female, and are displayed in such wise as to give the most heightened effect to the coloring. It is noted that the portions of the body among Saltigrade spiders which are commonly most highly ornate, are those which are placed at the front of the body, as, for example, the mandibles, which are often of bright metallic colors, green or blue. The arrangement of the hairs upon the face, and also the coloring of the fore legs, appear very commonly to be more attract- ive than in any other portions of the body. Indeed, the Peckhams associate the development of this coloring upon the fore parts of the body with the dancing habits which they so attract- ively describe. They believe it to be the result of sexual Color selection. In other words, the males which have the brightest Develop- s aay colors upon the fore parts of the body are precisely the ones which have survived; since, being more pleasing to the females, they were the partners most frequently chosen, and thus the individuals so marked more frequently transmitted their peculiarities to the offspring. The males will pair as soon as they have the opportunity, and, as the mating season lasts for two or three weeks, the most brilliant males may easily be selected again and again. CHAPTER III. COMPARATIVE VIEWS OF VARIOUS MATING HABITS. From the mating habits of the various tribes of spiders, as described in the preceding chapters, a number of generalizations may be drawn with — more or less confidence, These I have thought well to place in a separate chapter, together with several facts connected with reproduction, but not heretofore alluded to. 8 We may begin by noting the influence of the general habits and char- acteristics of the various species upon the manner and conditions of mat- ing. Several conclusions and inferences appear. First, a marked difference is observed between the methods of the Sedentary and the Wandering groups; and this difference is characterized by the radical difference in their manner of living and capturing prey. The Sedentary spiders carry their persistent habit of dwelling upon the snare into the act of pairing, and the snare is with them constantly the scene of lovemaking. Their courtship and mating proceed while they are hanging to the lines of their snares in the natural attitudes of ordinary life. On the other hand, with the Wanderers the courtship is in the open, and the male directly places himself upon the body of the female. In this group, also, the power of ordinary habit is seen directing the act of mating, although; of course, in an exactly opposite mode. In other words, species that do not live by webs dispense with webs in mating. “With the Tubeweavers, again, we see the same influence of general habit. This tribe is properly classed with the Sedentary spiders, for they dwell persistently within their webs, by which they capture their ray prey in large measure. Yet they do not maintain upon their Habits. Webs, for purposes of feeding, the inverted position that charac- terizes Orbweavers and Lineweavers. In other words, instead of hanging to their snares head downward, they rest upon their snares in a position entirely similar to that of the ordinary attitude of individuals of the Wandering group, and rush out upon the prey entangled within or near their webs, which they seize and devour, generally without swathing them, as also do the Wanderers. We might, therefore, reasoning from the (61) Generali- zations. 62 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. influence of general habit, naturally suppose that the method of union would be a compromise between the two already described. So we find it. Among the Tubeweavers the mating occurs within the tube, into which the male penetrates. The bodies come into close contact, and the female remains in a state of absolute quietude. Second, the differences in mating habit among Sedentary spiders are characterized and evidently modified by the characteristic differences in their snares. 1. With Orbweavers making a vertical web the male approaches from the under side of the female’s body, applying the palps in that position, clinging meantime to the female. Sometimes, though probably eee rarely, the male hangs on the opposite side of the round snare, ae and from this position applies the palps through the open meshes, or through the free zone, clinging the meantime to the web, as in the case of Epeira sclopetaria. 2. Orbweayers making a horizontal snare, and probably all making composite snares, as Epeira labyrinthea, etc., mate upon the snare, hang- ing to the crossed lines, back downward; the male above, and face up- ward; the female beneath, with face upward. In other words, in the case of both these groups of the one tribe the mating occurs while the spiders are in the positions most natural to them during their hours of capturing prey—the one maintaining the vertical position, and the other the hori- zontal. Third, the Lineweavers assume precisely the same attitude during court- ship that is observed by Orbweavers which make horizontal orbs, and, probably, by those which have a retitelarian annex, like the Labyrinth spider. Here the common habit in the two separated groups has operated to produce a common habit in the act of mating, for the Orbweavers with horizontal snares habitually hang back downward upon their webs, just as do the Lineweavers. Fourth, in the proportion that spiders come directly in contact with each other during mating without the aid of a snare, does the disparity in size between the two sexes seem to disappear. Among Tubeweavers the male is generally equal, and sometimes superior, in size to the female. The same rule applies to the various genera of the Wandering tribes. The fact of direct contact would seem at once to suggest the necessity of equal- ity in size between the sexes, or a greater degree of complacency on the part of the female. One is not able to speak concerning the latter factor, but certainly the former seems to be reasonably well established. It is perhaps worth noticing that the greatest disparity in size between the sexes is seen among Orbweayers, and the larger the species, as repre- sented by the female, the smaller does the male become. In the smaller species of Orbweavers the difference between the sexes is not so great, and, indeed, is often scarcely noticeable. COMPARATIVE VIEWS OF VARIOUS MATING HABITS, 63 Fifth, amorous solicitations proceed from the male, and as a rule the female is apparently indifferent to, or a passive recipient of, his advances. There are, however, in this respect, differences among the various species, some females being more complaisant than others. Sixth, the male is frequently less vigorous in physical organization than the female, is generally shorter lived, and is provided, in a less degree, with those habits which secure prolonged activity and greater security. In the matter of spinningwork his acquirements are incomplete or rudimentary _ with many species; with some, however, this exception does not exist, and the webs spun are as perfect as those of the female. Generally speaking, there is a tendency among males of the Sedentary tribes to defective spin- ning industry, while among females the habit is invariably complete after their kind. Among the Wanderers, of course, the chief spinning industry is cocoon making and is thus confined to the female. Seventh, in the case of some species, particularly among the Saltigrades, male spiders have the habit of attracting the notice of the females by certain saltigrade or dancing movements, which appear to be conducted with a view of displaying to better advantage certain attractive colors or markings. This habit is noticeably limited to spiders belonging to the group of Wanderers. In the nature of things it could scarcely exist in the case of Sedentary tribes, since the opportunity to display the person is excluded by reason of the habit which limits their life to snare and nest. Eighth, in the period of courtship it frequently occurs that several males attend upon one female at the same time. This rivalry is often without any special demonstration of hostility between the attending gal- lants, but sometimes results in quarrels which, for the most part, appear to be without serious harm to either combatant. The quarrelsomeness of rival males seems to be limited to or greatest in the Wandering tribes, a fact which again probably depends on characteristic habits. Such con- flicts are possible with Wanderers, as rival males must come in contact with each other upon the open field in which their loves are prosecuted. But as the amorous movements of Sedentary species must be limited to the snare or nest of the female, wi 2 ghee for personal contact are much more circumscribed. Ninth, as a rule, the general solitary habit of spiders is manifest also in mating habits. With most species there is no such permanent relation of mates as that which one often sees in vertebrate animals. But to this there are some striking exceptions. Certain species seem to have acquired a degree of domesticity, so that the two sexes are quite invariably found together at all seasons after maturity. In a few cases, it has been asserted that the male possesses so strong a domestic character that he will share with the female the care of the egg cocoons, thus approaching the habit of certain birds, fishes, etc., who unite with their partners in providing for and protecting the offspring. 64 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. x Il. The maternal and sexual instincts exercise a decided influence upon the industrial activity and art of spiders. The influence of the maternal feeling is decidedly manifest in the spin- ningwork of the female spider. I have often observed that with insects, as ants, wasps, and bees, the habits by which their wonderful Maternity architecture is created are prompted by and revolve about the Inspires care of the young. It is most manifestly so with solitary insects Archi. Such as the Carpenter bee and the Mud-dauber wasp, but it is tecture. none the less true with such social insects as ants, social wasps, ete. Among these creatures the workers or neuters, as they are popularly called, are Undeveloped females, and possess all the instincts of the female of their species. Upon them devolves the work of the colony. They are the nurses of the formicary, as well as its architects, scavengers, soldiers, and purveyors. The whole care of the eggs, larvee, and pupz rests with them, and with the greatest enthusiasm and self devotion they exercise that care, venturing their lives freely on all occasions for the welfare of their wards. With female spiders a like maternal devotion exists, Their cocooning industry is the most intricate and ingenious of their spinningwork, and this is directly the product of the maternal instinct. How varied, Industry complicated, and ingenious this spinningwork is will be shown ses in the series of illustrations given in the following chapters. enced by © : Maternity Numerous as they are, they but imperfectly represent the indus- try of the aranead mother; and I am confident that, when this field shall have been fully explored, my studies will be found to reflect but imperfectly the actual facts as they exist in the aranead world. It is highly probable that not only the cocooning, but also the nesting, industry is under the influence of the same maternal sentiment. Certainly many of the admirably constructed nests described and figured in Volume L, Chapters XVII. and XVIII., are used as home shelters for the cocoon and the young; as, for example, the nest of our Theridium zelotypum, the won- derful domicile of the English Theridium riparium, and the various sub- terranean nests of the Lycosids. This would seem to be true also of the remarkable nesting industry of the Tunnelweavers. Abbé Sauvages expresses the belief that the Trapdoor spider’s nest is primarily designed for the preservation of the young, rather than for the preservation of the individuals themselves. Certainly these ingenious struct- ures do serve as a nursery for the spiderlings, as will be shown in Chapter V. The cocoons are suspended within them under the vigilant watch care of the mother, and therein the younglings are hatched and dwell for a con- siderable period of time. Their habit appears to be to leave the maternal nest only when they are abundantly furnished with strength to enter upon housekeeping for themselves. Then they migrate, and, establishing them- COMPARATIVE VIEWS OF VARIOUS MATING HABITS. 65 selves in the neighborhood, pierce the earth with tiny tubes, which in their silk lining and hinged trapdoor are tiny miniatures of the maternal dom- icile. It certainly is in the line of that influence upon architecture and spinningwork generally, which is associated with, and probably incitive of, the maternal industry, that this remarkable talent for house building should have been developed by the Trapdoor spider. But I am disposed to think that the protection of the spider itself, from certain enemies which are not as yet well known, has much to do with the structure. Coming now to the male spider, it may be observed, in certain species at least, that the sexual feeling serves, to some extent, a like purpose with the maternal instinct in exciting the animal to a higher . order of industrial art. As a rule, the spinning abilities of male Males ™ spiders, as far as they relate to the capture of prey, have been shown in Volume I. to be less decided than with females. The tule is not absolute for all species, as in some cases the snare spun by the male is precisely like that woven by the female. But in certain other genera, as, for example, Argiope and probably Nephila, the snares of the male are rudimentary, and do not compare in perfection with those of the female. Yet, in the hour of courtship, and under the influence of amatory ex- citement, the male of the Water spider, Argyroneta aquatica, will be in- cited to weave a silken cell close by that of his lady love, and resort to the unusual device of uniting this with the domicile of his spouse by a silken vault, which is so admirably arranged as to permit communication without inviting destruction in the midst of an element ill calculated to preserve intact a flimsy material like spider’s silk. So, again, it will be found that among the Saltigrades the male of Phi- leus militaris is prompted by sexual excitement to the remarkable habit of preparing a special silken bower for his chosen mate, to which he Influene- jeads her, and in which he confines her until the nuptial hour. ~aathsecs What is yet more remarkable, the males of this species have ac- : quired the habit of selecting immature females, and secluding them under a silken tent until maturity prepares them for nuptial rites. It will thus be seen that, under the powerful influence of sexual feeling, the male responds to a higher type of industrial art, and that to some extent this feeling operates upon his organization in the same manner that the maternal instinct influences the habit of the female. Til. It has been shown that in some species of Orbweavers the females will seize and devour the male even immediately after the exercise of his natural office, which indeed he has to undertake with great self control and care to be able to accomplish it at all. From this propensity of the female, 66 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Rev. O. P. Cambridge’ accounts for the great lessening in size of some male spiders, as Nephila, in comparison with that of the female, Dispro- by a kind of sexual selection. It is obvious, he reasons, that apt the smaller the male the better his chance of escape, and thus in Sexes. Selection would operate until males became so small as only just to be able to fulfill the office of impregnating the female. It is perhaps difficult to reason upon this subject without a much larger array of facts than we at present possess, but there are some points which may be remarked upon with advantage. And it is to be noted that, in the case of Orbweavers, the extremely diminutive size of the male obtains in | those species whose females have acquired the largest development. For example, our indigenous Argiopes are among the largest of the tribe, and their partners are very small, not exceeding one-fourth the female’s size. The same is true of Nephila wilderi of our Southern seaboard, and in the case of the large Nephilas of tropical countries, as, for example, Disad- the Nephila nigra of Vinson (see Fig. 6, page 27), the differ- arpe: ence is even more remarkable. Now, it is certainly true that, Size, were the male of a size corresponding with the female, his weight upon the orbicular snare of the genus would appear at first sight to be a disadvantage in several respects. First, it might break down and injure the snare, and thus place a serious obstruction in the way of nat- ural union. Again, the advent of such a bulky creature upon the snare would at once advise the female of invasion by a most formidable stranger, and the natural instincts of the occupant of the web would be to regard that stranger as hostile, so that her natural ferocity would be awakened, and the chances for combat and loss of life, or the prevention of sexual union, would be a pretty certain result. From this view of the subject, Mr. Cam- bridge’s suggestion, that the diminution of size would be a great advantage to the male of these large species in accomplishing his amatory purpose and protecting his life, has somewhat to support it. But, on the other hand, it may be said that the immense snares of Nephila and Argiope are no more fragile in proportion than those of smaller sized Orbweavers, in whose case the sexual disparity does not exist. Again, it might well be reasoned that natural selection might have operated quite as favorably by maintaining the pro- portionate size of the male or even preserving the largest examples of that sex, inasmuch as increased strength would make him more formidable and thus better fitted to accomplish his purpose. In other words, there is no reason why Nature should not have preserved or bestowed the advantage of superior strength, as well as the advantage of insignificance in size and therewith, perhaps, corresponding caution and ingenuity in approach. As Per Contra. * Zoologist, 1868, page 216, and Proceedings Zool. Soc. Lond., 1871, page 621. COMPARATIVE VIEWS OF VARIOUS MATING HABITS, 67 to the latter point, however, I must say, as a result of many observations, that I have not been at all impressed with the ingenuity of the male sex of Argiope in approaching his lady’s premises. On the other hand, I have rather acquired the impression that he shows a remarkable degree of stu- pidity or, at least, stolidity. Moreover, Mr. Cambridge’s argument implies the fact that at one time the sexes were of equal size, and that natural selection operated in the way of producing a diminution of size in the male, to his advantage. pail But this hypothesis, in its first particular, is not admissible, by the very nature of the reasoning, which implies the necessity for a reduction in size in order to preserve the male, and thus facilitate the preservation of the species. It seems difficult to convince one that Nature, having at the outset provided a comparative equality between the species, or wrought the sexes up to such an equality, should have felt compelled to reyerse her decision and her processes, and reduce the size of one of the sexes to such ridiculously small proportions. In other words, if Mr. Cam- bridge’s theory starts out, as it seems to do, with a comparative equality of the sexes, there appears to be no reason why that equality, having once obtained, should not have continued; for the fact that it had once ob- tained forbids the hypothesis that any necessity existed, or would be likely to arise, for reducing the original equality of size. Still further, it is a very common thing to find Orbweaving species whose sexes are of nearly equal size and vigor. Such, for example, are Epeira strix, Epeira sclopetaria, and Epeira labyrinthea, which Sexes of EEN : 3 Equal °"@ @mong our most common indigenous species. The same is lise. true of many Lineweavers, as, for example, Theridium tepidari- orum, Steatoda borealis, Linyphia marginata, and Linyphia com- munis. The reasons for difference in size between the two sexes would seem to be equally potent in the case of the above species, and all others of like habit. Yet we see that natural selection has not operated along the line of action supposed in the case of Nephila and Argiope. Cer- tainly these exceptions are too numerous not to be regarded as throwing much discredit upon the theory or, at least, laying upon its supporters the burden of further proof. It is pertinent to ask, do those Orbweaving species which habitually oc- cupy nests or tents, in which the pairing occurs, at least occasionally, show : a disproportion of size on the part of the sexes? One would “teed reason that in such cases a substantial equality of size, or eyen * the superior strength of the male, would work to his advantage, and so to the propagation of the species. That is to say, it has been found that among the Tubeweavers and Wanderers, and all other species where courtship and mating are conducted by direct contact, and not by the act of suspension within the snare, as is habitual with Lineweavers and Orbweavers, the male is of equal, or even superior, size. In the case * 68 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. of the nesting species of Orbweavers does the same rule obtain, thus fol- lowing the line of similar mating habit? With Epeira trifolium the males observed by me are very much smaller than the females. The disproportion is nearly as great as between the male and female of Argiope. In the case of Epeira insularis the male is smaller than the female, but the disproportion is not great. The male of Epeira domiciliorum is not greatly inferior to the female. The male of Epeira cinerea is smaller in abdomen, but in the size of the cephalothorax and mouth parts is about equal, and the legs, if anything, are eke q more powerful. So far as our American ‘species throw light Disparity Upon the question, it would seem that the Orbweavers who per- sistently dwell within tents, show no very marked disparity of size between the sexes. This is the rule, with occasional exceptions. Among British spiders, as described by Blackwall, the case is as follows: In Epeira quadrata the male is about one-half the size of the female; the female of Epeira apoclisa is about one-third longer than the male, The proportions are nearly the same as those prevailing between the sexes of American nesting species; but there is apparently a greater tendency in the former | than the latter toward diminished size of the males. On the whole, it can hardly be inferred that the facts among Orbweavers indicate that equality of size results from contact of male with female without the mediation of a snare. It has already been intimated that, ordinarily, where the sexes habitu- ally come into direct contact, by reason of their natural habit, the dispar- ity in size between them is less noticeable. Even among species Sexual of the Sedentary tribes, such as the Tubeweavers, where union onda does not occur during suspension upon the web, this rule ob- weavers, tains. For example, the male of Agalena nevia is quite as large and powerful as the female. In the case of the remark- able Water spider of Europe, Argyroneta aquatica, the male is even larger than the female. There is, perhaps, some relation between this fact and the necessity which seems to be compelled by the element in which the life of the species is spent, and which appears to preclude anything like cautious approach. The male Argyroneta must necessarily adopt for his motto the Virgilian sentiment “Fit via vi” in his approach to his lady’s domicile. It thus falls out that the superiority of size proves to be a con- siderable advantage to him. Among Tubeweavers, generally, there exists no very marked disparity of size. With the immense creatures popularly known as Tarantula, the Mygalide, the male is certainly somewhat smaller than the female, but the difference is not sufficient, as far as my observation extends, to make any great disproportion in vigor. In fact, in this and in all other cases, it * Spi. Gt. Brit. and Ir, plate xxii., Figs. 236, 237. COMPARATIVE VIEWS OF VARIOUS MATING HABITS. 69 must be remembered that the abdomen of the male is always, and neces- sarily, by reason of difference in organization, much smaller than that of the female, which gives him, to the current observer, the appearance Rha of being less in general size. But the organs of offense and defense are not situated in the abdomen, The legs and mouth parts of the male, including the cephalothorax, are often equal or superior in size to those of the female, even when he seems at a casual glance to be much smaller by reason of difference in size of the abdomen. Among the Wandering tribes the same rule holds good. The Attoids show a substantial equality in size between the two sexes, there being an average difference of about one-sixth in favor of the female. But this difference in size does not necessarily imply a difference in physical vigor. It must also be remembered that at the mat- ing period the sexual excitement of the male imparts an abnormal degree of strength, which helps greatly to overcome any disparity in physical or- ganism which may exist. The Lycosids follow the same rule of substan- tial equality in size, with a slight difference in favor of the female. In the case of the Laterigrades the rule holds good, as an examination of the superb plates of Blackwall’s “British Spiders” (Plates IV and V), will show. There are some remarkable exceptions, for which I am not able to account. With a few Thomisoids there is said to exist the same immense disparity in size that has already been noted between the sexes of the Orbweaving Nephila and Argiope.! Wan- derers. IV. The numerical proportion of the two sexes is a matter of great interest, not only in itself, but in its bearing upon certain theories, especially relat- ing to development. The facts are so insufficient, and at many Numeri- points so conflicting, that it is a difficult matter to arrive at any- cal Pro- thing like a settled conclusion. portion . , of Sexes. M. Eugene Simon remarks that in the genera where the in- equality between the sexes is slightest the number of males ap- pears to be equal to that of the females, since at the period of amour Orb- weavers having this characteristic regularly come together in pairs. But in the genera where there is a great disproportion of size the number of males is much more considerable, since it is not unusual to see four or five individuals of the sex courting one female. These little males mature first, but the duration of their life appears very short, for after the period of re- production they completely disappear. They do not construct a proper web, but keep in the neighborhood of those woven by the female, watching for the propitious moment for union.” 1 Cambridge, Art. Arachnida, Brit. Encyec. 2 Les Arachnides de France, I., page 20. 70 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Blackwall and Mr. C. Spense Bate reported to Darwin that the males of spiders are very active and more erratic in their habits than those of females.!_ This appears to be a general opinion among araneolo- Are Males sists, upon what ground as to the matter of activity I am not yeaa, able to perceive. One, of course, is compelled to ask what is Sex ? meant by activity and inactivity as applied to spiders. Cer- tainly the words must be regarded as relative terms. There is a sense in which the females of Sedentary spiders are not as active as the females of the Wandering groups. ‘They may not, indeed, be able to make way over the ground and among herbage with the same facility that marks the Saltigrades, Laterigrades, and Citigrades; but the activity in spinningwork of the average female Orbweayer is simply Female enormous. One who has watched the method by which the pik great round webs of our common indigenous species are spun, tivity, Will certainly agree that the operator is one of the most active of creatures in that department of work, at least. The rapidity with which the threads are woven, the unceasing play of the hind legs in pulling out the thread, and the striding of the other limbs around the circle, together with the active exercise of the remaining organs, are evidences of immense vigor and activity. The fact that such a large and intricate web as Epeira spins can be wrought out in the course of half an hour or forty minutes, is proof enough of this activity. These snares will be reproduced several times a day if necessary, and the repro- duction continues day after day throughout the lifetime of the aranead. So also the same vitality of the female Orbweaver appears in the con- struction of nests, which is not an inconsiderable work, involving no slight exercise of strength, as well as of ingenuity, as any one will see by turning to the chapter upon Nesting Habits, of this work, Chapter XVIL., Volume I. Again, this activity appears in the capture of prey. If any one will take his stand before an average orbweb of almost any common species, _.. say Epeira strix or Epeira sclopetaria, or Argiope cophinaria, race A at a season when flies and other insects abound, and in a site Sees y. Where they are plenty, he will be surprised at the intense ac- tivity displayed in the capture of insects. One after another these victims are seized, swathed, dragged to the hub or den to be de- voured, and that with a display of vigor in capturing, in swathing, in cutting out the captive, and repairing the web, which must strike the most casual observer. The feast will be left a number of times to seize and truss up in like manner other victims who happen to strike the snare, and on each successive capture the same tremendous rush and energy of action will be noticed. 1 Descent of Man, chapter ix., Vol. IL., page 329. COMPARATIVE VIEWS OF VARIOUS MATING HABITS. 71 I scarcely know a limit to the voracity of these orbweaving spiders when full opportunity is given them to feed upon their natural prey; and I can certainly appeal to any one who has observed the actions referred to, whether the whole demeanor of the aranead is not such as to impress him with the sense of a vast store of vitality, and an almost exhaustless activity. Taking, then, the spinning- work and the ordinary action in capturing prey by means of nets as the standard, it cannot be affirmed with truthfulness that female Orbweavers are inactive, or that they suffer in respect of this element from compari- son either with the Wandering tribes or with the males of their own species. I might go further and say that when a female Orbweaver is placed upon the leaves of a plant, or even upon the ground among the grasses, she will display an amount of activity in getting from leaf to leaf, and limb to limb, and from point to point, which is surprising in a creature whose habits are so generally sedentary. I have often been amazed at the rapidity and facility with which the largest Orbweavers, as Argiope cophi- naria and argyraspis, could make the circuit of a bush, or travel over a plane surface. As to the males of Orbweavers generally, it is certainly not in accord- ance with my observations that they are more active than the females. On the contrary, I am disposed to think them rather lethargic and 0M a sluggish fellows. I am aware that it has been said, in corrobora- tion of the theory that the female is more inactive than the male, that she will hang to the hub of her orb, or remain motion- less within her tent for hours and perhaps even days. It is true; but that action is quite as characteristic of the male as of the female. I have seen the males of Cophinaria, in attendance upon a female, hanging upon the outer courts of their lady love’s snare, apparently entirely inactive, for as much as two or three or four days in succession. They are very patient in their waiting, and make few movements during the courting period. So also it may be said that those Orbweaver males which spin webs that are as perfect after their kind as those of the female, show precisely the same degree of patience in managing their snares and watching for the advent of insects, as is shown by the female. If we turn now to the Wandering groups, and make comparison be- tween the males and females of the species of these tribes, I am certain that it will be found that the females are as active as, or even Wander- more active than, the males. During certain seasons of the year, ing as, for example, when they are carrying their cocoons, they do indeed prepare for themselves a little cave or silken cell where- pared. in they live until their young are hatched. But during that period, even, the Lycosids may be found running around upon the rocks and over the fields, dragging their egg bag after them. When Female Activity. 72 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. the young are hatched, it is not uncommon to observe the mother wan- dering over the fields with all her offspring piled upon her abdomen and the lower part of the cephalothorax—a strange, and, to most beholders, a horrible sight, since the ordinary observer is not apt to associate the un- couth vision with the beautiful maternal devotion which the spider thus shows, and which has its analogue in the human mother bearing her child in her arms, or carrying it upon her bosom. Moreover, the exca- vating and fitting up these subterranean homes is a strong proof of a de- cidedly industrious character, and the act requires the exercise of great vigor, which, of course, is exclusively by the female. As a matter of fact, therefore, I am compelled to think that among all Wandering groups the difference between the activity of male and female is certainly not in favor of the former. Whatever conclusions, therefore, are drawn from the belief that the male is possessed of greater activity and vital force than the female, must, in my judgment, be regarded as erroneous. That he is more erratic, in certain species, is true. V. There appears to be little doubt that previous to the act of pairing, the fertilizing fluid is extruded from the sexual organs of the male upon par-° ticles of spinningwork, thence is transferred to the dig- ital joint of the male palps (Figs. 35 and 36), whence it is conveyed to the epigynum of the female. Convey- The alternate inflation and contraction of the — palpal bulb is probably the means by which the fertilizing fluid is forced into its proper receptacle. Various naturalists have been able to estab- lish this fact. Menge has observed, in the cases of Lin- yphia, Agalena, and Lycosa, this fluid collected from the sheet like spinningwork.! Mr. Campbell, in the case of Tegenaria guyonii above cited, was able to confirm this account. It was only dur- ing the last moments of the process that reflected light permitted him to see a triangular silken sheet attached to the spider behind the abdominal sexual organ by its Pak apex, and by its external angles to the mesh across dapat Sea. the bottle in which the aranead was confined. The newer toni ga bei sheet extended from under the abdomen to the anterior magnified, (After bm- Part of the sternum, and lay above the palps. The male erton.) now left the sheet and approached the female; but she appeared heedless of his addresses. The observer seized him, and in his attempts to evade capture he injured the silken sheet. An examination 1 Preussische Spinnen. COMPARATIVE VIEWS OF VARIOUS MATING HABITS. 73 showed that the sides consisted of many shreds (Fig. 37, A), while the intervening space was covered with an irregular mesh, which was doubtless originally more systematically arranged. Here and there was a mass of semen containing a fine, granulated substance (Fig. 37, B) of great refract- ive power. The whole was in a very liquid state, and spermatozoa were arranged singly above the threads. Immediately after the spider was secured, one of its palps was removed. The vesiculum seminis was charged with spermatozoa, even to the embolos, where they were plainly seen at intervals. He could not, however, discover any on the external parts of the palpus. Menge is entitled to the credit of discovering the relation between the male palpus and the male abdom- inal sexual organ.! ; Ausserer confirmed the observations of Menge in studies of Linyphia triangularis and Dictyna benigna.? Bertkau, following the same line of inyestigation with Linyphia montana and another species, corroborated these statements. *® In the act of copulation Blackwall observed, what I have recorded of Linyphia marginata, that the palps were frequently conveyed to the mouth. He saw a male Lycosa lugubrius apply his palps eighty é times to the vulva of the female without Applica- the possibility of bringing it into contact tions of . : 2 : Palpe. with the inferior surface of its abdomen, Zz except by a very conspicuous change of \* position. As an equal number of similar acts was performed by the left palp, we have the extraor- yo, 37. spermatozoa of Teg- dinary fact of the palps being employed one hun- rom Sy X 570. (After Camp- dred and sixty times during this greatly protracted ‘ process, unaccompanied by any contact whatever with the part where the seminal ducts are considered to terminate.* VI. Whether or not spiders may be propagated by agamic reproduction is an open question. I am at least satisfied that females will produce cocoons without previous pairing with the male. It is reasonably certain, Agamic so, that in some species a single act of fecundation suffices for eepro- ali the eggs laid for several years in succession, where life is "continued that long. Audebert brought up and kept for some years many individuals of the domestic spider, probably Tegenaria domestica. 1 “Ueber die Lebensweise der Arachniden,” Neuste Schriften der Naturf. Gesellsch. Danzig, Vol. IV., 1843. 2“Beobachtungen iiber die Lebensweise, Fortpflanzung und Entwicklung der Spinnen,” Zeistchr. Ferdinandeums, 1867. _ #Ueber den Generationsapparat der Arachniden,” Arch, Nat. Gesch., 1875, page 254. * Zoolog. Researches, page 315. : 74 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Some females which had been isolated, produced in succession several gen- erations, each in its order being equally fruitful.! Mr. F. Maule Campbell records an example of probable parthenogenesis in the common English house spider. An immature female of Tegenaria guyonii was taken and boxed in May. It moulted twice, and survived during the winter confined within a large glass bottle. Herein she quite domesticated herself, and was fed throughout the winter. In the early part of April she spun the ordinary cocoon of her species, within which she deposited eggs, and about a month thereafter she died. On the 7th of June, Mr. Campbell, observing some movement in the cocoon, separated the sheets enclosing the eggs and found that two spiders had been hatched. Twelve eggs still retained vitality, while the rest were hard and shriveled. The fertility of this spider, after a confinement of eleven months, during which time she twice moulted, can only be explained by one of the follow- ing alternate causes: First, that she was impregnated previous to the cast- ing of the two exuvie in an early, and therefore immature, stage; second, that parthenogenesis occurs in true spiders.” Mr. Campbell is inclined to believe that the case recorded by him is one of agamic reproduction, inasmuch as he could find no lumen in the exuvie through which impregnation could have taken place. This is jus- tified by the opinion of Bertkau, which expresses the general belief of ara- neologists: this much is certain, that spiders immediately upon or shortly after the final moult become sexually mature. 1 Cuvier, Animal Kingdom, Lond. Ed., Vol. XIII., page 468, supplement. 2 Jour. Linn. Soc. Zool., Vol. XVI., page 538. 8’ “Ueber den Generationsapparat der Araneiden,” page 253. PART II—MATERNAL INDUSTRY AND INSTINCTS. CHAPTER IV. MATERNAL INDUSTRY: COCOONS OF ORBWEAVERS. THe maternal industry of spiders is concerned chiefly in the preparation of the silken sac within which the eggs are deposited. It includes also the various methods by which this sac, when woven, is disposed of in order to secure a greater protection for its contents from exigencies of climate and weather, and assaults of enemies. I shall treat this part of my subject after the methods previously adopted, and describe in detail the cocooning habits of Orbweavers, and then present brief studies of the cocoonery of typical species of other tribes, with a view to comparison as to various points, such as the form, number, modes of preservation, and construction. L Among Orbweavers, the largest cocoon known to me is that of Basket Argiope. It is usually a pyriform or globular flask or sac of stiff, parch- .. _, ment like, yellowish silk, suspended in various sites by a series mere . of short lines passing from all parts thereof to surrounding ob- jects. These lines, at the points of attachment to the cocoon, diverge into minute conical or pyramidal deltas, similar to those formed to anchor the usual dragline when the spider walks. The objects upon which the cocoons are hung depend, of course, upon the local habitat of the individual. For the most part, Argiope spins her web in low positions; on the tall grasses growing in the angles of a rail or “worm” fence; on the miscellaneous shrubbery that will be seen along the edge of a New England stone fence; in the low bushes of various sorts found in fields, lanes, the skirts of woods, and out of the way places—one will be sure to meet these pear shaped objects in October or early November. A collection that lies before me as I write will be sufficiently typical of the positions in which Argiope spins her cocoons. Here is a cluster of tall grasses, upon which two cocoons are hung. One, with a brown ag sil external case, is suspended within a series of closely intersecting al yellowish threads, which are lashed to the stalks of the grass eight inches from the roots. Just within the little concavity formed by the stems as they have been pulled together in a circular position, the little : (75) + 76 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. flask, with its precious contents, is swung. At the top of this clump a second cocoon is placed. It is of a yellowish white color, and, in order to give it a proper site, the tops of the spears of grass have been pulled down and twisted together, so that the capsules, or graceful clusters of seed vessels, hang around the cocoon on every side, giving it a beautiful setting. These cocoons are eleven inches apart, and were probably spun by two spiders. Another example is hung in the very midst of a tall field chrysanthemum. The cocoon is much larger than those just described, and is of a rounder shape. Two branches of the plant have been drawn towards each oth- er, and these again Among towards the cen- fhocrens, tral stalk. With- in the space thus circumscribed the egg sac is suspended in the midst of a maze of lines attached at one end to the cocoon, and at the other to various parts of leaves and stems of the plant. It is about eighteen inches from the ground, and forms a pretty object amidst the balled white blossoms of chrysanthemum. (Fig. 39.) A third and fourth spec- imens are hung in similar positions within the out- branching limbs of a wild flower unknown to me, which is thick set with little white blossoms. Still an- Fic. 38, Cocoon of Argiope cophinaria, hung in the tops of grasses. other is hung within a little canopy formed by the leaves of a blackberry vine, that have the beautiful hues with which, in our climate, the autumn is wont to paint the-foliage. Still another is suspended beneath a similar canopy, formed of leaves on a young maple pes os bush. Another has a similar site within the clustered leaves of a fragrant honeysuckle vine; and yet one more has been sus- pended upon the leaf stalks and under the leaves of our well known MATERNAL INDUSTRY: COCOONS OF ORBWEAVERS. Virginia creeper. A_ pretty environment, indeed, this last one, but of less stability than beauty; for, as the autumn ad- vanced, and the leaves of the ampelopsis dropped to the ground, the egg case, so care- fully wrought by the mother while expending upon it the last energies of her life, fell to the ground, and probably would have soon mingled with mother earth had it not been rescued by the collector’s hand. These cases will sufficiently il- lustrate the natural sites chosen by this spider upon which to suspend her cocoon. The hanging of the silken ‘flask is not without an evi- dence of nice care and discrim- ination in the adjustment of its supports. The guy lines are commonly so placed upon the different parts of the cocoon, Fic. 39. Cocoons of Argiope cophinaria, swung among field grasses and wild flowers. 78 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. and so stretched and fastened to adjacent objects, that the mother leaves her precious casket so well poised and finely hung that even the strongest wind fails to disturb its balance when a good position has been selected: In this position it will commonly remain until the brood is hatched; but, as we have already seen, sometimes the mother’s care is misplaced. It sometimes happens that the cocoon is simply anchored to leaves, and, when the autumn brings the usual fall of foliage, it is carried down to the ground. There, buried among rubbish, covered with snows and rains, the chances for development of the young are seemingly not very good. Yet even thus it is possible that, in sites comparatively undisturbed by tramping feet of men and animals, the eggs may remain healthful throughout winter, and yield their broodling Argiopes when spring suns dissolve the snow and the spring wind has scattered the leaves. It is not an unusual thing for Cophinaria to hang her cocoon in the angle of walls in a house or outbuilding. (Fig. 40.) I have met a number of such cases in the outlying parts of Philadel- phia, as, for example, Germantown and West Philadelphia. There still remain in those sections a number of gardens and spacious yards, within which this large and beautiful creature has maintained her position against all encroachments of civilization since the landing of the Swedish pioneers. Their snares are woven upon the vines which cluster about Fic. 40, Cophinaria’s cocoon suspended arbors, outbuildings, and verandahs; and it is in the angle of a wall in the midstof 4 common thing for the mother, when the crossed lines. ° : cocooning time has come, to slip underneath a roof or cornice, and there suspend her egg sac. In this case she protects it by a slender encasement of retitelarian lines spun entirely around it. A cocoon thus disposed is represented at Fig. 40, as it was found in the early summer in the basement of a hotel at Atlantic City. The enclosing lines were from seven to eight inches high, and of about equal width. The lines were much soiled by dust, the accumulation of winter and spring, but the cocoon proved: to contain many healthy spiders, although in the lower part if was infested with parasitic ichneu- mon. flies. Another case of suspension within doors offered an interesting exception to the usual mode. This cocoon was hung in the angle of the walls of a room in Sedgley House, at Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, the headquarters of Captain Chasteau, of the Park Guard, who said that it was made about Stability of Poise. Indoor Sites. MATERNAL INDUSTRY: COCOONS OF ORBWEAVERS, 79 October 1st. When first observed, it was a round ball, which was gradually wrought into a pear shaped object. This, when I saw it, was hung from the under side of a and extended like a bridge from the shield shaped hub of the snare to the adjacent Be $4 wall. The curtain terminated in Jd a pocket, from the bottom of R5 which the cocoon was suspended. = The cocoon was thus just behind the orb which was spun across the angle about seven feet from /| the floor. The characteristic zig- : zag ribbon of the web extended Zidees 4 ANANLALEAARTRVRRRABAR A SSA IN x ULIMLL PULLEY LSU ILD) well downward, and a number of Be lines stretched from side to side across the angle, nearly to the floor, forming a convenient gang- : way for the spider. E te, Immediately after finishing oe her work the mother spider be- cs ei a gan to languish. She would not —¥gZ ry take flies as aforetime when of- : 2 fered to her. Once she tried to my Te escape from the room into the Park, but was brought back, and Fa, 41, Cocoon of Argiope suspended from a curtain behind her snare in Sedgley House. placed upon her lower gangway lines, which she mounted, with great apparent difficulty, to the central shield, behind which she stationed herself. She was found dead upon the floor one morning, having lived only a few days after the completion of her cocoon. The cocoons of Cophinaria vary in length from five- eighths of an inch to one inch and five-eighths. Three meas- urements between these limits are one and a half, one and a fourth, and one and one-eighth inches. The bowl is gen- erally about one inch wide, and the flask one-eighth inch Fic. 42, Aroundco. Wide at the tip of the neck. The bowls are for the most coon of Argiope part decidedly pyriform in shape, but sometimes are spher- —_—~ ical instead of oval. As the spiderlings grow a little within the sac after hatching, the bowl somewhat expands, or rather fulls out, but the original shape remains substantially unchanged. The structure of the cocoon is as follows: First, the outer case or shell ‘> SRE ak NAD SEAN RE ENEAS LEE RERGAREREA | LIAS IASI ba a \ AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. (Figs. 43, 44, 0.c) is usually a thin, stiff, parchment like substance, that feels dry, and crackles under the touch, as though glazed. It is substan- Fie. 43. Section view of cocoon of Argiope cophinaria. fe, flossy envelope inside the outer case, oc; p.d, the brown padding; c.u, the cup or dish against which the eggs (e) are deposited; c.a, cap covering the egg cup; c.s, suspen- sion cord, tially water tight. I have found several cocoons of a softer material, and thicker, much like a delicate yellow felt. The glazing above mentioned is not the result of ageing or weathering simply, but is produced by the action of the spider herself, perhaps by the overspreading of the viscid secretion which forms the beads on the spirals of a snare. When this outer case is cut away there is first pre- sented a flossy envelope (f.e) of soft yellowish silk, which quite surrounds the contents of the bowl. Next is a dark brown pyriform or spherical pad of spinningwork (p.d), which swathes the eggs completely, interposing a thick, warm, silken blanket between them and the external case. On the upper part of this pad is a plate or cup (¢.u), of like color and closer texture, with the concavity down- ward. I have at least once found this to be a whitish disk of stiff silk. The neck or stalk (nk) of the cocoon is filled with a compact silken cone (cs), of a yellowish or brown color, which is united at the base to the egg plate (c.u), and at the top terminates -in a strong twisted cord (c.s), which sometimes extends upwards and forms the central support to the cocoon. Next to the brown pad is often a thin flossy envelope, which surrounds the egg sac. The latter is a rather closely spun pouch of variable tenacity, and whitish or pinkish white color, that encloses the thousand or more eggs which lie in a globular mass with- in the heart of the cocoon. The inner egg sac (e) is attached above to the plate or cup (c.u), which, after the spiderlings hatch, is pushed upward by them not unlike a trap- door, permitting them to creep out into the surrounding padding, leaving their white shells within the sac. The plate serves to support the eggs, which are probably oviposited upward against it. One female, confined within a box, got so far in the construction of her cocoon as to spin ie. 44. Cocoon of Cophinaria dissected the plate, but went no farther, leaving, how- '° S2w the Parts. Letters as in Fig, 48. ever, this evidence of the point at which her ovipositing would have begun. The genus Argiope is widely distributed throughout the globe, and the cocooning habit of the species has elsewhere the same characteristics as in America. Argiope fasciata of Southern Europe and Northern Africa makes MATERNAL INDUSTRY: COCOONS OF ORBWEAVERS. 81 a cocoon much like that of our Cophinaria. Fig. 46 shows the external case, and Fig. 45 gives a section view of the central egg sac, supported in the midst of a bunch of loose flossy silk.? I have found numbers of Cophinaria’s cocoons on vacant city lots in Philadelphia, strung to the stems of tall weeds on either side of a well traveled footpath. The mothers had safely passed through the perils of assaulting boys and voracious birds, and left these tokens of their maternal care in this conspicuous spot. As far as examined the cocoons contained broods of healthy spiders. One excep- tion, however, permitted me to see the position and structure of the egg mass. It is a hemispherical mass five-sixteenths of an inch high and wide. The eggs are bright yellow, contained within a delicate white or pink hued membranous silken sac, through which they can be seen in outline. It is interesting to observe that there is some variety among the mother Argiopes in the. manner of preparing a cocoon. I have one before me ees which is composed, ariation : egy naar first, of a soft silken exterior case; then, of three easily sep- arated layers of delicate yellow silken tissue, extremely soft and beautiful. Next to these layers is the loose yellow flossy mass hitherto described, and then the brown padding which surrounds the egg sac proper. This brown padding is not as Shag diate abundant as I commonly find Fic. 46. Cocoon case of Argiope fasciata. Fie. 45. Section of it, for the reason, perh aps, that same, to show the central egg sac. (After Cuvier.) the yellow silken envelope is so much more pronounced. Another cocoon before me has in it nothing but the brown padding, scarcely a trace of yellow floss, and no layers such as above described. I account for the distinct layers by supposing that they were woven between well marked intervals of resting. The Banded Argiope is not as common a spider, at least in the imme- diate vicinity of Philadelphia, as her congener Cophinaria. Her life ap- pears to be prolonged a little further into the autumn, for I find Argio her upon the bushes when the Basket Argiope has entirely dis- ete appeared. Her cocoon is therefore made, as a rule, somewhat "later; but it is suspended in a similar manner and in similar sites. I do not find it often, and, as compared with the cocoon of Cophinaria, The Egg Mass. 1 Cuvier, Regne Animal, Arachnides, pl. ii. r 82 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. it is rare. It seems to be less fond of human society, or else less able to stand the exigencies of civilization than Cophinaria. In outlying Fic. 47. Banded Argiope’s cocoon beneath a canopy of leaves and grass tops. sections, where Nature has been less disturbed by men, it may probably be found more readily. It is suspended by means of silken guys to the leaves and stalks of grass or low growing plants, which are bent over and also lashed together above the swinging egg nest in the manner rep- resented at Fig. 47. Again, it may be found as at Fig. 48, swung in the midst of a retitelarian maze woven amidst the branches and leaves of a bush, or, as at Fig. 49, seated and suspended in the crotches of a wild meadow flower. The shape of her cocoon differs from Coph- inaria’s in being hemispheroidal instead of pyri- form; in other words, it resembles the lower half of a spheroid. Across the wide top is stretched a circular piece of silk, like the head of an Indian drum. (Fig. 50.) The outer case is of stiff yellow silk, as is also the head or top; this part, in a cocoon now before me, is somewhat darker in color than the rest of the case. A marginal flap sur- rounds the head, and has various points to which guy lines were attached in site. (See Fig. 50.) The height and width of the cocoon are about the same—one-half inch. When the outer case is cut aside, as at Fig. 51, the interior is seen to con- sist, first, of a yellow flossy envelope, which is packed between the inner wall; and, second, an egg pad, which is not composed of purple silk as in Cophinaria, but of yellow silk plush loosely woven, and is three-eighths of an inch long. Within this are the eggs. Immediately above is the egg cover of white silk plush, which is commonly flat, not con- cave as with Cophinaria, It is about one-eighth inch thick, and is attached firmly by silken threads to the inside of the top of the case. Against this cover, no doubt, the eggs are oviposited upwards, and are then covered by the Fig. 48. Cocoon of Argiope argyraspis, suspended amidst supporting cross lines upon a bush. mother spider. The portion of the egg cover is shown at Fig. 51, where one edge adheres to the remaining part of the top of the case, and also at Fig. 52, where the object is viewed from the side. MATERNAL INDUSTRY: COCOONS OF ORBWEAVERS. 83 Among various other examples of California spinningwork received from Mrs. Eigenmann and Mr. R. L. Orcutt, of San Diego, were several cocoons of rare beauty. They were lenticular or hemispheroidal masses, of a yellowish, yellowish green, and green color. (See shod figures, Plate IV.) They were pulled out into angles at the flat side, as though they had been suspended by threads at the an- gular points. They varied somewhat in size, from three-fourths of an inch to an inch long, one-half inch wide, and three- eighths high. It was long a matter of wonder and discussion with me what spe- cies formed these beautiful egg nests. Mr. Orcutt finally attributed them to Argiope argenteola, without giving a reason for his opinion. The question was at last settled by a living female specimen of that spider sent me by Mrs. Eigenmann, which, hap- pily, reached me alive, but very feeble. I placed her under a trying box, fed her with water and flies, and she revived. The following morning a cocoon was hung within the box, whose shape and color solved the mystery, and proved that Mr. Orcutt was correct in attributing the co- coon to Argenteola. ; This cocoon was a keystone shaped patch of white sheeted silk, upon which was raised a greenish button that enclosed the egg mass. (Fig. 53.) The white color of the sheet can hardly be characteristic, for in specimens before me this part is green. The whole was suspended between lines that were attached above to the lower foun- dation lines of the orb, and to the sides and bottom of the box beneath. Evidently the i. 49. Cocoon of Argiope argyraspis, * . ‘ . hung upon the stalks and leaves of a spider, in spinning her cocoon, had first — wita flower. stretched the sheet, and against or within this had placed her eggs, which she then proceeded to overspin in the usual manner, though, of course, it is not impossible that in this and like cases the cocoon may be framed upon a flat surface and then raised and sus- pended in the above described position. In general appearance this cocoon resembles that of Epeira rather than the typical Argiope cocoons as rep- resented by our two familiar species, Cophinaria and Argyraspis. But in Argiope 84 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. the manner of suspension, as well as the character of the egg case, Argen- teola resembles her congeners.! A cocoon, when dissected, shows two principal parts—the basal sheet above referred to, and the cup or case which is set upon it. Both these parts consist of closely woven silk, like that which forms the out- er case of Cophinaria and Argyraspis, the latter of which it most resembles. This cup is of a yellow or yel- lowish green color, Fie. 50. Fig. 51, Fie. 52. Fic. 50. Cocoon of Argiope argyraspis. x2. Fra. 51. Interior, showing and the deep green padding, eggs, and the egg cover. Fig. 52. Side view of the egg cover. tints app ear most de- cidedly in slight .flossy tufts, which here and there overspread it. The inner surface of the basal sheet is overspread with white silk. Within the case is a ball of white flossy curled silk, which forms the inner upholstery of the nest. It thus ap- pears, that while the cocoonery of this remarkable spider resembles that of Epeira in its external shape and the nature of the interior furnishing, yet in the texture of the case and manner of suspension it is like the cocoonery of its congeners. In, the example produced in my trying box the basal sheet is hung vertically. If it were suspended hor- izontally, with the egg case downward (Fig. 54), it would closely resemble an Argyraspis’ cocoon. yuo, tit, Coench at Rigen oe Mrs. Eigenmann tells me that Argenteola makes _ genteola; front view. Natural more than one cocoon. A specimen which had spun a web in her sitting room placed a cocoon upon it somewhat in the posi- tion observed by myself, as above described; but shortly after (the time is not specified) a second cocoon was formed upon the web about two inches below the first one. A few days previous to this Fra. 64, Cocoon of Argiope ar. COCooning the spider neglected to eat, and paid genteola; side view. Aboutnat- no attention to the flies placed upon her web. Cages The discoverer had concluded that the creature’s mission was ended and death would soon ensue, but was surprised to find Internal Structure ! Koch has described species from South America which closely resemble A. argenteola, and perhaps may be the same. See Arachniden, Tafeln 5-8, Fig. 360, Arg. argentatus, and Fig. 361, Arg. fenestrinus. MATERNAL INDUSTRY: COCOONS OF ORBWEAVERS. 85 its lethargy only the condition naturally preceding cocooning. The see- ond cocoon was a little larger and more flocculent than the first. After this maternal duty the mother disposed of the flies that were entangled in her web, without any hesitation. This was not the end of the matter, however, for on the 14th of December, just three weeks after the second cocoon had been spun, a third was made, which was like- wise attached to the web. On the after- noon of January 6th, three weeks after this last maternal act, the spider lost her grip upon the meshes of her web and fell dead to the floor, having been in the possession of the observer three months. I. The genus Epeira, which includes our best known and most numerous species of Orbweavers, has little va- riety among its most typical species in the form of its co- coons, the manner of protection, and nature of sites selected for them. The general form is that of a ball, hemi- sphere, or semiovoid mass of thick, silken floss, that enswathes a white silken bag, within which a number of eggs, usually yellow, are massed. This is fastened in any convenient and eligible position, at- tached directly to the surface or hung amid supporting threads. I have strip- ‘ped from a decaying trunk a bit of bark eighteen inches long, on which one could count forty or fifty of these cocoons in- termingled with those of Agalena nevia and other Tubeweavers, and of Lateri- grades, as well as the white silken tubes of Saltigrades. (Fig. 55.) Often the dried bodies of the mothers, who had died shortly after their last maternal’ 19. 55. Cocoons of Epeira underneath the Snes bark of an old tree. care and work, were found clinging to the nurseries of their young. When deposited in such sites the eggs rarely have any other protection in the way of spinningwork than the Epeira Cocoons. AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Fic, 56. yh Pn! 4 Wy iy mM ANY Fie. 59. Fie. 60. Fic. 56. Globular cocoon of Insular spider, spun in a paper box. Fia. 57. Cocoon of Epeira insularis, woven against a leaf within a glass tumbler. orum, within a curled leaf. Epeira cocoons overspun with a common tent. (Natural size.) Fic. 58. Cocoon of Epeira domicili- Fic. 59. Epeira cocoon enclosed within a curled leaf. Fic. 60. MATERNAL INDUSTRY: COCOONS OF ORBWEAVERS. 87 flossy cocoon case, the shelter of the bark being, no doubt, sufficient barrier against assault of enemies and stress of weather. A favorite site of this sort is the trunk of an old hickory tree, whose flaky outer bark, curled up at the free ends, offers an acces- sible retreat. A cocoon of Insularis, in my col- lection, spun within a small paper box, is a globular ball of yellow silken plush three- fourths of an inch in di- ameter and of a light yellow color. (See Plate IV., Vol. IL.) It is hung against the side of the box (Fig. 56) in the midst of a maze of short right lines an inch and a half wide and high. These, lines are knotted to- gether at innumerable points, which are marked by little white dots. This meshed envelope extends nearly to the cocoon, and certainly appears to be a sufficient barricade against hymenopterous invaders, although it was not able to save the eggs from those universal and well nigh irresistible pests of collections, the Dermestide. I have another cocoon of this species similarly disposed within an inverted glass tumbler, under which the mother had been confined. She attached herself to the bottom of the glass (the top when inverted), and, as is the custom of her kind, hung there back downward until the period of cocooning. (Fig. 57.) Not long after she died, and her dried up form is partly shown in the drawing. The spots upon the glass represent the points of attachment for the supporting lines of the co- coon, and are little pats of adhering silk. Sometimes cocoons are found laid against a leaf which has been drawn around it, as at Figs. 58 and 59, reminding one of the manner in which cer- tain lepidopterous larve protect themselves before they pass into the pupa state. When this sort of protection is secured for the eggs, viz, a leafy covering around the egg pad, no further envelope is added, precisely as when the eggs are laid upon the under side of bark and stones. Cocoon of Insularis. Fia. 61. Epeira cocoon in angle of a wall, protected by a tent or palisade of lines. Fia. 62. Cocoon of Epeira domiciliorum, woven upon a pine tree. 88 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. In other cases, however, as in the angles of walls, porches, outhouses, ete., the silken egg pad is itself enclosed in a tent of spinningwork more or less open. (Fig. 60.) In some cases this tent is little more than a series of lines drawn across the angle at a little distance from the cocoon, as at Fig. 61. Strix, Sclo- petaria, and Domiciliorum are all in the habit of weay- ing around their cocoons such a tent. A Domicile spider, which I found in the act of com- pleting her cocoon, was con- tent with a scantier cover- ing than this. Her egg sac was an oval mass of yellow- ish brown silk one and one- fourth inch long by three- Fic. 68. Epeira cocoon protected by a tent of close spinningwork. fourths of an inch wide. It was fastened upon a twig of a pine tree. At one end short lines were thickly strung across from the needle like leaves, making a sort of “fly” or awning. ‘This was repeated at the other end, thus about half covering the cocoon. The mother spider hung to a few threads above (Fig. 62) her egg nest, with shrunken abdomen, and so much exhausted as to be little inclined to move. This cocoon was made September 24th. For the most part the.outer tent is of closer texture than those above described, being in fact an enclosing curtain of silken cloth, through which the outline of the cocoon within may be traced. (Fig. 63.) eg Great numbers of these tent enclosed cocoons may be seen at the boat houses near the Inlet of Atlantic City and Cape May. They are made during the last days of May and to the middle or last of June, and again in the fall.1. The cocoons measure seven-eighths of an inch long by six-eighths of an inch wide, and less. The enclosing tent measures Fic. 64. Egg mass of Epeira, show- Cocoons in Tents. = ; ing the under sheet and th Foreordi- two and two and a half inches long by ye nue "aes, Sheet and the mass nation in dtl schths iuekeeril r of flossy padding. Nature, one and three-eighths inch wide. Fre- quently the tents are overlaid one upon another, or spun close to each other, as at Fig. 58. I have found three large cocoons thus 1 Of two specimens of Epeira sclopetaria kept by me, one cocooned May 22d; the other May 26th; a third about the middle of June. An Epeira domiciliorum cocooned Septem- ber 16th. MATERNAL INDUSTRY: COCOONS OF ORBWEAVERS, 89 overlaid, and the outer tent, four inches long, covered the others so com- pletely that one might have supposed the whole to be the work of one spider. Undoubtedly, these works are precau- tions against both enemies and the weather, which, although without experience of the ef- fects of either upon her offspring, the mother oS takes as though she really foresaw the danger. jag, 5, Beg mass of Bpeira, showing If an egg nest of this class be opened the under sheet and outer covering there will be found, in order, first, the outer Ad: tent, separate from the covering of the cocoon; second, a thin white silken sheet, which is the outer envelope of the cocoon proper ; third, the thick egg pad of curled silk, usually yellow; fourth, the eggs, a conical or hemispherical or spherical mass of small yellow globules. (Fig. 64.) When the spider oviposits against a flat sur- face, the eggs are generally laid upon a coating or sheet of silk spread upon the surface, and the padding is then woven over it in the manner of Argiope cophinaria. If the cocoon is suspended within a maze of lines, the eggs are laid in the midst of the curled nest or egg pad, which is after- wards completed. The cocoon of Epeira cinerea shows a variation from the common type of her congeners. The egg pad is a large flattened hemisphere, an inch in diameter, and one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch thick. This is spun against some flat surface, the boards of a shed, as I have seen it, upon a light cushion of curled yellow silk. Over and around this, on all sides, is woven the egg pad, which is flattened down quite compactly, and the whole mass lashed at the edges to the surface. The entire cocoon has a diameter of one and five-eighths inch or more, and is a quarter or three-eighths of an inch thick at the centre. (Fig. 66.) Interior Structure Fic. 66. Cocoon of Epeira cinerea. Il. Epeira triaranea makes a cocoon of the common type, but smaller. Of two now before me, spun in bottles,, one measures one-fifth of an inch, and the other about half that. They are both round or ovoid a flossy masses, protected by a maze of intersecting lines spun “around them. This maze is often thickened into a tent, in which condition I have observed numbers spun in the angles of the joists of a cellar at Atlantic City, in the early spring (May 22d), full of young spider- lings just ready to emerge. These cocoons measured one-half inch long, which is somewhat above the normal length. One female was observed (New Lisbon, Ohio), whose cocoon was wrapped up within a rolled leaf. This was swung to a cord, attached at one end 90 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. to the silken, bell shaped tent within which the spider nested, and at the other end to the fence top against which the tent was placed. (Fig. 67.) In this way the mother had her future progeny literally “cradled,” and in good position also to be freely “rocked.” What freak had caused her to make this divergence we can only conjecture; probably the cocoon had first been spun upon the leaf, which, becoming loose, and threatening to fall, was secured in the manner described. A familiar resort of Triaranea in New England is the stone wall, char- acteristic of that section. Underneath the irregular slabs or boulders of granite which are heaped, one upon the other, to form the divi- hee sion fences between meadows, etc., I have found large numbers Belsce of this species. The orb, which is usually about six inches in diameter, is woven within the interspaces of the rocks, and the spider has her resting place against the rough surface, or within the little in- dentations of the stone which forms the top of the cavity. Against this surface the moth- er Triaranea weaves her bowl shaped tent, and against the same surface, an inch or two away, she spins her cocoon. This is about a quarter or three-eighths of an inch in diameter ; is a hemispherical disk of flossy white silk, which is overspun by a stiff, taut, close, but transparent tent of white silk about three-fourths of an inch long. This may be considered the typical co- coon of the species. The number of eggs in three cocoons counted was, Fig. 67. Leaf enclosed cocoon of Epeira triaranea, swung yespectively, forty-five, forty- to her silken nest and above her snare. two, and °thi rty-two. They were of a gray color. Little spiders had just developed in one, and these had yellowish abdomens, round, and very slightly oval, with the legs white. The egg skin had just been cast, and the little fellows were stretching them- selves and straggling about in a feeble manner. One female was resting within a circular depression underneath a rock, and had spun a few silken lines, forming the foundations of a little circular tent, the framework of which extended downward toward her snare. Within this was an old empty cocoon, against which the spider rested. Near by was a fresh cocoon, nearly one-fourth inch in diameter, overspun by a MATERNAL INDUSTRY: COCOONS OF ORBWEAVERS. 91 tough silken tent, and this appeared to belong to the spider, who, moreover, looked as though she might soon make another cocoon. The question was started, but was not solved, does Triaranea weave more than one cocoon? The cocoon was a little flossy ball, flattened, of course, on the side attached to the rock. I captured one of the fe- males, which cocooned in a box, thus showing that the cocoons above described were those of this species. A cocoon of Epeira thad- deus was sent to me from Vineland, by Mrs. Mary Treat. It had been spun upon some potted ferns within her lodgings. It is a subglobose sac, of a delicate pearl gray color, one-fourth inch (six millimetres) in diameter. It is attached at the top to a strip of silk ribbon, or rather it widens out at the top into two triangular points, by which it is fastened upon a cord stretched between two sprigs of fern. The egg ball thus swings free. (Fig. 68.) I have secured cocoons of this species, by confinement within the trying box, which differ from the above. They are globular or subglobular masses of flossy yellow silk, about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. I believe that, ordinarily, Thaddeus will be found to weave a cocoon of this sort upon a leaf or other surface, probably enclosing it within a curled leaf, or over- spinning it in the manner of Epeira triaranea. I have not been fortunate enough to identify the cocoons of our common Zillas; but a species which I observed in Florida made a cocoon shown at Fig. 69, top of the cut. It was a flossy ball, about three-eighths of an inch thick, and was woven within the silken tent which formed the spider’s domicile. It was placed in the top of the tent, and against the twigs, which formed a sort of framework for it. After the cocoon had been made the spider shifted her Z domicile to a lower point, and gradually “7 X spun a new dome shaped tent just be- neath her cocoon, within which she con- Fic. 69. Cocoon (top of figure) and tent tinued to dwell. Ero tho- racica. careless glance, proves to be composed of two pieces. First is the principal part or sac, which has already been referred to as having a round opening at the summit. Fitted di- rectly upon this, but easily separated from it by pulling, is a conical cap, which surrounds the lower part of the sus- pensory cord already described. This cap, by manipulation J under the microscope, can be unraveled so that it is seen to have been formed by lapping the yellowish cocooning thread, of which the main sac has been woven, around and ie es ead around the base of the suspensory cord, after that has been slightly enlarged. spun, (See Fig. 114.) The whole cocoon forms a very beau- kyrindiretee tiful and delicate bit of spinningwork, and shows. considerable deftness in weaving on the part of its little architect. Somewhat similar to this is the cocoon of Ero variegata (Theridium GENERAL COCOONING HABITS OF SPIDERS. 115 | Fic. 112. Cocoon of Theridium frondeum, magnified. Fi. 113. The same, natural size, suspended in natural site. Fic. 114. Cocoon of Argyrodes trigonum, much enlarged, to show the structure. Fig. 115. The spiral thread on the cap and stalk. Fig. 116. Cocoons of Ero variegata, twice natural size. (After Blackwall.) 116 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. variegatum), a little spider not uncommon in England, which would arrest the attention of even an indifferent person. It is of an elegant pear shape, formed of a strong yellow brown silk network, and attached by a long elastic stem of the same material to stalks of dead grass, sticks, or other substances in shady places.t It is often placed on the under side of rocks, stones, etc. The envelope is double, an inner sac being formed of soft pale brown silk, loosely woven and enclosed in a coarse covering of dark reddish brown threads, which unite and form the stalk. The diameter of the cocoon is about one-eighth inch, and the length of the stalk is from one-tenth to one-half an inch. The cocoon contains about six brown eggs. The mother is one-eighth inch long.? Theridium pallens is‘a small English Lineweaver, about one-tenth of an inch long, that makes a cocoon a little longer than herself, containing about twenty pale yellow eggs. It is white, of a close, fine text- Therid- _yre, and somewhat pear shaped; with several conical prominences ae disposed in a circle around its greatest circumference. (Fig. 117.) pallens. ae ‘ : : The sexes pair in May; the cocoon is formed in June, and is found on shrubs and bushes, on heaths or near woods.* A Lineweaver which I find in our fields, and which I take to be The- ridium differens (Fig. 118) makes a globular cocoon, about one-eighth inch in diameter, a little larger than herself, which she hangs within her snare of crossed lines that may often be found spun in the interspaces formed by bending down,the top and edges of a leaf. 6 The cocoon is rather flossy in its exterior. The cocoon of the Fic. 117. Co. SaMe species, or one closely’ resembling it, I find within the con- pear cavity of a leaf, formed by pulling the pointed ends inward, as lens. x 4. at Fig. 119. The hollow is overspun’ with intersecting lines See ree which form the spider’s snare and dwelling, and the lodging place for her egg sac. The little mother is usually found near her cocoon, which she often clasps with her legs, especially at any suspicion of danger. She is apt to lug it about from point to point within the leafy bivouac thus prepared. A similar cocoon made by a Theridioid spider which I am unable to iden- tify is represented at Fig. 120. The cocoon was a globular one, resembling in appearance the last two described, but was hidden underneath a stone within a little nest of characteristic spinningwork, but which on one side was protected by a semicircular wall of clay, mingled with silk and attached to the under surface of the stone. In this respect, the cocoon and cocoon nest resemble that of Neriene rufipes and others of this genus as described by European writers. Theridium lineatum Clerck is found among our American fauna, Emer- ton* having taken it in Massachusetts. It is common in Europe; its cocoon Ero variegata 1 Cambridge. 2 Staveley, “British Spiders,” page 156. ® Blackwall, “Spiders of Great Britain,” page 195. + New England Therididee, page 16. GENERAL COCOONING HABITS OF SPIDERS. ( ill, leafy tent. Blackwall.) Fia, 121. Fie. 119. | Fic. 118. Snare and cocoon of Theridium differens. Fic. 120, Fie. 122, Fic. 119. Cocoon of Theridium differens in a Fic. 120. Theridioid cocoon under a stone. Fic. 121. Cocoon of Theridium linea- tum in natural site on a leaf. (After Blackwall.) Fie. 122. Theridium varians and cocoons. (After 118 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. is formed in July and is round, one-fourth inch in diameter, and bluish or greenish blue in color. It is loosely covered with silk and fastened’ to the lower side of a leaf, the edges of which are bound together, so as to pro- tect it.! (Fig. 121.) Theridium varians pairs in June, and in July the female constructs several globular cocoons of dull white silk, of a loose texture, the largest of which measures about one-seventh of an inch in diameter. Therid- They are attached to objects situated near the upper part of the tum vari snare, and contain, according to their size, from twenty to sixty ree spherical eggs, of a yellowish white color, not adherent among themselves.2. (Fig. 122.) Withered leaves, dried moss, and particles of indurated earth are generally disposed about the cocoons.* This habit, which, as will be seen further on, prevails largely in other families, appears to have but slight hold upon the cocooning instincts of the Lineweavers. The little bronze colored spiders belonging chiefly to the genus Eri- gone, weave their cocoons within the balled mass of intersecting lines which form their snare and abode. I have seen numberless examples of these webs, made manifest by the morning dews along the Delaware, shining over the entire external foli- age of a large spruce tree from top- most to lowest bough. Again, they will be seen with other Theridioid webs, glittering in the slanting sun- light on myriads of bunched grass tops, timothy heads, and weed tops. Some species of Erigone make a lit- Fic. 128. Cocoon pes oe a aaa between tle balled cocoon similar to those ; of Theridium first described, and similarly held within the snare. Another form of cocoon which I attrib- ute to a spider of the same genus is a minute white button shaped or Biricone double convex bag, from one-sixteenth to one-eighth inch in diameter. It is suspended at the converging points of four lines (Fig. 123), which are attached to the surrounding foliage, as in the ex- ample shown of a cocoon hung between two twigs of pine, near a Theridioid web, in which an Erigone was ensconced. 1 Staveley, Brit. Spiders, page 140; Blackwall, Spi. Gt. B. & L., pl. xiii., Fig. 111. 2 Two small round cocoons are seen within the tent like structure in the cut, but in this case, as with the figure of Theridium tepidariorum, as heretofore remarked, the artist hae erred by drawing in a sheeted tent instead of a structure of open lines. ® Blackwall, Spiders Gt. B. & I., page 189, pl. xiv., Fig. 120, d. GENERAL COCOONING HABITS OF SPIDERS. 119 Theridium zelotypum makes a flattened cocoon of soft silk, which she establishes within her pretty nest, that has heretofore been described (Vol. : I., page 317) as a silken, bell shaped tent thatched with the leaves Sener of spruce, balsam, hemlock, or other plant on which it is built. eaelenay Within this the young are hatched, and here for a while after their exode mother and young may be found dwelling together. A like habit is possessed by the English nest making spider, Theridium riparium, whose most remarkable nesting architecture is described Vol. L., page 318. The mother makes several yellowish white, round cocoons about one-eighth inch in diameter.! Theridium sisyphum also shelters her reddish brown cocoons in a silken tent which hangs in her snare, and is sometimes strengthened by the intro- duction of dried leaves and other extraneous matter.? Another English spider, Theridium nervosum, also? forms a silk lined nesting tent, thatched with bits of dead leaves, flowers, or other particles, including the débris of slaughtered insects. Within this tent the mother spins a little round green cocoon, containing yellowish white eggs. The cocoon is one-eighth inch long, the spider herself being one-sixth inch. The mother is usually to be found in an inverted position, embracing her treasure and covering it with her body. It is probable that all the nest weaving species of Retitelarise place their cocoons within their nests, in which habit they substantially agree with their congeners, who suspend their cocoons upon the thickened cross lines which form the resident part of their snares. I have never been able to determine satisfactorily from observation the cocoons of our common species of Linyphia, but the Linyphia montana of Linyphi Europe makes a flattened white cocoon, which it usually conceals “underneath a stone, remaining with it and guarding it with the greatest care.* Linyphia marginata, one of our most common American spiders, is also a European species.° It pairs in May, and in June the female spins one or two lenticular cocoons of white silk of a loose texture, which are at- tached to withered leaves or other objects situated near the snare. The larger of these cocoons measures half an inch in diameter and contains about one hundred and forty spherical eggs of a palish yellow color, not agglutinated.® The English Linyphia crypticolens is remarkable for the habit of car- tying her cocoon fastened by threads to her spinnerets. It is globular and of a diameter equal to the whole length of the mother, is formed in June 1 Staveley, British Spiders, page 152. 2 Idem, page 143. 8 See Vol. L., page 317. * Staveley, “British Spiders,” page 165. 5 Equal to L. montana Sund., L. resupina Walck. ® Blackwall, Spiders Gt. B. & L, page 215. 120 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK, or July, is a pale brownish color, containing brown eggs. It resorts to dark and damp places, as cellars and the under surfaces of stones. It is cer- tainly remarkable to find a Line- weaving species thus approximat- ing the Citigrades, from which it so greatly differs in other respects, in the manner of caring for the cocoon. But in this habit she is not alone among her tribe. Theridium carolinum forms in June a round white cocoon one-tenth inch in di- ameter, which she carries attached by threads to her person! A pretty little Theridioid, Steatoda maculata (Theridium maculatum Linn.), is also said to carry about its egg cocoon suspended between the legs, and only relinquishes it Fic. 124. The mother Pholcus hanging in her snare, when force is used, regaining it with cocoon held in her jaws. qui ckly if possible. The cocoon of Pholeus phalangioides, which is perhaps the very simplest in structure of all this tribe, and I may add of all the tribes, is simply a gauzy covering which encloses the eggs, the whole being gathered into a globular mass. This is held by the spider within her jaws as she hangs in her ordinary position within her straggling web of intersecting lines. In this portage of her egg case Pholeus approaches the habit of the Citi- grades and Tunnel- weavers. (Fig. 124.) Scytodes thora- cica Latr. (Seytodes cameratus Hentz) has been found by Mr. Emerton, in New England, as a house spider, which he supposes has been imported from Europe. European observers note that this spider carries her cocoon under her breastplate, in which position it is not secured by silken threads, but is held by the falces and palpi. In this habit it resembles Pholeus, with Pholcus. Fig. 125. English Pholcus phalangioides, with her cocoon. (After Blackwall.) 1 Staveley, “ British Spiders,” page 141. - GENERAL COCOONING HABITS OF SPIDERS. 121 which it is closely allied structurally. It is found in houses, upon walls, etc., in warm situations. It is described as slow and deliberate in its motions, displaying somewhat of the action of a gnat in lifting and poising its leg in the air when walking. The whole char- acter of the aranead is mild and quiet. The poison fangs are so feeble as to be of but little use in seizing its prey, which office is chiefly performed by the maxille. When taken, Scytodes offers no resistance and attempts no flight, but, feigning death, resigns itself quietly to its fate.! This tribe embraces the singular genus Walckenaéra, some of whose species have the eyes placed upon little turret like elevations of the ceph- alothorax. Their habits have not been carefully studied, and their cocoons are little known. One European species, Walcke- naéra acuminata, makes a cocoon flat on one side, rounded on the other, about one-third inch in diameter, and composed of slightly woven white silk. It is found in autumn on the under surface of stones and Scytodes ' thoracica. Walck- enaera. Fig. 126. Fa. 127. Fic, 128. Cocoon of Agalena nzvia, spun upon bark. Fic. 126. Appearance of exterior, covered with brown sawdust. Fries. 127 and 128. Views after the outer coverings have been removed. other objects.2. Our American fauna has a number of closely related rep- resentatives of this strange genus, which are relegated by Emerton to vari- ous genera,® and it is probable that their cocoonery nearly resembles that of the above species. IL. * The most common Tubeweaver in the Eastern States is probably the Speckled Agalena, Agalena nevia. Its funnel shaped nest, with its broad sheeted top spread over the grass or hedges, or stretched in mis- Tube- _—cellaneous sites, is one of the most familiar objects in our land- opie scape. Its cocoon is attached to some surface, as the leaf of a Agale- ; nine. tree, a rock, or the under surface of a loose bit of old bark, In this position Agalena spreads a circular patch a half inch or more in diameter, within which she encloses her eggs. This is covered 1 Staveley, “ British Spiders,” page 268. 2 Idem, page 205. * See his “New England Theridiide.” 122 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. again with a thin sheet, upon which the mother overlays a wadding of sawdust or pulverized bark gnawed from the surrounding surface. In the absence of such materials, the upholstery consists of any available fibre furnished by the particular site. The whole is then overspun with an exterior covering. It is thus one of the most elaborate of known cocoons, and apparently is as well calculated to preserve the life concealed within as any spinningwork that could be wrought by aranead spinning organs. When Agalena cannot conveniently obtain sawdust and like material for the upholstery of her cocoon, she will overspin her eggs without such pro- tection. For example, a female of this species was observed upon Uphol- the window of a chicken house, with a pretty tubular snare hung against the frame, and two cocoons woven upon the glass near by. These were simply eggs of a pinkish hue, covered over with silken spinningwork and no upholstery added. I have also found Aga- lena’s cocoon woven upon the under side of a leaf, in which position it contained no upholstery, and, indeed, quite resem- ‘bled the cocoon of an Epeiroid spider spun in like situation. I suppose that in this case, as also in the preceding one, the difficulty of gnawing off the tough, green fibre of the leaf and branches, or wevia on loose bark, teshow of the painted wooden frame of the window was an pede ert o re oe obstacle which prevented the mother from pursu- ‘ing her usual habit. Perhaps, indeed, it requires the suggestion of near by and available material, like that of bark or decayed wood, to induce this additional upholstering protection of the cocoon. On the other hand, a female of this species, which I kept within a glass jar, having made her cocoon, proceeded to collect from the bottom of the jar bits of débris of various sorts, which she placed upon it in the usual position. There were only a few of these particles, not enough to be of any value for the protection of the enclosed eggs, even if there had been any exposure to danger under the circumstances. Of course, it could hardly have been expected that this mother would understand that her offspring, by reason of the situation within a glass jar, would be safe from the enemies which usually assail the eggs of the species in natural site. Sometimes the cocoon of this species, when spun upon a loose piece of bark, will have a thick stalk spun across to the opposite surface of the tree to which it is united by a circular patch of thick silk. (Fig. 129.) A like arrangement is found when the cocoon is woven up against the lower side of a stone, the exterior or under part being then carried down- ward by a stalk to the earth. This is not a common method, however, and I can think of no good reason for such a variation. GENERAL COCOONING HABITS OF SPIDERS. 123 Agalena labyrinthea of Europe resembles in its general habits the Aga- lena nevia of America. According to Walckenaer the female makes her single cocoon in the month of August, which she encloses within — a huge purse like web full of soil and vegetable detritus. When eh the web is removed, the cocoon is seen to be about the size of the end of one’s thumb, and woven of a fine silken tissue enveloped by clods of earth. Next to these is another envelope of silk, and then, finally, particles of soil so strongly adhering to the cocoon that they cannot well be separated. When the cocoon is opened, it is found to be formed of a thick, tough web. On the exterior it is beautifully white and perfectly polished. It contains as high as one hundred and thirty-four eggs of a greenish yellow color.! The well known cellar spider, Tegenaria derhamii,? which is widely —=— Fie. 130. Fia. 181. Fic. 180. Snare of Tegenaria derhamii in a cellar window, with three cocoons suspended thereto. Fic. 181. One cocoon, natural size. distributed over both hemispheres, conceals her eggs within a flattened r ball or hemisphere of soft silk, somewhere in the neighborhood ae of her snare. Sometimes this is suspended by threads to the snare itself (see Vol. L, page 239, Fig. 221), or again is attached directly to it, and the envelope interwoven with the fibre of the web, so that it has much the appearance of a rounded button upon a coat. Fig. 130 1 Walckenaer, Aptéres, Vol. II., page 22. 2T have supposed that the Medicinal spider of Hentz, Tegenaria medicinalis, is identi- cal with this species, and have so used the name in Vol. I. Mr. Emerton, however, in a recent paper, declares Hentz’s Tegenaria medicinalis to be a Ccelotes, and separate from T. derhamii. He classifies as Coclotes medicinalis the spider that I have heretofore considered Hentz’s Tegenaria persica. See Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. VIII., 1889-90, New Eng. Spiders of the Families Drasside, ete. 124 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. represents the snare and cocoon of one of these spiders. The mother was hidden within a curtained screen or tower newly spun. On the beam just above the snare hung two cocoons. They were attached above and on the sides to the beam, and in front and on the sides to the flap of the snare, Their position was such that they were just above and in front of the door of the den. One of them was covered with black particles of dust. They were about half an inch in diameter. Figs. 132 and 133 are views of the manner in which the cocoons were suspended. One often finds these cocoons woven into the texture of abandoned snares in cellars and outhouses. Fig. 130 is a sketch of such a web hanging in a window of my church cellar. The pouch like snare stretched upward to the window roof, and at the bottom, on either side of the tube or tower, three button shaped cocoons were ‘oaetlnds They were still white when sketched in midwinter, although the web was much soiled with the cellar dust and soot. I do not know that all three cocoons were made by one mother. Colotes medicinalis (Tegena- ria persica Hentz) usually spins her cocoons on or near her snare. I have found in one snare two feat ae eae. globular cocoons covered with bits Fis. 182, 188. Suspended cocoons of Tegenaria derhamii. of clay. One contained round i art whitish eggs; the other had liv- ing spiderlings with white cephalothorax and greenish abdomen. Agreca brunnea! is an English species. The sexes pair in May, and in the month of June the female constructs an elegant vase shaped cocoon of white silk, of a fine compact structure, attached by a short foot stalk to rushes, stems of grass, heath, or gorse. It measures about one- fourth inch in diameter, and contains from forty to fifty yellowish spher- ical eggs, enveloped in white silk, connected with the anterior surface of the cocoon, contiguous to the foot stalk. Greatly to the disadvantage of its appearance, the cocoon is smeared with moist soil, which when dried serves to protect it from the weather, and, as an additional security, the extremity is closed and directed downward.? In the illustration (Fig. 134) the uppermost cocoon is shown as it is first spun, the two lower cocoons as they appear when plastered. Another drawing (Fig. 135) of this beau- tiful cocoon, which has attracted the attention of all English arancologists, is taken from Rev. Pickard-Cambridge. With it is a similar cocoon of an English congener, Agreeca proxima (Fig. 136), woven like the former species upon a twig of heather.* 1 Agalena brunnea Blckw. * Blackwall, Spid. Gt. B. & L., page 160, pl. xii., Fig. 102. 8 Spiders of Dorset, Vol. L, pl. ii., Fig. 7. — 7A GENERAL COCOONING HABITS OF SPIDERS, 125 Ceelotes saxatilis makes a cocoon half an inch in diameter, containing yellowish white eggs. The external case is partly plastered with Ceelotes oarth. (Fig. 137.) 'Textrix lycosina has the same habit of pro- mesa. tecting her cocoon, which is usually woven to the under side of a stone near her tubular hiding place. It is white, flattened, and about one-fourth inch in diameter.! According to the Swedish naturalist Clerck? the eggs of the Water spider, Argyroneta aquatica, are round, of a saffron yellow color, contained within a globular silken cocoon, which occupies about one-fourth of the eer ~ subaqueous maternal cell. (Fig. 138.) The female remains con- aquatica, Stantly near it, keeping her abdomen in the interior of her hab- itatiofi, and the fore part of her body in the water. The figures of this cocoon (Figs. 139 and 140) are from Blackwall,* and represent a hemispherical or disk like object resembling cocoons made, by many terres- trial Tubeweavers, especially the Clubionide. Argyroneta’s cocoon presents the appearance of having been woven against a flat, solid surface, or per- haps the silken walls of the cell. Other naturalists represent it as being swung like a hammock across the cell, somewhat in the fashion of the cocoons of various Tunnelweavers hereafter described. Blackwall’s description of the cocoon, its site, and preservation is as fol- lows: Argyroneta aquatica habitually passes the greater part of its life in the water, not only pursuing its prey in that’ liquid, but constructing be- neath its surface a drum shaped cell in which is placed its cocoon of white silk of a compact texture and lenticular form, containing from eighty to one hundred eggs of a yellow color, not agglutinated together. This is well supported in a vertical position, the open part being directed downwards by lines of silk connecting it with aquatic plants, and as it comprises a considerable quantity of atmospheric air, the spider can at all times occupy it without experiencing the least inconvenience. In swimming and diving Argyroneta assumes an inverted position, and is more or less enveloped in air confined by the circumambient water among the hairs with which it is clothed. The supply is always more abundant on the under than on the upper part, in consequence of the greater length and density of the hairs distributed over its surface. Passing into the large and varied family of Drassids, we find a sub- stantial uniformity in the general shape and structure of their cocoons. These are usually lenticular or button shaped (plano convex) ob- _ Family jects woven against some solid surface in the vicinity of the f pl tubular nest or ordinary haunts of the species. The covering is i ‘a close textured silk, as stiff as parchment. ‘The circular piece attached to the surface is of similar composition, and the eggs are 1 Blackwall, Spid. Gt. B. & L., pl. xii, Fig. 109. 2 Aran. Svecici., page 149. *Sp. Gt. B. & L, pl. viii., Figs. 87 g, h. 126 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Fie. 142, Fie. 141. Fia. 134. Cocoons of Agalena brunnea, attached to moss. Slightly enlarged. (After Blackwall.) show the flat bottom. Fic. 143. Cocoon of Clubiona tranquilla (probably), woven upon bark. Fie. 135. Cocoon of Agreeca brunnea. Fic. 136. Cocoon of Agreeca proxima, attached to a sprig of heather. (After Cambridge.) Fic. 187. Cocoons of Celotes saxatilis, natural size, with particles of earth daubed on the surface. (After Blackwall.) Fie. 138. Subaqueous cocooning nest of the Water spider. (After Cuvier.) | F1a. 139. Cocoon of Argyroneta aquatica, front view. Fic. 140. Side view. (After Blackwall.) Fie. 141. Two Drassid cocoons woven against a board. Fie. 142. One detached, to GENERAL COCOONING HABITS OF SPIDERS. 127 commonly deposited inside, without any or with only a little flossy pad- ding. The exterior is frequently plastered more or less freely with mud or the detritus of decayed wood. Clubiona tranquilla makes a hemispherical or button shaped cocoon, which is attached to various surfaces, as of rocks, bark, or boards, (Fig. 143.) One female confined within a jar for obesevntiatl spun her co- coon upon a little twig placed for her convenience within the vessel. As first completed by the mother the external covering was pure white silk. But, fol- lowing her maternal instinct, she de- !-™. Praeger omelet tek eg scended to the earth upon the bottom gece ise tpt: ee of the jar, collected pellets of mud between her mandibles, carried them up to her cocoon, and daubed the surface over in little ridges until the whole was quite mottled with the plastered mud. (Fig. 144.) Sometimes the Drassid’s cocoon is contained within the tubular domi- cile of the mother, and this again will be overspread with a tent of deli- cate texture, as in the case of the Parson spider, Prosthesima ecclesiastica (Herpyllus ecclesiasticus Hentz). (Fig. 145.) The Parson spider is a quite large species one half inch long, with a black body, marked along the thorax and dorsum of the abdomen with ' decided circular and oblong patches of white, to which peculiar The markings it owes its specific name. Its habits are those of the Drassids generally, although it is not as sedentary as some others, but wanders in search of prey. It is commonly found upon trees, fences, etc., near some recess or opening into which it may retreat. Like some of our common house Theridioids, it is fond of taking refuge under the projecting parts of outhouses. In winter it is found wrapped in a thick sheeted tube of silk under the bark of trees and like situations. It is active in its movements, and prowls for its prey. It makes its cocoon early in June. This is com- posed of several layers of pure white silk, between one of which particles of dust are placed and quilted in with spinningwork. I have found ae Te Pere seclosing teat Cowon within an the chippings of the carpenter bee among these particles. _An interesting and rather pretty little Tubeweaver, which appears to be d ia aureata, the Herpyllus aureatus of Hentz, conceals its cocoon with- in a double tent. (Fig. 146.) The cocoon itself is a small, button shaped - object, containing a few brownish yellow eggs. The example illustrated in the figure was spun within the angle of a wall, and covered over with a tube such as the spider usually spins for a dwelling place. Openings were 128 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. left at either end of this tube. Above the whole, and quite encompassing it, was woven a large tent several times the size of the first tube, and composed of spinningwork whose threads were quite closely placed, but of so thin tissue that one could see through it without any difficulty. A large opening appeared at one end of this external tent, but whether it was left of purpose for a door, or, more probably, was the result of acci- dent, I could not determine. Among the Drassids which I have found in Colorado is a species of Gnaphosa, which I took under a stone on the summit of the Snowy Range. It was dwelling in a little tubular nest. This species, according to Emerton,! is found all over New England, from the White Mountains to New Haven. Professor Packard found a female with a cocoon of eggs on Gray’s Peak, Colorado, over eleven thousand feet Gna- phosa. MUNN Tn NW AW ~ “ « eet RR tS SOE SeerwoR,, - ee ft at chile oy “tee ini Chee he whee, amd quite encompassing: i wer oer te core) tity Gy vine-of the first’ tube, : - a OM ee oe a lh, te tite chowely placed, but. of | 4, . ToS) (tke eet ah cowdS ge Gere & we lidw rt any difficulty. A’ ‘J ange wer ag ered ot we oat of cbr eediepell tum, but whether it ‘= ts 7 2 > Geen twa doar 4 iBe _ a by, wae eci- ope | oe ee eae: cee’ Emme Seth 4 i wtighoe we w Ai was observed in the case of a female confined within a glass jar. A leaf ‘was laid against the inner side of the vessel as a suitable object 4 Upon which to place the cocoon should the mother be inclined Sto use it. She presently availed herself of the opportunity, and wove upon the leaf a cocoon of the ordinary sort. I did not yserve the whole process, but saw the finishing. The silken rug had 1 “Habits and Structure,” page 101. 166 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. first been spun upon the leaf, within which the egg mass was oviposited. Over that the external blanket was woven, and when my observation began the mother was engaged upon this. The method of proceeding did not differ from that of other species and tribes in like work. The spider grasped the margins of the cocoons with the claws of her fore feet, which she continually moved around the margin as she spun. The third pair of legs, and occasionally one of the fourth, were also used for grasping the cocoon and moving the spider’s body. The remaining fourth leg, and sometimes both the hind legs, were used for drawing out the spinning threads. As the spider thus swung around her cocoon, heavy filaments of silk were extruded from all the spinnerets, which were opened up and somewhat elevated. The long jointed third pair, particularly, was constantly lifted up and dropped, as though beating in the silken tis- sue, after the manner described in the case of Argiope cophinaria when making her silken shield. (Vol. L., Chapter VI., page 100.) We may confidently assert that the Territelariz form no exception, for I have fully observed their mode of spinning the material which cor- responds with the silken cocoon. The silken rug on which our great Tarantula rests, the tube of the Purseweb spider, etc., are almost certainly woven precisely as is the eas cocoon of those species; and, if so, Fic. 208, Agalena nevia engaged in covering her eggs; the Tunnelweavers spin their co- use of the long spinnerets. s coons as do other tribes. Turning to the Wanderers, we have in the case of the Lycosids an ex- ample, to which I have heretofore referred (Vol. II., page 144), of the man- ner in which Lycosa fabricates her round cocoon. She first weaves a circular patch, which she afterwards forms into a hol- low sphere surrounding her eggs. The mode of equalizing the spinning thread is as follows: The feet clasped the circumference of the cushion, and the body of the animal was slowly revolved. The abdomen, greatly reduced in size by the extrusion of the eggs, was lifted up, thus drawing out short loops of silk from the extended spinnerets, which, when the abdomen was dropped again, contracted and left a flossy curl of silk at Lycosa. COMPARATIVE COCOONING INDUSTRIES. 167 the point of attachment. The abdomen was also swayed from one side to another, the filaments from the spinnerets following the motion as the spider turned; and thus an even thickness of silk was laid upon the eggs. The same behavior marked the spinning of the silken rug or cushion in the middle of which the eggs had been deposited. It will thus be seen that the entire process of forming a cocoon, as wrought by Lycosa, resem- bles in every particular the mode practiced by Tubeweavers and substan- tially by Orbweavers. So also is it with the Saltigrades. I have observed Phidippus rufus spinning its cocoon, and she proceeds after the same general method. A Salti- Bis grade mother is represented at Fig. 205, as sketched in the act i f of cocoon making. The diverging lines of silken spinning stuff are there seen proceeding from the spinnerets, while the abdomen is lifted up at a considerable incline, and the feet clasp the borders of the cocoon. As this Phidippus revolved she alternately dropped and elevated the abdomen, while the silken loops thus formed curled down into the mass already spun and were further beaten in by the spinnerets and legs. It thus appears from personal observation of typi- eal species in all the tribes, with the exception of the Laterigrades, that the manner of outputting the spinning stuff while weaving cocoons is prac- tically the same. The only difference observable : is confined to the use of the spinnerets in beating Fre. 204. Phidippus rufus spin down the outspun threads, these organs being rast fic A iter more freely used for this purpose among the Tubeweavers and Tunnel- weayers, who possess long pairs of superior spinnerets, than among others. III. Proceeding now to a comparative study of the cocooning industry of spiders, we observe, first, in view of the preceding sections of this chapter, that the general method of spinning the cocoon, “Method, 28 it has been observed in representative species of all but one of the tribes, is ‘substantially the same. 1, That method consists in drawing out thickened lines from the spin- Fr. ~ nerets while the body is slowly revolved around the area to be occupied _ by the cocoon; or, as in Theridium, the cocoon is revolved upon a sus- _ pensory line. The loops thus drawn out are about the length of one-half the distance between the surface points to which the cocoon is attached and the point to which the spinnerets are raised by the elevation of the omen. As the spinnerets drop after their elevation, the thread relaxes, s and thus a soft loop of curled thread is left upon the growing on mass. In some cases this is beaten down by the feet and spinner- is, or spread over by them as a plasterer spreads mortar, until the cocoon 168 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. case is quite hard. In others, it is left in the flossy condition in which it is originally spun. 2. While the general method of spinning out the material, as above described, is that which prevails among all Tribes, the composition of the cocoon, or general plan of architecture, may be properly sep- arated into three distinct modes. In the first the eggs are made the centre of operations, being first laid upon a circular patch, covered by a mass of continuous floss, and thereafter usually enclosed within a seamless case of thickened spinningwork. The protec- tion to the eggs is thus a single and unbroken covering. This method prevails among Orbweavers and Lineweavers. In the second method the cocoon covering is spun in two parts. There is first woven a sheet to receive the eggs, and after the eggs have been overspun and swathed a second and similar sheet is made as an outer covering. This method is the prevalent one among Tubeweavers, Salti- grades, and Laterigrades. Cocoons classified under the second mode may be subdivided into two well defined groups, viz., first, those in which the covering consists of pure silk ; and, second, those in which the silken covering is strengthened or padded by bits of gnawed bark, sawdust, and various light chippage, daubs or pellets of mud, and sometimes by an entire coating of clay. This mode of providing an armor of extraneous material is most preva- lent with Tubeweavers, although it occasionally appears among Orbweay- ers. Sometimes the armor or upholstery is itself covered over with an exterior silken case, as with Agalena nevia; but again it forms the outer casing or plaster, as with Micaria limicune and Clubiona tranquilla. The third special mode is that which prevails, one may say almost universally, among the Citigrades, and which is probably practiced by the Tunnelweayers also. It consists in spinning a single sheet, within which the eggs are deposited, which is subsequently pulled over the egg mass, and pinched by the jaws into a globular covering, the selvage of which is united with sufficient firmness to adhere until the spiders are ready to leave the cocoon, when the seam yields sufficiently to allow the escape of the inmates. ‘ 3. A third point of comparison is as to the disposition of the cocoon by suspension or attachment. We may divide the cocoons of all tribes broadly into two classes, (I.) hanging cocoons and (II.) fixed cocoons. The hanging cocoons may be subdivided into those (1) which are suspended within the snare and (2) those which are suspended or attached outside of or near the snare. The latter class may again be divided into (a) those which are suspended with external pro- tection and (b) those which are suspended without external protection. Of spiders that hang their cocoons within the snare, the Orbweavers have a number of representatives, as especially Epeira labyrinthea, Cyclosa Composi- tion of Cocoons. Dispo- sition. COMPARATIVE COCOONING INDUSTRIES. 169 caudata, Epeira bifurca, Uloborus plumipes, Epeira basilica. Among Lineweavers may be found most of the genus Theridium, as T. tepida- hae riorum and T. studiosum, Steatoda borealis, the various species Within : 7 r mm ice. of Erigone and Argyrodes. The Tubeweavers have numerous representatives, as it is a quite general habit for the species of this tribe to deposit their cocoons within the tubular portion of their snare, which forms also a nest. Among the Territelaria Atypus has the same habit, so also have the South American species described by M. Simon, and the immense creatures known as the Mygalidwe appear also to nurse their cocoons within their burrows. This is the custom of our well known Trapdoor spider, Cteniza californica. Among the snareless Wandering spi- ders, Citigrades, Saltigrades, and Laterigrades, of course, there are no rep- resentatives of this group. Spiders that hang their cocoons outside their snares are largely repre- sented among Orbweavers. Indeed, this may be said to be a general habit, 5 as most of such genera as Epeira, Argiope, Zilla, Acrosoma, Tet- “9 ee ragnatha, Nephila, Meta, and Hyptiotes spin their cocoons sep- arately from their snares. The habit prevails also among Line- weavers, as is illustrated by the habit of Theridium frondeum in swinging her pretty little orange colored cocoon to the under sides of leaves and the surfaces of rocks. Among Tubeweavers, Segestria canities of California suspends her string of clustered cocoons outside her nest, although she does subsequently spin a tubular cell alongside the cocoon string, and there dwells while completing the process of cocoon making and while the young are being reared. “Iegenaria medicinalis also suspends her co- coon most frequently to some object, as a log, or beam, or branch, out- side of her snare, although sometimes she hangs it to the lower portion of the sheeted pouch itself, or even interweaves it within the fibres of the sheet. Among Citigrades, the Southern species, Pucetia aurora, and all the known species of the genus Dolomedes swing their cocoons not, indeed, outside their snares, since they are Wandering spiders, but in special nests prepared for the purpose. The spiders which attach their cocoons to fixed surfaces, instead of swinging them among interlacing lines or suspending them with- Means, 1 their snares, are numerous and have representatives among nearly all tribes. Such is the habit among Orbweavers, in most of the genera, as Epeira, Zilla, Gasteracantha, Nephila, etc. Among Lineweavers, species that dispose of their cocoons in this way appear to be rare, although such a European species as Theridium denti- culatum has this habit.1 Among Tubeweavers, the great mass of spiders of all or nearly all the genera fasten their cocoons to various surfaces. These plano convex ‘cnet may be seen in the autumn, for the most 1 Staveley, “British Spiders,” page 147. 170 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. part, attached to the under side of stones or spun within rugosities of the bark of trees. They have often bright colors, and are found covered with mud. Among Saltigrades and Laterigrades, all species appear to have the habit of thus disposing of their cocoons. IV. 4. A fourth point of comparison is the method of protecting cocoons. When we come to consider the modes of protecting cocoons, we find much variety, and the various methods well represented among all Protec- Tribes, modified by differences in habit characteristic of the brat groups represented. The chief modes of protection are, first, by lines, within which the cocoons are spun and which form an interlacing barrier of threads around them. This mode has many representatives among Orbweavers and Lineweavers; is occasionally repre- sented among Tubeweavers, as with Dictyna and Segestria; occasionally among the Citigrades, as Dolomedes and Pucetia; but is unknown among Saltigrades and Laterigrades. The second mode of protection is by leaves, which are drawn over the cocoons. This is either done by attaching the cocoon to a single leaf and then curling the edges thereof around it, or by forming a sort of bower of several leaves united at the points and edges, and spinning within this cavity a maze of interlacing lines, within which the cocoon is hung. This method of protection is well represented among Orbweavers. Among Lineweavers it is seen in our Theridium dif- ferens, and in certain European species of Theridium, as T. neryosum, T. riparium, and T. lineatum. Among Tubeweavers it largely prevails, Aga- lena, at least, practicing this method. Dolomedes represents the Citigrades, making a beautiful bower, within which her cocoon is hung. The Salti- grades frequently thus protect their cocoons; and among Laterigrades, Thomisus, Sparassus, and Philodromus. The third method of protection is by silken tents and tubes. This is sparingly practiced among Orbweavers. Among Lineweavers, as far as I know, it is only used when the silken tent is enclosed within an mlen ang Cuter covering of leaves. Among Tubeweavers it has a wide use, Tubes, Herpyllus, Ariadne, Drassus, Clubiona, and others of like spin- ning habit practicing it probably without exception. I know of no Citigrades that thus protect their cocoons, unless we consider the burrow and home as a cocoon tent or den, and it certainly does serve that end. But among the Saltigrades the habit is general, Phidippus, Attus, Syna- gales, Synemosina, and all known genera protecting their cocoons with an outer silken cell, within which the mother dwells. Among the Lateri- grades, Thomisus and Sparassus have the same habit. The fourth method of protection is by an armor of extraneous ma- 2. By Leaves. COMPARATIVE COCOONING INDUSTRIES. 171 terial, such as insect débris, plant chippage, sawdust, sand, and mud. Among Orbweavers that practice this method of armoring their cocoons are Epeira cinerea and Cyclosa caudata. I know no American “representative among Lineweavers, but there are no doubt such, as some English species have the habit. Among Tubeweav- ers the habit is most common. The cocoons of Agalena are frequently found upholstered with sawdust and scrapings from bark, or bits of chip- page plucked from surrounding vegetation. Clubonia frequently plasters over ‘with mud her beautiful white cocoon. Micaria limicune completely encloses her little egg sac within a thick ball of mud. Others of this family make a spherical ball, composed of miscellaneous débris, within the heart of which the cocoon is protected. The habit appears to have secured no lodging among the Citigrades and Saltigrades, but is practiced to a limited extent by some Laterigrades. A fifth mode of protection is suspension within the snare. Some Orb- weavers have this habit, as the Labyrinth spider, the Tailed spider, and others. Many Lineweavers in the genera Theridium, Argyrodes, 5. Sus- ete. thus protect their cocoons. Indeed, it is the well nigh uni- versal method in this tribe. Among Tubeweavers the custom ‘prevails, that is, if we consider the tubular dwelling cell as a portion of the snare. .The same remark applies to the Territelariz, as Atypus, Cteniza, and the large Mygalide, who protect their cocoons within their tubular dens, as do the Saltigrades also. The Citigrades and Lateri- grades, of course, have no such habit, as they are not snare making tribes, although they make a cell or den to contain and shelter their cocoons. The sixth method of protecting the cocoons is by sentry, that is to say, by watching on or near the cocoon—an action to which the term “ brood- ing” has sometimes been applied. Of this method, the Orb- 6. By ; é Sentry, Weavers have representatives among the genus Epeira, as, for example, our American Epeira cinerea and several European species, to which may probably be added Cyclosa and Uloborus and others of like habit. Nearly all Lineweavers may be considered as practicing this method. At all events, their cocoons are swung within their snares and the mothers are frequently found embracing them and vigorously re- sist any effort to deprive them of the treasure. Among Tubeweavers, many genera keep faithful watch on their cocoons, as Agalena, Herpyllus, and many of the Drassids. The Tunnelweavers, who retain their cocoons within their burrows, may be regarded as keeping sentry upon them, and the habit is quite general among Saltigrades and Laterigrades. The seventh mode of protection is by portage, that is, by carrying the cocoons within the jaws or attached to the spinnerets. I know no rep- resentative of this habit among Orbweavers. Among Lineweavers the habit is universal with Pholeus, who carries her cocoon beneath her jaws. At least one European species of Linyphia and one of Theridium haye 172 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. the habit of deporting their cocoons, like a Lycosid, tied to her spinner- cs ets. No Tubeweavers are known to carry their cocoons. Among Citigrades the habit is universal with Lycosids, and prevails with Dolo- 7. By medes until about the time when the eggs are ready to hatch, ge gan when she discards the cocoon and deposits it within a prepared of Stones, Hest. Ctenus probably resembles Dolomedes in this peculiarity. The Territelariz appear to carry their cocoons, although not to the same extent as the Lycosids, owing to marked difference in mode of living. None of the Saltigrades or Laterigrades are recorded as deporting their egg sacs, except Heterapoda venatoria, who does so occasionally. The eighth method of protection is sheltering-cocoons beneath stones, bark, etc. This is in use among all the tribes, with the probable exception of the Tunnelweavers. The ninth and last mode of protecting the cocoon is by simple suspen- sory lines. This seems to be the simplest form of protection, and is doubtless effective against such enemies as would be apt to find 9. By the eggs if placed upon a flat surface, but who would not venture shook to assault them if compelled to creep along a fragile thread. Lines. Among Orbweavers few species are known, but there are some European representatives of this habit. Cyrtarachne may be considered as thus providing for her cocoon. Among Lineweavers there are a number of representatives, our most conspicuous American one being Theridium frondeum. Of the Tubeweavers, Tegenaria medicinalis, at least occasionally, thus disposes of her cocoons; and among European species are Agalena brunnea and others that hang their flask like egg sac from heather and other plants by means of a foot stalk. The other tribes, as far as I know, do not swing their cocoons free in this manner. The accompanying table will show at one view the comparative preva- lence of these various modes of protection among the tribes, as far as. my observations and notes permit. It will be seen from this view that all the modes of protection, with the exception of portage, prevail among Orbweavers and Tubeweavers; that all the methods are represented among Lineweavers, although some of them appear to be faintly developed and sparsely represented therein. Ny 5. A fifth basis of comparison is the form of cocoons. The greatest va- riety obtains.among Orbweavers. Round cocoons, hemispherical or plano convex, pyriform, or stalked cocoons, with various modifications, as illustrated in the accompanying group, are the forms that commonly prevail among American Orbweavers. A comparison with the cocoonery of European and exotic Orbweavers, as far as they are known, shows that there is a substantial likeness between them and the American spider fauna. 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